REESE LIBRARY

OF THK

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

Deceived , igo .

Accession No. . Class No.

Fig. A

The Dandelion.

NATURE STUDY

AND

THE CHILD

BY

CHARLES B. SCOTT, A.M.

RECENTLY INSTRUCTOR IN NATURE STUDY AT THE STATE NORMAL
SCHOOL, OSWEGO, N.Y.

" And Nature, the old nurse, took

The child upon her knee,
Saying, 'Here is a story-book
Thy father has written for thee.' "

LONGFELLOW

BOSTON, U.S.A.

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS
1900

COPYRIGHT, 1900,
BY D. C. HEATH & Co.

H. M. PLIMPTON & CO., PRINTERS & BINDERS,
NORWOOD, MASS., U.S.A.

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART L — AIM AND METHOD IN NATURE STUDY.

CHAPTER I.
The Study of the Dandelion.

PAGB

I. ADVANTAGE OF BEGINNING DISCUSSION OF NATURE STUDY

WITH A CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 1

II. STUDY OF STRUCTURE OF DANDELION AS AN ISOLATED THING

A. Investigation and description of parts 3

B. Educational aim and value of such study 8

1. Broadens knowledge.

2. Cultivates interest in wayside weed.

3. Develops power of observation.

4. Develops power of expression.

III. STUDY OF DANDELION IN ITS RELATIONS TO ITS PHYSICAL

ENVIRONMENT 9

A. Structural or form relations . . 9

1. Comparison with other plants 10

a. Buttercup.
6. Thistle.
c. Anemone.

2. Classification of the four plants 13

3. Educational aim or value of such study of form

relations 14

a. Broadens knowledge.

6. May increase and broaden interest in plants.

c. May further develop power of observation.

d. May train to express better.

e. Develops power to compare, discriminate, and

group or classify.

4. Will such study meet the needs of pupils in ele-

mentary schools ? 15

830*10

vi ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

III. STUDY OF DANDELION (Continued)— PAGB

B. Fimctional relations, or relations of dependence on and

adaptation to physical environment 15

1. Dependence 011 environment 15

2. Adaptation to environment 16

3. Educational aim and value of such study of life and

function 30

a. Interest is intensified and sympathy developed.
6. Appreciation of beauty — beauty of function

and fitness as well as beauty of form and

color — is cultivated.

c. Prepares for better understanding of unity of

nature.

d. Gives a broader knowledge, a better insight

into relations.
IV. STUDY OF HIGHER RELATIONS OF DANDELION 31

A. Relation to man's physical nature 32

1. As a medicine and food.

2. As a weed to combat.

3. As a plaything for children.

B. Contributes to man's higher nature .32

1. Cultivates the appreciation of beauty.

2. By its life and symbolism appeals to ethical nature. .

3. Is one of the pages of the " manuscript of God."

CHAPTER II.
The Study of the Rabbit.

I. INTRODUCTION 38

A. Relation to previous chapter 38

B. Reasons for selecting rabbit 39

C. Plan followed determined by 40

1. Aims.

2. Psychological laws.

3. Conditions, such as age and capacity of pupils.

D. Aims and material for study of rabbit 42

E. Helpful literature . . . . 43

F. Order of lessons 45

G. Preparatory observational study of . 46

Positions.

Movements.

Eating.

Cleanliness.
Breathing.
Burrowing.
Disposition.

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii

PAGE

II. LESSONS ON RABBIT 49

A. LESSON I. Homes and home life 49

1. Aim and material needed.

2. Tame rabbit's home. Care of home.

Home life.
Summary.

3. Tame rabbit's original home.

Why domesticated?

Houses or burrows.

Home life.

Enemies.

Food and damage they do.

Summary.

4. Hare's or " wild rabbit's " home.

How distinguished from rabbit.

Home.

Home life.

5. General Summary and Expressive "Work.

Oral or written.
Reading about rabbits.

6. Adapting the lesson.

B. LESSON II. Habits, positions, and movements .... 58

1. Positions.

When at rest.

When asleep.

When sitting.

When reaching.

Summary and Expressive Work.

2. Locomotion.

Walking.

Hopping.

Jumping.

Adaptation for locomotion.

Summary.

3. Playing, breathing, burrowing.

4. General Summary and Expressive Work.

Drawing positions.

Writing about habits observed.

C. LESSON III. Habits, feeding, washing, senses .... 64

1. Feeding.

Child's eating.
Rabbit's food.
Rabbit's eating.
Gnawing.
Adaptation.
Summary.

2. Drinking.

3. Washing.

4. Hearing, smelling, sight.

Viii ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

II. LESSONS ON RABBIT (Continued) — PAGE

C. LESSON III. (Continued) —

5. General Summary and Expressive Work.
Writing about habits.
Beading about habits.

D. LESSON IV. Reading related literature 68

1. Aim.

2. Material.

3. Method.

E. LESSON V. Structure of body and limbs 69

1. General appearance of rabbit.

2. Body, trunk, and head.

3. Tail and limbs.

4. Skeleton.

5. General Summary and Expressive Work.

Drawing.

Written description.

F. LESSON VI. Structure of head, ears, and teeth . . 74

1. Drawing head and appendages.

2. Head as whole.

3. Ears, eyes, nose, and " whiskers.

4. Mouth and teeth.

Mouth and lips.
Jaws.
Teeth.
Adaptation.

5. General Summary and Expressive Work.

Drawing.

Written description.

G. LESSON VII. Comparison and classification. "Gnawers"

or Rodents 79

1. Aim.

2. Material.

3. Method. Essentials in classification.

4. Comparison of different rabbits.

5. Comparison of rabbit and hare.

6. Comparison of rabbit and other rodents.

7. General Summary and Expressive Work.

H. LESSON VIII. Comparison and classification. Verte-
brates and Mammals 83

1. Comparison of rabbit and cat.

2. Comparison of rabbit with chicken and fish.

3. Comparison of rabbit and some invertebrate.

4. General Summary and Expressive Work.

I. ADAPTING WORK OUTLINED TO OTHER GRADES ... 87

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.
What is Nature Study?

PAGE

I. INCREASING ATTENTION GIVEN TO SCIENCE AND NATURE

STUDY »9

A. In university and college.

B. In secondary schools.

C. In elementary schools. .X
II. DEFINITION OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 91 v

A. Elementary — in aim, material, methods 91

B. Science, which is 92

1. Knowledge, defined as

a. '" Clear and certain perception."

6. " Familiarity gained by actual experience."

2. Classified — considered in its relations.

C. Three kinds of elementary science work which do not

meet these conditions 9?

1. College science. Science, but not elementary.

2. Reading " Nature Primers " and " Nature Readers."

Elementary, but not science.

3. Glancing and sipping, not studying carefully. Not

science, but may prepare for science.

D. A definite and graded course of work necessary ... 9(5
III. DEFINITION OF NATURE STUDY 96

A. Term " nature study" better expresses spirit of work . 97

B. Is nature study 97

1. Personal contact with nature by each pupil.

2. Nature out-of-doors, as well as in schoolroom.

3. Life and action as well as form and structure.

C. Is nature study 98

1. Not mere reading or glancing.

2. Studied in its relations.

a. To the whole of which it is part.

b. To natural environment.

c. To past and future.

d. To other individuals, similar and dissimilar.

e. To causes and effects.
/. To man.

g. To the Creator.

h. To other school-work.

D. Nature studied 101

1. By the child.

2. From the child's standpoint.

3. By the teacher with the children.

IV. REASONS FOR PLACING so MUCH EMPHASIS ON DEFINITIONS 101

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.
The Aim of Nature Study: to Develop the Individual Child.

PAGE

I. WHY INTRODUCE NATURE STUDY IN THE SCHOOL ? RATHER
ASK, WHY STOP NATURE STUDY WHEN THE CHILD ENTERS
SCHOOL? ................ . . 102

II. IMPORTANCE OF AIM IN METHOD ...... ..... 103

A. Importance of " why" to teacher.

B. Importance of " why " to pupil.

III. AIMS OF NATURE STUDY ....... ....... 104

A. Practically the same as aims of education in general . . 104

B. Deals with the individual child ......... 105

C. Oldest recognized aim, the acquisition of knowledge or

facts,

1. Has led to book-work and memorizing.

2. Knowledge thus gained " shall vanish away."

3. Value of knowledge gained by personal observation.

4. Value of " nature knowledge " to geography.

5. Weakness of knowledge as ultimate aim.

D. Development of intellectual power a higher aim . . . 107

1. Shown by history of work in nature study.

2. Value of nature study as a means of developing

power demonstrated.

3. Value, from this point of view, as a basis for ex-

pressive work of school.

E. Value of knowledge and power gained through nature

study as a preparation for practical life ...... 109

F. Importance of interest and sympathy as an aim . . . 110

1. Best seen when working with little children.

2. Mere power gained through nature study may do

harm.

G. Higher aim is cultivation of appreciation of beauty . . 113

1. Beauty of function and adaptation as well as beauty

of form and color.

2. Is a preparation for the study of literature and art.

3. Closely related is development of ethical nature.

H. Highest aim to lead from Nature to Nature's God . . 116
I. Resum^ of aims ............... 117

1. Considering development of individual child.

a. To awaken interest and cultivate sympathy

with nature.

6. To develop aesthetic, ethical, and spiritual
nature, and lead toward God.

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. y.i

III. AIMS OF NATURE (Continued) — PAQB

I. Resume' of Aims (Continued) —

c. To develop intellectual powers, and to form

right habits.

d. To give knowledge of environment.
2. Considering school-work.

a. To give foundation for appreciation of litera-

ture and art.

b. To serve as a basis for the expressive work of

the school.

c. To give knowledge, — a basis for geography

and other studies.

CHAPTER V.
The Highest Aim: to Adapt the Child to His Environment.

I. DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL CHILD NARROW AS AN ULTI-
MATE AIM 119

II. HIGHEST AIM, ADAPTATION OF CHILD TO His ENVIRONMENT, 119

A. To nature, his physical environment.

B. To man, his intellectual environment.

C. To God, his spiritual environment.

III. MEANING OF ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT 123

A. Has meant making our environment minister to our

material needs.

B. Should include appropriation of beauties of nature, min-

istering to our higher needs.

C. Mere appropriation is partial, one-sided adaptation. We

owe something to our environment.

D. Adaptation to environment means appreciation of what

we receive from, and recognition and performance of
what we owe to our environment, — to nature, man,
and God.

IV. How NATURE STUDY AIDS IN ADAPTATION OF CHILD TO HIS

ENVIRONMENT 125

A. To his physical environment, — nature 125

1. Leads to appreciation of beauty of nature, beauty

of function, and co-operation, as well as beauty
of form and color.

2. Leads the child to cherish and care for nature.

B. To his intellectual environment, — man 129

1. Helps him appreciate what he receives from man.
a. Puts him in sympathetic attitude.
6. Nature becomes to child a symbol of man.
c. Appreciation of nature necessary for enjoy-
ment of much in literature and art.

xii ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

IV. How NATURE STUDY AIDS (Continued)— PAGE

B. To his intellectual environment, — man (Continued) —

2. Helps him to realize what he owes to man, as well
as to nature.

C. To his spiritual environment, — God 129

1. The child appreciates better the works and gifts

and care or providence of God.

2. Can he do this without better realizing his duty

toward God?

CHAPTER VI.

The Limitations of Nature Study. The Two Centres of Education:
Nature and Man.

I. NATURE STUDY CANNOT BE MADE BASIS OF A COMPLETE

EDUCATION 134

II. NATURE is BUT ONE CENTRE OF EDUCATION. MAN is THE

OTHER .134

A. Child must be related to nature, man, God.

B. Child is related to God through nature and man ; hence,

C. All formal education may be grouped about two cen-

tres, — nature and man.

D. Education incomplete which neglects either nature study

or man study.

III. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THESE Two CENTRES DURING

EARLIER AND LATER PERIODS OF ELEMENTARY EDU-
CATION 138

A. Child world is a world of sense; hence nature study

most important centre in earlier education.

B. Intellectual environment, — man study should be prom-

inent in later education.

C. Application to school-work.

1. To nature study, history, and literature.

2. To work based on these, reading, writing, drawing,

geography, arithmetic.

IV. LIMITATIONS OF NATURE STUDY 141

A. It provides for adequate study of but part of child's

environment, — nature.

B. It does not give child the benefit of a knowledge of

the experiences of the past.

C. It does not necessarily provide for adequate formal

work in expressive studies.

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. xilV

CHAPTERS VII AND VIII.
Principles Determining Method in Nature Study.

PAGE

I. METHOD INVOLVES CONSIDERATION OF THREE TOPICS ... 144

A. The study of material, including

1. Presentation of matter to pupils.

2. Expression by pupils.

3. Relation to other school-work. .

B. The selection of material for study.

C. The arrangement of material and formulation of a

course of study.
II. AIMS IN NATURE STUDY, DETERMINING METHOD .... 145

A. Resume of aims already formulated.

B. Ultimate and mediate aims.

C. Importance of understanding aim.

D. Care in stating aim.

III. PRINCIPLES OR LAWS OF CHILD MIND MOST IMPORTANT TN

METHOD '' ;". . 148

A. Sense perception 150

1. Importance.

2. Neglect of, in education of past.

B. Apperception ..'..* 152

1. Definition.

2. Comparison with physiological assimilation.

3. Basis for other laws enumerated.

C. Interest 154

1. Relation to previous steps.

2. Comparison with appetite.

3. Value of sympathetic interest.

4. Direct and indirect interest.

5. Means of maintaining interest.

a. Apperceptive work.

b. Novelty.

c. Participation, or self-activity.

d. Personification, or imaginative work.

D. Imagination 158

1. Definition and kinds.

a. Reproductive imagination or memory.
6. Constructive imagination.

2. Memory.

a. Importance in education.

b. Means of training memory.

1'. Laying foundation in sense-perception.
2'. Importance of association in establishing

relations.
3'. Necessity of repetition or drill.

Xiv ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

III. PRINCIPLES OR LAWS (Continued)— PAGE

D. Imagination (Continued) —

3. Constructive imagination.

a. Importance in education.

6. Means of cultivating imagination.

1'. Basing on sense-perception and appercep-
tion.

2'. Giving imagination exercise.
3'. Value of literature.

(Chapter VIII.)

E. Sequence . 167

• 1. Definition and relation to apperception.

2. Precautions to insure sequence.

«. Laying good foundations.

b. Going step by step, not leaping.

c. Keeping to the line of thought, and avoiding

digressions.

d. " Guarding the switches."

3. Use of the development or Socratic method.

4. Value of sequence for developing reasoning-powers.

F. Unity 177

1. Definition and relation to preceding principles.

2. Unity is ultimate psychological aim correspond-

ing to the ultimate ethical aim, adaptation to
environment.

3. Unity is psychological basis or reason for the

greater educational value of the study of life, the
best exemplification of physical unity.

4. Unity is brought out by questions "why" and

" how," rather than by question " what."

5. Influence of unity on method.

a. How impress on child unity in his physical

environment?
6. How impress on child unity of physical and

intellectual environment ?

c. How impress unity of all environment ?

d. How bring child into unity with environ-

ment ?

G. Expression l 190

1. Definition and relation to preceding principles.

2. Function or objects.

a. To clarify the child's ideas.

6. To convey his ideas to other minds.

c. To enable him to get ideas from other minds.

i See also Chapter XI. on "Nature Study and the Expressive Work of the School."

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV

CHAPTERS IX AND X.

The Order and Method of Studying Material. Application of

Principles. PAGB

I. ORDER OF STUDY 192

A. How determined.

1. By aim.

2. By necessity of basing work on sense perception.

B. Order followed.

1. Name.

2. Relations to natural environment.

3. Habits and function (and life history?).

4. Adaptation to environment and to function, or

structure (and life history ?).

5. Comparison and classification, or association and

generalization.

6. Application.

II. STUDY OF NAME 193

III. STUDY OF RELATIONS TO NATURAL ENVIRONMENT .... 194

A. Importance from standpoint of unity.

B. Field lessons.

1. Purpose and value.

2. Conduct : determined by aim and conditions.

a. Lack of restraint among children.
6. Help from literature.

c. Studying what cannot be studied indoors.

d. Order.

e. Importance of definite aim, plan, and report.

IV. STUDY OF LIFE, HABITS, AND FUNCTION 202

A. Relation to previous step in study of animals, plants,

minerals, physics.

B. Relation to study of life history.

C. Importance and educational value.

1. Interests and appeals to children.

2. Leads children to think.

3. Prepares for understanding of structure.

4. Correlates best with literature.

5. Gives best opportunity for individuality.

D. Suggestions for study of life, habits, and function.

(Chapter X.)

V. STUDY OF STRUCTURE, OR PROPERTIES, OR OF ADAPTATION

TO ENVIRONMENT AND TO HABITS AND FUNCTION . . 208

A. Relation to previous step and to next step.

B. Adapting to grade of children.

xvi ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

V. STUDY OF STRUCTURE (Continued)— PAGE

C. Studying details of structure or unimportant properties.

1. Study those which throw light on function or use.

2. Study those which aid in classification.

D. Dissecting animals and plants.

E. Use of microscope.

F. Order in studying and describing structure.

1. Similar to order followed in making a drawing.

2. Rules for determining order.

a. Study whole, then parts.

b. In studying parts, first relate to whole.

c. Work from base upward, from outside inward.

d. Emphasize parts which children can under-

stand, and in which they are interested.

G. Use of drawing in studying structure.

1. Requires careful, exact observation.

2. Value of drawing before description.

3. Importance of analyzing object before drawing.
H. Use of technical terms.

1. Value: express ideas exactly and concisely.

2. Useful to children only when necessary to express

their ideas.

3. Necessity of making meaning clear.
I. Relation to study of life history.

VI. COMPARISON AND CLASSIFICATION, OR ASSOCIATION AND

GENERALIZATION 224

A. Relation to previous steps.

B. Purposes or objects.

1. To note resemblances and differences.

2. To distinguish essentials from non-essentials.

3. To recognize or abstract plan or principle.

4. To apply to other phenomena and arrange knowl-

edge in groups, each represented by a type.

C. Relation to grade of children.

D. Suggestions for work in comparison and generalization.

1. Preparation in study of structure.

2. Selecting for study material which is typical.

3. Dwelling on resemblances rather than differences.

4. Emphasizing essentials and overlooking unimpor-

tant details.

5. Avoiding generalizations from very few particulars.

VII. APPLICATION . 230

VIII. MODIFYING AND ADAPTING ABOVE ORDER OF STUDY ... 232

IX. APPLICATION TO STUDY OF MINERALS AND PHYSICS . . . 234

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV11

CHAPTER XI.
Nature Study and the Expressive Work of the School.

PAGE

I. IMPORTANCE OF DEMONSTRATING VALUE OF NATURE STUDY

IN OTHER SCHOOL- WORK 236

II. VALUE OF NATURE STUDY IN OTHER SCHOOL-WORK ... 237

A. Definition of content studies and of formal or instru-

mental or expressive studies.

B. Importance of making content studies basis for expres-

sive work.

C. Special value of nature study, as a content study, in work

with young children.

D. Advantages of closely correlating nature study and

expressive studies.

III. OBJECTS OF EXPRESSION OR EXPRESSIVE WORK 241

A. To clarify our own ideas.

B. To convey our ideas to others.

C. To prepare us to gain ideas from others.

IV. FORMS OF EXPRESSION AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL VALUE IN

THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 241

A. Motion or gesture 241

1. Function — to express action and direction.

2. Importance, with young children.

B. Music 242

1. Use depends on realization of aim.

2. Value for expressing and appealing to emotions.

C. Sewing 244

1. Function — to express and fix form and color.

2. Limitations.

D. Moulding or modelling 244

1. Special value for expressing form.
' 2. Limitations.

E. Drawing 246

1. Great value in nature study for expressing form

ideas.

2. Advantages as an " eye language."

a. Is most natural means of expression.
6. Is clearest means of expression.

c. Is most exact means of expression.

d. Is most concise means of expression.

3. Drawing as a language of greater educational value

than as a means of artistic training.

XVlil ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

V. FORMS OF EXPRESSION (Continued) — PAGE

F. Painting 250

1. Function — to express color.

2. Difficulties.

G. Language 250

1. Importance — the most general means of expres-

sion.

2. Difficulties in expressing by means of language.

3. Value — to express life, action, function, aesthetic,

ethical, and spiritual ideas.

4. Varieties of language expression and their use.

a. Description — impersonal.

b . Narration — personal.

c. Personification — exercises imagination.

H. Resume of relative use and value of above forms of

expression 254

V. ESSENTIALS IN ALL EXPRESSION AND SUGGESTION FOR EX-
PRESSIVE WORK 255

A. Individuality 256

B. Truthfulness 258

C. Clearness 261

D. Order . 262

VI. LIMITATIONS OF NATURE STUDY AS A BASIS FOR EXPRESSIVE

WORK OF SCHOOL „ 263

CHAPTER XII.
Relation of Nature Study to Reading and Literature.

V I. THE PRIMARY READING-LESSON BASED ON NATURE STUDY, 265

A. Purpose . , 265

1. To help jBx important ideas.

2. To give pupils practice in,

a. Expressing ideas in language.

b. Gaining ideas through language.

3. To serve as models for individual expressive work.

B. Essentials in primary reading-lessons 267

1. Should contain best ideas in best form.

2. Should be in accord with principles already dis-

cussed.

a. Should be based on perception and apper-

ception.

b. Should exercise imagination.

c. Should have sequence and unity.

3. Value of narration and personification.

4. Should be truthful, clear, and orderly.

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. xix

I. THE PRIMARY READING-LESSON (Continued)— PAOE

C. Suggestions for primary reading-lessons 268

1. Making them models for individual written work.

2. Keeping statements in order or sequence.

3. Supplementing ideas gained from children with

higher and broader ideas.

4. Value of literary gems.

II. NECESSITY OF BASING PART OF READING WORK ON MAN STUDY 273
III. SUPPLEMENTARY READING BASED ON NATURE STUDY . . . 273

A. Two classes of supplementary reading . . . . . . . 274

1. Reading for information.

2. Reading for inspiration — literature.

B. Reading for information ••'•••• 274

1. Purpose.

2. Characteristics.

3. Relation to nature study.

C. Reading for inspiration — literature 275

1. Greater educational value.

2. Relation to nature study.

3. Necessity of reading real literature.

a. Avoiding mere rhyme or "jingle."

b. How select the best.

4. Value to children of reading what is above them

rather than below them.

5. Manner of reading literature.

a. Determined by aim — inspiration.
6. Reading so as to give the thought.

c. Reading again and again.

d. Avoiding excessive analysis or dissection.

6. Value of literature to nature study.

CHAPTER XIII.

Relation of Nature Study to Geography and Arithmetic.
RELATION TO GEOGRAPHY.

I. DEFINITION OF GEOGRAPHY 281

A. Geography is "earth study" 281

1. Must be real "earth study," based on sense-per-

ception.

2. Must begin with what is nearest.

3. Physical geography must precede political geog-

raphy.

4. Geography in German schools.

XX , ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

I. DEFINITION OF GEOGRAPHY (Continued)— PAGE

B. Geography is study of the life of the earth 283

1. Not mere study of form and structure, the earth as

it is.

2. Must include study of action and processes, the

development of the earth.

II. CLOSE RELATION BETWEEN NATURE STUDY AND GEOGRAPHY, 283
III. How CAN NATURE STUDY BE MADE MOST HELPFUL IN

GEOGRAPHY? 284

A. Practical importance of question . 285

B. How can nature study in lower grades be made most

helpful as a preparation for geography ? 285

1. Physical environment of child includes:

a. The earth as a planet.

b. The earth itself and its three envelopes, —

land, water, air.

c. The inhabitants of the earth, — plants, ani-

mals, man.

2. Study of earth as a planet.

a. Conception too difficult for young children.

b. Preparatory observational work.

3. Study of earth itself, including earth forces, earth

materials, earth forms.

a. Study of earth forces, beginning with water,

air, and heat.

b. Study of earth materials, — water, air, min-

erals, rocks, soil.

. Study of earth forms, or forms of land and
water.

4. Study of inhabitants of earth, — plants, animals,

and man.

5. Necessity for man study, as well as nature study, as

a basis for geography.

C. How can work in nature study in upper grades be made

most helpful in geography ? 290

1. Systematic study of relations between earth and

other heavenly bodies.

2. Intensive study of minerals and rocks.

a. Those most abundant as earth materials.

b. Those of greatest economic importance.

3. Study of aerial envelope or weather study.

4. Emphasis on practical or economic aspects of plant

and animal study and on physics.

IV. NATURE STUDY MUST BE MORE THAN AN ADJUNCT TO GEOG-
RAPHY. WE MUST KEEP IN MlND HIGHER AlMS AND

VALUE OF NATURE STUDY 292

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

DELATION TO ARITHMETIC. PAGE

I. FIELD OF ARITHMETIC. DEALS WITH NUMBER AND SIZE

RELATIONS (THE "HOW-MUCHNESS ") OF THINGS . . . 292
II. RELATION OF ARITHMETIC TO NATURE STUDY 293

A. In nature study, as pursued in elementary schools, num-

ber and size relations of minor importance as com-
pared with form and function « 293

B. Danger of forcing too close correlation between nature

study and arithmetic 294

1. Danger to nature study.

a. Emphasizes details (size and number) in na-
ture study which are accidental or of minor
importance.

6. Sacrifices higher work, or loses sight of higher
aims.

2. Danger to arithmetic.

a. May not provide for adequate drill.

C. Value of nature study in co-operation with arithmetic . 295

1. Furnishes material for concrete work in arithmetic.

2. Trains in exactness in observation, expression, and

thought.

CHAPTER XIV.
Selection and Sequence of Material.

I. SELECTION OF MATERIAL DETERMINED BY

A. The aim.

B. The nature and development of the children.

C. The prevailing conditions.

II. INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT AIMS ON SELECTION OF MA-
TERIAL '•••*••. .-• • • •> 297

A. Of interest as an aim. Importance of considering . . . 297

1. Interest of teacher.

2. Interest of children.

3. Interest of parents.

B. Of cultivation of higher nature as an aim 300

1. Greater value of material showing life and action.

2. Application to plants, animals, minerals, physics.

C. Of development of intellectual power as an aim . . . 301

1. Power must be developed by individual activity.

2. Importance of material which will admit of indi-

vidual work.

xxii ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

II. INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT AIMS (Continued) — PAGE

C. Of development of intellectual power as a aim.

3. Relative value for individual work of plants, ani-

mals, minerals, physics.

4. Development of power mainly dependent on method

of study.

D. Of acquisition of knowledge as an aim 303

1. Knowledge of what material most helpful in other

school-work.

a. Life sciences best prepare for literature.
6. Plants and animals best for free individual
expressive work.

c. Physics and chemistry most exact and best

correlate with arithmetic.

d. Knowledge most helpful in geography.

1'. Of "earth forces," — air, water, heat.

2'. Of " earth-materials," — common min-
erals, rocks, and soil.

3'. Of ''earth inhabitants," particularly
plants and animals of economic im-
portance.

2. Knowledge of what material most helpful in sub-

sequent science work.

a. Importance of material which is typical and
of phenomena which best illustrate prin-
ciples.

6. Importance of sequence in study of material.

c. Importance of beginning and ending with
wholes and of relating parts to wholes.

3. Knowledge of what material of greatest practical

value in life?
a. Utilitarian considerations have most weight

in later school-years.
6. Practical value of physics and chemistry and

of economic aspects of plant, animal, and

mineral study.

III. INFLUENCE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES ON SELECTION

AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL 311

A. Dependence of children on sense-perception and apper-

ception 312

1. Concrete material — plants, animals, minerals —

better for young children.

2. Forces — physics — reserved for older pupils.

3. Greater value of most common things.

B. Lack of permanence in interests and acquisitions of young

children 314

1. Need of variety with young children.

2. Intensive study with older pupils.

3. Necessity for studying same topics again and again.

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. xxiii

III. INFLUENCE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES (Continued) — PAGE

C. Arranging work in two cycles 316

1. First cycle — first four years — work extensive.

2. Second cycle — going over same ground intensively.

IV. INFLUENCE OF OTHER CONDITIONS ON SELECTION AND SE-

QUENCE OF MATERIAL 316

A. Of season and climate 316

1. Study life sciences when nature is awake.

a. Plants mainly in the spring.

b. Animals mainly in fall.

2. Study physical sciences during winter.

3. Some animal work (birds) in spring, and some plant

work (seeds and fruits) in fall.

B. Of teacher . 318

1. Of her interests.

2. Of her preparation for nature study.

a. Teachers usually hest prepared for plant study

and elementary physics.

b. Lack of preparation limits teacher to one or

two lines of nature work at one time.

C. Of local school conditions 321

1. Of time devoted to nature study. When time is

very limited study :

a. Plants and elementary physics in lower grades.

b. Plants, animals, minerals, physics, in upper

grades.

2. Of amount and character of previous work in nature

study.

a. When beginning, best work done by younger

pupils.

b. In beginning, better to introduce into lower

grades alone than into upper grades alone.

c. When beginning, begin in all grades with

foundation work.

3. Of tendency of pupils to drop out of school in in-

termediate grades.
a. Reason for arranging course in two cycles.

4. Of equipment for work.

a. Only home-made equipment essential.
6. Complex costly apparatus detrimental,
c. Science laboratory may be a detriment.

D. Of location of school 32;?

1. That best which is most common in vicinity of

school.

2. That suggested in course of study which is most

widely distributed.

3. Relative emphasis on topics influenced by local

conditions and interests.

4. Material for study in cities.

xxiv ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XV.

A Graded Course of Nature Study. PAGE

I. INTRODUCTORY 329

A. History of the course 329

1. Gradually evolved from experience 329

2. Most of the work indicated done again and again . 330

B. Time required for the work 330

C. Abridging and adapting the course 330

II. THE COURSE OF STUDY 331

A. First cycle — years one to four 331

B. Second cycle — years five to nine 336

PART II. — DETAILED OUTLINES.

Fall Plant Study.

SEPTEMBER,

The Common or Round Leaved Mallow 344

The Buttercup 361

OCTOBER.

The Dissemination of Seeds 370

The Milkweed 371

The Dandelion 381

Other plumed seeds 385

The Maple Seed and other winged seeds 387

The Chestnut , 393

Falling and Coloring of Leaves 395

NOVEMBER.

The Study of Fruits 400

The Apple 402

DECEMBER.

The Pine 410

Other Evergreens 425

Fall and Winter Animal Study.
SEPTEMBER.

Caterpillars and Butterflies 427

OCTOBER.

Grasshopper or Cricket 439

JANUARY.

The Cat 449

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. xxv

"Winter Earth Study. PAGE

WATER — ITS FORMS AND WORK 462

Evaporation 465

Condensation . . . 476

FORMS OF WATER 478

Frost 486

Ice 491

Snow 494

The Work of Water in Soilmaking 513

The Work of Streams 518

Spring Nature Study.

Aims and Opportunities 520

Spring Notes 526

MARCH.

Tree Study . ..":..' . . . . ..- . . • • . . 531

Bud Study 547

The Horse Chestnut Bud 551

The Lilac Bud 555

The Beech Bud 560

The Elder Bud 561

Willow, Poplar, and Maple Buds 562

APRIL.

Seeds and their Dissemination 566

Planting the Seeds 569

The Germination of the Bean 573

" " " " Pea 579

" " " " Morning Glory 583

MAY.

The Plant at Work 593

The Germination /of the Bean, continued 596

" " Morning Glory, continued .... 602

The Horse Chestnut Bud 609

JUNE.

The Flowers and Their Work 613

NATURE STUDY.

CHAPTER I.

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION.

An Introduction to Nature Study.

"Flower in the crannied wall,
I pluck you out of the crannies;
Hold you here, root and all, in my hand,
Little flower — but if I could understand
What you are, root and all, and all in all,
I should know what God and man is."

TENNYSON.

IT seems wise, in beginning to consider nature study
by and with the children, to illustrate by a concrete
example much which will be discussed and elaborated
in detail in succeeding chapters. In this preliminary
study of some part or phase of nature, we can be helped
to realize what is meant by nature study by and with
children, as distinguished from natural science as com-
monly pursued by older pupils, and can see illustrated
something of the method, and gain some idea of the aim
and principles on which the method is based. After
such preliminary concrete work we shall be better pre-
pared for the discussion in succeeding chapters of defi-

1

NATURE STUDY.

nitions, aims, and principles, and of the application of
these to method.

The work- as outlined in this preliminary chapter is
not to be considered as a model or plan of work to be
followed by the teacher in studying with her pupils the

dandelion or any
other plant. The
chapter is intended
to show the differ-
ent points of view
from which the dan-
delion may be ap-
proached, and the
different ways in
which it may be studied, and
to compare the relative edu-
cational value of these differ-
ent methods of study,
i The dandelion is selected
for this preliminary study be-
cause it is so familiar in many
sections of the country, and
^^ can be obtained and studied

during several months, and because its many interesting
habits and adaptations of structure to work or function
make it particularly good for illustrating method in na-
ture study.

While an effort is made to illustrate by drawings all
points of structure which are considered, drawings can-
not take the place of the dandelion itself. This chapter

Fig. 1. Root of Dandelion.

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION. 3

will mean much more, be better understood and better
appreciated, and will better prepare for later chapters,
if the reader will take the book out-of-doors, and there,
with the dandelions all about him, investigate for him-
self. There he will not only best understand the facts,
but will discover the spirit in which nature should be
approached.

We will dig up our dandelion, wash off the dirt, and
describe it, as many of us have done in our work in
botany.

We find that the root (see Fig. 1) is thick, long,
and somewhat tapering (what the botanist calls a coni-
cal tap-root), and that it has some thread-like branches.
When we cut it across (make a cross-section) we see
that a milky liquid exudes, and discover that it has
a central cylindrical axis, rather strong or tough, sur-
rounded by a lighter-colored, less dense ring. (It is
exogenous in structure.) We describe the dandelion
root as a tap-root, cylindrical or conical, exogenous, con-
taining a milky liquid.

As the plant has no distinct stem, it may be called
stemless. It really has a very short stem, from which
the leaves grow. What is commonly called the stem
is the flower stem, not the plant stem.

The leaves seem to grow from the root (hence called
radical), no two successive leaves (see frontispiece,
Plate 1) growing from the same level (alternate).
They are long and narrow (see Fig. 2), with large
irregular lobes which are separated almost to the middle
line (pinnatifid) and often inclined downward toward

NATURE STUDY.

the base of the leaf (runcinate} ; and with a central
vein running from base to point, or apex, sending
out branches into the divisions on either side {feather
veined or pinnately veined}. The leaves are smooth on
both upper and lower surfaces {glabrous}. We can,
then, describe the dandelion leaves concisely as radical,
alternate, runcinate, pinnately veined,
glabrous.

The blossom (see frontispiece) has a
leafless (naked) stem (called a scape),
hollow, cylindrical, containing a milky
liquid. It is enclosed in rows or con-
centric circles (usually three in number)
of green, somewhat leaflike parts (called
bracts, forming together the involucre),
the divisions, or parts, overlapping like
shingles on a roof (imbricated). The
parts of the inner and upper row are
long and narrow (linear}, and nearly
vertical (erect), while the parts of the
other rows are somewhat shorter, and are
bent outward and downward (reflexed).
The yellow part of the dandelion blos-
som, surrounded by the involucre, is found, when ex-
amined carefully, to be composed of a large number
(one hundred to three hundred) of similar parts. (See
frontispiece, Fig. B.)

Each of these is fastened directly, that is, without
any stem (hence called sessile), in the enlarged upper
end (receptacle} of the flower-stem, or scape. Each

Fig. 2.
Leaf of Dandelion.

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION.

(see Fig. 3), when carefully separated from the recep-
tacle, is found to have at its base a small rounded body
which, when examined with a magnifying-glass, is seen
to consist of a minute sack (the ovary), enclosing a
single seed (the seed and its enclosing sack forming
when ripe an akene), with a very short stem above the
ovary (called the leak). Extending upward and out-
ward from the upper end of
the beak are a great number
of fine, soft hairs (the clus-
ter of hairs being known as
the pappus), in the position
of and representing the outer
part (the calyx) of ordinary
flowers, such as the butter-
cup. (See Fig. 5.) Sur-
rounded by these hairs, and
attached, like them, to the
upper end of the beak above
the ovary (hence called
epigynous, meaning upon or
above the ovary), is the lar-
ger, more prominent division, the corolla. (Compare with
same part in the buttercup, Fig. 5). This is much longer
than the pappus, yellow, united at base into a short tube,
and split open and spread out flat above into a long
strap-shaped (ligulate) corolla, with usually five minute
teeth at the upper end, indicating in a rudimentary way
the division of the corolla into petals. (See Fig. 5.)
An upward thread-like extension of the beak (called

Fig. 3.

Flower of Dandelion Enlarged.
Single Flower.

6 NATURE STUDY.

the style) passes through the tubular base of the corolla,
separating above into two parts (two-cleft), the inner
surface of the upper ends of these divisions being some-
what rough or spongy when the flower is fully devel-
oped. These roughish surfaces form the stigma. The
ovary, style, and stigma taken together constitute the
pistil of the little flower. Very careful examination
with the magnifying-glass shows five minute thread-like
parts (the stamens), forming a tube about the style.
The slender, thread-like base (filament) of each stamen
is fastened in the tubular base of the corolla. Hence
the stamens are said to be epipetalous, meaning on or
upon the petals. The enlarged upper parts (anthers) of
the stamens are united to form a tube about the style.
(Stamens thus united are syngenesiousJ) On the an-
thers when ripe is often a yellow powder (the pollen).
Each of these similar yellow parts, surrounded by the
involucre, and growing from pits in the receptacle,
has all the parts of a complete flower, — calyx, co-
rolla, stamens, and pistil. (Compare with the butter-
cup.) Hence each may be called a little flower, or
a floret.

Flowers so arranged in clusters, growing directly
from the receptacle, are said to be in a head. Because
the dandelion is composed of many of these flowers or
flower-like divisions, or florets, arranged in a head,
surrounded by an involucre, it is called a composite
flower.

We can describe the dandelion blossom, using the
terms above defined, as : Growing on a naked, hollow

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION. 1

scape, composite, with an involucre of (usually^) three
rows of imbricated linear green bracts, the inner longer
row erect, the outer rows reflexed. Individual flowers
arranged in a close head. Parts epigynous, borne on a
short beak. Calyx a pappus of many fine white hairs.
Corolla yellow, strap-shaped, with five teeth. Stamens
five, epipetalous, syngenesious. Pistil one, with one-
celled, one-seeded ovary (forming in fruit an akene), with
a long style, two-cleft.

In the dandelion fruit, or matured flower, the stems
usually grow much longer, and the hundreds of little
seeds become loosened, ready to be detached from the
little pits or pores in the enlarged end of the stem.
Each seed (see frontispiece, Fig. D) is somewhat egg-
shaped, but flattened, has about its upper half a num-
ber of minute teeth pointing upward, and bears at its
upper end a long hairy stem which separates into many
spreading hairs. When spread out the stem and its
parts somewhat resemble the handle and ribs of an open
umbrella, with the seed fastened at the lower end of the
handle. The hairy balls, or fruit, of the dandelion (see
frontispiece, Fig. A, 4) may be described as spherical,
open, hairy clusters.

We have studied and described the dandelion as a
form or structure, and no more. Our description thus
far might apply as well to a dandelion fashioned out of
clay or glass as to the weeds which struggle in our yards
and thrive by our roadsides, and smile back at the sun.
We have not said a word, or apparently had a thought,
about its life, — that which distinguishes the real dan-

8 NATURE STUDY.

delion from its clay or glass counterfeit. We have
\ considered the dandelion as something isolated from all
the world, having no relations to anything else.

We have studied and described the plant somewhat
carefully, with a free use of technical terms, but it would
be most unwise, in work with children, to begin with
such dissection and dry technical description. This
study of structure is merely a basis for further work in
this and subsequent chapters, and is not intended to
serve as a model for teachers to follow in their work
with children.

Incidentally, hitherto, we have seen the value of tech-
nical or scientific terms in describing structure concisely
and exactly, and have learned, as we referred to the
pictures to understand the descriptions in the text, that
^ ] pictures illustrate flower structure much better than
words can describe it.

But what can we gain from such a study ? What is
the educational aim or value of such study of mere form
and structure?

First. We may widen our range of thought, and add
to our previous store of information concerning the form
of the dandelion, and the relation of its parts.

Second. We may gain an interest in the dandelion.
The common, and perhaps despised, wayside weed be-
comes a complex and wonderful structure. It would
become still more marvellous if we could study with the
microscope its minute details ; but this does not seem
wise, nor even possible, for those for whom this book is
planned.

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION. 9

Third. We may learn, if we actually study the
dandelion itself with care, and not merely read or
hear about it, to develop our powers of observa-
tion.

Fourth. If we endeavor to speak about what we have
observed, and are not content with repeating what others
have told, we may learn, and particularly if we use tech-
nical terms, to express more clearly, exactly, and con-
cisely what we . have to say.

Theoretically, we can study the dandelion as an iso-
lated thing. Practically, the youngest child in the
kindergarten cannot avoid comparing the dandelion with
other things he has seen ; in fact, the same habit of com-
paring everything we see goes on continually through-
out life. Assuming, therefore, that we have learned to
recognize the dandelion as a plant, as distinguished
from animals and minerals, and to associate it with other
plants having flowers, we may begin to make suggestive
comparisons.

Let us first select the buttercup for comparison with
the dandelion. The two are alike in having roots, leaves,
and flowers, but are unlike in the form and arrange-
ment of these parts. Instead of one strong tap-root,
such as the dandelion has (see Fig. 1), the buttercup
has many rather slender roots, starting from the lower
end of the stem (see Fig. 4). Its roots are multiple
and fibrous. It has a distinct stem, to which many of
the leaves are attached. This stem is cylindrical, and
a careful study of a cross-section shows its structure to

10

NATURE STUDY.

be, like that of the dandelion, exogenous. The leaves
(see Fig. 5) are alternate, have distinct leaf -stalks
(petioles), and have several veins branching out from
the top of the leaf-stalk, somewhat as the fingers, when
spread out fan-like, are attached to the main part, or

Fig. 4.
Roots of Buttercup.

Fig. 5.
Buttercup Leaf, Flower, and Fruit.

palm, of the hand. Hence it is said to be palmately
veined. The shape of the leaves, however, is entirely
unlike that of the dandelion leaves.

When we examine the flower of the buttercup (see
Figs. 5 and 6), the most important part of the plant in

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION.

11

classification, we find that each flower is separate, with
a distinct flower stem, instead of having, as in the
dandelion, many minute flowers without stems crowded
in a close cluster, or head. Each complete flower has
an outer green calyx, somewhat cup- or saucer-shaped
(calyx meaning a cup),
with, usually, five divis-
ions (the sepals). This
corresponds in position
to the pappus of the dan-
delion. If we could ex-
amine many kinds of com-
posite flowers, we would
find many gradations in
form between the calyx
of the buttercup and the
pappus of the dandelion.
Hence the botanist as-
sumes that the two cor-
respond, but are modified
in the two plants, be-
cause they have a different work to do, or have different
functions. The corolla, or " little crown," instead of
being composed of one piece united into a tube at the
base, as in the dandelion, consists of five or more yellow
parts (the petals), together forming the most attractive
and crowning feature of the flower. Within the corolla,
and above the base of the petals, are many yellow parts
(the stamens), each with its thread-like base (the fil-
ament) and enlarged upper part (the anther), but all

Fig. 6. Flower of Buttercup Dissected.

12

NATURE STUDY.

separate, instead of being united to form a ring or tube,
as in the dandelion. In the centre of the buttercup
flower is a mass of green bodies which careful examina-
tion shows to be seed-vessels, or pistils, each containing
one seed, but without any style, and without any hairy
attachment above. Unlike the dandelion floret, in its

great yellow cluster,
each buttercup flower
stands alone, growing
directly from the upper
end (receptacle) of the
flower-stalk. The dan-
delion and buttercup
flowers have the same
parts, but the arrange-
ment of these parts is
very different in the
two.

When we compare the

««»**«!»»««:• dandelion and the but-

tercup with the common thistle (see Figs. 7 and 8) we
find that the roots, stems, and leaves of all three are
very unlike, and at first sight the flower of the thistle
seems unlike those of the other two plants. A careful
study, however, shows a cup-shaped, spiny involucre,
similar in position, but not in appearance, to that of
the dandelion, composed of many parts united or grown
together. Within this spiny cup is a large number of
little flowers (see Fig. 8), differing from those of the
dandelion in shape, but like them in having a mi-

Fig. 7. Blossom of Thistle.

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION.

13

nute one-seeded ovary, a pappus and corolla, five sta-
mens with anthers grown together, and a long, slender
style. The corolla is tube-shaped, with five long, slen-
der teeth, not strap-shaped as in the dandelion.

If we continue by comparing
the three already studied with
the anemone, — wild anemone
during spring or summer, and
garden anemone (see Fig. 9)
during the fall, — we find that
the buttercup, while quite un-
like the anemone in general ap-
pearance, has flowers with simi-
lar parts, but without a calyx,
arranged in the same way.

We are led by this compari-
son to put the dandelion and
thistle together, and the butter-
cup and anemone together. We
learn from the books that the
first two belong to the compo-
site family of flowering plants, and the last two to the
crowfoot family. We have compared our dandelion
with other forms of plants, and placed it in a class
with plants closely resembling it; that is, we have, to
some extent, classified it.

What is the educational value of comparing and class-
ifying different forms, as compared with the educational
value of studying the dandelion as a form by itself,
unrelated to other plant forms?

Fig. 8. Single Flower (Floret)
of Thistle, Enlarged.

14 NATURE STUDY.

First. We have broadened our knowledge of plant
forms by studying several plants.

Second. We have increased our interest in the struc-
ture of plants by studying variations in form and
structure.

Third. We have learned to use our powers of obser-
vation more accurately.

Fig. 9. Anemone Flower and Fruit.

Fourth. We have learned to express ourselves bet-
ter; to increase our power of telling what we see and
know.

Fifth. We have developed our power to compare,
to discriminate between essentials and non-essentials in
structure, to group and classify. We have learned to
think, as well as to see and tell, and so to arrange
or relate our thoughts that one thing shall stand in
our minds as a type of many.

Yet even in studying the dandelion as a plant form in

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION. 15

relation to other forms of plants, have we accomplished
what will be of the highest educational value ? Most
of the work in botany in our secondary schools consists
of this study and description of plant forms, and com-
parison with other forms, or tracing through an analyt-
ical key, and finding names, which is supposed to be
comparison.

Will such work meet the needs of the boys and girls
in the elementary schools ? Is interest in nature, and
power to see and compare and classify and describe, the
highest pleasure or value they can get from nature
study?

Is there anything better about the dandelion for the
children to study than its form, and its relation to other
plant forms, like and unlike it?

In addition to what we may call its form, or struc-
tural relations, it has other relations to its surroundings
or environment. It is a living thing, dependent on its
physical environment, — soil, moisture, air, sun ; helped
or harmed by these. It is adapted by form and struc-
ture and life-processes to get help from these and to
give help to them in return. Let us study the relations
between our dandelion and its physical environment,
its dependence on its environment, its adaptation to its
environment.

Our dandelion when separated from Mother Earth
very soon wilts and dies, unless kept in a damp place
or in water. It is dependent on the soil and on the
moisture in the soil, and this moisture it must get from
dew and rain and cloud. It thrives only where it can

16 NATURE STUDY.

get the sunlight ; opens its yellow eye to the sun each
morning, and closes it at night; pushes its leaves up
above the grass, and out from the shade of stone and
fence ; evidently it depends on the sun. If it is de-
prived of air, it dies, much as we should; it depends,
then, on the air. The hairy sails on its seeds would be
useless without wind to carry them along. It spreads
in its flower a feast of nectar, which attracts hosts of
insects. It certainly helps the insects; we shall find
that the insects help it. The dandelion may be eaten
by animals and destroyed by man. Our dandelion de-
pends, then, on soil and dew and rain and clouds ; on
sun and air and wind ; on insects and other animals ;
and on man. If we could study it thoroughly, we should
find it more or less dependent on a host of other agen-
cies ; in fact, on all, or nearly all, of its physical envi-
ronment.

If it depends on these, it must be fitted to get help
from its physical environment, or to struggle against it.
Let us take up its parts in order, studying them not
as mere forms, but as organs for sustaining life, investi-
gating not merely their structure, but their special
function and adaptation to their environment. Let us
constantly ask not merely " What ? ", but " Why ? "
and "How?". We shall have to study carefully;
not merely observe, but think.

Beginning with the roots, if we very carefully dig
up from soft soil a root with all the earth about it, and
cautiously wash off the soil by moving the mass back
and forth in a pail of water, we shall discover many

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION.

17

things that were
overlooked be-
fore. (See Fig.
10.) Wtten'we
merely pull up
or dig up a
plant, and shake
off the earth, we
see very little of
the root system.
Besides the
strong central
root, or tap-root
(shown in Fig. 1),
we now discover
a multitude of
branches, many of
them very minute,
spreading widely
in all directions/ What
are they and the strong
tap-root for? Any boy who has
tried to pull dandelions will tell
us that the strong root holds the
plant firmly in the ground ; it is
almost impossible to pull it out.
Of how little value the minute
roots are for this purpose ! If
we dig up a root before the plant has gone to seed, it is
full of milky juice. A root of a plant which has formed

Fig. 10.

Roots and Rootlets of
Dandelions.

18 NATURE STUDY.

and ripened its seeds is spongy, and has little of the
milky fluid. The inference, confirmed by careful study,
is that this strong, fleshy root is not merely a holdfast,
but a storehouse of food to perfect the seeds. We see
here one way in which the dandelion is adapted to get
the most from its environment, and one reason why it
flourishes in the midst of and in spite of drought. It
has made provision for such contingencies, has a store
laid by for a dry day. What do the fine rootlets do ?
If the roots of a dandelion plant possessing these fine
rootlets are kept immersed in a jar of water, the plant
will grow for weeks, developing its flowers, and ripen-
ing its seeds. Without these rootlets, with only the
tap-root, it dies much more quickly. This indicates —
what is confirmed by further experiments — that the fine
rootlets take in or absorb from the soil moisture and
the plant food dissolved in it. By keeping the roots
of our dandelion plants in water containing measured
quantities of various mineral substances dissolved in it,
we could readily ascertain that the dandelion absorbed
through its rootlets certain minerals in certain propor-
tions, and' refused to absorb other substances. The
rootlets not merely absorb, but they select. We might
discover also, by experiment, that the rootlets, and par-
ticularly their tips, show something akin to sensation
and intelligence in the character and direction of their
growth in the ground. The root tip is so sensitive that
Darwin has compared it to the brain of lower animals.1

1 See Darwin's Power of Movement in Plants; or Newell's Reader in
Botany, Part 1, p. 34.

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION. 19

The roots of the dandelion are then adapted to their
environment : —

First. By having a strong, tough tap-root to serve as
a holdfast.

Second. By having a thickened, somewhat fleshy root
to serve as a storehouse for food.

Third. By having a multitude of hairy or fibrous
rootlets, with many branches growing out in all direc-
tions, to absorb moisture and food from the soil ; these
are fitted, by their manner of growth and sensitiveness,
for their work of absorption.

The dandelion root is, then, more than a " cylindrical
or conical tap-root, exogenous, with a milky liquid."
It is a holdfast, a storehouse, a purveyor and absorber of
food for the plant.

The leaves we have described as " radical, alternate,
runcinate, .pinnately veined, glabrous." Is that all?
Let us ask not merely, " What are they ? ", but, "What
do they do? ". They grow from the upper end of the
tap-root (apparently), forming together a circle : this is
flat on the ground, or saucer-shaped ; or, in high grass,
cup- or cone-shaped. (See frontispiece.) The leaves al-
ternate so as to leave few open spaces, yet do not cover
one another. Nearly all of each leaf is exposed to the
sun. If we watch them in a rainstorm we shall see that
they are so arranged that nearly all of the rain which
falls on them is directed downward and inward toward
the root. The arrangement of veins (venation) aids in
this. The veins are a system of troughs, or ditches,
directing the water to the root. The leaves, then, are

20 NATURE STUDY.

adapted by position, arrangement, and veining to direct
water toward the roots.

Clustered between their broadened bases, often
wrapped about by them, are tiny leaf and flower buds.
The leaves help to protect these.

The leaves are not merely arranged so as to give each
leaf as much sunlight as possible, but those in high
grass grow up toward the sun, and those in shady
places grow out from the shade toward the sun. Evi-
dently they have some reason for seeking the sun-
light.

If we cover a small growing dandelion plant with an
inverted glass tumbler or fruit can, we soon discover, if
the plant is in the sun, little drops of moisture on the
inner surface of the glass ; if in the shade, the moisture
appears more slowly. By preventing the passage of
moisture from any part of the plant except the leaves
(spreading paper over the ground under the leaves), we
can show that the moisture comes from the leaves. We
learn that the leaves throw out much of the moisture
absorbed by the rootlets, and that the sun or sunlight
aids them. They are adapted to throw out moisture by
their form, — broad and thin, with a very large surface.
By their position and arrangement, with nearly all of
every leaf exposed to the sun, they get the greatest
possible help from the sun. The skin (epidermis) with
which they are covered prevents too rapid escape of
moisture. Microscopic examination shows great num-
bers of little openings in the skin (breathing-pores, or
stomatcf), which have the power of closing and opening,

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION. 21

and thus regulating the escape of moisture in dry or
wet weather.

It can be shown that the leaves breathe or respire for
the plant in a way corresponding to our lungs, and
that they also take in gaseous food from the air, and
convert this and part of the water absorbed by the root-
lets into starch and other plant foods. For the latter
process they need the help of the sun. For this work
they are adapted by their position and arrangement,
exposing them to the sun, and by their form, with great
extent of surface, through which the gases can pass,
and on which the sunlight can act. Their effort to
change position by bending away from the shade and
toward the light, and their greater length in high grass
or shaded places, aid them in getting help from the sun.
The strong veins, with branches on each side, extending
into the tip of each division or lobe, aid in lifting and
supporting every part of each leaf in the sunlight, as
well as in directing water to the roots, and in carrying
water and dissolved food into every part of the leaf.

Now, the form and structure of the dandelion leaf
mean something. We begin to see a reason for the
structure in the adaptation to surroundings or environ-
ment.

The leaves of the dandelion are adapted by their posi-
tion, arrangement, form, venation, and movements: —

First. To direct water to the roots.

Second. To protect buds at their base.

Third. To throw out water, with the aid of the sun.

Fourth. To breathe.

22 NATURE STUDY.

Fifth. To absorb gases and make plant food, with
the aid of the sun.

Wonderful as is the flower considered as a structure,
it becomes much more wonderful when studied as a
living thing, an organ with a work to do, an adapta-
tion to work and environment.

In particular the slender, hollow flower stem is an
admirable illustration of adaptation to work or function.
In the bud it is very short, lengthening, as the flower
develops, just enough to push the blossom above the
grass, and later lengthening much more to lift the
plumed seeds up where they will catch the wind.
The length of the stem depends largely on the height
of the grass or other plants about it; in tall grass it
may push up two feet or more to lift flower and seed
above surrounding plants. In the late autumn, when
little is to be gained and much may be lost by lifting up
the flower, the flower stem, or scape, remains very short.
It bends away from shady places. Its structure, a
hollow cylinder, gives the greatest strength and flexi-
bility with the least material.

The scape not merely lifts the seeds up into the
wind, but when they are ripe the rapid change in the
form of its upper end, or receptacle, from a shallow
cup to a somewhat flattened ball, causes the seeds at-
tached to it to spread out into the hairy sphere, and
exposes every seed with its little parachute to the
wind. (See frontispiece. Compare Figs. A, 5, and B.)

The scape has one duty, to hold up the flower toward
the sun, and where it will attract insects, and to lift up

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION. 23

and spread out the seeds where they will catch the
wind. When this work is done, it shrivels and dies.

No less interesting as a study in adaptation to en-
vironment is the involucre, with its rows of alternating,
overlapping bracts. Note how all the rows of bracts
protect the buds (see frontispiece, Fig. A, 1) ; how, as
the flower develops, the outer rows are turned back or
reflexed, while the inner row closes over and protects
the flower at night, and often during storms, opening in
the morning or when the sunshine returns ; how finally
it remains closed about the flower, sometimes for several
days, while it is perfecting its seeds (see frontispiece,
Fig. A, 3) ; how as the beak elongates and pushes up
the pappus, this inner row of bracts also elongates and
protects the developing seeds and their growing wings
or parachutes, until the change in the form of the re-
ceptacle begins to push the seeds apart. Then the
inner row of bracts is also reflexed.

The work of the involucre, to protect bud and flower
and undeveloped seeds from excess of moisture and
sudden changes in temperature, is now done, and, with
the scape and receptacle, the bracts shrivel and die.

Is not the involucre more than " three rows of imbri-
cated bracts, the inner row erect, the outer rows re-
flexed"? Is it not almost intelligent? Does not its
structure embody a thought ?

If we are not satisfied with describing the blossom
and hairy fruit as two distinct things, but patiently
watch the process by which the flower changes to fruit,
constantly asking why and how, we shall learn much

24 NATURE STUDY.

which we can never discover from a mere pulling to
pieces for analysis and description. Let us mark sev-
eral buds and flowers with a string or label, and note
carefully, two or three times a day, the changes in them.
We shall see the lengthening of the scape and the pro-
tective closing of the flower, and the changes in the
length of the bracts. We may note the numerous insects
which visit the blossom. We shall discover that after
the blossom finally closes, the yellow part shrivels, is
lifted up, and at last drops off. At the same time the
hairy pappus is very gradually pushed up, at length pro-
truding above the bracts (as in frontispiece, Fig. A, 3),
the hairs of the pappus, lying pressed close together,
separate, somewhat as an umbrella opens, the bracts are
bent outward and downward or reflexed, and the hairy
stems supporting the pappus of each flower diverge, and
we have the spherical fruit of the dandelion. Why?
How?

As we watch this in the wind, or imitate the children
as they try to discover, by blowing the seeds, " what
time it is," or whether " mother wants me," we see the
seeds sail away, each with its little parachute, settle
down, and gradually work down into the grass.

Are the yellow blossoms, the "seals of gold in the
meadows," "bright as if Night had spilt her stars," are
they merely " flowers arranged in a close head, with an
involucre of three rows of imbricated bracts " ? Why
lifted up so high ? Why such a bright color ? Why
and how do they open and close ? How do they per-
fect their seeds, and lift up and spread out their

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION. 25

fruit, the "spherical open hairy clusters" we have de-
scribed ?

Let us examine one little flower of the dandelion,
asking constantly uwhy," and "how." Each seed
has a little stem (the beak) connecting it with the parts
of the flower above. Why ? If we have watched the
fruit develop, we have discovered that this beak length-
ens, pushes up the pappus, forms the rays or radii of
the sphere, and is the rope connecting each seed with
its parachute.

Why does each dandelion flower have its outer part,
or calyx, composed of little hairs, while in the buttercup
it is composed of little green leaves ? Each is fitted for
its work. In the buttercup the calyx protects the parts
within ; in the dandelion the involucre protects, and the
calyx has another duty, — to scatter the seeds.

What is the use of the other parts, — corolla, sta-
mens, and style ?

In the dandelion, as in all other flowering plants,
seeds — that is, perfect seeds which will develop into
plants — are formed, and only formed, by the union of
the pollen (the yellow powder coming from the anther,
or upper part of the stamens) with rudimentary seeds
or ovules in the ovary, or lower part of the pistil. The
grains of pollen must in some way pass from the anther
to the upper portion of the style, called the stigma,
from which some of the living matter ( protoplasm) in
the pollen grains works down through the style into
the seed-box, or ovary, and unites with the rudimentary
seeds there. Not until this process (fertilization) takes

26 NATURE STUDY.

place will these rudimentary seeds begin to develop into
real seeds, capable of forming new plants.

It is a law of nature that better seeds are produced
when the pollen from one flower is carried to the stigma
of another flower of the same kind ; that is, when there
is what is called cross-fertilization. Seeds may be formed
when the pollen of a flower gets on and pushes into the
pistil of the same flower, but this process of self-fertili-
zation is not apt to produce as healthy, vigorous seeds or
plants as does cross-fertilization. It is to the interest
of most flowers, including the dandelion, to prevent self-
fertilization, and secure cross-fertilization as much as is
possible.

We shall find that the structure and changes in co-
rolla, stamens, and pistil are arrangements or adapta-
tions to insure cross-fertilization, if possible ; otherwise,
self-fertilization. In cross-fertilization the pollen is most
commonly conveyed from the stamens of one flower to
the stigmas of other flowers, either by insects or the
wind. The dandelion hires the insects to carry her
pollen from flower to flower.

The corolla has the special duty of attracting the
insects by its bright color (one reason why the blossom
is pushed up above the grass), and by the honey, or
nectar, at its base. From the nectar and from the pol-
len, of which the dandelion and other flowers produce
much more than they can use, the provident insects get
their store of food. The bright-colored corolla is the
signboard telling where these can be found. In getting
them the insects brush off and carry on the hairs on

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION.

27

various parts of their body more or less pollen, some of
which adheres to the somewhat spongy and sticky sur-
face of the stigmas of other flowers. The flower tries
to prevent the pollen of any flower from coming in con-
tact with, or adhering to, the stigma of the same flower,
and to insure its adhering to the stigma of another flower.

Fig. 11. Fig. 12

Floret of Dandelion ; Arrangement for Cross-FertiltzaiTon.

To insure this cross-fertilization, the anthers of tne
dandelion (see Fig. 11) ripen before the style or
stigma is mature, and discharge the pollen into the tube
formed by the union of the anthers. The style then
lengthens, and minute hairs on it push or carry the pol-
len above the anther tube. Later the stigma ripens,
and its two parts separate and curve outward (as in Fig.
12), each division having on its inner upper side the

28

NATUEE STUDY.

spongy, sticky surface on which the pollen must fall in
order to develop. When the insects visit the flower in
search of the nectar at the base of the corolla, and feome
in contact with the pollen, they carry some of it away.
Even if the pollen grains come in contact with the
outer and under surface of the recurved stigma, the
grains are not apt to adhere, and will not develop.
When the insect visits a new dan-
delion flower, and brushes against
the upper inner surface of the
forked end of the style (as it is
almost compelled to do when push-
ing its proboscis, or mouth parts,
into a flower), some of the pollen
may adhere, develop, send its pro-
toplasm down through the style,
fertilize the ovule, and insure the
development of the seed.

If, for any reason, cross-fertili-
zation is not secured, then the two
divisions of the style bend down-
ward and outward (see Fig. 13),
each curving into a circle, and
bring their inner spongy surface' in contact with the
pollen above the' anther tube, thus insuring self-fertili-
zation and the development of their ovules.

When fertilization has been secured, the work of
corolla, stamens, style, and stigma is about completed,
and they soon shrivel, and are pushed off by the growth
of the beak.

Fig. 13. Floret of Dandelion,
Self-Fertilization.

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION.

29

In two days or more, depending on weather and tem-
perature, after the florets have been fertilized, and the
dandelion blossom has finally closed, the pappus of
each flower is pushed, by the lengthening of the beak,
above the enclosing involucre , the receptacle becomes
convex instead of concave (compare Figs. B and A,
5, in frontispiece), causing each pappus to separate
from all the others, and the Jiairs to spread out like
an umbrella inverted, and we have the " hairy open
spherical head," each seed with its bal-
loon spread ready to catch the wind and
sail away. The dandelion mother shows
no favoritism. She gives each seed baby
a choice seat on her tower, from which
to view the world and take flight.

Mother Dandelion's care for her seeds
does not end with the arrangements for
their dispersal by the friendly wind. Not
merely does she provide each seed with
a balloon, or parachute, but to each she
gives a set of grappling irons to anchor
again to Mother Earth. If we examine carefully (see
Fig. 14), we shall find about the upper end of each
seed many little spines growing obliquely outward and
upward. As the seed, after its flight in the air, settles
down, these spines catch in the grass, and then the
swaying of the parachute causes the seed to work
deeper and deeper into the grass. If it alights on rock
or hard soil, it is not so apt to catch, but may be
carried farther, to a more promising landing-place.

Fig. 14.
Seed of Dandelion.

30 NATURE STUDY.

It would seem that Mother Nature or Mother Dande-
lion was thinking, when she gave the seed its color,
how much better it would escape the sharp eyes of
birds and insects if it had the color of the ground where
it must rest for months.

When we study the dandelion in this way, asking
"why" and " how "as well as uwhat," investigate the
work of its parts as well as their structure, what do we
gain from it? What is the educational value or aim
of such a study of the functional relations of the dan-
delion to its environment, of its dependence on and
adaptation to environment, as compared with the value
of the previous study of its structure and structural or
form relations ?

First. Our interest in the dandelion is greatly in-
creased. We have studied it not merely for its form,
but as a plant endowed with life. We have given it a
personality somewhat akin to ourselves, and watched its
struggles and perseverance and triumphs. We begin
to feel some sympathy for the domestic weed. This
is particularly true of children, to whom living nature
appeals so strongly .

Second. Our appreciation of the beauty of the dande-
lion, which may have begun with the study of structure,
increases greatly as we learn to see not merely the
beauty of form and color, but the far higher beauty
of function and adaptation. " Handsome is that hand-
some does," is as true for the dandelion as for any of
the human kind.

Third. We have laid some foundation for realizing

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION. 31

the mutual dependence and helpfulness of all nature,
and for comprehending the unity of nature. The dan-
delion has become more than something with root, leaves,
flowers, and seeds. It has become a unit, with all its
parts related, and a centre about which much of its
physical environment has been grouped.

Fourth. We have learned to think as well as to see ;
to investigate the "why" and "how" as well as the
64 what " of the dandelion. We have learned somewhat
better to see or think of things in all their relations,
functional as well as structural, relations of depen-
dence as well as relations of similarity and difference.
We have developed somewhat our capacity for broad
thinking.

We have studied the dandelion as an isolated form
or structure ; we have compared it with other forms of
plants; we have considered its dependence on and
adaptation to its surroundings. Have we exhausted
its relations, — studied them all ? Have we put into
or obtained from the wayside weed all that may make
its study of educational value, — all its content ?

Does the dandelion have any relations to man, or any
higher relations ? To our practical, matter-of-fact reader
may come visions — or nightmares — of the intensely
bitter dandelion tea administered in childhood days by
mother or grandmother as a " spring medicine." Per-
haps we remember with more pleasure the dandelion
greens made from the young leaves. So the dandelion
is of some use to man.

32 NATURE STUDY.

It may be that we recall the persistent but often
vain efforts to eradicate the dandelion from our lawn.
Now that we understand better the resources of the
plant, we are not much surprised that we were defeated
in our struggle with it. Perhaps we have noticed how
the dandelion accompanies man in his conquest over
nature ; seems to thrive best in the vicinity of man.
It is, in some degree, dependent on or affected by man.

Are we still young enough, in heart, to enjoy tell-
ing time as we did in childhood, by seeing how many
"blows" it takes to scatter all the seeds in a head;
or, by a similar process trying to -discover " whether
mother wants us " ? Perhaps we have not forgotten
how to make dandelion curls and dandelion chains.
The dandelions were close to us and dear to us in our
childhood days.

Has the thought come to us that the despised wayside
weed is more to man than medicine or food or a plant-
pest or a plaything ; that it may have a higher function
or use for man ? Have we appreciated the beauty of its
contrasting green and gold, and the exquisite delicacy
of its cluster of seeds ? Why is it, like hosts of other
weeds, so pretty ? Its beauty is not essential for seed-
making. Why is it that —

"Dandelion through the meadow makes
A royal road with seals of gold" ?

Why is it that among the flowers, the

"Stars that in earth's firmament do shine,"

/

of^X

THE STUDY OF THE DANUELION. 33

we find most frequently about our homes

. . . "the dandelions, bright
As if night had spilt her stars" ?

Is it not because they are related to something higher
in man than his physical or material nature ? Have
we really studied the dandelion with our children until
we have helped them to appreciate its beauty ; not only
its beauty of color and form, but, far higher than these,
its beauty of function and adaptation, the way in which
it is fitted for and performs its work? The dandelion
ministers to the aesthetic nature of the child. Indeed,
unless the study leads to a fuller enjoyment of the
beauty of nature, we have gained little from our nature
study.

Longfellow has said, —

" In all places, then, and in all seasons,

Flowers expand their light and soul-like wings,
Teaching us, by most persuasive reasons,
How akin they are to human things."

As we study the mutual dependence and mutual
helpfulness of all parts of the plant, as we discover
how they help and are helped by insects and wind and
rain and sun, do no lessons come to us, and even more
strongly to our children, concerning our relations to the
world about us ? How akin to the child are the dande-
lion and the violet, of which Lowell writes, —

"For the whole year long I see
All the wonders of faithful Nature
Still worked for the love of me ;

34 NATURE STUDY.

Winds wander, and dews drip earthward,
Bain falls, suns rise and set,
Earth whirls, and all but to prosper
A poor little violet."

The dandelion is a symbol of man. Its life is full
of symbolism for the children. From the study of the
plant, from what comes to the child through his eyes,
the gateways to his soul, our boys and girls can better
appreciate what they receive from their environment,
and what they owe to it. Hans Andersen brings out
these ethical lessons in " The Apple Branch," and in
many other tales. Thus the dandelion may minister to
the ethical nature of the child — and of his teacher.

We cannot do better than turn to Lowell's poem,
"To the Dandelion": -

TO THE DANDELION.

/ • ,

Dear common flower, that grow'st beside the way,
* Fringing the dusty road with harmless gold,

First pledge of blithesome May,
Which children pluck, and, full of pride, uphold,
High-hearted buccaneers, o'er joyed that they
An Eldorado in the grass have found,

Which not the rich earth's ample round
May match in wealth, thou art more dear to me
Than all the prouder Summer-blooms may be.

Gold such as thine ne'er drew the Spanish prow
Through the primeval hush of Indian seas,

Nor wrinkled the lean brow
Of age, to rob the lover's heart of ease ;
'Tis the Spring's largess, which she scatters now
To rich and poor alike, with lavish hand,

Though most hearts never understand

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION. 35

To take it at God's value, but pass by
The offered wealth with unrewarded eye.

Thou art my tropics and mine Italy ;
To look at thee unlocks a warmer clime ;

The eyes thou givest me

Are in the heart, and heed not space or time :
Not in mid June the golden-cuirassed bee
Feels a more Summer-like, warm ravishment

In the white lily's breezy tent,
His fragrant Sybaris, than I, when first
From the dark green thy yellow circles burst.

Then think I of deep shadows on the grass,
Of meadows where in sun the cattle graze,

Where, as the breezes pass,
The gleaming rushes lean a thousand ways,
Of leaves that slumber in a cloudy mass,
Or whiten in the wind, of waters blue

That from the distance sparkle through
Some woodland gap, and of a sky above
Where one white cloud like a stray lamb doth move.

My childhood's earliest thoughts are linked with thee ;
The sight of thee calls back the robin's sqng,

Who from the dark old tree
Beside the door, sang clearly all day long,
And I, secure in childish piety,
Listened as if I heard an angel sing

With news from Heaven, which he did bring
Fresh every day to my untainted ears,
When birds and flowers and I were happy peers.

Thou art the type of those meek charities
Which make up half the nobleness of life,

Those cheap delights the wise
Pluck from the dusty wayside of earth's strife ;
Words of frank cheer, glances of friendly eyes,

36 NATURE STUDY.

Love's smallest coin, which yet to some may give

The morsel that may keep alive
A starving heart, and teach it to behold
Some glimpse of God where all before was cold.

Thy winged seeds, whereof the winds take care,
Are like the words of poet and of sage

Which through the free heaven fare,
And, now unheeded, in another age
Take root, and to the gladdened future bear
That witness which the present would not heed,

Bringing forth many a thought and deed,
And, planted safely in the eternal sky,
Bloom into stars which earth is guided by.

Full of deep love thou art, yet not more full
Than all thy common brethren of the ground,

Wherein, were we not dull,

Some words of highest wisdom might be found;
Yet earnest faith from day to day may cull
Some syllables, which, rightly joined, can make

A spell to soothe life's bitterest ache,
And ope Heaven's portals, which are near us still,
Yea, nearer ever than the gates of 111.

How Jike a prodigal doth nature seem,
When thou, for all thy gold, so common art!

Thou teachest me to deem
More sacredly of every human heart,
Since each reflects in joy its scanty gleam
Of Heaven, and could some wondrous secret show,

Did we but pay the love we owe,
And with a child's undoubting wisdom look
On all these living pages of God's book.

But let me read thy lesson right or no,

Of one good gift from thee my heart is sure ;

Old I shall never grow
While thou each year dost come to keep me pure

THE STUDY OF THE DANDELION. 37

With legends of my childhood ; ah, we owe
Well more than half life's holiness to these

Nature's first lowly influences,

At thought of which the heart's glad doors burst ope,
In dreariest days, to welcome peace and hope.

We cannot stop with the aesthetic beauty and the
symbolism and ethical lessons of our wayside friend.
Everything about it points to its Source. It is one of
" these living pages of God's book," a leaf in the
"manuscript of God." Its form and structure and
plan, and, much more, its life and adaptation or fitness
for its place, point to its Maker. Unless we, and our
boys and girls, look from nature and through nature
up to nature's God, our study of the dandelion or of
nature has missed its highest value. In this highest
spiritual relation we discover that which illumines and
relates and unifies all else. .

Perhaps we can now better understand and appreciate
the thought from Tennyson with which we began, —

"Flower in the crannied wall,
I pluck you out of the crannies ;
Hold you here, root and all, in my hand,
Little flower — but if I could understand
„ What you are, root and all, and all in all,

I should know what God and man is."

38 NATURE STUDY.

CHAPTER II.

THE STUDY OF THE BABBIT.

An Introduction to Animal Study.

IN the previous chapter we have studied the dande-
lion as a type of the plant. We have approached it
from the morphological or structural point of view, be-
cause that is the phase of the plant which has been
most emphasized in the plant study of the past, and
most teachers and adult students are apt to look at the
plant from that point of view. We have shown how
much richer and higher content there is in the investi-
gation of the life and relations of the dandelion than
in mere analysis, description, and classification. From
some consideration of aims in nature study, we have
been led to urge that the order commonly followed and
the work done by older students in their plant study be -
modified in work with children, that they begin with
and emphasize the observation of the life and function
of the dandelion and its parts, proceeding from this to
structure or adaptation, and finally to comparison and
classification.

In this chapter we shall study the rabbit as a type of
the animal. We will approach it from the standpoint

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 39

of the child, not of the adult, and will follow the order
of study indicated at the end of the previous chapter.
This chapter is thus intended to illustrate, much more
definitely than did Chapter I, method in nature study.

The domesticated rabbit is selected, because it is so
common and so many children have made a pet of it
and have observed its habits ; because it can be easily
obtained and kept and its life and habits can be readily
observed in the schoolroom or school-yard ; because a
rich literature, mainly of folk-lore, has been gathered
about the rabbit, and because it is an excellent type
animal and starting-point for the study of its many rela-
tives, the " gnawers " or rodents. Another good type
animal easily studied is the cat.

Much of what follows is a ga the ring-up and summa-
rizing of work in the writer's class in nature study
methods in the Oswego State Normal school. The
work of each class begins with a careful study of some
common plant or animal, or both ; this forms the con-
crete foundation for the work of the term. One class
spent two weeks on the rabbit: observing (from live
animals at the school) and writing about its habits ; de-
scribing its structure and making drawings of the ani-
mal and of its parts ; comparing it with the squirrel, rat,
cat, canary-bird, and other animals, and thus classifying
it ; and finally searching the library to ascertain what
others had discovered and written about their friend,
and to gather all the folk-lore and other literature re-
lated to the rabbit. This was followed by a very hasty
discussion of aims in the rabbit study, and of the order

40 NATURE STUDY.

to be followed in the work with the children. Each
member of the class was then expected to prepare an
outline, very definite and specific, for the study of the
rabbit with children of a certain age or grade in school,
different sections of the class preparing outlines for the
different grades, from the first to the eighth. Later
some time was spent discussing and criticising these out-
lines. The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebted-
ness to the members of his class for many helpful ideas
and suggestions, and for much of the related literature.

The plan of work and method followed in studying
the rabbit depend : —

First. Upon the aim kept in mind : the cultivation of
a sympathetic interest in the rabbit and in animal life,
and through this a better appreciation of the beauties
and uses and rights of the world of life ; or a develop-
ment of the intellect and intellectual powers of the
child, training him to observe and think and express ;
or the acquisition of a mass of facts about the rabbit
and animals in general. Aims in nature study are dis-
cussed in Chapters IV and V.

Second. Upon certain laws of mind : that the child
depends upon his senses and mainly upon his eyes for
real knowledge ; that each new idea must be related to
or incorporated with what is already in the child's mind
before it becomes his mental possession ; that the mind
receives and retains ideas most readily when they are
presented in order, step by step, each point clearly and
deeply impressed before a new point is presented ; that
the child must arrange and give back, or express in some

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 41

way, the ideas presented to him, to insure clear, definite
ideas, and to develop the power of conveying ideas to
others. These underlying psychological principles and
their application are discussed in Chapters VII, VIII,
IX, and X.

Third. Upon such conditions as the age and capacity
of the children, the material obtainable for study, and
particularly for comparison, and the importance of cor-
relating the rabbit study with and making it helpful in
other school-work. These are discussed in Chapters
XI, XII, and XIII.

On account of the dependence of the child on his
senses, we avoid mere talking or reading about the rab-
bit, the first and greatest fault in much nature work,
and make every effort to have him see as much as pos-
sible ; we emphasize and begin with and build upon that
which he can see, and omit or merely touch upon and
leave till later that which cannot be seen. Because of
the necessity of relating the rabbit study to what is
already in the child's mind, we begin with that in the
rabbit which is most closely related to the life of the
child and most appeals to him, and dwell on its home
and home-life, its need of protection and the care of its
young, and other characteristics which show " how akin
they are to human things." To meet the demand of
the mind for continuity of thought, each lesson has a
central thought, but is related to the lessons preceding
and following ; each lesson is divided into two or more
somewhat distinct steps, and the steps and lessons are
carefully summarized, thus clarifying and clinching the

42 NATURE STUDY.

important facts and thoughts, upon which new work
must be based. Provision is made for expressive work,
to lead the child to arrange and thus clarify his ideas,
to give teacher and child a means of testing the clear-
ness of the ideas gained, and to make the rabbit study
helpful in other school-work.

The work has been planned for what are believed to
be average schoolroom conditions. It is assumed that
most teachers can, with some effort and trouble, obtain
living rabbits, preferably from or through their pupils,
and keep them or care for them for a few days in the
schoolroom or school-yard. Without the living rabbits
the study is of comparatively little value. The work is
planned for intermediate grades, about the fifth or sixth
year in school ; suggestions are given for adapting it
to younger or older pupils. The lessons, including the
related reading and expressive work, are supposed to
occupy from three-quarters of an hour to an hour. Much
better results will be gained from long lessons two or
three times a week than from short lessons (fifteen or
twenty minutes) daily.

OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT.
AIM.

General Aim. To awaken a sympathetic interest in
and love for all animal life, so that the children will be
kind and gentle in their dealings with animals ; to help
the boys and girls gain some realization and apprecia-
tion of the beauty and unity of nature, and of the care
and plan shown in nature.

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 43

Minor Aims. To lead the children to observe the
habits and structure of the rabbit, and see how they are
adapted to its life and home; to enable them to gain
definite knowledge which may be used in later work ;
to develop their powers of observation, expression, and
thought.

MATERIAL.

Absolutely necessary are one or two living rabbits,
in schoolroom or in school-yard, confined if necessary
in boxes or cages enclosed in wire netting.

Helpful will be a box of sand in which the rabbits
can dig or burrow, the skeleton or picture of the skele-
ton of a rabbit or of the rabbit's head, to show the
gnawing and grinding teeth, and pictures illustrating
their home and habits. Living or mounted specimens
of at least two or three closely related animals, such
as the squirrel, mouse, and rat, and of dissimilar ani-
mals, such as the cat, are necessary for good work in
comparison and classification. Pictures will be helpful
if the animals themselves cannot be obtained.

HELPFUL LITERATURE AND SUPPLEMENTARY READING.

1. Joel Chandler Harris's Nights with Uncle Remus.

2. Joel Chandler Harris's Daddy Jake the Runaway.

3. Cowper's Poems. Epitaph on a Hare and accom-

panying note.

4. Bret Harte's Poems. Battle Bunny.

5. La Fontaine's Fables. Translated by Elizur

Wright.

44 NATURE STUDY.

6. William Hamilton Gibson's Sharp Eyes. How

Bunny writes his Autograph.

7. John Burroughs's A Year in the Fields. Winter

Neighbors.

8. John Burroughs's Signs and Seasons. Winter

Neighbors.

9. John Burroughs's Riverby. A Life of Fear.

10. St. Nicholas Magazine. Old volumes.

Nos. 1 and 2 contain negro folk-lore, in which " Brer
Rabbit" plays a prominent part. They contain much
excellent supplementary reading, which can be read or
told to children of any age.

In many editions of Cowper's poems is a note accom-
panying his poem, " Epitaph on a Hare," in which he
gives a most interesting account of pet hares which
he kept for several years.

Bret Harte tells in " Battle Bunny " how at the battle
of Malvern Hill " a white rabbit, which had been hop-
ping hither and thither over the field swept by grape
and musketry, took refuge among the skirmishers, in
the breast of a corporal."

Among La Fontaine's Fables are such as : " The Hare
and the Frogs," " The Ears of the Hare," " The Hare
and the Partridge," "The Hare and the Tortoise."

In Sharp Eyes Gibson tells how Bunny makes his
tracks. In his book Highways and Byways, Gibson
has a beautiful picture of the rabbit at home, called
" A Winter Rendezvous."

John Burroughs tells in Winter Neighbors, found in
both No. 7 and No. 8, a little about a rabbit which took

THE STUDY OF THE BABBIT.

45

up his abode under the naturalist's study floor, and much
more about equally interesting animal neighbors and
visitors. In Riverby he tells of the life of fear led by
the rabbits and hosts of other wild animals.

The old volumes of St. Nicholas contain many excel-
lent and well-illustrated rabbit stories for children.

Much on the habits and structure of rabbits, good
for reference or supplementary reading, but lacking,
usually, in literary value, can be found in books on
zoology and natural history, and in the natural history
readers for children.

ORDER OF LESSONS.

LESSON I. Home and Home Life.

LESSON II. Habits. Positions and Movements.

LESSON III. Habits. Feeding, Washing, and Senses.

LESSON IV. Literature and Folk-lore Related to Life
and Habit. -

LESSON V. General External Structure. Body and
Limbs.

LESSON VI. General External Structure. Head,
Ears, Teeth.

LESSON VII. Comparison and Classification. " Gnaw-
ers " or Rodents.

LESSON VIII. Comparison and Classification. Verte-
brates and Mammals.

PREPARATORY WORK.

Have two rabbits in a large wire cage in the school-
room several days before beginning formal work. The

46

NATURE STUDY.

observation of habits, on which much later work is
based, requires time. Have, if possible, a large tray of
sand in one corner of the schoolroom ; occasionally let
the rabbits out in the room.

Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the necessity
of personal observation of the rabbit by the teacher, as

Fig. 15. Rabbits in Schoolroom Cage.

• well as by the children. The teacher who prepares by
merely reading about the rabbit cannot lead her children
in observation. The teacher who depends on the book
will almost certainly have pupils who depend on the
teacher and book.

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 47

Have pupils care for rabbits as far as possible. Feed
three times a day. " In the morning give them a hand-
ful of hay or dry clover, and a little of such green food
as is in season ; about noon, some good oats or meal ;
at night, more green stuff and hay, if that which was
given in the morning is all eaten. Rabbits are very
fond of green food, but do not let them have too much,
and care should be taken that this is quite dry. No
green food is better for rabbits than parsley and the tops
of carrots ; the roots of the latter are eaten with much
relish. Besides these, lettuce, the leaves — or better
still, the stumps — of a cabbage, turnips and parsnips,
can sometimes be given them." It is commonly be-
lieved that rabbits do not need water. They certainly
do, at least when their food is dry, and when they have
young rabbits to be fed.

Find out how many of the pupils have or have had
rabbits, and get them to wlatch their pets at home, and
come prepared to tell something definite they have dis-
covered about them. Strongly emphasize the idea that
only the observations of the children are desired, not
what they have heard or read about the rabbit.

Dwell on observation of habits, the study of which
requires most time. Much about structure will be
learned incidentally ; the definite study of points of
structure can be left for the formal lessons. Direct
the observations by placing on the blackboard or giving ,
to the pupils, from day to day, such questions as the1
following, to be investigated whenever the children have
or can be given opportunity : —

48 NATURE STUDY.

Position. What is Bunny's position when lying down
or sleeping ? Where and how are his legs placed ? His
ears? Does he lie just as the cat, or dog, or cow, or
horse does? Are his eyes tightly closed when he is
asleep ? How does he sit ? How does he stand when
watching or waiting for food, or when listening ?

Movements. How does he move about his cage?
About the room ? (Observe carefully and tell exactly.)
How many ways of moving about does he have ?
(Walking, hopping, and jumping.) Does he make
much noise when he moves about ? Why ? Notice the
kind of tracks he makes (in damp sand, or, in winter, in
snow. See Gibson's Sharp Jfiyes.) How does he dig
holes in the sand?

^Eating. What does the rabbit eat? How? Have
the children feed him. How does he gnaw the wood
of his cage? Are his teeth like any of your teeth?
Are they all alike ? What is peculiar about his upper
lip ? (The cleft.) Watch him eating, and see the use
of this kind of upper lip.

Senses. Watch the movements of the rabbit's ears,
particularly when there is a sudden noise, and observe
their position at different times. Does he move them
as the horse does ? What is the use of having them
so large ? Can he hear well ? Can he see well ?
Watch Bunny's nose, particularly when food is brought
near. Can he smell well ?

Cleanliness. How do the rabbits keep clean ? Watch
them wash themselves and one another, and find exactly
how they do it. Do they wash just as the cat does ?

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 49

Breathing. Put your hand on your chest, and notice
how it moves when you breathe. When does the chest
move out or expand? When move in or contract?
How many times a minute ? Watch the breathing of
the rabbits, and compare it with your own.

Burrowing. If possible, give the rabbit a chance to
burrow in the yard or in a box of earth, that pupils may
see how he does it.

Disposition. Are the rabbits fond of one another?
Watch and see what they do to and for one another.
(Play and eat together, wash each other's faces, go to
sleep close together. Do they fight one another? Are
they gentle or rough ? Are they timid or easily fright-
ened? Are they trustful when we are kind to them?
Are rabbits all alike in disposition, or does each have
his own traits, just as boys and girls do ? Try to dis-
cover the distinctive traits of disposition of the rabbits
under observation. See also note by Cowper, referred
to under Helpful Literature. The confidence of a wild
rabbit in man is brought out in Bret Harte's " Battle
Bunny."

LESSON I.

Homes and Home Life.

Special aim. To broaden the sympathy and knowl-
edge of the children by helping them to see some of the
points of similarity between the homes and home life of
the rabbits and of themselves, leading them from the
domesticated rabbits to the less familiar wild rabbits ;
to lay foundations for the study of habits.

50 NATURE STUDY.

Aim given to the pupils : To-day we are going to
find out all we can about Bunny's home.

Material needed. A box of earth in which Bunny
can burrow, and pictures of wild rabbits in the woods,
or even of the woods alone: pictures of the burrows of
rabbits or other similar burrowing animals, such as the
prairie dogs, will be helpful in impressing the ideas.
Some beautiful pictures of rabbits at home can be found
in Gibson's Highways and Byways and Sharp Eyes.

STEP I. Domesticated rabbit's home.

To give the children the right point of view, it may
be well to begin the lesson by asking some of the pupils,
those with good homes, about their homes, bringing out
briefly the necessity for protection from rain and cold,
and for food and care ; the special care given to the
children, and, most of all, to the baby ; the mutual love,
helpfulness, and forbearance, which really make the
home. Now let us study the rabbit's home. Its home
is certainly not here in the school-room.

The homes of the rabbits. Where and how they are
kept. (In cages or loose in yards.) The construction
of the houses or cages, to insure protection, fresh air,
and cleanliness. Use of cages in protecting rabbits
from weather and from animals from which they cannot
protect themselves. Contentment in these when Bunny
is well fed and cared for. How they escape from them
by gnawing the woodwork or burrowing under the
walls. How, when loose, they sometimes make burrows
for themselves, or hide under buildings or in brush piles
or under low-branching shrubs and trees or in tall grass.

RABBITS AT HOME.

COURTESY OF PERRY PICTURES CO,

52 NATURE STUDY.

Care of rabbits. Importance of cleanliness. Feeding
them. What, how, when ? Importance of often giving
them their liberty, letting them run about. How they
appreciate kindness shown them ; how affectionate and
trustful they sometimes become. (See Cowper's account
of the treatment of his hares.)

Home life. How affectionate they usually are. How
pleased to be with one another when placed together
after separation. (It is often asserted that a rabbit,
accustomed to the company of others, will pine and soon
die if kept alone.) How they huddle together when
resting or asleep. How they play and frolic together,
particularly when let loose. Their scrupulous cleanli-
ness, usually ; how they wash themselves and one an-
other. Their care of their young.

Summary. Have a definite oral summary with as few
questions as possible, having two or more pupils tell all
they can and as clearly as they can about each of the
following points :

The homes of the tame rabbit.

How we should care for the rabbit, and how they show
their gratitude for our kindness.

How the rabbits love and care for one another.

STEP 2. The homes from which the rabbits first came.

The rabbits were not always pets. Like the horse
and cat and dog, and all our domestic animals and pets,
they were once wild.

Why made a pet. Review those characteristics brought
out in previous step, which make the rabbit a good pet;
its tameness ; its cleanliness ; the comparative ease

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 53

with which it can be cared for, on account of the nature
and variety of its food. In Europe millions are raised
every year and sold for food; their skins and fur are
also largely used.

Their original homes. Wild rabbits have been found
for thousands of years in the warmer parts of Europe,
Asia, and Africa. No true rabbits occur in America,
except those which have been brought here. What we
call wild rabbits are really hares. Have these regions
located by the pupils on the maps, if they are old enough
to use maps. Try to picture the homes of the wild rab-
bits in the woods and fields, and their free life as com-
pared with that of their tame cousins.

Their houses. They have no boys to make houses for
them ; they make their own by burrowing. The tame
rabbit in a box of earth or loose in the yard may show
how the rabbits dig their burrows. The burrows are
said to be in a zigzag, to make it harder for other ani-
mals to get in ; in the side of the hill, when possible, to
facilitate the removal of the earth, and to have several
openings for escape. Because of the social instincts of
the rabbits, many burrows often communicate, forming
a " warren," in which scores may live together. The
mother often digs a special burrow for her young, try-
ing to find a dry place in light sandy soil, enlarges the
bottom for a " nursery," and pulling hair from her own
body, makes, from it and dry leaves, a comfortable bed
for her babies. It is said that she often remains with
them two days without any food. When hunger com-
pels her to go out, she carefully covers the opening.

54 NATURE STUDY.

TJieir home life. " In its wild state the rabbit is an
intelligent and amusing creature, full of odd little tricks,
and given to playing the most ludicrous antics as it
gambols about the warren in all the unrestrained joy-
ousness of habitual freedom.

"At one time they are gravely pattering about the
doors of their underground homes, occasionally sitting
upright and gazing in every direction, as if fearful of a
surprise, and all behaving with the supremest gravity.
Next moment some one gets angry and stamps his feet
fiercely on the ground as a preliminary observation be-
fore engaging in a regular fight. Suddenly a whole
party rush off at full speed, scampering over the ground
as if they meant to run a mile, at least, but unexpectedly
stop short at an inviting tuft of herbage, and nibble it
composedly as if they had not run a yard. Then a sud-
den panic will flash through the whole party, and with
a rush and scurry every rabbit leaps into its burrow and
vanishes from sight like magic. The spot that was so
full of life but a moment since is now deserted and
silent as if it had been uninhabited for ages ; but in a
few moments one little nose is seen cautiously poked
out of a burrow, the head and ears follow, and in a very
few minutes the frightened rabbits have come again into
the light of day, and have recommenced their interrupted
pastimes." (From Animate Creation.^)

Their enemies. They are found in every direction:

owls and hawks swoop down from above ; weasels,

, foxes, hedgehogs, and the domestic cats catch them

in or dig them from their burrows ; man (the most

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 55

cruel of all, because he kills them for mere sport and
not to satisfy his hunger) chases them with hounds.
Appropriate here will be a story illustrating the occa-
sional sagacity of the rabbit in outwitting the hounds,
or a story from Nights with Uncle Remus. See also A
Life of Fear in Burroughs's Riverby.

Their food and the damage they do. Often kill young
trees by gnawing the bark. When abundant, are very
destructive to vegetation, sometimes making it impossi-
ble to raise crops. In some countries, such as Australia,
where they were introduced as pets and have multi-
plied enormously, great hunts, with hundreds of men,
are organized, and the rabbits are killed by thousands.

Summary. Have several pupils summarize the points
discussed, emphasizing their burrows, warrens, and home
life.

STEP 3. The home of the hare (usually called the
" wild rabbit ") of our country.

Any of the pupils who have lived in the country or
have passed much time in the woods can probably tell
something about the " wild rabbit." Depend on them
as much as possible.

How distinguished from rabbit. The hare always has
longer ears, longer than the head; in the rabbit the
ears are shorter than the head. The common species
are considerably darker in color than the rabbit, at least
in summer, the more common one being yellowish
brown in summer and gray in winter (hence called by
the early settlers "gray rabbit," a name still used);
another reddish brown in summer and whitish in winter

56 NATURE STUDY.

(pure white in the far north), with ears tipped with
black. The "gray rabbit" can often be obtained at
the markets in winter; it is largely used for food.
Common in the west is the "Jack Rabbit."

Home. Occurs in most or all sections of the United
States. Does not burrow, but only makes a slight de-
pression in the ground, usually under a tuft of grass or
fern or a low bush or a pile of brushwood, in which the
hare lies so flatly pressed to the earth and so closely
resembling in color the soil and dried herbage that
it can hardly be distinguished from them. To this
simple home, or " form " as it is called, the hare seems
much attached.

Home life. Touch only on points different from rab-
bits. More solitary, not social in habits. Said to be
more courageous. Sagacity in escaping from hounds
and from its many other enemies. When hunted, often
stands perfectly still or squats behind a clump of sod,
being almost indistinguishable from its surroundings.
Often destructive to trees and other vegetation. The
article by Cowper, referred to under Helpful Litera-
ture, tells much about the life and habits of hares
which had been domesticated.

STEP 4. Summary of whole lesson and expressive
work.

Dwell in this final oral summary on the home and
home life of the tame rabbit, and of the hare or Ameri-
can ^ wild rabbit ; " these are nearer to the children,
and it is more important that they should know and
remember about them. The study of the true wild

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 57

rabbit of other lands is of value, mainly, as a means of
relating, and at the same time distinguishing, these two
which occur about our homes.

As much of the matter in this lesson cannot be based
on actua.1 seeing by all the members of the class, it does
not seem wise to ask all the pupils to write about the
home of the rabbit. It may be well to have those who
have kept rabbits write about " My Rabbit at Home."
These papers may be read and preserved as written
summaries. An excellent way of summarizing such a
lesson may be to read and discuss with the pupils one
or more of the articles suggested under Helpful Litera-
ture. The articles will serve to re-enforce and more
deeply impress some of the thoughts, which may be
more important than the mere facts, and the discussion
may enable the teacher to test the real results of the
lesson.

Adapting the lesson. Where the children " are full
of the subject "of rabbits, tame and wild, it will be
necessary to extend this into two lessons. Where they
know from observation considerable about the homes of
tame rabbits and nothing about their wild cousins, it
will be well to emphasize Step 1, and merely touch on
Steps 2 and 3. Where they know little or nothing
about rabbits, and the lesson is merely so much informa-
tion given them by the teacher, it should certainly be
condensed into one lesson. In such case, however, the
reading suggested may occupy another lesson.

58 NATURE STUDY.

LESSON II.

Habits, Positions, and Movements.

Aim. Much as given in Lesson I. We have learned
about the homes and home life of the rabbits. To-day
we will see how much we have learned, and how much
we can learn, with our own eyes, about their habits, and
the ways in which their life resembles ours.

Fig. 16. Drawing of Rabbit, "blocked in."

Preparation. Previous observations. The success
of Step 1 will depend almost entirely upon the definite-
ness of these preliminary observations.

STEP 1. Positions.

When at rest. Draws himself together into a furry
ball, his back arched, with the highest point back of the
middle, his head drawn in close to the body, his ears
turned more or less backward, his eyes only partly
closed, his feet under him so that they scarcely show.

Wlten asleep. Sometimes in above position. More

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT.

59

commonly he stretches his body out full length, turns
on one side with his hind legs extended and his head
resting on his fore paws, his ears lying back close to the
body with the openings always turned outward, and
with the eyes always, apparently, partly opened. Rab-
bits often sleep or rest close together, with their heads
on one another.

-.«-*/, -

Fig. 77. Drawing of Rabbit, completed.

When sitting. Sits with the hind legs doubled under
him and the fore legs straightened, thus raising the
fore part of the body, and with the ears erect, or with
the body resting on the hind legs and the fore legs quiet
or used as hands. When feeding often assumes this
position or the next.

When reaching for food or listening. Often stands
with body stretched out full length, resting on the hind
feet or toes, the head extending upward and forward.

60 NATURE STUDY.

Compare the positions with those of the cat. Notice
that their position, whether reclining or sitting, is usu-
ally such that they can spring up instantly, that the
opening of their ears is always turned outward, that they
hear very slight noises even when asleep, and that their
eyes never seem to be entirely or tightly closed. Why
is this so ?

Summary and expressive work. For a summary have
at least two children tell, as clearly and exactly as pos-
sible, the position of body, head, ears, and feet when the
rabbit is reclining, and two others tell about the posi-
tion of these parts when the rabbit is sitting up, all
telling the " why " as far as possible. As the impor-
tant ideas to be impressed are position or form ideas, and
these can be expressed by drawing much more clearly
and exactly than by words, drawings may serve as the
best summaries. If any pupils can draw fairly well,
have them draw, in outline merely, the positions of the
rabbit. Have the class, with the rabbits before them
for observation, tell the teacher how to draw the outline
(only gross features, not details) of the rabbit on the
blackboard. If the teacher pretends to know nothing
about it, and compels them to observe exactly and ex-
press clearly, by drawing only what they tell her and as
they tell her (but not carrying this so far as to discour-
age the children), this exercise may be made very profit-
able in helping both teacher and pupils to test the
exactness of their observations and their power of ex-
pressing their ideas clearly.

This Step 1 is essential for giving the children the

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 61

basic form ideas which will enable them to picture the
rabbit, and serves as a foundation for the study of other
habits and of structure.

STEP 2. Locomotion.

Walking. Watch Bunny in his cage, or where he has
little room to move about. Have children recall, or
better show, how they walk, moving the two legs alter-
nately, and then how they walk on " all fours." Why
do they move the right arm and left leg and the left
arm and right leg together ? The rabbit walks in the
same way, but is apt to bring his two hind feet forward
with a jump. Compare with walking of cat or horse or
dog. Bunny does not walk much.

Hopping. His usual means of locomotion when not
frightened or hurried. Best seen when rabbit is loose
in the room. Have the children tell or show how they
hop. If they hop on "all fours," they will hop as the
rabbit does. The fore feet touch the floor one after the
other, then the hind feet are quickly brought forward
together.

Jumping. His means of movement when hurried or
frightened. Notice how softly and quietly he comes
down, and how his feet spread out. Can only be seen
when he has room to jump. It is difficult to see just how
he does it. How do the children jump ? The rabbit
does it in much the same way, moves his fore feet for-
ward at the same time, then quickly brings his hind feet
forward so that they are outside and in advance of the
fore feet, making a jump of a yard or more. A little
sand or even chalk-dust scattered on the floor over which

62 NATURE STUDY.

the rabbit hops and jumps may show the marks he
makes, which the children may often see in the snow.

Adaptation for locomotion. Which legs are the longer
and stronger? Why? Why do the hind legs (the
portion most readily seen) double backward, like the
joint at our ankle, while our legs have the main joint,
at the knee, doubled forward ? Is there any advantage
in this arrangement when the rabbit hops or jumps ?
Compare with cat, dog, and horse. Why is it easier for
the rabbit to hop or jump than to walk ? How are his
feet and toes arranged and covered to prevent jar and
noise when he moves ?

Summary. As hopping is the main means of locomo-
tion, so far as the children can usually observe, empha-
size this. Have the pupils tell, and if necessary show,
or illustrate, exactly how the rabbit hops, and tell what
they can about walking and jumping. Have others tell,
with the rabbits before them, how the legs, fore and
hind, are fitted for hopping and jumping rapidly and
noiselessly. Reading and discussing Gibson's How
Bunny Writes His Autograph will further summarize
and impress what they have observed.
\ STEP 3. Playing, breathing, burrowing.

Playing. Nothing probably will so impress on chil-
dren the similarity between rabbits and themselves,
uhow akin they are to human things," as watching
their frolics. The rabbits the writer observed had great
frolics in the schoolroom after most of the pupils had
left, playing " leap-frog," "tag," and other games, and
acting like two happy, active children.

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 63

Breathing. Have the pupils first describe how they
themselves breathe, telling about the movements of the
chest and sides, and noting how fast they breathe. They
can then tell more intelligently what they have observed
about the breathing of the rabbit, comparing with them-
selves. When do the rabbits — and they — breathe
most rapidly ? Why ?

Burrowing. As this is so essential in the life of the
wild rabbit and many other animals, it will be helpful
if the pupils can see exactly how they 'burrow, digging
with their fore feet, and pushing the earth away with
their hind feet. Two or three pupils, preferably those
who have rabbits, may be 'assigned this as a special
topic for investigation and report. It is said that rab-
bits much prefer to make their burrows on hillsides.
Why? Many of our hares, or so-called " wild rabbits,"
burrow under the snow in winter.

STEP 4. General summary and expressive work.

Not everything observed or discussed in the lesson
can be or should be reviewed at the end, but those
habits most important and most clearly observed. If
the drawing of the rabbit in one or two most common
positions is attempted, as suggested after Step 1, this
can be the expressive work. If this seems impossible,
perhaps the pupils can write about those things studied
in the lesson which they have seen most clearly, and
therefore know most about. A good subject will be,
"How Our Rabbit Rests and Plays," telling how the
rabbit lies when resting, and how he sits, how he hops
when playing, and how he breathes after playing. A

64 NATURE STUDY.

broader subject with more scope for individual obser-
vations is, "What I Have Seen About the Rabbit's
Habits." Insist that each pupil tell only what he has
seen, and tell it as exactly as possible, looking at the
rabbit or going to the rabbit, when necessary, to make
sure of the truth of what he writes.

LESSON in.

Habits. % Feeding, Washing, and Senses.

Aim and preparation. As in Lesson II.

Material. Living rabbits which have not been fed
for several hours. Food, such as cabbage and carrots,
to show how they bite off food and how they gnaw.
Water for them to drink.

STEP 1. Feeding.

Child's eating. Have children tell, and perhaps show,
how they eat their food, biting it off with the sharp, flat
biting teeth (incisors) in the front of their mouth, and
grinding it with the broad, grinding teeth at the back.
Have them feel the shape of the two kinds of teeth.
They can eat almost any kind of food. Have them note
that they move their jaws up and down and sideways
when chewing.

Rabbit's food. Leaves, vegetables, bark, etc., not
meat or grain, but food which must be bitten off.

Rabbit's eating. Have pupils tell everything already
observed about the rabbit's way of eating. Give rab-
bits cabbage. Note how they often eat together from
the same leaf. Note position, commonly reaching up

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 65

or sitting on hind legs. How does the cleft upper lip
aid them ? How do they bite off the cabbage ? Note
carefully number and character (chisel-like sharpness) of
front or incisor teeth in each jaw. The rabbit moves his
lower jaw up and down and sideways, and from front
to back, when he chews, much as the child moves his
jaw. It is difficult to see the back or grinding teeth.
If necessary, tell children that the rabbits have five or
six grinding teeth in each half of each jaw. Compare
with food and way of eating of cat or dog. Does the
cat or dog have any teeth which rabbit does not have ?
(Canine or dog teeth.)

Grnawing. Perhaps pupils have already observed the
rabbit gnawing the woodwork of his cage or home, or
have discovered evidences of his gnawing power. Try
to ascertain exactly how they do it, how they use their
teeth in the process, and how the teeth are fitted for
gnawing. They may gnaw the carrots.

Adaptation. How the rabbit is fitted for its food and
way of eating. Reason for the long, chisel-shaped, sharp
front teeth. Tell the children that the back of each
incisor tooth is softer (composed of dentine) and wears
away more rapidly than the front part (covered with
enamel) ; this keeps them always sharp. As fast as
they wear away they grow out from the jaw, so that
their length usually remains about the same. Some-
times th%y grow more rapidly than they wear away;
then the rabbit has a hard time, and may in time die,
because his teeth become so long he cannot eat. Use
of the cleft upper lip. Advantage of having the lower

66 NATURE STUDY.

jaw move up and down and from side to side and from
front to back, somewhat like our jaw, but moving more
freely.

Summary.

Have pupils tell : —

How the rabbit's way of eating is like ours, and how
different from it.

How the rabbit's teeth and lips are like our teeth
and lips, and how they differ from them.

STEP 2. Drinking.

How does the child drink? Pours or sucks water
into his mouth. How does the cat drink ? Curves the
tip of its tongue into the shape of a spoon, and laps or
draws the liquid into the mouth. How does the rab-
bit drink ?

STEP 3. Washing.

How do children wash? Need soap, towel, comb,
brush. Do they keep as clean as Bunny? One great
reason why he is a pet is because he keeps so clean.
How does he do it without soap or towel? How many
of the children have their hair well combed or brushed ?
How does Bunny's fur look? How does he keep it
looking so well without comb or brush ?

Bunny uses the bottom of his foot, with its stiff hairs,
for brush and comb, and his tongue for a wash cloth or
sponge. Licks with his tongue parts which call be thus
reached ; washes face and other parts with paws ; holds
down ears with hind paw, and washes with tongue or
front paw.

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 67

This is an interesting step to the children, and will
repay careful, patient observation.

Compare with the way in which cat washes herself.
Very similar.

STEP 4. Hearing, smelling, sight.

Need of keen senses. To aid in escaping from enemies.

Hearing. Recall how people put their hands behind
their ears to help them hear better, and how they turn
their hands and ears toward the sound. Some of the
pupils may have noticed how horses turn their ears
toward the sound.

Note how the rabbits lift up their ears at a sudden
sound, and how they are turned with the opening for-
ward and outward. Try to test acuteness of hearing.
Note position of ears when Bunny is quiet, resting or
sleeping. Reason for having such large ears ?

Sight. Eyes seem to be partly open, even when rab-
bit is sleeping. Why? Our eyes are in front and in
sockets. Rabbit's eyes more at sides and are large,
"bulging out" more. Why? It is said that the rab-
bit can see behind and at the side better than straight
before him. It must be difficult to close the eyelids
over eyes that are so large and protruding. (The belief
that rabbits cannot shut their eyes is the basis of the
story " Brother Rabbit and the Ginger Cakes" in Joel'
Chandler Harris's Daddy Jake.)

Smelling. Constant motion of nose. Watch nose
when cabbage or similar food is brought near. Does
the rabbit's sense of smell seem to be good?

Summary. How do Bunny's ears, eyes, and n
help him ?

68 NATURE STUDY.

STEP 5. Greneral summary and expressive work.

Have pupils write about " How We and the Rabbits
Eat, Drink, and Wash Ourselves," letting each tell most
about what he is most interested in.

At this time pupils would enjoy and appreciate what
Cowper tells about his hares.

LESSON IV.

Literature Related to Life and Habits.

Aim. To broaden and strengthen the ideas of the
pupils by having them look at the rabbit and his life
through the eyes of others.

Material. Any of the literature or folk-lore suggested
under Helpful Literature will be appropriate and help-
ful. If this is not available, considerable on the habits
of rabbits and of their relatives, such as the squirrels,
can be found in the books on popular natural history,
or in the Nature Readers.

Method. Do not let the class, as a class, read any-
thing with distinct literary merit, such as "Battle
Bunny" or anything like the dialect stories of Joel
Chandler Harris. They will "murder" it, and miss
most of the thought and beauty. Read these to them,
or intrust such reading only to pupils who can do it
fdirly well. That which is merely supplementary read-
ing and not literature may usually be read by the class
with advantage.

A little discussed with them and related to their own
observations is better than much merely read to them.

It may be well to discuss some of the superstitions

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 69

connected with rabbits or hares : the carrying of a rab-
bit's foot in the belief, most prevalent among colored
people, that it brings good luck ; the fear of a hare or
hare's foot among English fishermen, so that the men-
tion of a hare's foot brings terror; a hare thrown into
a boat will prevent it from going to sea, and a "hare
running along the beach in front of all the fishermen's
huts would shut them up as effectually during the day
as if each were guarded by a regiment of soldiers ; "
the old belief that witches could turn themselves into
hares.

LESSON V.

Gf-eneral ^External Structure. Body and Limbs.

Aim of this and succeeding lessons. To lead the
child to broader conceptions and greater unity by help-
ing him to see the plan of body of one animal and its
adaptation to its life, and to discover this plan and
adaptation to life in many related animals.

Aim, as given to pupils : To-day we will find out all
that we can about the body and limbs of the rabbit.

Material. Living rabbit, as before. Skeleton, or pic-
ture of skeleton, of rabbit or some other quadruped.

STEP 1. Greneral appearance.

Review position of rabbit and of legs and ears when
he is reclining and when sitting, as studied in Lesson
II. The best preparation for the study of structure is to
have the teacher make on the blackboard a drawing of
the rabbit in these two positions, drawing from the .de-
scription and directions of the pupils ; this exercise will
compel the pupils to observe very carefully the form and

70 NATURE STUDY.

relative position of the rabbit and of its main parts.
After this drawing has been made and erased, if the
pupils can draw the rabbit for themselves, drawing as
exactly as they can, directly from the rabbit, the study
and description of form or general external structure
will be much simplified.

STEP 2. Body, trunk, head.

Body as whole. Form egg-shaped, or somewhat cylin-
drical when stretched out. Narrower and somewhat
pointed at anterior end, like most boats and fishes.

Position commonly along or parallel with ground.
Compare with usual position of children.

Compare size with that of other familiar animals,
such as cat. Measure absolute length and height, and
relative length of trunk and head.

Furry covering. Everywhere except on inside of
ears and tip of nose. Beauty ; softness and fineness
(have pupils feel it) and color. Note color under feet.
Variations in color in different individuals. Color be-
coming lighter in winter in hares. Use ; to beautify
and to protect from cold. Compare with clothing of
children and furs worn in winter.

Two main divisions. Form and relative size, and rel-
ative position of trunk and head. Impress by sketch-
ing mere outline of the two. Each generally ovoidal.
Head about one-third length of trunk, with its longer
axis oblique (about 60°) to axis of trunk.

STEP 3. Tail and limbs.

Tail. Position, direction, size, covering. Impress
small size by contrasting with other animals.

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 71

Limbs. Review what was learned in Lesson II. about
usual means of locomotion, hopping and jumping. How
many times as far can the rabbit jump as the child,
keeping in mind their relative size.

Have children tell about their own legs and arms,
their position, relative size^ the direction of motion and
comparative freedom of motion of arms and legs, the
three divisions of each (upper arm, fore arm, and hand,
and thigh, leg, and foot), and the direction of motion
at the joints, at knee, ankle, elbow, and wrist. Have
them note and show how, when ready to jump, they
stand on their toes, with legs flexed at ankle and
knee, and spring by suddenly straightening these
joints.

Position and attachment and covering of legs of
rabbit. Greater freedom and range of motion of fore
legs. Greater size and strength of hind legs.

Parts of hind leg. Thigh, leg, and foot. Compare
with child's leg. Thigh very short, with joint corre-
sponding to child's knee close to the rabbit's body.
Leg, corresponding to part of child's leg between knee
and ankle, long and strong. Prominence of ankle
joint. Part below the ankle joint, corresponding to
child's ankle and foot, greatly lengthened. Cushion
or pad near end of foot covered with brush-like hairs.
How many toes on each hind foot ? Are they movable ?
Do they spread out? Compare legs, toes, and claws
with those of cat or dog.

Fore limbs. Relative size of parts and character of
joints, as compared with similiar divisions o

72 NATURE STUDY.

limbs. Number of toes and flexibility. Comparison of
fore paws with child's hand.

Adaptation or "why" Use of limbs. Hind legs
mainly for jumping or hopping, the rabbit's way of
moving about. Fore legs mainly for grasping things,
and sometimes for defence. Compare with uses of
child's legs and arms. The former require strength,
the latter freedom and range of motion. Legs adapted
for jumping by their strength and character of joints
and direction of bending. The lengthened foot gives
a firmer support, and probably greater strength and
quickness. The flexibility of the foot and toes,«aiid
cushion on the toes, lessen the jar and noise when alight-
ing. The spreading of the toes and the hairy brush
aid in making the step so noiseless, and assist in walk-
ing on the snow. In similar way study adaptation of
fore leg.

Do not let this degenerate into a mere "guessing
match." Base all study of adaptation on definite, care-
ful observation of habits, structure, and use ; otherwise
it is useless, or worse than useless.

In this study of adaptation, teacher and children are
"thinking God's thoughts after Him" in a way which
appeals very strongly to children, if it is properly done,
based on what has come to them through their senses,
not merely "preached" to them.

STEP 4. Skeleton.

Have children discover, by feeling their own bodies,
that each has a backbone, ribs, and a bony framework
or skeleton, in arms and hands and legs and feet. Lead

THE STUDY OF THE BABBIT. 73

them to think and tell about some building which they
have seen in process of erection. What is the use of
the framework of the house ? Of the skeleton or bones
of the body ?

Holding Bunny by the ears, have one or two chil-
dren gently feel of his body. Does he have bones ? A
backbone? Ribs? Bones supporting hind legs and

Fig. 18. Skeleton of Hare.

feet? Bones in fore leg and feet? What are they
for?

With older pupils a skeleton of rabbit or other quad-
ruped, or picture of a skeleton, will be helpful in im-
pressing the plan of the bony framework. Compare
with picture of human skeleton.

With young children touch very lightly on this step.

STEP 5. General summary and expressive work.

A drawing of the rabbit, drawn with care by each
child from nature, even though very crude, is the best

74 NATURE STUDY.

way of reviewing, making clear and exact, clinching
and expressing, the main points of structure.

If this seems too difficult, have them write about
"What I Have Learned About the Rabbit's Body and
Legs," or "The Parts of the Rabbit's Body and Legs,
and How They are Fitted for His Life," or " Ways in
Which the Rabbit's Body and Legs and My Body and
Legs are Alike." The written work may be left until
after the next lesson, which is short.

Adapting Lesson. If too long, dwell on structure and
adaptation of limbs, and on existence of backbone and
of bones in limbs.

LESSON VI.

General External Structure. Head, Ears, Teeth.

Aim. As in Lesson V.

Material. Living rabbit and cat or dog. If obtain-
able, skeleton, or picture of skeleton, of head of rabbit
and of cat or dog, showing kinds, arrangement, and
number of teeth.

STEP 1. Drawing.

A drawing, made as carefully as possible by each
pupil from nature, of head and neck, bringing out rela-
tive position arid form or appearance of neck, head,
ears, eyes, nose, and whiskers, will compel the pupils to
observe much more carefully than if they merely tell or
write about them, and will greatly aid in impressing
these features upon the mind.

STEP 2. Head as whole.

Connected with body by short, flexible neck. Neck

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 75

often looks as if string were tied about body where
head joins it. Head somewhat egg-shaped, its axis
oblique to axis of trunk, and about one-third as long,
covered with fur, except inside of ears and tip of nose.

STEP 3. Ears, eyes, nose, and "whiskers."

Ears. Position : on top of head. Compare with posi-
tion and freedom and range of movement of child's ears.
Form : like a leaf rolled at base. May be well to have
a piece of paper cut shape of ear and rolled in same
way. Size : measure length, and compare with length
of head. Covered with fur on outside, with hairs in-
side, longer and more numerous toward base. Net-
work of veins on inside, giving pinkish tinge. More
or less transparent, and apparently delicate, but quite
strong, as shown by fact that rabbits are carried by their
ears.

Eyes. Have pupils observe and tell about their own
eyes, — their position in front of head, sunk in sockets,
with upper and lower eyelids, with eyebrows and eye-
lashes, with a dark pupil in centre of eyeball, a colored
part or iris about that, and the white of the eye around
the iris.

Compare rabbit's eye with child's eye. Is on side
of head, large, stands out from head, is usually pinkish,
has parts corresponding to parts of child's eye, but
somewhat difficult to see. Perhaps quick-eyed pupils
can discover under the two eyelids a thin, membraneous
" third eyelid," which covers the pupil somewhat when
the eyelids are brought together, and is drawn down
into the inner lower corner of the eye as the eye is

76 NATURE STUDY.

opened. If they watch the movements of the eyes,
they may observe that the rabb;t can turn his eyeball
toward his tail, and see behind him with little movement
of the head.

Nose. Position : very freely movable, and almost
constantly in motion. Small, as compared with most
animals. Naked at tip (compare with cat or dog),
with V-shaped partition between two openings, or nos-
trils.

" Whiskers" Position: at side of mouth and below
eyes. Compare with cat's " whiskers." Are said to aid
rabbit in feeling, and to tell him whether any opening
his head may enter is large enough for his body to pass
through.

Adaptation. Advantage of position, form, size, and
freedom of movement of ears ; use of hairs on inside.
Advantage of having eyes on side of head ; of having
them stand out so far from head; use of "third eye-
lid " if rabbit does not shut his eyes.

Summary. With topics below written on blackboard,
have pupils tell orally, with as few questions as possible,
all they can about —

The head: position with reference to body, shape,
size.

The ears: position, movements, shape, size, how
adapted to rabbit's use.

The eyes: position, parts as compared with pupils'
eye, how adapted to needs of rabbit.

The nose : position, movements, size, covering, open-
ings.

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 77

STEP 4. Mouth and teeth.

Mouth and lips. Position of mouth. Upper lip cleft
up to nose. Why ? Recall what pupils have observed
about advantage of this when gnawing. Lower lip
small.

Jaws. Have pupils note that we can move only our
lower jaw, not our upper jaw, and can move it up and
down, from side to side, and slightly, from front to back.

Fig. 19. Skull of Rabbit

The up-and-down movement enables us to bite. How
do the other movements aid us in grinding our food?
Movements of rabbit's lower jaw are similar; but the
movement from front to back, best seen when he is
" chewing his cud," is greater.

Teeth. Have pupils ascertain and tell about the kinds
of teeth in their own mouths : the chisel-shaped biting
or incisor teeth in front of each jaw ; the longer, pointed
teeth next to these, the dog teeth or canine teeth, one
on each side of the incisors ; several flat, rough grinding

78 NATURE STUDY.

teeth, toward the end or side of the jaws. Use made
by children of incisors and grinding teeth.

Examine teeth of cat or dog. Incisor teeth readily
seen, but grinding teeth somewhat difficult to see.
Great length of canine or dog teeth. Used and fitted
for seizing and tearing animals and meat.

Examine teeth of rabbit, comparing with teeth of
child, and of cat or dog. Back teeth will probably have
to be studied from a skeleton, or picture of skeleton of
head, or the teacher may have to tell pupils about them.
Note the two long sharp incisor teeth in the front of.
each jaw, and the space at either side of these without
any teeth. From a skeleton of the rabbit's head can
be seen the two additional very small teeth back of and
hidden by the incisors in the upper jaw (found only in
rabbits and hares), and the five or six flat grooved
grinding teeth in the ends of the jaws, each with a
transverse ridge of enamel, so that it appears to be
composed of two halves.

The provision made for keeping the incisor teeth
sharp, and for replacing the parts worn away by gnaw-
ing, has been already given in Lesson III.

The character and number of the teeth are very im-
portant in classification ; hence pains should be taken
to have them thoroughly understood as a basis for the
next lesson on classification.

Adaptation. See also Lesson III. The rabbit belongs
to a group or order of animals called " gnawers." How
is it adapted for gnawing? By cleft upper lip, free
movement of lower jaw, and position, shape, size

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 79

strength, arrangement of enamel, and manner of growth
of teeth.

STEP 5. Greneral summary and expressive work.

Making a drawing of head and parts externally vis-
ible is most exact and effective way of summarizing
these. With this, or in place of it, can be an oral or
written summary, telling briefly but exactly " How
the Rabbit's Mouth and Teeth are Fitted for His
Food."

LESSON VII.

Comparison and Classification. " Gf-nawers " or Rodents.

Aim. To broaden pupils' conceptions and lead to
greater unity in their minds ; to train them to compare,
to discriminate between essentials and non-essentials, to
understand plan and to discover similarity of plan amid
great diversity in minor details ; to make rabbit a type
in the pupils' mind of a great order of animals, the
" gnawers " or rodents.

Material. Living rabbit and cat or dog ; hare (can
often be obtained from meat market in winter), or pic-
ture of hare, showing incisor teeth ; any other ro-
dents, living, dead, or mounted, such as rat, mouse,
squirrel (in winter can sometimes be obtained at mar-
ket), gopher, prairie dog, or woodchuck ; pictures of
beavers, and of any carnivorous animals, showing ca-
nine teeth.

Essentials of classification. Classification is based on
essential similarities, or similarity in plan, as distin-
guished from such minor characteristics as size, color,

80 NATURE STUDY.

and markings ; two houses may be very similar in plan,
and yet differ greatly in size, color, and markings, or
trimmings or decorations. Hence it is wise to begin
the comparison with two quite similar animals, to dwell
on essential similarities rather than differences, and to
emphasize these similarities, bring them into stronger
relief, by contrasting these similar animals with those
quite dissimilar. 1

Comparison and classification require very careful
questioning or development work by the teacher. Dis-
tinguishing between essentials and non-essentials re-
quires knowledge and judgment ; abstracting and
applying plan demands some intellectual power. Hence
in this work the pupils need considerable guidance and
help.

1 The most essential features in the classification of the rabbit

are : —

The bony skeleton and backbone or vertebral column, placing it among:
the vertebrates. .

The hairy covering or fur, placing it among the class of vertebrates
called mammals.

The way in which it feeds and the character of the teeth, two large
incisors, and the molars in each jaw, with no canine teeth, show-
ing that it belongs with the order of mammals called "gnawers"
or rodents.

The long ears, short tail, and two small accessory incisor teeth, hidden
behind the large incisors of the upper jaw; these are characteristic of
the family of hares (the leporidae), including the rabbits.

The ears, shorter than the head, and the habit of burrowing in the ground,
distinguish the rabbit from the hare.

These essential features are given here merely to assist the teacher
and give point to the lessons which follow. They should be gained from
the children, as a result of their observations and comparison, never
merely given to the pupils.

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 81

STEP 1 . Comparison of different rabbits.

Have pupils compare size, color, and markings of the
rabbits they have with others they have seen, to show
that they may differ in these respects and still be rab-
bits ; that is, that size, color, and markings may not be
important in classification. If they cannot compare
many rabbits, compare the cats they have seen, to im-
press the same thought.

STEP 2. Comparison of rabbit and hare.

Have pupils compare with hare or picture of hare,
bringing out similarity in general appearance and plan,
in possession of backbone, in being covered with fur, in
having teeth alike in number and character, and differ-
ences in length and color (?) of ears, and habit of bur-
rowing in the ground. The pupils will tell of other
points, but teacher should emphasize and clinch those
above.

If slight comparison is made between the rabbit and
hare and the cat, the essential similarities will be im-
pressed by contrast.

STEP 3. Comparison of rabbit and other rodents.

Have pupils compare rabbit with squirrel, chipmunk,
rat, mouse (small for most satisfactory work), muskrat,
woodchuck, gopher, beaver, or other available gnawing
animals, bringing out similarities in general plan, bony
skeleton, possession of fur, and character of teeth, and
the essential differences: such as the climbing habits,
short ears, long, bushy tail, sharp claws, and greater
comparative length of upper incisors in the squirrels ;
the burrowing habits, thick, clumsy body and short legs

82 NATURE STUDY.

of the woodchuck; the similar habits and body and
cheek-pouches of the prairie dog and gopher; the aquatic
habits, webbed hind feet, and broad, flattened, scaly tail
of the beaver ; the aquatic and burrowing habits, long
tail, musky odor, and color (brownish above, gray be-
neath) of the muskrat; and the omnivorous habits,
long, naked (not covered with hair) tail, and narrow,
pointed, lower incisor teeth of the rats and mice. Try
to relate differences in structure to differences in
habits.

The results will be much more satisfactory if the
rabbits can be compared with two or more other rodents ;
it is dangerous and wrong to encourage or allow the
pupils to generalize from too few particulars, as they
do when they assume the characteristics of rodents from
the observation of two species.

STEP 4. General, summary.

Gather up from the children, characteristics in which
all studied (except the cat) are similar ; general plan,
backbone, fur, teeth. In what respects are all like the
cat ? In what respects do all differ from cat ?

Write on the blackboard a list of points in which all
the animals studied are like one another and unlike the
cat. All animals having these characteristics are called
" gnawers " or rodents. Write under this, gaining from
pupils, distinctive characteristics of the different kinds
of rodents studied. This tabular view appeals to the
eye and greatly helps the memory. Have children make
copy of it.

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT.

83

Comparison and

LESSON VIII.

Classification.
Mammals.

Verterbrates and

STEP 1. Comparison of rabbit and cat.

Review points in which all animals previously studied
(except cat) are alike, points in which they are like the
cat, points in which all differ from the cat. Cat differs
in having a longer, more lithe body, incisor teeth more

Fig. 20. Skull of Cat.

numerous, and not well fitted for gnawing, canine teeth
long, conical, and pointed, grinding teeth with two or
more rather sharp projections on their outer end, not
well fitted for grinding, and claws strong and sharp.
Relate differences in structure to differences in habits
and food, to bring out the "why."

Compare cat with dog. Similar, but claws not so
sharp. Why cannot dogs climb trees ?

Compare rabbit and cat with any other carnivorous
animals of which mounted specimens or good pictures,

84 . NATURE STUDY.

showing canine teeth, can be obtained. Relate pecu-
liarities of structure to habits.

Gather from pupils, and write on the blackboard, a
table such as the following :

Gnawing Animals or t Flesh-Eating or Carnivorous

Rodents — Animals —

Have four long chisel-shaped Have many (twelve) small in-

incisor teeth. cisor teeth.

Have no canine teeth. Have four long pointed canine

teeth.
Have flat-topped grinding teeth. Have grinding teeth with tops

having points.
Gnaw and grind their food. Tear and grind their food.

Rabbit, hare, rat, mouse, squir- Cat, dog, fox, wolf, lion, tiger,
rel, woodchuck. skunk, wildcat, leopard, bear.

All have a bony skeleton and backbone, and are
covered with fur.

STEP 2. Comparison of rabbit with chicken and fish.

These are selected because most children have dis-
covered, when eating them, that they have a bony
skeleton and backbone.

Chicken. Like rabbit in having bony skeleton and
backbone. Different from rabbit and all the other
animals studied in having two legs, a pair of wings,
a hard mouth or bill, and in being covered with
feathers.

Fish. Like rabbit in having bony skeleton and
backbone. Differs from all animals already studied
in having no legs, swimming in the water with its fins

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT. 85

and tail, and in having its body covered with scales
(generally) instead of fur or feathers.

All animals studied so far have skeleton and back-
bone.

STEP 3. Comparison of rabbit and some invertebrate
animal.

Select any invertebrate animal which pupils have dis-
covered, or can be led to discover, to be without in-
ternal skeleton; that is, without backbone or bones of
any kind, such as the caterpillar, slug or shell-less snail,
earthworm, or some insect.

How like other animals studied? Only in having
life, and in being an animal instead of a plant, in hav-
ing power to move itself, and a mouth to take in food.
Differs from most in having no backbone or bones, and
in having more than four legs.

All those with a backbone are called vertebrates.
The others are invertebrates.

All vertebrates with more or less furry or hairy cov-
ering are called mammals. All with feathery covering
and wings are birds ; all with scaly covering (some-
times naked) and with fins are fishes.

STEP 4. Summary and expressive work.

Have pupils review both process and facts by having
them write (assign different topics to different pupils)
about : —

1. " What we learned from the comparison of differ-
ent rabbits."

2. From the comparison of rabbit and hare.

3. Rabbit and squirrel.

86 NATURE STUDY.

4. Rabbit and cat.

5. Rabbit, chicken, and fish.

6. Rabbit and caterpillar.

Written summaries are usually more definite and
exact. Have these read and discussed in class.

Pupils can apply what they have learned about classi-
fication by writing the following lists of animals : —

1. A list of all the animals they can think of which
are vertebrates.

2. A list of all the animals they can think of which
are not vertebrates or are invertebrates.

3. A list of vertebrates which are also mammals.

4. A list of mammals which are also carnivorous
animals.

5. A list of mammals which are also gnawers or
rodents.

Why is our rabbit classed with the vertebrates?
With the class mammals ? With the order rodents ?
With the family of hares ?

ADAPTING WORK TO OTHER, GRADES.

For Grades or Years One and Two.

The work as planned will certainly occupy two weeks,
forty-five minutes to an hour a day. Little folks could
not do much of the work outlined ; it would be difficult"
to keep them thoroughly interested in one topic so long.
They are most dependent on their senses, must have
work most closely related to their child-life, and have
very little power of reasoning or of abstracting.

THE STUDY OF THE RABBIT.

87

With the children of the first or second year there
should not be more than five lessons on the rabbit. After
having the rabbit in the room a week, to get acquainted
and answer the simpler questions given under Pre-
paratory Work, the lessons could be divided as fol-
lows : —

LESSON I. Home and Home Life of Child and Tame
Rabbit.

LESSON II. Habits. Movements and Playing of
Child and Rabbit.

LESSON III. Habits. Food, Feeding, Washing, Hear-
ing of Child and Rabbit.

LESSON IV. Structure and Adaptation. Limbs,
Teeth, Ears of Child and Rabbit.

LESSON V. Bunny's Cousins. Squirrels, Rats, Mice.

For Grrades or Years Three and Four.

LESSON I. Something of life of our own " wild rab-
bit" or hare, in addition to life of tame
rabbit, dwelling on difference in life,
rather than on differences in structure.

LESSON II. Careful study of one or two most com-
mon positions, of walking, hopping,
and playing, and of breathing.

LESSON III. Much as given.

LESSON IV. Much as given.

LESSON V. Somewhat less detail.

88 NATURE STUDY.

LESSON VI. Dwell on ears, jaw, and incisors, and on
adaptation.

LESSON VII. Compare rabbit with two other rodents,
with cat and with fish and chicken (or
canary-bird), dwelling on clearly visible
characteristics (the bony skeleton is
not visible), and trying to impress clear
idea of gnawing animals and of hairy
or fur-covered animals.

For Upper Grrades.

In grades five or six, for which this is planned, and
with older pupils, the study of the rabbit may well be a
veritable "introduction to animal study." . Beginning
with the rabbit, the other rodents or mammals or verte-
brates may well occupy for months the period which
can be given to nature study. In the school with which
the writer is connected such work, continued four or
five months, three to five times a week, has aroused
great interest and given very satisfactory results in
grades six, seven, and eight. The boys in particular,
at this age, are apt to take more interest in such animal
study than in plant study. The work must, however,
be observational, based on the careful observation of
type animals, not mere reading and talking about
animals.

WHAT IS NATURE STUDY? 89

CHAPTER III.

WHAT IS NATURE STUDY?

FOB many years a struggle has been going on in our
higher institutions of learning between the upholders
of the classics and of the sciences. One class has lim-
ited education almost entirely to the study of man and
his languages, history, and literature, and to methods of
exact reasoning, or mathematics. The other has advo-
cated the study of man's surroundings, his physical en-
vironment, of the world in which man is placed and on
which he so largely depends. The defenders of the
classical education have been compelled to yield point
after point to the champions of the scientific education.
To-day we are coming to the conclusion that we can
get the best well-rounded, liberal education by a com-
promise between the two opposing schools, in the study
of man and nature.

From the higher seats of learning the struggle has
passed into the secondary schools, the high schools and
academies, where a similar compromise is being effected,
or a sharp distinction made between the students taking
classical and those pursuing scientific courses.

Our elementary schools have until recently confined
their work to the human studies, or studies relating

90 NATURE STUDY.

to man, to his language and other methods of con-
veying ideas, to his methods of exact reasoning, and
to the way in which he has parcelled up the earth.
Everything has been centred about man, as the uni-
verse was once supposed to be centred about the
earth. Even geography, the study of which might well
have brought the pupils into closest relation with their
physical environment, has been, not a study of the
earth, of our physical environment, but almost entirely
a study of a description of the earth, and of a descrip-
tion, not to any great extent of physical forces, pro-
cesses, and features, but very largely of the divisions
made by man, and of the features due to man. The
schools have placed all emphasis on the "essentials,"
reading, writing, and drawing, arithmetic and geog-
raphy. The children in these schools have studied
almost nothing of the other part of their environment,
the physical world, which forms such a large part of
their life.

To-day the old conflict is being waged in these ele-
mentary schools. The champions of science are urging
the introduction from the beginning of the child's
school-life of some study of the world of sense which
lies about the child. This has been designated as ele-
mentary science, or nature study.

It seems wise at the very beginning to determine just
what we mean by elementary science, or nature study.
This will prevent ambiguity and misunderstanding in
later discussions,

WHAT IS NATURE STUDY? 91

The terms " elementary science " and " nature study "
are both widely used. Elementary science is, perhaps,
more exact, and therefore more scientific. Nature study
has a less formidable sound, and better expresses the
spirit in which the work should be undertaken. It
seems much the better term, at least for the work in
the first four or five years of the school course.

The former term includes two ideas. First, it is ele-
mentary, as distinguished from advanced. In the aim
or purpose of the work, in the material selected, in the
methods pursued, it is elementary ; planned for and
adapted to the needs and capacities of the pupils of
elementary schools. In the second place, it is science,
classified knowledge.

" Knowledge " our dictionary defines as " clear and
certain perception," " familiarity gained by actual expe-
rience." In the very beginning we cannot emphasize
too strongly the ideas involved in these definitions of
knowledge, — " clear and certain perception," " famili-
arity gained by actual experience." Let us analyze
them. "Clear," — not hazy or foggy, but sharp and
distinct; "certain," — not what we imagine or think
we know, but what we are absolutely sure of ; " per-
ception,"— not what has come to us from others alone,
from book or teacher, but the mental picture based
upon what we have seen, or what we have apprehended
with our own senses. Equally significant is the other
definition. "Familiarity," — "intimate and frequent
converse or association," like that among the members
of a family; "gained," — acquired by effort, not merely

92 NATURE STUDY.

absorbed ; " actual," — real, as distinguished from theo-
retical ; " experience," — " practical acquaintance by per-
sonal observation," " continued and varied observation,"
"personal trial and experiment."

How much of the stock of information possessed by
the pupils in our schools will stand the test of these
definitions of knowledge? How much is "clear and
certain perception " ? How much is " familiarity gained
by actual experience " ?

In the third place, elementary science is knowledge
classified or studied in its relations, arranged and
grouped by the children. Isolated facts of observa-
tion may be knowledge, they may be " clear and cer-
tain perceptions," but they are not science, they are not
classified. Until these facts are related and grouped
they are of comparatively little value to the mind.
Unless they are tied up in assorted bundles, the mind
that possesses them may be little more than a men-
tal junk-shop. When they are properly related and
grouped, each perception suggests a host of related
ideas, each fact or group of facts becomes typical of
the great class to which it belongs.

Later we will discuss the various relations in which
our physical environment can be considered.

To recapitulate, elementary science is: —

1st. Elementary, adapted in aim, plan, methods, and
materials to the capacities and needs of the children
in the elementary schools.

2d. Knowledge, "clear and certain perception," "fa-
miliarity gained by actual experience."

WHAT IS NATURE STUDY? 93

3d. Classified, considered in its relations, and ar-
ranged and grouped (by the child, not merely by teacher
or book) in accordance with the relations and the dif-
ferences and similarities the child has discovered.

If this definition is correct, we can test the work
being done under the name of elementary science by
seeing how far it meets the requirements of the defi-
nition. Is it " elementary knowledge classified " ?

We shall find in our schools and homes, or clamoring
for admission, three general classes or kinds of science
work, or so-called science, which do not meet these con-
ditions.

Our university or college or high-school friend, in-
terested in education, enthusiastic in his specialty,
would have us introduce, or has already introduced,
into our schools such work as he carries on with his
students, with very little modification or adaptation to
children. The botanist would have our little folks
begin with the plant cell as the unit of plant life and
structure, or with the lower forms of plants, such as
pond scum, and work up step by step to the complex
organism which the child calls a bean plant. This
seems to the botanist the simplest, easiest, and only
logical method of procedure. The mineralogist would
have the children begin with the chemical elements of
which minerals are composed, and build up the min-
erals and rocks, because to him a mineral means noth-
ing unless he knows its components. Both overlook
the fact that what is logical and simple for them may
be illogical and incomprehensible to the 'child, and

94 NATURE STUDY.

what is complex for them may be simple to the child.
Both forget the long process of education, much of it
unconscious, by which they learned to analyze the com-
mon things about them, before they could even under-
stand that they were complex, much less resolve them
into their components, or build them by a synthetic
process from their components. The teachers of college
and high-school students, discouraged by their lack of
power to do careful work, and appreciating the need of
a better training in exact, thorough scientific methods
of study, may do, as did the writer, insist on the most
careful, exact, detailed work, even in the primary
grades, either not realizing, or forgetting, that the chil-
dren's minds and hands and eyes are not fitted by
nature for such work. This is science, but it is not
elementary ; it is not adapted in material and methods
to the nature and needs of the children.

Other friends of our schools would place in the
hands of our children beautiful and interesting books
telling all about the wonders of the world about them.
They would introduce into the homes and schools
Nature Primers and Nature Readers, and Stories
Mother Nature Told Her Children, from which the
pupils can imbibe or absorb some of the -facts, or what
are supposed to be facts, concerning the world in
which they live. These books may be good, they may
be helpful, they may be elementary, well adapted to
children ; but this is not science, it is not even knowl-
edge. It is not " clear and certain perception ; " it is
not "familiarity gained by actual experience,"

WHAT IS NATURE STUDY? 95

A third class, with a better appreciation of the needs
and capacities of the children, with a better understand-
ing of the conditions of our schools, would have the
children go to nature instead of the book, watch the
swelling bud, the developing seed, the opening flower,
note the flight and song of the bird, and peep into its
nest, glance at the fly or grasshopper, admire the bril-
liant coloring of the butterfly. They would have our
children, butterfly-like, sip a little here, a little there,
taste in this place, in that place. This is better, very
much better ; where the child is surrounded by nature,
almost immersed in nature, it may be an excellent
means of arousing in him the interest and sympathy
and spirit which are the first essentials in his best de-
velopment. It may lead to knowledge, to fairly " clear
and certain perception." It may lay the foundations
for science ; it is on just such foundations that all
science has arisen.

But if it stops with sipping and tasting, if the knowl-
edge is simply taken in and not digested or assimilated,
if it is not expressed in a form intelligible to others, it
is only the beginning of science. Unless the phenom-
ena are observed or studied in some order or sequence,
unless their study prepares for and leads to a careful in-
vestigation of the relations of the various phenomena
observed, unless it results in comparison, in some natu-
ral classification by the child, and, finally, in broader
and broader generalizations and a better comprehension
of the unity of nature, it is not science. The method,
if it may be called a method, so prevalent in many of

96 NATURE STUDY.

our schools, of studying without plan or sequence any-
thing in nature which may be accessible or convenient,
to-day a plant, to-morrow a bird, next day a stone, or
the wind or weather, may interest the children, may
develop and train the teachers, may be a preparation for
elementary science ; but it is not elementary science, it
is not or does not result in "knowledge classified."

To get the best results in elementary science in bur
schools, we need a clear, definite plan or course of study,
with its various parts closely related. The work of
each grade should be adapted to the children of that
grade, based on the work of the preceding grade, and
should prepare for the next grade above. Then our
work will become, in truth, elementary science.

The term " elementary science " refers mainly to the
results of the work, classified knowledge/ The term
" nature study " has more reference to the materials
considered and the methods pursued, and better ex-
presses the spirit in which the work should be carried
on. The materials are found in nature, our physical
environment. The methods are the methods of nature,
those by which we have always become acquainted with
our surroundings since we first opened our eyes on this
world of sense. The spirit in which we should study
nature, the spirit in which children approach a constant
companion or friend, is better indicated, to the children
and teachers at least, by the simple "nature study,"
than by the somewhat high-sounding and formidable
" elementary science."

WHAT IS NATURE STUDY? 97

Nature study is first nature study, a study of our
physical environment. It is not a study of books.
Books may help, may tell us about nature, but they are
not nature. It is not listening to the teacher as she
tells about nature, or what purports to be nature. It is
not merely gazing with awed attention at the interested,
observant, bright boy of the class, as he tells what he
has read, or even seen. This may be studying about
nature ; but it is not studying nature, it is not nature
study.

Nature study is not merely a study of nature, but
of nature under natural conditions, so far as this is
possible. It is not merely schoolroom study. Nature
belongs out-of-doors, and out-of-doors we must go to
study many of her manifestations. Field lessons are a
necessity for the best work. Nature constitutes much
of the child's out-of-school environment. He is learn-
ing from nature, consciously or unconsciously, almost
continually. Much of what he thus learns out of school-
hours in nature's school must be utilized in his nature
study in school. When we confine nature study to the
schoolroom and school-hours, we shut out the best part
of nature.

The word science is apt to be associated in our mind
with a laboratory, and an array of instruments and
appliances. The laboratory for nature study is all out-
doors ; arid the only instruments and appliances abso-
lutely necessary are the seeing eye, the hearing ear,
and the understanding heart.

Nature, real nature, is instinct with life and action ;

98 NATURE STUDY.

is living and developing and doing. The science in
our educational institutions has been heretofore, very
largely, a study of form and structure and plan. But
nature is not mere form or structure.

We must study the life and life history of animals
and plants, and the work performed by their various
parts or organs, as well as their form and structure ;
the changes through which our rocks are passing or
have passed, as well as their structure and components ;
the forces which are now affecting the earth, and the
processes which have brought the earth to its present
condition, as well as the present forms and features of
the earth. Otherwise we study only a part of nature,
and that side of it which is least adapted to our ele-
mentary schools, and of least value to our pupils.

Nature study is, in the second place, nature study.
As has already been shown, it is not merely talking or
reading about nature ; it is not merely glancing at the
beauties or sipping the sweets of nature. It is definite,
orderly, systematic study of nature by each pupil and
by the teacher.

Nature study is, furthermore, nature studied in its
relations. Every phenomenon in nature stands in rela-
tion to a host of other phenomena. The dandelion in
our hand is related to the whole plant, and to each part
of the plant — a relation of mutual dependence and
helpfulness. It is related to, and dependent upon, soil
and rain and sunlight and wind. It is related to the
insects which feed upon or fertilize it. It has a rela-
tion, of similarity or difference, to a host of other

WHAT IS NATURE STUDY? 99

flowers. It contributes to the happiness or comfort of
man, and has inspired the poet. It points up to its
Maker and Protector. It has many other relations.
To understand nature, we must keep in mind, investi-
gate and arrange or group, these relations whose mutual
actions and reactions constitute nature. These relations
can be summed up as follows : —

First. To the whole of which it is a part, and to
other parts of that whole. The flower or leaf is not
merely a flower or leaf, but is related to the whole plant,
and to every part of the plant. This brings out func-
tion, or use, and plan.

Second. To natural environment. The plant or
animal is related to water and soil and food and air.
This brings out life and function, and adaptation of
structure to function or work, and impresses mutual
dependence and co-operation.

Third. To past and future. The study of plant and c//
animal is incomplete until we investigate its life history.
The raindrop is but one stage in a long series of changes
or transformations. The fragment of rock or of soil is
most wonderful and instructive when considered as a
history of the past, or a prophecy of the future.

Fourth. To other individuals, similar and dissimilar, c
leading to comparison and classification.

Fifth. To other phenomena, bearing to it the rela-
tions of cause and effect. These relations are promi-
nent in physics and chemistry.

Sixth. To man, ministering to his spiritual, ethical,
aesthetic, and material nature and needs. Nature must

100 NATURE STUDY.

be studied in its relations to man's higher nature, lead-
ing to the best in literature and art, and in its utili-
tarian or practical relations.

Seventh. To the Creator. Nature reveals a Protec-
tor .and Planner, and points to a purpose and first
cause. Nature study misses its highest object and
greatest value unless it leads to that which is above
nature.

JEighth. To the school and to school-work: as a
means of interesting and stimulating children ; as a
basis for expressive studies, — writing, reading, draw-
ing, modelling, painting, arithmetic ; as a preparation
for and aid in geography and literature.

If the children study nature it must be from their
standpoint, not from the standpoint of the mature mind.
Those phases of nature must be studied which are near-
est to the child and most strongly appeal to him. This
is discussed more fully in later chapters.

It must be not merely a study of nature by the chil-
dren, but a study of nature by the teacher with the
children. In this work the teacher who depends on
books in her preparation will have pupils who depend
on their teacher. The teacher who studies nature with
her children — fellow-investigators of truth — will in-
spire and be inspired by her pupils.

To sum up our definition of nature study, it is : —

NATURE — not books, not mere reading or listening ;
nature under natural conditions ; nature living and
in action, not mere form and structure.

STUDIED — not glanced at or sipped, or talked about

WHAT IS NATURE STUDY f 101

or read about, but studied, — a personal investi-
gation.

IN ITS RELATIONS — to all the universe, — nature,
man, and God.

BY THE CHILD — by each child individually, not
merely by the teacher, or by bright or interested
children.

FROM THE CHILD'S STANDPOINT — not merely from
the standpoint of the mature mind.

BY THE TEACHER — not merely by the children.

WITH THE CHILDREN — teachers and children fel-
low-investigators of truth.

It may seem that we have given undue prominence,
and placed unnecessary emphasis, on definitions; but
experience has shown this to be necessary. No matter
how earnest the spirit of the teachers, and however
honest their intention, the habits and training of a life-
time, which have too often made books crutches instead
of helps, will assert themselves. Teachers will study,
under the guise of nature study, anything and every-
thing but nature. They will deliberately shut their
eyes to nature, and confine their investigations within
the covers of a book. They will cram their pupils'
minds full of memorized facts and namjes and classifica-
tion, and call that nature study.

102 NATURE STUDY.

CHAPTER IV.

THE AIM OF NATURE STUDY: TO DEVELOP THE
INDIVIDUAL CHILD.

THE question is asked by many, "Why introduce
nature study into our schools ? " We might better ask,
"Why stop nature study when the child enters our
schools?" In the early life of the child, the world of
nature is his world. With this world his senses bring
him into closest relations. His earliest education is
almost entirely in nature study, and by nature's meth-
ods, — an education of seeing and doing, of using his
powers and developing them by using. Is there any
reason why this should stop when he enters school ? Is
there any more natural way, any better way, of develop-
ing his powers than to follow the leadings of nature, help
and train him to see and do more, and then to think
arid tell about what he has seen and done ? Is there
any knowledge which is more essential to him than a
knowledge of his surroundings ?

The burden of proof is on those who would stop
nature study when the child enters school.

Before it is possible to discuss intelligently methods
of work, it is necessary to consider somewhat carefully

THE AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 103

the aim or purpose of the work. The methods of work
will depend very largely on the aim or purpose. Con-
sciously or unconsciously every teacher will be in-
fluenced in her methods more by the final aim she
keeps in view than by any other one factor.

This has been illustrated in the introductory chapters.
If our aim is to study and describe the form of the
dandelion, or if, back of this immediate aim, we think
only of training our pupils to see and describe, we shall
be satisfied with a mere pulling to pieces of the parts of
the plant, and a description or drawing of what is ob-
served. If we want our pupils to make the dandelion
a type, or wish to train them to discriminate and com-
pare and classify, we shall have them compare the
structure of the dandelion with that of other plants.
If we feel that our boys and girls should understand
something of the life of the dandelion, should, through
its study, be brought into more sympathetic, loving rela-
tions with nature, should better appreciate the beauty
and symbolism of nature, should, through their dande-
lion study or nature study, have the higher side of their
nature cultivated and developed, then we shall empha-
size life and function and adaptation, and select from
literature all the beautiful thoughts that we can find.
Our aim will determine our method.

Method is simply the determination of aim, and the
application of aim to conditions in accordance with the
laws of the child mind. Teachers who so thoroughly
appreciate the aims, and particularly the highest aims,
of nature study, or of education in general, that these

104 NATURE STUDY.

aims are ever before them, and who are so in sympathy
with children as to be guided in their work by the way
in which their pupils see and feel and think and do,
will not go far astray in their methods. Without this
appreciation of aim and sympathetic study of children,
the best methods degenerate into mere devices.

" Why " is the most important question for the pupil
as well as for the teacher. The education of the past
has been too largely a study of " what." In history
and biography we have studied facts and events, revo-
lutions and battles and leaders. In science we have
studied form and structure, have emphasized mere iden-
tification and classification. We are learning that his-
tory is also a study of causes and results, of the working
out of great truths or principles, of gradual develop-
ment or evolution. In science we are beginning to in-
vestigate more carefully forces and agencies, to watch
processes, to emphasize action and change, life and
function and adaptation, of which form and structure
are but the results or the expression.

One leading characteristic of the "new education" is
the pre-eminence of " why," and the subordination of
"what," or the looking beyond and through the "what"
to the "why."

What is the aim of nature study? We shall find
that it is practically the same as the aim of other stud-
ies, or of education in general.

More than is the case with most other studies, prob-
ably, science, or nature study, deals with the individual

THE AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 105

child, and aims to develop each child as an individual.
It places the material in the hands of each child^ and
expects him to see and think and tell for himself. Na-
ture is many-sided ; and when pupils observe for them-
selves, each will have a different point of view, will see
a different side. The teacher will thereby be helped to
realize the difficulty, the impossibility, and, finally, the
viciousness, of teaching en masse, of teaching classes
rather than individuals, and will recognize, respect, and
at length encourage and develop, the individuality and
self-reliance of the pupil.

In discussing aims it will be helpful to consider first
the aims which have determined the character of much
of the work in science, or nature study, in the past.

As men began to realize how dependent they were on
the physical world about them, their physical environment,
they were impressed with the necessity of becoming ac-
quainted with that environment. The earliest recognized
object of science, or nature study, or of study or educa-
tion of any kind, was knowledge, the acquisition of facts.

As knowledge (using the term in the older and nar-
rower sense), the acquisition of information or facts,
was considered the great object of science or education
in general, it was natural and inevitable to place great
emphasis on the study of books as the storehouses of
facts, and on memorizing as the simplest method of
acquiring facts. For this reason most of the work in
science and in all education was for centuries mere
book-work. Even to-day in our schools the study of
geography, which has been defined as the study of the

106 NATURE STUDY.

physical environment of man, is very largely a mere
memorizing of matter taken from books.

Our thoughtful teachers have long realized that
knowledge thus gained through books alone, or through
teachers and not through personal investigation, is ex-
ceedingly hazy and illusory. Too often it is not knowl-
edge, but has only a misty semblance to it. Such
knowledge " shall vanish away."

To science — that is, physical science — belongs the
credit of most clearly demonstrating the haziness of the
knowledge thus gained, and the weakness of this method
of study. Science has introduced into our educational
system the method of personal investigation, the lab-
oratory method, as distinguished from the mere book or
lecture method. Gradually the scientific method, or
laboratory method, has been adopted in subjects not
scientific, such as history and literature.

From this point of view, the introduction of nature
study, of personal observation of nature, has been urged
as the best preparation and basis for geography. It
gives the children a knowledge, a genuine, personal
knowledge, of the fundamental facts necessary for an
intelligent study of geography.

Even with the laboratory method of ascertaining,
making clear, and demonstrating facts, arid assimilat-
ing the material gained, our teachers are learning that
knowledge, accumulation of facts, as an ultimate aim in
education, is exceedingly low, narrow, and unsatisfac-
tory. No matter how clear or how well fixed in the
mind the knowledge may be, we are learning that

THE AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 107

knowledge of our physical environment, or of anything
else, is not necessarily power. We need more than
knowledge, or more than this kind of knowledge.

The development of the intellectual powers of the
child has become, or is becoming, the ultimate aim of
many teachers ; and the acquisition of knowledge, or of
facts, has become of secondary importance. We are
more and more endeavoring in our schools, from uni-
versity to kindergarten, to have our students get more
than facts ; we are striving to develop their intellectual
powers, — of seeing or apprehending for themselves,
of thinking or combining ideas in their relations, of
expressing or conveying these ideas to others, and of
doing or making their ideas active or effective.

The same development or evolution of ideals or aims
has, consciously or unconsciously, determined the char-
acter of the work in nature study, or elementary science,
in our schools. At first teachers placed all emphasis on
the importance of a knowledge of the facts of the physi-
cal world ; and the schools have been flooded with
Nature Primers and Nature Readers, and Hours with
Nature, good, bad, and indifferent, to meet the de-
mand of the school-men and school-women. Too often
the study of nature has stopped with the reading of
these books. Unfortunately, in many schools we have
not yet passed beyond this first stage in the introduc-
tion of nature study.

A host of teachers have, however, realized the im-
portance of a higher aim, and are insisting on personal,

108 XATVRE STUDY.

individual investigation, as opposed to mere book-work,
as a means of developing the powers of the pupils,
training them to see and think and express for them-
selves.

Science work, or nature study, has given the pupils
something to work with, something on which and with
which to develop their powers, something definite and
tangible which they can see and think about and tell
about. Nature study is a content study, and a basis
for formal or expressive work.

The results of science work, genuine science work, —
personal investigation, not mere book-work, — taught as
a means of developing power, have demonstrated its
great value. In hundreds of schools nature study has
won and kept a place as an aid in developing the pow-
ers of the children. It has given not merely the clearer
vision and more certain knowledge which come to
those who walk by sight and not merely by faith, but
the power, crystallizing into habit, of careful, exact ob-
servation ; the corresponding power of clear and truth-
ful expression in language or drawing, which must
come when the impression is clear and exact, because
based on interest and on actual observation ; the habit
of asking and seeking the "why" and "how" of the
world around them; and, perhaps best of all, the
marked improvement in individuality and self-reliance
resulting from the consciousness of power.

More and more nature study is being, and has been,
introduced into our schools as a basis for the expres-
sive work of the school, — reading, writing, drawing,

THE AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 109

modelling. JV'hat the children see they talk about,
write about, draw, mould, paint. Experience has dem-
onstrated beyond possibility of doubt or question that
when a portion of the time formerly given to the
formal work in language, drawing, and other expres-
sive studies has been devoted to nature study as a basis
for these expressive studies, the work in these subjects
has been greatly improved.

Nature study, considered as a means or method of
acquiring a knowledge of our physical environment, and
of developing power to control our environment and
make it minister to our needs, is not merely an aid in
other school-work, but is a preparation for practical life.

Our success in life as individuals depends to a very
large extent on our knowledge of and power over our
physical environment. Our dependence on physical
forces and agencies becomes greater as civilization ad-
vances, and man learns to better control nature. The
child of to-day must know more about steam and elec-
tricity than did the wise man of a century ago.

Our development as a race is very largely due to the
fact that we have learned to harness natural forces, and
make them do much of our work. With the aid of
steam and electricity, the average man to-day can prob-
ably accomplish thirty times as much as did the man
of a century ago.

The practical importance of a more careful study of
science has long been recognized in higher institutions
of learning, — in university, college, and high school.

110 NATURE STUDY.

If science is considered necessary for the few students
in these institutions, why is it not necessary for the
many who never get beyond the elementary school?

Of inestimable value in life is the power, and the
habit which results from the constant exercise of power,
of investigating for ourselves, of separating the true
from the false, of distinguishing between essentials and
non-essentials. Under no other condition is this so im-
portant as in a republic. Nothing gives this power to
children as does genuine science work, simply because
in science work, or nature study, more than in any other
work, children can study things with their own eyes,
really investigate and distinguish for themselves.

The question now arises, " Is the development of in-
tellectual power the ultimate aim, the highest object, of
nature study, or of education in general? "

The mother and the teacher very soon realize that
the acquisition of knowledge and the development of
power in any study are largely dependent on the in-
terest aroused. With intense interest there is scarcely
a limit to what the child can learn and do. Without
interest, comparatively little can be accomplished. The
more carefully we study children, — and their fathers
and mothers, — the more we shall be impressed with
the fact that the knowledge acquired and the power
developed under any conditions are, in general, directly
proportional to the interest aroused.

Nature study is no exception to this rule. The first
essential is to gain the interest of the child. His senses

THE AIM OF NATURE STUDY. Ill

form the gateway to his world. His senses always re-
spond to interest, the gate al ways opens ; with interest
aroused, with senses alert, every power of the child
responds, and there is scarcely a limit to what he can
' do. Nature study will never succeed until the child
is interested.

Are the awakening of interest, the development of
power, and the acquisition of knowledge, the highest
aims?

Of what value is power without something above it
or back of it to direct and regulate it? Power may do
harm as well as good. The possession of power may
be a curse as well as a blessing.

Goethe has said, " Nothing in the world is so terrible
as activity without insight."

We may develop the power of observation in our
pupils. If they are thereby only better fitted to see
the evil and the vile, have we helped them?

We may train them to express their ideas more
clearly, exactly, and effectively, and to better convey
to others what they have in their minds. Unless at
the same time we store their minds with ideas worthy
of expression, and give them an impetus toward better,
higher, nobler thoughts, their greater power of expres-
sion may be a curse to themselves and to others.

We give our boys and girls greater power to calcu-
late and think and reason. If this is to be used to cheat
their fellows, to influence others for evil, have they and
the world gained or lost ?

The more we work with children, and particularly

112 NATUEE STUDY.

with little children, the more we get into sympathy
with them and look through their eyes, the more fully
we realize that there are higher aims in education than
the development of power. When we get into the
primary school or kindergarten, such an aim seems in-
congruous, utterly out of place. We see instinctively,
if we love and understand children, that such an aim is
beneath them. Why?

As the primary teacher studies with her children, and
studies her children, she discovers the necessity in all
their work of interest, and of that highest form of inter-
est, — sympathy. With perfect sympathy between her-
self and her children she has almost unlimited power
over them. With the little folks in thorough sympathy
with the bird or cat or plant they are studying, their
power to see and think and tell is wonderfully in-
creased.

This sympathy is peculiarly necessary in nature study.
Without sympathy with nature, nature study may be
even detrimental to the child, and disastrous in its
effects on the child's environment.

If we merely aim to interest the children in nature,
develop their powers of observation, expression, and
thought, and give them a better knowledge of their
physical environment, and stop there, the ultimate re-
sults may be of doubtful value. Our wild-flowers
will be pulled up, our birds destroyed, our shade-trees
mutilated (" sacrificed to the cause of science "), in the
search for material. Our boys and girls may become,
like many of their older, brothers and sisters in the

THE AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 113

science classes of higher institutions, mere cold-blooded
anatomists and collectors.

No ; interest, power, knowledge, are not the highest
aims in nature study. Preceding these, along with
these, more important than these, must come the culti-
vation of the sympathies of the child. " Love is the
fulfilling of the law " educationally as well as spiritu-
ally.

We shall find that we shall develop in the hearts of
the children a sympathy with the world of nature in pro-
portion as we lead them to care for or work for nature.
We are apt to love best that for which we do the most,
not merely, as is often assumed, that from which we
receive the most. So keeping in view the cultivation
of a sympathy and love of nature, we will give our
children and pupils plants and animals to care for. A
few seeds planted, watered, and watched over by the
little folks, buds gathered and supplied with fresh water,
a pet bird or kitten cared for by them, will be most help-
ful in developing a sympathy with the world of life.

Equally essential for the cultivation of sympathy with
and love for nature is an understanding of what we re-
ceive from nature, an appreciation of what nature gives
to and does for us.

Most closely related to the cultivation of sympathy
with nature is the development of the aesthetic sense in
our pupils, the appreciation of the beauty of their envi-
ronment.

By beauty we mean, as shown in Chapter I, not

114 NATURE STUDY.

merely the beauty of form and color and structure, but
the far higher beauty of function and adaptation, or fit-
ness for work, and that highest manifestation of beauty
shown in the unity of all nature. The old definition of
beauty was "multitude in unity."

In nature, as among men, " handsome is that hand-
some does," and in nature study we have constant op-
portunities to lead our pupils to realize that everything
has a work to do, and to see how well everything is
adapted to its work. Whether we are studying plant
or animal or stone or water or air, every part has a
a work to do, is fitted for its work, is doing its work.

We may study the clouds simply to give the children
a larger knowledge of the phenomena of nature. We
may use the study of clouds as a means or method of
sharpening the intellects or developing the powers of the
children. But the cloud study will mean more when
we dwell also on their beauty of form and color, bring
out the story they tell of co-operation- of water and air
and sun and wind, and give our pupils some idea of
their place in the plan of nature, or of nature's Author.

We may analyze the dandelion, and learn all about
its parts. We may study it in its relations to the past
and future, investigate the work of its parts, and all
the marvellous adaptations to insure fertilization and the
formation of fruit. We may also dwell on its beauty
of color and fragrance and function, and read with the
children the beautiful poems inspired by the dandelion.

Which will do most for the child ?

Wordsworth has said, —

THE AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 115

" For I have learned
To look on nature, not as in the hour
Of thoughtless youth; but hearing oftentimes
The still, sad music of humanity,
Nor harsh nor grating, though of ample power
To chasten and subdue. And I have felt
A presence that disturbs me with the joy
Of elevated thoughts ; a sense sublime
Of something far more deeply interfused,
Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns,
And the round ocean, and the living air,
And the blue sky, and in the mind of man :
A motion and a spirit, that impels
All thinking things, all objects of all thought,
And rolls through all things. Therefore am I still
A lover of the meadows and the woods,
And mountains; and of all that we behold
From this green earth; of all the mighty world
Of eye and ear, — both what they half create,
And what perceive; well pleased to recognize
In nature and the language of the sense,
The anchor of my purest thoughts, the nurse,
The guide, the guardian of my heart, and soul
Of all my moral being."

Considering the higher aim of nature study, we see
the importance of correlating it with literature and art.
Much of the most beautiful in literature and art has
been inspired by nature ; and for an appreciation of this,
nature study is the best preparation. If we do not give
our pupils the beautiful thoughts which others have
gained from nature, if we do not read with them the
poets and other nature-loving writers, we miss one of
our greatest opportunities in nature study.

Along with this appreciation of the beauty of their

116 NATURE STUUY.

surroundings, will there not come to the children a
better understanding and better performance of \vhat
they owe to their surroundings? Will they not be
more careful of flower and bird and tree ? And will
not their ethical nature, their appreciation of duty, be
thereby developed?

Have we reached yet the highest aim of nature
study ?

Is that interest complete which does not attract the
child toward the Author of nature ? Is that knowledge
complete which does not see in nature and through
nature the Creator? Is that power complete which
does not enable the child to see through nature nature's
God, to realize that in nature study he is " thinking
God's thoughts after Him; " to read better this other
book of revelation, to tell better the story of a Protector
and Planner which nature tells him ? Is that sympathy
complete which does not bring our pupils into closer
touch, into harmony with Him who has breathed into
all things the breath of life ? Is that appreciation of
beauty, that aesthetic sense, best developed which does
not look above beauty of form and color and structure
to beauty of adaptation and function ; above beauty of
function to beauty of co-operation and mutual helpful-
ness ; above beauty of co-operation to the unity of plan ;
above the plan to the Planner?

Let us review in order the aims which should control
in the work in nature study. So far as it is possible to
arrange in tabular form aims which are so closely re-

THE AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 117

lated and mutually dependent, which are all really sub-
ordinate to the great aim of nature study or education,
character-building, we may summarize the aims of
nature study, considering the development of the indi-
vidual child, as : —

First. To awaken an interest and cultivate a sym-
pathy with his physical environment.

Second. To cultivate the higher nature of the child,
aesthetic, ethical, and spiritual, and lead him toward
God.

Third. To develop his intellectual powers and form
right habits.

Fourth. To lead the child to acquire a knowledge of
his physical environment.

Considering the child in his relations to school, we
may give as secondary or subordinate aims of nature
study : —

First. To give the child an understanding and ap-
preciation of nature which will enable him to enjoy and
appreciate the literature and art which have been in-
spired by nature.

Second. To give the child clear impressions which
shall serve as one basis for the expressive work of the
school, — language, reading, drawing, modelling and
arithmetic.

Third. To give the child a clear knowledge of his
immediate physical environment which will serve as a
basis for his work in geography, his study of his broader
environment.

118 NATURE STUDY.

We must ever keep in mind that all other aims are
subordinate to one, the highest. The study of nature
misses its highest purpose unless it leads the child from
nature up to the Author of nature. Unless the seen
points the child to the unseen, unless from care and
protection he looks to a Protector, through function and
purpose and plan he sees a Planner, nature has not re-
vealed to teacher and pupils its greatest thought, its
grandest lesson, — eternal law, eternal unity.

THE HIGHEST AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 119

CHAPTER V.

THE HIGHEST AIM OF NATURE STUDY : TO ADAPT
THE CHILD TO HIS ENVIRONMENT.

IN the previous chapter we have considered as the
great aim of nature study or education in general the
development of the individual child. If we stopped
with the individual our outlook would be narrow. It
is not until we think of the child in his relations to
his environment that we get the broadest and highest
views.

Even in discussing the development of the individual
child, we have found that those aims are low which
relate merely to the individual, and the aims become
higher just in proportion as they bring the individual
into closer relation with that outside himself. The
acquisition of knowledge and development of power are
comparatively low aims, because they relate to the indi-
vidual. The cultivation of the sympathies, and of the
aesthetic, ethical, and spiritual nature, is a higher aim,
because it tends to bring the child into closer relations

with his environment.

. ' ' % ' .

Now we want to consider the higher aim of nature
study, — to perfect the relations between the child and

120 NATURE STUDY.

his surroundings, or to adapt the child to his environ-
ment.

The environment of the child may be considered as
threefold, — his physical environment, or nature ; his in-
tellectual environment, or man as an intellectual being ;
and his spiritual environment, or God. This division may
be somewhat artificial, but it is very convenient. That
education is incomplete which does not adapt the child
to this threefold environment, — nature, man, God.

A '':. •

The question naturally arises, "What is meant by
adaptation to environment ? " In much of the work of
the past we have assumed, or have seemed to assume,
that adaptation to environment means learning about
our environment, so that we can control it, or make it
minister to our material needs or desires.

Too often we have considered almost entirely our
material needs, and have looked on nature, man, and
God as means for supplying these needs. This has
been most apparent, perhaps, in our attitude toward
nature. Nature has been considered almost entirely as
a storehouse of purely material riches. Our natural
resources have been material resources. Forests have
been lumber and little more except to the few, "the
children, women, and poets " as some one has grouped
those who see in forests more than lumber. The birds
have been the farmer's bane or the farmer's friends
according to the state of knowledge, but not often, ex-
cept to the group before named, the sweetest singers
ever heard, sources of joy and inspiration. The flowers

THE HIGHEST AIM OF NATURE STUDY. llH

— most high-school teachers of botany have recollec-
tions of interviews with parents who did not want their
children to waste their time studying such things. They
wanted their boys to learn something practical.

But nature can do much more than minister to our
material wants. If we will but let her, she ministers
to far higher needs. To the eye that sees she comes
full of beauty, a solace and inspiration, a messenger
from above. The sunset and clouds, the frost and snow-
flakes, the leaves and flowers, the hills and valleys, the
birds and bees, appeal to that in man which is higher
than the mere material. Not until we gain from nature
these higher riches, not until we can appreciate her
beauty and the story she tells, can we realize what
nature can give us. These higher gifts of nature we
can appropriate without much regard to deeds or titles.
No one needs a title to make his own the riches of the
sunset or the beauty of the landscape. The amount of
this higher wealth which we can call our own is only
limited by our capacity for receiving or appropriating.

I do not own an inch of land,

But all I see is mine ;
The orchards and the mowing-fields,

The lawns and gardens fine.
The winds my tax-collectors are,

They bring me tithes divine,
Wild scents and subtle essences,

A tribute rare and free ;
And, more magnificent than all,

My window keeps for me
A glimpse of blue immensity,

A little strip of sea.

LUCY LABCOM.

122 • NATURE STUDY.

MY TENANTS.

I never had a title-deed

To my estate. But little heed

Eyes give to me, when I walk by

My fields, to see who occupy.

Some clumsy men who lease and hire

And cut my trees to feed their fire,

Own all the land that I possess,

And tax my tenants to distress.

And if I said I had been first,

And, reaping, left for them the worst,

That they were beggars at the hands

Of dwellers on my royal lands,

With idle laugh of passing scorn

As unto words of madness born,

They would reply.

I do not care ;

They cannot crowd the charmed air ;
They cannot touch the bonds I hold
On all that they have bought and sold.
They can waylay my faithful bees,
Who, lulled to sleep, with fatal ease,
Are robbed. Is one day's honey sweet
Thus snatched? All summer round my feet
In golden drifts from plumy wings,
In shining drops on fragrant things,
Free gift, it came to me. My corn,
With burnished banners, morn by morn,
Comes out to meet and honor me ;
The glittering ranks spread royally
Far as I walk. When hasty greed
Tramples it down for food and seed,
I, with a certain veiled delight,
Hear half the crop is lost by blight.

Letter of law these may fulfil,
Plant where they like, slay what they will,
Count up their gains and make them great,
Nevertheless, the whole estate

THE HIGHEST AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 123

Always belongs to me and mine.
We are the only royal line.
And though I have no title-deed,
My tenants pay me loyal heed
When our sweet fields I wander by
To see what strangers occupy.

HELEN HUNT JACKSON.

In our study of nature with the children, in aiming
to adapt the children to their environment, we can
scarcely emphasize too strongly this most important
step in adaptation, the training of our children to ap-
preciate and appropriate the higher riches all about
them. Not until they appreciate, not only the utility
or practical value, but the beauty and symbolism, of
their environment, are they fitted or prepared for real
adaptation to environment.

This training to appreciate and appropriate all that
we receive or may receive is only partial, one-sided
adaptation. Not until we realize that adaptation im-
plies something more than appropriation, will complete
adaptation be possible.

Man has lived beyond the time when he centred the
universe about this little world. But he still, to a con-
siderable extent, regards his environment as a mere ad-
junct and servant to his little self. We have adapted
ourselves to our physical environment by stripping our
land of its forests, our air of its birds, our waters of
their fish, by using up in the most reckless manner our
natural resources. Nature has been our slave, from
whom we could take anything, to whom we owed noth-
ing. We have often adapted ourselves to our intel-

124 NATURE STUDY.

lectual environment by getting from our neighbor all
we could, and giving him in return as little as possible.
Our adaptation to our spiritual environment has been
equally one-sided and selfish. Too often we have taken
all, and given the least possible service in return.

We are learning that such adaptation is in the end
unprofitable, unwise, utterly wrong. The farmer soon
learns that he must give to his fields if he would get
the most from them. We are discovering as a nation
that we must protect our forests, and are just begin-
ning to plant where we formerly used our energies in
destroying our trees.

The growing recognition of the brotherhood of man,
of the fact that we are to an extent our brother's
keeper, is an appreciation of the same principle. We
are realizing better than ever before that our fellows
are not merely instruments, tools to be used for our
own development or advancement, from whom we are
to take all that we can get. We owe something to
them. Men are slowly learning to appreciate that what
they get from their fellow-men depends very largely on
what they give to them.

We like to think that the same idea is modifying
our understanding of our spiritual relations ; that a
larger proportion of mankind is realizing that the
church, or religion, is not a plan for getting as much as
possible from our spiritual environment, and giving as
little as possible in return. Do not a greater number
than ever before regard the church as an opportunity
for larger service ? We think so.

THE HIGHEST AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 125

Adaptation to environment means more than making
our environment minister -to our needs, getting from it
all we possibly can, and giving the least possible return.
We owe something to our environment, whether nature,
man, or God; and adaptation is incomplete until we
learn to recognize and perform what we owe.

We have considered as successive aims in nature
study the acquisition of knowledge, or facts, the devel-
opment of intellectual power, the awakening of interest,
thq cultivation of sympathy, the development of the
higher nature, sesthetic, ethical, spiritual. We shall
find that in the ultimate analysis these are all subor-
dinate to the highest aim, — adaptation to environment.
They all prepare for more complete adaptation to en-
vironment, to nature, man, and God.

The question now arises, How, through or by means
of nature study, can the child be better adapted to his
threefold environment?

The child is first brought into relation with the
physical world. His early wants are physical. He
gains everything through his senses, and they tell him
only of his physical surroundings. Of his intellectual
and spiritual environment he knows almost nothing at
first. What he gains later comes directly or indirectly
through the medium of his senses. In his earliest edu-
cation we must use matter and methods which appeal
most strongly to his senses. These we find in nature
study.

The first step in adapting the child to his environ-

126 NATURE STUDY.

ment is to lead him to appreciate what he receives from
nature, and what he owes to nature.

To do this we must first open his eyes to the beauties
of the world about him, — the beauty not merely of form
and color, but the higher beauty of use or work or func-
tion, and adaptation to work. It is not enough to
merely talk or read to him about the world of sense.
We must help him to see how much of beauty there is
in the most common things ; how much they have to
do, and how well they are fitted for their work. The
most common plants, — the bean and pea and dandelion,
the plantain and burdock and thistle, — the trees and
buds and leaves, the birds and insects and fishes, the
stones at our feet, are full of beauty and grace if we
will but look for them. When the child has watched
the bean and pea grow from seed to fruit, and noted
how each part has a work, and how well it does its
work; when he has seen the buds emerge from their
protecting scales, throw out leaf and flower, and go to
work ; when he has discovered how the dandelion feeds
and protects and ripens her seeds, and finally scatters
them to the four winds of heaven; when he has lis-
tened to the song of the robin or bluebird, and peered
into her nest as she has fed her little ones, — he appre-
ciates, as he cannot be led to appreciate in any other
way, the beauties of his natural environment.

As the child understands better the beauty of his sur-
roundings, the beauty of being, and the higher beauty
of doing ; as he discovers how much he gets from na-
ture, he realizes better that he owes something to the

THE HIGHEST AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 127

world about him. He protects where he once destroyed.
He takes care of the flowers which before he trod upon.
The birds are his friends. He is learning to love them
as he understands how much they give him. He is
adapting himself to his physical environment; not
merely appropriating, but giving in return.

We have already referred, in Chapter IV, to the im-
portance and necessity of leading the children to express
their appreciation by action. As they take care of plant
and animal they will appreciate and realize what they ,
receive from and owe to them.

Every mother and teacher who has studied nature
with her children from this standpoint, knows how
marked, in this respect, is the effect on the minds of
the children, on their attitude toward nature ; how
quickly they respond, how soon they are brought into
touch or sympathy with nature. If our work in nature
study in the elementary schools does no more than
strengthen or fix this attitude toward nature, it does
much. If it does less than this, it does little.

How can nature study help the child to appreciate
what he receives from and owes to his intellectual en-
vironment, man?

As this right attitude toward, one part of his sur-
roundings is fixed, as his sympathy with nature is
broadened and deepened, it cannot but affect the atti-
tude of the child toward the rest of his environment.
He cannot learn to appreciate nature, and what he owes
to nature, without being in a mental condition better to
appreciate all of his surroundings.

128 NATURE STUDY.

Furthermore, nature, rightly studied, is, to the child
at least, a symbol of his higher surroundings. As he
sees how much Mother Nature does for her children,
how carefully she protects and feeds seed and bud, leaf
and flower, how she looks after, plans for, and controls
plant and animal and mineral, Mother Nature helps him
to better understand how much his mother and friends
have done for him.

As the child studies nature, he learns to appreciate
better what has been the source and inspiration of much
of the most beautiful in literature and art. Nature
study opens his eyes to much of the most beautiful part
of his intellectual environment. One who, like the
writer, has begun his right sympathetic study of nature
in his adult years, when he could understand the effect
upon himself, can realize that an appreciation of nature
opens a new world in literature. Much in Bryant,
Wordsworth, Longfellow, Tennyson, Lowell, Whittier,
Helen Hunt Jackson, Lucy Larcom, Burroughs, Thoreau,
and a host of other writers, which before meant little,
has become full of beauty, because he has some appre-
ciation of the world of nature which inspired these
writers, and has read something of the story which
nature told them.

Not less is the child helped to appreciate many of the
beauties of art. He who never studies the landscape
about him or the clouds above him, who scarcely looks
at the sunset or notices the trees or flowers or birds, is
utterly incapable of really appreciating the pictures
which these have inspired.

THE HIGHEST AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 129

Even more helpful is the right study of nature in
leading the child to realize and perform what he owes
to man, — his intellectual environment. He discovers
that everything about him is doing, helping as well as
being helped. The leaves, at first so carefully pro-
tected by scales and gum and fur, push out and go to
work to help root and stem and flower, and soon begin
to protect other buds and leaves. The flower, at first
ministered to by every other part of the plant, learns as
it unfolds that it has a work, a wonderful work, to do.
From it new plants must come. The water is con-
stantly helped and being helped. In the sky, in the
stream, down under the ground, in plant and animal,
it is always at work. Nature is a great mutual co-
operation society, whose motto is, "Help and be helped."
Is the child the only exception ? or will he learn from
nature the lesson that he not only receives much, but
that he owes much ?

These lessons come with most force direct from
Mother Nature herself. She is the best preacher. The
lessons thus absorbed, imbibed by the children often
unconsciously, make a far deeper impression than the
" Thou shalt " and « Thou shalt not."

As the child is thus learning to appreciate nature
and man better, will he not be lifted toward the Author
of nature? Will not the protection and care which
he sees in plant and animal lead his mind to a Pro-
tector ? As he discovers in everything about him pur-
pose and plan, will not his thoughts be lifted toward
the Planner? Will not his better appreciation of the

130 NATURE STUDY.

beauty and function and unity of his physical environ-
ment, and his better understanding of his human en-
vironment, help him to appreciate better what comes
from the Author of all, — his spiritual environment ?

And will the effect stop there ? Can it ? As the
child sees the wisdom and power of the Creator shown
in his works, as he begins to appreciate the beauty and
unity in all nature, as he realizes something of the in-
finite care with which leaf and flower and seed are
planned and protected, will he not be drawn toward the
Protector and Planner? Will he not better appreciate
and better perform what he owes to the God and Father
of all?

Others have expressed so effectively this higher value
or aesthetic content of nature study that it seems appro-
priate in concluding this discussion to quote from two
of our poets.

GRACE AND HER FRIENDS.

Your walk is lonely, blue-eyed Grace,
Down the long forest-road to school,

Where shadows troop, at dismal pace,
From sullen chasm to sunless pool.

Are you not often, little maid,

Beneath the sighing trees afraid ?

" Afraid, — beneath the tall, strong trees,
That bend their arms to shelter me,

And whisper down, with dew and breeze,
Sweet sounds that float on lovingly,

Till every gorge and chasm seems

Thrilled through and through with fairy dreams ?

THE HIGHEST AIM OF NATURE STUDY. 131

" Fast to the slippery precipice

I see the nodding harebell cling :
In that blue eye no fear there is ;

Its hold is firm, the frail, free thing !
The harebell's Guardian cares for me :
So I am in safe company.

" The woodbine clambers up the cliff,
And seems to murmur, ' Little Grace,

The sunshine were less welcome if
It brought not every day your face.'

Red leaves slip down from maples high,

And touch my cheek as they flit by.

" I feel at home with everything

That has its dwelling in the wood ;
With flowers that laugh, and birds that sing ;

Companions beautiful and good,
Brothers and sisters everywhere ;
And over all, our Father's care.

" In rose-time or in berry-time,
When ripe seeds fall or buds peep out,

While green the turf or white the rime,
There's something to be glad about:

It makes my heart bound just to pass

The sunbeams dancing on the grass.

" And when the bare rocks shut me in
Where not a blade of grass will grow,

My happy fancies soon begin
To warble music, rich and low,

And paint what eyes could never see :

My thoughts are company for me.

" What does it mean to be alone ?

And how is any one afraid.
Who feels the dear God on His throne,

Sending His sunshine through the shade,

132 NATURE STUDY.

Warming the damp sod into bloom,
And smiling off the thicket's gloom ?

" At morning, down the wood-path cool
The fluttering leaves make cheerful talk ;

After the stifled day at school,
I hear, along my homeward walk,

The airy wisdom of the wood,

Far easiest to be understood.

" I whisper to the winds ; I kiss
The rough old oak, and clasp his bark ;

No farewell of the thrush I miss ;
I lift the soft veil of the dark,

And say to bird and breeze and tree,

4 Good-night ! Good friends you are to me ! ' "

LUCY LARCOM

0 for boyhood's time of June,
Crowding years in one brief moon,
When all things I heard or saw,
Me, their master, waited for.

1 was rich in flowers and trees ;
Humming birds and honey bees ;

^ For my sport the squirrel played,

Plied the snouted mole his spade ;
For my taste the blackberry cone
Purpled over hedge and stone.
Laughed the brook for my delight
Through the day and through the night,
Whispering at the garden wall,
Talked with me from fall to fall.
Mine the sand-rimmed pickerel pond,
Mine the walnut slopes beyond,
Mine on bending orchard trees
Apples of Hesperides!
Still, as my horizon grew,
Larger grew my riches too.

THE HIGHEST AIM OP NATURE STUDY. 183

A lover's claim is mine on all
I see, to have and hold,
The rose light of perpetual hills,
And sunsets never cold.

Aloft on sky and mountain wall
Are God's great pictures hung.
Beauty seen is never lost,
God's colors all are fast.
The glory of this sunset heaven
Into my soul has passed.

WHITTIEB.

134 NATURE STUDY.

CHAPTER VI.

THE LIMITATIONS OF NATURE STUDY.

The Two Centres of Education : Nature and Man.

IN the two preceding chapters the aim of nature
study has been discussed, and its educational value
brought out. So strongly have these been emphasized,
it may seem that the writer considers nature study all-
sufficient as a means of education ; that, as has been said
by another, " Nature studies contain in themselves the
possibilities of a complete education, not excepting the
fruits which have hitherto been ascribed to the humani-
ties alone."

The educational 'value of nature study has been em-
phasized to bring into near and broad perspective a
study which has been in the past very near the vanish-
ing-point. In the great majority of schools to-day,
nature study, the study of our immediate physical envi-
ronment, is utterly ignored. There seems little danger
for years to come that it will be made too prominent.

In the tendency seen in so many directions in our
elementary schools to turn from " man study " (lan-
guage, history, political geography) to nature study,
there is a possibility, however, of going too far. The

THE LIMITATIONS OF NATURE STUDY. 135

pendulum once started is apt to swing to the opposite
extreme. Something of this has been seen in science
work in higher institutions. From the old classical
extreme, when a liberal education did not include any
physical science, but was all language, mathematics, and
history, the pendulum swung to the opposite extreme.
Often a purely scientific education, without any attention
to the humanities, has been regarded as the best. To-
day many of our universities and colleges recognize that
a broad, liberal education requires a due proportion of
science and the humanities. The conviction is growing
that an education purely scientific may be even more
narrow than one purely classical.

Nature study is not all-sufficient. It has its limita-
tions. Nature study, or science, does not contain within
itself the possibility of a complete or well-rounded ele-
mentary education. Harm may be done to the cause
of education, and the progress of nature study may be
retarded, by emphasizing it too strongly at the expense
of other studies equally important.

As has already been said, the child's environment
may be considered as threefold, — nature, man, and God.
With his spiritual environment, God, he is brought into
relation, at least in his formal education, only through
his relations to nature and man. If it is true, as has
been asserted in the preceding chapter, that the highest
aim of education is to perfect the relation between the
child and his environment, then the immediate object
of formal education is to bring the child into right

136 NATURE STUDY.

relations with nature and man. Behind, beyond, above
this is the perfecting of the relations between the child
and God.

We may group all formal education about the two
centres, — nature and man. The child must study and
be brought into better relations with both nature and
man ; if he is not, his adaptation to his environment
is to that extent incomplete or imperfect.

If all his education consists in the study of man, —
his language, literature, history, geography, and methods
of calculating and reasoning, — the education is narrow.
It does not fit the child to understand, appreciate, or
properly make use of or control, the physical world in
which he lives. He is adapted to but part of his envi-
ronment, and to that extent is only partly educated.

If the education of the child is limited to the study
of his physical environment, nature study, or science,
and the work growing out of this study, his preparation
for life may be even more defective. If he has not
studied man, his history, his literature and art, — that is,
the use man has made of his physical surroundings,
the beauty man has "half created, half perceived,"
in and from his environment, — if he knows nothing of
man's conquest of nature, of man's social and political
relations, and has learned nothing from the past experi-
ences of man, then he cannot be adapted to his human
environment, and is not well equipped for life with his
fellow-men.

In so far as man neglects the sympathetic, reverent
study of nature, his understanding of its Author will

THE LIMITATIONS OF NATUltE STUDY. 187

be defective or erroneous. In so far as he is ignorant
of physical laws, he will fail to understand many spirit-
ual laws of which physical laws are counterparts or
downward extensions. In so far as he is unfamiliar
with the phenomena of the physical world, he is unable
to fully appreciate spiritual truths, or, at least, to con-
vey spiritual truths in the most effective manner to
those whose world is largely a physical world. The
Great Teacher almost invariably used the simplest phys-
ical phenomena about him, those with which his hearers
and all mankind were most familiar, — the sparrow, the
lilies, the grain of corn, the mustard seed, — as the means
•or medium for conveying the highest spiritual truths.
The teachers of to-day, whether in home or school or
pulpit, and particularly those working with the little
folks, who live so largely in a world of sense, can do
no better than follow his example.

On the other hand, the study of nature alone, no mat-
ter how sympathetically and reverently pursued, does
not give the child an adequate knowledge of his spirit-
ual environment, does not fit him to appreciate all that
he receives from God, nor to appreciate and perform all
that he owes to God. In history he sees even higher
manifestations of protection and care, of purpose and
plan and a Planner, than in nature. Some comprehen-
sion of God's dealings with, and God's relations to, man
are essential, and cannot be gained from nature study.
It must come from and through " man study." With-
out this the child cannot be best adapted or related to
his spiritual environment.

138 NATURE STUDY.

A complete education, then, even in the elementary
school, must provide for the study of these two parts of
the child's environment. The work of the school must
be grouped about the two centres, nature and man.

How can or should this be done ? It is much easier
to gather school-work about one centre, man, as has
been largely done in the past. Are these two centres
equally important, should they be made equally promi-
nent, throughout the school-life of the child ? A little
study of the child and his relations to nature and man
will help in answering these questions.

With nature, his physical environment, the child is-
brought into relation very largely through his senses.
Nature (as we use the term) is primarily a world of
sense. The child sees it, feels it, hears, tastes, smells
it. The plants, animals, minerals, the flowers, birds,
and insects, the rocks and soil, the water and clouds,
appeal to the eye and ear. He begins to see and hear
and feel them as soon as he is born. His earliest edu-
cation in babyhood consists almost entirely in becoming
familiar with nature, this world of sense, through his
senses.

Nature thus indicates unmistakably that the earliest
education of the child should be very largely centred
about and based upon that which appeals to his senses.
Building on what he sees, and therefore knows, he can
not only develop his power of seeing, but can exercise
the imagination with which he is so richly endowed.
He gives to bird and flower every human attribute, and

THE LIMITATIONS OF NATURE STUDY. 139

makes the brook and valley he has studied a starting-
point for wanderings by the great streams, and through
the valleys of other lands.

Even in the earliest school-years not all his work,
however, should be a study of nature. He must begin
his study of man. But that must be largely limited to
a study of man's relation to nature. From the study
of what he can see, and therefore can understand, in
his home and the home relations, he can pass to the
homes of other children, — of Agoonack, the child of
the north ; of Gemila, the child of the desert.

Man, as an intellectual being, does not appeal to the
little child. His early relations with mother are purely
physical. He has little or nothing at first to give him
any idea of man as a mind, or the possessor of an intel-
lect; nothing to relate him to his intellectual environ-
ment. As he grows older, he begins to understand
something of the mind of man, but through the medium
of his sense perceptions. Not until several years after
birth does he show much intellectual power. Not un-
til then is he well fitted for the formal study of his
intellectual environment. As his intellect develops, he
is more closely related to the intellectual world about
him ; his intellectual environment becomes more im-
portant, and its study can and should be made more
prominent.

If this is true, then the two centres of education are
not equally important at all times, and should not be
made equally prominent throughout the school course.
In the earlier years of the school-life, nature should be

140 NATURE STUDY.

made more prominent ; in the later years, man becomes
more important, and should be given more prominence.

Theoretically, perhaps, it may be difficult to tell just
when the child's intellect is so well developed that he
can pursue to the best advantage such studies as history
and literature. As a practical question, however, these
must be taken up not later than the fourth to the sixth
year of school-life, or in the case of the average Ameri-
can child they will never be studied. Probably ninety
per cent of our school-children never get beyond the
eighth or ninth grade. Forty or fifty per cent end
their school-life at the close of the fifth or sixth school-
year.

The recognition of these two centres of education
must largely determine the character of the work in
nature study throughout the school course. At first
the children must study nature just as they see it, put-
ting all emphasis on personal observation, and on in-
ference based on personal observation. Later, nature
should be studied in its relation to man, — the discov-
eries man has made ; the way in which he has grouped
natural objects and phenomena, leading to systematic
science ; the use man has made and is making of nature,
bringing out the practical side, mining, manufacturing,
commerce, and correlating the work with geography
and history ; the thoughts which nature has inspired in
other minds, leading to literature and art.

The work in the distinctively "man studies," such
as history and literature, is similarly influenced by the
recognition of these two centres. The earlier work in

THE LIMITATIONS OF NATUEE STUDY. 141

literature must be that relating to nature, or to man in
his relations to nature. This the children can compre-
hend and appreciate. The earlier work in history will
be a study of man's relation to nature, how he lives, and
how much nature has helped man. For the social rela-
tions, except those grouped about the home, the little
child is not ready. He knows nothing about them.
He cannot understand the history of the intellectual
and social struggles and development of mankind. That
must come later.

The grouping of the child's school education about
these two centres should be, and is to a considerable
extent, recognized in all school-work. The expressive
work of the school — reading, writing, drawing, mould-
ing — must, in the earlier years, be largely based on what
the child can see, and largely grouped about nature as a
centre. Later he is better fitted to understand, talk, and
read and write about his intellectual environment, man.

Geography must be at first physical geography, the
study of the earth itself, beginning with the immediate
physical environment of the child. Later he is pre-
pared for political and commercial geography, the earth
in its relations to man.

The first limitation of nature study depends on the
fact that it includes an adequate study of but one part
of our environment, — nature. Through nature study
alone the child cannot be most closely related or best
adapted to all his environment. Hence it cannot be
made a basis for a complete, well-rounded education.

142 NATURE STUDY.

The second limitation of the educational value of na-
ture study, or science, depends on the fact that it does
not provide for any adequate study of the experiences
and examples of the past, and does not impress those
lessons and truths which can be most readily and effec-
tively gained from the study of human experiences and
human examples.

The third limitation of nature study depends on the
fact that while it may be, with history and literature, a
basis for other studies of the school, — reading, writ-
ing, drawing, geography, and, to some extent, arithme-
tic, — it does not necessarily provide for adequate formal
work in these studies. It is a content study. It gives
matter or ideas. Through the other formal studies
these ideas must be related and expressed. In nature
study or literature or history, the essential thing is the
idea ; in the formal studies, the important thing is
the form, means, or method of expressing or relating
the ideas.

When the child has studied the robin, and is writing
about it, the ideas he expresses are gained from nature
study; but he must know something of language, of
spelling and capitals and punctuation, to express these
ideas properly.

It may be possible to make the formal studies —
such as language, drawing, and arithmetic — entirely
incidental to the content studies, — science, literature,
and history. In every lesson in nature study the child
should be studying, often unconsciously, language.

Most lessons in history and literature may be made

THE LIMITATIONS OF NATURE STUDY. 143

lessons in geography. The experienced, well-equipped,
far-seeing teacher may possibly entirely dispense with •
definite, formal lessons in language, — spelling, capitals,
punctuation, grammar, — drawing, geography, and arith-
metic, and teach them as incidental to nature study,
history, and literature.

But the average teacher cannot do it to advantage'.
The inexperienced teacher is almost certain to fail in
the attempt. In not a few schools the attempt has
been made to teach all language work incidentally.
The result has almost invariably been detrimental to
the language work. In some schools arithmetic has
thus been taught incidentally as an adjunct to nature
study. Very rarely have the results been satisfactory.

In the average school, with average teachers, under
average conditions, there must be more or less formal
work in the formal or expressive studies, work supple-
mentary to or independent of the work in these lines
based on the content studies. The amount of this
formal work which may be necessary depends on the
wisdom, tact, experience, and breadth of the individual
teacher.

The limitations of nature study depend, in the ulti-
mate analysis, on the fact that it does not include any
adequate study of one division of the child's environ-
ment, man ; that it does not give the child the benefit
of the experiences of the past ; and that it does not,
under average conditions, provide for adequate work in
the formal studies of the school, particularly language,
drawing, and arithmetic.

144 NATURE STUDY.

CHAPTER VII.

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD IN NATURE STUDY.

THE discussion of almost any subject involves the
consideration of three questions, — " What ? " " Why ? "
" How ? " We have answered two of these questions.

The consideration of method involves three topics, -
the study of material, the selection of material, and the
arrangement of material and formulation of a course in
nature study. The term "method" is frequently re-
stricted to the first of these, the method in studying
material. This may be discussed under three main
heads : First, the presentation of matter to the children ;
second, the expression by the children of what they
have learned, involving a consideration of the methods
of relating nature study to the expressive work of the
school, — language, drawing, moulding, painting, music ;
third, the method of relating nature study to other school-
work, particularly literature, geography, and arithmetic.

In this and the next chapters we propose to consider
the principles which must largely determine all method ;
in the two chapters following these we can study the
application of these principles in the presentation of
matter to the children, taking up in later chapters the
other phases of method.

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 145

While our method must be determined by our appre-
ciation of aim and understanding of children, it will be
modified by other elements. It seems wise, therefore,
in discussing method, to consider in order : —

First. The aims of nature study or of education in
general, discussed in Chapters IV and V.

Second. Those characteristics or laws of child nature
and child development most important, or having the
greatest influence, in determining method.

Third. The other conditions which may modify
method. These affect more particularly the selection
and arrangement of material. They are considered in
Chapter XIV.

The ultimate aim, as discussed and formulated in
Chapter V, is : To adapt the child to his threefold envi-
ronment, — physical, intellectual, spiritual, — or, stated
more definitely, to train the child to appreciate what
he receives from, and to recognize and perform what he
owes to, nature, man, and God.

Considering the individual child, the following sub-
ordinate aims were formulated in Chapter IV, all in-
cluded in the final aim, already stated : —

First. To awaken the interest and cultivate the sym-
pathy of the child.

Second. To develop his higher nature, aesthetic, ethi-
cal, and spiritual, and lead toward God.

Third. To develop the intellectual powers of the
child, and form right habits.

Fourth. To gain a knowledge of his environment.

146 NATURE STUDY.

»

Subordinate to the general aims enumerated are others
relating to the material. Each series of lessons and
each lesson in nature study has as its • immediate aim
the presentation of certain matter, and the developing
of certain ideas and relations. The teacher is planning
to study with her pupils the robin. The immediate
aim may be to discover all they can about the robin.
Back of that may be the emphasizing and clinching of
those points of structure which will help the children
to compare the robin with other birds. Back of this is
the putting of the robin in its proper group or order of
birds, relating this group to other orders of birds, com-
paring birds with other backboned animals, and finally
finding their place in the animal kingdom. Above all
these aims is the development of the powers of the child,
— the powers of discrimination, judgment, and classi-
fication, and of reducing to unity. Highest of all is the
training of the child to use these powers for the good
of himself and of the universe of which he is a part.
Each lesson should have an immediate aim or point,
subordinate and well related to the aim of the series of
lessons, and all planned and conducted with reference
to the ultimate aim.

The relation of aim to method and of subordinate
aims to general aim has been illustrated in the lessons
on the rabbit, Chapter II.

The method of each individual teacher in presenting
material to her pupils, or in selecting and arranging or
relating topics for study, will be mainly determined by
her power or habit of looking from and through imme-

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 147

diate aims to. the higher ultimate aim. If she can see
little farther than the examination, she will find little
place for nature study, and have little use for method.
Her method will be a process of " cramming." If she
thinks mainly or only of developing the intellectual pow-
ers of her pupils, — that is, the powers of observation,
expression, and thought, — she will understand the use-
lessness of "cramming." She will insist on individual
work, individual seeing and thinking and telling, but
will neglect the highest aspects or content of nature
study. Her method will be rigidly scientific. If she
thinks only of preparing her pupils for practical life,
of fitting them to earn their bread and butter, she will
dwell on the economic relations of what she studies
with her boys and girls. If she keeps ever before her
the ultimate aim, the fitting and training of the chil-
dren for the best possible relations with all their envi-
ronment, nature, man, and God, she will find time and
place in her plan of work for that which will appeal to
and develop the higher nature of her pupils, as well as
for that through which they may gain useful knowledge
and develop power.

It is important that the pupil, as well as the teacher,
have a definite aim. His aim may be immediate and
narrow, while the teacher sees the higher aims ; but, in
general, the pupil will do definite work in proportion *
as he realizes a definite aim. The pupil who does not
know the aim, is like the child who is taken out for a
walk without any objective point. Both wander about
aimlessly. The pupil who, at the beginning of the

148 NATURE STUDY.

lesson, is impressed with the aim of the work in hand,
who knows exactly what he is looking for or trying to
do, like the child who knows he is going to grandma's
or to the toy-store, is much more apt to go directly
toward his destination. When they are asked to study
the buttercup, most children will do very little. When
they understand that each pupil is to see how much he
can discover about the parts of the buttercup flower,
what each part does, how it does it, how it is fitted for
its work, each is much more apt to observe and think
for himself.

The aim must be stated in such a form, however, as
not to tell the pupils what they should discover for
themselves. When the children are told, " To-day we
are going outdoors to discover how and from what dirt
or soil, is made," they are given something definite to
do, and are apt to do and think much more than if they
are told, " To-day we will find that rocks break down
into soil or dirt, and that leaves decay to form soil."
In the second case they do not go out to investigate for
themselves, but simply to verify what the teacher has
told them.

Now comes the question, What characteristics of
the child mind are most marked or what laws of child
development have the most weight in determining
method ?

In genuine nature study the child is studying under
the most natural conditions. He is gaining knowledge
for himself through his senses, the natural method.

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 149

In no school-work do teachers have better opportu-
nities for studying children. Experience has shown
that nature study, more than any other work in the
elementary school, leads the teacher to study her chil-
dren and adapt her methods to them. In nature study,
genuine nature study, teacher and pupils are working
together, fellow-investigators of truth.

In such child study we discover certain character-
istics or laws in the development of children (and al-
most equally marked in the adult) which determine
method and require special consideration. These are : -

First. Sense-perception, as determining the medium
through which, and the method by which, the child
must originally gain his ideas or impressions or per-
cepts.

Second. Apperception, as determining the means or
method by which new ideas must be assimilated and
incorporated with the old ideas, forming concepts or
general notions.

Third. Interest, as determining the condition for and
the method of gaining the most effective sense-percep-
tions, and of relating these percepts in apperception.

Fourth. Imagination, the power and process of form-
ing mind pictures or mental images of what is seen or
perceived (visualization), of recalling or reproducing
these mind pictures (memory or reproductive imagi-
nation), and of modifying and combining the mental
images of what has been perceived so as to picture
what has not been perceived (constructive imagination).

Fifth. Sequence, the relating of ideas in a series, as

150 NATURE STUDY.

determining, or rather expressing, the order in which
the mind most readily receives and retains ideas or
impressions.

Sixth. Unity, combining or merging diverse ideas into
one, the condition to which the mind strives to reduce
all ideas, and with which alone the mind is satisfied.

Seventh. Expression, as determining the means by
which the child can convey his ideas to others, and at
the same time fix or impress these ideas in his own
mind, and gain power to get ideas from others.

By what we may call the law of sense-perception, we
mean that the child must originally gain his ideas
through his senses. All entirely new matter must
come through his senses.

When we attempt to give the child new ideas
through the artificial symbols which we call words, we
often violate this law, and fail in our work. This law
is of the greatest importance and widest application in
science, or nature study. True science, or nature study,
probably more than any other other line of work, must
be founded and built upon sense-perception.

This is most essential in work in primary grades, and
in any grade when beginning nature study. In later
study, much can be founded or built upon the sense-
perceptions and the mental pictures gained in earlier
work.

Just here special care is necessary. Unless teachers
take every precaution, make sure that pupils see with
their own eyes, instead of merely listening or absorbing,

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 151

all later work will be weak, because built on weak
foundations.

The education of the past has been almost entirely
an education of listening and absorbing, and appropriat-
ing, not of seeing and getting for ourselves. Teachers
have learned to depend on books. In the writer's expe-
rience with teachers, one of the most common questions
has been, " Where can I find a book which will tell
me all about it?" Teachers have given to their pu-
pils, instead of leading the pupils to get for themselves.
In nature study the first great struggle of teachers will
be at this point, — to overcome the habits so firmly
fixed ; to allow the younger pupils, and encourage and
compel the older pupils, to use and depend on their own
senses, to really base their work on sense-perception.

The necessity of basing all nature study on sense-
perception, of laying the foundations in actual seeing
and observation by each pupil, must greatly influence
method ; it must largely determine the selection of ma-
terial and the order of study. Other things being equal,
we must select for study that which can be best per-
ceived or seen, and begin our study of anything with
that which appeals most to the senses. This has been
illustrated in Chapter II.

It must be remembered, also (as was brought out
in Chapter III), that knowledge must be based not
merely on sense-perception, but on " clear and certain
perception." Too much emphasis cannot be placed
on careful, exact observation, so far as the children are
capable of exact work.

152 NATURE STUDY.

The law of apperception is an expression for the
fact that the mind receives and retains those ideas
which are or can be related to what is already in the
mind, and, further, that it changes what it thus retains,
connects it with, and makes it like, what the mind had
before.

What any one sees depends on what he has already
seen, what is already in his mind. Looking at the
leaves on a tree, the artist may see the shades of color
and play of light and shade, and little more ; the bot-
anist may see the resemblance to leaves of related plants,
or perhaps their special adaptation to their work or
function ; the child may see only the movements of the
leaves in the wind, or their bright colors, or the wreath
he once made from them. All may look at the same
leaves, and yet each sees something different. Each
sees with and through that which he has already seen.

In this respect the mind is much like the body. No
matter how much or what kind of food is placed before
or taken into the body, the body only retains that food
which it can assimilate ; that is, relate to and make like
what is already a part of the body. Apperception is
thus the mental equivalent of physiological assimilation.

In the ultimate analysis the laws that we have enu-
merated depend, very largely at least, on apperception.
We have seen that sense-perception depends on apper-
ception. Interest is based on apperception. The child
is interested in that which appeals to him ; that is, in
that which can be related to something already in him-
self. This is the reason why children are so much

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 153

more interested in life and action than in mere form
and structure, and why young children are so much
interested in nature's babies. Imagination can only
use the material or ideas gained by perception, and
modified and related by apperception. The law of
sequence results from apperception. By sequence we
mean bringing matter to the child step by step in such
an order that each new idea may be most clearly apper-
ceived, that is, seized by and correlated with the mass
of ideas which the previous steps have either given to
the mind or brought into consciousness. The law of
unity is simply an expression for the tendency which
the mind has to relate everything which it perceives.
The more closely the relations are established in all
directions, the more perfect is the resulting unity. We
shall find later, in our discussion of expression, that
methods of expression must be determined largely by
reference to the same principle of apperception.

The law of apperception must, then, very largely
determine methods in nature study. To get the best
results, we must not merely bring the matter before
the children where each child can see it, — that is, base
our work on sense-perception, — but we must call up,
bring into consciousness, by our questioning, or by
encouraging the children to talk freely, what is already
in their minds relating to the material ; find out what
the children already know, and take hold of and empha-
size those ideas which will make the best foundation
for the new matter we want to present. This is most
essential when working with young pupils. The little

154 NATURE STUDY.

folks see so much more in germinating seed or develop-
ing bud, when they have connected the plant babies
with the babies in their homes, — the way in which
their baby brothers are cared for and fed and grow.

In any work which requires the pupils to think rather
than to merely see, our success as teachers will largely
depend on our power and habit of calling up the apper-
ceiving ideas or concepts of the children, and building
on these. As illustrated in the study of the rabbit in
Chapter II, pupils understand much better the move-
ments and limbs and feeding and teeth of the rabbit
when they are related to their own body and way of
moving and eating.

We see the wisdom, considering this same principle
of apperception, of reviewing at the beginning of each
lesson those parts of previous lessons on which the new
lesson must be built or based, of being sure of our foun-
dations before beginning new work.

The law of interest, — that the mind most clearly re-
ceives or perceives, is most deeply impressed by and most
strongly retains or apperceives, those ideas which ex-
cite or are accompanied by interest, — has been strongly
emphasized in the discussion of aim. In general, the
surest evidence of interest is attention. Until the
teacher has attention she can accomplish comparatively
little.

No matter how careful the teacher is to bring the
material before the child, to make sure that he sees,
and to build on the foundations already laid, on the

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 155

apperceiving concepts in the child's mind, the ideas
gained or the impressions made will not be most clear
and strong unless the child is interested.

On the other hand, the more the work in nature
study is based on sense-perception, on what appeals to
the senses, and the more the new is built upon and
related to the old, is based on apperception, the more,
in general, will the child be interested. Interest, par-
ticularly sustained or habitual interest, is one of the
surest evidences that work is being presented in ac-
cordance with psychological laws. Absence of interest
shows, in general, that something is wrong ; matter or
method is not adapted to the children.

Just as apperception is the mental equivalent of phys-
iological assimilation, so interest may be considered as
the counterpart of appetite. With adults appetite and
interest are oftentimes not considered essential. The
body and mind of children will not get proper nourish-
ment without appetite or interest.

With interest aroused and senses alert there is scarcely
a limit to what the child can do. In no other work
is interest more essential than in nature study. In no
other study will the teacher be so apt to be impressed
with the educational value of interest as when she and
her children are studying nature together under natural
conditions, and following natural methods. In much
other school-work the conditions and methods are un-
natural, and the importance of interest is not recognized
or realized.

Sympathy is but a higher active form of interest.

156 NATURE STUDY.

The more we can bring our pupils into sympathy with
the dandelion and rabbit, with the world of life about
them, the better the results. Sympathetic interest, as
distinguished from mere intellectual curiosity, is a great
aid in nature study.

As pupils grow older, we can depend more and more
on what may be called secondary or indirect interests, —
the ambition to succeed or to prepare for life, the desire
to please parents and others, the fear of the disgrace
which failure may bring. This indirect interest is not
so helpful nor important at any stage in education as
immediate, direct interest.

A most practical question is, How can the children
be interested, and how can they be kept interested?

As has been said, the first essential in gaining and
maintaining interest is to present matter which the chil-
dren can understand, for which they have apperceiving
concepts, and to present it in such a way as to most
clearly relate the new matter to the old.

Novelty or newness usually arouses or stimulates in-
terest. Young children particularly are more interested
in new things. For this reason they require frequent
change. Their interest cannot be very long sustained
in one thing. As children begin to think more, new
ideas as well as new objects attract them, new points of
view, new relations in which familiar objects are studied,
new beauties of form and color and function and adap-
tation, unsuspected before. The commonest, most fa-
miliar things, such as the dandelion, become new, when
thus studied in a new light.

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 157

A third source of interest is participation, or self-
activity. Children are interested, in nature study or
anything else, in proportion as the teacher leads them
to see and think and do for themselves. The child
who makes a new discovery with his own eyes, or
works out for himself a new idea or thought, is much
more interested by and because of this self-activity,
than he who simply absorbs from book or teacher or
fellow-pupil. In nature study the children are much
more interested in material* which they have gathered
or cared for themselves. The more a teacher can lead
her pupils to get and take care of their own plants or
animals or stones, or make their own apparatus, the more
will they be interested. The more the children discover
for themselves new facts, the more they work out the
"why" and "how" of what they have discovered, the
more the pupils, rather than the teacher, compare and
generalize and deduce principles or laws, the greater
will be their interest.

The interest will be increased, more especially with
young children, by emphasizing in nature study the
human or personal element, and particularly the child
element. We can study the plants and animals, not as
mere things, but as beings with human or child attri-
butes or characteristics. Even water and snow and
frost, lifeless things, can oftentimes be endowed with
human desires and sympathies. The poets thus per-
sonify flower and tree, and raindrop and stream. In
the childhood of the race all mankind personified na-
ture. The children naturally do the same. It is often

158 NATURE STUDY.

most helpful to allow or encourage children to thus
personify, beginning always with facts gained through
perception and elaborated by apperception, but letting
imagination add flesh to what might otherwise be dry
bones. In the study of cotton, the cotton-pickers and
their pickaninnies and homes and life are more inte-
resting than the mere process of planting and cultivat-
ing and gathering cotton. The processes of lumbering
mean most when the study is centred about the lum-
bermen, the human element. These give connection
and life to the processes.

We come now to the place of imagination in deter-
mining method. When our boys and girls have seen
what they can about the dandelion blossom, and, by re-
lating what they have seen to what is already in their
mind, have gained a fair idea of the number, size, form,
and color of its parts, they should have a mental picture
of the flower. If this picture is to be of much value,
they should have the power of bringing it into the
mind, or rather into consciousness, again, when the blos-
som is not before their eyes, repeating or reproducing it
at some later time. But this power of repeating the
image or mental picture is of comparatively little value
if the pupils can only repeat it exactly as they first saw
it. It is necessary to take from that picture some
features not essential, such as the size of the yellow
disk, which varies in different specimens, and to add
points noticed in other dandelions, so that the children
can gain the general idea or general notion of dandelion

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 159

blossoms, as distinguished from that particular blossom.
Or they may have to add to the picture of the flower
those of the other parts of the plant to form a picture
of the plant, or those of other stages of growth to
understand its life history. Finally, as was shown in
Chapter I, the images of the dandelion must be related
to what the mind knows about its environment.

This process of relating to other mind pictures, omit-
ting some features, adding others, combining and modi-
fying, may be continued until we get the beautiful
series of pictures embodied in Lowell's " To the Dande-
lion."

The power or the process of repeating or reprodu-
cing the images of what has been perceived and apper-
ceived is memory. The power or process of relating
and combining these images, selecting parts of some,
adding to others, combining parts of several to form a
mind picture of what has not been perceived, we call
imagination. The distinction between memory and
imagination as thus denned is not very sharp. Fre-
quently imagination is considered as including both
memory — then called reproductive imagination — and
imagination proper, distinguished as constructive ima-
gination. Both have a most important part in determin-
ing method in nature study or in any other subject.

We recognize the importance of memory, or repro-
ductive imagination, in all education. The education
of the past, and much of the education of to-day, has
relied too much on memory of words rather than of
sense-percepts, memory which has very little sense-per-

160 NATURE STUDY.

ception back of it. Too often children have memorized
facts, definitions, formulas, — words, words, words, —
with very little real content in them. Nature study,
or science, is a protest against this kind or form of edu-
cation. For words it would substitute real ideas, sharp,
clear mental pictures, based primarily on sense-percep-
tion, and would use words as the means of clothing and
expressing or gaining ideas.

In the reaction against too great dependence on word
memory, there is often a tendency toward the oppo-
site extreme. In emphasizing sense-perception, we are
prone to overlook the importance of memory as an edu-
cational factor, and to neglect that necessary drill in re-
producing what has been perceived and apperceived.
This tendency is very evident in much of the elemen-
tary science work in our schools. It is often assumed
that when children have seen and understood, little
more is to be done. Seeing and understanding are or
should be but the foundation and preparation for larger
and broader seeing and understanding ; and this larger
view is only possible when children keep in mind or re-
member the essentials of what has been learned before,
and constantly relate them to what is newly acquired.

To train the memory, — that is, to insure the repeat-
ing or reproduction in the mind of what has been seen
or otherwise perceived, — nature points out three means
or methods : —

First. The original picture or impression should be
as clear and sharp as it is possible to make it. The
pupil who has examined a flower carefully will remem-

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 161

ber much better than he who has merely glanced at it.
What cannot be clearly seen by the children, such as
the structure of the individual florets of the dandelion,
is apt to be soon forgotten.

The clearness of the mind picture can be ascertained,
and the power to recall it developed, by occasionally
testing the power of the pupils to visualize ; that is to
form a mind picture of what is not before their eyes.
After looking intently at some simple object, such as a
leaf or a piece of apparatus, the pupils should describe
it, or draw it from memory. Occasionally it will be
helpful to have the pupils make a " conceptional draw-
ing " of some simple familiar object at home, such as a
tea-kettle or a lamp, and afterward compare their draw-
ing with the object, and correct errors.

Second. Each important idea should be related with
many other ideas, so that it may be recalled through or
by means of any one or more of these. What is isolated
or stands by itself is soon forgotten. What has been
seen about the dandelion will be remembered much
better when the plant is studied, not as a mere isolated
structure, unrelated to anything else, but as related to its
environment, soil and sun, and wind and insects, and to
other plants. Its green cup is better remembered when
related to its habit of closing at night, or in a storm.
Any point of structure is better remembered when re-
lated to its function. When the children understand
what the veins do for a leaf, that they support and carry
food to each part, they better remember the plan of
veining and the fact that a branch vein extends to the

162 NATURE STUDY.

apex of each division of a leaf. We see here another
reason for emphasizing the "why" in nature study.

Third. That which is most important, and should
therefore be remembered, must be frequently repeated or
reviewed. Here we see the necessity for drill. Because
of the first law of memory, stated above, the review will
be most effective when the images are fresh and clear.
Because of the second law, that review is best which
emphasizes relations and not merely facts. Hence each
lesson should close with a summary, gathering up, bring-
ing together, and relating the important points brought
out. The first step in each lesson should, in general, be
a review of the previous lesson or lessons, or at least of
those portions of previous lessons on which the new
work depends. So, also, each step in a lesson should
be reviewed and stated clearly before passing to an-
other step. This summary tests the clearness of the
impressions, brings out the relations of the ideas or
facts, and helps to fix them in the mind by having
them repeated.

Constructive imagination, or imagination proper as
distinguished from memory, differs from the latter in
that it not merely repeats the mental images of what
has been seen or perceived, but takes from, adds to,
combines and recombines them, forming a picture of
what has not been seen. It is only through imagination
that we are able to become -acquainted with that great
part of the universe of which our senses alone give us
little direct knowledge. It is imagination which helps

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 163

us to look into the future, just as memory enables us to
recall the past.

Imagination plays a most important part in mature
science, as Professor Tyndall has shown in his essay on
the " Scientific Use of the Imagination." On imagina-
tion, applied to and tested by facts, controlled by reason,
depend the grandest conceptions and generalizations of
the human mind, — the law of gravitation, the nebular
hypothesis, the theory of evolution.

On- the other hand, imagination not based on facts,
or not controlled or directed by reason, is exceedingly
harmful.

In the reaction against the education of verbal memo-
rizing and return to the natural education of seeing,
there is a tendency to discredit the educational value of
imagination. Not infrequently scientists aver that it
is utterly wrong to encourage the children to put into
nature anything they cannot see ; that, for instance, the
lessons in elementary science which emphasize or dwell
on the idea of protection in the study of the buds of
pussy-willow or horse-chestnut are absurd and unscien-
tific. As a fact, without imagination we could get no
conception of life processes, of which only the results
can be directly perceived.

Nature* however, endows the child with a strong
imagination, and indicates its importance as an aid in
his education. Imagination is the instrument by which
the child looks from and through his little world of
sense to the greater universe beyond his childish senses,
for which he must be prepared. Through his imagina-

164 NATURE STUDY.

tion he modifies and combines the pictures which come
to him through his senses, and thus gains higher, wider
views, somewhat as he unites his letters to build words
and form sentences. This faculty must be cultivated
and directed, not neglected or deadened.

The practical question is asked, How can we most
effectively use and cultivate the imagination in our work
in nature study ? Much of what has been said regard-
ing the training of memory applies also to the cultiva-
tion of the imagination.

What is imagined or imaged must be based on and
related to what is seen or perceived. The teacher who
would train her pupils to picture what they have not
seen must first lead them to combine into a clear pic-
ture what has been seen. They can only really imagine
the lion and its habits when they have carefully studied
the character and habits of such an animal as the cat.
They can gain some idea of the Mississippi Valley
through an examination of some brook or river-basin
near their home. The pupils cannot imagine the pro-
cesses by which sap is carried through the plant until
they have seen experiments on capillarity and osmosis.

On the other hand, if we are to cultivate the imagi-
nation we must not stop with what is seen, but must
frequently lead from what is perceived to what must be
imagined. After studying the hairy seeds which the
children can see, such as the dandelion and thistle and
milkweed, it is wise to pass to the cotton-seed, with
much longer hairs, which they must usually imagine.
From the cotton-seed they can be led to picture the

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 165

cotton-plant, the cotton-field, and perhaps the cotton-
picking.

As describing or drawing from memory trains the
memory, so describing or drawing what the children
have read about, or have been told, but have never
seen — that is, making a conceptional drawing — may
help in cultivating the imagination. A description by
the children of a cotton-field, or a drawing to represent
the children's mind picture of the cotton-boll, shows
teacher and pupil whether the picture in the mind of
the pupil is clear and correct or vague, and tends to
develop the power to picture or image or imagine.

Because the child can most readily imagine that which
is most like what he already knows, it is easier for him
to gain or form mental pictures of what is alive like
himself, and of those things which are considered as
having the attributes and relations with which he is
familiar in his own life. Hence, as has been said before,
it is natural, and often very helpful, for the child to per-
sonify ; to endow animals and plants, and even lifeless
nature, with human attributes. The more he thinks of
them as living, working, helping, dependent, like him-
self, the better can he imagine and understand their
life. Often he delights in imagining himself to be a
leaf or plant or squirrel or raindrop, or in having these
tell their own story.

One of the most effective aids in cultivating the im-
agination is literature. On the other hand, one of the
main essentials for an appreciation of literature is a
vivid imagination. The value of literature, as a means

166 NATURE STUDY.

of broadening and uplifting the ideas and thoughts and
pictures gained from nature study, is illustrated in the
study of the dandelion in Chapter I. Lowell's " To
the Dandelion " leads into a new world, if the reader
has seen or experienced enough, and has an imagina-
tion sufficiently trained, to picture what the poet ex-
presses. Genuine literature can be distinguished from
mere prose or rhyme by the extent to which it gives
broader, higher views, opens new vistas. That which
merely gathers up what has been already perceived or
apperceived, lacks one great essential of literature.

If we realize the importance of cultivating the im-
agination of our boys and girls, of leading from the
seen to the broader, more uplifting unseen, if we ap-
preciate the higher aims of nature study, the impor-
tance of cultivating the higher nature of our pupils,
we will in our nature study make use of the best
literature, and so study it with our pupils that they will
be able to see something of the pictures the authors
have seen.

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 167

CHAPTER VIII.

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD IN NATURE STUDY
(CONTINUED).

HAVING considered in the previous chapter the in-
fluence of sense-perception, apperception, interest, and
imagination in determining method, we are prepared
to discuss the relation to method of sequence, unity,
and expression.

Sequence is but a continuation or repetition of the
process of apperception. The mind, like the body,
accomplishes most when it builds and is built in order,
or proceeds step by step. Sequence is building in
order, founding each new part on the previous part,
relating each new step most closely to preceding steps.

To insure sequence, several precautions are neces-
sary ; certain errors, common in teaching, must be
guarded against.

We must be sure that all necessary foundations are
laid. The builder who discovers after he has partly
finished the superstructure that he has forgotten or
neglected to support some part, and is compelled to go
back and strengthen or add to his foundation, always
loses time, and usually has a weak structure. The
teacher who continually finds that in previous lessons

168 NATURE STUDY.

she has neglected to lay some of the foundations on
which present work must be built, and who is frequently
compelled to interrupt her advance work, and go back to
lay the foundations for it, cannot do the best teaching.

In studying the dandelion, unless the children have
observed out-of-doors the closing of the flower, the
growing of leaves and flowers away from the shade
and toward the light, and the arrangement of the leaves
to catch the rain and direct it toward the root, a lesson
on the relations of the dandelion to sun and rain is
almost useless. No foundations have been laid for it.
The value of sequence or continuity of thought in in-
dividual lessons and in series of lessons is illustrated in
Chapter II on the study of the rabbit.

A second error often committed by teachers, and par-
ticularly by teachers of young children, consists in
attempting to take several steps at once, or to jump
from point to point. Adults learn to take long steps,
to go up-stairs two or three steps at a time, to take
great leaps. Children must first creep, then take short
steps, and after a time learn to run and jump. Par-
ticularly when climbing (and education is a process of
climbing) they must progress step by step. They can
jump or fall downward, but not upward.

What is true of the bodies of children is equally true
of their minds. The mind, however, is much later than
the body in attaining the stage of development when it
can habitually jump or leap.

The adult teacher habitually, but often unconsciously,
makes mental jumps in her line of thought, paying little

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 169

or no attention to the intervening steps. When the
teacher assumes that her pupils can take the same leaps
of thought that she does, she either fails entirely, or, if
she is strong, pulls her pupils off their feet, and carries
them along with her, instead of training them to walk
for themselves.

Only as the teacher analyzes her leaps, goes back 4in
her experience to the time when she had to go step by
step, studies the steps by which her children progress,
and then adapts herself to them and tries to keep step
with them, will she be most successful in training her
pupils to take longer steps, and finally to leap for them-
selves.

Such an analysis by the teacher of the successive steps
by which she gained her ideas or attained her present
state of knowledge is particularly essential in the case
of the teacher whose education has been almost entirely
an education of books. In mere book-work, pupils ha-
bitually make great leaps, accepting the ideas and con-
clusions of the author without looking at the steps which
lead up to them. For this reason, and many others,
the teacher should study* nature, not merely books, in
preparing for nature study ; she can best prepare by
studying with a child. She can then see just how the
children creep and step in their observation and thought.
The teacher who prepares for her lesson in nature study
by merely reading what "the book says," will almost
certainly fail in adapting her work to her pupils, and in
leading them to see and think for themselves.

This tendency of the adult mind to leap is illustrated

170 NATUEE STUDY.

I

constantly. We associate the evaporation of water with
the formation of rain and snow, and are apt to expect a
child to do the same. If he does he merely takes the
relation on faith, as we probably took it originally. Be-
tween the evaporation of water and the falling snow
there is a long series of intermediate steps : the process
arid conditions of evaporation ; condensation and the
formation of water-dust, mist, fog, cloud, and rain-
drops ; the process of freezing and crystallization, by
which frost and the snowflakes are formed ; perhaps
also the work of heat and gravitation, of the sun and
wind, in the formation of snow from evaporated water.

At times, of course, the path is too steep, or the
climbing too difficult, for the children. Then the
teacher must carry them. However, children are much
better climbers, and need much less carrying, than the
average teacher assumes or supposes. If allowed and
encouraged to climb in their own way, they can do
wonders.

The lack of sequence, of step by step progression,
is a serious fault most prevalent in class-room work,
particularly in nature study, in which, more than in
most other studies, the teacher is usually left to plan
her own work and determine her own order. In the
writer's experience with teachers, he has found it help-
ful, in overcoming this fault, to have the teachers, in
-planning and conducting their work, divide each lesson
into two or more distinctly marked steps, and to have
each step carefully reviewed and summarized by two or
more pupils before passing to the next step. A lesson

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 171

on the movements of the canary-bird may thus be divided
into: step 1, position at rest; step 2, perching; step 3,
hopping ; step 4, swinging ; step 5, flying. The teacher
should get all that she can from the observations of the
children about the position of the bird at rest, perhaps
supplement this from her own observations, and have it
gathered up or summarized by two or three pupils be-
fore asking them or even allowing them to tell about
the perching of the canary. If such a plan is followed,
the children soon learn to observe in some order, and
are much more apt to be orderly in their oral and writ-
ten expression.

In Chapter II this step by step progression and sum-
marizing is frequently illustrated.

A third precaution necessary to insure sequence or
continuity of thought is the avoidance of digressions.
When the teacher has decided on her line of thought,
she must be careful about wandering out of the path
into the fields on either side. In no other study is the
tendency or temptation to do this greater than in nature
study. If pupils talk freely, as they should, they are
apt to bring in much extraneous matter. It requires
tact to keep them to the line of thought without dis-
couraging them from expressing themselves.

The pupils can be more readily kept to the line of
thought if told at the beginning of the lesson just
what the aim or point of the lesson is. When they are
deeply impressed, at the beginning, with the idea that
" to-day we will try to discover how the snail-shells are
made, and what becomes of them," or, " to-day we want

172 NATURE STUDY.

to learn just how Mother Nature provides for the scat-
tering of the dandelion seeds," they are not so apt to
wander.

It must be remembered, however, that the thought-
ful digressions by the pupils often indicate the line of
thought which the children are following, which may
be better for them than the line of thought the teacher
has mapped out. Remembering that we are often most
successful in leading children when we are apparently
being led by them, it is frequently wise to follow out
these digressions, when they are sincere and thoughtful,
and see where they will take us.

In studying about the elm-tree, for instance ; if the
children persist in talking about the oriole's nest they
found in the elm-tree near the school, the wise teacher
may let them tell about the nest, — how and where it is
fastened, how deep it is, — and may help the pupils to
see that the birds understand, even better than the chil-
dren, how flexible and tough the branches of the elm are,
and how well fitted to support just such nests. The
interest in the nest will help to fix these distinctive
characteristics of the elm twigs.

Closely related to the avoidance of thoughtless di-
gressions is the importance of " guarding the switches."
There are certain points where pupils are most apt to
get confused or wander off. These must be guarded
with special care. Two " switches " which require spe-
cial "guards" result from the tendency to depend on old
ideas established in the mind, rather than on what the
senses tell, and from the tendency to make too broad gen-

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 173

eralizations. After studying the cricket or grasshopper
(see Fig. 27, p. 229) and other insects, and having the
idea impressed upon them that these animals have dis-
tinct head, thorax, and abdomen, nine children out of
ten will think of and draw the crayfish or spider (see
Figs. 22 and 23), when they begin to study them, as hav-
ing a distinct head, although their eyes tell them that
head and thorax are very closely united, without any
neck. After studying the dandelion and thistle flowers
as typical of the composites, nearly all pupils will assume
that all compound flowers, such as the clover, are com-
posites. The experienced teacher, who has been over
the ground and located these "switches," will have the
foresight to warn the pupils before they reach these
points.

A common method of keeping children to a definite,
line of thought is the Socratic method, or development
method. By a series of skilful, well-related questions
the child is led to see and to state just what the teacher
wishes him to see and state. ,

This development method is often invaluable. In
leading children to an abstraction or general truth,
such as a rule in mathematics or grammar, or a group-
ing or classification in botany or zoology, or in helping
the pupil to see relations which he can never work out
for or by himself (as the fact that a potato is a modified
stem, and that a thorn may be a modified leaf), it is
most effective and necessary.

But in most science work the development method

174

NATURE STUDY.

must be used cautiously. Close questioning has less
place, probably, in science or nature study than in any
other line of school-work, because in nature study pupils
have concrete things to work with. Too much develop-
ment work may be more harmful in science than in any
other field. Every experiment and observation is, in
general, a question asked of nature ; and the answer to
that question is usually in plain
sight of the pupil who will use
eyes and head. When the teacher
has made sure that
the pupil understands
the question, the point
of an experiment, the
appearance of the leaf
in his hand, and has
the means for answer-
ing that question, it
is better to give him
opportunity to ob-
serve and think for
himself, not to dis-
tract his attention and interfere with close observation
by throwing questions at him.

The teacher may get from the children a good orderly
description of the buttercup leaf (see Fig. 21) by ask-
ing such a series of questions as : What kind of a stem
has it ? How long ? What is its shape ? What is the
shape of the broad part or blade of the leaf ? How
long ? How wide ? Where widest ? What is its color ?

Fig. 21.

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 175

Is the color of the upper and lower surfaces similar?
How are its veins arranged ? How far out into the
lobes do they extend? What kind of a margin does
the leaf have? How many main parts? What kind
of a base ? But from such work pupils get little train-
ing in real connected observation and description, and
no training in connected thinking. If they are really
observing their leaves, they cannot listen to the constant
string of questions ; if they listen to the questions, they
cannot observe. They cannot relate successive ideas
about the leaf — and the essence of thinking is thus
relating ideas for ourselves — because the teacher does
all of the relating, such as it is, and drags her pupils
with her. We cannot train children to observe and
think by such a process any more successfully than we
can teach babies to walk by carefully lifting their little
feet one after the other, and pressing each down at the
proper distance in front of the other.

To train the boys and girls in connected, related ob-
servation and description, it is much better, with the
buttercup leaves in the hands of all the children, to ask
one pupil to tell all that he can about his leaf, have a
second and perhaps a third tell all about his own leaf,
noting any differences or errors of observation or of
statement, and adding as many new points as possible,
and then have the class correct and complete the de-
scription. In beginning such work, it may be wise or
necessary to have the pupils discover the features to be
observed, and then, under the guidance of the teacher,
arrange these in order, and formulate a plan for de-

176 NATURE STUDY.

scription. Even more helpful in insuring individual
connected observation may be a drawing, each pupil
drawing, as exactly as possible, his own leaf. After
such a drawing they will describe much better.

In the experience of the writer, scores of lessons in
nature study have been spoiled, even when the teacher
had her work well planned, and was well prepared, had
excellent and abundant material, and wide-awake, ob-
servant pupils, by such questioning, making it impossible
for the pupils to really observe or think for themselves.

In such a comparison as that between the dandelion
and thistle suggested in Chapter I, the teacher may
lead the pupils to make a clear, orderly comparison by
asking a series of questions bringing out in order, point
by point, the features in which the dandelion and thistle
blossoms are similar. But after the pupils have care-
fully studied and have understood the flower of one of
these plants, it is better for them to discover for them-
selves as many points of resemblance as they can, even
though the work may not be quite so orderly. When
they have noted all that they can, then the teacher can
ask questions to bring out features unnoticed before,
and can lead them to an orderly comparison.

In abstract work, as when leading pupils from many
particulars to the demonstration of a rule or general
principle in mathematics or grammar, or when gaining
a definition in geography, close questioning may be
most helpful, even absolutely necessary. In generaliza-
tions in science, as in classifying animals and plants, or
leading pupils to distinguish characteristics essential in

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 177

classification from those which are of minor importance,
development work is invaluable. Care is necessary,
however. Too often the questioning is so done that
the child is shut in between two walls, as it were, com-
pelled to go where the teacher wishes him to go by
being led to bump his head, first against one wall and
then against the other. He has followed a line of
thought, it is true, but not his ; he has not made it his
own. He has simply bumped along, driven by or be-
tween the questions of the teacher.

This excessive use of questions illustrates an abuse,
rather than a proper use, of the development method.
But it is much too prevalent.

In general, the fewer and broader, and at the same
time the clearer apd sharper, the questions, the better
the results, in getting pupils to think for themselves.

The teacher who leads her pupils to relate their ideas
for themselves, to follow out a line of thought for them-
selves, will be much more successful in impressing ideas,
and in developing the power and habit of logical think-
ing, than the teacher who compels her pupils to follow
closely her own line of thought.

The next law which must determine method is the
law of unity, — an expression for the tendency of the
mind to relate and group and unify all its ideas.

In apperception, the combining of new percepts with
the concepts already in the mind, we have the first step
of the mind in the process of unifying. Sequence, the
uniting of ideas in a series, illustrates an extension of

178 . NATURE STUDY.

this unifying process. The mind strives to continue
indefinitely this process of unifying, or relating its
knowledge or the phenomena about it, as when it refers
many effects to one cause, or groups in one order or
class, because of similarity in plan, great numbers of
plants or animals.

The child is educated in proportion as he can and
does relate the ideas gained ; that is, in proportion as he
recognizes in his environment, and realizes in himself,
unity. The study of physical phenomena is of very lit-
tle value, comparatively, unless the child can, to some ex-
tent, explain them and refer them to their causes. What
he learns about plants and animals is almost useless
unless he recognizes, and in some degree realizes, their
relations and their unity. The facts of history amount
to very little unless the child relates them, understands
more or less of their causes, and appreciates to some
extent the working out of principles or laws.

In the ultimate analysis all the aims of nature study
which have been enumerated are, from a psychological
standpoint, manifestations or resultants of this unifying
tendency of the mind. The awakening of interest and
sympathy, the cultivation of the aesthetic, ethical, and
spiritual nature, the development of power, and the
acquisition of knowledge, are all means or processes of
establishing unity in the mind.

We have agreed in Chapter IV that the final aim of
nature study or of education in general is to perfect
the relations between the child and his environment,
physical, intellectual, and spiritual. We want our child

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 179

to appreciate what he receives from, and to realize and
perform what he owes to, his environment, — nature,
man, God. Thus can he be adapted to his environment.
In formulating this aim, without any discussion of psy- .
chological laws, we naturally emphasized environment
rather than the child, and dwelt on adaptation to envi-
ronment. When we look at the question from a psycho-
logical standpoint, ask what is the ultimate aim of the
mind, we find that the mind ever seeks to reduce to unity
all its environment and itself, or to adapt its environ-
ment to itself. It discovers that phenomena at first very
diverse are illustrations of the same principle, results
of the action of the same agency or force ; that animals,
such as the vertebrates, at first showing almost infinite
diversity, are built on the same plan. Thus it refers all
physical changes to. a few agencies or forces, and groups
all forms of life about a few types. The mind finds
that physical phenomena and laws are analogous or
identical with those of the intellectual and spiritual
world. Thus it reduces to unity what is without
itself, and then relates this to itself. We see, there-
fore, in this law of unity, the psychological warrant
for the final aim of nature study or of education, before
established on ethical grounds, the perfecting of the
relations between the child and his environment, or the
reducing to unity of the "I" and the unot I."

We express the same idea in spiritual terms when
we say, with the Great Teacher, " Love is the fulfilling
of the law. " Love is unity. Recognizing the unifying
tendency of the mind, and the importance of developing

lr& . -V-HK
(•UNIVERSITY

180 NATURE STUDY.

it, we see why interest and sympathy are so essential.
They are the only means of establishing the greatest
unity between the child and his environment.

In the law of unity we find the psychological basis
for the greater educational value of the study of life,
the most nearly perfect illustration or realization of
physical unity. In a living plant or animal all parts
are organized to co-operate with one another, to work as
a unit in taking from environment, — from sunlight and
soil and air, — and in giving to environment. Perfect
physical life in plant or animal is perfect adaptation or
perfect relation or complete physical unity between it
and its environment, or that part of its environment to
which it is adapted or related. As this unity becomes
less complete, disease comes. When death ensues, unity
ceases. The plant or animal is no longer a unit, but is
disorganized, made up of isolated parts. In the study of
death, of mere form and structure, the child does not
see this unity, and his mind is not greatly aided in its
unifying process. In the study of leaves or roots or
stems or flowers, isolated and not related to the plant,
this psychological demand for unity is not recognized
nor satisfied.

From this standpoint we see also the psychological
reason for emphasizing the study, in earlier years or
lower grades, of life and living nature, and of forces and
processes, and understand why the study of minerals or
of mere form and structure is not so interesting to
young children, and not so satisfactory in its results.
If in earlier years children can study units, — the whole

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 181

living plant, its development from seed to maturity, and
growth or adaptation to environment; and living ani-
mals, caterpillars and butterflies, frogs' eggs, tadpoles
and frogs, living birds or kittens or fish, — they learn to
relate parts to wholes, to recognize the unity between
plant or animal and its environment ; and thus the uni-
fying tendency of the mind is recognized and developed.
After such preliminary work the mind more readily,
and oftentimes necessarily or automatically, unifies what
is not presented to it as units ; relates the leaves or
flowers to the plant, thinks of them, not as mere forms,
but as parts of a whole, depending on and working for
the whole plant.

The child who has studied the life of the dandelion,
the development and work of root and leaves and
flowers, the ripening of seeds, and the preparation and
arrangement for their dissemination, the co-operation
of plant and wind in scattering the seeds, who has com-
pared the life and adaptations of the dandelion with
those of two or three similar plants having similar adap-
tations, is much better prepared to unify or reduce to
unity, and therefore much better educated, than the
child who has simply described the form and gross
structure of fifty isolated leaves or of a score of roots
or flowers, or has dissected or analyzed and grouped
by mere structural or morphological features a dozen
plants.

In the same law of unity we see the reason for the
greater educational value of the questions " why " and
"how" as compared with " what." "What" is mere

182 NATURE STUDY.

structure, and is isolated. " Why " and " how " relate
the structure and thus help to unify. We may describe
the form and structure, the uwhat," of the dandelion,
and never think of it as related to anything else. When
we ask " why" and "how," we begin to relate it to its
environment. Why is it colored ? To attract insects,
to beautify the world. Why does it have the green
cup, or involucre ? To protect it from moisture, from
sudden changes, or from insects. Why do the florets
have hairs (the pappus) about the base ? To catch the
wind, and aid in scattering the seeds. Each " why "
suggests a new relation, leads to a better realization of
the co-operation and unity of nature.

How does the recognition of this unifying tendency
in the mind, and of the importance of unity in the work,
affect or determine the method of study ?

First. We must endeavor to impress the idea of
unity in the child's physical environment, nature.

Second. We must labor to make more complete his
realization of the unity between his physical and intel-
lectual environment, nature and man.

Third. We must strive to lead from nature and man
to God ; to impress deeply on the child the unity of all
parts of his environment, physical, intellectual, spirit-
ual.

Fourth (and including the others). We must do all
in our power to bring the child into the closest relations
with all his environment, into unity with nature, man,
and God.

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 183

How can we impress on the child the idea of unity
in his physical environment ; that is, in the world of
nature about him?

At first, perhaps, everything is unity to the babe.
He has little power of analyzing. He soon, however,
begins to separate his environment from himself, the
unot I " from the " I." In time he distinguishes different
parts of his environment, — mother, nurse, father, food.
At first he doubtless sees a pussy as a whole, with little
or no conscious analysis. Later he distinguishes head
and body and tail and legs, and gradually minor di-
visions. This process of analysis, of separating into
and distinguishing parts, is continued as he develops.

The problem at first is, not to give the child the idea
of unity, but to keep that idea in his mind as and while
he analyzes.

The development of the analyzing power in the
race has been similar. The progress of knowledge
has gradually compelled man to separate what was
once called natural history, into many distinct sciences^
— botany, zoology, chemistry, physics, each with a host
of subdivisions. These distinct sciences, as such, have
little place in work with young children. They must
study nature much as their ancestors studied nature
before these sciences existed, and as the children study
nature before they enter school. This does not mean
that they are merely to flit about and sip here and
there, but that each thing studied may, and often
should, become a centre for the study of much about it.

When we thus study the dandelion in its relations,

184 NATURE STUDY.

investigate the co-operation of its parts, and their rela-
tions to their environment, — soil, wind, sun, insects, —
we are brought into contact with a large part of nature,
and study portions of many sciences. The absorption
of water and food by the roots leads us into physics,
capillarity, and osmosis, though we may not use these
terms. The transformation of this absorbed matter into
" milk " is a chemical process, although the children
may never hear the word chemical. Any observation
or study of the insect visitors of the dandelion and of
their work leads us into zoology.

We can emphasize the unity in our physical environ-
ment by studying plants and animals as units, and by
studying the phenomena of nature in their relations.
These relations have been enumerated in Chapter III.

These relations, so far as they need to be considered
here, can be gathered into two general classes, relations
of dependence (including causal relations), and rela-
tions of similarity and difference ; the first functional,
the second structural. As brought out in Chapter I,
the dandelion has relations of dependence upon soil,
air, wind, and water (rain, dew, clouds, frost, snow),
sun, animals, and man; that is, these help or harm it,
or are helped or harmed by it. It has a relation of
similarity or difference to other plants (more particu-
larly composites), more remotely to animals, most re-
motely to inorganic nature. It is like or unlike these
in form, structure, or plan.

Which of these relations is most important? In
the science of the past, as pursued in most educational

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 185

institutions, and particularly in the study of botany
and zoology in secondary schools, all emphasis has been
placed on the relations of similarity and difference ; and,
as a result, great prominence has been given to com-
parison of form and structure, and to classification.
It has apparently been assumed, oftentimes or usually,
that comparison of form and structure, and classification
based on these, were almost the only method or means
of unifying or reducing to unity this part of our phys-.
ical environment. On the contrary, it is the func-
tional relations which show the most complete unity.
The structural relations are but the preparation for or
result of functional relations. The similarity in plan,
form, color, etc., depends on similarity in function or
work.

If it is true, as has been asserted in previous pages,
that the study of life and function is of greater edu-
cational value, at least in elementary schools, than the
study of structure, then the functional relations, those
of dependence, are more important than relations of
similarity and difference in structure. While great
emphasis must be placed on these functional relations
in work with young children, as they grow older, more
and more attention can and should be given to form
and structure, and to structural relations.

The recognition of this principle will greatly influence
the method in nature study in elementary schools. In
accordance with this principle, children should begin
their plant study with whole plants, and study these
first in their functional relations. They can begin in

186 NATUEE STUDY.

the first and second grade (see Course of Study, Chapter
XV) with the study of such a plant as the mallow, or
with the growth from seed to maturity of the bean or
pea, and have impressed the mutual dependence of all
parts, — roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruit ; the depen-
dence of the plant on soil, water, sun, and man ; the
dependence of man and animals on the plant ; the
dependence of all on the Creator. The form and struc-
.ture of parts should be studied as adaptations to work.
The comparisons should be at first a comparison of the
ways in which the organs do their work, preparing
for a comparison, later, of the ways in which they are
fitted for their work ; that is, for a comparison of form
and structure, resulting in classification.

The children, young or old, should never begin their
study of leaves by merely comparing their forms and
veining and arrangement on the stem. In their study
of the development of seeds and buds, the children
should first have impressed the idea of the leaf as some-
thing related to the. whole plant, formed by and de-
veloping from the plant. (from seed or bud), dependent
on the plant, working for the plant. Gradually other
functional relations can be brought out. As the child
begins to understand these functional relations he can
begin to appreciate the arrangements the leaves have
for doing their work. The veins will then be, not
merely veins, but a framework to hold out to sun and
rain, or channels and tubes to carry water. Their
arrangement may then have a meaning. Later, in the
third or fourth year, more attention can be given to the

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 187

comparison of the forms of leaves ; that is, to the formal
study of relations of similarity and difference, connect-
ing these, however, with function. This will prepare
for comparison and classification, and the study of fami-
lies and larger groups in the upper grades.

It is evident that it is neither wise nor possible to
dwell on all the relations of everything studied. It
becomes essential to select that material which will
best illustrate these relations, and to which other ma-
terial, not so carefully studied, can be related, or about
which it can be grouped. The chapters on selection of
material and formulation of courses of study (Chapters
XIV and XV) indicate the material which will best
serve as centres for work in the different grades, and,
at the same time, serve as foundations for later work.

How can we, in and by our methods in nature study,
make more complete the unity between the physical
and intellectual environment of the child ?

Certainly not by separating the physical and intel^
lectual as far as possible, that is by divorcing nature and
all school-work as we have done in the past. Rather
by uniting these as closely as possible, basing much of
the school-work on nature study. The better the child
realizes that school is out-of-doors as well as in the
schoolroom, in plant and animal and stone, in cloud
and sunset and waterfall, as well as in book, the more
complete will be the unity between hi£ physical and
intellectual world. The more his nature study is cor-
related with and made a basis for his language work,

188 NATURE STUDY.

drawing, reading, and literature, the more will the uni-
fying tendency of the mind be satisfied.

The child and the poet see in the physical world
much that symbolizes man and God. This symbolism
of nature, rightly impressed and re-enforced by litera-
ture, will do much in leading to unity.

The methods of relating nature study to other school-
work are discussed in Chapters XI, XII, and XIII.

How can we best impress on the child the unity of
all his environment, of nature, man, and God? Not
by mere preaching. Rather by leading him sympatheti-
cally, reverently, where he can read for himself the
" one great loving thought written in hieroglyphs of
bud and bloom." By taking the child to bud and leaf
and flower, to nest and egg, where he can see for him-
self the lessons of protection and care, shown alike in
the physical, intellectual, and spiritual, by nature, man,
and God. By letting him absorb, day by day, week by
week, year by year, naturally, and often unconsciously,
the lessons of mutual dependence and mutual helpful-
ness, the lessons of slow but sure development, the
lessons of patient waiting and preparation. By im-
pressing the lessons of purpose and order and plan all
about him, and thus leading to the Protector and
Thinker and Planner and Director, the highest Unity.

How can we^ bring the child into closest unity with
all his environment? The question has already been
largely answered in Chapter IV. Only sympathy and

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 189

love can bring unity. Love is the fulfilling of the law
— of all law. The teacher who has led her pupils to
regard nature reverently and sympathetically has done
much to bring into unity the child and all his environ-
ment.

THE PRIMROSE ON THE ROCK.

A rock there is whose homely front

The passing traveller slights ;

Yet there the glow-worms hang their lamps,

Like stars, at various heights :

And one coy primrose to that rock

The vernal breeze invites.

What hideous warfare hath been waged,

What kingdoms overthrown,

Since first I spied that primrose tuft

And marked it for. my own ;

A lasting link in Nature's chain

From highest heaven let down !

The flowers, still faithful to the stems,

Their fellowship renew ;

The stems are faithful to the root,

That worketh out of view ;

And to the rock the root adheres

In every fibre true.

Close clings to earth the living rock,
Though threatening still to fall ;
The earth is constant to her sphere,
And God upholds them all :
So blooms this lowly plant, nor dreads
Her annual funeral.

WORDSWORTH.

190 NATURE STUDY.

What has been said heretofore about the characteris-
tics or laws of the human mind applies to the child as
an individual. The child or man alone on an island,
shut off from all intercourse with his fellow-men, would
be dependent on his senses for new percepts ; would as-
similate these by the process of apperception ; would be
most impressed by that in which he was most interested ;
would try to picture or imagine what he could not see
by modifying and combining what he had seen ; would
combine his ideas, to a greater or less extent, in a series
or sequence ; and would endeavor, with more or less per-
severance and success, to unify his knowledge. His
development would be much retarded and limited, how-
ever, by the fact that he could not exchange ideas with
others, convey his ideas to others, and receive their
ideas in return. Man is a social being, and must not
merely get and unify ideas, but must impart and ex-
change ideas.

This brings us to the consideration of expression, the
process or means by which ideas are conveyed to or
received from other minds. By expression is meant not
merely language, but any means of conveying or ex-
pressing ideas, — drawing, painting, moulding, sewing,
music, gesture.

Expression has a threefold object or function: —

First. To clarify, make more clear and orderly, our
ideas, by bringing them into consciousness, arranging
them in order to be conveyed to others, and forcing us
to recognize our own weaknesses, either in perceiving
or relating facts. Expression, the attempt to convey

PRINCIPLES DETERMINING METHOD. 191

our ideas to others, leads us to relate our knowledge,
and put it in order much as an expected visitor leads the
housekeeper to uput her house to rights." Teachers
recognize this fact when they say, " We do not know
what we know until we try to teach it."

Second. To convey ideas to others, and thus aid us
in influencing others, or in adapting other minds to our
mind. Assuming that we have ideas worth expressing,
gained by and through the means already considered,
we will be most successful in bringing others to our
way of thinking, adapting this part of our environment
to ourselves, in proportion as we can most effectively
express our ideas.

Third. To give us a medium through which we can
receive ideas from others, and thereby relate or adapt
our mind to other minds. In general, the better we
can express our own ideas, the better will we under-
stand the ideas expressed by others.

The relation of nature study to the expressive work
of the elementary school is considered in Chapter XI.

192 NATURE STUDY.

CHAPTER IX.

THE ORDER AND METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL.

HAVING discussed the principles which must deter-
mine method, we are ready to consider the general order
of study, the first step in the application of these
principles.

The value of the study by children of the relation of .
plants and animals to their natural environment, and
of the study of life and habits, has been illustrated in
Chapters I and II, and discussed in Chapter VIII. In
Chapter II, on the study of the rabbit, were illustrated
some of the advantages of beginning with home and
habits, followed by the study of structure, comparison,
and classification. The order will be largely determined
by aim and the necessity of basing work on sense-per-
ception and apperception. Emphasizing the higher
aims, we begin with home, life, and habits, if they can
be observed. If the conditions are such, as in study of
starfish inland, that life and habits canhot be observed
by pupils, then it is often better to begin with structure,
that is, with what can be seen. The reasons for follow-
ing the order below are further discussed in connection
with the different steps.

In considering method we must give some atten-

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 193

tion to each of the following steps in presenting mat-
ter: —

1. Name.

2. Relation to natural environment.

3. Habits or function (and life history (?) ).

4. Structure (and life history (?) ).

5. Comparison and classification, or association and
generalization.

6. Application.

The first essential in studying anything is the name ;
the child should know what he is studying. A name
which means nothing, is not based upon or does not
suggest any concept or idea, is very difficult to relate or
apperceive, and difficult therefore to remember. When-
ever possible, the name should be related with an idea,
with something which suggests the name, or from which
the name originated. It is best to relate the name with
something which the child can see. When the child
has learned that aster means star, the starlike appear-
ance of the flower will suggest the name. The names
starfish, sunfish, trillium (triple or three, having parts
in threes, sometimes called "trinity flower"), pyrite
(firestone), milkweed, earthworm, bloodroot, Solomon's
seal, painted cup, and a host of others, will be much
more readily apperceived and recalled or remembered
if the meaning of the name is explained to and im-
pressed on the children.

Of course with children we will use the common
names, when there are any, not the technical names.

194 NATURE STUDY.

Harebell, buttercup, butter-and-eggs, sea-anemone, and
earthworm mean much more, are more readily apper-
ceived and remembered, and are much better for children,
than their technical equivalents, campanula rotundifolia,
ranunculus, linaria vulgaris, actinia, and lumbricus.

Frequently the name can be associated with some
beautiful legend or story : trillium with the legend of
the trinity flower ; hyacinth with the old Greek legend
of the boy friend of Apollo ; narcissus with many old
stories. The name may suggest a comparison or simile,
the name iris suggesting the rainbow ; the Jack-in-the-
pulpit always attracts the little folks because of the
idea associated with its name.

Having provided that the pupils shall not merely hear
the name, but if possible shall be interested in it, apper-
ceive it clearly or associate it with an idea, and make
it the beginning of a sequence, what is the next step,
the first step in the study of that part of nature which
we have named ? If we wish to unify the child's ideas,
we should first relate the thing studied to the whole of
which it is part. We are studying it in the school-
room ; it does not belong there. The next step should
be to relate it to its natural environment. Is it a
mouse, bird, insect, fish, a plant, a whole in itself?
Where was it found? Under what conditions? What
are its relations to earth and sun and rain and plants
and animals ? If an animal, what about its home and
home-life and habits ? If a plant, how does it develop ;
in what kind of soil does it grow ; do its leaves or flowers

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 195

turn toward or follow the sun ; do its flowers close at
night ; is it the home of any animals, caterpillars, insects,
birds ? Is it a leaf or flower or root or branch, or feather
or shell, a part of something ? To what did it belong ?
Of what was it a part ? Where did it come from ?

In the case of minerals, the relation to environment
is not so intimate or evident, and therefore not so im-
portant or essential, as in animals and plants. Forces,
studied in physics and in chemistry, have no environ-
ment; they are everywhere. But minerals and rocks
can be considered as earth materials, and physical forces
as earth forces. Particularly in earlier years, it is help-
ful thus to relate them very closely to the earth (and
to geography), quartz and sandstone becoming the most
abundant materials out of which Mother Nature has
built the crust of the earth, and heat the force which
she uses to change the earth's crust. Later, with ma-
ture pupils, minerals and rocks may be unified by group-
ing them according to their chemical composition, and
forces related through the law of gravity or the -law of
conservation of energy.

By thus always relating all things studied to nature,
to their natural environment, rather than studying
them as isolated leaves or stones or snails in the school-
room, unrelated to nature, we help the child to start
his study with something akin to unity. The different
things studied are brought together again in a subse-
quent step, comparison and classification, or generaliza-
tion, and are thus more or less unified at the beginning
and at the end.

196 NATURE STUDY.

Remembering that the best foundation is sense-per-
ception, actual seeing, by far the best way to relate
to environment is to take the children out for a field
lesson, to see grasshopper or cricket or caterpillar or
ant or snail in its natural home ; to see where and
how buttercup and mallow and fern and elm grow ; to
gather the stones, and study the position and arrange-
ment of rocks, and watch the work of rain and streams.
A field lesson with a definite aim and definite work for
each pupil, carefully planned, well conducted, well fol-
lowed up afterwards and clinched, is, in general, worth
half a dozen schoolroom lessons.

The higher value of out-of-door study of nature Em-
erson has expressed in his poem " Each and All " : —

I thought the sparrow's note from heaven,

Singing at dawn on the alder bough ;

I brought him home, in his nest, at even ;

He sings the song, but it cheers not now,

For I did not bring home the river and sky ; —

He sang to my ear, — they sang to my eye.

The delicate shells lay on the shore ;

The bubbles of the latest wave

Fresh pearls to their enamel gave,

And the bellowing of the savage sea

Greeted their safe escape to me.

I wiped away the weeds and foam,

I fetched my sea-born treasures home ;

But the poor, unsightly, noisome things

Had left their beauty on the shore

With the sun and the sand and the wild uproar.

Then I said, "I covet truth;
Beauty is unripe childhood's cheat;

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 197

I leave it behind with the games of youth : " —

As I spoke, beneath my feet

The ground-pine curled its pretty wreath,

Running over the club-moss burrs ;

I inhaled the violet's breath ;

Around me stood the oaks and firs ;

Pine-cones and acorns lay on the ground ;

Over me soared the eternal sky,

Full of light and of deity ;

Again I saw, again I heard,

The rolling river, the morning bird; —

Beauty through my senses stole ;

I yielded myself to the perfect whole.

The manner of conducting field lessons must be
determined mainly by the aim and the conditions in
such out-of-door work. The aim is to get in touch or
harmony or unity with nature ; to investigate the rela-
tion to natural environment of that bit of nature in
which teacher and children are specially interested ; to
gain or study what cannot be studied or acquired in
the schoolroom. The conditions are very different from
those prevailing in the school. The pupils are at
home, where they realize their natural privileges and
rights, and where the teacher often has to become the
pupil. They are more free, more natural, more difficult
to restrain or control, or at least less amenable to
schoolroom rules or methods of discipline. The sur-
roundings attract and distract the pupils. There is so
much about them, that it is much more difficult to gain
their attention, keep them at work, or pin them down
to special, definite work.

Nothing is more helpful in giving direction to an

198 NATURE STUDY.

out-of-door lesson, in imbuing the children with the
spirit of nature, than an introductory literary gem, or
a short story. Parts of Bryant's " Forest Hymn " read
as they have gathered under the trees may make a
deeper impression than hours given to its study in
school. Longfellow's " Autumn," or portions of Low-
ell's " Indian Summer Reverie," or " The Maple," may
be the best prelude to the study in the meadows or
park of the autumn leaves, may impress the thought
of the perfect whole, the highest aim of the field lesson.

The purpose of the field lesson, it must be remem-
bered, is to study, not mere form and structure, but
processes and relations, life and dependence on and
adaptation to environment. Structure can be studied
better in the schoolroom, where the conditions are more
favorable for definite work. In our work out-of-doors
we should largely limit ourselves to what cannot be
observed or cannot be studied as well indoors ; such
topics as the falling and coloring of leaves, the work
of earthworms or frost, of rain or streams or waves,
the formation of soil, the relation of leaves and flowers
to the sun, the habits and homes of insects, birds, and
other animals, the occurrence, form, color and other
obvious characteristics of trees.

It is difficult, unnecessary, and unwise to attempt to
maintain out-of-doors the order which is required in the
school. Such order will defeat the purpose of the field
lesson. On the other hand, a lesson in which no order
is maintained, which degenerates into a frolic or picnic,
is not merely of little value, but may bring discredit

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 199

upon all the work in nature study, and tend to postpone
the time when this natural method of studying the
children's natural environment shall be followed in
other subjects, such as local geography and history.

The secret of a successful field lesson is : A definite
aim or object understood by each pupil as well as by
the teacher, definite work for each pupil, followed by
a definite report on and review of what is observed.
In a field-lesson, with the freedom and lack of restraint,
and with distracting surroundings, from which the
schoolroom is largely free, definiteness in aim and plan
is more important than it is in any other work.

The pupils should have, in the preceding lessons,
enough to interest them in what they are to observe
out-of-doors, and each pupil should know just what he
is to investigate. It is helpful to have several points
which all are to investigate and report upon orally,
and, in addition, to give each pupil one or more ques-
tions upon which he is to report. If the reports can be
in writing, so much the better.

After the pupils individually have done all they
think they can do alone, with such suggestions here
and there as the teacher may be able to give, it is often
helpful for the teacher to gather the pupils about her
in the field, and correct any serious errors. The definite
review or summary will usually be more successful in
the schoolroom.

If a field lesson with the class is or seems impossible,
the teacher will find it helpful to go out occasionally
with a few pupils after school or on Saturday. For the

200 NATURE STUDY.

*

study of many things, such as ants, crickets, mallows,
trees, birds, buttercups, stones, earthworms, dissemina-
tion of seeds, it may be necessary to go only a few hun-
dred feet from the schoolhouse, even in the heart of a
city, and may not require more than half an hour or an
hour. A field lesson with the teacher and one pupil in
attendance will lead the teacher to look at nature, to
some extent, from the standpoint of her pupils, and aid
her in adapting herself to her pupils.

Nothing so draws together teacher and pupils, making
them fellow-students and fellow-investigators of truth,
as well-conducted field lessons, where they are on the
same plane, the teacher often becoming a pupil, the
pupils, who are so much nearer to nature than their
teacher, often becoming teachers.

Much concerning the natural environment or home of
what is being studied can usually be drawn from the
children. Many or most children have an unsuspected
store of nature lore, like Whittier's " Barefoot Boy " : —

" Knowledge never learned of schools,
Of the wild bee's morning chase,
Of the wild-flower's time and place,
Flight of fowl and habitude
Of the tenants of the wood ;
How the tortoise bears his shell,
How the woodchuck digs his cell,
And the ground-mole sinks his well ;
How the robin feeds her young,
How the oriole's nest is hung ;
Where the whitest lilies blow,
Where the freshest berries grow,
Where the groundnut trails its vine,

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 201

Where the wood-grape's clusters shine ;
Of the black wasp's cunning way,
Mason of his walls of clay,
And the architectural plans
Of gray hornet artisans ! —
For, eschewing books and tasks,
Nature answers all he asks ;
Hand in hand with her he walks,
Face to face with her he talks,
Part and parcel of her joy, —
Blessings on the barefoot boy ! "

The poorest student, the boy who takes no interest
in his school-work and plays truant whenever he can,
may be able to tell most. And here may be the oppor-
tunity of the teacher to interest and get a hold on that
same bad boy.

If the children cannot relate to natural environment,
if they have never seen what they are studying, the
starfish or sea-urchin or coral, the cotton or cocoanut,
the limestone or iron ore or coal, in its home, or where it
naturally occurs, then the teacher may endeavor by pic-
ture or blackboard illustration or word picture to give
the children some idea of its occurrence.

When the children know nothing about the occur-
rence of what they are studying, and it is difficult for
them to gain any clear idea of it, as in the starfish, it
is well to change the order of study, begin with what
they can see, the structure of the thing itself. This
will give a good foundation for future work ; and the
study of relation to environment may be taken up later,
and more or less incidentally.

202 NATURE STUDY.

All the work heretofore indicated may be considered
as preparatory. Now comes the presentation of new
matter in the schoolroom. With what shall we begin ?
Of course we want to build on the foundation laid in
the preparatory work. How ? By going on with the
same line of thought or sequence ; studying in the
schoolroom habits, work or function, development or
formation.

Have the pupils told a little about the habits of the
animal they are studying, rabbit, crayfish, cricket, fish,
canary, squirrel ; not merely where it lives, but how it
lives ? Continue the study of life and habits by observ-
ing these in the schoolroom ; how the animal moves,
crawls, walks, flies, how and what it eats, how it
breathes, how it sleeps. Read about those habits which
cannot possibly be observed. Study carefully the use or
work or function of the different parts, and the way in
which they are used ; that is their " why " and " how."

Have the children study in the schoolroom the de-
velopment and the work of the plant and its parts.
They have gathered buds in the early spring, noted the
trees from which they came, and their position, and
perhaps, arrangement on the branches. Have them put
those buds in water, watch their development, discover
the function of gummy or hairy covering and scales and
stipules, and note, as the parts develop, how they are
arranged, and why they are so arranged. Have they
learned to recognize the mallow, discovered how well
it is anchored in the ground, noted how its leaves face
the sun from morning to night, and how its younger

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 203

leaves and its flower close before dark ? Study with
them in the schoolroom the function and development
of root and stem and leaf and flower (so well shown in
the common mallow), the " why " and " how " which
shall make them think, lift them up, and prepare them
for the later more definite study of structure, the
" what."

The pupils have learned where the limestone they
have in their hands occurs, and perhaps how it breaks
down or crumbles. Work out with the children the
story of the formation of the limestone. Its fossils,
shells, or corals may serve to connect it with animals
of long ago from whose skeletons it was made. Its
crystals may give the clew to the process by which it
has been deposited from water.

Following the same line of thought, we can begin
with the origin or sources of physical forces, heat or
electricity, following with a study of their effects, what
they do, their work or function.

The study of life history, of the development from
seed or egg or larva or babyhood, of plant or animal,
and the story of the formation of mineral or rock, may
come at this stage, or may be placed later in the order
of study. Where the story of life history must be
told, it is better to have it after the study of structure.
In many cases, as in the crayfish, the children cannot
understand the story of development from the egg
until they have a fair idea of the structure of the
adult. Where development can be watched in the
schoolroom, as in the case of caterpillars and butter-

204 NATURE STUDY.

flies, it may be better to study life history before
structure.

Much has been said in previous chapters of the
greater educational value, particularly for children, of
such investigation of the living, working side of nature,
or of the function and story of plants and animals and
rocks, as compared with the study of mere form or
structure or morphology. It is in accordance with the
law of apperception. Life and action are more like the
child himself, appeal to him, can be better understood
by him. Life and action and work, the story of devel-
opment and formation, interest the children, and appeal
to their sympathies and to their higher nature, because
life and function, rather than structure, show the higher
side of nature.

The observation of life and function and the study
of development and formation lead to the questions
" why " and " how," and compel the child to think and
to relate what he is learning, and thus tend to unity.
Until an animal or plant is studied alive, and as a living
thing, with all its parts co-operating, it is not a unit,
but a collection or aggregation of parts. When we
know the story of a mineral or rock, the forces which
have acted on it, and the changes through which it has
gone, it becomes almost a thing of life, a connecting
link between the past, present, and future.

The study of habit and function and development or

formation is the best possible preparation for an under-

I standing of structure. The child who has watched the

cat drink milk or eat meat, or climb a tree, or sharpen

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 205

its claws and draw them into their sheaths, is best fitted
to understand the structure of tongue and teeth and
claws. The structure will be related to function, each
"what" associated with a "why" and "how." The
pupil who has watched the development of the bud into
the flower, and the formation of fruit and seeds by the
flowers, who has seen how the calyx folds about and
protects the other parts, how the corolla beautifies, how
the pistil becomes the seed-box, who has learned that
the corolla attracts insects, and that its markings and
hairs guide insects to the nectar, is prepared to study
the structure of the flower ; in fact, he has been study-
ing structure without knowing it. The structure of
sandstone or limestone, its layers or crystals or fossils, is
not only better understood when the child has seen how
water deposits materials in layers, or watched the forma-
tion of crystals of alum or sugar, or learned how shells
are deposited in mud and how the mud is hardened into
stone, but the child cannot possibly understand their
structure until he has learned the story of their forma-
tion.

The study of habit and function relates best with
literature and art. As has been said before, it is life
and function and story which have appealed to the poet
and artist. There is scarcely any literature of mere
structure.

The investigation of habit and function and develop-
ment gives the best opportunity for freedom and in-
dividuality in observation and expression. Every child
in the class may carefully observe the habits of the

206 NATURE STUDY.

canary in its cage in the schoolroom, how it hops and
walks and perches, how it eats and drinks, how it sings,
how it sleeps ; and each has a different story to tell, or
tells what he has seen in a way different from all the
others. When they come to describe the structure of
the canary, — its body and head and wings and tail and
legs and feet, — all are telling about the same thing, and
are apt to tell it in about the same order and words.
The latter description will be more exact, but at the
same time more stereotyped, less free and individual.

Much of what is here said about the value or content
of the study of life and habits, and about the method of
observing these, has been brought out concretely and
clearly illustrated in the outline or plan for the study
of the rabbit in Chapter II.

This study of life and habits in the schoolroom or at
home requires time ; it cannot be done in a day. The
material should be before the pupils for several days,
where they can watch it, and occasionally report what
they have learned. They may watch the germination
of the seeds in their window-boxes, or the development
of the buds in the jars, or the movements and habits of
the crickets or fish or snails or crayfish, for a week or
more before they have a formal lesson. Much of this
work will be done before or after school, or at home, if
the children are interested. If there are several boxes
or jars about the schoolroom, they can watch or study
these during school-hours without confusion. The study
of relation to environment and habits is of little value
unless based largely on personal observation by the chil-

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 207

dren. Without this it degenerates into mere guessing,
which is worse than nothing — is not only useless, but
injurious.

The teacher may help or guide them by occasional
definite questions, perhaps one or two a day, written
on a corner of the blackboard ; such questions as, " Find
out exactly how the caterpillar eats and what it has to
eat with," or " How does the caterpillar crawl ? "
" With how many legs ? " " Does it use them all in
the same way ? "

To lead each pupil to observe for himself, it may be
well to urge the pupils not to tell others what they have
observed. Sometimes it is helpful to have each one
write an account of his observations, of what he himself
has learned, before there is any class recitation.

The order in studying habits and function of plants
or animals is not material. We should begin with those
most easily observed and leave to the last those most
difficult for the pupils to see. In gathering up the °b-
servations in the class or in writing, however, all that
has been learned about any one topic, as eating, moving,
or breathing, should be brought out or told before pass-
ing to a new topic.

Here, in connection with the life and function, is the
place to bring in the literature. The literature, if well
selected, and the study of life, react on each other most
helpfully at this point.

208 NATURE STUDY.

CHAPTER X.

THE ORDER AND METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL
(CONTINUED.)

THE next step in the presentation of matter in the
schoolroom is the study of structure, — that in the plant
or animal which adapts it to its environment and fits it
for its work or function; and that in the rock which is
the result of the action of the agencies by which it was
formed.

While much of structure is studied in connection
with previous work, it is studied incidentally. At this
stage structure must be emphasized both as a means of
reviewing and clinching and unifying or binding to-
gether what has been learned about habit and function
and story, and as a basis for a subsequent step in the
process of unification; that is, comparison .and general-
ization, or classification. After the child has learned
the work or function of the dandelion root, has discov-
ered how firmly it holds the plant in the ground, has
seen its store of " milk " and noticed the disappearance
of the umilk" and the shrivelling of the root as the
seeds ripen, has learned that the rootlets take up water,
and food dissolved in the water, then he is not only
prepared to study the form and structure of the root,

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 209

but such study will review and clinch and bind to-
gether what he has learned about function. The
long, conical, tough main root suggests its function,
— to hold fast. The thickened, upper part is fitted
for its work as a storehouse, until the storehouse is no
longer needed. The fibrous branches have a work, — to
absorb water and food from the soil. It is more than a
fleshy, conical tap-root, as the botanist would describe it ;
it is a holdfast, a storehouse, an absorbent. Moreover,
this same root may in the next step become a type of
roots which have similar functions, and thus become a
means of still further unifying the student's ideas.

The relation between the study of habit and of struc-
ture and many of the principles and ideas discussed in
this chapter have been applied and illustrated in the
outline for the study of the rabbit in Chapter II.

The study of habits and function is largely a process
of analysis. If we stop with the study of the habits
of the canary-bird, we have little idea of the bird as a
structural whole or unit. The study of adaptation to
function or of structure is largely a process of synthe-
sis, of bringing together and reducing to unity what
has been separated in the previous step.

If the study of structure is to be a means of review-
ing and clinching function, and is to lead the child to
think, we must constantly ask "why" and uhow."
What is the use of this ? Why is this so ? It is not
enough to say that the grasshopper has very large hind
legs. Why ? It has a groove on each side of the ab-
domen. Why ? To aid in breathing. How ? But the

210 NATURE STUDY.

" why " should not be asked until pupils have gained
clear definite knowledge of the facts necessary to an-
swer the question. Mere guessing at " why " is worse
than useless.

If the study of structure is to prepare for comparison
and classification, we must particularly emphasize those
structural features which are most important in classifi-
cation, — the peculiarities of the flowers and florets in
the dandelion and of the teeth in the rabbit.

With younger pupils in the first or second grade of
the school, for whom structure has little meaning or in-
terest, and whose power of relating or unifying struc-
tural features is but slightly developed, the study may
stop with the observation of function and story, the
growth of plants and habits of animals, and what
structure may naturally be brought out in connection
with these. As the children grow older, structure be-
comes more and more important as a means of review-
ing function and preparing for generalization ; as a step
in the sequence by which they should relate their ideas,
reduce them to unity, or to some approach to unity.

The question often arises, u How far is it wise to
take up with the children details of structure or prop-
erties obscure or difficult to understand ? " In general,
in the work with children of any grade, only those fea-
tures of structure or those properties should be studied
or emphasized which either throw light on function (in-
cluding use to man) or aid in comparison and class-
ification, so far as the children of that grade study
or can understand these. For instance, in the study

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 211

of the mineral mica (commonly but incorrectly called
isinglass), its softness (easily scratched with the finger-
nail), lustre (the brilliant shine of its surface), cleav-
age (the property by virtue of which it breaks into
very thin plates), elasticity, transparency, and infusi-
bility are the properties which make it useful and dis-
tinguish it from other minerals. It has many other
properties, mineralogical and chemical, which the child
need not study at all, or may merely note without at-
tempting to remember them. The youngest children
can discover the function of the little hairs at the base
of each little dandelion flower, or floret (the pappus),
can see how they aid in disseminating the seed. There-
fore they should note the presence and appearance of
these hairs. The young children cannot understand
the real function of the stamens, so it is not necessary
nor wise, in this flower, where they are so indistinct, to
ask the little folks to study the stamens.

uHow far is it necessary or wise to dissect animals ? "
is a question often asked. Teachers dread dissection.
A similiar question which might be asked with equal
propriety, but which is not often considered, is, " How
far is it necessary or wise to allow or encourage the
pupils to tear into pieces plants ? " The higher aim
of nature study — that is, to develop a sympathy and
love for nature, and particularly for life — must de-
termine this. There should be very little study of dead
animals during the first three or four years, and no
dissection of any kind during the first five or six years.
During the last two or possibly three years, particularly

212 NATURE STUDY.

during the last year, some dissection may be wise, but
should usually be done by the teacher. Animals which
are domesticated or are pets, such as kittens, should
never be dissected before, or for, or by the children.

During the first two or three years children should
never be allowed to pull to pieces plants or flowers.
In later grades they should do no more of this than is
absolutely necessary. They should learn to reverence
life, plant or animal.

Closely related is the question as to the advisability
of using microscope or magnifying-glasses. Nature
study should lead the child to study the world about
him, and to use the instrument he has, — his own eyes.
Compound microscopes open a new world. While they
add to the interest and gratify curiosity, while they are
helpful in studying pollen grains and butterfly scales,
and the compound eyes of insects and the breathing-
pores of leaves, they are not necessary for work with
children, and give them little of much educational
value. Children do not understand much of what they
see in a compound microscope with a high magnifying
power, partly because they do not relate it to what they
see with their unaided eyes, partly because such a mi-
croscope shows at any adjustment only a section of an
object in the plane which is in focus, and they do not
relate the different planes seen at different adjustments.
Simple microscopes are helpful in work with pupils in
the upper grades in bringing out details of structure.
They should be used very sparingly and carefully with
young children, as they are apt to strain the eyes.

AL. 213

METHOD OF STUDYING MATEEL

If the study of structure is to be most effective in
producing a clear mental picture in which or to which
parts and functions are related, it must be orderly.
In previous steps there should be an order or sequence,
but conditions must largely determine that order. In
studying or describing form or structure the order
must be determined
by the order followed
by the mind in mak-
ing a mind picture
of form or structure.
We appreciate and
realize best the pro-
cess in marking a
mental picture when
we attempt to draw
from a description
what we do not see,
— a spider, for in-
stance (see Fig. 22).
If, as we stand be-
fore our pupils ready
to make on the black-
board a picture of the spider from their description, we
are told first that the spider has eight legs, or that it
has several eyes, or that it has a pair of feelers (palps)
in front of its head, we cannot draw, we cannot place
the legs or eyes or feelers, or relate them to the whole
spider. They must tell us first about the spider as a
whole, and about its body, the part to which legs and

Fig. 22. Spider.

214 NATURE STUDY.

eyes and palps must be related. If we are told that its
body is an inch long, we can lay off that distance, or some
multiple of it, on the blackboard. Next they might tell
that it is about one-third as wide as long, rounded at the
sides (oblong, some might say), divided by a neck into
two parts, the first a little shorter than the second, both
a little longer than wide, rounding toward either end.
From such a description we might get a fair mental pic-
ture, and make a fair drawing, though we had never
seen the spider. Now we want to add the appendages
or other parts. It does not help us even now to be told
that the spider has eight legs. We cannot relate them
to the body. Where are they attached ? we ask. Four
fastened on each side of the first division of the body,
the first pair back a little from the front end. Now we
can place them in our drawing. If next they began
to tell about the ends of the legs, we would be at a
loss again. The bases of the legs are in place ; the
ends have not been related to the base, are off in space.
First we must get some idea of the legs as a whole.
They are long (an inch long), slender, the first two
pairs projecting outward and forward, the last two
backward. They taper toward the outer end, and have
several (seven) joints. Now we can get and make a
picture. When told, not merely that the spider has
several eyes, but that the eyes are near the front of the
upper surface of the first division, and are arranged in
two rows running across, with four eyes in each row,
we can draw without difficulty.

This will serve to illustrate the importance of the

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 215

following rules, which will greatly help us in unifying
our ideas of form or structure, and in gaining and con-
veying to others good mental pictures of form; As
minerals are distinguished by their mineralogical and
chemical properties rather than by their forms, these
rules have little application in the study of minerals
and rocks.

First. Study and describe the whole before taking
up its divisions, the central or main part before con-
sidering appendages.

Second. In studying and describing parts or appen-
dages, first relate them to the whole.

Another rule may be added, not so widely applicable,
but helpful in insuring logical order or sequence. It
will also prevent a useless waste of material, so common
when pupils study without order. Those parts should
be studied first which are most easily observed, such
as the outer parts of the flower and the bark of a tree
trunk, and those left to the last which are enclosed by
other parts, and for the study of which other parts
must be removed.

Third. In studying, work from the base upward, and
from the outside inward.

To insist on a rigid compliance with these rules in
every case would make our work mechanical. But it is
helpful to keep them in mind, particularly in work
with older children.

The order in studying structure, particularly with
younger children, will be greatly influenced by the law
of apperception, and the law of interest, so closely re-

216

NATURE STUDY.

Fig. 23. Crayfish.

lated to it. The children will apperceive best and best
build upon that in which they are interested. In

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 217

studying the structure of the crayfish, for instance (see
Fig. 23), if the children want to talk about its great
"pinchers " first, let them do so, but not until they have
studied the body and its divisions, and located the
" pinchers " with reference to the body. From the
" pinchers " they will naturally pass to the legs, and
then to the swimmerets and tail fin, the parts by means
of which the animal moves. Later can come eyes or
feelers, large and small ; the order is not material.
The mouth parts, which are very difficult to see, and at
best will not be understood, should be left to the last.
If they begin the study of appendages with the large
feelers or antennae, take up next the small feelers most
closely related to them. In studying the pea flower,
if they are particularly interested in the little pod
developing in the flower, it may be best to study this
first, and consider the other parts in their relation to
pod, to investigate the way in which they are formed
so as to produce and protect the pod. We may then
add another rule, subordinate to the others, which may
influence the order in studying structure.

Fourth. Study first and emphasize those parts or
properties in which the children are most interested, and
which they can see best, and leave to the last what is
most difficult to see or understand. We may find it
best in studying limestone to begin with its efferves-
cence with acid, or in studying mica to begin with its
cleavage, or tendency to split into thin plates. These
greatly interest the children.

What has been said about testing the order, clearness^

218 NATURE STUDY.

and accuracy of a description by trying to draw fro^
it, shows the value of drawing in the study ot structure.
The essentials in structure are the form and relative
position of parts, and the best possible means of express-
ing these is drawing. As we have seen, we can at best
get only an approximate and rather hazy picture of form
from a word description. A few strokes with pencil or
crayon will give us a better idea of crayfish or plant
than we can possibly get from a word picture. When
making a drawing of an object, we are compelled to ob-
serve much more carefully than when writing a descrip-
tion of it. We must notice the relative position and
shape and size of every part we draw. On the other
hand, nothing demonstrates so forcibly to ourselves, as
well as to others, the lack of clearness in our ideas of
form as the drawings we make. The youngest children
see at a glance wherein the drawing they have made is
incorrect or poor, when they do not and cannot see the
deficiencies in a written description or word picture.

Remembering what was said in the previous chapter
about the function and value of expression, we will
find drawings most helpful in the study of structure in
compelling pupils to observe carefully, and thus to gain
clear ideas, and to express exactly, and thus convey
those ideas to others, arid in helping them to study and
understand the drawings or pictures made by others.

It is an excellent plan, pursued in many schools, to
place the object before the pupils without any previous
study or description of structure, arid tell them to draw
it. These first drawings may be criticised and discussed

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 219

individually or in class, and afterwards a second draw-
ing made. After pupils have made a careful drawing,
they are much better prepared to write a good descrip-
tion, if that is thought necessary. The drawing is fre-
quently so much better than the word picture that it is
not necessary or wise to ask for a written description.
But it must be remembered that the most common", and
usually the most convenient means of expression and
communication is language ; and children must learn
to express by language as well as by drawings.

It is helpful to have each pupil make a drawing on
the blackboard, and have the class select the best draw-
ings, and tell why they are best. This makes them
more careful and critical. The writer's experience has
shown that even children in the first grade usually se-
lect the best drawings, and can tell why or wherein they
are best.

We must remember that drawing from nature in-
volves a more or less careful analysis of the thing-
drawn, a study of the relative position of its different
parts. Pupils who have not been trained in this kind
of drawing rarely have the power of careful analysis.
If we simply place an object before the pupils, and tell
them to draw, the resujts will be poor, particularly if
the object is complex. The teacher must show her pu-
pils how she draws it, lead them to analyze it with her,
measuring (as when drawing the crayfish) the length of
the body, and laying off this length, or some multiple
of it, on the board, determining where the division line
between the two main parts of the body comes, and meas-

220 NATURE STUDY.

uring and representing the width at different points.
Having represented the outline of the body, the details
and appendages can be added. The teacher's drawing
must always be erased to prevent copying, and the chil-
dren asked to draw their crayfish in the same way.

At first pupils should draw only in outline, putting
in very few details, as suggested in the drawing of the
rabbit in Chapter II.

Whatever drawings the children make should be as
careful and truthful as they are capable of making
them. Otherwise the drawing may do more harm than
good, tend to strengthen careless habits of observation
and expression, and to fix in the child's mind incorrect
forms.

It must be remembered that these drawings must ex-
press the ideas of the children, not those of the teacher,
and must be examined and criticised from the stand-
point of the pupil, not from that of the teacher. They
must express the truth as the child sees it, and may be
far from artistic. What is very poor from the stand-
point of the artist or of the teacher may be very good
when looked at through the child's eyes, regarded as
the expression of his ideas.

The relation of drawing to nature study is farther
considered in the chapter on expression (Chapter
XI).

In describing structure, scientists use a host of sci-
entific or technical terms. How far is it necessary or
wise to use them in work with children? This can
be largely determined by a consideration of the use or

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL.

221

function of scientific terms, and of the characteristics of
the child mind.

Scientific terms are not mere "hard words," as the
non-scientific are prone to regard them. They express
in the most concise, clear, and exact form ideas or facts.
When the botanist describes the leaf shown in Fig.
24 as, "pinnately compound, with odd leaflet, with
nine leaflets, opposite, short petioled, stipellate, ovate,
slightly acuminate at apex, en-
tire, pinnately veined," he ex-
presses with a few words what
cannot be as clearly or exactly
expressed in non-scientific or
ordinary language with five, or
perhaps ten, times as many
words. From such a scientific
description, one familiar with
the meaning of the terms used
can make a fairly truthful draw-
ing, and gain, of course, a fairly
correct mental picture.

The main use of scientific terms is, then, to express
facts in language as concise and exact as possible.
Young children rarely need such terms, because their
ideas are general rather than minutely exact. As chil-
dren grow older their observations become, or should
become, more careful and detailed, and they need exact
terms to express them.

These should only be used so far as they are needed
by the children to express their ideas. Children should

Fig. 24. Compound Leaf.

222 NATURE STUDY.

never under any conditions be required to memorize a
mere list of such words ; the terms, for instance, used
in describing leaves. If, on the other hand, they can
be first led to see or realize how helpful these terms
are, they will be glad to get them and use them. Chil-
dren even in the first grade, studying the bean, who
have been given no technical terms, and have been en-
couraged to describe in their own ways, after struggling
for two or three days to tell about the "two halves,"
or the " two thick white parts," or the " two pieces
which cover the little bud," will welcome the word
" cotyledon " as a friend, and use it freely and correctly.
No other word expresses the idea. In the morning-
glory seed, where these cotyledons are so leaf-like, the
children may call these parts seed-leaves, but not in the
bean. After the children have gained an idea which
they want to express in language, and have no word
to express it, they need and will welcome the word,
even though it is long. Until then they have no use
for the technical term.

In general, the common terms, when they are exact
in meaning, are much better for young children than
the technical terms, — feelers better than antennae,
breathing-pores better than spiracles.

On the principle of apperception, scientific terms will
mean more and be more readily remembered just in pro-
portion as they are closely related to what is already in
the child's mind. This can be done by always explain-
ing their meaning. When the child knows that plu-
mule means "little feather," and lanceolate means

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 223

" lance-shaped," and micropyle (the opening in the
skin of the seed through which the growing end of the
embryo pushes) means "little gate," and calyx means
" cup," and pinnately means "like a feather," they will
remember the terms more readily, and use them more
intelligently. If the oldest children know the meaning
of a few root words, they can often form many words
by combining these ; such words, for instance, as epi,
upon, and peri, around, and hypo, under, used in form-
ing the botanical terms, epi-sepalous, epi-petalous, epigy-
nous, perigynous, etc.

In the case of words describing forms, such as those
relating to leaves, it will be found helpful to have
charts prepared and hung up in the schoolroom showing
the forms and the words together. These will keep the
forms and the words expressing them constantly asso-
ciated before the pupils' eyes. The pupils can refer to
these charts to find the proper terms to express exactly
the forms of the leaves or other objects they are studying.

As has been said before, the story of life history,
of development from germ to adult, may be brought
out in connection with life and function, or after the
study of structure. When the children can watch de-
velopment, as of the tadpole into the frog, and of the
caterpillar into the butterfly, this becomes a study of
successive adaptations, or adaptations to different envi-
ronments, and may well be studied in connection with
habits as a preparation for structure. Where the story
of life history is simply told to the children, it is best,
in general, to leave it to the last, that is, until after

224 NATURE STUDY.

structure, because some knowledge of structure will be
necessary to understand life history, as in grasshopper
or crayfish, and because the life history, being merely
told to the children, will be hazy. What is hazy, the
weak link in the chain, should be left to the last and
made subordinate, so that later important steps will not
depend on it.

We have studied plant or animal or stone as to : —

First. Its name and significance of name.

Second. Its relation to natural environment.

Third. Its habits and the functions of its parts (and
its life history?).

Fourth. Its adaptation to function or its structure
(and life history ?).

In the endeavor to farther unify our knowledge, the
object or phenomenon studied must now be compared
with others like and unlike it, so that what is like it
may be grouped with it, and what is unlike separated
from it. Thus in time the things we have studied are
not mere individuals, but types of classes, — the grass-
hopper of hundreds of insects, the robin of scores of
birds, the buttercup or wild rose or lily-of-the-valley
of groups or families of plants ; and the experiments
we perform explain many phenomena, — as the evapo-
ration and condensation of water from the tea-kettle
help the pupils to understand about the formation of
dew and rain and mist and fog and cloud.

The purposes or objects of comparison or association,
and of classification or generalization, are: —

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 225

First. To train the child to note and study carefully
resemblances and differences in objects before him.
The young child usually sees differences most readily.
For classification the teacher must emphasize resem-
blances and help him to see them.

Second. To lead him to distinguish the essential or
important from the non-essential or unimportant in the
form of plant or animal, or in the property of mineral,
or in physical or chemical phenomena, and to relate or
group or classify in accordance with essential resem-
blances and differences.

Third. To help him to recognize or abstract the
general plan in plants and animals, and general prin-
ciples or laws in physical phenomena, and to realize
more and more a unity in apparent diversity.

Fourth. To lead him to apply his generalizations to
other phenomena, and to arrange his knowledge in the
most convenient form for ready reference ; to " tie it
up in assorted bundles ready for use," each bundle or
group or class labelled and represented in the mind
by a type. Thus the bee may represent the insects, or
the membrane-winged insects ; the robin or sparrow the
birds, or the perchers ; the cat the vertebrates, or the
mammals or the flesh-eating (carnivorous) animals or
the cat family, depending on the extent to which the
knowledge has been assorted and grouped.

Lessons VII and VIII in the outline for the study
of the rabbit, given in Chapter II, illustrate order and
method in comparison and classification, and bring out
the application of what is here presented.

226 NATURE STUDY.

The work in association and comparison can and
should be carried on from the very first with the little
ones in the first grade. Gradually, certainly in the
second year, they can begin to discriminate more care-
fully, pick out essentials, and see something of plan.
Later, in the third or fourth grade, and in subsequent
years, more emphasis should be placed on recognition
of plan, and of principles or laws, and on definite classifi-
cation.

Success in comparison and classification — that is, real
classification by the pupils, not a mere memorizing of
classification given by teacher or book — depends almost
entirely on the character of the previous study of struc-
ture. If the teacher has required definite and exact
observation, and if she has kept in view the classifi-
cation to come later, and has emphasized those points
of structure which she (but not the pupil) knows to
be important in classification, there will be compara-
tively little difficulty when pupils are old enough for
generalization. In comparing the crayfish and crab
(see Figs. 23 and 25), to get the general notion of the
class of animals (crustacea) to which both belong, the
children will recognize the resemblance, if in the study
of the crayfish the teacher has dwelt on plan, on the divis-
ions and covering of the body and the number, position,
and character of legs and other appendages. If she has
been satisfied with a glance at form and color and length
of parts, and paid little attention to plan, she will find
that the children cannot classify for themselves. They
have no foundation for it. If in the study of the rabbit

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL.

227

the teacher has made sure that the pupils have observed
carefully the peculiarities in the rabbit's way' of eating
and in his teeth, there will be little difficulty in having
them see for themselves how the rabbit and squirrel are
related, as " gnawers " or rodents.

Fig. 25. Grab.

Success in classification and generalization will also
depend on the character of the material or phenomenon
selected for the first study, whether it is typical or not.
The rabbit is much better, as a preparation for the study
of rodents, than is the mouse. This is discussed in
Chapter XIV on the selection of material.

Remembering that in classification or generalization
we wish the child to see and to fix in his mind resem-

228

NATURE STUDY.

blances, rather than differences, and to recognize simi-
larity of plan or cause or law, we must endeavor to
first associate or bring together and compare those
objects which resemble one another, and then those
which differ more. The results will be much better if
we compare the crayfish with the lobster (see Fig. 26),
and then with the crab to get the idea of Crustacea,
than if we first compare crayfish and crab, which are so
different from each other.

Fig. 26. Lobster.

After resemblances are seen they can be emphasized
by contrasting animals which are similar with those
which are dissimilar. After the children have discov-
ered that crayfish and crab and lobster are alike in hav-
ing two divisions of the body and five pairs of legs,
they can be compared with the grasshopper (Fig. 27),
which has three divisions of its body and three pairs of
legs. This will bring into sharper relief, and prepare for
the study of, the distinctive characteristics of Crustacea.

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 229

We will succeed in bringing into prominence in the
pupil's mind the essentials in structure, or plan, or
physical phenomena, and thus leading to classification
or generalization, in proportion as we lead the pupils
by our questions, to see and dwell on these essential
features. If we encourage or allow a careful compari-
son of the multitude of details, often more or less ac-
cidental, such as color and minor markings, and length
of parts, the association and comparison may have little
result. In the comparison of dandelion and thistle (see

Fig, 27. Grasshopper.

Chapter I), we will gain little if we dwell on difference
in color, and in number of florets, and in length of parts.
Only in proportion as the pupils dwell on the similarity
of plan in the dandelion and thistle blossoms will they
get an idea of the composite family of plants.

It will be seen that the process of abstraction and
generalization requires the most careful work in devel-
opment or questioning. In the previous steps the chil-
dren, if properly taught, will accomplish much with
very few questions. In generalization, particularly
when made from few particulars, the pupils must be
led by the teacher.

280 NATURE STUDY.

One precaution is very necessary in the process of
generalization. We must constantly resist the ten-
dency to generalize from too few particulars. Broad
generalizations based on very few particulars lead to
careless, hasty, and often erroneous thinking. While
schoolroom conditions will not admit of the study of
the great number of particulars which must precede
thoroughly scientific generalizations, we must be ex-
ceedingly careful about generalizing from one or two
particulars. We must multiply experiments before
deducing laws, and study as many plants or animals or
minerals as the condition and interests of the children
make possible before passing to classification.

We must not be satisfied when the children v have
worked out the generalization. These generalizations
must be frequently applied to other plants and to other
physical phenomena, so that the habit of working up
to and making use of generalizations may be fixed.

This brings us to the last step in the method of pre-
senting or studying material. We must apply what
has been perceived and apperceived, and related and
unified, to other phenomena. Thereby we cannot only
fix and clinch in our mind what has been learned, but
we can make it a means of further development and
better adaptation, or broader unity.

When the children have learned about the conduc-
tion of heat, they should apply the knowledge to the
explanation of a host of familiar facts, by studying such
topics as clothing, storm-windows, stove-lifters. When

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 231

they have discovered the distinctive characteristics of
the composite family of plants, they should be led to
gather and relate all the kinds of composites they can
find. When they have learned how plants in the
schoolroom develop, they should apply what has been
gained in the investigation of the germination and de-
velopment of several plants out-of-doors.

Here we can and should strongly emphasize (particu-
larly with older pupils) practical applications. The
study of the dandelion seeds, with their hairy sails, may
thus lead to the hairy cotton-seeds and the cultivation
and process of manufacture and great value of cotton.
From the flax we may pass to linen, and from the sheep
to wool and to its manufacture and uses.

In connection with this step will come many oppor-
tunities for supplementary reading. In thus broadening
the pupils' ideas, making what they have seen helpful
in understanding what they cannot see, but must read
about, such books as " Stories of Industry " and King's
Geographical Readers are very valuable. (See also
Chapter XII.)

What has been learned in the nature work should
also be applied in other school-work. Nature study
thus becomes the basis for physical geography, is very
helpful in commercial geography, and throws much light
on political geography. It may illumine much that the
children read. It becomes a foundation for the expres-
sive work of the school.

Teachers and pupils are prone to think that when a
subject or topic has been completed, nothing more is to

232 NATURE STUDY.

be done with it. Each thing completed, be it one fact
or a broad generalization based on many facts, is but a
means of apperceiving new ideas, a link in another se-
quence, a help in higher generalizations, a preparation
for greater unity.

The applications of nature study in other school-
work, and the methods of relating nature studies to
other studies in the elementary schools, are considered
in Chapters XI, XII, and XIII.

The question naturally arises, Is it always wise to
follow from beginning to end this order of study, to
consider each of these steps in studying any object?
No, most decidedly. While this indicates the line of
thought, the point at which we begin or end and the
relative emphasis placed on different steps must be de-
termined by the age of the children, the character and
amount of preparatory work, the material available, and
other conditions.

With young children we will place all emphasis on
relation to environment, life, habits, and function, with
very little comparison and application. Children are
not ready for much work in the later steps. As the
children become older, they are prepared for a more
thorough study of structure, more work in classification,
and can make a wider application of what they have
learned. The older the children the more important in
general are the later steps, which involve wider knowl-
edge and require power of generalizing.

Where children have had nature work in the lower

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 233

grades, much, but not all, of the earlier work can be
done there, and in the upper grades the work can be
built upon these foundations.

Where living animals or growing plants can be easily
procured, the study of relation to environment and
habits can and should be strongly emphasized even
with older pupils. When only mounted specimens or
pictures can be obtained, then comparatively little at-
tention can be given to habits.

Closely related is the question as to the time to be
devoted to the different steps, or to the whole work in
the study of any topic. This must also be determined
by the age of the children arid by conditions. Children
in primary grades may devote from one to four or five
lessons to a plant or animal. It takes a very strong
teacher to keep little folks interested in one thing
longer than that. In the upper grades ten or fifteen or
more lessons may be profitably devoted to the intensive
study of such topics as corn, the rabbit and the family
of " gnawers," the cat and the cat family, the pine and
its relatives and their economic uses, coal, iron, etc.

The order of study as outlined is very generally ap-
plicable in the study of living or organic nature, plants
and animals. Much the same line of thought can and
should be followed in the study with children of inor-
ganic nature, of minerals and rocks, and of physics and
chemistry.

In studying such a rock as limestone, the first step
after the children know what they are studying, and
have noted the distinctive properties by which they can

234 NATURE STUDY.

recognize it, is to relate it to its natural environment,
to describe the places where and the conditions in
which it is found, and, if possible, show how it is
affected by its environment; how it crumbles or disin-
tegrates and forms soil under the action of rain, air,
roots ; how it is worn away and carried along and de-
posited by waves and streams. If it is possible to study
this reaction between the stone and its environment,
which corresponds to habit in living nature, it will. make
much more intelligible the next step, the life history
or story of the formation of the limestone. When the
children see that the solid rock breaks down into mud,
they will be better prepared to understand that it was
formed from mud and animal remains. The story of
the animals and other agencies which formed it, and
of the process of formation, is largely recorded in its
structure, and thus leads to and prepares for the study
of the structure of limestone, its fossils and layers, and
perhaps of its uses and adaptation to uses. From this
we can pass to comparison with other limestone, per-
haps with other lime rocks previously studied. The last
step is the application, such as the relation of what has
been studied to geography, the uses of limestone, and
of materials made from it, and the processes of manu-
facturing lime.

A similar line of thought can be followed in the
study of sandstone and shale and granite, and of such
minerals as coal, the iron ores, quartz, graphite, and
pyrite.

In studying physics and chemistry this order is not

METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIAL. 235

so applicable, and yet a similar line of thought can be
advantageously followed, particularly with younger chil-
dren. In the study of heat we can begin with its sources
(leading and relating finally to the ultimate source, the
sun), investigate next its work or function or effects
(from wrhich alone scientists, but not children, may gain
some idea of what heat is, what may perhaps be termed
its structure), and gradually, after many comparisons,
generalize or determine laws or principles, and, lastly,
apply these principles to the explanation of other phe-
nomena. The line of thought is much like that fol-
lowed in studying plants and animals. In work with
gravitation, the pressure of liquids or of air, magnetism,
and other physical forces or phenomena, a similar line
of thought can be followed.

236 NATUEE STUDY.

CHAPTER XL

NATURE STUDY AND THE EXPRESSIVE WORK OF THE

SCHOOL.

WE have formulated the aims and discussed the psy-
chological principles which must determine method in
nature study, and have considered the application of
these principles in the study of material.

We must now turn our thoughts to the relation of
nature study to other school-work, and to the means and
methods by which it can be made most helpful in such
work.

In planning any work for elementary schools, the ad-
vocate of nature study must keep in mind the immedi-
ate object of these schools. That object, as recognized
by most school officers and parents, is to teach read-
ing, writing, arithmetic, geography, — " the essentials."
Many teachers look little farther.

The educator who has deeper insight and a broader
and higher outlook looks beyond these immediate ob-
jects to higher aims, — the development of the whole
child, the building of character, the perfecting of the re-
lations between the child and his environment, nature,
man, and God.

The two objects are in no sense incompatible.

THE EXPRESSIVE WORK OF THE SCHOOL. 237

Rightly considered, one is simply one means by which
the other may be attained. The parent or teacher or
school officer is perfectly right in believing that the
children must be taught reading, writing, arithmetic,
and geography, and right in opposing the introduction
into our schools of anything which takes the place of
these " essentials," or weakens the effective work in
them.

While nature study has a most important place in our
elementary schools, just as science has a place in higher
educational institutions, independent of its relations to
or effect on other school-work, the extent to which it
makes and keeps a place in the average school, under
average conditions as they exist at present, with average
school officers and teachers, will depend very largely on
the extent to which it is shown to be helpful in other
school-work. The opposition to nature study by the
stanch believers in "the three R's " will be best over-
come by those who most conclusively demonstrate that
nature study does not in any way take the place of the
essentials, but, rightly taught, greatly helps them.

Nature study is simply a recognition of the depend-
ence of the child on sense-perception. What comes
through his senses makes the clearest and deepest im-
pression, and forms the best foundation for expression
in language, drawing, and reading, for geography and
for other school-work.

The relation of the work of the elementary school to
the two immediate centres of education, nature study

238 NATURE STUDY.

and man study, and to the ultimate centre, God study,
and the grouping of all school-work about these centres,
were considered in Chapter VI.

All the studies of the elementary school may be di-
vided, in a general way, into two classes : those which
are directly concerned with nature and man and God,
and those which are concerned with the means of con-
veying and relating what is learned about nature and
man and God. In the first of these classes are in-
cluded such studies as literature and art, history and
science, and much of geography ; in the latter, such
studies as language, oral and written, drawing and
arithmetic.

In literature and history we study man, his nota-
ble deeds and great thoughts and slow development.
In science we study nature. Geography is a study
of nature and of man's relation to nature. All of
these have a value in themselves, dependent on
what they contain, the knowledge or ideas or inspira-
tion we get from them. So we call them content
studies.

On the other hand, language and drawing have very
little value in themselves, at least as they are and must
be taught in the elementary schools ; their value is
determined by what we can do with them, what we can
express or convey to others or gain from others through
them. Hence they have been called instrumental or
expressive studies. As the value of these studies de-
pends mainly on what can be done with them (rather
than on what they contain in themselves), and this is

THE EXPRESSIVE WORE OF THE SCHOOL. 239

determined by their form or the relation of their parts,
they have been called formal studies. Arithmetic ex-
presses the quantity and proportion of things, and does
this through or by means of the proper relations of the
units used. Hence it is a formal or instrumental study.

This division into content studies and formal stud-
ies is somewhat artificial. Language and drawing may
have much content, but not as studied in elementary
schools. For such schools the classification is helpful.

In the schools of the past, and in not a few of the
schools of to-day, all emphasis has been placed on the
formal studies, — reading, writing, arithmetic. Even
geography, mainly a content study, has often had most
of the content taken from it. It has been a mere
memorizing of a description of the earth's surface,
rather than a real study of the earth's surface.

We are learning to-day the wisdom of placing more
emphasis on content studies, not to take the place of
formal studies, but to serve as a basis for these, and to
make these more effective. We are discovering that
when we take time, in the elementary school, to have
our children gain ideas about their environment, na-
ture, man, and God, they learn to express, to read and
write and draw, in less time than when they gave all
their attention to formal studies. They have ideas to
express. Instead of merely studying about the instru-
mental studies, the pupils learn to use them by using
them to express ideas, just as the carpenter learns to
use his tools.

Not merely is the work in the expressive studies

240 NATURE STUDY.

strengthened rather than weakened by devoting a por-
tion of the time in elementary schools to content
studies, such as science and history and literature, but,
what is much more important, the children receive
better, richer, more nutritious mental food, and are
thereby broadened and developed. Before, they were
fed too largely on something akin to husks, form or
externals rather than content.

As has been said in previous chapters, nature study
is particularly valuable as a content study and basis for
work with children, because it appeals directly to their
senses, through which the ideas of children must ul-
timately come. As the children grow older and have
acquired through their senses a larger stock of ideas,
or apperceiving concepts, more and more attention can
be given to those studies which do not appeal so directly
to the senses ; to such studies as history and literature.

It is as a content study, serving as a basis for the
formal or instrumental or expressive studies, that na-
ture study will meet the least opposition. Teachers in
communities opposed to " fads," so called, will find it
wise to emphasize the value of nature study in reading,
writing, drawing, and geography.

On the other hand, those children will get the most
from nature study or any other distinctively content
study who are led to express most carefully what they
have learned. Their ideas are not clear until they are
expressed. From any point of view it is wise to insist
on careful expression, to correlate closely the content
studies and the formal studies.

THE EXPRESSIVE \VORK OF THE SCHOOL. 24l

The object of expression is threefold, as was shown
in Chapter VIII:-

First. To make our own ideas more clear and orderly.

Second. To convey our ideas to others, and enable
us to influence them.

Third. To give us a means or medium through which
we can receive ideas from others.

We must keep these in mind in our discussion of the
relation of nature study to the expressive work of the
school.

In much of our work in the past we have made use
of only one form of expression, — language, oral and
written. As we study the children we appreciate the
fact that there are many other forms of expression, some
of them much more expressive for the children than lan-
guage. We find it necessary to consider the uses and
relative value in nature study of these various forms of
expression ; viz. : -

MOTION OR GESTURE. DRAWING.

Music. PAINTING.

SEWING. LANGUAGE.
MOULDING.

Long before the child can use a word he has learned
to express his wants and feelings by gestures, or move-
ments of his body. This is a most natural form of ex-
pression, which he continues to use throughout life.
It is particularly effective in telling about action, posi-
tion, and direction. Watch children use their hands,

242 NATURE STUDY.

and see what they can tell with them, — ideas for which,
oftentimes, they have no words.

In primary work particularly, where the children
must depend so largely on their senses, we must not
merely use material which appeals to their senses, but
must make use of and encourage those forms of expres-
sion which make use of the senses, the different forms
of what may be called sense-language. One of the
simplest of these is gesture.

When the children cannot express in words, even the
youngest can often tell much with hands and arms and
legs. The writer remembers a lesson — one of many —
learned from a little three-year-old who had been much
interested in some crayfish in a can. When the little
fellow was asked to tell how the crayfish moved, he
struggled and floundered, trying to find words. When
asked to show how the crayfish moved, his face lighted
up instantly, and he soon demonstrated that he had
very clear ideas of the mode of locomotion called " craw-
fishing." Some time later, when asked to tell how the
earthworm moved, he " told " by wriggling wormlike
on the floor.

The value of music as a means of expression in nature
work will be recognized in proportion as the teacher
realizes and keeps in view the higher aims of nature
study, — the cultivation of the higher nature of the
child, aesthetic, ethical, spiritual. The value of music
in nature work will depend on the content teacher and
pupils put into and get from their study of nature.

THE EXPRESSIVE WORK OF THE SCHOOL. 243

If the main aim in the teacher's mind is to develop
the purely intellectual powers of the child, the power
to see and tell and think, to compare and discriminate
and classify or generalize, then nature study and music
will have as little relation as nature study and litera-
ture. If teachers are satisfied with the study of mere
externals, general form or structure, then music is al-
most useless as a means of expressing the ideas gained.

If teacher and children go beyond form to the heart
of nature, then nature is full of music, is instinct with
thoughts which music can best or can only express.
The play of the wind, the song of the birds, the ripple
of the brook, the patter of the raindrops, the roll and
roar of the waves, the singing of the tea-kettle, are all
parts of the eternal symphony.

The harp at Nature's advent strung

Has never ceased to play ;
The song the stars of morning sung

Has never died away.

WHITTIER.

After a lesson, a real wide-awake lesson, on the signs
of spring, or on the bluebird, or on the nest with its blue
eggs in the tree just outside the window, the teacher
may find that a song will express more, and impress
more of what is most important to express and impress,
than a half-hour or hour spent in drawing the nest, or
in writing about the swelling buds or the habits of the
bluebird.

A song at the opening exercises of the school may
be more expressive and more effective in increasing the.

244 NATURE STUDY.

children's sympathy with the world of life than hours
of drawing or talking or writing.

Music and its strongest ally, poetry (the value of
which is considered in discussing the relation of nature
study to literature), are exceedingly helpful in cultivat-
ing the reverential attitude which will lead our pupils
to join with nature in the hymn of praise to the Author
of nature.

Nowhere is music, as a means of expression, so essen-
tial as in the primary grades.

Sewing has had a wide use in kindergarten and pri-
mary work. When the children can select for them-
selves the threads to match the color they wish to
express, the sewing becomes helpful in color work.
The stitching of the outline, if the work is not merely
mechanical, may impress the form. Sewing also trains
the pupil in doing orderly, careful, neat work. But its
value as a means of expressing ideas is very limited.
Little children can rarely make their own outlines ; in
general, they merely follow the outline pricked by the
teacher or some one else. Hence there can be little in-
dividuality, and therefore little genuine expression,
about such work. Furthermore, much fine work of
this kind is trying to both the eyes and hands of the
children.

Moulding or modelling in clay is perhaps the simplest
and best means of expressing form which little children
have. With clay the children can express the third
dimension? depth, as well as length and breadth.

THE EXPRESSIVE WORK OF THE SCHOOL. 245

Hence they can express with clay the form of solids
exactly as they see them. In their sewing or drawing
they can only outline solid forms.

The clay is so plastic that it can be very easily modi-
fied, and children are enabled to work readily toward a
more nearly correct form. It is more difficult for the
children to change their drawings.

On the other hand clay in the hands of young chil-
dren is decidedly limited in its application as a means
of expressing ideas. In general, they can only use it
to express their form ideas of rather simple and gross
objects. It is exceedingly difficult, if not impossible,
for average children to express with clay anything but
form ideas, or to show even the form of those things
which are delicate. They can model the bean seed,
but not the plant which develops from it. We may let
them attempt thus to represent a horse or dog, but we
see instinctively that we must not ask them to model
a butterfly. The model of flower or butterfly is almost
certain to be a caricature, which may be positively
harmful in its effects.

In plant work moulding has the widest application.
The form of seeds, buds, stems, roots, leaves, and fruits
can be expressed or represented very exactly and clearly
by means of clay models. In the study of animals
there are not so many opportunities for modelling. This
means of expression can be used very little in work
with minerals or in physics, because form is of rela-
tively little importance in these studies as they must
be pursued in elementary schools.

246 NATURE STUDY.

Drawing is a most helpful and important means of
expressing what is gained in nature study. It is the
most natural, the clearest, the most exact, and the
most concise medium for expressing many of those ideas
which come through the eyes. In the work in schools
it can be used mainly for expressing form and relative
position. Drawing cannot be used very largely by av-
erage school-children for telling about life and action
and function.

Unless aided by drawing, nature study, or science,
loses much of its value. On the other hand, nothing has
done more than nature study to demonstrate the value
of drawing in our elementary schools as a language or
means of expression. As nature study has been intro-
duced, and more emphasis placed on sense-perception,
and particularly on the importance of using the eyes,
more attention has been given to drawing as a means of
expressing what is seen. Drawing is an eye language,
in many respects the best eye language.

Mr. Henry T. Bailey, State Supervisor of Drawing
of Massachusetts, has said, "The advocates of nature
study, not the drawing-teachers, have had the honor of
opening blind eyes to see drawing as a living language
within the reach of all. "

Drawing is a most natural form of expression. There
is a natural relation, which appeals to the eye, between
an object, such as a bud, and a drawing or picture of
such an object, — a relation which any child of any
nationality may discover. There is no natural relation
between the object bud and the oral or written or

THE EXPRESSIVE WOKK OF THE SCHOOL. 247

printed word bud. The relation between ideas and the
symbols which we call words must be gradually es-
tablished in the mind of each child. No such practice
is needed to establish the relation between ideas and
the pictures representing them. Drawing is a natural
universal language.

In the development of mankind drawing has pre-
ceded written language. The first writing was picture
writing, and from pictures written language was grad-
ually evolved. As children are more dependent upon
their eyes than adults, so they find more helpful or ne-
cessary a means of expression, such as drawing, which
appeals to their eyes.

Drawing is also the clearest way of expressing form
ideas. It is, in general, impossible to describe any
object in words as clearly as with a picture. We real-
ize this when we compare the ideas we can gain from
the clearest possible description of some simple object,
such as a table or chair, with the ideas we can gain
from even a crude sketch of the same object. The
latter gives a very much clearer mind picture.

Form ideas can be expressed most exactly by draw-
ing. It is impossible for any one, child or adult, to tell
in words as exactly as by a drawing much of what he
sees. Much more careful observation is necessary to
make a fair drawing of an object, than to write what
will be generally considered a fairly clear description
of it, as any one will discover who makes the experi-
.ment. It is. mainly because we do not observe care-
fully that we find difficulty in expressing by means of

248 NATURE STUDT.

drawings. As soon as we learn to observe accurately,
and to analyze carefully, the form of what we see, most
of the difficulties in simple representative drawing vanish.

If language is the only means of expression used,
the child soon learns that he cannot express his ideas
exactly in words ; therefore he does not observe ex-
actly. If, on the other hand, the teacher insists on
exact observation and exact w.ord description, the child
becomes discouraged. He is expected to do what is
unnatural and exceedingly difficult.

Children, even in the first grade, can discover and
often correct the errors they have made in their draw-
ings. The experience of the writer has shown that the
children in a firstrgrade room will almost always select
the best drawings among several made on the black-
board by different pupils, and will usually know why
or wherein they are best. They find much greater diffi-
culty in selecting the best word description. It does
not appeal to their eyes.

With the older pupils the best way to test the clear-
ness and exactness of a description or word picture is
to attempt to draw on the blackboard from the descrip-
tion, to interpret the word picture into the eye lan-
guage. The pupils see at once the lack of clearness
and exactness, as they cannot be made to see it in any
other way.

Drawing is, furthermore, the most concise means of
expressing form, size, and relative position. A few
strokes of pencil or crayon may tell more' than a long
description.

THE EXPRESSIVE WORK OF THE SCHOOL. 249

A drawing brings out the essentials and distinguishes
them from the non-essentials, and shows the essential
or important relations between parts. When we at-
tempt to draw a leaf, we see the necessity of selecting
for representation important features of the leaf, its
length, breadth, and the position of the widest part,
the position of the midrib, and the relation of other
veins to this. After we get the skeleton, the essentials
of the form, we can add as many details as seems wise.
In making a drawing, we realize much more readily
than in writing a description the advantage of first se-
lecting important features, and of proceeding in order.

The value of drawing in connection with the study
of structure is considered in Chapter X.

Drawing has been taught in our schools as a part of
art education, or as an adjunct to form study. It will
be much more helpful, both in school-work and as an
aid in practical life, if more emphasis is placed on
representation ; if drawing is used more as a language,
a means of expressing and clarifying and fixing the
ideas gained in other subjects. The power of accurate
representation and the power and habit of close obser-
vation gained by such work in drawing will, ultimately,
be the best preparation for artistic development.

Mr. Henry T. Bailey, to whom reference has already
been made, has said, " Drawing, as a language, has a
permanent place in the school. Five hundred years
ago it was the universal conviction that reading and
writing were of no value to common people, and,
over; that the masses could never acquire

250 NATURE STUDY.

learning. A similar conviction seems to have possessed
us in these days regarding drawing. We now believe
it criminal to allow any child to grow to adult age with-
out the power to read and write ; oar successors — not
five hundred years hence — will come to a similar con-
clusion about drawing — the oldest written language of
the race, the only one now universally intelligible."

Painting is, of course, the best means of express-
ing color ideas. Language does this very imperfectly.
Painting trains the color sense, and gives that nice dis-
crimination of tint and light and shade which adds so
much to the enjoyment of the beauty of the world about
us.

But there are many practical difficulties which are
likely to prevent a general use, in elementary schools,
of color as a medium of expression. With the colored
crayons, sometimes used, the children cannot express
truthfully the colors of what they see. The colors of
the crayons do not match the colors in nature. The
pictures made by children with crayons are apt to be
hideously false. With water-colors more truthful rep-
resentations can be made ; but the mechanical difficulties,
in mixing and laying on the colors, and the expense of
the equipment for water-color work, are likely to prove
serious objections to the general introduction of water-
color painting.

Language is the highest, broadest, and most universal
form or means of expression. It is the principal medium
of communication between intelligent beings. It is the

THE EXPRESSIVE WORK OF THE SCHOOL. 251

medium through which the child must acquire most of
his knowledge of the great environment which is too
distant to be perceived through the senses. It is, there-
fore, the most important form of expression.

But it is not, as we sometimes seem to assume, the
only form of expression. It is not the most natural
form of expression. It is not always with little chil-
dren, the best medium for expressing ideas.

Language is a very difficult form of expression for
children. Words are artificial symbols. In talking, the
child has to learn to use artificial symbols for each
idea. In writing about what he sees, the child has to
use another set of artificial symbols for each idea he
tries to express. At first the effort to form these sym-
bols, the written words, requires considerable mus-
cular effort and control. When writing about what
he has been told, but has not seen, the child has to
interpret one set of artificial symbols, the spoken words,
into another set of symbols even more artificial, the
written words. That is, in telling what he has simply
heard he writes the symbol of the symbol (both artifi-
cial) of an idea. Is it strange that the idea is some-
times lost during the operation?

On the other hand, language is a higher and more
general means of expression. Language expresses, as
nothing else can, life and action and function, the higher
side of the child's environment. It expresses the higher
relations, aesthetic, ethical, spiritual, as they cannot be
expressed, by the child, through any other form or me-
dium of expression.

252 NATURE STUDY.

So far as we emphasize in nature study the life side,
the forces and processes, the ideas must be expressed
mainly by language. The child cannot tell how a bud
develops, or how a stream wears away its banks, and car-
ries and deposits the sediment, by a drawing or model
or painting. He must tell it in words. On the other
hand, he cannot tell the form or structure of the bud,
the results of the work of the stream, its course or the
slope of its banks, so well in words as by a drawing or
model.

Drawing and modelling are particularly helpful in
expressing what comes through the eyes. Language
expresses also intellectual and spiritual ideas other than
visual or physical or sensuous ideas. We have found
it wise in earlier years, when children are so dependent
on their senses, to emphasize that which appeals to and
impresses the senses, and to leave until later years that
which is not so immediately dependent on the senses
and requires greater intellectual power. Is it not, then,
wise and logical to emphasize in earlier education those
forms of expression, such as moulding and drawing,
which are adapted to express sense-perceptions, and to
emphasize more in later education that form of expres-
sion, language, which best expresses those ideas with
more intellectual, moral, and spiritual content ?

Three varieties of language expression may be used in
our nature work. The children may describe what they
see, the horse-chestnut bud, for instance, impersonally
in the third person. " The horse-chestnut bud " has a
certain form and color and covering, with certain parts,

THE EXPRESSIVE WORK OF THE SCHOOL. 253

and develops in a certain way. This is description.
We may lead our pupils to tell about " our buds," or,
better, " my bud ; " to tell what "we," or, better, "I,"
did and saw and thought, make it more personal. This
is, or is closely akin to, narration, which includes more
or less description. Or we may have the child person-
ify the bud, either tell about it as a living thing with
feelings like himself, or have the bud tell its own story,
or imagine himself to be the bud.

In the first case, the bud is a somewhat abstract or
generalized thing far removed from the child. In the
second case, each child is telling about the concrete bud
in his hands or before his eyes. In the third case, the
bud is, for the time being, the child himself, not some-
thing outside of himself.

These three forms of language expression are illus-
trated in the " blackboard stories " given in Part II, in
connection with the study of the mallow in the first grade.

Very much depends on the kind of language expres-
sion used. It is not necessary to ask any primary teacher
who is in sympathy with little children which of the
three is most expressive for the little folks, which is
most natural, simple, and attractive. The little child
naturally idealizes or personifies or endows with life
much about him.

The more what is studied is brought near the pupils,
the more the personal element is introduced in the ex-
pressive work, as well as in observation, the more free,
natural, and individual are the results. It is almost
always better to have the pupils in all grades tell in

254 NATURE STUDY.

the first person what "I" or "we" did and saw and
thought. The narrative or personal form is more exact,
because it is more concrete or specialized. As the chil-
dren generalize, and tell about "buds" instead of umy
bud," " trees " instead of "the tree I studied," their
language becomes less clear and exact.

On the other hand, in narration, and still more in
personification, there is great opportunity for the use of
the imagination, and the tendency is to give play to the
fancy at the expense of truth and accuracy. This ten-
dency can be corrected by having careful drawings
made, the work in drawing preceding, if possible, the
oral or written work ; and by sometimes requiring, par-
ticularly from the older pupils and from those whose
imagination is most active, impersonal descriptions, giv-
ing the " cold facts."

In determining the form of expression to be used in
our nature work, we will call music to our aid to ex-
press emotions of joy and pleasure ; we will sing about
spring, about sunshine and happy birds. Language we
will use to tell about life and action and habit ; the de-
velopment of the buds, the germination of seeds, the
beauty and work of leaves and flowers. In this, litera-
ture, and particularly poetry, will greatly aid us. We
will make use of the idea of apperception by having
our pupils occasionally personify and write in the first
person and not confine them to impersonal abstract de-
scription. We will have the children try to tell about
the form and structure of buds and seeds and leaves
and flowers, endeavor to make word pictures of them ;

THE EXPRESSIVE WORK OF THE SCHOOL. 255

but we will place more emphasis on the expression of
form and structure by carefully made, truthful drawings,
supplemented sometimes by clay models. We will
paint only those things which show decided colors, or
in which the color is distinctive or characteristic.

Having discussed the forms of expression, and their
use or relative educational value in connection with
nature study, we are ready to consider the essentials
in all forms of expression, and some of the means or
methods of realizing or attaining these.

The greatest essentials in all expression are : —

First. Individuality.
. Second. Truthfulness.

Third. Clearness.

Fourth. Order or plan.

Expression, whatever its form, is not genuine expres-
sion unless it is individual, unless it tells that with
which the individual pupil has been impressed. A
mere copying of the ideas of others is not expression,
but imitation.

Class reproduction, having all copy from the black-
board statements obtained from different members of
the class, is, at best, imperfect expression. Often, for
many pupils, it is not expression at all. It is easy,
convenient, and, when the pupil is first learning to write,
necessary. But the sooner we pass beyond such copy-
ing, and have each pupil express his own ideas gained
through his own senses, the more will we develop the
power of expression.

256 NATURE STUDY.

Yet even class reproductions can be made very help-
ful in training pupils in individuality, truthfulness,
clearness and order. If in such work the teacher ac-
cepts only those statements which the pupils who give
them have discovered or verified for themselves, if she
insists that each statement be accurate and as clear as
the pupils can make it, and if she selects and arranges
the statements so that there is a sequence in the result-
ing class reproduction, the work becomes an excellent
preparation for individual work.

Lead each child to see and think for himself ; then
he will have something to express, and will not merely
repeat what he has heard. Discourage in every way
mere appropriation from others. It is a species of steal-
ing, and children can be taught to consider it dishonor-
able.

Encourage the personal pronoun in the description.
The expression is much more apt to be individual when
it is personal. The child who tells about " my " leaf
or flower or stone, or about what " I " did and saw and
thought, is almost certain to tell his own observations in
his own way.

Do not accustom the pupils too much to the pumping
process, nor lead them always to depend on questions to
draw them out. This weakens the pupils. Questions,
clear, definite, logical, are necessary at first. They
make the observations orderly and definite. If placed
on the board, the pupils have time to think about them,
to observe and answer more carefully. But the pupils
are apt to see only enough to answer the questions.

THE EXPRESSIVE WORK OF THE SCHOOL. 257

Naturally they all tell about or express the same
things.

The more children can be led and taught to see and
think with few questions, the more they will have to
tell, and the more their powers of observation and ex-
pression will be developed. In the two or three best
recitations — clearest and most definite and orderly —
the writer has ever heard, one in a second-grade room, the
teacher did not ask half a dozen questions during the
half-hour that the lesson continued.

An excellent way to develop individuality and self-
reliance is to encourage the pupils to ask as well as to
answer questions. The teacher may ask a question of
a pupil, who has the privilege, if his answer is satis-
factory, of questioning a second pupil. This may be
continued as long as seems wise. The plan has shown
very good results.

Respect the pupil's individuality in observation. No
two persons ever see exactly the same thing. What
they see depends largely on what they already have in
their mind. If your pupils see somewhat differently
from you, do not assume at once that they are wrong.
Both may be right. You may be wrong. If there is
a dispute about the facts, — this is the opportunity for
arousing interest and stimulating the spirit of investiga-
tion, — let the pupils settle it by going to nature. Do
not decide it for them.

Respect their individuality in expression. Let them
express ideas in their own way, in the words most ex-
pressive to them. Your " grown-up " language often-

258 NATURE STUDY.

times does not express their ideas. If you insist on
their telling in your language, you deaden their power
of expression and discourage them. Overlook little
errors.

Remember, too, that language, and particularly writ-
ten language, is a somewhat " grown-up " method of
expression. Other methods are often more natural.
Many a child full of ideas appears dull merely because
he cannot express in words. Let him use gestures, or
tell it with hand or chalk or pencil, and the ideas come
out.

Develop individuality in expression. See in how
many ways the children can tell about what they have
seen. If a fact is told in a certain way, and this is re-
peated once or twice, most of the children will tell it in
about the same words, and the language work will show
that stereotyped sameness which proves that it is not
genuine expression. Have the pupils draw objects in
different positions or from different sides. This lessens
the tendency to copy or imitate the drawings of others ;
and copying is not expression.

The great essential, then, in expression is individ-
uality. If it is not individual, it is not genuine ex-
pression, but largely imitation.

Next in importance to individuality is truthfulness,
telling the truth; the whole truth, so far as it is seen,
and nothing but the truth. Considering the moral de-
velopment of the child, too much emphasis cannot be
placed on careful seeing and truthful telling.

The cultivation of the habit of careful personal inves-

THE EXPRESSIVE WORK OF THE SCHOOL. 259

tigation and exact, clear statement has long been recog-
nized as one of the most valuable results of the scientific
studies in higher institutions. How much better and
easier to form habits of truth-seeing and truth-telling
during the earlier years of a child's life !

Cannot we, in our nature work, even in the kinder-
garten, lead our children to observe as carefully and
express as exactly as they are capable of doing ? More
can be done in this kind of training in nature study
than in any other line of work, simply because nature
study gives better opportunity for personal observation
or investigation. It is much more natural and much
easier to tell exactly and clearly that which has come
to us through our senses, than that which we have re-
ceived from or through others.

For this training in seeing and telling the truth, the
first essential is plenty of good material, so that each
child can see for himself, and can correct for himself
by reference to the material before him any errors he
has made in observation or statement.

With the material, an apple, for instance, in his hand,
our pupil says, " My apple is round like a ball." True,
but not all the truth. At your question, " Is it exactly
round like a ball ? " even the little fellow in the first
grade will look again, and may add, " It has a hole in
one end." Another look will bring out, " It has two
holes, one at each end," much nearer the truth.

If you are satisfied with the first answer as describing
the form of the apple (the term " round " is very in-
definite and inexact, although much used), you accept

260 NATUliE STUDY.

a half-truth, a species of untruth, and allow or encour-
age un truthfulness.

If you correct the answer yourself, you miss an op*
portunity to help your pupils to be more truthful. It
will often add much to the interest of the lesson, and
sharpen the pupils' powers, if you encourage members
of the class to watch for and correct statements which
are not true or not clear.

Encourage in every way exact statements. Have
the children count and measure. Discourage guess-
ing and indefinite forms of statement, such as " about "
and "I think." Any absolute misstatements should, of
course, never pass unnoticed.

It must be remembered that language is a very diffi-
cult and inexact way of expressing many ideas, such as
those of form, size, and relative position. Drawing,
painting, and modelling are often much more natural,
simple, and exact forms of expressing truth than is lan-
guage. Any child can tell the truth about the form of
a seed or fruit much better with clay than in words.
Furthermore, even the youngest child can recognize
errors in drawing, when he cannot see wherein his word
picture is wrong. Hence children can correct their own
drawings.

As teachers, we may attach so much importance to
sympathy and interest and an appreciation of the les-
sons and beauties of nature, that we neglect the care-
ful individual work which is of the greatest value in
the development of the powers of our pupils. On the
other hand, we may emphasize exactness in detail so

THE EXPRESSIVE WORK OF THE SCHOOL. 261

strongly as to deaden the interest and dull the eyes to
beauty.

Cannot we keep in view both these aims, giving more
and more prominence to exact observation, expression,
and reasoning, as our pupils are older? We shall then
find our nature study most effectively preparing for and
aiding in the study of arithmetic, and developing care-
ful, truthful men and women.

Not quite so important as individuality and truthful-
ness are clearness and order. In work with the young-
est children clearness means expressing each idea so
that it can be easily and correctly understood. Order
means combining ideas so that their relations can be
readily grasped or appreciated. As children grow older,
and gain power to relate different or successive ideas,
clearness depends more and more on order.

We cannot expect a little child to be very clear ; he
does not have sufficient command of language. Neither
can we, at first, expect him to be very orderly ; he does
not well understand the relation of ideas. If we place
too much emphasis on clearness, we discourage the
child ; we ask him to do what he does not have the
power to do. If at first we emphasize order of thought
too strongly, we lead him to copy our order, instead
of developing in him the power to see things in their
relations, and to arrange his ideas for himself.

Greater clearness can be gained by leading children
to discuss one another's statements or drawings, and de-
cide (not merely have the teacher decide) how they can
be made more clear and truthful, or can be changed so

262 NATURE STUDY.

as to be better understood. Special care must be taken
in the use of such a word as round, often used incor-
rectly as equivalent to spherical, cylindrical, conical, or
disk-shaped.

Clearness and order in expression depend, to a con-
siderable extent, on clearness and order in observation.
If the first is well planned, the second is likely to be
orderly and definite.

Both order and clearness depend largely on the way
in which the observation lesson is reviewed and the
main points clinched before the reproduction is at-
tempted. If there is a clear, careful summary at the
close of each step in the lesson, and a general oral re-
view at the close of the lesson, just be.fore the written
reproduction, it will greatly aid in making the written
work clear and orderly.

It is often helpful to lead the class to decide on the
order. The teacher can ask the children, " What shall
we study first ? Why ? What next ? Why ? " Simi-
lar questions may be asked in the oral reproduction.
The order thus decided upon may be written on the
board, and will help the children in their oral or written
reproduction.

The same plan can be followed to advantage in the
drawing or other form of expression. " In drawing the
bud, shall we draw the whole bud first, or a scale ?
Why? In modelling this apple, shall we make the
apple first, and then show the pits, or make the pits
first, and then shape the apple? Why?"

In written work the teacher can guide the pupils at

THE EXPRESSIVE WORK OF THE SCHOOL. 263

first by the order of her questions, to which they write
answers. Later, an outline, formed as much as possible
by the children themselves, can be placed on the board
as a guide. Gradually the outline can be made less
and less detailed. In the intermediate grades the chil-
dren can often, or usually, make their own individual
outlines.

To insure orderly full oral expression, or to lead the
pupils to tell all about what they are studying, it is
helpful to have the pupils stand, in turn, before the
class, with the material about which they are talking in
their hands or before them, and tell all they can about
it, or some part of it, without questions from the teacher.
At first they may follow an outline on the blackboard,
but should gradually learn to tell without such an out-
line.

In the primary work we can strongly emphasize
individuality and truthfulness, and make somewhat sub-
ordinate clearness and order. We can place more em-
phasis on the latter in the intermediate grades, where
the power of clear expression and orderly thought is
better developed. Later, in the upper grades, we can
ask our pupils to tell all about what they have studied
and in as few words as possible ; that is, give more at-
tention to complete, concise expression.

Nature study, it must be remembered, is but one
basis for the expressive studies ; man study, including
history and that part of literature which is not inspired
by nature, is another basis. As was shown in Chapter

264 NATURE STUDY.

VI, nature study is the best basis for expressive studies
in the earlier years, when the children are so much
more dependent on their senses ; in later years, man
study becomes more and more important.

Nature study and man study provide the material
or content for the expressive studies. But there must
also be systematic instruction and adequate drill in
the formal work in these subjects, in formal language
and drawing. In emphasizing the content we must
not go to the other extreme, and neglect the form.
The children must learn how to use the instrumental
studies, must become familiar with the laws and prin-
ciples without which they cannot make the best and
most effective use of the instruments for expressing
ideas, language, drawing, and other forms of expression.

Nature study will aid the expressive work of the
school in proportion as it is closely correlated with the
expressive studies, as the form of expression used is
adapted to the nature and needs of the children and to
the material studied, and as the essentials in all expres-
sion, individuality, truthfulness, clearness, and order,
are kept constantly in mind.

RELATION TO READING AND LITERATURE. 2G5

CHAPTER XII.

RELATION OF NATURE STUDY TO BEADING AND
LITERATURE.

THREE main objects of expression have been named :
to make the ideas of pupils clear and orderly, to convey
their ideas to others, and to enable them to gain ideas
from others. In the preceding chapter we have con-
sidered the expressive work of the school mainly with
reference to the first two objects. We have to discuss
in the present chapter those phases of expressive work
the special object of which is to enable us to use ideas
gained from others. This is the main purpose of work
in reading and literature.

In the primary grades the reading-lesson, related to
nature study, is much like the individual language ex-
pression already considered, but is, in general, a class
reproduction. What the children see they tell about,
and their statements are written on the blackboard by
the teacher for a reading-lesson. Frequently copies
are made, by some duplicating process, for the use of
each pupil.

Such reading-lessons serve a threefold purpose : they
help to fix the important ideas gained by observation ;
they give the pupils practice in expressing ideas and in

266 NATURE STUDY.

gaining ideas by means of language ; and they serve as
models for the children, or ideals toward which they
may aim, in their individual written work. Hence such
reading-lessons should contain and emphasize the im-
portant ideas or facts, should show the best work of
the best members of the class, and should be models in
both content and form.

Not infrequently such blackboard reading-lessons are
entirely the work of the teacher, and not gained from
the children. Then they lose much of their value, be-
cause they are not the expression of the ideas of the
pupils. On the other hand, the lessons may be gained
from the children, but the matter may be so poorly
selected and expressed, and so lacking in sequence,
that the lessons are anything but models in either con-
tent or form.

•.. Care must be taken that the children do not, in their
individual written work, merely copy or repeat what
they have had in their reading-lesson ; otherwise the
reading-lesson may be a detriment to the individual ex-
pressive work. The reading-lesson should, if possible,
come after the individual work, rather than precede
it.

In the first grade the blackboard reading-lesson is the
first step in training the children in written expression.

"Blackboard stories," based on what the children have
seen in their nature work, gained from the children by
careful questioning and written upon the blackboard
by the teacher, are very helpful even before the little
folks can read or write a word. They impress on the

RELATION TO READING AND LITERATURE. 267

children the use and value of writing, and the fact that
they can help "write stories;" they give them practice
in expressing their ideas clearly, and can be made help-
ful in training the children to relate successive thoughts
and statements, to keep a sequence in their work. Il-
lustrations of such "blackboard stories" are given in
the work outlined for the first grade in Part II. At
first the pupils can merely copy what they see on the
blackboard. The character of the blackboard reading-
lessons and the method pursued in these early steps
in language expression have much to do with the char-
acter of the later expressive work of the pupils.

Such reading-lessons must be in accord with the prin-
ciples laid down in Chapters VII and VIII. The matter
must be based on sense-perception and on appercep-
tion, on what the children have seen and already know,
and must interest the children. The lessons must call
into play the imagination, not be confined to mere facts
of sense. Each reading-lesson should have a sequence,
a line of thought. Each should be a unit in itself, and
at the same time, part of a larger unit, including a series
of lessons.

What has been said in the preceding chapter about
language expression, and about the essentials in all ex-
pression, applies to the primary reading-lesson as well
as to the work of the individual pupils.

A reading-lesson in the form of a story or narrative,
or one in which what has been studied is personified, is
better, in most cases, than a lesson which is purely
descriptive.

268 NATURE STUDY.

In the reading-lessons emphasis should be placed on
life and action and processes, on function and cause,
rather than on mere form and structure. The latter
can be best expressed by means of drawings or pictures
in connection with, or as part of, the lessons.

Many of these features of a good primary reading-
lesson are illustrated in Miss Bass's admirable. reader,
" Plant Life," as in the following lesson from that
reader, —

A DANDELION.

Do you see me ?

I am a yellow flower.

My name is Dandelion.

Do you think I am pretty?

You need not go far to find me.

I come near you.

You can see me on your way to school.

I love little boys and girls.

They love me too.

They are glad to see me.

I am bright like a star.

But I shine in the daytime.

You may call me a day-star.

I go to sleep at night.

I have a short stem.

I am not very tall.

Some day I shall not look as I do now.

You will hardly know me^then.

The reading-lessons, growing out of the work of the
class, cannot be markedly individual. They embody
the best thoughts of the class, arranged^ with the help

RELATION TO READING AND LITERATURE. 269

of the teacher, in the best form, and often supplemented
by thoughts gained from literature. The lessons should,
however, be rigidly truthful or accurate, and should be
models of clearness and order.

While the teacher should gain the lessons mainly
from the pupils, she can, by her questions and sugges-
tions, determine the character of the lessons, and can
thus influence much of the expressive work of the in-
dividual pupils.

If the reading-lessons gained from the children are
based on their observations ; if they are truthful, clear,
and orderly; if the children see that in these lessons
the teacher accepts only the statements which tell in
the clearest way what each child knows to be true ; if
they perceive that the teacher puts the statements in a
certain order, and gradually understand the reason for
that order, the children will be apt, in subsequent ex-
pressive work of their own, to follow their teacher's
example.

If, on the other hand, the teacher accepts for these
lessons any statement the children may make, whether
based on observation or a mere guess, whether true or
half true (the worst kind of a falsehood), whether clear
or hazy, and writes these sentences on the blackboard
just as the children happen to give them, without
sequence or order, the lesson is not merely of little
value as a reading-lesson, but is positively harmful to
the children; it becomes a means of drilling them in
telling in the wrong way what they have seen, a means
of establishing bad habits of expression.

270 NATURE STUDY.

The most common or general defect in the primary
reading-lessons is lack of sequence or continuity of
thought. Thinking is relating ideas, and it is only by
relating ideas that children can learn to think. The
successive ideas must be related, if they are to be fixed
in the mind. It is comparatively easy to understand
and remember ideas arranged in order, each related to
the one preceding it and to the one following it. It is
difficult to follow, and almost impossible to remember,
a series of statements thrown together without sequence
or order.

Arrange and keep the statements in logical order.
If a pupil tells something not related to the previous
statement, put it aside until a place can be found for it.
With older primary pupils it may sometimes be wise to
have the children tell all they can, without questions or
any special attention to order, write these statements
on the board, and, when the pupils have told all they
can, arrange (with them, not for them) the statements
in order or sequence, getting the children to fill in the
gaps. This will give them practice in arranging or
grouping ideas.

It is sometimes helpful to have the pupils criticise
the statements as to exactness and clearness. Do they
tell the truth, the whole truth (as far as they have
seen it), and nothing but the truth? Are they as clear
as they can be made ?

So far as the reading-lesson is to train the children to
express ideas and to fix the more important ideas which
they have, we must get the statements from the chil-

RELATION TO BEADING AND LITERATURE. 271

dren. But we must not stop here. A fountain cannot
rise higher than its source. If we limit the children in
their reading-lesson to their own ideas we narrow their
horizon.

The teacher should introduce facts and thoughts
which have not come from the children, but which
grow out of or are naturally related to what they have
seen and told. This is an opportunity to broaden the
knowledge of the children by leading them from what
they can see in their little world to what they must be
told about the great world, and to give, them the best
and most beautiful thoughts from the poets and others
about the birds and plants and clouds which the boys
and girls have been observing.

In the reading-lesson about the hairy seeds of the dan-
delion or milkweed or thistle, the teacher can introduce
something concerning the cotton-seeds with their hairy
wings, and concerning the use man makes of the cotton
hairs or fibres. In the lessons telling what the children
have seen about the habits and nests and eggs of the
bluebird, it may be well to add some of the habits
which the sharper eyes of Thoreau or Burroughs have
discovered. But care should be taken so to word this
new matter that the children may be taught the impor-
tance and necessity of sharply distinguishing, in all
their work, between that which they have gained for
themselves and that which they have merely appro-
priated from others.

Very frequently we should introduce into these pri-
mary reading-lessons gems from the poets. But they

272 NATURE STUDY.

should be gems, not mere rhymes or doggerel. The
very best literature is not too good for the primary
children. It is helpful to begin the lesson with a line
or couplet or verse containing some beautiful thought
which may give tone to the whole lesson.

A lesson gathering up some of the facts and thoughts
the children have gained from their study of air and
winds may begin with the verse from " The Child's
World": —

"The wonderful air is over me,
And the wonderful wind is shaking the tree;
It walks on the water and whirls the mills,
And talks to itself on the top of the hills."

Such an introductory thought is almost certain to give
spirit and direction to the whole lesson.

A lesson on any flower may begin with the words of
Henry Ward Beecher : " Flowers are the sweetest things
God ever made and forgot to put a soul into." What
the children read about grains, as they are studying
wheat or oats in the fall, will mean much more if they
can be given the thought of Lowell ; he calls the grains
" Four months' sunshine bound in sheaves." • When
they are writing or reading about the uses of leaves, or
about the leaf-miners and leaf-rollers, whose homes are
in the leaves, how much may be added by quoting from
Lowell : -

"And there's never a leaf nor blade too mean
To be some happy creature's palace."

Many illustrations of primary reading lessons based on
nature study are given in Part II*

RELATION TO HEADING AND LITERATURE. 273

It must be remembered that we are considering pri-
mary reading only so far as it is correlated with and
based upon nature study. Part of the reading should
be correlated with the other centre of education, man
study ; should be based on story-work, on what the chil-
dren know of their home-life and the home relations,
and on what they are told of the homes and lives of
other children and other people. It is believed that
nature study should be given more prominence than
man study in work in the primary grades, because it
appeals more directly to the children's senses, — the
avenues through which little folks must gain their
ideas, — and because nature study involves more self-
activity than story-work.

In the upper primary grades, and in grades above
these, the reading-lessons cannot be based so directly
on what the pupils observe, and the purpose of the
reading-lesson becomes, more and more, to gain infor-
mation and thoughts and inspiration, rather than to
express in the best form what has been gained by the
children through their senses. Close correlation of the
reading with nature study or man study becomes more
difficult and less important.

Now comes the time for 'supplementary reading as
distinguished from what may be called expressive read-
ing. This supplementary reading may be divided, in a
general way, into two classes, — that which is mainly
intended to broaden the knowledge, what may be
designated as reading for information ; and that which

274 NATURE STUDT.

uplifts the pupils, gives them a higher as well as a
broader outlook, develops their higher nature, what we
may call reading for inspiration. These two classes,
however, shade into one another.

Both of these are important; both are essential;
neither should exclude the other.

The reading for information is distinctively practi-
cal ; it prepares for practical life. At the same time it
may prepare for the reading for inspiration ; the broader
the knowledge we have of nature and man, the better
are we prepared to appreciate and make our own the
great thoughts which nature and man have inspired.

To this class of reading belong the information
readers, the geographical readers, most nature readers,
and most juvenile books which treat of travel and nat-
ural science. From all of these the pupils may get
more or less broadening and uplifting, but their main
value is as sources of information and means of broader
acquaintance with man and nature.

One characteristic of most such books is that they
are often or usually " adapted " to the children, " writ-
ten down" to the supposed capacity of the boys and
girls who are to read them. Comparatively little
mental effort is required to understand them. Their
content can usually be gained by one or two or three
readings.

Nature study prepares for such reading by leading
the pupils to gain, by the use of their senses and their
mind, the foundation ideas on which these new and
broader ideas must be built. It is only by the careful

RELATION TO HEADING AND LITERATURE. 275

observation and study of the plants and animals and
minerals and rocks about their own homes that chil-
dren can be prepared for the clearest understanding of
what they read about the rocks and life of other regions.
Only after they have studied elementary mechanics and
some of the first principles of electricity and magnet-
ism, and have investigated the working of such simple
machines as they have about their homes and school,
can they intelligently read about the machinery and
processes used in manufacturing.

In the second class of supplementary school reading,
what has been designated as reading for inspiration, as
distinguished from reading for information, are in-
cluded the literature or classics of our language, or,
more specifically, those portions of our literature which
are so related to the work the pupils have done, and to
the ideas they have gained, that the children can appre-
ciate, and to some extent comprehend, their thought or
content.

If it is true, as has been stated in Chapters IV and
V, that the great aim of nature study and of all edu-
cation is to cultivate the higher nature of the child,
aesthetic, ethical, and spiritual, and bring the child into
sympathetic right relations with all his environment,
nature, man, and God, then this second class of read-
ing is much more important, educationally, than the
first.

Much of the best literature has been inspired by na-
ture, and can be best appreciated by those who are sym-
pathetic students of nature. Longfellow has said, —

276 NATURE STUDY.

" Art is the child of Nature ; yes,
Her darling child, in whom we trace
The features of the mother's face,
Her aspect and her attitude,
All her majestic loveliness
Chastened and softened and subdued
Into a more attractive grace,
And with a human sense imbued :
He is the greatest artist, then,
Whether of pencil or of pen,
Who follows Nature."

If we keep constantly in mind the purpose of the
literature used in connection with nature study, this
will greatly influence or largely determine the selection
of literature and the manner of reading or studying it.
This purpose is, to give a larger content to ideas which
the children have, to clarify their vision and extend
their horizon, to help them see new beauties, think
greater thoughts, have higher aspirations.

Teachers who realize the true purpose of literature
will have little use for much or most of the so-called
poetry with which our educational papers are often
filled. Some of this may be useful. Facts and
thoughts stated in rhyme, and with some rhythm or
" jingle," are often more readily impressed on the
memory. Most boys and girls remember much better
the number of days in each month after they have
" learned by heart " the doggerel, —

" Thirty days have September,
April, June, and November;
All the rest have thirty-one

DELATION TO READING AND LITERATURE. 277

Except February alone,

Which hath four and twenty-four,

And every fourth year one day more."

But teachers must not delude themselves and cheat
their pupils with the idea that everything which is in
rhyme is poetry, and therefore literature.

Mere rhyme we comprehend after one, or at most two
or three, readings ; we soon get from it about all the
thought or content there is in it. The best literature,
such a gem as Lowell's " Vision of Sir Launfal," we can
read and reread, again and again, scores of times per-
haps, and see new beauties and get new inspiration
each time. This is perhaps the simplest test of real
literature. If what we read awakens little thought,
and a second and third and fourth careful, thoughtful
rereading gives us little that is new, it is not literature,
or, perhaps, it is so much beyond our comprehension
that it is not the literature for us.

We can be sure of reading real literature to and with
our pupils if we select from the writings of standard
authors, those who by general consent have long been
regarded as best worth reading. Any nature literature
selected from such writers as Lowell, Emerson, Long-
fellow, Whittier, Bryant, Lucy Larcom, Tennyson,
Wordsworth, we may consider as worth reading, if
it is not utterly beyond the children. That which
is selected from writers who are unknown or little
known, may or may not be literature that is best worth
reading.

In selecting literature it is well to keep in mind the

278 NATURE STUDY.

old saying, "The greatest enemy of the best is the
good." Much may be good, may be worth reading,
but we have time in school for only the best ; only the
best is good enough for the children, whether young or
old.

One reason for the use of so much mere rhyme and
trash, instead of literature, is the feeling, so prevalent,
that most real literature is beyond the comprehension
of the pupils in our schools, and therefore of little' value
in school-work. Unless what is read is above the chil-
dren, it has little value as a means of uplifting them.
What children can readily comprehend with little ef-
fort cannot be very broadening.

Teachers who have attempted honestly and persis-
tently to read or study real literature with their pupils,
have learned that the children can be intensely inter-
ested in much which they cannot fully comprehend,
and can get from it much more than is at first thought
possible. Unless children have been so trained that it
seems a hardship to think, and useless to attempt to
understand what is not clear at first, they will read or
listen intently to much which is somewhat beyond their
comprehension.

A clear understanding of the aim or purpose of the
reading of literature will largely determine the plan or
method pursued. If the teacher wishes her pupils to
get the thought, the inspiration, she will allow only
those pupils to read it aloud who can best get and give
the thought, or she will read it herself. When reading
for information, it may be wise to have each one read

RELATION TO READING AND LITERATURE. 279

aloud. When reading for inspiration, it is utterly
wrong to permit a poor reader to mar a literary gem,
and take from it most of its beauty.

Inspiration, like breathing, is a gradual process. If
the teacher wants her pupils to get the most from the
literature read, she will bring it before them again and
again, or keep it before them, give them repeated oppor-
tunities to absorb it or breathe it in, just as she might
try to get them to study, not merely glance at, the
painting of a great artist. If it is literature, they may
and should get much more from a second reading than
from the first. It is wise to come back to it, think
about it, discuss it again and again. The very best,
never the mere rhymes, should be kept before the chil-
dren, placed on the blackboard, copied in their written
work, so that they will learn and remember it.

The aim, inspiration, will determine the way in
which the literature is studied in and by the class.
Many a literary gem has lost most of its beauty because
too carefully analyzed, just as a flower loses its beauty
when pulled to pieces. We may prepare the children
for the understanding of a piece of literature by talk-
ing over with them beforehand some of the facts or
thoughts which may be most difficult. After such
preparation the children should, in general, listen, ab-
sorb, get the thought without interruption.

We can scarcely overestimate the value in nature
study of genuine literature, rightly selected, carefully
read, and rightly studied. Literature, more probably
than anything else, will aid in attaining the highest

280 NATURE STUDY.

aim of nature study, the cultivation of the higher na-
ture of the child, aesthetic, ethical, spiritual. On the
other hand, nature study is the best foundation, or
the only foundation, for a real appreciation of much of
the best literature.

RELATION TO GEOGRAPHY AND

CHAPTER XIII.

RELATION OF NATURE STUDY TO GEOGRAPHY AND
ARITHMETIC.

THE word geography means a description of the
earth, and the study of geography has been literally
a study of a description of the surface of the earth.
Most of the geography of the past, in American schools,
has been entirely, or almost entirely, book-work, a mem-
orizing of the natural and political divisions of the
earth's surface, and of the definitions of the forms of
land and water, with much study, always from books,
of cities, products and commerce and peoples.

Real earth study, actual observation of that part of the
earth in which our boys and girls and their teachers live,
has been almost unknown. Only within a few years
have the better teachers in American schools realized
the importance of careful observational study of home
geography, as the only basis for any clear understanding
or thorough study of the larger physical environment.

More and more we realize, in geography as in other
studies, that sense-perception and observation must be
the foundation or basis of school- work; that only through
the careful observation of what is about us, what ap-
peals to our senses, can we lay the best foundation, on

282 NATURE STUDY.

which we can build by the process of apperception and
with the aid of imagination.

Not until the boys and girls have studied carefully
the valley or the brook which they can see, can they
gain any fair understanding, or form a fairly clear
mental picture, of the larger valley about which they
must read, — the valley of the Mohawk or Hudson or
Missouri. Only from an investigation of the way in
which the brook near their home is wearing its banks
and carrying away sediment, and is thus making its
valley, can they understand how similar but greater
valleys have been formed or are being changed. Only
by noting the character and distribution of the rocks
and soil of their homes can they hope to understand
in some measure the materials with which other parts
of the earth are covered, and on which the value of any
region to man largely depends.

This observational study of our immediate physical
environment is not merely the best foundation for an
understanding of our larger physical environment, what
is included in physical geography, but it is almost
equally essential for an intelligent study of political ge-
ography. The character and rate of development and
present condition of man in different parts of the earth
have been greatly influenced or largely determined by
physical environment. The phenomenal growth and
the present condition of such cities as Chicago, Buffalo,
and Duluth are due mainly to their location and to
other physical conditions.

Geography must be more than a study of a descrip-

RELATION TO GEOGRAPHY AND ARITHMETIC. 283

tion of the surface of the earth. It must be genuine
" earth study," actual "study of the physical environ-
ment of man," as it is rightly called in the Report of
the Committee of Ten.

In our work in geography we have much to learn
from the schools of Germany, where they pursue the
three clearly differentiated lines of geography work, —
home geography (Heimath-kunde), folk study ( Volk-
kunde), and earth study (Erd-kunde). Their field ex-
cursions, sometimes occupying several days, and their
well-equipped geographical museums could be intro-
duced with great profit into our American schools.

The physical geography of the past, like much of the
science work, has been almost entirely a study of the
mere form and structure of the earth as it is, of pres-
ent physical conditions, with almost no consideration of
the agencies and processes by which the earth came to
be as it is, and by which it is being constantly changed.
We have seemed to regard the earth as a dead planet,
like the moon, with its forms fixed and unchanging,
with its valleys and hills and capes arid bays ever the
same. No conception can be more false. Every par-
ticle of soil at our feet, every raindrop, tells of change,
past, present, future. The brooks and waves, the rills
and pools in the street, tell of unceasing activity. Even
the mineral world not merely is, but is becoming, is
adapting itself. The seamed and jointed rock is ever-
lasting only in name.

A river is much more than " a stream of water flow-
ing through the land ; " it is an always-working, never-

284 NATURE STUDY.

resting agency, a most effective tool of the Creator.
A valley is more than "low land between hills or moun-
tains," as the geography has defined it; it is a story of
action and change and adaptation.

Dr. Archibald Geikie has said, "The Life of the
Earth is the central thought which runs through all
that branch of science termed physical geography."

In geography, as in all nature study, we and our
pupils must not merely observe physical features, but we
must observe processes and changes, investigate life as
well as structure. The greater educational value of the
study of life and action, as compared with the study of
mere form or structure, has been sufficiently emphasized
in preceding chapters.

We see that nature study and geography are very
closely related. During the earlier years of the child's
life they are identical ; nature study is geography, phys-
ical geography, and the best preparation for political
geography. As the child grows older, and the human
element enters more largely into his life and school-
work, both nature study and history become most help-
ful in his geography work : history showing what man
has done on the earth ; nature study showing the forces
and materials with which he has worked; geography
recording the results of the work of man and of the ac-
tion of material forces on the surface of the earth.

Now comes the practical question, " How can nature
study be made most helpful in geography ; or, how can
the two be most effectively correlated?"

RELATION TO GEOGEAPHY AND ARITHMETIC. 285

Friends of nature study must remember that the so-
lution of the question is as important for nature study
as for geography. As has already been stated, the value
of nature study will be largely judged by its effects on
" the essentials," reading, writing, arithmetic, and geog-
raphy.

In considering the work in nature study as a prepara-
tion for and aid in geography, the need of a definite
plan of work or course of study becomes most evident.
The value of nature study to geography depends largely
on the material selected for study. Hence the discus-
sion in the following pages is largely limited to the
selection of material.

It seems wise to consider the relation of nature study
to geography first in the lower grades, where it is a prep-
aration for and introduction to geography, and later in
the upper grades.

What work in nature study in the earlier school-
years will be most helpful in geography?

The child's physical environment includes : —

First. The earth as a member of the solar system
and of the material universe.

Second. The earth itself and its three envelopes, —
land, water, air.

Third. The life of the earth, — plants, animals, man.

Of the earth as a member of the solar system, or in
its relations to sun and moon and planets and stars, the
child in the first three or four years of his school life can
get no intelligent conception. It seems utterly useless

286 NATURE STUDY.

for the teacher to attempt to teach the young child any-
thing about the real relations of the earth and the heav-
enly bodies. To attempt to begin work in geography
with little children, with a study of the earth as a planet,
or with a discussion of the nebular hypothesis, is as ab-
surd as it is to begin the study of plants in the elemen-
tary schools with the plant cell. Both are utterly beyond
the grasp of little children. While such a beginning may
be logical for the adult, it is illogical and unpsychologi-
cal from the standpoint of the child.

But even in the primary grades foundations may be
laid for some comprehension in later years of the rela-
tions of the earth to the other heavenly bodies. The
children may learn to appreciate a little the beauty of
the starry vault, and to recognize and name the more
prominent planets, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, and a few
constellations and stars, and may read some of the
myths connected with the heavens. They can observe,
and perhaps record, the changes in the position of the
sun, and in the position and appearance of the moon.
After giving some attention to the heavens, during three
or four years, they may begin very cautiously to study
a -little about the real relation of the earth to the sun
and moon, and later to planets and stars. They can ob-
serve and record from day to day the character of the
weather, and the direction and force of the wind.

The study of the earth itself is most closely correlated
with geography, as commonly pursued. The earth, the
living, changing earth, may be considered under three
heads: — .

EELATION TO GEOGRAPHY AND ARITHMETIC. 287

First. Earth forces, those agencies which are chan-
ging the earth and fitting it for the habitation of man.

Second. Earth materials, the matter on which these
agencies or forces are acting.

Third. Earth forms, the effect of the action of the
agencies or forces on the materials.

If we emphasize in earlier years the life side of nature
study or geography, we shall dwell in our preparatory
work in geography in the primary grades on the agen-
cies acting on the earth, and first on those most easily
seen by the child. From the child's point of view the
most important earth forces are water, air, and heat.
Water and air are not really forces, but merely vehicles
upon and through which gravitation, heat, and other
forces act ; but from the child's point of view they are
most active agencies, producing, with the aid of heat,
most of the changes about him.

It is best to begin with water, in the forms of vapor,
fog, clouds, mist, dew, rain, frost, snow, ice, streams,
and waves, and study its forms and work. The study
of water prepares for the study of air (including winds)
and both lead up to heat and its effects and influence
on the earth.

The order recommended is : during two or three win-
ter months of the first school year, water; during the
same period of the second year, air; during the winter
of the third year, heat, including its sources and sim-
plest effects ; and during the fourth year, heat, studied
in a much broader way, preparing for the study of
physics in succeeding grades.

288 NATURE STUDY.

In connection with this work, mainly indoors, some
field study, during the spring or fall months, of the
work of streams and waves in breaking down, carry-
ing away, and depositing rocks and soil, and in form-
rig gullies, valleys, hills, and other land forms, will be
v jry helpful as a preparation for geography.

Air and water are earth materials as well as earth
• >rces. The study of other earth materials may be-
gin during the second or third school-year, with those
nearest the children, limestone, sandstone, granite, soil,
depending largely on local conditions. All of these
should be approached from the life side.

Fossil-bearing or fossiliferous limestone is particularly
good for beginning mineral study. It is a history as
well as a structure, a wonderfully interesting story
which any child can read when properly directed.

Sandstone or any other stratified rock, and granite or
any other crystalline rock, are stories written in stone.

The investigation of the formation and kinds of soil,
approached in spring through the decaying leaves or
the work of frost, is another gateway to the mineral
world.

From such a study of earth forces, or of the agencies
which have changed and are changing and shaping the
earth, and of the materials on which these forces act,
the children can get the best preparation for a compre-
hension of the forms of land and water. Then valleys
and hills and bays and points and islands will have a
significance which mere book-work or map-study or
pictures or sand-table models can never give.

RELATION TO GEOGRAPHY AND ARITHMETIC. 289

Passing from what may be strictly called " earth
study " to the life of the earth, the plants and animals
do not appear to be so closely related to geography as
is the mineral world. So far, however, as geography
is the study of the earth as the abode of life, and partic-
ularly of man, our child must study the inhabitants of
the earth even more than the earth itself.

Only as he observes the plants and animals about
him can he, by apperception and imagination, fairly
understand what he reads or learns in his geography
about the life of other lands. . •

From the standpoint of geography, it is important
that our children study in the earlier years that which
will give them the clearest conception of plants and
animals : —

First. As organisms in close relation to the earth, to
soil, water, air, sun, to other plants and animals, and to
man.

Second. As structures fitted for or adapted to their
surroundings.

Third. As types of other plants and animals, some
of which the children can see, many of which they can
only read about, v

Thus we will find best, as a preparation for geogra-
phy, those plants and animals whose life, habits, and ad-
aptation to environment are most easily observed, and
whose life, structure, and plan are most typical.

Such study of our physical environment — we can
call it nature study or geography, as we choose — can
be carried on anywhere in any school. The conditions

290 NATURE STUDY.

for such work are most unfavorable, in some respects,
in the schools of great cities. In other schools, the
teacher is limited only by her own lack of interest,
energy, knowledge, or time.

The work outlined above prepares for but one side of
geography, — physical geography. Keeping in view the
other centre of school-work, man study, the children
in the primary grades must also study a little about
man, beginning with their own home, and continuing
with the help of such books as Miss Andrews' " Seven
Little Sisters " and " Each and All."

In the upper grades the work in nature study* and
geography must diverge much more. How can the
work in science in these grades be made most helpful
in geography?

Here we can give more attention to the systematic
observation and record of the relations of the earth to
other heavenly bodies. We can observe the northward
or southward movements of the sun from week to week ;
the changes in the position and appearance of the moon,
and its movements among the stars; the daily or nightly
movements of stars or constellatigns, such as the mo-
tion of the Great Dipper about the pole star; the move-
ments of the planets, Jupiter, Mars, and Venus, among
the stars and with reference to the sun. Then what
the pupils learn in geography about the relations of the
earth, sun, moon, planets, and stars will mean some-
thing.

It seems wise to study much more carefully the com-

RELATION TO GEOGRAPHY AXD ARITHMETIC. 291

mon earth materials, the most abundant rocks, — sand-
stones, shales, limestones, granites, — and to investigate
to some extent their formation. From the common
earth-forming rocks and minerals we can gradually pass
to those of great economic importance, such as coal and
iron ore, and thus aid in the study of economic geog-
raphy.

In connection with the work in geography or nature
study the children should give some attention to the
changes in the aerial envelope of the earth. In the
upper grades it is most helpful to have the pupils, in-
dividually or collectively, keep, on blackboard or on
blanks, a record of the temperature, height of barom-
eter, presence of frost or dew, direction and force of
wind, cloudiness and rain or snowfall. In connection
with this there may be some study of the daily weather
maps, which can be obtained free by any school from
the nearest station of the Weather Bureau, or from the
office at Washington.

In the upper grades the work must be related more
and more closely and directly to man. As political
geography, or the earth as the abode of man, becomes
more important, we shall find most helpful in geography
a knowledge of those forces by which man has subdued
the earth, of those minerals which he has found most
useful, of the plants and animals which most aid in
man's development, and of the uses man has made of
forces, minerals, plants, and animals.

Hence the study of physics and chemistry, and the
intensive study of such minerals as coal and iron, be-

292 NATURE STUDY.

come more important in the upper grades. So also the
economic aspects of plants and animals should be em-
phasized. In agricultural communities it may be wise
to give considerable attention to soils and to agricul-
ture as a basis for a broader study of related topics in
geography. In manufacturing communities much at-
tention can be given to such topics as silkworms and
the manufacture of silk, or to cotton or flax and the
manufacture of cotton and linen.

While nature study in the upper grades can thus be
made helpful in geography, it must be much more than
a mere preparation and foundation and ally for geog-
raphy. Geography is pre-eminently practical in its
aims. Nature study should be practical, and should be
much more. In our attempt to correlate the two stud-
ies we must not overlook the higher aims of nature
study.

The relation between nature study and arithmetic is
not nearly so intimate as that between nature study and
the other work of the elementary school, and it does
not seem wise to attempt to correlate them closely.

Arithmetic has to do with the magnitude and number
of things; the space or size relations and the number
relations. In the study of plants and animals these
are of relatively little importance as compared with
the functional relations and form relations. The exact
size of a tree or other plant, or the number of its
branches, leaves, or flowers, is of little importance in
investigating its life or structure. Much more essen-

RELATION TO GEOGRAPHY AND ARITHMETIC. 293

tial is an understanding of function and form and
plan.

The number of parts, or the numerical plan, as the
number of limbs in animals, or the occurrence of parts
of plants in twos or threes or fives, is often important ;
but these number relations are so simple that they can
scarcely be said to involve any work in arithmetic.

Quantitative physics and chemistry require much use
of arithmetic, but the work in elementary schools must
be largely qualitative, and hence makes comparatively
little use of the space or number relations.

Elementary science or nature study will gain little
from an attempt to force correlation between it and
arithmetic. It may lose much.

When we require the children invariably to count
the number of branches and leaves and buds and scales,
to measure the length and breadth, and to calculate the
area or volume, of what they are studying, to determine
the proportion of branches which have developed, or of
buds or leaves which have failed to mature, or the per-
centage of legs which turn forward, and the percentage
which turn backward, this may be excellent practice in
arithmetic, but it is, not infrequently, a positive hin-
drance to the nature study. Such work attracts the at-
tention of pupils from important features to minor and
often accidental details, takes their thought from the
real spirit of the work/and has little or no relation to
the higher aims of nature study. The autumn foliage
may be considered as an opportunity to set the children
at work determining the percentage of leaves which

294 . NATURE STUDY.

turn red, the percentage which, turn yellow, the propor-
tion which fall or remain on the trees, the ratio between
the weight of leaves and the weight of loam or of ash
they will form. But we cannot strongly emphasize this
kind of work without sacrificing higher work, or losing
sight of higher aims. When we reduce nature to ratio
and proportion, we have made nature study of little
value.

The arithmetic, as well as the nature study, will suf-
fer from too close correlation between the two. Expe-
rience has shown that when this is attempted there is
not, usually, adequate provision for the definite, thor-
ough, systematic drill so essential in arithmetic.

Some correlation between nature study and arithme-
tic is helpful, particularly in primary grades. Nature
study furnishes the material for the concrete work
which is so necessary. All kinds of problems can be
grouped about the seeds and buds and fruits and grains,
the birds and other animals, the rocks and snow and
water, the levers and pulleys and thermometers.

While arithmetic and nature study cannot be closely
correlated directly, indirectly they may greatly aid each
other. The special object, educationally, of arithmetic
is to develop exactness in thinking and reasoning. One
object of science work is to make pupils exact in ob-
servation, expression, and thought. The more we em-
phasize in our nature study exactness in the study of
essentials, — exact seeing, truthful telling, careful gen-
eralizing and thinking, — the more closely will nature
study and arithmetic co-operate, rather than correlate,

RELATION TO GEOGRAPHY AND ARITHMETIC. 295

in developing careful, accurate, truthful, upright men
and women.

In this moral development, or training in habits of
exactness and truthfulness, science work may be much
more effective than arithmetic or mathematics. Scien-
tific methods of observation and reasoning, involving
exact observation of facts and conditions, careful com-
parison of these and discrimination between important
and unimportant features, and cautious conclusions or
generalizations based on them, have much wider appli-
cation in life than has mathematical reasoning. The
reasoning of life is largely inductive, not to any great
extent deductive, as is most work in arithmetic.

296 NATURE STUDY.

CHAPTER XIV.

THE SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL.

The Formulation of a Course of Nature Study.

WHAT shall the children study ? Nature is so vast !
The world is so great ! What shall we select from it
all?

Shall the teacher take anything that happens to be
convenient, — to-day a butterfly, to-morrow the clouds,
the next day the daisy or the rain or a seed? Some
teachers seem to assume that this is the way to study
nature. But they discover that the children gain but
little from work without definite aim, plan, or sequence.
Such work may interest the children, but leaves in
their minds little but a jumble of ideas, without order
or coherence.

But what shall we select for study ? By what prin-
ciples shall we be guided in the selection of material ?

This must be determined : —

First. By the aim of the work.

Second. By the nature and development of the chil-
dren.

Third. By the prevailing conditions, such as sea-
son, preparation of teacher, character and amount of

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 297

similar work previously done by the children, and loca-
tion and environment of school.

As has already been said the general aim of all the
work, and the special aim of each lesson, will largely
determine the character of the work done. It will also
greatly influence the selection of material.

Assuming that the teacher is striving to develop the
higher nature of the children, and to bring them into the
best relations with their surroundings, what should she
study with them in beginning the work in nature study ?

We have agreed (see Chapter IV) that the first aim,
the first essential in nature study or any other work,
is interest. We can find no safer guide than to study
the interest of teacher, of child, of parent.

In beginning work in nature study, it will be found
best for teachers to select some line of work in which
they themselves are most interested, and with which
they are most familiar. If any teacher is particularly
interested in birds, she will be most successful in bird
study with her pupils. If teachers are fond of flowers,
they will be more apt to awaken in the minds of their
pupils a similar fondness. If they have a pet cat or
squirrel or rabbit, that will make an excellent begin-
ning for their work in nature study. They will arouse
in their pupils an interest in that in which they are in-
terested. This interest, once awakened, will broaden
until it includes other parts or phases of nature, and
the interest and enthusiasm of the children will react
on the teacher and broaden her interest.

298 NATURE STUDY.

On the other hand, if teachers are compelled to take
up, in the earlier work in nature study, material toward
which they may have a decided aversion or antipathy,
such as earthworms and spiders, this feeling is likely
to be shared by the children, and will tend to make
all the work in nature study distasteful.

Teachers who are beginning this work will find it
wise to study and be largely guided by the interest of
the children. If some child has a pet squirrel in which
he and his playmates are interested, have him bring it
to school, and let the children watch it for a few days,
studying its habits, the use of its different parts, and
the way in which they are fitted for the work they have
to do. Their interest in the squirrel thus aroused, the
teacher and children can read about its home in the
woods, and study some of its relatives, — the other
gnawing animals. Thus the squirrel may be the start-
ing-point for a series of lessons on animals. Do the
children come with a story of the robin's nest with its
little blue eggs which they have discovered ? That may
be a good starting-point for the spring bird study.
The wise, tactful teacher can, of course, stimulate and
guide this interest by apparently following the children
when she is really leading them.

In the earlier work in nature study the writer has
always found the interest of the children to be the best
guide in the selection of material. If it was found
unusually difficult to interest the pupils in the material
selected, then, in general, that was not the best material
for those pupils. If they were unusually alert and

' - , v

J

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 209

enthusiastic, then it was well to take advantage of their
interest and study thoroughly. As the children studied
nature more, their interest broadened until they could
be interested in almost anything.

It is wise to consider in the selection of material,
particularly in beginning work in nature study, the in-
terests and ideas of the parents. Nature study is, un-
fortunately, new in most schools, and, like all new
things, will meet with much opposition and criticism.
A wise teacher can very often disarm the critics by
a proper selection of material for study. In the manu-
facturing town, comparatively few parents will object
to having their children study about machinery or
iron, or about the cotton from which they make their
cloth. In a coal-mining region, the study in the school
of coal and its formation and mining and transporta-
tion, may be welcomed by the stanchest believer in the
three R's. In the country, the study of corn or wheat
or oats, of fruit-trees, or of plant food and soil, or of
insects, may not be regarded as a very dangerous in-
novation. The machinist would be much more apt to
object to having his children " waste their time " on
flowers and bugs and stones. The farmer could not
see the sense in spending time in school on electricity
and machinery, the value of which he could not see.

Later, when the children and parents have been
interested, and the parents have learned that nature
study helps in other work of the school, and develops
and awakens their children, the teacher can select
her material and plan her work with less reference to

300 NATtTtiE STUDY.

local conditions, and less allowance for parental criti-
cisms.

The aim in nature study most closely related to in-
terest is the cultivation of sympathy with or love for
nature, and of sympathetic relations between the child
and his environment. Interest and sympathy are steps
in the development of the child's higher nature, aesthetic,
ethical, spiritual, and are essential for the best adapta-
tion of the child to his environment, — the highest aim
of nature study.

Keeping in view these aims, we will select material
which appeals to our pupils' sympathies and to their
higher nature. Here we see the reason for emphasiz-
ing the study of life, of living plants and animals. Can
we or our pupils sympathize (" feel with ") with a stone
or a force ? Can we sympathize with a mere form or
structure or with a dead animal ? The study of min-
erals, and of physics and chemistry, the study of matter
and force, while most essential as a basis for geography
and a preparation for practical life, does not have as
high an educational content for children, does not ap-
peal as strongly to the child's higher nature, as does the
study of life.

Seeds germinating, buds developing, flowers unfold-
ing, or forming seed or fruit, are much better for study
than dead seeds, undeveloped buds, flowers whose func-
tion is not shown. Other things being equal, those
plants are best for study which, like the common mal-
low or dandelion or mustard or evening primrose, show

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 301

at the same time all stages in the formation of leaves,
flowers, and fruit. In these the child has before him,
in a form most easily understood, the whole story of
the development and work or function of each part of
the plant. The plants possess this advantage over the
animals, that all stages can be more readily studied at
the same time.

In the animal study that material is best which can
be most readily studied alive by the children, — the
snails, fish, crayfish, and other aquatic animals, and
the turtle, canary, and cat, which can most easily be
kept alive in the schoolroom, the insects, birds, and
domestic animals whose life and habits can be observed
by the children out-of-doors. Animals such as starfish,
corals, shells, and sponges, which cannot be seen alive,
and are valuable chiefly as types, are not so good for
study, particularly in the early work.

Those minerals and rocks are best which tell a story.
The fossils in the limestone, the crystals, the ripple
marks or mud cracks, all lead to a "how" and "why"
which the children, properly directed, can work out
for themselves, in which they will be greatly interested,
by which they will be developed or educated. So, too,
the minerals most useful to man, such as graphite or
iron ore or coal or mica or asbestos, are excellent for
study. They, too, have a " why."

The third aim of nature study, as summed up in
Chapter IV, is the development of the power of seeing,
thinking, and telling, and the formation of right habits,

302 NATURE STUDY.

Power is capacity for action, and is only attained by
action. Appreciation of the beautiful may be absorbed
almost unconsciously, certainly without conscious effort,
from surroundings. The development of the ethical
and spiritual sense depends to a considerable extent on
the environment. Appreciation of beauty, aesthetic,
ethical, spiritual, may be imparted by the parent or
teacher. But the development of intellectual power
depends entirely on the individual. The parent or
teacher can make the conditions favorable, but can do
no more. The child cannot absorb power. He can
only get it by action, by doing for himself.

Keeping before us this aim of nature study, we see
the importance of individual work as distinguished from
class work, and the necessity of selecting, when pos-
sible, material which can be placed in the hands of
every pupil, which every child can study as an individ-
ual. Other things being equal, that material is best
which is of such a nature, or is so abundant, that each
pupil can study it independently; and those experiments
are best which can be performed by each pupil indi-
vidually. Specimens studied by the whole class to-
gether, or experiments performed before a class or by a
few members of a class, are of less value in developing
the individual. Such work is often necessary, but must
be supplemented by work by the individual pupil.

For such individual work, requiring material in the
hands of every pupil, plants and minerals are good.
Plant material for each pupil can usually be easily ob-
tained when needed, and minerals can be preserved and

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 303

used for years. Animals cannot be so readily obtained
or kept in the schoolroom in numbers sufficient for in-
dividual study, and few schools have facilities for much
individual work in physics and chemistry.

The study -of plants and animals is of special value
for the development of the powers of observation, de-
scription, comparison, discrimination, and classification.
As often pursued in higher institutions, the study of
botany and zoology does little more than this.

The study of physics and chemistry constantly calls
into action the reasoning powers. It is an investigation
of " why," of cause and effect. It not merely develops
the power of reasoning, but requires fairly well-devel-
oned reasoning powers. Hence all but the merest rudi-
ments of physics and chemistry must be postponed until
the later years of the elementary school.

Aside from the possibility of doing individual work,
the development of power in the children is much more
dependent on the method of study and the sequence of
topics than on the selection of material. These have
been discussed in Chapter VIII.

We now come to the last and lowest aim of nature
study, the acquisition of knowledge or facts, and to the
influence of this aim in determining the selection of
material for study.

By the emphasis placed on that course of study
which will best develop the higher nature of the child,
we have already answered the question, " What knowl-
edge is of most worth ? " But the selection of material

304 NATURE STUDY.

must also be determined by utilitarian considerations.
What knowledge will be most useful in other school-
work? What knowledge will form the best founda-
tion for later science work ? What knowledge will be
most useful in life?

First. From what material will the children gain
the knowledge most helpful in other school-work?

The relation of nature study to other school-work is
discussed in Chapters VI, XI, XII, and XIII, and need
only be treated briefly in this connection.

We have already touched on the greater value of
the life sciences as a preparation for literature and art.
We will find a wealth of the best literature relating to
plants and animals, particularly to plants, but compara-
tively little relating to minerals or physics ; that is, to
mere matter and force. There is much on streams and
clouds and rain and frost and crystals ; but the poets
almost invariably treat these, not as mere matter and
force, but as endowed with purpose and thought and
other attributes of life. Lucy Larcom's " Rock and
Rill" (given in footnote1) well illustrates this.

i KOCK AND RILL.

" Into the sunshine out of shade ! "

The rill has heard the call,
And, babbling low, her answer made, —

A laugh, 'twixt slip and fall.

Out from her cradle-roof of trees,

Over the free, rough ground!
The peaceful blue above she sees;

The cheerful ^reen around.

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 305

The study of plants and animals, admitting of greater
freedom and individuality in observation than does the
study of minerals and physics, offers greater scope for
expressive work in language, drawing, painting, and
moulding. Plant study particularly can be correlated
with any of the forms of expression. The gross struc-
ture of plants is much simpler than that of animals, and
can be more readily understood and described in lan-
guage. The forms and colors of plants are simpler
than those of animals, and much more characteristic

A pleasant world for running streams

To steal unnoticed through,
At play with all the sweet sky-gleams,

And nothing else to do !

A rock has stopped the silent rill,

And taught her how to speak:
He hinders her; she chides him still;

He loves her lispings weak.

And still he will not let her go:

But she may chide and sing,
And over him her freshness throw,

Amid her murmuring.

The harebell sees herself no more

In waters clear at play;
Yet never she such azure wore,

Till wept on by the spray.

And many a woodland violet

Stays charmed upon the bank;
Her thoughtful blue eye brimming wet,

The rock and rill to thank.

The rill is blessing in her talk

What half she held a wrong, —
The happy trouble of the rock

That makes her life a song.

LUCY LABCOM.

306 NATURE STUDY.

than those of minerals. With plants, therefore, the
problem of correlation is comparatively simple. The
written descriptions of minerals and of experiments in
physics are much more stereotyped, show less individu-
ality, than the accounts of the environment, habits, life,
and structure of plants and animals. On the other
hand, the work in physics and chemistry may be much
more exact, more quantitative, and correlate much bet-
ter with arithmetic.

The relation of nature study to geography was dis-
cussed in Chapter XIII. This determines largely the
choice of matter in minerals and physics during the first
four years of the child's school-work.

As a basis or foundation for geography, we find most
helpful in the earlier work in minerals those, five or six
in number, most common in rocks, such as quartz, feld-
spar, hornblende, mica, calcite ; and a few rocks, such
as sandstone, shale, limestone, and granite, most abun-
dant as earth-making materials. The study in the ear-
lier years of water, air, and heat as earth forces (the
forces which are nearest to the little children, and whose
effects they can most easily understand) is the most use-
ful as a foundation for geography, and the best prepa-
ration for future work in physics. In connection with
these, such topics as soil-making or rock-disintegration,
the work of rain and streams and waves, and the for-
mation of valleys and hills and bays and points, — that
is, the effects of the above forces on the materials, —
fulfil the other aims of nature study, and prepare for
the best work in physical geography.

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 307

Later, the study of minerals and rocks of economic
importance, such as graphite, gypsum, pyrite, sulphur,
of coal and of the iron ores, will be an excellent
preparation for economic or commercial geography.
Hundreds of minerals valuable to the collector and
mineralogist on account of their rarity, are of no value
in nature study in the schools, for the very reason that
they are rare.

The selection of material for plant and animal study
in the earlier years is largely determined by higher
aims. During the later years of the course, utilitarian
considerations must have more influence, and will lead
to the choice of material of economic importance which
will aid in the geography work : the grains, wheat, corn,
rice, and their products; the fruits, apples, oranges,
lemons ; the cotton and flax plants, and the manufac-
ture from them of cloth ; the animals and animal prod-
ucts of greatest economic importance and most commonly
referred to in the work in commercial geography.

In this way nature study will be an aid in physical
and commercial geography. Man study, history, and
related literature may be made equally helpful in po-
litical geography.

In considering the question, The study of what
material will give the knowledge most helpful in sub-
sequent science work? we will see the importance of
selecting for study material which is typical of large
classes or groups, and phenomena which illustrate, and
prepare for an understanding of principles.

308 NATURE STUDY.

Other things being equal, the buttercup is much
better as a type of the crowfoot family of flowering
plants than is the columbine ; the cranesbill is better
than the " touch-me-not " as a type of the geranium
family. The grasshopper is better as a type of insects
than is the butterfly, although the butterfly may be bet-
ter than the grasshopper for the study of life history or
development.

This idea of the importance of studying types leads
to the selection of such material as horsetails and ferns,
rather difficult for study, and of corals, starfish, and
sponges, which must almost always be studied from
dead specimens and pictures. But they are important,
in work with older pupils, because they are types of
great classes of which the pupils should know some-
thing.

The laws of sequence and unity largely determine the
selection and arrangement of material and the formu-
lation of a course of study. It is essential that the
material be so selected and arranged that there is a
natural logical sequence, that each topic shall be con-
sidered with reference to what precedes and follows.
The course in any one line of study — plants, animals,
minerals, physics — should be a connected whole built
up step by step. The work in all lines should be re-
lated and made mutually helpful as far as possible.
New topics should not be undertaken until the foun-
dations have been laid for their study by gaining the
knowledge necessary for their comprehension. Lime-
stone and fossil shells mean little until the children

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 309

have studied snails, and know something about the way
in which snail and clam shells are formed. Crystals
mean almost nothing until the process of crystallization
has been investigated. The dissemination of seeds
will mean much more after the children have studied
their formation or relation to the plant. When they
have discovered how much the plant — roots, stem,
leaves, flower — has done to make the seed, they will
appreciate better the various wonderful provisions by
the mother plant for insuring the dispersion of her seed
babies. The study of falling leaves in the autumn will
mean much more if the children see during the winter
how useful fallen leaves are in covering and keeping
warm the buds and seeds, and the eggs and larvaB of
animals, and discover in the spring how leaves enrich
the soil by their decay, and how they feed other plants.

It is essential also that the earlier work should give
the children a clear idea of wholes or units to which
the parts, studied later, are readily related. It is much
better, for instance, for the child to begin with the
germination of a plant from the seed, to watch the
gradual appearance and development of the parts, —
root, stem, leaf, flower, — and discover the relation,
functional and structural, of all parts to the whole and
to one another, than to begin with the study of leaves
or flowers, all of which are parts, incomplete and sepa-
rated from the whole to which they belong, and to
which the child cannot or does not relate them.

It is equally helpful to come back to wholes or units
after the study of parts, and so to review and relate the

310 NATURE STUDY.

parts to the whole. For this reason the study of one or
more plants as wholes is urged near the beginning and
close of the school-year (in September and June), also
the watching in the schoolroom of life history, or devel-
opment from seed to the formation of seeds, of one or
more kinds of plants during the spring months (April to
June). This is particularly important during earlier
years.

This principle, the necessity of considering parts in
their relations to wholes, and of relating new matter to
that previously studied, is exceedingly important edu-
cationally, and of wide application in influencing or de-
termining the selection of material. The study of trees
and of their changes throughout the year is very val-
uable, because nearly all the other plant study — buds,
leaves, flowers, seeds, fruit — can be related to trees;
and the plant study throughout the year is thus bound
together and made a unit. If the children have studied
in winter or early spring the horse-chestnut and maple
and cherry trees, and follow this with a study of the
buds, leaves, flowers, and fruit of the same trees when
these are in condition for study, their work will be
much better related, their ideas will be clearer, broader,
and better fixed in their minds, and the pupils will be
better prepared for understanding the great doctrine
of gradual development, or evolution, than if they
study the branches and bark of one tree, the buds of
another, and any leaves, flowers, and fruits accessible,
without reference or relation to what has been pre-
viously studied.

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 311

Now comes the question, " The knowledge of what
material will be of the greatest practical value in life,
will best prepare for life ? " The question has been
largely answered already. The pupil is, in general,
best prepared for life who is best prepared to do well
what comes next, and to understand and appreciate
what lies nearest.

During the earlier years of the elementary school, \,
purely utilitarian considerations should have very little ;
influence on the selection of material. This must be
determined by higher aims. During the last three or
four years of the elementary course, the years which
end the school education of most of our children, this
question of practical value must have more weight.
Hence it seems wise, during these later years, to
emphasize strongly the study of physics and chemis-
try, and of minerals and rocks of economic importance,
and to dwell somewhat on the economic (agricultural,
manufacturing, and commercial) aspects of plant and
animal study. Remembering the higher aims of nature
study, we must be careful, however, not to neglect the
higher side of the work, aesthetic, ethical, spiritual ; not
to place too much or too exclusive emphasis on purely
utilitarian considerations.

Next to the influence of aim, the most important ele-
ment in determining the selection of material is the
stage of development of the child himself. In fact, the
aim, to develop the whole child or to adapt the child
to all his environment, and the nature of the child to

312 NATURE STUDY.

be developed or adapted, are so closely related that
it is almost impossible to separate them in the discus-
sion.

The more important mental or psychological charac-
teristics of the child, and the relation of these to method,
were considered in Chapters VII and VIII. What was
there presented applies to the selection and sequence
of material as well as to other phases of method.

Remembering that all work with children must be
based on sense-perception, apperception, and interest,
too much emphasis cannot be placed on the importance
of selecting for study material which each pupil can
see or hear or feel and can study for himself, which is
closely related to the every-day life of the boys and
girls, and in which they are or can be interested. Re-
membering also that as children grow older they are
not so directly dependent on sense-perception, and that
they gain greater power to apply what has been learned
through the senses, to combine and generalize, or to
think and reason, we see the necessity of leaving until
the later years those subjects, such as physics, which
require considerable reasoning power.

The study of material, of plants, animals, and min-
erals, is, in general, the more concrete. They appeal
directly to the senses. The baby can study a bud or
a cat ; he can do nothing with heat. Force studied in
physics and chemistry is more abstract. It appeals to
the senses indirectly through its effects. Little chil-
dren cannot really study forces such as gravitation or
heat, nor gain any real conception of them. Even adults

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 313

find it most difficult or impossible to form a concept
of a force only, as distinct from matter. Children can
only conceive -or express forces in terms of things which
appeal to their senses. Gravitation becomes a giant.
The work of frost is ascribed to Jack Frost. Although
they realize that Giant Gravitation and Jack Frost do
not and never did exist, they have no other way of
conceiving and expressing force. They personify force
for the same reason that their ancestors, in the child-
hood of the race, personified and deified the powers and
phenomena of nature, the winds and thunderbolts.

For this reason it seems wise to emphasize in lower)
grades the study of things, plants, animals, and mine-' \
rals, arid to limit the work in physics during the earlier
years in school to the study of water (rain, streams,
waves, frost, steam) and air (currents, drafts, and winds),
regarded as forces by the children because they do so
much work. From this we can pass to the causes and
effects of heat, phenomena with which the children are
most familiar, and later take physics and chemistry as
such, heat, gravitation, magnetism, electricity, sound,
light, and chemical phenomena and forces.

It seems scarcely necessary to add that that is best
for study which is most common and familiar. We are
somewhat prone to think that we must go to distant
lands to find wonderful and curious things. Nature
study should, first of all, show the children the won-
ders at their doorstep, the treasures and beauties on
which they have been treading for years. These they
have seen and can see daily, Working with

314 NATURE STUDY.

nature study can relate and make clear old perceptions,
and add a host of new ideas.

The most common weeds, the pebbles in the street,
or stones of the pavement, the rain and frost which
they have seen so often, and yet have never seen, the
most common birds, sparrows and canaries and robins,
the flies and spiders so abundant all about them, are far
better for study than the finer flowers or minerals from
other localities, or the birds and insects of other lands.
After the child has studied that which is nearest, he
can make this a foundation for the study of what is
more distant.

Teachers will find, as did the writer, that each year's
experience with nature study will open their eyes to
new and better material close to their schools or homes.
At first they will think they must go or send miles for
what they want. Later they will find just as good or
better material in the trees under which they have
walked for years, along the streets, in the back yards
about the school. Even in great cities they will dis-
cover leaves and insects and stones in all sorts of places
before overlooked.

The lack of permanence in the interests and acquisi-
tions of children must influence the selection of ma-
terial, or rather the variety of material and the time
which should be devoted to its study. However in-
tense the interest of the young child in any one thing,
he does not want to study that thing very long.
His nature demands and requires frequent change. If

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 315

he does not get it he loses interest. After a change
he may return to the old material with added in-
terest. His interests are extensive, rather than inten-
sive.

As the child grows older, as he gains a larger stock
of facts, as he learns to relate these facts, and begins to
realize the complex interrelations of nature, the depen-
dence of each phenomenon upon all about it, his inte-
rests become more permanent, and he learns, or should
learn, to concentrate his attention. Then he is fitted
for more thorough, detailed work. His work should
now become intensive rather than extensive. He
should study much rather than many.

The mental acquisitions as well as the interests of
young children lack permanence. Much of the work
has to be repeated over and over again before it makes
a lasting impression. This is less the case in what is
gained through the senses, as in nature study, than in
what is merely memorized. But the matter which is
most essential needs to be presented and studied again
and again. Particularly in parts of the work requiring
considerable power of discriminating between essentials
and non-essentials and some breadth of view, as in the
grouping or classification of plants or animals, children
will not grasp it all nor master it all at first, no matter
how carefully the work is done. It must be repeated
again and again, the children gaining more each time.
For this reason it will be found helpful, particularly in
the earlier years, to study important or difficult matter
for two or sometimes three years, each successive year

316 NATURE STUDY.

approaching them from a different standpoint, if pos-
sible, and studying them more thoroughly.

For these and other reasons to be discussed later, it
seems wise to arrange much of the work in nature study
in two cycles. During the first cycle, covering the first
four years of the elementary school-course, the children
can study nature extensively, — plants, animals, mine-
rals, physics, whatever seems most essential and is within
the comprehension of the children. During the second
cycle, covering the remaining years of the elementary
school-course, much of the same ground can be covered,
but studied intensively, with much new work and more
attention to structure and classification. The founda-
tions already laid, and the greater maturity and better
developed powers of the children, will make this work
intelligible and helpful.

We come now to the third element affecting the
selection and arrangement of material, the influence of
physical and local conditions. Probably the physical
conditions having the greatest and widest influence are
the seasons and climate. This determines very largely
the general character of the material which can be ob-
tained for study. During part of the year — spring, sum-
mer, and autumn — plant and animal life is abundant.
During the winter, late autumn, and early spring, in
large sections of our country, organic nature is largely
dormant. It seems wise and necessary to emphasize
the study of living or organic nature, plants, and ani-

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 317

mals, during the spring, summer, and autumn, and of
inorganic or dead nature, minerals, physic, and chemis-
try, during the late fall, winter, and early spring. Dur-
ing the spring months the plant world is bursting into
life, and attracting the attention and admiration of even
the least observant. The material for showing develop-
ment and life is then most' abundant. In the autumn
the plants are finishing their work, and preparing for
their winter's rest. It seems wise, therefore, to empha-
size plant study during the spring in all grades.

In the fall the material for animal study is at least
as abundant and as easily obtained as in the spring.
Some material, such as caterpillars and butterflies and
many common insects, is much more abundant. Hence
it seems wise to dwell on animal study during the fall
months.

This assignment of subjects to the seasons cannot be
rigid. Some phases of animal life, such as the return,
nesting, life history, and songs of birds, and the devel-
opment of frogs, must be studied in the spring. Much
plant-work, such as the ripening and dissemination of
seeds, the fruits and grains, can only be studied to ad-
vantage in the fall. The study of evergreens seems
most seasonable in the winter because they are ever-
greens, and in the primary grades because of their
relation to Christmas.

The work for each month will be largely determined
by climatic conditions. The course of study given in the
next chapter is planned to meet the climatic conditions
of the extreme Northern United States, — Minnesota,

318 NATURE STUDY.

Michigan, and Northern New York, — and is based on
several years' experience in Minnesota and New York.
It can be easily modified for and adapted to climatic
conditions farther south.

The selection of material must be largely influenced
by the teacher, her interests and education or prepara-
tion for such work.

We have already referred to the advantage in .begin-
ning work in nature study, of allowing and encouraging
the teacher who is interested in any special line of nature
study or science, to study with her pupils that in which
she herself is interested. The teacher doing work in
which she is interested, because she is interested, will
accomplish much more than those doing the work merely
because it is prescribed in the course of study.

The lack of preparation on the part of the teacher
must be considered in selecting material, and planning
a course in nature study. A most important question
is, What can the teacher do ? For what are the teachers
best prepared ?

Probably the greatest obstacle which the elementary
schools will encounter in the introduction of nature
study is the lack of preparation of the teacher for
such work. It is wise to reduce to a minimum the dif-
ficulties of the teachers who are beginning such work.

The average teacher, doubtless, knows most about the
plant world. Plants are probably the most noticed,
best known, and most admired parts of the physical en-
vironment of mankind. People walk on the grass, they

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 319

sit under the trees, they gather or care for or trample
on the flowers ; buildings, food, clothing, and fuel come
from plants. They are much more apt to observe plants
because they are stationary, and can be observed more
easily than the animals, and are more attractive than
the stones. So a fair amount of plant lore is part of
the stock of knowledge of most persons of average
intelligence and education. They usually know more
about plants than about animals, minerals, physics, or
chemistry.

In our high schools, more attention has been given to
botany and to physics than to any or all other sciences.
The teacher with a high-school education is better pre-
pared to teach these in her school.

Plants are cleaner and more attractive than animals,
are more easily obtained, more easily preserved in the
schoolroom, and, in general, are better for individual
study by each pupil.

As has been said in the previous chapter, there is a
rich store of literature relating to plant life as compared
with that relating to other phases of nature ; hence
plant study correlates best with literature. The gross
structure of plants is much simpler than that of animals,
and can be more easily understood and described in lan-
guage. The forms and colors of plants are simpler
than those of animals, and more characteristic than
those of minerals. Hence plant study correlates most
readily with drawing and painting and moulding.

For these reasons plants will usually be found much
the best for study when first introducing nature work

320 NATURE STUDY,

into the schools. It will be found wise during the
spring and fall months of the first year to limit the re-
quired work in nature study to plants, allowing teach-
ers who wish to do so to study also birds in the spring,
and insects and domestic animals in the fall.

Gradually, as teachers become accustomed to the na-
ture study, and can prepare for the work, more animal
study can be introduced, and then the study of min-
erals, physics, and chemistry, which will, in general, be
found the most difficult.

Most teachers, even those who have never studied
physics, have a sufficient stock of general information
to study with their pupils common physical phenomena,
such as water, air, and perhaps heat. These can best
be studied during the winter.

The preparation or lack of preparation of the teach-
ers for the science work must affect the distribution
of the different phases of nature study throughout the
year, or the emphasis on different kinds of work at dif-
ferent seasons. Botanists urge that the study of plants
be pursued throughout the whole year, that much in
the plant can be best studied during the winter. Much
work in physics and meteorology can be best done or
only done during the warm season. So it has been
proposed that all lines of nature work should be carried
on, each alternating with the others from day to day or
week to week throughout the school-year. This greatly
increases the labor of preparation on the part of the
teacher. If the work is limited each season to one or
two lines, teachers can more easily prepare and plan for

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 321

it, and better obtain the needed material. Almost any
teacher, no matter how well prepared, will get better
results when she concentrates the attention of herself
and her pupils on one or two lines of nature work at a
time.

The selection and arrangement of material, and the
course in nature study, must be greatly affected by con-
ditions peculiar to each school, the time which is de-
voted to the work, the amount of previous work of this
kind which pupils have done, the number of years they
remain in school, and the apparatus available for work.

Where but little time, one or two periods a week, is
given to nature study, it will be wise in beginning
work in the four lowest grades to give most attention
to plants, with very little animal work, during the fall,
spring, and summer months ; and to physical phenomena
or introductory work in physics — water, air, heat —
during the late fall and winter months. The plant-work
will best bring out the higher side of the nature study,
and the work in physics and minerals will be most use-
ful in preparing for geography. In the last or upper
four or five grades plants can best be studied in the
spring, with a little bird study , animals in the fall ; and
physics and chemistry, with perhaps a little work in
minerals, during the winter. The plant and animal
study will bring out the higher side of the work, and
correlate with literature and geography. The work in
physics, chemistry, and minerals will serve as a good
preparation for practical life.

322 NATURE STUDY.

Much depends on the character and amount of pre-
vious work in personal observation which the children
have done. After a year or two of training they can
accomplish much more. Experience has shown that, in
beginning such work, the younger pupils, those in the
lower four or five grades, do more and better work in
nature study, absolutely, not relatively, than the pupils
in the upper grades. With the older pupils the habit
of going to books and depending on authority has be-
come more firmly fixed. As one principal expressed
it, " The power of seeing and thinking and telling for
themselves has been educated out of them." The older
children do not usee the sense " of spending so much
time observing for themselves, when they can get it
from a book in less time. They are apt, too, to feel,
with their parents, that they come to school to study
reading, writing, arithmetic, and geography, and not
to study " flowers and stones and bugs." The younger
children have not been so thoroughly educated away
from nature, have not had their senses so atrophied by
neglect, have not learned so thoroughly the lesson of
dependence on book and teacher.

Where it is deemed impossible to introduce nature
study into all grades, it will be found much more satis-
factory and better to have the work in the lower grades
alone than in the upper grades alone. Not merely will
the pupils be more interested and do better work, but
they will be better trained and prepared for nature
study, or for any other work in the upper grades which
requires pupils to see and think and tell and do for

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 323

themselves. In the lower grades also it is much easier
to correlate nature study with other school-work than
it is in the upper grades.

In beginning work it will be found best to begin at
the beginning in all grades, except possibly the two
highest grades, to take up in all grades the most ele-
mentary work as outlined (in the next chapter) for the
lower grades, adapting it to the children. Thus good
foundations will be laid for future work.

Statistics show that in American schools fifty per
cent of the children do not remain in school more than
four or five years. This must affect the arrangement
of matter. It seems better to arrange the work so that
those who thus leave shall have a broad general knowl-
edge of the whole field, rather than a detailed knowl-
edge, if this is possible for young children, of a small
part of the field. This is another reason for the ar-
rangement of the work in two cycles, referred to before,
and shown in the next chapter.

Nature study differs from mature science in that itj
absolutely requires no laboratory except what nature
provides, and no apparatus except the seeing eye, the
hearing ear, the understanding heart, and the willing
hand. The lack of equipment affects very slightly the
selection of material, or the amount or character of
work which can be done. Teachers, thinking of col-
lege and high-school laboratories and equipment for
science work, are apt to feel that neither they nor their
pupils can study this or do that in nature work with-

324 NATURE STUDY.

out instruments or apparatus. They must remember
that nature study is a study of what the Creator made,
as he made it, by means which he has either given the
children or given them power to get or make. A few
cans or bottles or jelly-tumblers and simple boxes for
planting seeds and keeping animals are necessary for
plant and animal work. Work in physics requires the
most apparatus ; but most of it can be made by teacher
and older pupils at a slight expense with lamp-chim-
neys, bottles and corks, chalk-boxes, etc. This home-
made apparatus is not only as good as the expensive
pieces which must be bought or borrowed, but is
much better for work with the children. An elaborate
or costly equipment of apparatus is a great hindrance.
Children think of the apparatus rather than the experi-
ment or what it is intended to show, and assume that
the complex apparatus is necessary for the experiment.
In general, the more closely science work is related to
other school- work, the better it is for both the science
work and the school-work. A distinct science labora-
tory for the grammar grades may be a great help in
leading the children to do definite, exact, scientific
work. But such a laboratory is not at all essential
even in upper grades, and if it makes a break between
the science work and other school-work, may be a posi-
tive hindrance.

While the general plan of work must be determined
by the aim, the nature and mental development of the
children, and other conditions which have been dis-

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 325

cussed, the exact material studied and the emphasis
placed on different topics must depend, to a consider-
able extent, on the location and surroundings of the

School. ::. '

In general, that is best for study in any locality, other
things being equal, which is most common, and with
which the children are most familiar. This is easiest
to obtain. What is more important, it is best for the
children. For the study of this the foundation is al-
ready laid by nature. The teacher can build best on
this foundation, gradually building broader and higher.
The daily contact out of school with what is studied
in the school will strengthen and re-enforce the ideas
gained. The children will thereby be led to see that
school is everywhere. At the same time they will learn
the importance of that which is nearest, and see better
the possibilities in that which is simplest and most in-
significant.

Most of the material considered in the course of
study in the next chapter is to be found throughout
almost the entire northern half of the country. Many
species of plants, such as maple, elm, and oak, dandelion,
mallow, thistle, mustard, and buttercup, differing in dif-
ferent localities only in minor characteristics, are found
in most parts of the northern half of the United States
east of the Rocky Mountains ; and others, closely re-
lated or illustrating the same functional and structural
features, in other sections. Among the animals, the
birds, such as the robin, bluebird, sparrow, and oriole,
the most common insects, such animals as the crayfish

326 NATURE STUDY.

and earthworm, and certain species of fishes, frogs,
turtles, and squirrels, are very widely distributed.
Common minerals and rocks are widely scattered, or
can be obtained at a slight expense, and preserved for
study for years. In the Course of Study, as given in
the next chapter, and in the directions and outlines in
Part II, those plants, animals, minerals, or rocks arc
suggested and emphasized which are most common and
most widely distributed.

While schools in widely separated sections may fol-
low the same general plan, the pupils at the seashore
should spend much more time on sea-life ; the children
in the school in a rocky region should learn much more
about rocks and fossils and geology; boys and girls
whose home is on a farm may study more carefully the
soils and plant food and grains, while their city cousins
are giving more attention to building-stones, or elec-
tricity, or other departments of physics, or to processes
of manufacture, or methods of transportation, all fol-
lowing the same general plan, but adapting it to local
conditions, local interests, and local needs. The study
must not stop, however, with that which is just about
them. From that which is near they must be led to
that which is farther and broader and higher.

The schools in the country, in villages, or in small
cities have the best environment for nature study ; they
are surrounded by, almost immersed in, nature. In the
large cities the environment is not so favorable. But
teachers in cities will find, as they gain experience, that
material is much more abundant and accessible than

SELECTION AND SEQUENCE OF MATERIAL. 327

they at first imagine. The back yards and stable yards
and unused lots will furnish plants and animals in great
profusion. Much can be raised in the schoolroom or
school-yard. The study of the germination of seeds, of
peas, beans, and corn, can be carried on anywhere where
there is air and a fair amount of light. This is partic-
ularly good for city schools. When the children are
interested and enlisted in the work of getting material,
they will bring specimens almost without limit, — min-
erals and corals and shells and fruits from cabinets and
garrets. In these days of rapid transportation, the elec-
tric cars carry teachers or pupils far out into the coun-
try in a few minutes, and enable them to bring the
country into the city. The difficulty of getting mate-
rial will be greatly lessened as we go to work and gain
experience.

The experience of the writer in getting material for
classes organized for the instruction of teachers in the
nature-study work is probably typical. For such
classes, where much work had to be brought into a
short period of time, it was necessary to have a large
supply — enough for each teacher — of the best illustra-
tive material. For a year or two he thought it neces-
sary to make long trips into the country. Gradually
his trips were shortened. After two or three years' ex-
perience, he found material in the neighboring streets
and yards, within a few blocks (although teaching in
the heart of a city of 140,000 inhabitants) to meet
nearly all the demands of his classes for plant study.
It was somewhat more difficult to obtain material for

328 NATURE STUDY.

animal study; but that obtainable near the school, such
as grasshoppers, crickets, caterpillars, spiders, and earth-
worms and " thousand legs," supplied most of the needs
of the class. For snails, fish, crayfish, and tadpoles it
was necessary to make trips into the country, or to
enlist the boys in the work of getting material.

In great cities it is much easier to get and keep
material and apparatus for work with minerals and
physics and chemistry. For this and for utilitarian
reasons, the work in city schools is often practically
limited to the study of physical sciences. The very
fact that the children of cities are shut away from liv-
ing nature, see almost nothing of the plant and animal
life familiar to other children, makes it so much the
more essential that they have some study of living
nature, even if they study only the germination and
development of peas and beans, watch the growth of
flowering plants which can be kept in the schoolroom
windows, and are led to investigate the habits of the
omnipresent sparrows, flies, spiders, and mice.

A GRADED COURSE OF NATURE STUDY. 329

CHAPTER XV.

A GRADED COURSE OF NATURE STUDY.

THE following course of study illustrates the appli-
cation of the principles enunciated in the preceding
chapters. It "is the result of several years of thought,
experience, and experiment. The course in plant study
was originally prepared by the writer (while teaching
biological sciences in the high school, and directing
science work in the elementary schools of St. Paul,
Minn.) as part of the Report of the Conference on Nat-
ural History to the Committee of Ten, and was pub-
lished in the " Report of the Committee of Ten." The
course was immediately adopted in the schools of St.
Paul, and has since been followed to a greater or less
extent in many schools from New England to Califor-
nia. The work of the first four grades, in all subjects
— plants, animals, minerals, and physics — and part
of that for upper grades, was planned for the schools of
St. Paul, when the writer was acting as Supervisor of
Nature Study in those schools. The course was subse-
quently extended and somewhat modified for the Prac-
tice School connected with the State Normal School at
Oswego, N.Y.

The course of study is not, therefore, based merely

330 NATURE STUDY.

on educational theories, but has been gradually evolved
from eight or nine years of experience with nature study
in the elementary schools, and of study, — both in a
great public-school system and in a normal school, — of
the needs and conditions of such schools. Practically
all of the work outlined for the first six or seven years
has been done, most of it again and again, by practice-
or pupil-teachers in the practice school of the Oswego
Normal School. Most of the work outlined in the first
cycle for the first four grades, and much of that for
upper grades, was done by the teachers of* St. Paul.

The principles and ideas on which the selection, ar-
rangement, and sequence of matter are based, have been
discussed in Chapters XII. and XIII. In the practice
school, nature study and its related work in expression
(language, drawing, painting, and moulding) and liter-
ature are allotted throughout the year about one hour
daily during years one to six, and one hour three times
a week during years seven to nine. All the work is
done by pupil-teachers.

The course, as outlined, covering so much ground,
doubtless seems formidable for most schools. It must
be remembered, however, that in the school for which
the course is planned, much of the expressive work of
the school is based on nature study, and that during the
time devoted to nature study, work in writing, reading,
drawing, painting, and moulding is done.

Where any systematic work is attempted, an hour
a week, at the very least, should be devoted to observa-
tion work or presentation of matter, the related work

A GRADED COURSE OF NATURE STUDY. 331

in drawing, writing, and reading to be done at some
other time. If less time is given to observation, very
little will be accomplished.

To keep up the interest and obtain the best results,
these observation lessons should not be less than twenty
minutes, nor more than half an hour in length during
the first three years ; nor less than half an hour, no
more than an hour, during the later years.

To facilitate the selection of matter and the arrang
merit of shorter courses, which, although covering less
ground, shall be in general accordance with the prin-
ciples stated in preceding pages, and shall be logical
and coherent, the topics in the accompanying course of
study are printed in three styles of type : Those which
are most important, and which, taken together, will
form a coherent short course, are printed in heavy-faced
type ; those which, in addition to the topics in heavy-
faced type, are considered essential for a longer course,
are printed in ordinary type ; those which may be con-
sidered as supplementary appear in italics.

In beginning systematic science work it is impossible
of course to follow at first a graded course of study.
The work outlined for the upper grades requires and is
based upon the work in the lower grades. It is recom-
mended that, in beginning systematic science work,
during the first year all pupils in grades two to four
follow the work outlined for the second year, and all
pupils in grades above the fourth follow the work out-
lined for the third year, adding, in the upper grades,
such topics as may seem wise.

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PART II.

DETAILED OUTLINES FOR A YEAR'S WORK IN
NATURE STUDY.

PLANNED FOR PRIMARY GRADES.

COURSE OF STUDY.

DETAILED OUTLINES FOR A YEAR'S WORK. PLANNED
PRIMARILY FOR PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

FALL PLANT STUDY.

Special Aim of Work. To inspire and develop an inter-
est in the plant as something living, growing, and working,
and not as a mere form or structure. To learn about the
plant as a whole, the relation and work of its parts, and its
life history, from the seed to the formation of the seed. To
lead the child to see how well Mother Natur/e protects and
cares for her children.

SEPTEMBER. •

Work Indicated for the Month. One or two plants as
wholes. The plant as an organism for making seeds.

Material. The mallow and buttercup are particularly
good, and are common and easily obtained almost every-
where. Other common plants fairly good for this first
study are the evening primrose, large-flowered mustard,
and sweet pea, or other plants with large simple flowers,
showing, at the same time, all stages in the formation of
leaves, flowers, and fruit.

Dig up several plants very carefully from some place
where the soil is soft, taking pains to dig deep, and to keep
the soil about the roots. Transplant two or three of these
to a box in the schoolroom, where the children can watch

343

344 NATURE STUDY.

them. Wash off the dirt from two or three, by moving the
plant, with the dirt about its roots, back and forth in a pail
of water. These plants, with the fine rootlets preserved,
will often grow for weeks in water in the schoolroom. If
kept in glass jars, the children can easily study the root
system. When plants are merely pulled from the ground,
most of the roots — and all of the working-roots — are left
in the ground. Small plants will thrive in the schoolroom
much better than large ones.

THE COMMON OB ROUND-LEAVED MALLOW.

Occurrence. A common weed in and about door-yards, in
rather good soil. Recognized by its roundish or kidney-
shaped leaves (see Fig. 28), and by its small cheese-shaped
fruit, — called " cheeses " by the children. The mallow is
excellent for the first study, because the children are fa-
miliar with it, and because it has many interesting habits,
such as the turning of its leaves toward the sun and the
closing of its flowers at night.

Order of Study.

1. Name.

2. Relation to natural environment. Habits.

3. Function and structure, or work and adaptation to

work, emphasizing protection, development, and
mutual dependence.

4. Comparison. The mallow as a type of plants.

Preparatory Work Lead . the children to talk about
work they do at home, to tell how they help. Tell them
that the mallow, like everything else, has a work to do,
and that they are to find out about the work of the plant
and of each of its parts.

To give direction to the thoughts of the children and the
right spirit or tone to their work, read to them frequently,

FALL PLANT STUDY.

345

Fig. 28. The Mallow.

or, if they can read, write on the blackboard, and keep be-
fore them, something like the following :

" It was only a little plant ;
But on it did shine the sun,
The wind did caress, the birds did sing,
And it lived till its work was done.
It was only a little plant ;
But it took a gladsome part
In the great earth's life ; and at last
Earth clasped it to her heart,'7

346 NATURE STUDY.

Part of Lucy Lar corn's " Flowers of the Fallow7' may be
read to the children. It is a little above them, but it will
give them a new thought and a great thought.

FLOWERS OP THE FALLOW.

(Adapted.)

61 1 like these plants that you call weeds, —
Sedge, mallow, mullein, yarrow, —
That knit their roots and sift their seeds
Where any grassy wheel-track leads ^

Through country byways narrow.

They show how Mother Earth loves best
To deck her tired-out places ;
By flowery lips, in hours of rest,
Against hard work she will protest
With homely airs and graces.

Her wildwood soil you may subdue,
Tortured by hoe and harrow ;
But leave her for a year or two,
And see ! she stands and laughs at you
With mallow, mullein, yarrow."

A day or two before the field lesson, ask different
children to find, out of doors, answers to these three
questions :

First. Where does the mallow, or the " cheese," grow?
Have each child tell where he (emphasize strongly the per-
sonal observation) saw it, and how he was sure that the
plant he saw was the mallow.

Second. Find out whether the leaves of the mallow like
the sun. Look at the leaves in the morning, on the way
fco school. Can they see the sun ? Look again carefully
at noon ; and again in the afternoon, on the way home from
school. (Sharp eyes will discover that the leaves turn
toward the sun, and follow it from morning to night.)

FALL PLANT STUDY. 347

Third. How are the flowers of the mallow like little
boys and girls ? Look at them in the morning, at noon,
and in the evening, and try to see how and when they go
to sleep, and when they awake.

If the teacher tells these things herself, she will miss an
excellent opportunity to interest the children, and set them
to work investigating for themselves. It is helpful to
encourage the children, or each child, to " find out " the
answer to these " riddles " for themselves, and to tell what
they discover to no one but the teacher.

The Field Lesson. When planning a field lesson, three
points should be kept in mind :

First. The aim, to bring the children into sympathy or
in touch with nature, through the study of that part of na-
ture in which they have been interested.

Second. The conditions out of doors, where the children
are at home, where they must have greater freedom than
in the schoolroom, and where it is more difficult to keep
them at definite work, and to hold their attention.

Third. The necessity of giving each child something
definite to find out for himself, and of interesting the chil-
dren so that each will try to find out the most and have
the greatest number of discoveries to tell.

As a preparation for the field lesson, gather up the
answers to the three "riddles."

Give to all of the members of the class such general
Questions as the following : What is the mallow good for ?
Is it just a good-for-nothing weed ? (To bring out the fact
of its covering the dirty waste places and beautifying the
Sarth. ) Does it stand up straight ? or does it creep along
the ground ? How long does it grow ? How much or how
many times longer than the arm of the children ?

Give to different children, or to different groups, such
topics or questions as the following :

348 NATURE STUDY.

Roots. Are the large plants hard to pull up ? How
held in the ground ? Do the roots grow straight down ? or
do they grow out at the sides ? Use of the branches of
the roots ? Pull up and bring to school two or three
plants.

Leaves. Uses : To make the plant look pretty and to
cover up, particularly at night or when it is cold, the flowers
and " cheeses." Positions : Growing and turning up toward
the light ; when the grass is short, and the plant is not
shaded, the stem is usually prostrate and the leaves near
the ground. Arrangement : Covering the ground, with few
or no open spaces, giving each large leaf the sunlight.
Note how few leaves are covered by others, and how the
young leaves are snugly placed in the space between the
stem of the plant and the stem of the leaf, — in the axil of
the large leaves. Have the children fold a piece of paper
as the little leaves are folded, — like a fan. Does Mother
Mallow take good care of her baby leaves ? As the leaves
grow larger and stronger, the plant spreads them out,
lengthens their stem, and slowly pushes them up to work
for themselves and for the rest of the plant. When it
gets cold, they often fold up again, and snuggle down un-
der the old leaves.

Flowers. Position : In the axils of the large leaves. Late
in the fall, long after the frost has killed most of the other
flowers, we can find the mallow flowers. How do the
leaves protect the flowers from the cold ? Where are the
baby flowers ? How are they kept warm ?

Fruit, or " Cheeses." Position : Under the leaves. How
kept warm ? How are the baby cheeses covered ? Look
for the oldest " cheeses " you can find, those which have
turned brown. Try to find some which fall or break very
easily into pieces, each shaped something like a piece of
an orange. Each of these three-sided pieces is a seed.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 349

Why does the plant-mother take such good care of the
" cheeses " ?

After the children have spent fifteen or twenty minutes
at work in the field, it may be well to gather them together
there, ascertain what they have discovered, and, with the
material about them, correct their mistakes, and help them
to see what they have not observed for themselves.

The general review of what they have learned can, ho^
ever, be conducted much better in the schoolroom than ou
of doors. Always review such a lesson with the plant be
fore the children. Seeing the plant will refresh their
memory ; then, too, they will be able to tell many things,
by pointing to the plant, which they* could not tell in words
without the plant. Encourage them to tell all they can
about what they have seen, with as few questions as
possible.

Blackboard Heading Lesson, based on the Field Lesson
After the oral review, what has been learned in the fiVr
lesson can be fixed by a blackboard reading lesson. Th
statements should be obtained from the children, and shoul(
embody the important facts or thoughts gained out of doors.
This will not only review and clinch what the Children
have learned out of doors, but will give them practice in
expressing their ideas clearly and exactly, and in relating
ideas, or putting their statements in sequence or order.

This reading lesson may be very simple, so that the chil-
dren themselves can read it (if they can read at all) ; thus
giving them practice in gaining ideas from the written
words, as well as in expressing them in written words ; or
it may be made more complete, and may be read by the
teacher, as a story. The fact that the little folks them-
selves have " made 7; the story will make it none the less
interesting to them.

The main essentials in such reading lessons are : that

350 NATURE STUDY.

they should be gained from the children as much as is pos-
sible, not merely written out by the teacher ; should be based
upon, but not limited by, what the children have seen ;
should generally be in a narrative form, or use personifi-
cation, to appeal to the imagination of the little folks ; and
should be clear, truthful, connected, and orderly.

Some such stories as the following may be gained from
the boys and girls, with help from the teacher, and read to
them, rather than by them. If copies of such " stories "
are made by the hektograph or other copying process^ they
will form excellent reading lessons for the children, later
in their course.

I. THE MALLOW AND THE SUN.

We have seen so much about the mallow plant.

The leaves look at the sun in the morning.

John saw them.

They look at the sun when we go home from school.

Mary says she saw them.

The leaves of the mallow look at the sun all day.

They turn to the part of the sky where the sun is.

They grow up above the grass so that they can see the sun.

The mallow leaves must love the sun.

Can you tell why the leaves like the sun so well ?

II. THE MALLOW AND THE GROUND.

We went out doors to see how the mallow lives.

Henry tried to pull up a big mallow plant.

He could not. Its roots kept it in the ground.

Miss Grey pulled up a plant.

It had a big root and many little roots.

The little roots are its fingers.

Our fingers help us to hold fast.

The little roots spread out under the ground.

They help the big root to hold the mallow fast.

I think the mallow likes the ground,

Do you know why ?

FALL PLANT STUDY. 351

We saw some very little roots.
They cannot hold much.
What do they do ?

III. THE STORY THE MALLOW LEAF TOLD.

Boys and girls think we mallow leaves do not do much.
But they do not know how much I do.
I cannot see that boys and girls do much.
What do I do ?

Well, I look up at the sun and at the sky.
The sun makes me green.
I cover the ground with green.
I help make the earth pretty.

Did you ever think how the earth would look if there were no
green leaves ?

Just peep down here and see what else I do.
Isn't that pretty ? See how pink it is !
That is a flower.

I cover it when the sun is too hot.
I cover it when it gets cold.
I hide it from Jack Frost.

I let it see the blue sky, and look at the sun when it is not too hot.
Can you see the baby flowers ?

There they are way down where I grow from the steu
Don't I keep them snug and warm ?
Now peep again.

No, you cannot eat that. That is not a cheese.
It is a box of seeds.

When the box gets old it turns brown and breaks.
Then the seeds fall out.
Can you find any old seed-box ?
I have to take care of the seed-boxes too.
Don't I have much work to do ?
But this is not all.

Look again. Do you see those little green things ?
Yes, they look like little green fans.
Those are baby leaves.

I rock them, and cover them, and help feed them.
I love them best of all. Do you know why ?
They will grow into more leaves like me.
They will help me with my work when I am old.
you think I do not have any work to

352 NATURE STUDY.

IV. WHAT TOMMY FOUND ABOUT THE MALLOW FLOWERS.

I am in Miss Grey's room.

I went out with the boys and girls to see the home of the mallow.

I saw lots of things.

Miss Grey said : "Tommy, you find out all you can about the

flower and the cheese."
The flower is pretty, but it is bashful.
It hides under the leaves.

Some of the flowers are white. Some are pink.
The flower has a green coat.
I looked at a flower when it was almost dark.
It had closed up and gone to sleep.
It had its green coat over it.
It wakes up again when the sun shines.
I found lots of cheeses.
I ate some.

Mary said, " Oh, those are seed boxes !"
She found an old brown cheese, with some brown parts.
She said the brown parts were seeds.
I did not know that.

The above illustrate three forms of reading lessons, —
the narrative in the third person, the narrative in the first
person, and personification, in which the plant tells its own
story. Those who live and work with little children know
how much they enjoy personifying what they are playing
with or studying. The narrative in the first person gives
less play to the fancy, and may be more careful and definite.

Study of the Mallow in the Schoolroom. Too much em-
phasis cannot be placed on the helpfulness and importance
of the preparatory field lesson ; without it there can be very
little real study of the life of the mallow. A mere study
of the form and structure of the plant is of little value
to young children.

From the plant growing in earth and in water, in the
schoolroom the protection and development of leaves and
flowers can be observed, but not as well as out of doors.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 353

The parts of the plant must be approached from the
standpoint of function ; that is, each part should be studied
as something having a work to do and as something fitted
for its work. The little people can study only those adap-
tations of form to work which they can easily see and un-
derstand. The question " why " should be asked frequently,
but not until they have seen something which will help
them to answer it ; mere guessing is worse than useless.

Plant as a whole. Occurrence : Length and height.
( Use some standard of measurement with which the chil-
dren are familiar, such as their hand or arm.) Position :
creeping or upright. Why ?

Hoots. ( Observed in water in glass jars.) One central
main root, with many fine branches. Eeview what was
learned about its use in the field lesson. If the attention
of the children is called to the withered condition of a plant
which has been pulled from the ground, leaving the fine
rootlets behind, and has been placed in a jar of water, they
will see that a plant will not live without the fine roots.
Show them how a cotton string, loosely twisted, or a piece
of yarn, draws up water. What is the use of the fine root-
lets ? To " drink for the plant." Show them how sugar
and salt dissolve in water. Another use of the rootlets ?
To draw up from the ground the food for the plant, dis-
solved in water. Compare with the way in which children
suck up liquids through a straw.

Have several children review and gather up orally, in
their own way and language, what they have learned about
the roots, somewhat as below : —

The mallow has one long, thick root.
This root has side roots.
They spread out under the ground.
They hold the plant fast in the ground.
The mallow has many fine roots.

NATURE STUDY.

They are like threads.

Miss Grey showed us how a string draws up water.

We can suck up water with a straw.

The fine roots draw up water for the mallow.

We had a plant without any fine roots.

We put it in water, but it dried up.

It could not drink the water because it had no fine roots.

Miss Grey showed us how salt and sugar melt in water.

Some things in the ground melt in the water.

The roots drink these with the water.

They are the food of the plant.

So the fine roots get water and food for the plant.

In this oral review try to have the children tell all about
each topic or division of a subject before allowing them to
go on with another. Always have them tell observations
or describe experiments before they give the conclusions
based on those observations or experiments. This is in-
ductive and scientific, and will help to correct the tendency,
so common in children — and adults — to " jump to con-
clusions," to state conclusions, and overlook that on which
these are, or should be, based.

On the clearness and thoroughness of this review will
largely depend the clearness and permanence of the ideas
gained.

Stem. Position: erect or creeping. Use or function: to
fasten the leaves and flowers to the root ; to carry food and
water from the root to the leaves and flowers ; to lift up
the leaves and flowers where they can see the sun or get
the light. Color, length, and shape (" round like a pencil,"
not merely "round"). Oral review and summary by at
least two or three children.

Leaves. Review the uses of the leaves and their fond-
ness for the sun, as noted in the field lesson. How has
Mother Nature fitted them for their work ?

What happens to a leaf when we break it from the stem ?

FALL PLANT STUDY. 355

Leaves must get food and water from the root through the
stem. Note how they are fastened to the stem, each large
leaf growing separately from a different part and side of
the stem. They must be lifted away from the stem, so that
the leaves can see the sun. Call attention to the long
green stem of the leaf, flat on the side turned upward,
rounded on the other side, " like a pencil cut in two length-
ways." Why so long? Why flattened, or slightly hol-
lowed out, on the upper side ? To leave a space for the
baby leaves at its base. Notice the two little ears (stipules')
at its base. They help to cover the young leaves when
they are very small.

At the upper end of the leaf-stem is the broad, flat part,
which we generally call the leaf. After the children have
called it the " broad, flat part " for a time they will be glad
to get a name for it. Comparing it with the flat, thin blade
of a knife may help them to remember the special name
given to it, the " blade " of the leaf. Why so broad ? To
form a blanket. Its shape — almost round, with a deep
cut where it is fastened to the leaf -stem. Its scalloped
edge (in many leaves), to make it look prettier. How held
out flat with its face toward the sun ? Have the children
feel their hands and discover how their bones support their
hands. What holds out the leaves of the mallow ? The
veins*. Where do they start from, how many, how ar-
ranged ? Call the attention of the boys and girls to the
blood-vessels in their hands, and tell them that they carry
the blood to and from all parts of the hand. The veins
of the leaf also carry to all parts of the leaf the water and
food taken in by the roots, and brought to the leaf-blade
by the plant-stem and the leaf -stem.

The leaves have other work to do besides helping to
beautify the plant and the world. To keep alive, what
else do boys and girls have to do besides eating and drink-

356 NATURE STUDY.

ing ? What happens if they cannot breathe ? Plants
must breathe, too, and they breathe with and through their
leaves. The leaves breathe the air much as we do. Part
of the food of the plant comes from the air ; and this the
leaves take in, through thousands of little mouths, so small
that we cannot see them. To make room for these mouths,
the leaves have to be spread out a great deal, as we have
to make the table large when there are many boys and girls
to eat around it.

The leaves can take in this food best, and can best use it,
when the sun is shining on them. Without any sunlight
they and the plant would soon die. Hence each leaf loves
the sun, and turns toward it.

To fix the parts and form of the leaf, it is helpful to
have the children draw it, always and only from nature,
with the leaf before them. They will draw more thought-
fully, and therefore more carefully, if led to think of the
relation between work and form, or between function and
structure. If they draw the leaf-stem as a single line,
without thickness, as they will almost certainly do, ask
them whether such a stem will hold up the blade when the
wind blows. If they think, when they are drawing, of the
use of the veins, they will be more apt to represent them
correctly, as radiating from the end of the leaf -stem and
reaching to the edge or margin of the leaf, so as to support
and carry nourishment to all parts of the blade.

Before asking the children to draw, the teacher should
draw the leaf on the blackboard before them, emphasizing
those points about which the children are likely to make
mistakes, such as the double line to represent the stem, and
the relation to stem, direction, number, and length of the
veins. This drawing must always be erased before the
children begin to draw.

Flowers and Fruit. Approach the flower as a thing of

FALL PLANT STUDY. 357

beauty, the crowning glory of the plant ; as something with
a great work to do, the most important part of the plant.
Do not, under any circumstances, have the little children
pick the flower to pieces. It is one of the choicest, most
perfect, most beautiful of the Creator's works ; and the lit-
tle child, at least, should love, and cherish, and guard it as
something almost sacred.

Study first the relation of the flower to the parts pre-
viously studied, — to the root, stem, and leaf. How does it
depend on the root, and stem, and leaves for food ? Where
and how does it grow from the stem ? From the angle be-
tween the flower-stem and the plant-stem (the axil of the
leaf), usually in clusters of two or more. How are the
young flowers protected by the leaves ?

Have the children look carefully at the flower in different
stages of development, — the very small bud just pushing
up from the protecting care of the leaf, the fully developed
bud not yet open, the open flower, and the old flower with
the colored part withered or shrivelled.

Why is the flower-stem so short at first ? Why does it
grow longer as the flower gets ready to open ?

Have the children tell all they can about the parts of
the flower, — the green outer part with its five-pointed
divisions ; the pink part, also with five divisions ; the little
part in the middle, looking like a very small white Christ-
mas-tree. Do not tear the flower to pieces, and do not
allow the children to do so. What is the use of the green
part ?- To cover up the bud ; to make a pretty outside
dress for the flower. It is cut into five parts, so that it
can easily fold over the baby flower, and just as easily open
wide when the flower opens, much as a little girl's cape
can be wrapped tightly about her or opened wide. We
might call this the cape of the flower, but we do not.
When the flower is open, this outside part is shaped like

358 NATURE STUDY.

a little cup ; so it is called the cup, or better, the calyx, a
word which means " little cup." What does the pink part
of the flower do? In the well-developed bud see how
tightly it is twisted around the "little Christmas-tree."
It must protect that. This is the prettiest part of the
flower; so it is called the crown, or the corolla, a word which
means "little crown," or "little garland." The use of the
parts within the corolla, the stamens and stigmas, together
forming the "little Christmas-tree," the children cannot
see in the mallow, and cannot now understand ; so it is bet-
ter to say nothing about their functions.

Have one of the children carefully pull off the corolla
from one or more of the old flowers in which it is withered
and ready to drop off. What is there under the corolla,
wrapped about by the green calyx ? Compare it with the
" cheeses," noting that the " cheeses " grow from the same
place as do the flowers, on the same kind of a stem, and
have wrapped about them the green calyx with its five
parts. The children should "think out" for themselves the
wonderful " secret " that the flowers make the " cheeses."
That is their greatest work, — to make " cheeses " for the
mallow.

Show the little folks the old brown fruits, or " cheeses,"
which are ripe, and ready to fall to pieces and drop their
seeds. Tell them, or better, get them to tell, how impor-
tant the seeds are to the mallow ; how from the seeds the
new plants must grow, when all the plants we have now
have been killed by the cold.

Review the work and parts of the flower and fruit. A
large picture of the flower on the blackboard will be very
helpful in this review. The flowers of the single holly-
hock or of the rose of Sharon are almost exactly like those
of the mallow, but are one to two inches in diameter. Their
size makes them helpful in reviewing the parts of the mal-
low flower.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 359

Review the work and parts of the whole plant as some-
thing for beautifying the world, and for making seeds
which will grow and make the world more beautiful next
year. How has each part helped in beautifying the world
and in making seeds ? How is each part made or fitted for
its work ?

" Flowers of the Fallow " may be read again, or parts of
Longfellow's poem, " Flowers/'' They will be better under-
stood now. The following from Wordsworth's " Primrose
on the Rock " will now mean something, even to the little
children, and will give them the best closing thought.

" The flowers, still faithful to the steins,
Their fellowship renew ;
The stems are faithful to the root,
That worketh out of view ;
And to the rock the root adheres
In every fibre true.

Close clings to earth the living rock,
Though threatening still to fall ;
The earth is constant to her sphere ;
And God upholds them all :
So blooms this lonely plant, nor dreads
. Her annual funeral."

The Mallow as a Type. After one plant has been stud-
ied somewhat carefully, another should be studied more
rapidly, and the two compared. With little children the
results will be better if the study of the second plant is
completed before any comparison is attempted. If the
parts of the second plant are compared with the corre-
sponding parts of the first plant, before all of the second
has been studied, the little children are more apt to get the
two plants confused. At least two plants should be stud-
ied before going on to another topic, such as dissemination
of seeds. This will make the ideas of the children broader
and more general.

360 NATURE STUDY.

Excellent plants for comparison with the round-leaved
mallow are the high mallow, an erect plant, two to three
feet high, with lobed leaves, and similar but larger flowers,
the common single hollyhock, anl the rose of Sharon.

Dividing the Work into Lessons. The ideas the children
gain from the work will be much clearer and more deeply
impressed, if each lesson is a unit in itself, with a definite
aim, one central thought, and a careful summary at the
close. When there is time, the following division of lessons
is suggested : —

Lessson 1. Preparatory Work. Aim. To make the
children familiar with the appearance of the mallow, and
to put them in the right. attitude toward the plant as a liv-
ing thing.

Lesson 2. Preparation for the field lesson. Aim. To
gather up what the children have learned out of doors, and
to prepare them for further definite out-of-door observation
of the life of the plant.

Lesson 3. Field Lesson. Aim. To study the plant at
work in its home.

Lesson 4. Review and summary of what was learned out
of doors.

Lesson 5. What the roots and stems do, and how they
are fitted for their work.

Lesson 6. What the leaves do, and how they are fitted
for their work.

Lesson 7. What the flowers do, and how they are fitted
for their work.

Lesson 8. Review. What the mallow plant does, and
how it does it.

Possibly lessons 1 and 2, and lessons 5 and 6, and lessons
7 and 8, can be combined, and the number thus reduced to
five.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 361

THE BUTTERCUP.1

The buttercup does not have the many interesting habits
of the mallow (in the spring its flowers turn towards the
sun, but not to any marked extent in the autumn). But
it shows somewhat more clearly the spreading and branch-
ing of the roots, to get nourishment from the ground, the
extension of the veins into every part of the leaves, to sup-
port and carry food to each division, and the protection of
the young leaves by the older ones, and will give the chil-
dren a better idea of the parts and plan of the flower.

Preparatory Work. The field lesson is not so indispen-
sable in the work with the buttercup as in that with the
mallow. All the class-work with the buttercup can be
done in the schoolroom.

But pains should be taken to have the boys and girls
individually observe the plant out of doors in its home,
find and report where it grows, how high it grows, how it
lifts its bright flowers up above the leaves, while the modest
dainty blossoms of the mallow hide below the leaves, look
for " cheeses " or for seeds, and see how Mother Buttercup
protects her baby leaves and flowers.

Dig up several plants, as directed before, selecting the
youngest and most vigorous plants with flowers, and place
some in window-boxes, and some in water in glass jars.
The roots are usually interlaced, several plants being
closely fastened together ; at least two or three plants
should be separated for study.

Preparatory Lesson. In the preparatory lesson the
teacher may give the children the thought, "The butter-
cup catches the sun in its cup," and centre her work about
this. Perhaps this poem may impress the thought of the

i The plant studied is the tall buttercup, the most common species in Michi-
gan, Minnesota, and New York.

362 NATURE STUDY.

gold the jolliest and merriest of the flowers gets from the
sun, and of the happiness he scatters about him : —

" A little yellow buttercup

Stood laughing in the sun ;
The grass and leaves all green around,

The summer just begun,
Its saucy little head abrim

With happiness and fun.
The flower smiled up, the sun beamed down,

As they for years had done,
Until as golden as his friend

The little flower had grown.

As summer passed and autumn came,

The flowers above him said,
4 Come, buttercup, our work is done,

It's time to go to bed.'
* Not yet,' said he, l the sun still smiles,

I'll wait till he has fled ;
I yet some little seeds can form,

Some smiles about me shed.'
The merry buttercup laughed on,

And tossed his golden head."

Get the ideas of the children as to the meaning of the
name " buttercup/' and have them tell how the buttercup
helps them to discover whether boys and girls like butter.

They may have observed that when it is found in fields
and pastures the cows and horses eat the grass all around
it, but rarely disturb this plant. Why ? If the children
taste of it (somewhat cautiously, as it has a decided
" bite " ) they will discover one way in which Mother
Nature protects her children. The cattle learn that the
buttercup is a good thing to let alone.

Some of the sharper eyes may have discovered another
of its secrets, — the fact that the long stems of the older
leaves are enlarged, split open, and hollowed out at the

FALL PLANT STUDY.

363

base, making the snuggest kind of a cradle for the baby
leaves and flowers. In the fall this is more difficult to
discover than in the spring, as nearly all of the leaves and
flowers have developed, and there are comparatively few
babies to be cared for.

SCHOOLROOM STUDY.

Study of the Buttercup in the Schoolroom. Roots. Re-
view the work of the roots, to hold fast and to absorb
water and food. Why does the
buttercup hold fast better than
the mallow ? Instead of one or
two main roots, it has many,
spreading out in all directions,
each one quite tough. Call at-
tention, too, to the great num-
ber of fine rootlets. What do
they do ?

Stems. Their work, to lift up
the flowers and seeds, and to
carry to them water and food.
How much we would lose if the
golden buttercups and all flow-
ers were hidden under the leaves
like the mallow ! How pleasant
it is to find the mallow blossoms,
and their modest, shy relatives
hiding where they must be hunted
for ! Notice the many branches,
to lift each flower where we can
see it. The stem has some leaves, but they are much
smaller than the leaves springing up from about its base.
Their main work is to cover and protect the flower-buds,
and to make the flowers look brighter from contrast with

Fig. 29. Roots of Buttercup.

364

NATURE STUDY.

their green. In many plants, at this season, the stems have
finished their work, and have dried up.

Leaves. B/eview the work of the mallow leaves : to
make the plant and the world look pretty, to protect the
flowers and the little leaves, to breathe and to take in food
from the air.

Be sure that each child sees just how the young buttercup
leaves and flower-buds are kept warm ; they will not find
many as pretty illustrations of protection.

Show them how much richer is the yellow of the flower
when there are green leaves near it, and how much prettier
the flowers look when hanging loosely and separated than
when massed together. Perhaps even the little folks can
get some hints from nature which may help them in arran-
ging the flowers they gather

Fig. 30. Leaf of Buttercup.

Describe ohe leaves. They are too complex for little
folks to draw ; but their form may be impressed by having
the pupils compare them with their hands, with the fingers
outspread (do not give them the terms palmate or digitate

FALL PLANT STUDY. 365

now), by the teacher drawing the leaf on the blackboard at
the direction of the children (represent first the plan of
veining, then draw the divisions or lobes about the main
veins or ribs), or by letting them make an impression in
clay.

The large leaves come from around the base of the stem
(they seem to come from the roots, and hence are called
" root-leaves "), have very long stems, which are hollow and
broad at the base, like a funnel split lengthways (Why?),
and have a blade with five to seven divisions, or " fingers."
Compare the veins with the bones in the fingers of the
children; they will discover that each finger and each
point has a vein to support it. Compare them also with
the veins in their hands, or with the gas or water pipes in
their houses, or with the ditches or drains in the fields.

Compare the stem-leaves, those growing on the stems
which bear the flowers, with the root-leaves as to position,
length of leaf-stem, parts, veins, and uses.

Perhaps the children can grasp a little of the thought
that the earth is much prettier because there is such end-
less variety in the leaves of different plants. How much
better it is that the leaves of the buttercup are so different
from those of the mallow !

Flowers. The buttercup flowers are the golden cups
from which the fairies take their favorite drink, — dew and
honey.

u 'O where do you come from, bright flowers and fair,
That please with your colors and fragrance so rare,
Glowing in sunshine, or sparkling with dew ? '
' We are blooming for dear little children like you.' "

" The buttercup catches the sun in its chalice."

LOWELL.

Cannot we begin our study of the flower by putting and
fastening in the hearts of the boys and girls thoughts like

366 NATUEE STUDY.

these ? If they get and keep the idea that buttercups are
fairy cups painted by the sun, or made of gold carried by
the sunbeams straight from the golden sun, and that the
flowers are here to bring happiness to boys and girls, and
to men and women, will they be apt to pass them by so
carelessly ?

Review what has been done to make the flower ; what
the roots did, and how soil and water helped them ; what
the stems did ; what the leaves did, and how sun and air
helped them.

What can the flower do in return for all that has been
done for it ?

How it brightens the world ! Like the dandelion, of
which Lowell has written : —

" 'Tis the Spring's largess, which she scatters now
To rich and poor alike, with lavish hand,
Though most hearts never understand
To take it at God's value, but pass by
The offered wealth with unrewarded eye."

But this is but a part of the work of the flower. To dis-
cover what else it does, the children, and their teacher, will
have to use their eyes carefully. The story is all there, if
we will but take the pains to read it.

Place a fully developed wide-open flower on each desk,
cautioning the pupils to hold it by the stem, and not. to
hurt the flower. Have them observe it carefully, and tell
all they can about it, with as few questions as possible.

Doubtless they will first notice and tell about the golden
cup or saucer, made of five or more parts, each shaped like
a fan (or some other object with which the children are
familiar), bright yellow on its upper side, duller below.
There is no difficulty in the buttercup in seeing why this
is called the little crown, or the corolla, which means the

FALL PLANT STUDY.

367

same. Each golden fan is called a petal. The smallest
child will understand and can tell what these do, or what
they are good for.

The outer and lower five green parts ( these may be miss-
ing in some flowers, as they are apt to drop off when the
flower is fully matured ) to-
gether forming a star or
rosette, constitute the little
cup or calyx, each part,
shaped like the bowl of a
spoon, being called a sepal.
What do these green parts
do ? A glance at the half-
opened flowers or at the
buds will show. When the
other parts do not need to
be covered or protected, the
work of these green parts
is done, and they fall off.

What else do the sharp

eyes find ? Many little yel- nowei, and Fruit of Buttercup.
low " things " about a green

ball in the middle. The sharpest eyes will discover that
each yellow " thing " has two parts, — a short stem with
a ball on the top, and that the green ball in the middle is
rough, or has points on it.

If the teacher has given to some children flowers in which
this green ball is quite large, and to some, matured blos-
soms, from which the petals, but not the yellow threads or
stamens, have fallen, they may discover that this green ball
is, or develops into, a cluster of seeds. It is really a
cluster of seed-vessels, each containing a seed ; but the chil-
dren are not ready for and cannot understand this distinc-
tion. This green ball is, then, made up of seeds ; to the

368 NATURE STUDY.

plant they are the most precious part of the flower. Why ?
Why are they placed in the middle of the flower ?

The yellow " things " we can call " soldiers," placed
there to guard the seeds. Older people call them stamens.
The little folks like the idea of their being soldiers, and
the thought will do them no harm. Note the yellow pow-
der or pollen on the stamens. The real use of the stamens
and pollen they cannot understand until they are older.
It is well to leave some things unexplained, for future in-
vestigation.

Review the work of the flower and the special work of
each part in beautifying the world and in making seeds.

The main points which the children have learned about
the flower may be reviewed, fixed in the mind, and pre-
served in a form convenient for future reference and use
by working out with them some such " story " as the fol-
lowing :

WHAT WE FOUND IN THE BUTTERCUP FLOWER.

We have studied the buttercups.

We never saw before how pretty they are.

They are yellow like butter.

They are yellow like the sun.

They look like gold cups.

Miss Grey says they get their gold from the sun.

The sunbeams bring it to them.

The fairies drink out of the gold cups.

When the cup spreads out it is like a saucer.

It has five parts.

Tommy's flower has seven parts.

Each part looks like a little gold fan.

They make the flower look so pretty.

Under the gold parts we found a green star.

It has five parts.

Each part looks like a spoon without a handle,

FALL PLANT STUDY. 36?

In the baby ilower these parts are on the outside.
They cover the pretty yellow parts when they are little.
Mary's buttercup did not have the green parts.
Miss Grey said they had fallen off.
Their work was done.

In the middle of the gold cup we found a little green ball.
It had little points on it.

Harry found a green ball without any gold cup.
It had many green parts.
. Harry thought they were seeds.

We could not find anything else that looked like seeds.

Miss Grey said, " Yes, they are seeds.1'

There are many green seeds in the green ball.

The seeds are in the middle of the gold cup.

The gold cup and the parts of the green star take care of them.

The buttercup plant puts her seeds where they will be most safe.

We found some yellow things all around the green ball of seeds.

They are so many we cannot count them.

Fanny says each yellow thing is like a pin.

It has a thin part like a thread, with a little ball on top.

They stand all around the seeds and take care of them.

Miss Grey says they have another work to do.

We will find out about it some time

Did you know the buttercup had so many things in it ?

Every little part has some work to do.

Do you know what the buttercup flower is good for ?

It helps to make the world beautiful.

It helps to make boys and girls happy.

It makes seeds for the buttercup plant.

And yet some folks think it is not good for anything.

Drawing and Color Work. The buttercup flower is so
simple and symmetrical, it is excellent for the first work
in drawing or painting flowers, much better than the
mallow.

370 NATURE STUDY.

OCTOBER.

Work Indicated for the Month. Preparation of the
plants for winter. The dissemination of seeds. The fall-
ing and coloring of leaves.

THE DISSEMINATION OF SEEDS.

Aim. The general aim remains the same, — to inspire
and develop an interest in the plant and love for it, as
something living, growing, and working, and to lead the
children to see how well Mother Nature cares for her chil-
dren. The special aim has changed. We have been try-
ing to discover how the plant lives, and how it makes its *
seeds ; now we are to see how the plant prepares for winter,
and particularly how it protects and scatters its seeds.
Everything must be centred about the seed-vessels and
the seeds; all else is subordinate and incidental.

Material. The milkweed furnishes one of the most ex-
quisite illustrations of the way in which the plant-mother
protects and provides for the scattering of her seed babies.
The milkweed, thistle, and dandelion are the most common,
and in many respects the best, examples of seeds with hairy
wings. The burdocks, stick-seeds (" stick-tights " the chil-
dren usually call them), and beggar-ticks (sometimes called
by the children " pitchforks "), are the best examples of
seeds provided with hook or barbs, by which they can
cling to passing animals, and thus " steal a ride." The
maple, ash, and linden trees., give their seed babies a wing
by which they may fly quite a distance from their elevated
home.

These should always be studied so as to bring out their
relation to the plant-mother. Whenever it is possible, the
children should see, not merely be told, that the seeds are

FALL PLANT STUDY. 371

formed from the flowers. The boys and girls should see
the plant, or part of it, with the seeds growing on it, and
should see the different stages in the formation of the
seeds from the flower. In the thistle, dandelion, burdock,
stick-seed, and beggar-tick these can usually be obtained
at this season.

The teacher will find much helpful matter and many ex-
quisite illustrations in Gibson's Sharp Eyes. Particularly
good are the articles on " Seed Tramps," " Ballooning
Seeds/' and "Winter Grist for the Birds."

Plan of Work. Little children cannot, or at least they
do not, think of " the seeds with hairy sails," or " the seeds
with wings," or " the seeds with hooks." Such generali-
zations are too abstract for them. They must gather each
class about some concrete example. Hence we should first
study such a plant as the milkweed, which is typical of
the hairy-winged seeds, and gather about it two or three
other seeds with hairy wings ; then we can study with some
care the burdock, and gather about it some of the hooked
or barbed seeds. Later the ash may be the starting-point
and centre for some study of the winged seeds. After-
wards the children can gather and sort many kinds of
seeds, deciding for themselves whether they are carried
about like the milkweed seeds, or like the burdock seeds,
or like the maple-seeds, or whether they are not like any
of them.

THE MILKWEED.

Bring into the schoolroom two or three milkweed stalks,
one with leaves but no pods, the others with leaves, pods,
and as much of the root or underground stem as can be
obtained ; if possible, have a stem with flowers or very
small pods.

Name. ~ Significance of name milkweed ?

372 NATURE STUDY.

Occurrence. How many have seen milkweeds growing ?
Where ?

Life, Work, and Structure of Plant. Centre the interest
and thoughts of the children about the pod, a wonderful
cradle and treasure-case. How have root, stem, leaves,
and flowers helped to make the pod? Bring out briefly
the special work of each. Dwell on the " milk " as the
blood of the plant. Plants which have not made pods, or
have not matured them, usually have at this season consid-
erable " milk ; " those in which the pods are fully matured
usually have little or no " milk." The " milk " is used up
in ripening the pods. Call attention to the height and
strength of the stem, as compared with the stems of
the plants previously studied. It must be strong to hold
up such heavy pods. We will see, when we have studied
the seeds, that it is much better for the seeds to be lifted
up so high.

Why have the flowers dropped off ? Why are stem and
leaves turning yellow or brown ? Their work is done.
Those which have not made pods are much greener.

The Milkweed Pod. The result of the season's work :
root, stem, leaves, flowers, soil, rain, sun, all have worked
together during five or six months to make these pods.
As Lowell writes in " The Changeling " :

" For the whole year long I see

All the wonders of faithful Nature
Still worked for the love of me ;

Winds wander and dews drop earthward,
Rain falls, suns rise and set,

Earth whirls, and all but to prosper
A poor little violet."

Note the position of the pods, up near the top of the
tall stem, and the peculiar way in which they are fastened
to tbe stem. How easily they move when slightly dis-

FALL PLANT STUDY. 373

turbed ! Each pod has a spring. The reason for this the
children can discover later. Have the children tell about
the shape of the pod (comparing with some object familiar
to them), its color, softness, and perhaps the rows of soft
spines on it, which make it look prettier. Along the outer
side, always on the side away from the plant-stem, is, in
the younger pods, a rather hard ridge along the middle of
which a crease or crack develops as the pod ripens.

How the Milkweed Babies are Protected. Cannot we
arouse in our little folks that " spirit of expectancy " which
is the best preparation for one of those enthusiastic, ear-
nest, wide-awake lessons the results of which " stick " in
the little minds ? Perhaps the lines below will aid in this :

THE MILKWEED CASE.

" Cover and case, close locked together,
Filled with a curious kind of feather ;
Open the box, you'll need no key —
Oh ! pretty green case, did you grow fo~* me ?
'Twas only the other day I said,
I must make my dolly a feather-bed ;
And here is the softest, fluffiest stuff,
Silky and white and plenty enough."

Have the children study a pod partly opened. Isn't that
beautiful ? Neither teacher nor pupil will see many pret-
tier objects. Are the little scales scattered about, as boys
and girls sometimes throw their things, or does each scale
have its place ? Why arranged so carefully ? Why does
not Mother Milkweed tumble them in anyway? (Never
mind the moral ; let the milkweed do the preaching. )
Just under the crack in the cover the plant mother has not
placed any little scales. Do you suppose she was afraid
some cold might creep in through the crack and chill the
babies ? In the small upper end of the pod we do not find
the scales ; there is only white, shining silk.

374 NATURE STUDY.

If a ripe pod, which has opened, is hung in the schoolroom
two or three days, it will begin to discharge its seeds, so
that the children can see just how the plant-mother sends
her seeds out into the world. They should also watch the
process out of doors. The teacher cannot understand or
appreciate the ways of Mother Milkweed until she has taken
her book some Saturday, and spent an hour or two in a milk-
weed patch at sailing-time,

Now let us see how the babies are wrapped in their
cradle. Compare constantly with the babies at home.
Note how the blanket is wrapped all around the babies,
with every crack closed up ; how it opens at the right time,
not too early, not too late, and at the right place, where
there aro no babies to feel the first cool drafts, and away
from the stem, where the babies can first see out and get
out. How soft and thick it is, the finest kind of a " com-
fortable " ! How very smooth and soft is the part that
comes against the wee babies ! Perhaps some child can
tell about the very soft flannel that mamma wraps next to
the skin of the little baby at home. The outside wrappings
need not be so soft. If any of the boys or girls have ever
seen their mothers make a " comfortable," or have discov-
ered the cotton inside of their " comfortable/' have them
tell about it. Then tear open the covering of the pod, and
show them, the spongy, cottony interior.

Is Mother Milkweed as careful about her babies as is the
mother at home ?

How the Milkweed Babies are Scattered. This lesson
will mean comparatively little unless the children have
watched the process, as urged on the preceding page.

Many of the children have brothers and sisters working,
some in one factory or store, some in another, some scat-
tered in distant cities or States. Why so scattered? They
have gone where they could get work or could make a

FALL PLANT STUDY. 375

living. What would be the result if all the hundreds of
seeds on each milkweed plant dropped down to the ground
and began to grow together ? Could they get soil enough
or sun enough, or rain enough ? Very few could grow or
even live. Mother Milkweed knows this, so she gives each
of her seed babies hairy wings or a balloon.

The upper scales or seeds, those toward the more pointed
end of the pod, are on the outside and partly cover the
others ; so they must fly out first. The pod usually splits
open at the top first. Note how the silky tail on each scale
divides into two parts, and how its hairs spread apart, how
the least wind shakes the pod until the seeds with their
balloons are shaken out. Now we see why the pods are
on springs, and why they open toward the outside. As
the upper seeds escape, those below are pushed up and out
by the drying and spreading of their hairs, and are slowly
shaken out of the pod, one or two or a very few at a time.

How easily they sail away ! How gently they drop to the
ground ! What comes to the help of the milkweed babies,
and carries them along ? Perhaps the children can see, in
a large pod from which the seeds have been partly dis-
charged, that each seed has a little saddle of its own, on
which it rides like a child on horseback, with part of its
tail on each side. The seeds are carried on a spindle-
shaped axis, fastened only at either end of the pod, so that
it is free to swing, somewhat like a hammock. On the
surface of this, extending from end to end, is a series of
thin, narrow, projecting ridgec ; the edge of each of these
is broken into scallops, forming the " saddles." Thus
each seed is kept in place. In each " saddle " is a brown
line which shows where the undeveloped seed was at-
tached ; here are the minute tubes through which the plant
mother provided each baby with "milk." These little
points are probably too difficult for the little folks, but

376 NATURE STUDY.

seeing them will help the teacher to appreciate the per-
fection in every detail shown in the milkweed. They
can be studied by older pupils.

This axis may be compared to a hammock, to the outside
of which the seed babies cling. As the wind moves the pod
back and forth on its spring, this hammock is twisted, and
gradually brings up toward the opening in the cover those
seeds which grow on the side of the hammock away from
the opening. At the same time the pod is apt to double
up, to bring the ends nearer together, and to make the open-
ing " gape " more, as shown in the old dry pods.

If we select a large scale from a green pod, and carefully
pinch off the "rim" from the broader or lower end, and
press gently, the real baby, the little green plantlet, may be
seen with a short stem and two leaves, lying face to face,
but readily separated with a pin.

Division into Lessons. There should be at least three
leasons, if the work is well done.

Lesson 1. The home of Mother Milkweed, and the mak-
ing of the seed cradles.

Lesson 2. The milkweed cradle, and the way the seed
babies are protected.

Lesson 3. The scattering of the milkweed babies.

Expressive Work. In Lesson 1, in which th« matter is
quite general and largely review, oral expression is the
best.

In Lesson 2, the form and attachment of the pod is im-
portant, and can be best expressed by a clay model or a
drawing of the pod. The teacher must make the object to
be drawn as simple as possible, must remove from it every-
thing except that which the children are to draw, and must
place it in the position easiest to draw. Break off a few
inches of the upper ends of two or three stems, removing
the leaves and all but one pod, fasten these where and in

FALL PLANT STUDY. 377

the position in which the children can most clearly see and
most easily represent stem, " spring," and pod, and have
them model them in clay, or draw or paint them.

In Lesson 3, a careful drawing, somewhat enlarged, of
the seed baby and its " tail," and a second drawing of the
seed and its hairy sail or balloon, will help to impress the
main thought of the lesson, the way in which the seeds are
scattered.

Review Story. The essential thoughts and lessons for
the children may be gathered up, and " clinched " or fixed
in the minds of the little folks, by appealing to their ima-
gination by a story somewhat like the following :

THE MILKWEED BABIES.
What I Heard and Saw in the Fields.

One quiet afternoon last fall I walked out to a field not far from
here, and sat down to watch all the pretty things I could see.

A brook ran through the field, near which was a family of waving
and nodding ferns. You know how the ferns bend and nod, like
little boys and girls when they get sleepy !

Off on the side of the hill was another family, each bright green,
and tall, and slender, and straight, each gracefully bowing to the
others. These milkweeds were not as dainty as the ferns ; but they
were just as pretty, in their way.

In a corner, not far away, was one — just one — buttercup, stretch-
ing itself up to look through the fence at the sun. Sometimes he
would turn his bright face toward the fleecy clouds above him ; some-
times he would nod toward the ferns or the milkweeds.

I listened to the brook singing, and heard the wind whistling softly
in the trees over me. Suddenly there was a whisper near me. I
looked all about me, but could see nothing. When I moved it was
quiet. € sat very still, and soon I heard it again. It seemed to come
from the ferns. In one place they were growing around in a circle,
and all seemed to be looking toward one who was nodding more than
the others ; and the sound came from this fern. Now I could hear
the words :

" Yes," the voice said, " yes, I have been watching that milkweed
family up there all summer. They are not nearly as pretty as some

378 NATURE STUDY.

of you ferns ; but they have been working so hard, and live to-
gether so happily ! Some of the grasses tell me that they can feel
the milkweed roots growing, growing, growing ever so far under the
ground. The buttercup says that the roots go down very deep in the
ground, and leave the part of the earth near the top for the roots of
the smaller plants ; and that they work, work, work all the time,
night and day. All summer they have been making milk. When
the buttercup asked one of them what they were going to do with so
much milk, it stopped work just long enough to say, l You wait until
next fall, and then you will see. '

11 1 have watched the stems growing up and carrying those thick,
heavy leaves, so different from ours. I would think that they would
get tired of such loads ; but the more leaves they have to carry the
better they seem to like it. When I asked them one day if they did
not get tired, they looked so surprised. * Tired ? We tired ? Why,
that is what we are made for, to hold up and feed those leaves.'
Then one of them said: 'But that is not all that we do. The most
wonderful thing is going to happen next fall. We are getting ready
loads and loads of milk for it.' When I asked what was going to
happen, she laughed such a funny laugh, and only said, 4 You wait
until next fall, and then you will find out.' Now they have to carry
those heavy green things at the top, — ' pods ' they call them, — and
they seem happier than ever. It is nice to have happy neighbors,
even if you can't see what makes them so happy.

4 'The leaves, those thick, heavy ugly things, so different from the
beautiful leaves that we ferns have — " Just then I heard another
voice, so different from the first. I looked all about, and could see
only a robin in the tree above us. The sound seemed to come from
him. " Ugly! that's all you know. If you could be as high as I am,
and could see how kind and thoughtful those leaves are, you would
never call them ugly. They are thick, but that is because they carry
so much milk to feed their little brothers and sisters with. They are
large ; but that is because they have so much work to do, — and they
do it too. I wish you could see how carefully the larger leaves bend
over the baby leaves which are nestled together above them, at the
very top of the stem ; and how warm they keep them at night, and in
the daytime, too, when it is cold.i Never again call the milkweed
leaves ugly."

i The little folks are intensely interested in seeing, not merely being told,
how the upper leaves of the milkweed move up, toward night, to close over
the " baby leaves," and spread out again in the morning.

FALL PLANT STUD

Just then the robin heard another bird calling till
flew.

For a time all was quiet. Soon there was a new voice, so bright,
and happy, and full of sunshine, that I turned toward the buttercup,
the most sunshiny thing I could see. The plants call him "Little
Sunshine." But you shall hear for yourself.

"The milkweed leaves," said the buttercup, "told me a secret
the other day. They seemed to be just dancing with joy, and I asked
them what made them so happy. * Why, don't you know,' said
they. l We thought everybody must know it. Don't you see these
pretty flowers above us ? For months and months we have been
working for those, and waiting for those, and now, now ' — how the
leaves danced — 'they are here. But that isn't all. Something else
is coming. When the flowers drop off — then, then — oh ! won't it
be wonderful." But that is all they would tell me. They went on
dancing and laughing, but would not talk. I smiled and smiled at
them until I suppose they thought they had to say something. Then one
of the leaves added, ' Would you like to know, Little Sunshine ? It
is a great secret, and we cannot tell any one. But you wait until
next fall and you will find out.'

"I asked the flowers. One of them said, 'We would like to tell
you, Little Sunshine ; but it is a long, long story, and we are very
busy making honey to feed these hungry bees. You wait until next
fall and you will find out.' "

As the buttercup was speaking some bees came towards him. He
smiled at them — he smiles at everything, you know — and said, "I
must see what I can do for these bees." Then all was quiet again.

By this time I wanted to find out for myself what made the milk-
weed leaves so happy. It was fall now, and perhaps I could see if I
watched the milkweed carefully.

Very quietly I moved toward the milkweeds and sat down. At
once I heard a new sound. At first I thought it was the rustling of
the leaves, it was so low and gentle ; but soon I could hear what
seemed like hundreds of little voices. You may be sure I lay very
quiet, and listened and listened. Many voices were saying so softly
and gently, " Please can't we get out ? " Others, and they sounded
sleepy, said, " Oh, no ! we are not ready yet. We want to stay a
little longer. It is so soft and warm here in our cradle."

Cradles ? Where were the cradles ? I could not see any. The
voices seemed to come from near the top of the milkweed stem, from
some green things I had heard called milkweed pods.

380 NATURE STUDY.

As I watched these some of the voices began to sound clearer.
One green pod showed a little crack near the upper end. I peeped in,
and — well, I cannot tell you what I saw ; it was too pretty to tell
about. I thought I had seen some pretty cradles, but that was the
Jaintiest. It rocked back and forth so gently. It had the finest,
smoothest lining. At first I could see inside only the softest, finest,
whitest silk. I looked again, and then — well, maybe you won't be-
lieve me, but it is so ; I saw them — there were in that cradle hun-
dreds, yes hundreds of babies. Some, those near the top, were wide
awake, and trying to get out ; some were just waking up ; and some,
those lower down, were sound asleep.

Some little folks that I know cannot sleep together, with only two
in a bed, without sometimes pushing and pulling, and sometimes, I
am afraid, quarrelling. But the little folks in this cradle were not
quarrelling, or even pushing one another. Each had his place.

Those at the top began to sit up, and one peeped out. Then I saw
that each had two legs, but I could not find any arms. I began to
wonder how all those babies were going to get a living. They cer-
tainly could not go very far on those weak little legs. I could not see
how they could even stand up on them. If they all settled down to-
gether, and all tried to grow as big as their mother — well, most of
them would have to starve to death, or die because they could not
get air to breathe. Poor babies ! they would have a hard time of it.

I watched the baby who was farthest out, and — what was the mat-
ter with his legs ? They seemed to be getting thicker and thicker.
Suddenly out he jumped ; and his legs changed, right before my eyes,
into — it would be hard for me to believe it if I had not seen it —
into wings, the daintiest, fluffiest, most beautiful wings ; and away he
went, carried by a puff of wind which happened along just then.
Then another, and another, and another came out in the same way,
spread its wings, and flew away.

I had been so interested watching the babies that I could see or
hear nothing else. Now I heard all about me the funniest sounds.
The stem of the milkweed was laughing, and at the same time telling
the roots how the babies were flying away. The wonderful thing for
which all had been working and waiting had happened at last. The
milkweed leaves, every one of them, were dancing and singing,
" Didn't we tell you so ? Didn't we tell you all if you would wait
until fall you would find out ? " The robin was singing his happiest
song. The ferns were nodding, and bowing, and dancing for joy.
The buttercup was smiling and laughing and chuckling all at once.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 381

He looked so jolly and so funny I had to laugh myself ; I could not
help it.

Suddenly all was still. I listened, but could hear nothing. I
rubbed my eyes, as if I had been asleep. There were the ferns, and
the milkweeds, and the buttercup by the fence. Just flying away
was a robin. But all was quiet.

Had my laugh frightened them ? Or had I been asleep, and
dreamed it all? I was never quite certain.

THE DANDELION.

Material. If two or three dandelion plants, with buds
and flowers, are carefully dug up, as directed in connection
with the study of the mallow, and are planted in the school-
room, the children can see all stages in the formation, ripen-
ing, and scattering of the seeds. The writer has kept for
six weeks, in jars of water in the schoolroom, dandelion
plants from which all soil had been washed, and has thus
studied with his pupils the growth and development of
roots, leaves, flowers, and seeds. ( See Chapter I. and Fron-
tispiece.)

Life and Structure. This has been very carefully studied
in Chapter I. Touch lightly on minor points of structure
and details of life-history, most of which are too difficult
for first-grade children. Mother Dandelion, like most other
mothers, has some ways of caring for her babies which are
more or less peculiar to herself. Dwell on these, rather
than on the features in which all plant-mothers are alike.
Some of these characteristic adaptations, easily discovered
by even first-grade children, are : —

The storing up of " milk " in the root, which loses its
" milk " and becomes spongy as the seeds ripen. Why ?

The position of the flower-buds or " seed-cradles " in
the bottom of the hollow at the middle of the rosette
formed by the leaves. Why ?

382 NATURE STUDY.

The pushing up of the buds or " seed-cradles " by the
lengthening of their stem. Why ?

The green blankets ( bracts ) covering the buds, and the
way in which Mother Dandelion turns them back so that
the very small seed babies can feel the sunshine ; at night
these blankets are drawn over the babies again.

The bright yellow quilt which covers the seeds. Do not
attempt, with the little folks, any detailed study of the
parts of the flower or florets.

The closing of the seed-cradle, sometimes for several
days. What can be going on inside ?

Ripening and Scattering of Seeds. Observe with the
children — do not merely tell them or observe for them —
such points as the following : —

The lengthening of the flower-stem until the seed-cradle
is pushed up far above the place where it was first seen.

The fading and pushing up and final dropping of the
yellow quilt, and the appearance of a white silky blanket
in its place.

The turning back of the green blanket, showing at last
the many, many brown seed babies at the bottom of the '
cradle, each baby with one long white arm, like a hair, and
with many long, hairlike fingers.

The changing of the cup or saucer ( receptacle ) in which
the seeds are fastened into a flattened ball, shaped like a
door-knob, causing the seeds and their arms and fingers to
separate.

The way in which these arms and fingers spread apart
until they form the beautiful hairy ball. Isn't it almost as
pretty as the milkweed cradle, or hammock ? It is much
more dainty.

Now comes the helping wind, — or a "blow" from some
little mouth, perhaps trying to learn whether mother wants
her or what time it is, — and away go the seed babies, each

FALL PLANT STUDY. 383

with its arm and fingers changed to a balloon. Why did
Mother Dandelion lift her seed babies up so high ? Why
did Mother Milkweed make her seed cradles, or pods, so
near the top of her stalk? Why did the milkweed pod
gape open so wide ? Why does the dandelion mother turn
her cradle inside out, and change it into a hairy ball, when
and not until her seed babies are ready to fly ?

How many seeds there are ? How far they go ? Do
you think the wind enjoys carrying the babies about?
How gently they settle to the earth ! There they will go
to sleep. The trees will scatter their leaves over them,
and Jack Frost will send a warm snow blanket for them.
They will rest all winter long. Then what will happen
next spring, when the rain taps, and the sun shines, and
the birds sing ?

REVIEW STORY. — DANDELION DOWN.

44 Floss-Hair ran out to play in the sunshine among the dandelions.
Grandmamma watched her from the doorway where she sat spinning,
her little bright head in its halo of silky gold. Suddenly Floss-Hair
paused, and turned a questioning glance towards the doorway.

44 Grandmamma looked very lovely to Floss-Hair from where she
stood. A silvery sunbeam danced around her spinning-wheel, so
that she seemed to spin behind a veil of gossamer ; and in her gray
dress, with her quiet eyes smiling out from under her white, smooth
hair, she was more than beautiful.

44 Floss-Hair broke a downy seed-globe from its stalk, and blew it
one, two, three times. The plumes fluttered around her in the air ;
not one was left on the stem. 4 Grandmamma wants me,' she said, and
ran back to the door. * What was it stopped your play, little one ? '
* Why, there is scarcely a dandelion left there in the grass ; and in
their places are rows of round gray heads, standing up like ghosts.
Why need flowers die, grandmamma ? '

44 ' Did you see where the seed-feathers went, Floss-Hair, when you
blew them from the stem ? '

44 4 Oh! into the air, to sail off on the clouds perhaps.'

" 4 No, no, dear ; some of them glided away to hide under the velvet

384 NATURE STUDY.

grass of the, lawn, where they will sleep all summer and all winter,
and next spring will come out again, wide-awake young dandelions.
And see there, the yellow-birds are taking the gray plumes to weave
into the lining of their nests, and hundreds of little shivering birds
will be thankful another year that the golden blossoms were changed
to dandelion down.'

" So the dandelions are spinning silk to line the birds7 nests with,1
said Floss-Hair ; l and grandmamma sits and spins for me. Dear
grandmamma, your hair is gray and soft like dandelion-down, — I
hope no cruel wind will ever blow you away from me.' 4But, little
one, my hair was once all fly-away gold like yours. Call me Dande-
lion-Down, the phantom of a little Floss-Hair that played among the
meadow blossoms seventy years ago.'

" 4 No, no, grandmamma, I will not call dandelion-down a ghost
any more ; it is a little, common yellow flower turned to an angel,
scattering blessings about the world, like a white-haired grandmamma
I know, who has kind words always ready to give everybody. If
people could only be sure of growing good and lovely as they grow
old ! '

" The next spring little Floss-Hair strayed silently among the dan-
delions ; for the chair in the doorway was vacant, and the spinning-
wheel was still. But the child's heart was not wholly sad. Her
memory was a nest of warm and tender thoughts, that seemed flutter-
ing back to her from the dear, silver-haired friend, now one of the
white angels of heaven." LUCY LARCOM.

DIVISION INTO LESSONS.

Lesson I. How the Dandelion Seeds are Made.

Step I. How the Milk is Stored for Flowers and

Seeds.

Step II. How the Flower Buds are Protected.
Step III. How the Florets are Protected.
Step IV. How the Flower gets Help from the Sun.

Lesson II. How the Dandelion Seeds are Lifted Up and

Scattered.

Step I. How the Flower is Lifted Up.
Step II. How the Corollas are Pushed off.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 385

Step III. How the Seed Balloons are Made,
Step IV. How the Seeds Get Out of Their Cup.
Step V. How the Wind Helps.

Lesson III. Supplementary Reading and Literature.
A Dandelion. Florence Bass. In " Plant Life."
To the Dandelion. Lowell. Portions can be read.
A Dandelion. Louise M. Hodgkins. In " Fairyland

of Flowers."
Now West Wind Helped the Dandelion. Emilie

Poulsson. In " In the Child's World."
The Apple Branch. Andersen. In " Classic Stories

for Little Ones."
Hiawatha. The Four Winds. Legend of dandelion

near end.

OTHER PLUMED SEEDS.

In connection with the seed study bring into the school-
room the fall flowers, and watch them " go to seed."

This will help the children to appreciate the flowers, and
make them familiar with their names.

After the dandelion the children may study other hairy
winged seeds, — aster, golden-rod, clematis, — touching
lightly on the history and prophecy which can be read in each
seed, emphasizing their adaptation to their work and special
preparation for dissemination, and gathering all about the
milkweed or dandelion as a centre and a bond of union.
(See Fig. 32.)

Encourage the children to collect and bring in all the
seeds with hairs, like those of milkweed and dandelion,
which they can find. They will find many at this season,

" When all the lovely wayside things
Their white winged seeds are sowing."

386

NATURE STUDY.

FALL PLANT STUDY.

387

It will be most helpful to take the children out for a
field lesson to study the "white winged seeds/7 such as
those of the thistle, aster, golden-rod, and sow thistle.

*'* Oh, downy, dainty little wings,
Wild floating wings like silver spun,
That dance and glisten in the sun !
You airy things, you elfin things,
.That seed-time always brings,
Oh, are you seeds that seek the earth,
The light of laughing flowers to spread ?
Or flitting fairies, that have birth
When autumn's flowers seem dead ? "

Adapted. Author not known.

THE MAPLE SEEDS AND OTHER WINGED SEEDS.

The maple seeds may be a type of these. They can be
found in the grass under the maple trees. The seeds of
the Norway maple remain on the trees until autumn.

388 NATURE STUDY.

At this season the ash seeds may occasionally be found,
still clinging to the tree. ( See Fig. 33. ) Note where and
how they are fastened, how they separate from the mother
tree, how they sail away. Gibson ( see his " Sharp Eyes,"
article "The Ash Paddle and the Birch Bark") suggests
that they furnished the Indians the models for their
paddles.

In the linden or basswood (see
Fig. 34) the clusters of little
spherical seeds, each cluster with
a wing, often remain on the tree
late in the winter.

The cones of the spruce, pine,
hemlock, and other evergreens fur-
nish many winter flyers. If the

Ft,. 34. UN,.. See«s. cones be gathered at this season
they will soon open in the warm

schoolroom, and furnish material for the study of other seed
cradles and their winged ^babies.

THE BURDOCK.

( "*'•• \ .' •• '* '

What the Burdock Was Good For.

" * Good for nothing,' the farmer said,
As he made a sweep at the burdock's head 5
But then, he thought, it was best, no doubt,
To come some day and root her out.
So he lowered his scythe, and went his way,
To see his corn, or gather his hay ;
And the weed grew saf^e, and strong, and tall,
Close by the side of the garden wall.

4 Good for home,' cried the little toad,
As he hopped up out of the dusty road.
He had just been having a dreadful fright,
The boy who gave it was yet in sight.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 389

Here it was cool, and dark, and green,
The safest kind of a leafy screen.
The toad was happy ; 4 For,' said he,

* The burdock was plainly meant for me.'

* Good for a prop,' the spider thought ;
And to and fro with care he wrought,
Till he fastened it well to an evergreen,
And spun his cables fine between.

'Twas a beautiful bridge —a triumph of skill,
The flies came round, as idlers will ;
The spider lurked in his corner dim,
The more that came, the better for him.

'Good for play,' said a child, perplexed
To know what frolic was coming next.
So she gathered the burrs that all despised,
And her city playmates were quite surprised
To see what a beautiful basket or chair
Could be made, with a little time and care.
They ranged their treasures about with pride,
And played all day by the burdock's side."

A. S. R.

Will not this be a good thought with which to begin the
study of the despised weed ? Why not let the children
play for a while with the burrs, and help to make " baskets
and chairs " and other " treasures " ? Then we will cer-
tainly have the sympathetic interest, which is the best
foundation, the only real foundation, for work.

Study of Burdock Burr. It may be wise to begin with
that about which the children know most, or in which they
are most interested, the burr, and to centre about that all
the study of hooked or barbed seeds. ( See Fig. 35. )

After the boys and girls have played with the burrs, or
have touched them to their clothes, and are thoroughly con-
vinced of their " sticking " properties, have them discover

390 NATURE STUDY.

do not tell them — what makes the burrs stick. Note

the stiff hairs, or the spines, each with an incurved hook at
the outer end (compare with a fish-hook); their great num-
ber, and the way in which they project in all directions,
and how they adhere. Draw on the blackboard, as directed
by the pupils, or have them draw, an outline of a burr with
two or more of the spines and hooks.

Have the children open a few of the ripest burrs, and
discover the many seeds in each. These are another kind
of " seed-cradle." They will almost certainly discover in
some of the burrs little white grubs which have eaten some
of the seeds (Haven't they as good right to them as we
have to our grains and fruits ?), and have taken possession
of part of the cradle.

Formation of the Burr. Have a whole plant, showing
roots, stem, leaves, flowers, in different stages of develop-
ment, and the burrs. It is important to relate the burr to
the whole of which it is a part.

Perhaps some of the children who have tried to pull it
can tell how strongly it is fastened in the ground. If the
farmer had cut it off, this great root would have gone to
work at once, and have made more stems, and leaves, and
flowers, and burrs. What a strong stem, and what great
leaves ! How much work they can do ! They made it
" cool, and dark, and green, the safest kind of a leafy
screen," for the toad. Toward the upper part of the plant
are smaller leaves. What are they good for ? If the chil-
dren are really seeing and thinking, not merely listening
and absorbing, they will discover that between these and
the stem the flower-buds nestle. Shall we call them the
nurses of the buds ?

With good material, the children should be able to see,
with very little aid from the teacher, the stages in the de-
velopment of flower-bud into flower and burr, and should

FALL PLANT STUDY.

391

392 NATURE STUDY.

discover for themselves that the flower forms the burr, and
that the enclosing cup of the bud and flower changes into
the cradle which holds the seeds.

What has each part — root, stem, leaves, flower — done for
the seed-cradle ?

Scattering of the Seeds. But this seed-cradle does not
open, as do those of the milkweed and dandelion. It will
not even let the seeds get out. Often it hangs on the
burdock-stem all winter, rocking, rocking, month after
month, in the wind, but keeping every seed shut in. Anci
the burdock seeds have no wings. How are they going to
get about in the world ?

Try to have the little folks think — do not spoil it by
telling them — how the burdock babies travel. Have the
children tell how they " catch rides " on wagon or sleigh,
or on father's shoulders. What do they have to hold fast
with? Are their fingers straight or bent when they are
holding fast ? To what does the burdock cradle catch
fast ? How does it hold fast ? Draw from them how
the burdock "catches rides" from boys and girls, cows,
dogs, cats, all sorts of animals. Why ? It has no sails to
catch the wind, so it makes other things scatter it where
it may find a place to grow better than that about the
mother-plant. In the milkweed each seed has a wing; in
the burdock the seeds can only lie in the cradle until they
are « spilled out," or the cradle falls to pieces ; but the cra-
dle has hooks to " catch rides," carrying the seed babies
with it.

Other Hooked or Barbed Seeds. The seeds of several
other common plants are scattered by means of hooks
or barbs. (See Fig. 35.) In most of them the hooks
are fastened to the seeds themselves, — or to what we
must allow the children to call seeds, although the
botanists may assure us that they consist of the seeds

FALL PLANT STUDY. 393

and other parts about it, — rather than to the seed-
cradles.

The cocklebur, abundant as a weed in many parts of the
United States, has a rather large ellipsoidal seed-vessel,
armed with hooked spines, enclosing two large seeds. Note
the two long spines at one end, the many shorter hooked
spines, the disagreeable odor by which it is protected, and
the two cavities within, each containing a seed.

The burr-marigold, or beggar-ticks, can be found in all
stages of development during the fall. Each ripened blos-
som has many seeds. Each seed has two stiff, pointed,
barbed spines, giving it a slight resemblance to a two-tined
pitchfork ; hence the children commonly call them " pitch-
forks." In this, and in the equally common stick-seed, the
seeds separate from the seed-cradle.

Sharp eyes will discover in fields and backyards many
other hooked or barbed seeds. Interest the children in col-
lecting all they can find.

The article and illustrations on " Seed Tramps," in Gib-
son's Sharp Eyes, will repay study, and be helpful in this
work.

THE CHESTNUT.

Purpose. An exquisite illustration of another way of
protecting seeds.

Suggestions for Study. If the children know something
about " chestnutting," begin by getting them to tell all they
can about the gathering of chestnuts, t'he teacher telling
what the children do not know.

It may increase the interest to tell about another chest-
nut gatherer, the squirrel, and about his winter home and
the store of food he collects.

If there are chestnut trees in the neighborhood, bring out
some of the characteristics of the tree, its great spreading

394 NATURE STUDY.

branches, and deep-green, large, rather long and narrow
leaves, with long teeth scattered along the sides. Where
do the chestnuts grow ? How fastened to the tree ? How
arranged ?

If the trees are not accessible, try to have a branch bear-
ing leaves and burrs, so that the burrs can be related by
the little folks to the tree.

The children will need little help in noting :

How the burrs like to keep together, two or three grow-
ing from one branch.

How tightly they are closed until the nuts are ripe, with
an armor of sharp branching spines on all sides. What is
the use of the spines ?

How they burst open when the frost tells them that nut-
ting time is here, revealing the two or three brown nuts
within.

How the nuts are arranged and fastened in their cradle,
and how easily they fall out when ripe.

How velvety and beautiful is the lining of the cradle.
Did ever a baby have a softer, richer wrapping ?

Perhaps some of the nuts will show the little hole
through which another chestnut lover, the worm (or cater-
pillar), has made his way, and he may be discovered feast-
ing within. Do you wonder that he is so fat, with such a
store of food ? Hasn't he as good right to it as we have ?

The following, .read with the children after they have
seen all that thewmki, will add much to the study.

Lg,.reac

6<mfy

AMONG THE NUTS.

" A wee little nut lay deep in its nest
Of satin and down, the softest and best ;
And slept and grew, while its cradle rocked,
As it hung in the boughs that interlocked.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 895

Now the house was small where the cradle lay,
As it swung in the wind by night and day ;
For a thicket of underbrush fenced it round,
This little lone cot by the great sun browned.

The little nut grew, and ere long it found
There was work outside on the soft green ground ;
It must do its part so the world might know
It has tried one little seed to sow.

And soon the house that had kept it warm
Was tossed about by the winter's storm ;
The stem was cracked, the old house fell,
And the chestnut burr was an empty shell.

But the little seed, as it waiting lay,
Dreamed a wonderful dream from day to day,
Of how it should break its coat of brown,
And live as a tree to grow up and down."

Author not known.

If all the chestnuts grew, how close together the trees
would be ; they could not live. The good tree mother
makes more nuts than she can possibly need, and thus
feeds the squirrels and — boys and girls.

Round out the thought by picturing the family gathered
about the evening fire roasting the chestnuts, or by telling
how the early settlers were kept from starvation by the
store of nuts the trees had made for them.

FALLING AND COLORING OF LEAVES.

"October is the month of painted leaves. Their rich
glow now flashes round the world. As fruit and leaves and
the day itself acquire a bright tint just before they fall, so
the year near its setting. October is its sunset sky ; No-
vember, the later twilight." — HENRY D. THOREAU, "Ex-
cursions."

396 NATURE STUDY.

Our best literature abounds in tributes to autumn.
Autumn tints and autumn fruits have ever appealed to
artist and poet, and the child and the poet are near akin in
their love of beauty and nearness to nature.

No more beautiful study can be desired than autumn
leaves, beauty of color, beauty of use.

Their summer work is done. The tree no longer needs
them to breathe, and throw out water, and make food. How
beautiful is their leave-taking ! They clothe their old
mother with all the hues of sunset. Then quietly, con-
tentedly, they slip away. Good Mother Nature knows
what a burden to the tree they would be, how they would
catch the winter wind, and hold the snow. They have
other work to do. They drop down — to die ? Oh, no !
To cover seeds and plants from the winter's cold. To
nestle quietly through the months until in the spring and
summer, water and air, the two great workers of the world,
with their humble helpers, the worms, turn them into food,
from which other plants make new leaves and flowers.
Busy, busy leaves! Resting, yet always working, always
helping.

Centre the study of the leaves about the maple tree,
studied in early fall. Take the children out to visit this
and other maples.

Let them revel among the leaves. Get them to collect
and press the most beautiful, and decorate their rooms.
Dwell on their beauty of color, and form, and use.

It matters little whether the children can draw and
describe them exactly. It matters much whether they
love them, and appreciate the beauty with which God has
surrounded them, understand better the significance of this
season of — death? No, of transition, preparation for rest
and for other work.

This will give the point of view the vantage-ground from

FALL PLANT STUDY. 397

which teacher and children can bee so much in leaves. Our
literature is full of beautiful thoughts about autumn. Give
them to the children. They will understand more than we
think. Much for the children can be found in the fol-
lowing :

44 There is a beautiful spirit breathing now
Its mellowed richness on the clustered trees,
And, from a beaker full of richest dyes,
Pouring new glory on the autumn woods,
And dipping in warm light the pillared clouds."

LONGFELLOW.

44 Softly breathes the west wind beside the ruddy forest,
Taking leaf by leaf from the branches where he flies.
Sweetly streams the sunshine, this third day of November,
Through the golden haze of the quiet autumn skies."

BRYANT.

44 One mass of sunshine glows the beech ;

, Great oaks, in scarlet drapery, reach
Across the crimson blackberry vine,
Toward purple ash and sombre pine.

Our forests that so lately stood
Like any green familiar wood,
Aladdin's wondrous tale repeat ;
The trees drop jewels at our feet.

With every day some splendors strange !
With every hour some subtle change !
Of our plain world how could we guess
Such miracles of loveliness ? "

LUCY LARCOM.

*4 What means these banners spread,
These paths with royal red
So gayly carpeted ?
Comes there a prince to-day ?

398 NATURE STUDY.

Our earth such homage pays,
So decks her dusty ways,
And keeps such holidays,
For one, and only one."

LOWELL.

DOWN TO SLEEP.

'* I never knew before what beds,

Fragrant to smell, and soft to touch,
The forest sifts and shapes and spreads ;
I never knew before how much
Of human sound there is in such
Low tones as through the forest sweep
When all wild things lie i down to sleep.'

Each day I find new coverlids

Tucked in, and more sweet eyes shut tight.

Sometimes the viewless mother bids
Her ferns kneel down full in my sight.
I hear their chorus of ' Good-night ; '

And half I smile and half I weep,

Listening while they lie 4 down to sleep.1 "

HELEN HUNT JACKSON,

How THE LEAVES CAME DOWN.

" I'll tell you how the leaves came down,"
The great tree to her children said :

" You're getting sleepy, Yellow and Brown,
Yes, very sleepy, little Red."

"Ah," begged each silly, pouting leaf,

" Let us a little longer stay ;
Dear Father Tree, behold our grief ;

'Tis such a very pleasant day,

We do not want to go away."

So just for one more merry day
To the great tree the leaflets clung,

FALL PLANT STUDY. 399

Frolicked and danced, and had their way,
Upon the autumn breezes swung,
Whispering, all their sports among.

" Perhaps the great tree will forget,

And let us stay until the spring,
If we all beg, and coax, and fret."

But the great tree did no such a thing ;

He smiled to hear their whispering.

" Come children all, to bed," he cried ;
And, ere the leaves could urge their prayer,

He shook his head, and far and wide,
Fluttering and rustling everywhere,
Down sped the leaflets through the air.

I saw them ; on the ground they lay,
Gokien and red, a huddled swarm,

Waiting till one from far away,

White bedclothes heaped upon her arm,
Should come to wrap them safe and warm.

The great bare tree looked down, and smiled.
"Good-night, dear little leaves," he said,
And from below each sleepy child
Keplied, " Good-night," and murmured,
"It is so nice to go to bed."

SUSAN COOWDGE.

400 NATURE STUDY.

NOVEMBER.

Work for the Month. The final preparation of the plant
for the winter. The work of the plant completed. What
the plant gives to man.

THE STUDY OF FRUITS.

We have studied the plant as a whole, and in its rela-
tions to its surroundings, — to soil, water, air, and sun, We
have investigated the relations of the parts — root, stem, leaf,
and flower — to the whole plant and to each other, and have
learned something of the special use or function of each.

As at this season seeds are being ripened, and scattered
all about us, we have placed special emphasis on the seed,
its formation, protection, and dissemination. During the
bright October days our boys and girls have seen the dan-
delion and thistle and milkweed seeds, and hosts of others,
flying through the air, and have learned, perhaps, in their
manufacture of baskets and furniture out of burdock burrs,
how and why they are scattered.

If the teacher has been wise, her pupils have talked and
written about the seeds, and have made drawings of them.
They have expressed that with which they have been im-
pressed.

Has the little seed, for whose formation, protection, and
dissemination all nature seems to be co-operating, led them
to think ? Has it interested them ? Has it given them a
glimpse of the great thought, of the purpose, back of it ?
Has the study of plant and flower and seed helped them to
see a little more clearly and to tell a little more truthfully ?
Then the work has been a success, although not a name nor
a fact of structure or classification is remembered.

But the bright October days have gone, and with them

FALL PLANT STUDY.

the sunshine and flowers and butterflies.
are gloomy ; clouds have succeeded sunshine. The leaves
are falling, and the branches are becoming bare. The milk-
weed is shrivelled and shapeless, its cradle empty, its seed-
babies scattered. The plant world seems to be dying.

Is this the end ? Can we study plants now ? Yes ; no
better time for some phases of plant study. The work of
the plant is completed. What has it done ? What is the
result of all its labor ? The fruits have been gathered.
With the result of it all — the fruits — in our hands, what
better time for looking back ?

We can study the fruit from three points of view :

First. In its relations to the tree, as the result of the
work of the tree, aided by sun and rain and soil and many
other of Mother Nature's helpers, and as a preparation by
the tree and Mother Nature for the future.

Second. In its relations to man, — tfre ways in which
man cares for and helps the tree, and the use he makes of the
fruit. Here there is endless opportunity for observation
and supplementary talks and stories and reading, — work
which may be done at any time, during the winter. Such
work should be based as much as possible on observation.
Even when it is merely given as information, told the pupils,
or read by them or to them, it will help them to look at
the plant and the world in general more broadly, and will
make the plant work more practical. We must remember
that from the plants man gets all his food (directly or
indirectly), all his clothing (directly or indirectly), all his
fuel, all his light (except that from the heavenly bodies),
and most of his tools, utensils, and building materials.

Third. In its relation to the Creator, the Thanksgiving
thought. Whether we look backward to the work of the
plant in the formation of the fruit, or forward to the prep-
aration for winter and spring; whether we consider the

402 NATURE STUDY.

fruit in its relation to its natural environment, or study its
relation to rnan and the use man makes of it, the fruit study
leads easily and logically to the great thought so natural at
the time of the ingathering of the fruits, and prepares for
the Thanksgiving Day which our forefathers established at
this season. The fruit study should not merely interest the
child, develop his powers of seeing and telling and think-
ing, give him a better knowledge of his surroundings, and a
broader view of his relations, but, most important of all,
should lift him up, lead to a better appreciation of his
higher relations.

Special care will be necessary, in following out any of
these lines of thought, to base the work, as far as possible,
on individual observation by the children ; and to draw out
the little folks, lead them to give their thoughts, rather
than merely listen to and absorb from the teacher. There
is danger of such work degenerating into mere " talk," with
little foundation in actual observation.

THE APPLE.

Material. An apple for every two pupils, or at least
for every four pupils. Select apples which are regular in
form, have a stem, and show most clearly the five pointed
divisions of the calyx (forming a star at the " eye " end of
the fruit) and many shrivelled threads (the remains of the
stamens).

LESSON I. OBSERVATION AND MOULDING OF APPLE.

Step I. Form and Color.

The children will say " Round." G-et a more exact state-
ment, "Round like a ball." Is it exactly round like a ball ?
" Has a hole or hollow in one side/' some little one will say.
" Only one hollow ? " " Has a hole or hollow in two sides/5
or, better, in the top and bottom.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 403

In one hollow is the stem (the children will certainly
call this also " round," but pin them down to a more exact
statement, such as " round like a pencil "), green (or brown),
hard and tough. In the other hollow, called the " eye," are
five little brown pointed parts, looking together like a five-
pointed star. ( Often they are dried up ; to make sure that
the children see them, the teacher should point them out on
an apple in which they show clearly. ) In a hollow at the
centre of the " eye " are, in many cases, many dry threads,
some with little knobs at the end (the stamens).

Often in the pit at the eye end is a quantity of dry
powder, the castings of the apple " worm " inside. Try to
find another hole from which the " worm/7 or caterpillar,
has probably escaped.

Note the character and variations of the coloring.

Step II. Moulding the Apple in Clay.
Emphasize thought that each child must copy the apple
on his desk, and tell the truth about it as well as he can.

LESSON II. OBSERVATION OF INTERIOR OF APPLE.

Step I. Study of Cross- Section.

Give children apples divided midway between stem and
eye. They can easily see the rather tough skin, the flesh
sometimes showing a division into an outer and inner por-
tion quite sharply distinguished, and the star-shaped core,
consisting of five cavities, or " rooms," in each of which
usually live one or two brown seeds.

Step II. Drawing Cross- Section.

Teacher draw first on blackboard, at direction of children,
showing position of skin, core, and seeds. Why not call
the drawing " The House the Apple Tree Built for Her
Seeds." After showing the children how to draw the

404 NATURE STUDY.

picture, erase, and have children draw on the blackboard,
placing sections of apple so that all can clearly see them as
they draw. Drawings made by the children on the black-
board on a large scale, with a free-arm movement, are
better than little drawings made on slate or paper mainly
with cramped finger movement.

Have the children select two or three of the best draw-
ings, and tell why or wherein they are best. Teacher will
find it wise to commend others which are best, not in the

result, but in the effort made.

*.

Step III. Study of the Core.

Split some of the cut halves lengthways through one of
the divisions of the core. Notice how the " rooms " for the
seeds are almost as long as the apple, extending from near
the stem almost to the eye, but are very narrow ; how
smooth and shining, how thin and yet how tough, the walls
are, how smooth the seeds are, and how easily they slip
through the fingers.

Step IV. The Uses of the Parts.

Approach from the children's point of view. Centre all
about the seeds. What is the use of the seeds to the apple
tree ? Why does Mother Nature or Mother Apple Tree
place them in the centre of the apple, just as she placed the
buttercup and mallow seeds in the centre of the flower ?
Why put them in rooms with these tough walls ? Why do
we not eat the apple core ? The apple tree does not want
her seeds eaten. Why give each seed or every two seeds a
room ? Why make seeds so smooth and slippery ? Per
haps to help them to slip out of our mouths. (It may also
be a provision to facilitate their passage through the ali-
mentary canal, their coat protecting them from the diges-
tive fluids. ) Why arrange the rooms so prettily in a star
form ? Mother Nature tries to make everything beautiful.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 405

Why put around the seeds the fleshy part of the apple,
which we like to eat ? Think how, when we have eaten the
apple, we throw away the core and the seeds, and how the
apple is sent all over the world. This is another way in
which Mother Efature gets us to help her scatter her seeds.
What is the use of the skin ? ( An apple in the schoolroom
with a little of the skin removed will soon show the little
folks how the skin keeps the apple from spoiling). What
is the use of the stem ? To fasten the apple to the tree.
In the next lesson we will learn more about the use of
the stem, and will hear about the story the eye tells us.

Step V. The Uses of the Apple.

First. To ripen, protect, and help to scatter the seeds.

Second. Trace in a wormy apple, from which the "worm "
or caterpillar has not escaped, the burrow, beginning at the
eye, and extending to and perhaps through the core. Show
children the little creature who has crept into the home of
the apple seeds. Tell them how a little moth lays an egg
in the eye of the apple, this hatches into a caterpillar, who
slowly eats his way to the core of the apple, and later
makes another tunnel to the outside, creeps out, spins a
cocoon (some of these may be found around the apple
barrel), in which he sleeps all winter, and the next year
turns into a moth. (See McCook's "Tenants of An Old
Farm/' Chapter VI.). If we ask this little creature why
the apple was made, he will certainly tells us it was made
for his home and his food and drink.

Third. For boys and girls. Let the children eat the
apples.

LESSON III. HOW THE APPLE WAS MADE.

Step I. Growth of the Apple.

Tell how the apple tree burst into bloom last May. Try
to picture its beauty and the fragrant feast it spread for the
insects.

406 NATURE STUDY.

Recall what they learned about the parts of the butter-
cup flower.

Draw a picture of the apple blossom ; of its green cup, or
calyx, with the five teeth around the edge ; its white or pink
crown, or corolla; its many thread-like stamens, growing
within and around the sides of the cup, and the seed-box in
the bottom of the calyx cup.

Tell them how the beautiful corolla blew off, how the
cup and seed-box kept growing larger with thicker and
thicker walls ; how they pushed up the five teeth and the
hair-like stamens until the little green apple was formed,
with the calyx teeth and stamens making its eye, as we
can see even in the ripe apple. So in this plant the calyx
not only covers up the other parts of the flower when in
bud, but helps to make, and forms part of, the fruit.

As long as the seeds were green the apple was sour and
hard, so that nothing — except foolish children — would eat
it. When the seeds were ripe, the apple became soft, and
pleasant to the taste. Why ? The bright color also serves
to attract people and animals, who eat it, and aid in scatter-
ing the seeds.

Step II. The Work of the Tree.

How the roots worked all summer to get food and water
to make these seeds and ripen this apple.

How the leaves worked. How much they did to beautify
the tree, giving it its green color, contrasting with branches
and sky and flowers and fruit. How they covered the
flowers, the buds, and the young apples. How they took
food from the air, and made everything which gives the
apple its pleasant taste. How they breathed, and threw
out water for the tree.

How the trunk and branches and stem of the apple
helped, carrying the food from root and leaf to the bud
and flower and fruit.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 407

How the flower helped. The work of the calyx in pro-
tecting the bud and making part of the fleshy portion of
the apple. The work of the seed-box. The work of the
corolla in beautifying the spring-time. The little folks
cannot appreciate yet the function of corolla and stamens
in fertilization.

Step III. How Nature Helped.

How the sun helped the leaves in their work, and painted
flower and fruit.

How the air and wind brought food to the leaves, and
gave life to the plant, as it does to us.

How clouds and rain brought water.

How the ground and soil upheld it, and gave it food.

Step IV. Summary.

A blackboard story, such as was suggested in the study
of the mallow, will serve as an excellent review. A good
subject is, " The Home of the Apple Seeds, and How it was
Made."

Some good literature will help to impress the thought, if
not the facts, after such preliminary observation. Even
little first-graders can get much from Bryant's "Planting
of the Apple Tree." The first four verses are very appro-
priate.

LESSON IV. WHAT MAN DOES FOR THE APPLE TREE.
WHAT THE APPLE TREE GIVES TO MAN.

Step I. How Man Helps the Apple Tree.
" Come, let us plant tjie apple tree,
Cleave the tough greensward with the spade ;
Wide let its hollow bed be made ;
There gently lay the roots, and there
Sift the dark mould with kindly care,

408 'NATURE STUDY.

And press it o'er them tenderly,
As, round the sleeping infant's feet,
We softly fold the cradle sheet ;
So plant we the apple tree."

BRYANT.

" ' Take the fruit I give you,' says the bending tree;
4 Nothing but a burden is it all to me !
Lighten ye my branches ; let them toss in air !
Only leave me freedom next year's load to bear.' "

LUCY LARCOM.

How man plants the apple tree, and how he ploughs the
earth about it so that its roots can get water and air.

How he fastens (grafts) branches to the trunks of other
apple trees, thus getting better fruit. How he trims or
prunes it so that the tree will not use up so much strength
and food in making branches and leaves that it cannot
make fruit, and so that the fruit can get the sunlight.

How he tries to keep away or destroy the worms or
caterpillars.

How he gathers the apples, not waiting for the wind to
shake them off, but picking them, and packing them in
barrels, being careful not to bruise them, when he wishes
to keep them all winter.

Step II. What the Apple Tree Gives to Man.

The beauty of the tree itself, when in blossom, one of
the most beautiful sights we can see.

The shelter and shade under which boys and girls have
always loved to swing and play.

The birds which sing, and nest, and raise their little
ones among its leafy branches.

The fruit, the finest in the world, we think, sent from
our country to all parts of the world.

The cider and vinegar made from its apples.

FALL PLANT STUDY, 409

Step III. Literature. " The Wayside Inn — An Apple

Tree."

" I halted at a pleasant inn,

As I my way was wending ;
A golden apple was the sign
From knotty bough depending.

Mine host — it was an apple tree —

He smilingly received me,
And spread his choicest, sweetest fruit,

To strengthen and relieve me.

Full many a little feathered guest

Came through his branches springing ;

They hopped and flew from spray to spray,
Their notes of gladness singing.

Beneath his shade I laid me down,

And slumber sweet possessed me ;
The soft wind blowing through the leaves

With whispers low caressed me.

And when I rose, and would have paid

My host, so open-hearted,
He only shook his lofty head ;

I blessed him and departed."
From the German. From Skinner's Arbor Day Manual.

LESSON V. THE THANKSGIVING THOUGHT.

Step I. Review. How the Apple was Made.

What the Tree has done.
What Nature has done.
What Man has done.

Step II. What God has done.

Has given sunshine and rain and a good season. With-
out these the apple crop fails. The tree and man can do
nothing alone.

Directs and controls all.

410 NATURE STUDY.

Step III. What We Should Do.
Appreciate better how much the apple means.
Enjoy better these simple, common gifts.
Share with others what has been made by all, — nature,
man, and God working together.

Thank the Author of the garnered fruits.

" O painter of the fruits and flowers,

We own Thy wise design,
Whereby these human hands of ours
May share the work of Thine.

Apart from Thee we plant in vain

The root, and sow the seed ;
Thy early and Thy later rain,

Thy sun and dew, we need.

And still with reverent hands we cull

Thy gifts each year renewed ;
The good is always beautiful,

The beautiful is good."

WHITTIER.

DECEMBER WORK. THE EVERGREENS.
THE PINE.

Step L The Pine at Home. Field Lesson.

Preparation. Eecall fall work about coloring and fall-
ing of leaves, and have children tell how bare are the
trees which were so beautiful last summer and fall. " We
have some trees which do not drop all their leaf -helpers.
Because they ever have green leaves we call them ever-
greens. To-day we shall see how beautiful they are, and
how they are made so that they can keep their leaves all
winter."

Take children out-doors to see pine tree. If this is im-

FALL PLANT STUDY. 411

possible, bring small tree into schoolroom, or (the very last
resort) study picture of pine tree.

Tree as a Whole. Look at tree first from a distance of
several hundred feet, where children cannot see details.

How beautiful its green above the white snow, particu-
larly when decorated with freshly-fallen snow. How much
more beautiful than the trees which have lost their leaves !
Even little first graders can appreciate what Longfellow
has said : —

" O hemlock tree ! O hemlock tree ! how faithful are thy branches !

Green not alone in summer-time,

But in the winter's frost and rime.
O hemlock tree ! O hemlock tree ! how faithful are thy branches ! "

Note its form, tapering and pointed, or slender conical,
or, in the children's language, round at the bottom, and
coming to a point at the top, like a cornucopia or like the
end of a lead-pencil. Compare form or outline with maple
(ovoid), or elm (vase-shaped), or other trees not evergreen.
Why does the pine (and other evergreens) have this
shape ? Does it catch less wind than it would if broad at
top?

Trunk. Going nearer to tree, note the trunk, reaching
almost to the top, straight, tapering upward. Would this
trunk make a good flagpole ? Why ? Have children rep-
resent direction and tapering of trunk by extending their
arms straight above them, with hands together forming the
tip of the trunk. Dwell on length and straightness.

Branches. They extend from the trunk almost horizon-
tally, longest toward base. The clustered snow masses may
show their flexibility (more marked in hemlock). If they
do not, let children see how easily they bend. Let chil-
dren represent horizontal branches by arms extending
straight out from body. How hold arms to show position

412 NATURE STUDY.

of branches when loaded with snow ? How move them to
show how branches move when strong winds blow ?

Summary. Perhaps the teacher can outline a tree in the
snow, directed by class, drawing first the triangular outline,
then the trunk, and lastly a few branches.

Dwell on the way the tree is fitted for winter :

By its bright green, so beautiful above the snow.

By its shape, causing the snow to slide off, and not

catching so much wind.
By its long, strong trunk, holding it up.
By its branches growing straight out from the trunk,

and bending easily when the snow falls on them, or

the winds blow against them.

Step II. The Real Home of the Pine Tree.

Preparation. " Children, yesterday we went to see our
pine tree at home. To-day we are going much farther, to
a country which is almost covered with pines. But we
must be sure first that we know the pines when we see
them. So we are going to show what we know."

Teacher draw on blackboard pine tree, as directed by
children. Erase, and have children draw from memory, or,
better, from a small tree in the room, representing outline,
trunk, and branches, but not leaves. Have children select
best drawing made by the pupils, and tell why it is best.

Visit to the home of Hiaivatha and of the pine trees.
" Now we are going to take a ' make-believe ' trip to the
home of an Indian boy who lives among the pine trees.
Shut your eyes, and try to think how it looks as I read to

you."

4 'By the shores of Gitche Gumee,
By the shining Big-Sea-Water,
Stood the wigwam of Nokomis.
Dark behind it rose the forest,

FALL PLANT STUDY. 413

Rose the black and gloomy pine-trees,
Rose the firs with cones upon them ;

There the wrinkled old Nokomis
Nursed the little Hiawatha,
Rocked him in his linden cradle,
Bedded soft in moss and rushes.

Round about the Indian village
Spread the meadows and the corn-fields,
And beyond them stood the forest,
Stood the groves of singing pine-trees,
Green in summer, white in winter,
Ever sighing, ever singing.

> A/

At the door on summer evenings
Sat the little Hiawatha ;
Heard the whispering of the pine-trees,
Heard the lapping of the water,
Sounds of music, words of wonder ;
4 Minne-wawa ! ' said the pine-trees,
1 Mudway-aushka ! ' said the water."

Show children pictures of lakes with pines about them
or of pine-covered hills or mountains. Tell them how
the pine thrives in cold, windy countries. Then get chil-
dren to tell how the pine is fitted for such countries and
for winter.

Step III. Branches and Leaves.

Aim. To-day we will find other ways in which the pine
is fitted for winter.

Material. Branches of pine and of some deciduous tree.

Branches. Recall what children observed about their
direction and flexibility, expressing these ideas by arms of
children, and comparing, in these respects, with branch of
maple or other deciduous tree.

Xg

OF

414

NATURE STUDY.

Note general roughness of bark and smoothness and
lighter color of extremities of branches, and of small twigs
(those formed from last years buds). Note the pitch on
broken end.

Leaves. Arrangement and form. The characteristics of
these are so obvious that children should see most of them

Fig. 36. Pine Needles.

with little questioning or help from the teacher. ( See Fig.
36.) The best plan for insuring careful observation is for
the teacher to place a twig, with two or three bundles of
needles, where it can be seen by all, give children two or
three minutes to observe it, and then draw it on the black-
board, as directed by the children, taking pains to get help
from as many pupils as possible.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 415

After this drawing is erased, the children may be asked,
"Now, who can tell me the most stories about the pine
leaves ? " When they have told all they can without ques-
tioning, then question for points not discovered or told by
them.

Essential points to be impressed on the children are : — -

The leaves, or bundles of leaves, are clustered in masses
toward the ends of the branches, where all can get the sun.
The leaves toward the base of the branches or twigs are
loosely fastened ( let children see how easily they pull or
drop off) or have fallen off, leaving scars, and causing the
roughness of the branch. The resulting balled appearance
of the foliage is characteristic of the pine, by which it can
be distinguished from other evergreens at a considerable
distance. Probably little children cannot see this.

The leaves are fastened together in bundles, — two or
three or five in a group, always alike in the same species, —
with a brownish cup or sheath around the base of each
bundle. The bundles grow out from all sides of the twigs,
causing the needles to point in many directions. Both of
these features distinguish the pines from other evergreens.

The needles of each bundle are long (how long, as com-
pared with children's fingers ? ) blue-green, each flattened
on the side toward its companion needle, rounded toward
the outside, and pointed, resembling, when there are two
needles in each bundle, a lead-pencil split in two. The
needles are thick and tough (test it) as compared with
leaves of other trees.

Try to have the children summarize, without questions :
the form, size, and color of the needles ; their grouping in
bundles, and the way in which they are bound together ;
their arrangement about and at the ends of the twigs.

Have children draw, only from material before them,
a twig with two or at most three bundles of leaves. Fasten

416 NATURE STUDY.

twig, with all but two or three bundles of needles removed,
before each row of pupils, arranged in position easiest for
drawing, that is, with needles not pointing toward or away
from children.

Adaptation. Sprinkle snow, or salt, or pieces of paper or
of chalk, on child's fingers, pressed together. Eepeat, with
fingers widely separated. How much more easily the little
pieces drop down between the fingers ! Why does the win-
ter tree have leaves like needles, separated or with spaces
be een, rather than like the leaves we have in summer-
time, when there is no snow ? Have children blow on a
piece of paper, noting how it " catches the wind," and bends.
Cut into strips, with considerable space between. How
much more easily the wind passes through! Why do the
broad-leaved trees drop their leaves as the winds of winter
come? Why does our pine have needle-like leaves? Get
children to tell how they bundle up in winter, and have
them show how much larger they look with coat and over-
coat than in the thinner clothes they wear in summer or in
the warm schoolroom. Why are the pine needles so much
thicker and tougher than many summer leaves? Yes, the
Pine Mother has dressed her leaves warmly. We will see
how careful she is about her children when we study her
seed-babies.

Literature. Read or, better, tell the story of the " Dis-
contented Fir-tree," from Hans Andersen, substituting
" pine-tree " for " fir-tree."

The children like this little conceit : —

'* If Mother Nature patches the leaves of trees and vines,
I'm sure she does her darning with the needles of the pines,
They are so long and slender, and somewhere in full view,
She has her threads of cobweb and a thimble made of dew."

Other literature which may be used with older chil
dren : —

FALL PLANT STUDY. 417

"To a Pine-tree." Lowell.
"Growth of the Legend." Lowell.
"My Cathedral." Longfellow. .
"Forest Hymn." Bryant.

Step IV. The Pine Tree's Cradle and Seed-babies.

Preparation. Have children tell about the babies at
home, — how helpless they are, how warmly and carefully
they are covered, how they are rocked to sleep in the
cradle or on mamma's lap.

Eecall fall work on protection and scattering of seeds, —
how the milkweed seeds were protected and scattered, how
the maple seeds travelled about. Would you like to see
how the Pine-mother takes care of her babies, and sends
them out into the world?

Some one has said:—

44 Tell me thy secret true,
Whispering pine ;
Tell me a story new,
Whispering pine.'7

' We shall find that what the pine is whispering about is
her secret.

Position of Cradles. Show where and how cones are
fastened, hanging usually near top of tree and toward ends
of branches. What a place for a cradle ! How it must
rock in the wind! How can the babies be kept warm?
Surely this is one cradle we think about when we sing :

" Rock-a-by, babies, in the tree-top ;
When the wind blows, the cradle will rock ;
When the bough breaks, the cradle will fall ;
Down come cradle and babies and all."

Cone Cradles. Note exquisite order of scales, every scale
in place, how closely the scales are pressed together, and

418 NATURE STUDY.

how cracks are sealed with pitch in freshly gathered im-
mature cones. (See cone of spruce, Fig. 37, page 419).
If cones are kept in schoolroom a few days, the scales curl
back, disclosing the pockets in which the seed-babies are
kept from rain and cold.

Seed-babies. Remove a few scales, and show how the
seeds are placed, two at the base of each scale, each in a
little pit, each with a wing ready for sailing-time. What
a beautiful cradle, warm and snug ! How much better to
sleep with two together, so that they may have company!
Shake the cradle, and see how gracefully the seeds circle
downward, and how gently they drop to the floor.

Summary. Now we have discovered the secret the pine
is whispering. Who can tell best: how the pine mother
rocks her cradles and babies ; how she keeps them warm,
covers them up, and lets them out at the right time ; how
she helps them start out for themselves ?

Expressive Work. Have children mould cone in clay, or
draw in outline on black-board, fastened to a branch, with
two or three seed-babies flying from it.

Step V. What the Pine Does for Man.

Beauty. What the pine and other evergreens add to
winter. How beautiful their green above the white snow !
How much prettier than the bare trees, which have lost
their leaves !

Protection. Tell how evergreens are planted closely in
rows to protect houses from the wind. The winter birds
and rabbits like to nestle among the evergreens.

Food. Where the pines are abundant, the seeds are often
used by people for food, particularly where the seeds are
much larger than those we have (California pine nuts).
Birds and squirrels are fond of them. Mother Pine — or
Mother Nature, or God — must be thinking of this; when

FALL PLANT STUDY.

419

420 NATURE STUDY.

she makes so many more seeds than can possibly grow, —
thousands on a tree.

Resin. Read from " Hiawatha's Sailing/' how he built
his canoe, and filled its cracks with resin. Tell something
of the uses of resin.

Lumber. Show objects made of pine wood, — matches,
kindling-wood, boxes — and parts of buildings made of
pine, — closets, doors, and door-frames, windows and
window-frames. If children have seen carpenters build-
ing a house, talk about the parts made of pine. If pos-
sible, visit a carpenter-shop or lumber-yard.

A Visit to a Lumber Forest. Here is the opportunity to
make use of the children's imagination. A mere descrip-
tion of a pine forest and lumbering operations will mean
little to them. Let them take an imaginary trip to the
lumber woods, and tell what they do and see. Put all
emphasis on the human element, the lumbermen and their
life and work, rather than on the lumber.

The following, a portion of an outline for the study of
the pine by little children, written by Miss Ella Mullins, a
member of the writer's class in Nature Study Methods, well
illustrates such an imaginary journey.

A TRIP TO THE PINE WOODS.

"Let us all go for a sleigh-ride to the lumber woods. While we
are getting ready we shall sing, ' Jing-a-ling, the bells do ring.' Are
we all ready ? Are our ears covered from mischievous Jack Frost,
who likes to pinch them ? But we are each *going to wear two roses,
— winter roses, — so we shall not coyer our faces.

Off we start, our bells ringing ; and we ride until we come to a
woods. We know what to call these trees. 4 How do we know they
are pine trees, John ? '

Besides our sleigh-bells we hear another sound. Soon we discover
what makes it. What do we see ? A man dressed in bright red, or
red and blue ; there is one in blue and yellow. Their suits are warm ;
for they are made of flannel, like our blankets. The man we first

FALL PLANT STUDY. 421

saw has an axe ; and he is cutting down a tree, — a great, tall, pine
tree. While we are looking the tree comes down with a crash 1 We
do not like to see it. You think it is not right to cut the tree ? We
ask the man why lie cut it down. He says — he smiles at us ; I
think he must have little children, — and know how they love the trees,
4 That pine tree is happy now ; it is going out into the world to
make people happy by being of use to them, by helping them.'
When we ask him how that is, he answers, ' There is one from which
I have just taken the branches ; when the bark is off it will make
something you boys have often seen. What is it ? A mast for a
vessel or a flag-pole. It will be happy because it will help to move
the boats which carry coal to keep people warm, or grain to feed
them. Over there is a pile of pine trees. Their branches have been
taken off ; they have been cut into logs, and will soon be hauled to
the river. In the spring, when the ice melts, the logs will float down,
down for miles until they reach a saw-mill, where they will be cut into
boards or beams or shingles, with which to build our houses. How
could we get along without these, which the pine tree makes for us.
But it could not be a mast to help move our coal and food, or a board
to keep out the cold, or a shingle to keep out the rain, if it stayed as
a tree here in the forest. It is glad to be made useful.'

We start for home along another road. What odd little houses
those are ! There are some men in front of them dressed like the one
who was talking to us. They are called lumbermen, and these are
their houses. The houses are long, not very wide, and are made of
logs. These men, too, are kind, and invite us to come inside and get
warm. We go in, and find one long room with no 'upstairs.' The
tables are set ready for dinner. We see they have tin cups and tin
plates, and have for dinner, bread and butter, potatoes, pork, beans,
molasses, and coffee. All along the walls are shelves, something like
the shelves in mamma's pantry at home, but wider. Let us look into
this lower one. Why, there are blankets and comfortables and pil-
lows on them ; so this must be where the lumbermen sleep.

We must go outside to make room for the hungry men who are
rushing in. We thank them, jump into our sleigh, tuck in the robes,
and away we go. Are not these grand trees, as high as our church
steeple ? What long trunks, like masts, with branches toward the
top. How they meet, and make a roof above us ! It makes me think
of a charch, — a church that God made. How quiet it is now that
the men are not chopping or sawing ! Here we are at the edge of the
forest. One look backward, and away we go ! Shall we sing again ?
Here we are at home.'1

422 NATURE STUDY.

Read to the older children the lines from Longfellow's
"Building of the Ship:"

" Long ago

In the deer-haunted forests of Maine,

When upon mountain and plain

Lay the snow,

They fell — those lordly pines !

Those grand majestic pines 1

'Mid shouts and cheers

The jaded steers,

Panting beneath the load,

Dragged down the weary winding road

Those captive kings, so straight and tall,

To be shorn of their streaming hair,

And, naked and bare,
, To feel the stress and the strain

Of the wind and the reeling main,

Whose roar

Would remind them forevermore

Of their native forests they should not see again ;

And everywhere

The slender, graceful spars

Poise aloft in the air,

And at the mast-head,

White, blue, and red,

A flag unrolls the stripes and stars.

Ah ! when the wanderer, lonely, friendless,

In foreign harbors shall behold

That flag unrolled,

'Twill be as a friendly hand

Stretched out from his native land,

Filling his heart with memories sweet and endless."

Try to have the children see, in imagination, the four
scenes pictured by the poet — the pine tree in the " deer-
haunted forest ; " the cutting of the tree ; the mast and
ship in the storm at sea ; the "slender, graceful spars " bear-
ing so proudly, in a foreign port, the flag which attracts the
wanderer.

FALL PLANT STUDY. 423

A Visit to A Saw-Mill. Another lesson may be devoted
to an imaginary trip to the saw-mill, where our pine tree is
sawed into boards.

Step. VI. The Christmas Tree.

How THE PINE BECAME THE CHRISTMAS TREE.

" Long, long ago, there were little pine trees in a forest in Ungarn,
and they were very unhappy because they had to stay in the stormy
winter, while all the flowers went to sleep till spring, and the birds
flew away to the sunny south.

All the little pine trees wept and sighed together till the Wind
heard them, and carried their voices down to Judea, where the dear
Christ-Child lived.

When the Wind told Him the trouble of the little trees He was
grieved, for He loved to have all things happy ; but 4 The little pine
trees must help something else before they can be helped,' said the
Christ-Child ; for He knew all things.

So the Wind carried the words to the little pine trees, and they
began to try to help something. When a great frost came, each tree
spread out its branches as far as it could reach, and sheltered the
grass and ferns from the bitter cold ; and when a great snowstorm
came, covering all the ground and trees, the little pine trees called to
the poor snowbirds and said, * Come, little birds, we have seeds for
you to eat, and our arms shall keep the snow from you. '

When the Wind heard this, He flew to Judea again, and told the
Christ-Child how the pine trees were helping.

So, when the Christ-Child heard this, He was glad ; for He loved all
things to be good, and He came Himself to the little pine trees and
blessed them. 'Dear little pine tree,' He said, touching them with
His gentle hand, * You have tried to help others, and you shall have
the joy of always making happiness for little children. Every win-
ter, when the frost and snow come, you shall have many beautiful
things given you to give away to My little ones for My sake, if they
have tried throughout the year to be loving and good.'

Then the little pine trees were glad, for they had learned how
blessed a thing it is to give happiness.

And that was the way — says the German legend — that the dear
Christ-Child gave us Christmas trees. But He does not wish us to
think only of the pretty things we get from the tree, and so we may

424

NATURE STUDY.

always see at the end of every hraneL. Df the Christmas tree a little

Cross." — Selected.

Why not make the pine tree in the schoolroom a Christ-
mas tree ? What better closing thought and application of

Fig. 38. A Norway Spruce.

our study of what the pine tree does for us ? After such
work, are not our children likely to think more of our

FALL PLANT STUDY.

425

Fig. 39. The Hemlock Tree.

evergreens — and of trees — and to remember the lessons
they teach ?

OTHEK EVERGREENS.

Study one or two for comparison, dwelling on points in
which they are like the pine, in being adapted to winter,
and on those features which are most distinctive.

The Spruce. Recognized by its shorter leaves, needle^

426 NATURE STUDY.

shaped, but somewhat four-sided, growing singly from all
sides of the branches (not grouped in bundles, and not, to
any extent, clustered at the ends of the branches), but tend-
ing to arrange themselves in two straggling rows, on either
side of the branches. (See Fig. 38.)

The Hemlock. Distinguished by its short (half-inch),
flat leaves, silvery beneath, with short leaf-stems, arranged
on opposite sides of branches, making the leaves appear
two-ranked, and giving the branches a blade-like appear-
ance. (See Fig. 39).

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY.

Aim. To cultivate a sympathetic interest in the life and
habits of animals, and to develop among the children a
higher regard for life. Only living animals should be
studied in the lower grades.

SEPTEMBER WORK.

Special Aim. To have children observe the life-history
or development of an animal from egg to maturity.

CATERPILLARS AND BUTTERFLIES.

Material. One of the best is the milkweed caterpillar,
naked (without hairs), stout, striped transversely with yel-
low, black, and white bands, bearing a pair of black thread-
like projections near each end of the body. It is widely
distributed, and can usually be found throughout the sum-
mer and early in September, feeding on milkweed leaves.
Smaller, and therefore not so good for study, is the green
" cabbage worm " found until late in October on cabbage,
cauliflower, radish, horse-radish, and nasturtium plants.
The three stages — larva, chrysalis, and adult — of the
milkweed and cabbage caterpillars can be obtained in early
fall, and their entire transformation observed.

The large green caterpillars of the cecropia, polyphemus,
and promethea moths, found on woodbine, grape-vine, lilac,
and many fruit and forest trees, are not attractive in ap-
pearance, but are excellent for showing the children the

427

428 NATURE STUDY.

process of spinning the cocoon. They make the cocoon in
the early fall, but do not transform to moths until spring.

The hairy caterpillars are more attractive. Among the
prettiest are those of the tussock-moths characterized by
the conspicuous tufts and pencils of bright-colored hairs on
their backs. They are common in early fall on shade and
fruit trees. The yellow woolly bear, covered with soft
hairs of various shades of yellow or brown, is common ;
also the Isabella caterpillar, covered with stiff hairs ar-

F ig. 40. Polyphemus Caterpillar.

ranged in tufts, the middle two-thirds of the body reddish
brown, and either end black. These hairy caterpillars spin
a cocoon, lining it with thei1" hairs, but do not transform
to moths until spring.

Care of the Caterpillars. Gather as early in the fall
as possible. They can be most easily found during the
warmer part of bright, sunshiny days. On cold days, and
in early morning or late afternoon, they usually disappear.

Those brought in by the children are worth much more
for study than those collected by the teacher. While

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 429

gathering them, the children may learn considerable about
their habits.

Keep in glass fruit jars or tumblers, covered with net-
ting, or better, in a box with at least two sides made of
wire netting, to allow circulation of air. If kept in box,
place in bottom of box a vessel filled to a depth of three
or four inches with moist, not wet, soil or moss. Sub-soil,
which contains fewer disease-producing germs, or moss
thoroughly boiled to kill the germs, is best.

Fig. 41. Polyphemus Cocoon.

Keep a supply of fresh food, — milkweed leaves for the
milkweed caterpillar; cabbage or some other cruciferous
plant for the cabbage worm ; maple, burdock, or plaintain
leaves for the others. In general, every species should be
supplied with the plant on which it was found feeding.
Try to keep cages and food fresh and clean.

THE MILKWEED, OB DANAIS CATERPILLAR.

Preliminary Observations. Encourage and help children
to watch them out-of-doors and at home. Keep in the
schoolroom several days before formal work, and give
children opportunities to observe their habits. Give one

430 NATURE STUDY.

or two definite points for investigation, and report each
day, such as :

Exactly how do they move ? How climb on the net-
ting ? How many legs ? How used ?

How do they eat ? How does their eating compare with
ours ?

How and where do they spin ? How climb up the glass
cases ?

How does the caterpillar change to the chrysalis ?

Relation to Environment. By whom discovered ? Where
found ? On what feeding ? How ? Lead children to tell
all that they have seen about this kind of caterpillar.

Habits and Structure.

Body. Shape, length (measure), rings (segments), and
their markings and number. There are twelve segments,
besides the head; segments two to eleven being each marked
by a narrow black transverse band, bordered before and
behind with white.

Movements. How do they crawl ? This can be seen by
putting them on a stalk of a leaf or of grass, or by watch-
ing them crawl on glass. Watch the movements of the
feet. How many ? Eight pairs. Fastened to which rings
(1, 2, 3, not counting the head, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12). Notice the
two kinds of legs, the first three pairs black, shiny, slender,
and pointed, jointed (difficult to see); the other five pairs,
soft thick pads, each divided in the middle. Study the
large feet — best seen when crawling on glass or netting
— and their working and use. How do they crawl ? With
which feet fasten themselves ? How ?

Notice movements of the hairlike projections near the
head. For what do they use them ?

Feeding. Keep them without food over night and feed
just before children are to watch them. Notice how they

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY.

431

432 NATURE STUDY.

often " straddle " the leaf. Why ? How they move their
head. The motion — from side to side — of their jaws.
Why so different from ours ?

With a magnifying glass, three small black eyes can be
seen on each side of the head, near the mouth.

Spinning. After a few hours the inside of the can be-
comes covered with silky threads like spider's web. With

Fig. 43. Danais Caterpillar.

magnifying glass, or a very sharp eye, the silk can be seen
to come from a little projection below the mouth. Watch
the head move from side to side in laying these threads
on the glass, and notice how the caterpillar uses them in
crawling or climbing.

Life History. Chrysalis and Adult.

Tell about the egg, and its development into a cater-
pillar.

The eggs may possibly be obtained if the butterfly is con-
fined in a cage with the milkweed plant. If patiently
watched in1 the fields, the butterflies can often be seen to
lay their eggs on the milkweed leaves.

Perhaps the children may discover the caterpillar in the
act of moulting or shedding his skin. He eats so much and
grows so fast that his skin soon becomes too tight for him.
It splits along the back, and is gradually pushed off. Sev-
eral times this is done.

In time the caterpillar will become restless, arid finally

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 433

fasten himself, head downward, to the top of the can or
box, bend his body like a fish-hook and hang perfectly
quiet (Fig. 44).

If the children are fortunate, they may see how his skin
splits open along the back, and a stout, bright green body
appears within. At first this is distinctly ringed. Gradu-
ally the rings disappear, the body becomes smaller, several
beautiful dots appear (" the green house with the gold
nails," Mrs. Ballard calls it), and we have the chrysalis.

Fig. 44. Danais Caterpillar. Fig. 45. Danais Chrysalis.

Tie a thread tightly around the black stem by which the
chrysalis is suspended, and hang in the school where it
touches nothing, and can be seen but not touched. After
ten or fifteen days the boys and girls may see the chrys-
alis open, and may discover coming from it a large butter-
fly, with black body and brown wings, the latter with black
border and veins, and with two rows of white spots near
the outer ends.

Notice how the case splits, how the butterfly comes out,
how small the wings are at first, and how they increase in
size, how the form and size of the body change as the
wings enlarge.

Isn't it a wonderful story ? Is there a lesson in it ?

434 NATURE STUDY.

Butterfly.

Study the living butterfly, without handling it, its head
and body (with two parts, thorax and abdomen), wings,
legs, feelers, eyes and mouth parts.

How are the legs used ? Are all of the same size ?
Why so weak ? What an opportunity, in the wings, for
a lesson on the beauties of our world. Note the scales on
wings. Examine with magnifying glass.

Fig. 46. Danais Archippus.

Give the butterfly a drop or two of sugar and water, or
honey diluted with water, and see how it uncurls and uses
its tongue. The sirup is sucked up through a tube in the
tongue. Where does the butterfly get food out-of-doors ?
Why is its tongue so long?

CABBAGE CATERPILLAR.

If well fed these grow rapidly, and moult frequently,
and are likely to form their chrysalids in the schoolroom.
The caterpillar fastens itself by silken threads passed round

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY.

435

its body, becomes shorter and thicker, casts off its skin, and
changes to a chrysalis, the whole process taking about two
days. The chrysalis can be found under stones, and at-
tached to fences near cabbage patches infested with the
worms. Those formed in August or September may de-
velop into butterflies in two
or three weeks. The but-
terflies, rather small, with
white or yellowish wings
spotted with black, can be
seen until November. If
several are caught with a
net, and confined in a bar-
rel with ends knocked out,
and upper end covered with

netting, and the barrel be Fig. 47m Cabbage Butterfly and Caterpillar.

placed over a cabbage plant,

the butterflies will probably lay their eggs on the cabbage
leaves. The hatching of the caterpillars from the eggs
and the whole life-history can be observed.

POLYPHEMUS OB CECROPIA CATERPILLAR.

If confined in the fall, these usually begin to spin their
cocoon ; and the process, often occupying several days, can
be observed by teacher and children. The cocoons can be
kept (in a cool place, not in the schoolroom) until the
next spring, and the escape of the moth observed.

THE HAIRY CATERPILLARS.

The tussock-moth caterpillar, and the woolly bears thrive
in confinement. The Isabella does not. All are most apt
to form their cocoons in dark places ; hence it is well to
place in the cage with them pieces of bark or wood under

436 NATURE STUDY.

which they can hide. Notice how they use their hairs in
forming their cocoon, binding the hairs together with silk.

Fig. 48. Hickory Tussock Caterpillar.

THE HOMES OF CATERPILLARS.

The Apple Worm and Leaf Miners and Rollers. After
the children have studied two or three of the larger cater-
pillars, it is well to observe a little about the small cater-
pillars and their homes. The little cocoon of the apple
worm can often be found under the projecting pieces of
bark on the apple tree or about the apple barrels. Many

Fig. 49. Hickory Tussock Caterpillar.

leaves, such as yellow dock, show dark blotches or sinuous
markings caused by minute caterpillars, called i leaf -miners/
eating out the green matter between the upper and lower
skin of the leaf. Both caterpillar and chrysalis may be
seen on or in the leaves. Other caterpillars, the " leaf-
rollers," roll the leaves of many plants (such as sumac)
into tubes, and there feed, live, and make their chrysalids.

" And there's never a leaf or blade too mean
To be some happy creature's palace."

LOWELL.

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 437

THE SILKWORM.

The caterpillar study may prepare the children to under-
stand and appreciate what may be told or read to them
about the silkworm and its cocoon and the manufacture of
silk. This last step may serve to impress, particularly on
fathers and mothers who may not be in entire sympathy
with the nature study work, the practical aspects and
value of such work. It will serve to relate the caterpillar
spinners to the every-day life of the children.

LITERATURE AND SUPPLEMENTARY READING.

1. A Lesson of Faith, Margaret Gatty, in G-atty's " Par-
ables from Nature " and in Poulson's " In the Child's
World." Brings out the symbolism of the transformation
from the ugly cabbage worm to the beautiful butterfly.

2. The Story of Pense. In Andrews's " Seven Little
Sisters."

3. New Work for Pense. In Andrews's "Each and
All."

ISTos. 2 and 3 tell how Pense, the little Chinese girl, took
care of the silkworms.

4. The Caterpillar. In Poulson's " Finger Plays."

A motion song, excellent as a means of reviewing and
impressing what the little folks have seen about the life
and movements of caterpillar and butterfly.

5. Complaint of a Chrysalis. In Ballard's " Moths and
Butterflies."

6. Ballard's " Insect Lives, or Born in Prison."

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

1. Comstock's " Insect Life." The best book on insects
for teachers.

2. Hyatt's " Insecta." Very good for the study of
structure.

438 NATURE STUDY.

3. Needham's " Zoology." Contains much helpful matter
on the homes, life, and structure of insects and other ani-
mals, and is well adapted to the needs of teachers.

4. McCook's "Tenants of an Old Farm." Excellent
for habits.

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL XTUDY. 439

OCTOBER WORK.
GRASSHOPPER OR CRICKET.

Special Aim. To observe and learn about habits and
adaptation of structure to habits ; to give some idea of
the main parts and general plan of an insect.

Material and Care. Study either grasshopper or cricket
carefully, and then compare, hastily, with the other. Crick-
ets stand schoolroom conditions and confinement better ;
grasshoppers are apt to die when confined. Crickets can
be most easily caught under stones ; grasshoppers can be
found, during the warmer sunny part of the day, in the
open fields. During September and October, both can be
obtained in different stages of development, — the young
differing from the adults in size, in being stouter, with a
larger head in proportion to their length, and in having
short rudimentary wings.

Keep in schoolroom in wire-netting cage, or in boxes
with top and bottom knocked out, and replaced by wire
netting, or musquito netting, to allow free circulation of
air. Place in vessels in bottom of box damp, not wet soil,
an inch or more in depth, in which can be placed tufts of
grass with the roots. A good insect cage can be made
from a chalk-box, by taking out the top and bottom, except
one to two inches at one end, and placing musquito netting
or, better, wire netting over the open spaces. Keep the
grasshoppers near the window, the crickets in a darker
part of the room. Keep them away from the stove, radia-
tor, or other source of heat. In general, the 'schoolroom
conditions of insects and other animals kept in confine-
ment should be made as much as possible like the out-door
natural conditions.

440 MATURE STUDY.

Preliminary Observations. Keep in schoolroom three
or four days before any formal lessons, where children
can observe habits and movements. Give each day definite
points for observation, such as :

How does the grasshopper hold fast to the netting ?

How does the grasshopper eat the grass ? Watch his
mouth. Watch his lips and jaws.

How does the grasshopper walk ? How jump ?

How does he use the " feelers " on top of his head ?
How does he use the little feelers at the sides of his mouth ?

How does the grasshopper breathe ? Compare with chil-
dren's breathing.

Encourage the children to observe the grasshopper out-
of-doors, by giving questions for study, taking a little time
after the opening exercises each day to have them tell
what they have observed. Strongly emphasize idea that
each child must tell only what he has seen. Discourage
guessing. At this stage get all possible facts of observa-
tion, but leave the "whys" until later. Points for out-
door observation are suggested in Lesson L

PLAN FOB STUDY OF GRASSHOPPER.

Lesson I. Life and habits out-of-doors.

Lesson II. Movements, feeding, breathing.

Lesson III. Adaptation to life and habits.

Lesson IV. General structure. Drawing grasshopper.

LESSON I. OUT-DOOR LIFE OF GRASSHOPPER.

Aim. To interest children in out-door life, and encourage
out-door observation.

Step I. Literature. To direct the thoughts, read to
them one of the following:

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 441

" Happy insect, what can be
In happiness compared with thee ?
Thou dost drink and dance and sing,
Happier than the happiest king.
All the fields which thou dost see,
All the plants belong to thee.
Man for thee does sow and plough,
Farmer he and landlord thou."

" Grasshopper green is a comical chap ;

He lives on the best of fare.
Bright little trousers, jacket, and cap,

These are his summer wear.
Out in the meadow he loves to go,

Playing away in the sun;
It's hopperty, skipperty, high and low,

Summer's the time for fun.

Grasshopper green has a quaint little house;

It's under the hedge so gay.
Grandmother Spider, as still as a mouse,

Watches him over the way.
Gladly he's calling the children, I know,

Out in the beautiful sun ;
It's hopperty, skipperty, high and low,

Summer's the time for fun."

Selected.

Step II. Home of the grasshopper. Why called grass-
hopper ? Where found ? (Have each child tell where he
or she has found them). Why do they like the grass ? Do
they like the sunlight ? How do you know ? Perhaps
children have discovered that when pursued they often
hide away in the grass close to the ground, lying very quietly,
" playing possum." Are they found on anything besides
the grass ? How do " all the fields which thou dost see, all
the plants belong to thee," the grasshopper ?

Step III. How the grasshopper lives at home. How is he
dressed ? Are all dressed alike ? How many kinds have

442 NATURE STUDY.

you seen ? How does he get away when we try to catch
him ? How far can he jump ? How high ? How does
he fly ? How far ? How climb the grass ? How hold
on to the narrow leaves ? Why is he happy ? Does he
hop around when it is cold or dark or wet ? Where does
he go then ? When does he go to bed ? Where ? In
what ways is the grasshopper's life like your life ?

Step IV. Summary. For a review, or summary, read
again one of the poems suggested in Step I., and have the
children tell, from their observations as far as possible,
what is meant.

LESSON II. HABITS, MOVEMENTS, FEEDING, BREATHING.

Aim. To have children see how much the grasshopper is
like boys and girls.

Step L Position and movements. Have children show
how boys bend their legs when getting ready to jump, and
how they jump. How far can they jump ? As far as
they are long ? How does the grasshopper stand ? How
are his legs folded ? How does he jump ? How far ?
How far, compared with the length of his body ? When
the children jump, how do they hold their hands to keep
from falling ? How does the grasshopper hold his front
legs?

Have children show how tightly they bend their fingers
about objects to which they wish to hold fast. How
does the grasshopper hold fast to the blade of grass?
How does he " catch hold" when he jumps? Perhaps
they can see the hooks on his feet when he is standing on
the netting' of his cage. They may discover the cushion
on his feet, to lessen the jar when he alights.

How do children move their legs when they walk ? How
does pussv move her legs ? Alternately. How does our

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 443

grasshopper move his legs when walking ? Does he seem
to like walking or jumping best ? He is called (by Leigh
Hunt) " G-reen little vaulter [or jumper] in the sunny
grass." Is this a good name ? Why ?

Note how he uses his " feelers." Why called "feelers " ?

If some of the large flying grasshoppers can be obtained,
study the flying, noting how the inner wings unfold and
spread out when flying, and how they are drawn back, when
at rest, under the strong outer wings.

For a summary of this step, have children tell, or give
Statements for a blackboard reading lesson on, " How We
and the Grasshopper Stand and Jump and Walk." Good
as a beginning for the reading lesson is the above line from
Hunt.

Step II. Feeding. Lead pupils to tell what kind of
food children eat, how they hold it, and get it to their
mouth, how they bite it, and in what direction their jaws
move. Compare with grasshopper. He holds his food
partly with his front legs, partly with two little arms
(palps), one at either side of the mouth. His jaws move
from side to side instead of up and down. Can he eat grass
any better with jaws moving sideways than with jaws mov-
ing like ours ?

Step III. Breathing. This may be too difficult for little
"first graders." When the children breathe, where does
their "breath" go in and out? Through nose and mouth.
Have them place a hand on their chest. What do they
feel when the " breath " goes in ? When it comes out ?
The chest moves. Have them count to see how many
times they breathe in a minute, or how fast they breathe.
Watch the hinder half of the grasshopper's body. It gets
smaller and larger, or moves somewhat as their chest does.
How fast ? Perhaps they can see the very small holes,
seven on each side of the abdomen, through which the

444 NATURE STUDY.

" breath " goes in and out. The process of breathing can
be more easily seen in the cricket.

Step IV. Summary. Complete the reading lesson, add-
ing " Eat and Breathe " to the title. Something like the
following will review and clinch the main points :

Fig. 50. Grasshopper.
HOW WE AND THE GRASSHOPPER ARE ALIKE.

The grasshopper is happy.
We are happy too.
We live in houses.
He lives out-doors in the grass.
He loves the sun.
We love the sun too.
We bend our legs when we jump.
The grasshopper bends his legs too.
But he can jump better than we can.
He holds fast with his front legs.
He has hooks on his feet to help him hold fast.
We hold fast with our hands and fingers.
We hold our food in our hands.
'We bite it with our jaws (or teeth).
Our jaw (or teeth) moves up and down.
The grasshopper holds his food with his front legs.
His jaws (or teeth) move sideways.
The grasshopper breathes as we do.
The hind part of his body moves in and out.
We never knew before how much the grasshopper is like
boys and girls.

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 445

LESSON III. ADAPTATION TO LIFE AND HABITS.

Aim. To lead children to think about the "why" of
common things about them.

Step L How fitted for its home (Fig. 50). How its
color, green or brown, like the grass, helps the grasshopper
to hide, and protects it from birds and cats-.

How its hard covering (compare with cabbage worm)
protects it.

How it is made so that it can climb the grass blades, and
hold fast to them. How much better for it to be able to
jump over and between the tall grass blades !

Its head can turn to enable it to see around it. So its
neck is soft and flexible, but is covered by the hard collar.
Sometimes the sharp point of a blade of grass gets under
this collar when the grasshopper jumps ; this is apt to
kill it.

Step II. How fitted for its movements. Why are the
hind legs so large ? How fitted for jumping ?

How the front legs are fitted for holding.

How the feet are fitted for catching when they jump.

The head is very hard. It gets many hard blows when
the grasshopper is jumping.

How the wings are fitted for their life. (Best seen in the
large flying grasshoppers). How the delicate inner wings
can be spread out for flying, or folded fan-like and pro-
tected under the tough outer wings.

Step III. How fitted for its food.

How made so that it can climb and hold on to the grass
blades.

How its upper lip can be pulled up to uncover the teeth-
How its jaws move sideways. Why ?

How fitted to eat grass.

446 NATURE STUDY.

Step IV. Closing thought. May not the story of Kep-
ler's great words, adapted to the little folks, help to im-
press the thought, the great " why." When, after giving
his life to the study of the heavens, he discovered the plan
of the solar system, he exclaimed : " I thank Thee, O God,
that Thou dost let me think Thy thoughts after Thee."
Isn't that one great aim and privilege in nature study ?

LESSON IV. GENERAL STRUCTURE AND PLAN.

Aim. To leave with children a definite idea of the plan
and main parts of the grasshopper, as a foundation for
study of, and comparison with, other animals.

Step I. Blackboard drawing by teacher.

Teacher should draw, at direction of children, an outline
of the grasshopper, side view, showing three parts of body,
segments of abdomen, wings, three pairs of legs, feelers,
and large eyes. The teacher should take pains to show
children how she draws. The process is more important
than the resulting picture.

Step II. Drawing by children. Cover drawing on black-
board, and have children draw grasshopper as large as pos-
sible. Emphasize idea that each must draw, from the
grasshopper, exactly what he sees. Have insects where all
can look at them while drawing.

Let children select best, that is, most truthful drawings,
and tell wherein they are best.

Step III. Parts of grasshopper. With the large blac^:-
board drawings and the grasshoppers before the children,
bring out the plan of the grasshopper's body ; that it has
three parts to the body, — head, thorax, and abdomen (give
the children the terms ) ; that it has three pairs of legs, and
has wings on the thorax, and that its hind legs are larger
than the others ; that its head has a mouth with jaws, two

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 447

large eyes, and two feelers, and that its abdomen has
several parts or rings.

Put all emphasis in this lesson on simple facts of plan
and structure which the children can see. Do not ask
why, or allow them to discuss the " whys "; it will detract
from the main thought.

Additional topics suggested.

Review story. Helpful for review will be " The Story
Our Grasshopper Told," told by the teacher, with occa-
sional questions, bringing out, from the grasshopper's point
of view, his home and happy, merry home life ; telling
about his "hopperty, skipperty, high and low, summer's
the time for fun " existence, and showing how well he is
fitted for his home and life, just as well as boys and girls
are fitted for their home and life. The children can till in
gaps left by the teacher.

Literature. For literature, read to the children Cowper's
" The Grasshopper," or Leigh Hunt's " Ode to a Grass-
hopper." They are difficult; but, after studying the grass-
hopper, even little "first graders" may get more from
them than we imagine. Portions of Cowper's " The Crick-
et " and Dickens's " Cricket on the Hearth," or " Waiting,"
in Mrs. Gatty's "Parables from Nature/' can be read to
the children. The nature readers have considerable on the
grasshoppers and crickets.

Comparison. If comparison is made with the cricket,
bring out such points as the following :

Both are happy, merry fellows.

Both live in the fields.

Their ways of moving, feeding, and breathing are similar.

The crickets are fitted for life in the dark, under stones,
or in the ground.

Both have the same parts, differing in color and form.

Perhaps the children can discover how the cricket chirps.

448 NATURE STUDY.

The outer wings are raised, and the inner edge of one
rubbed or scraped rapidly over the inner edge of the other.

Bring out main differences, — color, feelers, wings, thread-
like stylets at either side of end of abdomen.

Life history. With the live insects before the children,
in different stages of development, tell them the life his-
tory of the grasshopper : how the mother bores a hole in
the ground (with the pointed " egg-placers " on the end
of her abdomen), and lays in it many eggs; how these
hatch into little grasshopper, much like their mother, but
with large head and no wings ; how, as each of these grows,
its skin becomes too tight, and splits open, and the grass-
hopper comes out with a new coat, at first soft, but soon
hardening ; how he thus gets a new suit of clothes several
times, each time becoming larger, and with longer wings ;
how at last the full-grown grasshopper comes out and stops
growing.

Books for the Teacher.

1. Morse's " First Book of Zoology " is helpful in the
study of structure.

2. McCook's " Tenants of an Old Farm " has several ex-
cellent chapters on the habits of crickets.

3. Hyatt's " Insecta " is good as a guide for the study of
structure.

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 449

JANUARY WORK.1
THE CAT.

Aim. To cultivate a sympathetic attitude toward animal
life ; to interest children in the careful observation of the
domestic animals ; to lay foundations for a better under-
standing of the animals of which the cat is a type.

Preparatory Work. Some days before beginning for-
mal study, ask the children to watch their kitties at home,
and to find out and tell the teacher, perhaps immediately
after the opening exercises each morning, exactly what their
kitty does and how she does it. For a few days before the
lessons, and during the lessons, it is well to have a cat in
the schoolroom. Give the children definite questions such
as :

How does the cat drink milk ? How use her tongue
when drinking ?

How does pussy eat ? How does she use her claws and
her teeth when eating ?

How does she play ? How does she jump when trying
to catch anything ? How roll on the floor ?

How does she lie when resting or asleep ? How place
her feet ?

How is it that kitty can walk quietly ? What does she
have under her feet to aid her in walking quietly ?

Is she a good climber ? What aids her in climbing ?

How does kitty wash herself without water, soap, or

1 This is recommended for midwinter work because the plant work
leaves little time for it in the fall, and because it seems wise to in-
troduce in winter some study which has more of the human inter-
est, and appeals more to the children's sympathies, than does the
study of the forms of water.

450 NATURE STUDY.

cloth ? How wash her face ? her ears ? her paws ? How
does she keep her fur smooth ?

How do her eyes look in the dark ? Can she move her
ears ? How much ?

How does she show when she is pleased ? How does
she show when she is angry ?

How does the mother cat take care of her kittens ?
How carry them, feed them, wash them ?

If the children can be led to consider their individual
discoveries as great secrets, to be told only to the teacher,
the interest will be increased, and individual observation
stimulated.

LESSONS I. AND II. WHY WE HAVE THE KITTY IN OUR HOME.

Preparation. To put the little folks in the right atti-
tude, sing with them or to them, "I love little Pussy, her
coat is so warm," or read to them something like the fol-
lowing :

MY DEAR KITTY.

" Have you seen my little kitty ?

Her fur is soft as silk,
And every day I feed her

With bread and sweet new milk.

Her feet they are like velvet,

As she goes pat, pat along,
And her soft and gentle purring

Is like a pleasant song.

Her ears are small and downy,

Her neck and breast are white,
Her eyes are like two tiny lamps

To light her in the night.

I have no little sisters

To walk with, or to play ;
But my pretty kitty loves me

Almost as well as they.

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 451

And often we run races,

And play at hide and seek;
Or she will climb the cherry tree,

And through the branches peep.

I have never hurt my kitty,

Or harassed her or teased,
For she is God's own creature,

And He would not be pleased.7'

Author not known.

Did the girl in this poem love her kitty ? Why ? Be-
cause kitty was so pretty ; because she purred when she
was pleased (kitty's way of talking or singing) ; because
she was such a good " playmate ; " because she was " God's
creature/' How did the girl take care of her kitty ? Fed
her, played with her, was kind to her.

Presentation. With kitty in the room, in the arms of
the child to whom she belongs, bring out, by questioning
the children, the reasons why we like to have kitty in our
homes, and why and how we care for her.

How pretty she is. Her soft fur, " as soft as silk." Her
color and markings. Her eyes.

How she likes our company. How she shows that she
likes to be with us. Rubs herself against us, or jumps into
our lap. Likes to be stroked and petted. How gentle she
is with baby.

How kitty talks to us. How she purs when pleased or
happy. How she asks for something to eat. How she
asks to have the door opened. How she speaks when dis-
pleased or angry. How she spits when the dogs frighten
her. Tell how kitty's mewing has often warned and saved
people in danger, as in a burning house, or has told mother
that her baby had wandered into danger.

How kitty plays with us. Rolling a ball. Playing with
a string. Trying to catch her tail. Running races, Play-

452 NATURE STUDY.

ing hide and seek. Perhaps some of the children can tell
how they dress kitty and play doll with her.

How kitty is like us. She has life, just as we do. She
enjoys or suffers, and can be happy or unhappy. She likes
to play, and likes to be petted and loved, as we do. She is
" God's creature/' just as we are.

How we care for kitty. Feed her, give her a soft, warm
place to sleep, pet her, treat her kindly.

Summary. Eead again " My Dear Kitty," encouraging
children to discuss it somewhat, to tell what it means,.

LESSONS III. AND IV. HABITS. DRINKING, EATING,
WASHING, SLEEPING.

Aim. Tell children " To-day we are going to find other
ways in which kitty is like us, other things she does which
boys and girls do."

Preparation. Read to the children something like the

following :

" Oh ! here is Miss Pussy,
She is drinking her milk ;
Her coat is as soft
And as glossy as silk.

She sips it all up,
With her little lip-lap,
Then, wiping her nose,
Lies down for a nap."

Author not known.

Presentation. Have children see in schoolroom as much
as possible. Have them tell with as few questions as pos-
sible.

Drinking. How do we drink ? Lift the cup to our lips
and let the water run into our mouth. Have child show
how. Watch the cat drink milk. The cat cannot lift up

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 453

the saucer of milk. How does she drink? How does she
get the milk into her mouth ? How use her tongue ?

Eating. Have a child eat an apple before the class.
How — with what teeth — do we bite ? How — with
what teeth — do we chew ? Watch kitty eat. How does
kitty bite off her food, like bread ? How does she chew
the meat ? How does she use her teeth ? ' How do we hold
things (apples) when we are eating them ? How does
kitty hold her food, such as meat ? Perhaps they can see
how kitty chews or tears the meat with the sharp teeth on
either side of her mouth. (This may be too difficult for
the little folks.) Touch lightly on the other side of the
cat's life, — her fondness for birds and mice, and the way
she catches and eats them.

Washing. What parts do we get dirty when eating ?
Our face and hands. What should we do after eating ?
What does kitty do after her meal ? How does she wash
her face ? Her paws ? Her ears ? How does she clean
and brush her fur ?

Sleeping. After dinner kitty is often ready for a nap.
Where does she like to sleep ? In places soft, or warm, or
both. How does she lie when asleep ? How curl up ?
How place her paws and nose and tail ? Does she sleep
soundly ? or does she awake easily ? How keep warm,
when asleep, without any clothes or any " covers " over
her?

Summary and Reproduction. A blackboard lesson on
"My Kitty's Dinner," or a story by the teacher on "A
Day in My Kitty's Life," the teacher giving the children
frequent opportunities to fill in gaps in the story, thus test-
ing what they have learned about kitty's talking, playing,
eating, drinking, washing, and sleeping.

CALIFC

454 NATURE STUDY.

LESSONS V. AND VI. HABITS, MOVEMENTS, AND SENSES.

Walking. Have children watch pussy walk on the desk
or on the teacher's arm. How quietly kitty walks. Can
we walk as quietly ? How her toes, each with a soft pad
at the end, spread out, much as our fingers spread out
when we walk on our hands and feet. How her claws are
drawn in. How she moves her legs alternately, much as
the children do when walking " on all-fours."

Running. Much like walking, but faster. Who can
run the faster,— kitty, or boys and girls ?

Climbing. How quickly kitty climbs trees or posts to
get away from the dogs. How does she do it ? How do
children use hands and fingers when climbing ? Show
children how kitty can extend or retract her claws. Make
her climb up the extended arm. Note how curved and
pointed the claws are. How does kitty climb down the
tree trunk ? Can we climb as well as kitty ?

Jumping. Have children show how they jump (bend
and suddenly straighten the legs) when standing, and how
they jump when "on all-fours." Let kitty jump from arm
or table. Note how she pushes with her hind legs, and
how softly she alights on her fore legs. How far can she
jump ? Can we jump as well or as far ?

Creeping. This posture may be seen when kitty is get-
ting ready to spring at a ball with which she is playing.
Notice how she pushes her front legs forward and her
hind legs somewbat backward, doubling them, and how
close to the ground her body is brought ; how she creeps
along; how her tail moves; and how quickly she springs.

Grasping. Have children tell and show how they use
their arms, hands, and fingers in picking up and holding
things. With which legs does kitty seize the ball or string
when playing. Does she hold the ball tightly ? How ?

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 455

Note how quick and free (moving in all directions) are
the motions of the fore legs as compared with those of the
hind legs. In many ways kitty's fore legs are used like
our arms.

Seeing and Hearing. Talk about kitty's habit of prowl-
ing around at night, and her power of seeing in the dark,
when we can see little or nothing. Show, if possible, the
acuteness of her hearing.

Summary. An oral review, centring it about the
thought, " Ways in which kitty is smarter than we are/'
bringing out how and why (thinking of the plan or con-
struction of her body) kitty can walk, run, climb, creep,
and jump better than boys and girls can.

LESSONS VII., VIII., AND IX. HOW KITTY IS FITTED FOR
HER, LIFE.

Aim. To lead and help the children to see the " why "
and " how " of what they observe. Tell the children :
We have seen how kitty lives, and have learned that she
does some things that we would find it hard to do, and can
do some things much better than we can. Let us write
these on the blackboard :

She keeps warm without any clothes or any " covers" at night.

She drinks milk without a spoon or cup.

She eats meat without a knife to cut it, or a fork to hold it.

She washes herself without water or soap or wash-cloth.

She keeps her hair smooth without brush or comb.

She keeps herself just as clean as we do.

She does all these things without any hands.

She can run faster than we can.

She can jump farther than we can.

She can climb trees better than we can.

To-day we will try to find out how kitty's body is made
(or how God has made kitty's body), so that she can do
these things so well.

456 NATURE STUDY.

Presentation. Have cat in the schoolroom, where chil-
dren can study her parts, and compare with the parts of
their own body.

Kitty's Fur or Clothes. Have children observe how soft
and warm it feels, how thick the hair is, how it is colored
on different parts of the body. Have them tell how the
hairs sometimes come out; that is, how kitty sheds her
fur. After they have observed all they can about the fur,
and not until then, discuss with them how the fur keeps
kitty warm, how it makes her look so much prettier (com-
pare with cat which has lost part of her fur), how the fur
is changed, the old hairs dropping out (before they get
long enough to tangle, like the children's hair), and the
fine soft hairs taking their place.

Kitty's Legs and Feet. Constantly compare children
and kitty.

Use. Have a child show how children bend their legs,
and how they stand on their toes, when getting ready to
jump, how they straighten their legs as they jump, and
how they bend and straighten their legs when they walk.
What is the use of the bends or joints in their legs ? Note
how kitty bends and straightens her hind legs when she
jumps or walks. Her hind legs are kept bent, and she
always stands on her toes ready to jump.

Structure. Help children to note the parts and joints of
their own legs, — the upper leg, knee joint, lower leg, ankle-
joint, foot, toes, and nails. Compare with (apparently)
corresponding parts of kitty's hind leg, the long upper leg,
the upper joint (apparently corresponding to our knee, but
bending backward instead of forward), the lower leg, ankle-
joint (apparently), and toes and claws, with no heel and
little foot. (The cat really has a short upper leg, concealed
by the flesh of the body, and the knee-joint, bending like ours,
but close to the body. What seems to be the knee really

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 457

corresponds to our ankle-joint, and the part below is the
foot, much elongated. But the children cannot understand
this ; and it is better to have them compare the parts which
are to them — and to most adults — analogous.) Call their
attention, if necessary, to the cushion on each toe, and to
the way kitty pushes out and draws in her sharp-pointed
claws. (See Figs. 51 and 52.)

Fig. 51. Cat's Paw, under side, Fig. 52. Cat's Paw, showing

showing Pads the Claws.

Have children tell about the parts in their own arms, —
upper arm, elbow-joint, lower arm, wrist-joint, hand, fin-
gers and nails. Compare with corresponding parts of
kitty's fore legs, noting particularly their freedom of mo-
tion in all directions (compare with hind legs), and the
toes with cushions and retractile claws.

Adaptation. After, not before, observing as carefully
as possible, discuss adaptation with children. How are
the hind legs fitted for pushing the body when the cat
walks. Compare with way in which children push their
sleds, with their feet extending behind the sled. How
fitted for jumping ? How are the fore legs fitted for
quickly catching or grasping ball or string, or her food ?
What do both legs have which help kitty to climb so well,
or to hold her food, or to keep away the dog — or the
children ? Why do not the sharp claws catch in the carpet
when she walks ? What do the feet have to help her in

458

NATURE STUDY.

walking so quietly ? How are the feet fitted to wash and
brush and comb her fur and head and face ?

Teeth and Tongue. Use. Have a child show, as he eats
an apple, how he bites it with the teeth in front of his
mouth, pushes it around with his tongue, and chews it with
teeth in the back or at the sides of the mouth. Feed kitty
(potato or something to bite, meat to tear, and milk to
drink), and see how she bites, chews, tears, and drinks.
Ask children to watch, as she eats, the teeth in the sides
or back of her mouth and to see how she uses her tongue.
Structure. Have children feel their teeth, and examine
the teeth of one another, and tell about the sharp and wide
or chisel-shaped biting teeth in front, and the broad flat
grinding teeth at the sides. Compare with kitty's teeth.
(See Fig. 53.) The front biting teeth are similar, but not

so wide or large, the grinding
teeth have sharp points, and be-
tween the biting and grinding
teeth, on each side of each jaw,
is a long sharp-pointed tooth
(four in all), with which kitty
seizes and tears meat. We can
call them "tearing teeth," or
"meat teeth/' or, when the
children have noticed their
length in the dog, dog teeth.
Tell the pupils that Mother
Nature has not given children these sharp-pointed " meat
teeth," because she does not want little children to eat
much meat. As they get older ( like the teacher ), and
need meat, they get their " meat teeth " or " tearing teeth."
Tell the children, if they cannot see it, that kitty can
bend her tongue into a form somewhat like a spoon, and
that the upper side of her tongue is rough. The tongue of

Fig. 53. Cat's Teeth.

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 459

a child is smooth. Perhaps some children can tell how the
cat's tongue feels when she licks their hand.

Adaptation. How are kitty's teeth fitted for eating and
tearing meat ? How are they fitted for biting ? How is
her tongue fitted for lapping milk ? How is her tongue
fitted for washing and brushing and combing herself ?

Eyes and Ears. Use. Have a child show how he uses
his eyes: how he turns them toward the object he is ob-
serving ; how he protects them by closing the eyelids ; how
the pupils get smaller when looking toward a bright light,

fig. 54. Cat's Eye in Daytime. Fig. 55. Cat's Eye at Night.

and larger when turned away from the light. Have an-
other pupil show how his ears are used : how he does not
hear so well when his fingers are in his ears ; how he turns
his ear toward a ifound when it is faint. Compare with
the eyes and ears of the cat, dwelling on the great size
of the pupil of the cat's eye (See Figs. 54 and 55), (can-
not some of the pupils observe the cat at home, and tell
how large this opening is, when their cat is in a dark
place ?) and the movements of the ears ?

Structure. Study, first in children and then in cat, the
position, lids, pupil, colored part and white of the eyes,
and the position and appearance of the ears.

460 NATURE STUDY.

Adaptation. Show how important it is that the cat
should hear well at all times, and should be able to see
well in the dark. Compare the pupil of the eye to a win-
dow shade which determines how much light shall come in,
almost closing when the light is very bright, and opening
when the light is dim. Why can the cat open the pupil
of its eye wider than we can ? Try to show how the move-
ments of the cat's ears help him to hear better.

Summary. Have children tell, or prepare a reading-les-
son telling : —

How kitty's fur is her clothing and her " covers."

How kitty has a spoon — her tongue.

How she has knives — her sharp-edged biting teeth.

How she has forks — her sharp-pointed tearing teeth and
her claws.

How she has wash-cloths — her tongue and paws.

How she has a brush — her tongue; and comb — her
feet.

How she gets from her mouth what is as good for her
as water and soap.

How her legs are made for jumping.

How her feet are made for climbing.

How her eyes and ears help her.

LESSON x. KITTY'S COUSINS.

Aim. To give children a little idea of similarities and
differences in animals. To make the cat something of a
type of many animals. Tell the children : " To-day we
will see how kitty is like and unlike us, and how she is
like and unlike other animals we know."

Preparation. Try to have children see that we can rec-
ognize those who are brothers and sisters or belong to the
same family : —

FALL AND WINTER ANIMAL STUDY. 461

Because they act or talk alike.

Because they look alike.

Because they are dressed alike.

We know plants or animals of the same kind : —

Because they look alike.

Because they have the same parts.

How kitty's body is like ours. Help children to see and
tell how we use sticks to support weak plants, to keep the
window curtains stiff, and to hold the panes of glass. Have
them note how soft their flesh is, and feel the bones in their
hands, arms, legs, chest, head, neck, and back. Of what
use are they ? Have some one gently try to discover
where the cat has bones, emphasizing the back-bone and the
bones that support the legs and feet. So the cat's body is
like ours in having a backbone and other bones. Draw from
them other similarities : the two main parts, body and head,
the four limbs, the mouth with tongue and teeth. Bring
these similarities into stronger relief by contrasting our
body and the cat's body with those of the butterfly and
grasshopper. The latter have no bones, three parts to the
body, six legs.

How kitty is like the dog. Have a dog for comparison.
Both have backbone and other bones, furry covering, four
legs, and dog teeth or « meat teeth ; " both are fond of meat.

How kitty is like other animals. Compare with any ani-
mal with which children are familiar, — rabbit or horse.

Summary. Make a list of all the animals known to the
children, which are: —

Like the cat in having bones or a backbone.
Like the cat in having hairy or furry covering.
Like the cat in having long sharp-pointed dog teeth, o?
" meat teeth."

WINTER EARTH STUDY.

WATER. — ITS FORMS AND WORK.

Time. Begin in January or February, continuing through
March, and review or apply in April and May.

Aim. To interest children in the observation of the
common things about them, and help them to appreciate
the value and beauty of such a commom thing as water.

To prepare for a better comprehension of the co-operation
and unity shown in nature.

To serve as a basis for geography work by helping chil-
dren to study and understand the story and work of fog,
clouds, dew, rain, frost, ice, and snow.

Order of study.

First. Useful properties and uses of water.

Second. Evaporation.

Third. Condensation.

Fourth. Forms of water, — water-dust, fog, mist, clouds,
frost, ice, snow, dew, rain.

Fifth. Work of water in soil-making and in shaping
the land.

The order is determined by the principle that we should
begin with what can be most easily seen, and can be most
readily related to the children's lives and experiences.
They can see the useful properties of water, know consid-
erable about the common or obvious uses of water, and can
observe in the schoolroom the process of evaporation and
condensation.

462

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 463

USEFUL PROPERTIES AND USES OF WATER.

What Water does.

Dissolves things. Show the children that water dissolves
(" Melts/' or " Makes them go away/' or " Makes them so
we cannot see them/' the children are likely to say) salt,
sugar, snow, ice, alum, and other substances. Show them
that heat helps the water to dissolve these more quickly.

Have children ask about and bring some of the incrusta-
tion usually formed in tea-kettles, and talk about its for-
mation. Water may dissolve rocks, but very slowly.
Water is the great solvent of nature. Heat and soap aid it.

Floats and carries things. Show children the power
water has to float things, — wood, paper, leaves, saw-dust ;
to hold them in suspension, such as chalk-dust or mud ; and
to carry them along. Show how sand and even stones
can be carried along by moving water.

Soaks into things. Show, with sponge and wood and
chalk and sandstone, how water soaks into objects even
when we can see no holes into which it can enter. This
helps it dissolve and carry along what is not on the outside
of objects.

Review and summary. Try to have each step reviewed
and " clinched " before passing to next step. At the end,
try to have two or three children tell " the three things that
water does." The retention of the ideas gained depends
largely on the clearness, defmiteness, and frequency of the
summaries.

The Uses of Water.

Importance of " Why." This should be an application
of the previous work. The work will mean much more if
the children are constantly asked, "Why is water used
for this ? " and if they are led to relate each use to one or

464 NATURE STUDY.

more of the useful properties previously brought out.
Merely naming the various uses of water is of little value.
Our children should think, not merely see and talk.

Uses to man. Used in the home to dissolve salt and
sugar; to prepare tea, coffee, oatmeal; to boil vegetables
and meat; to wash hands, clothes, food, house. Try to
bring out the " why " in each case (mainly because of its
dissolving and penetrating power). In which cases does
heat help it ?

Used in the body (as drink) to dissolve our food, and to
cleanse the body by carrying away injurious things.

Used out-doors (rain) to wash roofs, sidewalks, fences,
and to clean the streets by carrying away mud, leaves,
sticks. Used to float boats, and help man to travel, and to
carry things from place to place. Why ? (Mainly be-
cause of its floating-power. )

To impress the thought of the usefulness of water to
man, it may be well to tell how water is cherished, and how
springs and wells are valued, in arid regions. ( See the
story of Gemila in Andrews's " Seven Little Sisters.")

Uses to animals. The only drink of animals. The
home of fishes and frogs, and hosts of other animals. The
roads by which they travel from place to place.

Uses to plants. Water washes them outside and inside.
Water is their only drink. Water dissolves some of the
soil, and gets from it and brings to the plants the food that
their roots drink in.

Uses to the earth. How it carries along mud, sand,
leaves. How it washes the earth and even the air. How
it refreshes and brightens everything. This can be studied
and discussed more fully in April and May.

Review and summary. Impress the thought of the de-
pendence of everything on water. How useful and helpful
it is. And yet we havO only begun to study about its uses.

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 465

A blackboard story on " How Water Helps Us " may
gather up the most essential points. Below is such a read-
ing lesson, as used by a teacher in a room where the chil-
dren (five-year olds), were just learning to read, and could
recognize but few words :
" Water helps us.

Water helps everyone.

We drink water.

We wash with water.

Fish live in water.

Water carries boats.

Water carries stones and sand."

If the children can write, cannot they be divided into
groups, each with a different topic ? The teacher may tell
a story about " What a Pail of Water Did," having the
children help her from time to time. It may be better to
bring into the schoolroom a pail of water, and have the
little folks tell, one by one, " What this pail of water can
do and how it can do it," each giving such statements as
these : " It can help me wash my hands by dissolving and
carrying away the dirt ; " " It can help mother get break-
fast by dissolving the coffee ; " " It can wash ibhe steps by
carrying away the dirt." How alert an'd interested the
little folks are if such a review is sometimes turned into a
game of " story-match," on the plan of a spelling-match,
the children dividing into two groups, and successive
children from alternate sides trying to tell a new story
about " What the pail of water can do," taking their seats
when they fail.

EVAPORATION.

Order of study. Be sure that evaporation is understood
before making any reference to the opposite process, con-
densation. Do not be in a hurry to use the term " evapor-

466

NATURE STUDY.

ate." When the children have the idea clearly, and have
talked about " water going away/7 or " going into the air,"
" going so we cannot see it," or " changing into vapor," they
will be glad to get, and will properly use, the word " e-vapor-
ate." Begin with boiling and rapid evaporation in the
schoolroom, because this is most easily seen. Follow this
by a study of slow evaporation, first in the schoolroom, and
later at home or out-doors. Last apply to explain every-day
phenomena.

Apparatus. The form of alcohol stove shown in Fig. 56
has proven most convenient for this work and for later

study of air and heat.
It can be obtained from,
or ordered through, any
hardware dealer for
about twenty-five cents.
Six or eight ounces of
strong alcohol will be
needed. If diluted with
water, it will not burn
well. Be careful not to
have alcohol bottle near
a flame, and not to pour
alcohol on the hot alco-
hol stove. The other
apparatus can be ob-
tained anywhere.
Important points. Merely performing experiments be-
fore children does not necessarily lead them to observe
important points ; they are apt to be most attracted by the
apparatus and the flame. An experiment is, or should be,
" a question asked of nature ;" and we must be certain that
the children understand what the question is. They must
not be told the answer, what they should discover for them-

Fig. 56. Alcohol Lamp.

WINTER EARTH STUDY, 467

selves ; but their interest should be centred about the ques-
tion, and their attention directed to what will help them to
answer the question. The important points are :

First. The fact or process of evaporation, the turning
of water into water-dust, which we can see, and into vapor,
which we cannot see.

Second. The effect of heat in causing or increasing
evaporation.

Third. The effect of a large surface in increasing
evaporation.

Fourth. The effect of currents or winds in increasing
evaporation.

Special pains must be taken to make these clear, and to
" clinch " them in the summaries, oral or written.

Preliminary study of alcohol stove. To guard against
or lessen the tendency to watch the apparatus rather than
the experiment, it is well to take a little time to study with
the children the stove and the way it is used. Then
impress the idea that they are to watch what is done and
what happens.

RAPID EVAPORATION, OR BOILING.

Step I. What does the water do ? Heat a little water
in a shallow dish (lid of jelly glass, or baking-powder can),
over alcohol stove. Direct attention and observation to the
water. " We want to see what happens to the water."
The children, even the youngest, can observe, and tell that
" Miss Grey put the water in a tin lid." "She put the lid
over the stove." "The flame went up around the dish."
"The water got warm." "Little bubbles came in the
water." « Some bubbles were at the side." " Some bub-
bles were at the bottom." "The bubbles dance up and
down." " Soon the water all went away." " No water
was left in lid."

468 NATURE STUDY.

i

Eepeat experiment, putting in a tin cup a small quantity
of water, which the children have measured in a bottle,
heat for a time, observing as before, and have children
measure again.

Clinch the observation and thought. " The water goes
away."

Step II. What makes the water go away ? Repeat one
or both experiments, extinguishing the flame, and relighting
it two or three times, that the children may see that " the
water stops making bubbles " when the fire is blown out,
and begins again when the fire is lighted. At this stage
the children can probably only see that the fire or flame
" makes the water go away." They may not be ready for
the generalization ( which must be based on many observa-
tions to mean much). " Heat makes the water go away."

Step III. What becomes of the water ? Boil water in
tin cup. Children, if really observing, will see the
" smoke " ( as they are apt to call it) or " steam " coming
from the boiling water. Invert funnel over cup. The
" steam " can be seen much more clearly coming from nar-
rowed opening of funnel. They may state that the water
makes or turns into "steam." Hold a dry tumbler or a
slate or plate over the open cup, and later over the inverted
funnel. What gathers on the inner or lower surface ?
Make sure that the children see the minute drops of water.
Impress idea that what they call " steam " is made up of
little drops of water.

Show the children how a piece of chalk can be broken
into smaller and smaller pieces until it becomes as fine as
the chalk dust below the blackboard. So heat or fire breaks
up water first into bubbles, then into smaller and smaller
drops. This can be shown by heating the dry tin lid, and
pouring a few drops of water on it, letting the children see
how the water breaks into little drops, which dance about

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 469

until they disappear. They at last become so small that they
are like the chalk dust. We cannot see one drop alone,
but we can see many together. So we can call them —
what? Water dust. (Water dust is the more exact term
for what is popularly called " steam." Steam, correctly
speaking, is water vapor, and is invisible. The term " steam,"
referring to water dust, is so generally used in the chil-
dren's homes that it does not seem wise to insist that the
children shall not use it. Tell them we like better the
name "water dust.") If they persist in calling water dust
" smoke," show them, with a match, that smoke is made
when things burn, and that it makes a tin or saucer black,
while water dust is made when water boils, and it makes
the tin wet.

After having children tell, as well as they can, what they
did and what they saw, impress by repetition the idea
that:

The fire turns the water into little drops.

The drops get small like dust.

Many drops together look like smoke.

Then we call it water dust.

Other people call it steam.

Call attention to the fact that water dust cannot be fol-
lowed or seen far from the alcohol stove. It seems to " go
into the air." Show children how chalk dust when scat-
tered by blowing on it also " goes into the air." When the
little drops of water dust become so small and so scattered
that they cannot be seen we call them vapor. Impress the
idea:

When water dust is so fine that we cannot see it, it is
called vapor.

Now — and not before — the children are ready for the
terms " e-vapor-ate," " to turn into vapor," and " e-vapor-
ation," "turning into vapor."

470 NATURE STUDY.

The important fact, the making of water dust, may be
impressed by the teacher drawing on the blackboard, as di-
rected by the children, the cup, funnel, and water dust, and
then having the children draw it from the apparatus " at
work/' not from her drawing. Some analysis with the
children of the direction and length of the lines used to
represent cup and funnel will bring better results.

Step IV. Summary and expressive work. After the chil-
dren have observed for themselves, — and not before, — it is
helpful to call on the imagination to help clothe the facts
of observation with life and additional interest. We may
have them play at housekeeping, and tel] how and for what
they use water. Children are so made, — and we cannot
and do not want to make them over, — that they delight
in personification and in the life of the fire sprites and the
water fairies. After personal observation by the boys and
girls the fairies are helpful ; they serve to impress and to
relate what the senses have shown the children, and to give
a larger content and a more attractive aspect to the world
of sense. But if we call in the fairies before asking and
directing the children to see and think for themselves, they
are likely to interfere with the self activity of the children.
The fairies are good helpers or companions in their place,
but are poor guides or leaders. The following " story "
illustrates how the sprites and fairies may help.

How THE TEA-KETTLE BOILED.

" 'Jane, put some water in the tea-kettle.'

"Then Jane poked up the fire-sprites; and very soon the water-
drops bubbled, and the little fire-sprites said that there was water in
the tea-kettle, and they put their arms around it.

" The water drops began to sing and dance; and the little drops at
the top wondered what was the matter, and they went down to see.
The drops at the bottom went up to the top singing, 'Ring turn, ring

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 471

turn re,' and just then a little boy came in the room, and asked Jane
what it was, and Jane said it was the tea-kettle singing."

LAURA COOKE,
Longfellow School, St. Paul, Minn. Second Grade.

In any blackboard reading lesson, and, so far as possible,
in individual written work by the children, tell —

First. What we did.
Second. What we or I saw.
Third. What we or I thought.

If this order is habitually followed, the children are
more apt to think for themselves, and to base their con-
clusions on what they have seen. If told in the first per-
son, as far as possible, class reproduction is apt to be more
thoughtful and the pupil's work more individual.

The following are copies of individual reproduction
papers written by two third-grade pupils in the Practice
School of the Oswego Normal School. The papers are
given just as written by the children, but with errors in
spelling corrected. Two papers are given, written at the
same time by two pupils in the same room, to illustrate how
a teacher may impress on her class the general order to be
followed in their papers and yet secure individual work.

How WATER BOILS.

** Miss Schiller placed a tin cup full of water over the alcohol lamp.
Then she put some little pieces of paper in the cup. When the water
began to boil, the little pieces of paper began to go up and down just
like they were playing tag. The water near the heat got hot first.
The warm water came up, and then the papers went up. When the
cold water went down the papers went down. It was just like a
current." ADDIE PROUD.

How WATER BOILS.

" Miss Schiller lighted the alcohol lamp, and put a cup of cold water
over it. Then she put a few bits of paper in the tin cup. When the
water boiled we seen the little pieces of paper going up and down the

472 NATURE STUDY.

0

current. The little pieces of paper looked as if they were playing tag.
The water nearest the flame got warm first. Then it rose. It took
the little pieces of paper up with it. As soon as the hot water went
up, the cold water took its place. Cold water is heavier than warm
water.'* AGNES TAYLOR.

SLOW EVAPORATION OB DRYING.

Step I. What slow evaporation is. Put vessel contain-
ing a very little water near stove or radiator, but not over
fire. Place wet handkerchief or sponge, or paper or slate,
in a warm place in a vessel, or under such conditions that
pupils can easily observe and prove that water dust comes
from them. Impress thought that drying is a slow evapo-
ration. Get from children many illustrations of slow evapo-
ration in schoolroom, at home, out-doors.

Step II. What helps slow evaporation or drying. Place
a measured quantity of water in vessel in warm part of
room and in similar vessel in place not so warm. After
an hour or two, or on the following day, measure. Place
water in sunlight and in shade, and measure as before.
Why the difference ? After children have told as well as
they can, what we did and what we saw, they can " think
out " one answer to the question, What helps slow evapora-
tion ? Cannot they be helped to tell a story, and follow an
order somewhat like this : " John put a cupful of water
near the stove. Harry put a cupful of water near the door.
It was warmer near the stove. We left them there all
night. This morning John's cup was empty. Harry's cup
was almost full. The water near the stove had all evapo-
r^ted. Mary thought the warm stove made the water
evaporate faster. We all thought so. James put some
water in the sun, and some where the sun did not shine.
The water in the sun evaporated faster. The warm sun
helped it. So we think that water evaporates fastest where
it is warmest. Heat helps slow evaporation."

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 473

Below is a reading lesson copied from the blackboard in
a second-grade room in the Practice School connected with
the Oswego Normal School. It was gained from the chil-
dren by good questioning by the teacher, Miss Bessie Bloom-
field. It is a good illustration of such a lesson, — definite,
clear, with successive statements well related, beginning
with statements of experiments and observations, ending
with the conclusions or generalizations.

EVAPORATION.

We put some water in a cup on Friday.

We put the cup in the window.

Monday there was not so much in the cup.

The water went away into the air.

Who took the water?

The air fairies took the water.

The water evaporated.

Friday we put a cup of water on the window and one on the radia-
tor.

The air fairies took water from both cups.

Which cup had the least water in it on Monday ?

The cup in the warm place had the least water in it on Monday.

Why did the cup in the warm place have the least water in it ?

The heat fairies helped the air fairies to take the water from the
cup in the warm place.

If the heat fairies help the air fairies, the water goes away quicker.

Apply to such phenomena as the drying of wet clothes
by placing them near stove or radiator, and the drying of
sidewalks, striving to impress the ideas: Heat helps to dry
wet things by making the water in them evaporate.

Place a measured small quantity of water in a narrow,
deep vessel, a fruit jar, and the same quantity in a broad,
shallow vessel, like a plate, and put both in a warm place.
Put a small quantity of water in a vessel near the black-
board, and spread the same on the blackboard. Wet two
handkerchiefs, and place near radiator, one spread out " to

474 NATURE STUDY.

dry," one in a compact mass. These experiments will help
the children to discover a second answer to the question :
What helps slow evaporation or drying ? " Water evapo-
rates faster when it is spread out thin." " Things dry best
when they are spread out." Apply this to the drying of
the slate, and of clothes before the stove or on the line,
and of the streets and sidewalks and roofs.

Show how much more quickly a damp cloth dries, or the
ink on the paper dries, when cloth or paper are shaken.
Have two or three children slightly wet both hands, and
blow on one hand or move one hand rapidly, while the
other is held still. Which dries more quickly ? Try to
dry two cloths, — one where the air is quiet, the other where
there is a decided draft or wind. Which dries most rapidly ?
Water evaporates fastest, or things dry most quickly, when
they are moving or when there is a wind. Apply this to
drying of clothes on a line when wind is blowing, and to
drying of walks and streets when it is windy. The rela-
tion of wind to drying is difficult for little folks, and is of
minor importance. We can give them the idea, and let it
digest. In a year or two it will mean more to them. It
may be illustrated by the carrying of dust by the wind.

Cannot they understand something of the reasons for the
three answers they have discovered to the questions asked
them ? Heat helps things to dry, or causes water to evap-
orate, more quickly, by breaking it up into very small drops
of water dust, and scattering them through the air. The
more the water is spread out, and the more shallow it is,
the more easily the water dust can get into the air ; the
more the water is moved through the air, and the more the
air blows over the water, the more it can take up and carry
away the drops of water dust.

Step III. .Blackboard review. An excellent way of re-
viewing and impressing the work already done, and at the

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 475

same time keeping the children interested and alert, is to
have a blackboard story, gained from the children as much
as possible, on some such subject as, "Mother's Helpers on
Wash-day." Tell who helped gather the clothes, how the
fire and stove and boiler helped warm the water, how the
water helped by dissolving and carrying away the dirt,
how the soap helped, how the clothes-line helped by keep-
ing the clothes spread out, how the sun helped by turning
the water into water dust, how the wind helped by carry-
ing away the water dust and vapor. Illustrations, though
very crude, representing the boiler, wash-tub, and clothes
on the line, will add much to the interest and impressive-
ness of the review.

The following illustrates an individual paper on : —

WHAT MAKES WATER EVAPORATE.

One day our teacher, Miss Morrow, took some water, and put in
the basin, and then set it on the table for two or three days. And
one day Miss Morrow passed it around for the children to look at.
And when we looked at it, it had all evaporated, and there were only
a few drops left.

It had all dried up, and gone into steam. We cannot see the steam,
but we can see the water dust.

The next time Miss Morrow took some water again, and put it in
the basin, and set it on a chair by the register, and it evaporated
quicker because there was more heat. The last time Miss Morrow
took some water again, and put it in a kettle, and placed the kettle on
a little stove ; and it evaporated still more quickly, because there was
more heat than anywhere else.

EDITH BAMBAUER,

Ramsey School, St. Paul, Minn. Third Grade.

Step IV. The use of evaporation. Everywhere, in school,
at home, out doors, over land and over the lakes and rivers,
water is being turned into water dust and vapor, and is
going into the air. Why is water always evaporating?
Touch on the fact that evaporation helps the water to get

476 NATURE STUDT.

away from the dirt and mud and all other impurities in it.
Evaporation makes the water pure, leaves the dirt behind,
and sends the pure water into the air and the sky. What
becomes of this water ? What does it do in the sky ? To-
morrow we will begin to find out.

CONDENSATION.

Important points. What condensation is — the chan-
ging of water dust or vapor into water. Cold — or the
absence or lessening of heat — as the cause of condensa-
tion. Common phenomena due to condensation.

Step I. How water dust can be turned into water.
Boil water in tin cup over alcohol stove. Hold over it a
slate or plate or tumbler, which has been slightly warmed,
and then a similar vessel which has been placed out on the
window-sill to cool. Water forms or collects more quickly
on the cold vessel. Eepeat the same experiment with a
funnel inverted over the cup. Place on radiator, or near
stove, a pan partly filled with water, covered with glass,
Note how the drops of water collect on lower surface of
glass. Cool the glass, and note the result. Cold, or cold
things, make water dust turn into water. Compare with
the way in which children like to get close together when
it is cold, and thus help to keep one another warm,

Step II. How vapor can be turned into water dust and
into water. When water is boiling vigorously in a tea-
kettle, no water dust can be seen very near the end of
the spout. The water in the spout is changed into vapor
by the heat, and turns to water dust after it has escaped
from the kettle, and has been cooled. Cold objects will con-
dense this vapor into water dust or wa,ter. Heat a little
water in a tightly closed vessel with small opening — such
as the little oil-can used with sewing-machines — to show

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 477

formation of water dust from invisible vapor. Place boil
ing water in the open window or other cool place. Th
area and amount of water dust will be much increased be-
cause more vapor is condensed to water dust. A tin pail
filled with ice- water, or better, with finely pounded ice and
salt (three or four parts of ice to one part of salt), held
over boiling water, will cause a great increase in the
amount of water dust produced from the condensation of
vapor. The condensation of vapor to water dust and to
water can be illustrated by brushing together chalk dust
scattered on white paper, first into little piles and then
into larger masses.

Step III. What condensation is. What causes it.
Gather up definitely the results of the experiments and
illustrations in Steps I and II.

Step IV. Applications. The water dust coming from
mouths of children and horses on cold days. Why not
seen in schoolroom ? The water collected on surface of
pitcher of ice-water, or on water pipes, or on window panes,
due to condensation of vapor in air. The steam (distin-
guish from smoke) from boilers of factories, seen so much
more clearly on cold days. " Wash-day " at home in win-
ter time usually illustrates condensation well. Try to lead
children to observe and explain the escape of water dust
from the boiler and wash-tub, the water on the windows
and walls and ceiling of the kitchen, the cloud of water
dust, like fog, with which the kitchen is often filled when
the cold air rushes in from open door or window. Leave
the wider applications of condensation, illustrated in for-
mation of fog, mist, cloud, dew, rain, frost, snow, and ice,
until these topics can be studied carefully.

Step V. Review and summary. Continue the black-
board story about " Mother's Helpers on Wash-day," with
a chapter on " The Journey of the Water Helpers," telling

478 NATURE STUDY.

how, after the water fairies had helped mother, the heat
helped them start on a journey ; how they let go of one
another's hands, grew lighter and lighter, and flew away
from the water ; how some of them flew against the cold
windows and against the cool ceiling, and what happened
to them there ; how others flew out-doors and went up, up,
up, toward the blue sky and the bright sun — we will dis-
cover later where they went and what they did. Or the
teacher can tell a story about " What We Saw on Wash-
Day," bringing in as many applications as possible of evap-
oration and condensation, and often calling on the children
to complete or supplement or explain the story.

FORMS OF WATER.

Order of study. The study of the forms of water will
mean little unless preceded by the observational study of
evaporation and condensation. There are three sequences
in the work, — water dust, "steam," fog, mist, cloud, or the
water-dust forms of water ; water dust, frost, snow, ice, or
the solid forms of water; water dust, dew, rain, or the
liquid forms of water. So far as possible, it is best to take
up the topics in the order given above, but the order will
be modified by weather conditions. If we have a foggy or
misty morning, we must take advantage of it to impress
on the children, perhaps by an out-door lesson, the charac-
teristics of fog, dropping other water study for a time.
Then when we come regularly, to the study of fog, the
children will have ideas to build upon, even if there is no
opportunity to observe fog at the time. When the snow
crystals, or the frost work on the windows, are particularly
good, stop and study them. A wise, tactful teacher will so
interest her children, that even little " first-graders " will
be on the lookout when out of school, and will observe fog
and rain and clouds and snow and ice,

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 479

Important points. The temptation is particularly strong
in this study to depend on talk, and pretty stories, and
poems, and on the imagination of the children, rather than
to build on the only sure foundation, — on what the children
have seen. In the writer's experience, nine teachers out of-
ten are prone to talk about Jack Frost and his beautiful
pictures, without making any effort, or taking any pains, to
watch, or to have their children watch, the artist at work,
or to see how his pictures are made ; too often they do not
even look at the frost-work on the windows. Many
teachers will expatiate on the beauties of the snowflakes,
and have their pupils sing about them, and draw them, and
sew them (from pictures in the books), without devoting
fifteen minutes to real observation of their exquisite forms.
Talk and stories and poems mean little, particularly to
children, unless based on, or preceded by, sense-perception.
Begin always with what children can see. Relate the
rain-drops and frost crystals and snowflakes to the chil-
dren's life and experiences, and often endow them with
the human attributes — desire to be useful, sociability, per-
severance-— which appeal to children. Then, and not until
then, appeal to the imagination ; but let the land of sense,
and the life and experiences of the children, furnish the
materials out of which fairyland is evolved, and peopled
with the fairies of the air.

We must also endeavor to impress on the children some-
thing of the beauty and unity revealed in the forms of
water, — the unity of cause, all being illustrations and re-
sults of evaporation and condensation ; the unity of func-
tion or work, all having a work to do, and existing to do
that work ; the unity of co-operation, all working together,
all unceasingly helping and being helped ; the beauty
which the Greeks defined as " multitude in unity " and of
which Emerson has written :

480 NATURE STUDY.

"O'er me soared the eternal sky,
Full of light and deity ;

Beauty through my senses stole ;

I yielded myself to the perfect whole."

WATER DUST, STEAM, FOG, MIST, CLOUDS.

Steam. Repeat, if need be, the work already outlined
for the study in the schoolroom, of water dust and steam,
dwelling on the way they are formed, the conditions ne-
cessary for formation (water, heat, cold), the depositing of
water on objects held in them, and their appearance. Ob-
serve and talk about appearance and formation of chil-
dren's " breatji " on cold mornings. The best preparations
for an understanding of fog and clouds, is to watch care-
fully the mass of steam rising from a manufactory or
locomotive, noting how it rises in the still air, or is driven
by the wind ; how filmy or fleecy it is ; how it partly ob-
scures objects behind when it is in thin masses, and hides
them when piled together ; how the white masses often roll
and tumble over one another, like children or kittens at
play ; how beautiful it may be, particularly when the clear
blue sky forms a background. The children who have hap-
pened to be surrounded by steam when an engine was
" blowing off steam " can tell how damp it was, and how
" foggy " it looked all around them. Some of them may
have seen, or may be led to notice, the way in which the
steam may be lit up toward evening by the city lights or
by a fire. Older children, at least, may discover how
much better steam shows in the morning or evening than
during the warmer part of the day, or on a cold day than
on a warm day. Why ? The observation at home of what
happens on wash-day may aid in an understanding of fog
and clouds.

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 481

Fog. Fogs or mists can often be observed in low,
marshy places, or over still water on the quiet mornings or
e v enings of spring or summer. Interest children in watch-
ing for them. What do these mists look like ? How do
they feel ? Are the things covered with mist damp or
dry ? Why ? Where do the fogs appear ? Why in
damp places ? Why in low places or valleys ? Why not
on hill-tops ? What happens to them as the sun rises
higher in the morning ? What change takes place as
the sun sets ? Why ? Are they most often seen on cold
or warm mornings or evenings ? Why ? On quiet or
windy days? Why? The writer has asked such ques-
tions frequently of second-year children, and found that
they had observed many such phenomena (when interested
in them by their study of water), and were not merely
eager to tell what they had seen, but able to tell clearly
the " whys." Many " book-learned " teachers could not
do as well. If teachers and children are so fortunate as
to have a foggy morning, drop other water study, and
make the most of the fog. Note particularly its damp-
ness, and try to observe how it rises or disappears as the
day gets warmer or the wind appears. It may be well
to tell about effects of fogs on sea-coasts and in London.

For review, tell the story of " The Fog, the Sun, and the
Wind." Because of their rare occurrence in most places,
fogs are of minor importance as compared with clouds, and
have much less content.

Clouds. Begin with observation of clouds, not mere talk
about clouds. Much can be seen from school windows,
more by taking children out for a field lesson, most by
interesting them in watching the clouds for several days
before any formal cloud study is attempted in school, and
guiding them by a few sinple, definite questions. Good
topics for such individual or class observations are :

482 NATURE STUDY.

Movements of the Clouds. How they rush along with
the wind, sometimes rolling and tumbling over one another
like children out of school.

Forms and changes. How the children enjoy finding in
the sky mountains and palaces and forts and trees and
animals ! How interested they are in their shifting and
changing forms ! To many a child whose eyes have been
directed and guided cloudward the sky has become a veri-
table fairyland ; the sunset has disclosed glimpses of
heaven, with its pearly gates and golden streets and glit-
tering towers and winged messengers.

Kinds. Large and small, white, gray, blue, dark, some-
times fleecy or feathery like the water dust or steam (feather
or cirrus clouds), sometimes darker and denser, like many
hills piled together (wool-pack or cumulus clouds), seme-
times in layers one above the other, or side by side, like
the boards in the floor (layer or stratus clouds), sometimes
black with rain coming from them (rain or nimbus clouds),
sometimes covering the whole sky with a gray veil, like
fog.

Beauty. Due to light fleecy or " piled-up " appearance,
contrasting with the deep blue sky behind them, to the
endless variations in form and color, to the rich hues at
sunset or sunrise. Perhaps the children can tell something
about the clouds in the moonlight. How much they add
to the sky and to the world and to our life, if we will but
look upward !

Relation to " steam " and fog. Bring out ways in which
clouds are like steam or water dust, and like fog, leading
up to idea that clouds are masses of water dust high in air.
Tell children how people on the tops of mountains can often
see the clouds on the mountain side below them, looking
like great masses of water dust or fog; how as they go
down the mountain side they get into the clouds, which are

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 483

just like fog, and as they go farther down they pass out of
the fog, and see the clouds above them.

A verse from Lowell may help to impress the humble
relationships of the clouds, the high destiny of the water
dust:

" For countless services I'm fit,

Of use, of pleasure, and of gain,
But lightly from all bonds I flit,

Nor lose my mirth, nor feel a strain ;
From mill or wash-tub I escape,
And take in heaven my proper shape."

Uses. Dwell on their esthetic use, to beautify the world.
The clouds are also blankets, or like an umbrella or parasol
to people on the earth. They catch and hold many of the
hot sunbeams in summer, thus making it cooler for us.
At other times they keep the earth from getting cold too
quickly, much as our clothes keep us warm when the air
is cold. The third great use of clouds, to produce, by the
condensation of their water dust, rain and snow, can be
touched on here, and brought out again in the later
work.

Literature. Some of the following may serve as an in-
troduction to the out-of-door observation of clouds. Read
to the children, or recited by the little folks as they are
together watching the sky, they may give direction to their
thoughts. Portions of Shelley's " The Cloud " will mean
much, even to little folks, after they have observed and
enjoyed the clouds.

CLOUDLETS.

" Little white cloudlets up in the sky,
Say, are you snowy ships sailing on high ?
Or are you downy sheep running to find
Shelter away from the rude blowing wind ? "

484 NATURE STUDY.

LITTLE CLOUDS.

" High above us, slowly sailing,

Little clouds so soft and white,
You are like the wings of angels,
Watching o'er us day and night.'7

RAIN SHOWER.

" Plump little baby clouds,

Dimpled and soft,
Rock in their air-cradles,
Swinging aloft.

Snowy cloud mothers,
With broad bosom white,

Watch o'er the baby clouds
Slumbering light.

Tired little baby clouds

Dreaming of fears,
Turn in their air-cradles,

Dropping soft tears.

Great snowy mother clouds,

Brooding o'er all,
Let their warm mother tears

Tenderly fall."

Author not known.

A JOURNEY TO CLOUDLAND AND BACK.

t

" Some little drops of water
Whose home was in the sea,
To go upon a journey
Once happened to agree.
They had a cloud for carriage,
And drove a playful breeze,
And over town and country
They rode along at ease.
But, oh, there were so many,
That soon the carriage broke,

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 485

And to the ground came tumbling
The frightened little folk.
Then through the moss and grasses
They were compelled to roam
Until a brooklet found them,
And carried them all home."

Selected.

THE CLOUD.

" 1 bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers,

From the seas and the streams ;
I bear light shade for the leaves when laid
In their noonday dreams.

From my wings are shaken the dews that waken

The sweet buds every one,
When rocked to rest on their mother's breast,

As she dances about the sun.

I sift the snow on the mountains below,

And their great pines groan aghast ;
And all the night 'tis my pillow white,

While I sleep in the arms of the blast.

I am the daughter of earth and water,

And the nursling of the sky ;
I pass through the pores of the ocean and shores ;

I change, but I cannot die."

PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY.

BLACKBOARD READING LESSON.

The following reading lesson, copied from the blackboard
in a second-grade room in the Practice School of the
Oswego State Normal School, was prepared, largely gained
from the children by questioning, by Miss Bessie Bloom-
field. It illustrates the right spirit in the cloud study, and
shows how individuality can be encouraged and preserved,
even in a class reproduction.

486 NATURE STUDY.

CLOUDS.

41 We have all seen the clouds.
Some of us have seen pictures in the clouds.
Jamie saw a little golden cloud.
The sun shone on the cloud, and made it golden.
John saw a little silvery cloud.
The moon shone on the cloud, and made it silvery.
A little star shone through this cloud.

Winifred and Albert have seen clouds that look like mountains.
The clouds have work to do.

They wear their dark dresses when they do their work.
They send us rain and snow.
The clouds are bunches of water dust."

WATER DUST, FROST, ICE, SNOW.

Preparation. Review by experiment the conditions
necessary for making water dust : water ; some heat to
evaporate it ; some cold to condense it. Show how much
more rapidly it is formed when the vapor is shut in so that
it cannot scatter through the air, and when the air is there-
fore full of vapor. This can be shown by placing a bottle
of ice-water on a cork or block of wood in a saucer contain-
ing a little warm water, and inverting over the saucer and
bottle, a glass jar, or tin can.

FROST.

Formation. Use the same apparatus as is described
above. Use a wide-mouthed bottle, such as a quinine bot-
tle, and fill with a mixture of finely pounded ice and salt,
about one-quarter salt and three-quarters ice. Good results
can be obtained with a half-pound baking-powder can
(with the paper removed from part of it), to contain ice and
salt, and, inverted over it, a two-quart tin fruit- or coffee-
can (with a nail-hole in it). Show children that the ice
is used to make the bottle or can cool, and the salt to help

WIN TEE EARTH STUDY. 487

the ice. Invert larger jar or can over bottle and saucer,
as before, and heat gently over alcohol stove. Soon frost
will form on the surface of the bottle or can which con-
tains the ice and salt. Watch the process very carefully,
removing the inverted jar frequently. Note how the minute
particles of frost form ; how they grow, some pushing
away from the surface of the bottle, some sending out
arms over the bottle ; how the arms often interlace ; how
the frost crystals glisten; how cold they feel, and how
they melt, showing that they are made of water or ice.
If the same experiment is repeated, but without the inverted
jar or can, children can see that the frost forms best where
there is much moisture, and where it cannot scatter through
the air, and can explain why frost forms most quickly in
low places and on quiet nights. A wooden water-pail filled
or partly filled with a mixture of finely pounded ice and
salt soon becomes coated with frost. The star-like frost crys-
tals, resembling minute snowflakes usually form freely ; they
should be observed with a magnifying-glass, a reading-glass
if obtainable.

Perhaps the children can tell where frost forms on the
windows at home, — most abundantly in or near the kitchen
or washroom or bath-room, where there is plenty of mois-
ture or water dust. Why ?

Observation of frost work. Whenever frost work on
windows is particularly good, stop other nature work to
study the frost pictures with the children. If it is pos-
sible to see how the frost work grows or spreads over the
window-panes, or to get one or two children to watch it at
home and tell about it, much will be gained. Try to find
some of the little star-like crystals (as a preparation for
snow study). Note how the arms or branches crowd to-
gether, and push out from the glass (as a preparation for
the study of the formation of ice). How the children

488 NATURE STUDY.

enjoy finding leaves and ferns and trees and church spires
and fairy palaces and little villages in the frost pictures !

" These winter nights against my window-pane
Nature with busy pencil draws designs
Of ferns and blossoms, and fine spray of pines,
Oak-leaf and acorn and fantastic vines,
Which she will make when summer comes again."

T. B. ALDRICH.

Observe, when possible, the frost on grass, walks, and
fences, even if the opportunity to do so does not not come
until weeks after the regular frost study. It is only by
frequently reviewing and applying what has been learned,
that it can be fixed in the minds of the children. If at
any time during the winter, trees and other objects become
incased in ice, as after a sleety rain, much can be . im-
pressed about the beauty of the frost-work.

" Then he flew to the mountain, and powdered its crest ;
He lit on the trees, and their boughs he dressed
In diamond beads ; and over the breast

Of the quivering lake he spread
A coat of mail, that it need not fear
The downward point of many a spear,
That he hung on its margin, far and near,
Where a rock could rear its head."

HANNAH F. GOULD.

The Work of Jack Frost. Now — after the children
have observed for themselves — they are ready for Jack
Frost, whose work they have been studying. Now he is
not likely to lead them far astray ; what they have seen
will guide their fancy, and direct somewhat their imagina-
tion. How much interest he adds to their work !

How shall we picture Jack Frost to the little folks?
Shall we give them the " Frost Spirit " of Whittier, who
blasts the fields, and smites the leaves, the spirit with the

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 489

"fearful breath/7 who bows the pines and the "torpid
touch/' who chains the streams, a veritable angel of death ?
Or shall we picture him as a jolly little elf, full of pranks,
pinching our fingers, nipping our ears, and yet one of our
best friends, and one of Mother Nature's greatest helpers
and most useful messengers ?

He pinches our ears, but he brings the roses to our
cheeks and the sparkle to our eyes. Mother Nature sends
him to tell us to dress warmly, and to get warm by keeping
our hands and feet and heart and blood at work. No lazy
boys and girls for him ! And yet, when night comes, and
we are tucked in warm and snug, how he makes us sleep !

He chills the water dust, but how he changes it ! At his
touch water dust covers our windows with fairy pictures
and silver stars, dresses the grass with diamonds, decks
the trees and fences with glittering moss, even spreads
over the blue sky a feathery, filmy lace, for the feathery
(cirrus) clouds that we enjoy so much are made of little
ice crystals which Jack Frost forms high in the air.
There he works, even in summer time. We shall find that
all the snowflakes are made by him.

His touch stilled the brook ; but it was the loving, restful
touch of Mother Nature, not the "torpid touch" of the
angel of death. The little brook felt it, —

"And built a roof

' Neath which he could house him winter-proof ;
All night by the white stars' frosty gleams
He groined his arches, and matched his beams ;
Slender and clear were his crystal spars
As the lashes of light that trim the stars.
He sculptured every summer delight
In his halls and chambers out of sight ;
Sometimes his tinkling waters slipt
Down through a frost-leaved forest crypt,
Long, sparkling aisles of steel -stemmed trees
Bending to counterfeit a breeze ;

III

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He had caught the nodding bullrush tops,

And hung them thickly with diamond drops,

That crystalled the beams of moon and sun,

And made a star of every one.

No mortal builder's rare device

Could match this winter palace of ice."

LOWELL : Vision of Sir Launfal.

Jack Frost breathes on trees and flowers, and bids them
" lie down to sleep." Their work is done. They need
rest, to prepare for the larger, more beautiful life of the
spring. Only to the tardy ones, who have delayed their
work, or to the plant-lives whom man has brought from
the lands where Nature uses gentler messengers, does
he sometimes come with a " fearful breath." He some-
times " smites the leaves," but not until their work on
the tree is done, and another work calls them to the ground.
To the tree they might bring harm, by catching the winds,
and holding up the " cold burdens " of winter. To Mother
Nature's seed-babies and insect children they bring a cover-
ing, over which Jack Frost soon gently drops the snow.

" I never knew before what beds,

Fragrant to smell, and soft to touch,

The forest sifts and shapes and spreads.

I never knew before how much

Of human sound there is in such

Low tones as through the forest sweep
When all wild things ' lie down to sleep.'

Each day I find new coverlids
Tucked in, and more sweet eyes shut tight;

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 491

j j

Sometimes the viewless mother bids
Her ferns kneel down, full in my sight ;
I hear the chorus of l Good-night ; '
And half I smile, and half I weep,
Listening while they clie down to sleep.' "

HELEN HUNT JACKSON.

ICE.

Formation. Place shallow pan with very cold water on
ledge outside of window, on north side of building if
possible, at least where sun does not shine. Let chil-
dren observe, through a reading-glass if possible, the
forming of the ice crystals. If it is a fairly cold winter
day, some time (ten minutes or more) may be required for
the formation of crystals.

A wooden water-pail, nearly filled with finely pounded
ice and salt, and covered with a pane of glass, can be used
to show in the schoolroom the formation of ice crystals
and ice. If a small tin fruit-can and a glass fruit-jar,
each filled with ice-water, be placed in the pail, with the
ice well packed around each, the tin can will show the
formation of the needle-shaped crystals ; and the trans-
lucent deposit of ice on the inside of the glass jar will re-
veal many forms already seen in the frost, and show that
ice is simply thick frost. The children can watch the pro-
cess through the pane of glass, removing it occasionally.
The ice crystals do not form so readily if the water is
jarred or is in motion.

Have pupils observe and tell about the shape, size, and
color of a single needle-like crystal, and compare with the
simple frost crystals they may have observed. Watch and
tell how the crystals come together and interlace. »

Examine pan of ice which has been on window ledge
two or three hours. The tracing of crystals may still be
seen on the top, but below it is a compact mass. If pan

492 NATURE STUDY.

is used with very small hole in bottom, through which
water may trickle very slowly, masses of needle-shaped
crystals may be formed projecting in from the sides.

Place pan first examined out on window ledge, and
leave several hours until children can see that the crys-
tal needles have become wedged and joined together to
form the solid ice. Try to have children observe outdoors
or at home the appearance and formation of ice.

After such observational study of ice crystals and ice,
even the little folks enjoy and appreciate the beauty of
portions of the selection from Lowell's "Vision of Sir
Launfal."

Cannot the children see something of the formation,
growth, and beauty of the icicles ? An old pan or can,
perforated so that the water may escape from it slowly,
suspended outside the window on a cold day, may show
the little folks something of the formation of icicles, from
dripping water slowly congealing and constantly lengthen-
ing downward (or sometimes upward), and adding new
layers. This will not merely add to the children's appreci-
ation of common things, but may prepare for an under-
standing of the way Mother Nature decorates her under-
ground palaces in limestone caves with similar, but even
more beautiful forms, frozen in stone.

Expansion of ice. Fill a bottle or other glass or earthen-
ware vessel with water, and place out on window ledge
over night, or place in the freezing mixture of pounded
ice and salt. The pressure of the ice crystals, all trying
to lengthen and thicken as they interlace, causes the ice to
expand, or "get bigger," as the children say, cracking the
vessel in which the water is, if it is not very strong, or
pushing up, as when water freezes in a strong pail. Apply
to bursting of pitchers, water-pipes, etc., in cold weather.
If the water is kept running, it is not so apt to freeze.
Why?

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 493

Work and use. How Jack Frost uses ice for his heav-
ier, more solid decorations on houses and trees ! How it
sparkles in the sunlight, and glistens in the moonlight.
How it bridges the brooks and rivers, and covers the lakes
and ponds! How it brings to us all the sport of sliding
and skating ! How the cold of winter is stored up in the
ice (expressed from the children's point of view) and kept
in our ice-houses until summer, when it cools our water,
and keeps our milk sweet, and helps us take care of our
food ! In places where much ice is cut, it may be well to
study something of the process of cutting and storing ice.
An inspection of an ice-box or refrigator in use, or of a
cold-storage room, will impress strongly the usefulness of
ice.

The breaking of pitchers and bursting of water-pipes
seem to be pure mischief on the part of Jack Frost. But
this is only another illustration of the fact that apparent
evils are often great blessings in disguise. This "mis-
chief" of Jack Frost, the expanding of ice as it freezes,
makes the ice lighter, and causes it to float on the top
of the water. If it did not expand, or if it contracted, as
most substances do as they change from the liquid to the
solid state, our lakes and streams would become solid
masses of ice, from bottom to top, which the summer's
sun could never melt. This same expansion is the main
agent in breaking up our rocks into soil. The water which
has soaked into rocks and stones expands as it freezes,
making them finer and finer each winter, so that the plant
roots can go through them, and get the food they need.
Jack Frost is thus one of the best friends of the farmer.
The farmer who ploughs in the fall knows that Jack Frost
is going to keep on ploughing for him all winter. This
work of frost and ice can be best studied in the spring.
It is discussed under the topic : " Work of water in soil-
uxaking." (See page 513.)

494 NATURE STUDY,

SNOW.

Aim and order of study. In the snow study more, per-
haps, than in any other work with the forms of water, the
main aim is esthetic, the appreciation of beauty. The
snow has always appealed to the poets and nature lovers,
and there is much excellent literature which should be
used to impress the best thoughts in the study of snow.

Begin with what children can see, — the observation of
snow, its beauty and purity in masses, the beauty it
gives to nature, its falling, and the forms of the snow
crystals. Leave until the last the story of the formation
of snow, because it must be largely told to the children,
only based indirectly on sense-perception.

ORDER OF LESSONS.

Lesson I. Field Lesson. Out-door Observation of Snow.
Lesson II. Review and Summary of Field Lesson.
Lessons III. and IV. Uses of Snow.
Lesson Y. Formation or Story of Snow.

LESSON I. FIELD LESSON.

Note. A few moments of well-directed observation out-
doors will impress more deeply the beauty and work of
snow than a much longer time in the schoolroom. The
essentials in a successful field lesson are : the right spirit,
a sympathetic, appreciative observation of what cannot be
so well seen indoors ; definite work for each pupil, adapted
to their capacities ; a careful review indoors, to fix the
important facts discovered, and to impress the right atti-
tude toward the outdoor world.

If it seems impossible to take the children outdoors,
much can be seen from the school windows. Snow-flakes
collected on. a black cloth wrapped closely around a tin

WIN TEE EARTH STUDY. 495

pai\ containing a freezing mixture of ice and salt, will
usually keep their form several minutes in the schoolroom ;
a pane of glass should be placed over them to protect from
the effects of the warm breath of the children.

Preparation. Read to the children and discuss briefly,
with them, one of the following :

14 Tiny little snow-flakes,

In the air so high,
Are you little angels

Floating in the sky ?
Robed so white and spotless,

Flying like a dove,
Are you little creatures

From the world above ?

Whirling on the sidewalks,

Dancing in the street,
Kissing all the faces

Of the children sweet ;
Loading all the housetops,

Powdering all the trees,
Cunning little snow-flakes,

Little busy bees."

LUCY LARCOM.

" Softly from the sky is falling

Snow-flakes white as lilies fair;
Gently to each other calling
As they float down through the air.

Softly, softly, oh, so softly,

Do they come from dizzy heights ;

Gently; gently, oh so gently !
Do they lay a blanket white.

Over all the many housetops,

Over shrubs and tall, tall trees,
Over hills and fields and meadows,

Hiding stones and restless leaves."

CJ.AP?.

496 NATURE STUDY.

" Little fairy people,

Dancing in the sky,
Dressed in soft white raiment,

As they downward fly,
Play with little children,

Kiss their cheeks so red,
Keep the flowers cosy

In their earthly bed,
Robe the world in beauty

In a single night,
Covering trees and houses

Till they sparkle bright."

WINIFRED MARSH.

Draw on the blackboard pictures of two or three simple
forms of snow-flakes, impressing on children that the snow-
flakes drawn are starlike, glistening white, with six arms.

Divide the children into three groups, — the first to watch
the falling of the snow-flakes ; the second to find out all
they can about the snow covering and the beauty it gives
to the world ; the third to study the crystals.

To the first group give a few such questions as : How
do the snow-flakes fly ? Like birds ? Like kites ? Do they
play or dance about, or do they come straight down, as stones
do ? Do they come fast or slow ? How do they feel when
they light on your hand ? How are they like angels ?
Like « little busy bees " ? Like " little fairy people " ?
Like " little ships in the air " ?

Try to have the second group notice how the snow forms
a carpet for the earth and how the flakes catch, one by one,
on the trees.

" And when a snow-flake finds a tree,
1 Good-day ! ' it says, ' Good-day to thee ! '
* Thou art so bare and lonely, dear,
I'll rest and call my playmates here.' "

How do they drape the trees ? How* does the snow look
on the evergreen tree ? On which side of the trees is there

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 497

the most snow ? Can you tell from which direction the
snow fell on the trees ? How ? Can you find any snow
curtains or snow lace ? Can you find any snow caps on the
posts ? How does the snow look on the fences ? On the
roofs and chimneys ? How does it look where the sun shines
on it ? Try to find all the ways in which the snow makes
the world beautiful.

The special work of the third group — and it should
include some of the " sharp eyes " — is to see how many
kinds of snow-flakes they can discover and show to their
teacher. A large magnifying-glass, such as a reading-glass,
will greatly help them in their search. They can see best
the flakes which fall on their clothes, or, better, on a black
cloth or umbrella.

Conduct of field lesson. Let the children scatter some-
what, the teacher helping the weaker ones by questions, but
throwing the observational work on the children as much as
possible. After a few minutes gather them together, and try
to have all of them see what different pupils have discovered
individually. Clear up disputed or uncertain points.

Will they not appreciate better now one of the poems
already given ? Some of them may see what Lowell
means when he writes :

" Every pine and fir and hemlock

Wears ermine too dear for an earl ;
And the poorest twig on the elm tree
Is ridged inch deep with pearl."

Perhaps some one can sing to them before they go in-
doors (to the tune of " Sing a Song of Sixpence ") : —

" Sing a song of snow-flakes

Dancing through the air !
See them whirling, playing,
Falling everywhere.

498 NATURE STUDY,

Tiny little snow-flakes,

Sparkling, clear, and white,

May we all as gentle be,
To those we love as bright.

Sing a song of snow-flakes

From the world above,
Softly, softly falling, —

Are they full of love ?
Beautiful white fairies,

Dressed in silver spray,
Happy little snow-flakes all

Merrily at play. "

ADELLE J. GRAY.

LESSON II. REVIEW OF FIELD LESSON.

Have children tell as much as they can about each of
the three topics, — how the snow-flakes fall ; how the snow-
flakes make the world beautiful ; how the snow-flakes look.
Try to keep the thought on one topic at a time, finishing
that before discussing another.

The children may be helped by reading with them again
one of the poems given in Lesson L, or " A Snow Song,"
given at the end of this lesson, or by reading to them por-
tions of Bryant's " Little People of the Snow."

One or more stories or blackboard reading lessons, some-
what like those below, ^ill be helpful. With little first-
grade children it may be helpful to read these to the chil-
dren, after they have told what they can. Second-grade
children can aid in preparing these lessons ; that is, many
of the statements can be gained from the children by ques-
tioning. These " stories," either written on the blackboard
or copied with the hektograph, should then be used as
reading lessons. Third-grade boys and girls should be
able, with some help, to write some such stories for them-
selves, making the work as individual as possible.

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 499

Instead of writing about how the snow-flakes look, it may
be best for each child who looked carefully at a snow-flake,
and thinks he can remember it, to make a drawing of it.
Special pains must be taken to have the children draw, as
carefully and truthfully as they can, only what each child
saw for himself. Discourage and frown upon mere copy-
ing. It is, in such work, a species of untruth.

THE SNOW-FAIRIES.

I. How the Snow-Fairies Come.

We all went outdoors.

We saw the snow-flakes fall.

They were like little birds.

We called the snow-flakes snow-fairies.

They come from cloud-land.

They fly so softly.

They dance up and down.

The wind makes them dance.

They play like boys and girls.

They fall so gently.

We could not feel them fall.

We love the snow-fairies.

II. How the Snow-Fairies Make the Earth Beautiful.

The snow-fairies fall on the trees.
They cover some trees with lace.
The snow-fairies say to the trees :

" Thou art so bare and lonely, dear,
I'll rest and call my playmates here."

The snow-fairies look so white on the evergreen trees.

They make white caps on the posts.

They cover the dark earth.

They make a white dress for Mother Earth.

They shine in the sunlight.

The snow-fairies make the earth beautiful.

Mother Earth loves the snow-fairies.

500 NATURE STUDY.

III. How the Snow-flakes Look.

Mary looked at the snow-flakes.

She had a glass which made them look big.

She says they look like stars.

John says they are thin, like paper.

The snow-flakes are white, as white as they can be.

They shine so when the sun looks at them.

Many snow-flakes have six arms.

Some have only four arms.

Miss Grey says some arms fell off.

Some arms have many little fingers.

Mary thinks Jack Frost made the snow-flakes up in cloud-lando

The snow-flakes are so pure and beautiful.

Literature.

A SNOW-SONG.

44 There's a wonderful weaver

High up in the air,
And he weaves a white mantle

For cold Earth to wear.
With the wind for his shuttle,

The cloud for his loom,
How he weaves, how he weaves,

In the light, in the gloom !

Oh ! with finest of lace

He decks bush and tree ;
On the broad barren meadows

A cover lays he ;
Then a quaint cap he places

On pillar and post,
And he changes the pump

To a silent, grim ghost.

But this wonderful weaver

Grows weary at last,
And the shuttle lies idle
' That once flew so fast.
Then the sun peeps abroad

On the work he has done,
And cries, ' I'll unravel it all.

Just for fun.' "

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 501

LESSON III. USES OF SNOW. WHAT THE SNOW DOES FOR US.

Preparation. Sing at the morning exercises or before'
the lesson a coasting or sleighing song.

Step I. How the snow makes the world beautiful for us.
Try to impress the thought that the beauty which the
snow gives to the world is so much added to our life.

Step II. How the snow brings happiness to boys and
girls.

Have children tell about their favorite winter sports.
Ask them why they like winter. Name and count the
sports and pleasures which the snow gives to children, —
snow-balling, making snow men, coasting, sleighing, etc.

Step III. How the snow helps grown people.

How snow aids us in travelling about and in carrying
things. How much more easily we can travel, and how
much heavier loads we can carry, when there is ulenty of
snow. How much snow helps the lumbermen.

Step IV. How the snow helps the Esquimos.

Try to give the children some idea of the land where
there is snow all the year round, and of the usefulness of
snow to the people who live there. Picture the life of
Agoonac (see Jane Andrew's " Seven Little Sisters" and
" Each and All "), the way she dresses to keep warm, her
house — often made of ice or snow — and the sled in which
she is pulled by the dogs over miles of ice and snow.

Step V. Expression.

Have children draw Esquimo house or sled, or model
the Esquimo hut. If they can build outdoors, at recess or
noon, an Esquimo house of snow, so much the better.

502 NATURE STUDY.

LESSON IV. THE USES OF SNOW. HOW SNOW PROTECTS.

Step I. How snow keeps man warm.

Review the story of the snow house in which Agoonac
lived. Have children tell or tell them how people pile the
snow around their houses to keep them warm. Tell how
people have kept warm for days buried under deep snow.
Compare snow with cotton in " comfortables."

Step II. How snow keeps animals warm.

Read the following, and picture the rabbit burrowing
under the snow :

" The woods and fields are buried deep

Under the snow ;
The hedges lie in a tangled heap

Under the snow ;

And the little gray rabbits under them creep,
While the twittering sparrows cunningly peep
From the sheltering briars, and cosily sleep
Under the snow."

JOHN H. BONNER.

Step III. How snow keeps the plants warm.

Perhaps some of the children can tell how their fathers
bury vegetables to keep them through the winter. They
should certainly be able to understand by this time, and be
ready to tell, that snow is the cover that ,Mother Nature
sends to protect her plants, and particularly her plant
babies. Eecall how Mother Nature sends the leaves in the
fall to cover seeds and buds, and hosts of animals, and how,
a little later, she often spreads over them her snow mantle.

Literature.

PUTTING THE WORLD TO BED.

" The little snow people are hurrying down

From their home in the clouds overhead ;
They are working as hard as ever they can,
Putting the world to bed.

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 503

Every tree in a soft fleecy nightgown they clothe ;

Each part has its night-cap of white.
And o'er the cold ground a thick cover they spread

Before they say good-night.

And so they come eagerly sliding down,

With a swift and silent tread,
Always as busy as busy can be,

Putting the world to bed."

ESTHER W. BUXTON.

" Little snow-flakes falling lightly,
Little snow-flakes falling whitely,
Cover up the sleeping flowers,
Keep them warm through winter hours.

Do you know

Why the snow
Is hurrying through the garden so ?

Just to spread

A nice soft bed

For the little sleepy flowers' head,

To cuddle up the baby ferns, and smooth the lily's sheet,
And tuck a warm white blanket down around the roses' feet.'1

THE BABY FERNS.

" Qh! what shall we do the long winter through ?
The! baby ferns wept when the mother slept.
The wind whistled bleak, the woodland was drear;
On each baby cheek there glistened a tear.

Then down from the clouds, like a flutter of wings,
There came a whole crowd of tiny white things,
That trooped in a heap where the baby ferns lay,
And put them to sleep that bleak winter day.

Tucked under the snow in their little brown hoods,
Not a thing will they know, these babes in the woods,
Till some day in spring, when the bobolinks sing,
They will open their eyes to the bluest of skies."

Author not known.

504 NATURE STUDY.

LESSON V. FORMATION OR STORY OF SNOW.

Step I. formation of frost.

Be view briefly what children observed about formation
of frost, — the evaporation of water, its condensation to
water dust, the freezing of these to form frost crystals.

Step II. Formation of clouds.

Review briefly what was observed about formation of
water dust, steam, or fog, and clouds.

Step III. Formation of snow-flakes.

Now cannot we take the children, in imagination, to
cloudland, and tell them — or get them to tell — how the
snow-flakes are made ? In the sky the snow-flakes have
plenty of room to form perfect crystals. The frost and ice
crystals are crowded together. Try to follow the journey
of a drop of water from the tea-kettle to the clouds, its
change to a snow-flake, and its trip back to us.

" Pretty little snow-flake,
Shining like a star,
Did you come to find us
From some world afar ?
Nay, my home was nearer,
Dear, than you suppose ;
From the kitchen kettle
Through the air I rose.
I longed in chilly cloudland
To see you once again ;
And so I flew, a snow-flake,
To your window pane."
Literature.

THE SNOW-FLAKE.

11 It was a little snow-flake
With tiny winglets furled ;
Its warm cloud mother held it fast
Above the sleeping world.

W1NTEH EARTH STUDY. 505

cce-1-

TJNIVI

All night the wild wind blustered,
And blew o'er land and sea ;
But the little snow-flake cuddled close,
As safe as safe could be.

Then came the cold gray morning,
And the great cloud mother said-
4 Now every little snow-flake
Must proudly lift her head,
And through the air go sailing
Till it finds a place to alight,
For I must weave a coverlet
To clothe the world in white.'

The little snow-flake fluttered,

And gave a wee, wee sigh ;

But fifty million other flakes

Came floating softly by ;

And the wise cloud mothers sent them

To keep the world's bread warm,

Through many a winter sunset,

Through many a night of storm." x

MARGARET E. SANGSTER.

LITTLE SHIPS IN THE AIR.

"Flakes of snow with sails so white,

Drifting down the wintry skies,
Tell me where your route begins,

Say which way your harbor lies.
In the clouds, the roomy clouds,

Arching earth with shadowy dome,
There's the port from which we sail,

There is tiny snow-flake's home.

And the cargo that you take

From these cloudy ports above, —
Is it always meant to bless,

Sent in anger or in love ?
Warmth for all the tender roots,

Warmth for every living thing,
Water for the river's flow,

This the cargo that we bring.

506 NATURE STUDY.

Who's the master that you serve,

Bids you lift your tiny sails,
Brings you safely to the earth,

Guides you through the wintry gales ?
He who tells the birds to sing,

He who sends the April flowers,
He who ripens all the fruit,

That great Master, He is ours."

E. A. RAND.

WATER DUST, DEW, RAIN.

Water dust. Begin again with experiments showing
formation of vapor and water dust. Show how this is
condensed into drops, impressing the importance of cold
by showing how much more rapidly the drops of water
are formed when a cold slate or glass or plate is used than
when a warm object is placed in the vapor or water dust.
Dew and rain are thus readily formed in the schoolroom.

A jar or pitcher of ice- water in the room may show the
condensation of water on its surface. If the air of the
schoolroom is too dry, place a bottle of ice-water on a
cork or block in a saucer containing a little warm water,
and invert over the bottle a glass jar. Heating this
slightly over the alcohol stove will cause a more rapid
evaporation of the water in the saucer, and insure the con-
densation of dew on the surface of the cold bottle. To
form water dust we find necessary water, some heat to
cause evaporation, some cold to cause condensation.

Dew. Apply these conditions to explanations of dew.
It forms in low, damp places, or near the sea or lakes or
rivers when there may be no dew on the hills or away
from water. Why ? It forms in the evening, not usu-
ally in the daytime. Why ? Dew is most apt to form
when there is little or no wind. Why ? It is a little more
apt to form on clear nights than on cloudy nights. Why ?

Touch on the uses of dew. Many regions depend largely

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 507

on it for the water for plants. Regions of heavy dews are
usually fertile , regions, and do not find rain so necessary.
In Gen. ii. 5 and 6, we read : " The Lord God had not
caused it to rain upon the earth . . . ; but there went up a
mist from the earth and watered the whole face of the
ground."

Dew can be best studied in spring or early summer,
when its work, its value to plants and to man, and the
beauty of its jewels glistening in the morning sun, can be
seen and appreciated by the children.

WATER JEWELS.
" A million little diamonds
Twinkled on the trees ;
And all the little maidens said,

4 A jewel, if you please ! '
But when they held their hand outstretched

To catch the diamonds gay,

A million little sunbeams came,

And stole them all away. ' '

MRS. M. I. BUTTS.

HELP ONE ANOTHER.
" ' Help one another,' the dewdrop cried,
Seeing another drop close to its side ;
4 The warm south wind would dry me away,
And I should be gone ere noon to-day ;
But I'll help you, and you help me,
And we'll make a brook and run to the sea.' "

Rain. Formation. In the schoolroom ; on the kitchen
windows or walls on wash-day ; in the sky. Conditions
necessary, — evaporation from water or damp places ;
water dust and vapor in the air ; cold to make it condense.
Cold may be due to cold slate ; cold window or walls ;
cold hills or mountains up or against which the moist air
may blow ; cold regions of the air high above the earth,
into which water dust and vapor may rise ; cold countries

508 NATURE STUDY.

to which the warmer moist air may be carried by the
winds. Each of these ways in which rain may be formed
can be related to experiments on rain-making in the school-
room. The little folks will not comprehend it all ; but, if
the work is based on actual experiments, on what they
have seen, well directed and reviewed, they will have foun-
dations for a clear understanding of the subject a year or
two later in their geography work.

Falling. Try to watch and study with the children
the falling of the rain : the home from which it comes, —
the dark clouds or the dull leaden sky ; the way it comes
to us, — steady or irregularly, fast or slow, straight down or
oblique ; its helper, — the wind, and the way the wind drives
the drops ; the course it takes, — following branches and
tree-trunks, dripping from the leaves, falling from the roofs,
rushing through the gutters ; the voices of the rain, — the
patter on the window, the splashing in the pools, the clat-
tering on the roof, the roaring down the gutter, the gur-
gling and gushing from the spout.

Work. Begin with what children can see. How it
washes trees and plants and buildings. How it beats
the ground, stirring mud and sand, and carrying them
along. How it wears channels, making them deeper and
wider. How it rushes along, always doing something,
always seeking lower places where it may find the brook
or river or lake. How it leaves much of its load when it
enters a quiet pool, dropping stones and sand, and carry-
ing the mud farther. How it <nnks into the earth.

" Still the earth

Drinks the unstinted bounty of the clouds —
Drinks for her cottage wells, her woodland brooks —
Drinks for the springing trout, the toiling bee,
And brooding bird — drinks for her tender flowers,
Tall oaks, and all the herbage of the hills."

BRYANT.

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 509

Follow the rain in imagination into the earth. How it
drives out the frost, softens the ground, moistens seeds and
roots ! How the seeds welcome it ! How the roots drink
it in ! How soon the buds begin to grow ! How the spring
flowers waken, and stretch themselves, and push upward.

t4 The friendly clouds drop down spring violets,
And summer columbines, and all the flowers
That tuft the woodland floor, or overarch
The streamlet: — spiky grass for genial June,
Brown harvests for the waiting husbandman,
And for the woods a deluge of fresh leaves."

BRYANT.

Review story. Now, after the children have used their
eyes, they are ready to follow the journey of the rain-drops,
to become rain-drops themselves : to start in spring or
brook or river or sea; listen to the call of the beckon-
ing sunbeams ; rise in their filmy vapor dresses to cloud-
land, vapor and water dust playing tag and hide-and-seek
with one another ; ride in the wind chariots ; laugh at the
sun ; race and frolic until they see the thirsting ground,
and hear the sleepy call of the seeds and buds ; join hands,
with the help of the cooling breezes, drop, gently, slowly,
faster and faster, toward the welcoming earth ; dance on
the trees, scamper over the roofs, tumble along the ground ;
perhaps run and rush toward the brooks, to help them in
their spring cleaning and freshening ; perhaps sink into the
ground, to help the flowers; perhaps rest quietly in some
pool, or perch on the shoulders of some child, until called
back toward the smiling sun ; but singing, laughing, gur-
gling, always helping, always seeking the home from which
they started.

Literature. An excellent review story entitled, " Aqua,
the Water Baby " can be found in « The Story IJour " by
Kate Douglas Wig^in.

510 NATURE STUDY.

Helpful literature, parts of which even little folks in the
first grade enjoy, can be found in —

"Shower and Flower." Lucy Larcom.
"Rain in Summer." Longfellow.
" A Rain Dream." Bryant.

The following poems are added, as they are excellent
summaries of the work done :

A RHYME FOB A KAINY DAY.

" With pitter-patter, pitter-patter, on my window-pane,
Tapped clipper little visitors, the tiny drops of rain ;
They did not ask to enter, but in liquid tones I heard
This story, which, as told to me, I tell you, word for word :

4 Within a cool, deep well we lived, quite happy, side by side,
Until an empty bucket came, and asked us out to ride ;
Then springing in, away we went, drawn up into the air,
And a pretty china pitcher stood waiting for us there.

Beneath that pitcher's brim we thought much happiness to see ;
But soon a lump of ice popped in, with whom we can't agree ;
For though Ice claimed relationship before it married Frost,
With such a hard, cold-hearted thing all sympathy was lost.

Ice tried to steal our heart away ; but Air was on our side,
And when it felt how cold we were, it just sat down and cried.
You might have seen the tears upon the pitcher where they

pressed,
Till Ice itself was forced to melt, and mingle with the rest.

But next I have to tell you of a most amazing thing, —
Above a blazing fire we were made to sit and sing,
Till Bubbles brought the message up, that Heat would set us free ;
When, boiling hard, we just steamed oft', and gained our liberty !

We bounded off with motion swift, but met a colder wind,
Which blew so fast that everything grew cloudy to our mind.
We cared not to go higher then, we felt a heavy chill,
And down we came quite suddenly upon your window-sill.' "

JULIA M. COLTON,

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 511

THE DROP AND THE CLOUD.

44 In a mountain spring, a crystal drop
Came trembling up to the glassy top :
It came from the dark, cool depths of earth,
And the sunlight kissed it at its birth.

Far up in the azure realms of sky

The clouds of summer were sailing by ;

And the little drop looked up and said,

As it saw the glory overhead,

4 Oh, would that to me the boon were given

To move in the shining ranks of heaven ! '

And oft again, in its downward course,

As it hurried from its mountain source, —

A bubble, borne by the brimming brook

To many a wild and shadowed nook,

Or loitered slow with the wayward stream, —

It thought of its childhood's sky-born dream.

But on and away the waters flow

Through woodland and meadow far below,

Over sandy plain and snowy bank,

And through swamps and jungles dense and rank ;

Imprisoned long within rocky walls,

Now plunging down over dizzy falls,

That turn the wheels of the busy mill,

Now white with foam, now dark and still,

Till at length a river, deep and wide,

It flowed where cities stood by its side ;

And at last the river reached the sea,

And the dream and the dreamer ceased to be.

The drop was lost in the heaving deep

Where all the rivers of earth must sleep.

But the sun that kissed the new-born drop,
And whose floods of sunbeams never stop,
Had not forgotten his little child,
Born of a mist in the mountain wild ;
And he loosed his threads of golden light,
And up from a wave of snowy white

512 NATURE STUDY.

The drop was lifted so tenderly
It never knew when it left the sea,
But found itself drawn up to the sky,
Afloat in the heavens, soft and high,
As free as the winds of airy space,
As fair as the morning's tender grace.

One tranquil eve, 'mid the purple ones ^
That shine in the light of setting suns,
It saw far down on the distant earth
The forest spring where it had its birth,
And all of the winding way it went,
With many a murmur of discontent ;
And the early dream came back again,
As the thoughts of youth come back to men :
That thread of silver that ever turned
Away from the skies for which it yearned,
That wandering life of fall and foam
That seemed to lead it away from home, —
It now could see was the very road
That led it up to its blest abode."

L. D. BREWSTER : St. Nicholas, April, 1883.

THE UNITY OF NATURE.

Have teacher and children gained something of this
thought ?

" Thus the Seer,
With vision clear,
Sees forms appear and disappear,
In the perpetual round of strange,
Mysterious change,

From birth to death, from death to birth,
From earth to heaven, from heaven to earth :
Till glimpses more sublime
Of things, unseen before,
Unto his wondering eyes reveal
The universe, as an immeasurable wheel
Turning f orevermore
In the rapid rushing river of Time. "

LONGFELLOW.

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 513

THE WORK OF WATER IN SOIL-MAKING.

This topic forms an excellent transition to the spring
plant work, a preparation for the observation of the work
of rain and running water and an introduction to real
earth study, or geography. . It can be best studied in
March, April, or May.

THE BREAKING OF ROCKS TO MAKE SOIL.

Evidences. Rocks which are splitting or crumbling to
pieces are usually not difficult to find at this season, in the
fields or in old stone walls or foundations. Bring into
schoolroom, and show that the rock is not everlasting.

After the children are thus shown what to look for, an
out-door lesson may reveal many examples of " rotting "
rock. Visit, if possible, a rocky cliff or a bluff, or a street
cutting, or an old stone wall. Note the cracks and holes
through which water can enter. Often roots can be seen
penetrating the rocks. Bring back to school the best, that
is, the most " rotten/7 specimens.

Causes. Review, by an experiment if possible, what
was learned about the expansion of water when it freezes.
Show how water soaks into rocks such as slate, and even
into those which seem solid, like the stone window ledges.
When this water freezes what may it do? Jack Frost is
the greatest agent in breaking up rocks, and in making
the soil which the plants must have. Shall we complain if
he cracks a few pitchers in which we have carelessly left
water ?

Some of the specimens may ^how how the frost is helped
by the growth of the roots, which push into the cracks.

Show children the limestone incrustation from the tea-
kettle which must have been dissolved in the water, and was
deposited when the water evaporated. So water dissolves

514 NATURE STUDY.

even rock a little. Show how muriatic acid (obtained from
drug-store) placed in the water helps it dissolve such rocks
as mortar, limestone, and marble. Most water in the ground
contains a little acid. Many rocks, such as mortar, sand-
stone, and granite, consist of insoluble grains held together
by parts which are soluble. When the latter dissolves,
the other portions fall apart and make soil.

If the school is near a large body of water, with a
pebbly beach, the children can easily see how the stones
are rolled back and forth, and gradually worn into soil, by
the waves.

THE DECAY OF LEAVES TO MAKE SOIL.

Evidences. This can be best seen after there have been
some weeks of spring weather. Collect, or better, have
the children collect, and bring to school, leaves or leaf
mould in different stages of disintegration. Note their
dampness, and the earthworms usually abundant among
them. Collect also some leaves from dry places, which
have not disintegrated.

Recall the story as studied last fall of the work of the
leaves for the trees during the summer, of their coloring
in the autumn to make the world beautiful, of their falling
to cover the seeds and buds (and the baby earthworms)
through the winter's cold. Now they have another work,
— to make food, the very best food, for the plants' roots.
They are changing into something which will be drawn in
by the roots, travel up to the buds, and help to make new
leaves and flowers and seeds.

Causes. Compare the wet and dry leaves. Compare
the decayed leaves with those collected and pressed last
fall. Surely water had much to do in turning the leaves
into food for the plants. The earthworms helped by chew-
ing them, and breaking them into pieces.

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 515

HOW THE CHILDREN STUDIED SOIL-MAKING.

The following account, written by Mrs. C. L. Place, then
teacher of geography at the Teachers' Training School at
St. Paul, Minn., will show how one teacher conducted a
field lesson.

4 'The children of the second grade had watched the opening of
the buds, and had talked of the beauty and use of the leaves whose
growth they were watching, when the question arose as to what be-
came of the leaves after they fell from the trees. Their teacher said
they should go with her next day, and find out for themselves.

That night each child took home a little note, asking if he might
go with his class to the river for a field lesson ; and at the time for
opening school the next afternoon, the whole class boarded the
street-car.

After a half hour's ride, the point was reached where the teacher
had found the conditions favorable for the lesson on the formation of
soils. Down to a grove at the foot of the bluffs the class went, and
at once the dead fallen leaves attracted the children's notice. The
teacher's only directions were to dig, and as soon as anyone thought
he had found the answer to whisper it to her ; on no account was he
to tell anyone else what he thought he had discovered.

Like little beavers, too busy to think of running off to play, they
digged. Then one after another, with a cry of delight, ran to whisper
to the teacher. She went from group to group, directing this one to
a better place to dig, encouraging that one by telling him that his
answer was in plain sight ; and after about fifteen minutes of hard
working and thinking, every child had discovered for himself, and
had told the teacher, that the leaves ' broke all up, and mixed with
the sand, and made dirt.'

Into each basket was put a bit of loam in process of making, to
prove to parents the new-found fact. Then the children were led
along the foot of the bluff, talking of the strange fact, until the sand
attracted their attention. The teacher said, ;I wonder where the
sandy soil comes from ; ' and as she spoke she picked up a piece of
the soft sandstone, and crumbled it in her fingers. Instantly the
answer came, 'Why, the rocks crumble and make it.' A little far-
ther on the eager scientists came upon a pile of clay soil, with lime-
stone bits at the foot of limestone cliffs. One child said, * Here is

516 NATURE STUDY.

another kind of soil.' — 4 Yes, clay. I wonder if we can find how this
is made.' A glance up the cliff, and more quickly, because of the
discovery regarding the sand, the children told this story. As they
climbed the bluffs their attention was called to the condition of the
rocks near the top ; and the children- described just how they were
constantly breaking off, and tumbling to pieces at the foot, split up
by water and Jack Frost.

The next day their pieces of rock and samples of soils furnished
the text of an enthusiastic recitation, after which they wrote interest-
ing and thoroughly individual accounts of their trip, which was not
a picnic, but a live, earnest lesson."

THE WORK OF RAIN AND OF RUNNING WATER.

Our children have learned of the value of water in their
homes and in the air and sky. Perhaps they have discov-
ered how water and frost make the soil, by breaking up
the rocks, and hastening the decay of the leaves. Water is
also the greatest agent in shaping the earth, in carving its
hills, and in digging its valleys. Cannot we give the boys
and girls in the upper primary grades some idea of what
water is doing on and in the ground, and how it is doing
it, and thereby lay further foundations for real earth study
when they reach the geography work in later years ?

In no one line of work is there greater need and oppor-
tunity for out-of-door study than in geography, and prob-
ably no season is better for this than April and May. The
soil is in a condition to be easily affected by the spring rains,
and the erosive forces at work, and the effect of these
forces, can be seen almost anywhere. These excursions
need not be to any great distance ; often a trip of a block
or two will bring the party to a hill or valley or brook, a
cut or ditch or mud-puddle, affording excellent oppor-
tunities for the study of the action of water in erosion,
transportation, and deposit.

The boys and girls in the elementary schools, and par-
ticularly in the lower grades, will have their geographical

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 517

concepts made much clearer and broader. They will have
a better understanding of the forms of land and water, and
a much better conception of the earth as a thing of change ,
and development, and of the forces producing these changes.
Each ravine and valley, the brook meandering through the
plain, even the little stream or pool or mud-puddle formed
by the spring rains, will be, not an isolated fact, a mere
"what," but, to the observant out-of-door pupil, will be-
come part of a great whole, will constantly suggest the
questions " why ? " and " how ? " and will be a story full
of interest and value.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF THE WORK OF RAIN.

Visit after a rain-storm a bank or cut where the soil is
sandy or loose. If possible have some of the children
watch the rain at work, so that they can tell what it has
done and how it has done it. The action of the rain may
be imitated by pouring water from a watering-pot slowly
down the bank or incline.

In what kinds of soil are the deeper furrows made by the
rain streams (rills)? Why? Are the deepest furrows
made where the bank is steep, or where it is more nearly
horizontal ? Why ? What kinds or sizes of soil or other
material are carried farthest by these rills, the fine or the
coarse ? Why ? What kind or size of material is moved
the least ? Why ? Are the furrows straight or winding ?
Why? When the furrows open into a little pool, what
kind or size of material is deposited near the edge of the
pool ? What material is carried into the deeper parts of
the pool ? Why ? After a rain, what makes the water in
the pool " muddy " ? As the pool dries up, what kind of
soil covers the surface where the pool has been ? Why
is it covered with fine mud ? What kind of soil do you
find under the mud near the edge of the pond ? Why ?

518 NATURE STUDY.

THE WORK OF STREAMS.

A visit to a brook, to observe the work of streams in
wearing away, carrying, and depositing material, will sup-
plement the rain study. Observe such points as the fol-
lowing :

The velocity of the current. Swiftest in level or "steep"
parts of the stream ? In the middle, or at the sides ? On
the outside of a curve, or the inside ? In narrow or wide
places ? In shallow or deep places ? Why ? Compare
water in a curve to a wheel going around. Which part
goes most rapidly, the hub or the tire ? How does the
velocity affect the power the stream has of wearing away
the earth, and of carrying along mud, sand, or stones ?
Experiment and see.

The wearing away, or erosion, by the stream. Show how
it wears away deposits of soil placed in it. Where does
the stream wear most, on the outside or inside of curves ?
Why ? In what kind of soil does it wear most rapidly ?
What makes the stream wind about so ?

The carrying or transportation by the stream. Throw in
soil containing mud, sand, pebbles. Which drops first ?
Which is carried farthest ? Show by experiment differ-
ences in carrying-power in slow-flowing and swift-flowing
parts of the stream. Narrow or partly fill a portion of
stream, so as to increase its velocity, and note result on the
character of the bottom. Note appearance of bottom in
swift and slow parts of stream. The former is usually
sandy or stony, the latter muddy. Why ?

The deposits by the streams. Where, how, and why bars,
islands, points, and shallows are formed.

What the stream is making. Try to find illustrations
on a small scale, and to describe or define and explain the

WINTER EARTH STUDY. 519

formation of brook-basins, valleys, hills, slopes, plains,
points, deltas, bars, islands, rapids, straits, bays, shallows.

Important points to impress.

The stream, like the water in the air, is always at work.

The stream picks up, carries along, and drops mud, sand,
stones.

The swifter the stream, the more work it does.

The less room the stream has, the swifter it is.

The finer and lighter the soil, the more easily it is picked
up and carried along.

The stream cuts its own path, and makes the path change
and curve or wind.

It makes its own bars and islands and points.

It may make its own valley if it has time enough.

Streams have dug many valleys, little and great, and left
the hills standing between them.

Water has made the country look as it does.

Water has given the country most of its beauty.

Literature. The following bring out something of the
work of streams, and may help to make streams mean
more to the children than " bodies of water flowing through
the land."

" The Brooklet and the Wave." Longfellow.

" To my Brooklet." Longfellow.

" Mad River." Longfellow.

" The Boy and the Brook." Longfellow.

" Songo River." Longfellow.

"Friend Brook." Lucy Larcom.

"The Rivulet." Lucy Larcom.

"The Brook that ran into the Sea." Lucy Larcom.

" Rock and Rill." Lucy Larcom.

« The Brook." Tennyson.

SPRING NATURE STUDY.

AIMS AND OPPORTUNITIES. A LOOK AHEAD.

THE best season for beginning or emphasizing nature
study is the spring. Nature then attracts the attention of
the least observant, invites the least interested. Even
those who are almost nature-blind at other seasons notice
the evidences of renewed life in the spring, — the develop-
ing seed, bud, leaf, and flower, the return of the birds,
the activity of rain and stream.

We have agreed that in nature study, as, indeed, in all
education, the first essential is to interest the children. In
spring, if at no other time, they are interested, deeply,
intensely interested.

At this season none of them need be urged to use their
eyes. They do need to be directed, inspired, helped to
carefully observe and study, not merely glance at, the beau-
ties of nature, and lifted up to discover the lessons which
nature teaches.

A great advantage in the spring is the abundance of
material ; plants are particularly good, because the mate-
rial is usually so abundant that there is opportunity for
individual study by each pupil. The pupils of even the
most shut-in and unenlightened (by sunlight) city schools
can plant seeds, and study germination, and can usually get
a few branches or even weeds, to watch the development
of buds or the protection and unfolding of leaves.

In the spring there is greater opportunity for the study
of life ; and children are interested in life, development, and

520

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 521

growth. From their very nature they are most attracted by
that which is most thoroughly alive. When does nature so
throb and pulsate with life as in spring days ? We can
fairly see the plants grow. The birds bubble over with
the joy of living.

Our little children must study, before all else, life, devel-
opment, and function or use. It is more interesting. It
is better adapted to their nature. It develops a sympathy
and love for nature. It leads the children to think, as
well as to see, to ask " why " and " how," as well as " what."
It is the best possible preparation for the subsequent study
of form, structure, and classification.

We have agreed that when we have interested our chil-
dren in nature we want to develop a sympathy and love for
nature. Can we sympathize with a form ? Can we love a
mere structure ? Can our children "?

Let us understand, then, that in our spring work with
our boys and girls, we are going to study life, not mere
form, use, or function, not mere structure. We will see
how the buds develop, not merely tear them apart. We
will watch the seed germinate, and form root and stem
and leaf and flower. We will peer into the cradle of the
baby leaf, watch it creep out and get ready for work, try
to understand a little about its work and the ways in which
it is fitted to do its work. W^e will see how and why the
plant so carefully guards the flower, and learn something
as to the work of the flower.

PREPARING FOR SPRING.

" Ah, March ! we know thou art
Kind-hearted, spite of ugly looks and threats,
And, out-of-sight,*art nursing April's violets."

H. H.

March is the month when we must lay or strengthen our
foundations, and make preparation for later work in nature

522 NATURE STUDY.

study. In April and May and June nature brings so much
before our eyes that we scarcely know what to select from
the riches bestowed upon us. In March we get only
glimpses of what is to come.

It behooves us as teachers to so prepare ourselves and
our pupils during this month connecting winter and spring,
that, when the plants and animals finally arouse themselves,
we may all see and feel and enjoy and appreciate, and to
some extent understand or comprehend.

If we leave the spring work until April we will be sure to
find ourselves behind Mother Nature, and will get more and
more behind as spring hurries away before the summer.

How can we lay the foundation for the work of the next
three months ? By studying, with our boys and girls, that
from which and through which spring comes, investigating
the very beginnings in the annual awakening. March forms
the background which brings into sharper relief the life and
thought and beauty of the months that succeed her.

How shall we prepare for spring ? By absorbing, culti-
vating, inspiring, instilling in ourselves and in our pupils,
just as much of the spirit of spring as we and they can take
in. After all, spring will be to you and me what you and I
make of it. We will not thoroughly enjoy and appreciate
this season of awakenings, and we certainly cannot lead our
children to get the most out of this brightest volume in the
year-book of nature, unless we have spring in our hearts.

Why not begin, on one of these wintry days in early
March, with a talk on winter, a talk not to the children, but
with the children ? Do we like winter ? Why ? Write on
the blackboard a list of all the reasons why we enjoy winter.
Do some of the children hate (to express it as the children
are apt to do) this season of cold and snow ? Why ? Are
we tired of winter ? Why ? Make another list.

Show how helpful to man winter is, how necessary is the

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 523

cold and the ice and the snow, or the rain, which this
season brings; how the chilly winds carry snow and rain
where they are most needed ; how the ice wedges break up
the soil for the farmer, and the rain and snow prepare the
ground for the spring ; how the cold invigorates us, and the
wind brings us pure air.

Have a reading lesson on the blackboard, or have the
children write about, " Why We Like Winter/7 or " How
the Winter Helps Us."

We can have one or more lessons leading the children to
think and talk (with the thinking first) about the use of
winter to the plants. Perhaps we can begin with the use of
sleep to the children or the reason for having vacations.
On these topics the smallest "tot" will have ideas, or ap-
perceiving concepts as the psychologists like to call them,
on which many new ideas can be based or built. Think of
the winter as the season when plants, and many or most an-
imals, sleep and rest, and gain strength and vigor for another
year's work.

Talk about the preparation of plants for the winter: the
falling of leaves, development and protection of buds ( show
branches with buds, as they have spent the winter); the
disappearances of parts above ground, in grasses, bulbs, and
similar plants, and the storing up of nourishment in parts
below ground; the formation of seeds by plants which are
killed each autumn by the cold. Show how the wind has
scattered the leaves, and brought the snow to serve as a
cover and protection, and how Mother Nature has given a
thick bark to the trees and other plants which grow above
the snow.

Bead to and with the children the poem below. Try to
get, to absorb and express, and impart to the children, the
spirit of the poem.

524 NATURE STUDY.

TALKING IN THEIR SLEEP.

"' You think I'm dead,'
The apple tree said,

* Because I have never a leaf to show,
Because I stoop,

And my branches droop,

And the dull gray mosses over me grow !

But I'm all alive in trunk and shoot ;

The buds of next May

I fold away —

But I pity the withered grass at my root. '

* You think I'm dead,'
The quick grass said,

' Because I have parted with stem and blade !

But under the ground

I am safe and sound

With the snow's thick blanket over me laid,

I'm all alive and ready to shoot.

Should the spring of the year

Come dancing here —

But I pity the flowers without branch or root.'

4 You think I'm dead,'
A soft voice said,

* Because not a branch or root I own.
I never have died,

But close I hide

In a plumy seed that the wind has sown,

Patient I wait through the long winter hours ;

You will see me again —

I shall laugh at you then,

Out of the eyes of a hundred flowers.' "

EDITH M. THOMAS in St. Nicholas.

We are ready now for some real science, real observation
as distinguished from talking. What we have had is nature
study ; but our scientific friends will not let us call it science
because — they will tell us — there is too much poetry and

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 525

imagination about it. But it is from and through just such
work that science has developed through the centuries, and
JNature (by which we mean the Author of Nature) has
endowed our little folks with an appreciation and love of
poetry and a rich store of imagination. If our work con-
forms somewhat to the development of the race and to the
nature of the child, we are not apt to go very far wrong.
We are trying to train and develop and enrich and broaden
the minds of our children, not merely to make scientists.

The study of the spring awakening is, to the children
at least, who have not lost the seeing eye, the hearing ear,
the understanding heart, a study of protection and care.
The buds are exquisite lessons, wonderful stories, of pro-
tection from storm and cold. The seeds tell of care, of
preparation months before for the growth of the baby plant.
Every young leaf, wrapped about and within its fellow,
protects, and is protected. Every flower but lives to care
for and ripen the seeds hidden far within. What better
nature thought can we give our children ? What better
means of impressing this thought than bud and seed, leaf
and flower ?

This thought of protection appeals most strongly to the
little ones. A little later, as they see how bud and scale and
leaf are each in place, how the flowers and the parts of
the flower are planned, the lessons of order and plan and
purpose will begin to dawn on them.

Our boys and girls who are watching the buds unfold
are absorbing unconsciously, with the thoughts of care and
order, another lesson scarcely less important. They are
peering into the beginnings, and gaining the thought of
development.

Hereafter is that bud so likely to be to them " only a
bud"? or will they begin to see the future stored up in it ?
May the bud not lead some of them to realize the imp or-

526 NATURE STUDY.

tance of the beginning in which for them lies the future ?
May it not be the little leaven which may impress the
idea of growth, development, evolution, the great thought
in the education and life of to-day ? Don't preach. Let
the bud do it. Some may hear.

Shall we stop here ? Can we stop here ? To the child,
as to the poet, the book of nature is a revelation. To the
child — just from home and mother — protection without a
protector is inconceivable, is beyond his experience. In
guiding him in his study of this other divine book, shall we
sharpen his spiritual as well as his mental vision ? Can
we, as true teachers, do less ? Or shall we, through the
lessons of protection and care, lift him to a Protector and
Carer, through order and plan and purpose lead him to a
Planner ?

Cannot we begin oar spring study with the thought from
Tennyson, with which we began our study of the dandelion
in Chapter I. of this book ?

" Flower in the crannied wall,
I pluck you out of the crannies ; —
Hold you here, root and all, in my hand,
Little flower — but if I could understand
What you are, root and all, and all in all,
I should know what God and man is."

SPRING NOTES.

Now that we have our background, we can turn from
winter, and look toward spring. Have the children gather
and record spring notes. If they cannot write, they can
report from day to day orally ; and their best discoveries
can be recorded by the teacher, and form a basis for read-
ing lessons, or can be preserved on the blackboard. If
they write, cannot they keep a diary, recording — always
in the first person — what signs of spring each sees from

SPRING NATURE STUDY, 527

•

day to day ? Do not be too critical about spelling. The
interest and idea are most important. Encourage them to
sketch or draw, however crude the results may be. Urge
careful observation. Discourage guessing. Inspire a little
rivalry in making new discoveries. In case of dispute,
make them settle it by looking again. Do not decide for
them, and thus deaden interest. Insist that they be sure,
as sure as little folks can be. They are apt to see scores
of bluebirds and robins before their teacher can discover
one. They are not necessarily telling untruths. If the
teacher has, as she should do, aroused a spirit of expec-
tancy, their imagination may be quicker than their eyes.
It is our work not to deaden their imagination, but to de-
velop their senses, and cultivate a habit of using and trust-
ing their senses, that they may form a basis for and develop
what we call the scientific imagination.

The record of a few actual observations made in the
spring of 1899, which is given below, may be suggestive.

OUR SPRING CALENDAR.

March 15. Jennie says she saw some pussy willow-buds yesterday,
and that the pussies were just peeping out. Her brother brought
them from the woods back of the fair-ground. So spring must
be coming.

March 16. Jennie brought some of the pussies to school, so that we
could all see them. She says they have been in t the house two
days. Some of the pussies are " way out " now.

March 17. Harry picked some " pussies " this morning, and brought
them to school. The fur is about half-way out. Tom says he
saw a whole lot of crows. His papa said that is a sign of spring.
He says a few crows stay here all winter, but not so many.

March 20. It is so cold this morning that it seems like winter. The
pussies must be cold . But they have such warm coats. One of
the boys says he saw a robin. But he is not sure how a robin
looks. So we will not put it in our calendar as a u sure " story.

March 31. It is real warm to-day. We do not need mittens on our
hands. So winter must be going away. Eleanor says she saw

528 NATURE STUDY.

a robin to-day. It was in the top of a tree, and it flew away.
Her papa saw it first, then she saw it. She knew it was a robin
because she saw its red breast. Her papa said it sang like a
robin. It said " Cheer up, cheer up."

Edward saw a woodpecker. He was not sure it was a wood-
pecker, but his father said it was. It had some red on its head
and some stripes along its back,

April 3. Eleanor saw two robins this morning. She looked out of
the window when she got up, and she saw them in the cherry
tree. She saw their red breasts.

April 5. Jack saw a bluebird to-day. It was in the top of fi tree.
He says it had a blue back and its breast was dark. Miss Grey
says the bluebird has a brown breast. Jack says it had such a
sweet song. He cannot tell how it sounded. It was something
like a whistle.

Harry found some horse-chestnuts which were beginning to grow.
He brought two to school for us to see. The shell was cracked.
Each horse-chestnut had a little point which was growing out through
a hole in the shell. The horse-chestnuts know that spring is coming.

Jennie says the peony-plants in her yard are coming out of the
ground. They are light green. They are as high as her thumb is
long.

With older children there may be a " Bird Calendar/' re-
cording the arrival and doings of the birds, or a " Tree
Calendar/' telling about the changes in two or three trees
near the school, or a " Flower Calendar/' with a record of
the first finding of the spring flowers. The record may be
in charge of two or three pupils, supervised, of course, by
the teacher.

Be ready with something bringing in the "spirit of
spring." Sing about spring in the opening exercises.
When several pupils report the. first bluebird, read with
them something like the lines below.

THE BLUEBIRD.

" I know the song that the bluebird is singing
Out in the apple tree where he is swinging.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 529

Brave little fellow ! the skies may be dreary, —
Nothing cares he while his heart is so clieery.
Hark! how the music leaps out from his throat!
Hark! was there ever so merry a note ?
Listen awhile, and you'll hear what he's saying
Up in the apple tree swinging and swaying,
* Dear little blossoms down under the snow,
You must be weary of winter, I know ;
Hark while I sing you a message of cheer ;
{. Summer is coming, and springtime is here.
Little white snowdrop ! I pray you arise ;
Bright yellow crocus ! come open your eyes ;
Sweet Jittle violets hid from the cold,
Put on your mantles of purple and gold ;
Daffodils ! daffodils ! say, do you hear ?
Summer is coming and springtime is here.' "

Author not known.

Write part of it on' the blackboard, and have children copy
it for their writing-lesson. Let some or all commit it to
memory. Continue the spring notes as long as the children
are interested. They may be varied by having the class
together make a little book, to be hung on the wall, record-
ing the discoveries of a week or two, each pupil contribut-
ing a leaf with his own observations, written in his — not
the teacher's — best style, and, when possible, illustrated.

INDIVIDUAL SPRING NOTES. PAPERS BY CHILDREN.

The boys and girls in the third grade may keep individ-
ual " spring notes," in place of the " Spring Calendar,"
recording the observations of the class, or, better, supple-
menting that record. In the writer's experience even
second-grade pupils — or many of them — have kept such
individual spring notes with excellent results.

The following papers are given, just as written by the
children, but with errors in spelling and capitals corrected,
to illustrate how some of these notes have been kept.

530 NATURE STUDY.

Where two papers are given under one title, the two
were written by pupils in the same room at the same time.
They are given to show the possibility of individual work,
even with young children.

SIGNS OF SPRING.

44 It is coining spring. I have seen robins in the trees. The flowers
are coming up from the garden. There are crocuses in the garden.
Spring is coming, for I saw a robin. I saw two robins up in the trees.
I saw pussy willows. I got some sap in a bottle. I saw some white
maple sap flowing from the trees. I saw a pussy willow bud taking
off its brown coat. I saw a crow to-day. I saw ax maple tree down
by my house growing. I saw a baby beach-bud opening (?) I saw
a black crow in the air. I saw two crows. I saw a robin singing."

CHARLIE MIMMACK.

44 I saw a robin. The robin had a red breast. I know that spring
is coming for the crows are out. The pussy willow buds are out too.
The maple trees' buds are opening too. I saw some sap flowing from
a maple tree. The pear buds are opening too. The crows are black.
They are flying all around." LEON BROWN,

OSWEGO, March 14, 1898. SECOND GRADE, PRACTICE SCHOOL.

How I KNOW SPRING is HERE.

44 1 know spring is here, because I saw a baby daffodil all in bloom
and the air smells sweet and I saw a robin. I knew it was a robin
because it had a golden breast and I knew it by its song and I tapped
a maple tree and tasted the sap. The pussy willows are most all out.
I saw a crocus and hyacinth in the garden."

CARRIE R. COLEMAN,

OSWEGO, March 22, 1898. SECOND GRADE, PRACTICE SCHOOL.

SPRING NOTES.

44 I was going down the shop yard. I saw some pussy willows and
some crocuses. I noticed that the rose bushes are green. I saw some
acorns half way in the ground beginning to grow. I noticed that the
weeds are beginning to grow in the sand. And I saw that the moss
was growing on the bank.

44 When I was going to school this morning I saw a robin. I no-

SPUING NATURE STUDY. 531

ticed that the grass is getting green. I saw a chicken hawk. I
noticed a little girl planting some seeds. I noticed that the days are
longer. I noticed some cows eating grass. I saw a man take off the
storm windows and the storm doors. I saw some chickens digging
in the ground for worms.

44 I noticed that the trees have buds on them. I saw some lilies
coming up from the ground. I noticed some long pussy willows.
Their color was pink. I saw some birds and two doves. I noticed
a boy plant some flowers in his pots. We planted some seeds. I
noticed that the water is all going away and the mud is drying up.1'

ANNIE KOVEC,

ST. PAUL, MINN., April, 1893. THIRD GRADE, ADAMS SCHOOL.

WORK FOB MARCH.
TREE STUDY.

Value as an introduction to bud study. The only logical
way to begin bud study is to become familiar with the trees
or shrubs of which the buds are a part. If the little folks
in the first grade can begin their study of the lilac buds by
getting a fair idea of the particular lilac bush from which
their buds, or part of them, come — can visit it, if possible
— they have a centre to which to relate all that they ob-
serve about the lilac buds. If they not merely watch the
buds develop in the schoolroom, until the leaves unfold,
but continue their observation of the lilac bush during the
spring months, see the lengthening of the leafy branch
formed from each bud and the growth of its leaves, note
the first appearance of the little flower cluster, looking like
a minute bunch of grapes, and study its changes until the
flowers unfold, fade, drop off, and disclose the little green
nut-like seed-cases, — always relating each step to what has
been learned before, — they will not merely understand
about the buds and all that come from them, but will have
a connected, more or less unified idea of the life history of
the lilac. This will be more nearly complete if the obser-

532 NATURE STUDY.

vations on the lilac are continued in the fall, until new
buds are formed, and the leaves drop off, thus completing
the cycle of development.

Value in unifying all plant study. Frequently teachers
and children study, in their spring plant work, the buds of
some plants, the leaves of others, and the flowers of others.
In the fall they may study seeds and fruits which have no
relation to the spring work. If they can begin in March
or April with two or more trees or shrubs or even herbs,
such as house-plants or garden-plants or common -weeds,
and watch their development until the close of the school
year (sometimes continuing the work in the fall), all parts
of the plant study become correlated and unified ; the chil-
dren do not think of leaves merely as leaves, or of flowers
as flowers, but of all as parts of the plant, all with a com-
mon origin, all working together. The study of germina-
tion, watching the development of a seed until it forms
seeds, is also a great aid in continuity of thought and in
securing unity in the plant work. While it is best to study
the whole development of some buds, it is interesting and
helpful to observe stages in the development of others, to
impress certain thoughts, or illustrate certain phases of
plant life. The early stages of the pussy willow show
protection, and the early stages of the elder bud show
clearly order and plan. It may be well to study these,
even if their later development cannot be observed.

Value from esthetic and economic point of view. Trees
have a rich esthetic content ; their value as ornaments and
educators in our cities is more and more recognized. Noth-
ing else in the plant world compares with our trees in their
grandeur. How much we can add to the lives of our
pupils if we can help them to appreciate and enjoy trees !
Trees have ever appealed to nature lovers. They have a

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 533

rich literature and art, for an appreciation of which tree
study is the best preparation. Americans are understand-
ing better, as the years pass, the economic value of trees.
Nature study should lead and prepare our children to
cherish and better care for our trees.

What trees give to us. As our children study the tree
as a form, and learn the features by which they can recog-
nize it, they must also think of it as a life adding much to
our lives.

As we prepare them for a field study of some tree, or as
we stand with them about the tree, cannot we give breadth
to their thoughts, give a larger outlook or uplook by reading
to them or discussing with them thoughts like these ? —

" What plant we in this apple tree ?
Buds, which the breath of summer days
Shall lengthen into leafy sprays ;
Boughs, where the thrush,1 with crimson breast,
Shall haunt and sing and hide her nest ;
We plant upon the summer lea
A shadow for the noontide hour,
A shelter from the summer shower,
When we plant the apple tree. ' '

BRYANT.

If a maple is selected for study, break a twig or punc-
ture the bark a day or two beforehand, so that the children
can see the flow of the sap. Then ' tell them something of
the use man makes of the sap of the sugar maple. If the
elm or oak is observed, introduce the study by telling some
story associated with an historic elm or oak. Associate
the evergreen with Christmas and the chestnut or hickory
with the nuts we — and the squirrels — gathered last fall,
and enjoyed during the winter. The bare branches of the
fruit tree mean so much more when the children's fancy

1 The robin redbreast, so-called.

534 NATURE STUDY.

can see the fruit which hung from them last year. Give
the tree a " human interest."

Aids in tree study. Very helpful in recognizing our
trees are the excellent photographs, showing the whole tree
in foliage and the details of bark and leaf, published by the
Forest Tree Photo-Reproduction Co., Chicago. The writer
has found the following books most generally helpful to
teachers in their tree study :

Flagg's " A Year among the Trees." Educational Pub-
lishing Co.

Matthews's "Trees by their Leaves." D. Appleton &
Co.

NewelPs " Lessons in Botany, Part II." Ginn & Co.

The first is an introduction to trees, an aid in under-
standing and appreciating the beauty of trees, and the
greatness of man's indebtedness to them. The titles of a
few sections — " Autumn Woods," " The Colors of Trees,"
" Trees in Poetry " — will indicate the character of the
book.

The second book, while written by a tree lover, and not
a mere classifier and labeller, and containing much which
may lead to a fuller enjoyment of our forests, is particularly
helpful in identifying trees by their leaves.

Miss NewelPs book has excellent descriptions and illus-
trations of the flowers and fruit of our most common shade
and fruit trees, — with much other matter on common
" Flowers and Fruits," — written with special reference to
the needs of teachers. Seven years' use has proven its
value to teachers.

Plan and order of study. Select two or more trees or
shrubs near the school. Two or three are better than one,
because the children can compare and contrast them, thus

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 535

fixing their distinctive characteristics. Always centre the
work about one tree or shrub, observing that as carefully
as possible, using the others for contrast. For the little
folks in the first grade, a shrub like the lilac, or a small
tree, is better than a large tree. A great tree is a great
mass for little eyes to see, and a great unit for little minds
to comprehend as a unit. After they have watched the
development of a seed into a plant, with root, stems, leaves,
flowers, and fruit, they may be better able to grasp the idea
of the oneness of the great tree. Then, too, the little folks
can more easily watch the development of a shrub or of
a small tree.

Select a tree standing alone, as much as possible, and one
fairly typical. Begin with the tree or shrub in the winter
state, when there are no leaves to distract the attention
from the plan, and try to observe it first at a distance, a
hundred feet or more, where the children cannot see the
details of bark or buds. Note its shape or outline, if this
is characteristic, not merely accidental (have children trace
it in the air with their finger), vase-shaped or umbrella-
shaped in the elm, egg-shaped in most maples, cone-shaped
in most evergreens, narrow cylindrical or " pencil-shaped "
in the Lombardy poplar. Impress shape by contrasting
with other trees in sight. Observe comparative height of
trunk and character of branching ; trunk extending to top
with branches horizontal, longest below, in the cone-shaped
evergreens ; in the elm the trunk soon lost in branches,
which fork or bifurcate again and again, curving outward
and downward, and bearing much fine spray ; in the maples
the trunk extending up one-third to two-thirds of the length
of the tree (longest in young trees), with lower branches
often nearly horizontal (unless the tree has been " trimmed
up"), and upper branches more and more nearly vertical
(the branching varying somewhat in different species of

536 NATURE STUDY.

maple) ; in the horse-chestnut the form usually somewhat
egg-shaped, with the branching varying greatly. The lilac
seems to have no definite form and no plan of branching.

Going nearer to the tree, observe the bark, — its color on
trunk, branches, and twigs (silvery gray or ash-colored,
dark or slate-colored, brown, green, etc.) ; its smoothness
or roughness, and the way in which it cracks or splits
(finely or coarsely, vertically, horizontally, or diagonally,
with the pieces between the cracks remaining flat or curl-
ing at the sides or ends) ; and the similarities or differences
between bark on trunk, on branches, and on twigs. -

Note also characteristics of buds, — position (at end of
branches or on side) ; arrangement (in pairs — called oppo-
site, or one at a place — called alternate) ; size and shape
(large, small, fleshy, slender, round, flat) ; color and cover-
ing, if at all marked or characteristic.

Adapting work to children. No primary teacher will ask
or expect her pupils to observe or remember all these fea-
tures about any one tree. She will select and impress those
most characteristic, the number noted largely depending
on the age of the children. The little folks in the first
grade can learn to recognize the elm tree in the winter
state by its vase or umbrella shape, its branches corre-
sponding to the ribs of the umbrella, and by the amount of
fine, drooping spray. The horse-chestnut they can tell by
its thick branches and very large sticky brown buds on the
ends of the twigs. Even the little kindergarten children
can tell evergreens by their color, their conical shape, and
their trunk extending to the top of the tree, and can distin-
guish the pine by its long needles, two or three or five to-
gether, and the hemlock by its short, flat leaves, silvery
beneath. These same little folks may observe other fea-
tures of the same trees later in the spring, one or two at a

SPRING NATURE STUDY.

537

time. Older primary children may note and remember a
larger number of characteristics. Children do not distin-
guish their playmates merely by one feature, — the form of
their noses or the color of their eyes, — but by many fea-
tures in combination. If we can train them to know trees,
not by one feature, such as leaves, but by many, and to ana-

Fig. 58. American or White Elm.

lyze their knowledge so that they can tell how and why
they know each tree or plant, much will be gained.

As the trees develop, and leaves, flowers, and fruit appear,
the children should discover new characteristics, and relate
them to what they have already learned, so that the idea
or concept or general notion elm tree, or maple, or lilac
bush, comes to have a larger and larger content.

538

NATURE STUDY.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS * OF COMMON TREES.

The trees named and illustrated include the most common
and typical trees in northern and eastern United States.

American Mm. (See Fig. 58.) Vase shaped or parasol or
umbrella shaped. Trunk divides into two branches, and

From Mathews's " *amiliar Trees and tlieir Leaves."
Copynjrht, 1896, tn- D. Applpton & Co.

Fig. 59. Leaves of American or White Elm.

each branch forks or bifurcates (usually) several times.
Bark rough on trunk and branches, smooth on twigs.
Twigs, buds, and leaves alternating in two rows along
opposite sides of branch (alternate, two-ranked). Leaves
as in Fig. 59.

1 These are the characteristics of mature trees standing where they have
had room to develop normally. Young trees, and trees crowded together, may
not show the same outline or general plan of branching.

SPUING NATURE STUDY.

539

I

I

3

540

NATURE STUDY.

Fig. 61. Sugar Maple: Flowers, Fruit, Leaves, and Leaf Development.

SPRING NATURE STUDY.

541

Rock or Su-
gar Maple.
(See Fig. 60.)
Ovoid or egg
shaped. Trunk
extending one
third to one-
half the height of tree.
Lower branches nearly
horizontal, upper
branches more and
more nearly vertical.
Bark rough on trunk and
on largest branches. Twigs,
buds, and leaves in pairs
(opposite). Leaves and
flowers as in Fig. 61.

White or Silver Leafed
Maple. Form a longer or
higher ovoid. Outline more
ragged or ir-
regular than
in sugar ma-
ple because of
projecting
branches.
Branches
more numer-
ous. Bark with
wider strips on
trunk, smooth
and light gray Fig- 62- mite or siluer Maple-

on most branches. Leaves as in Fig. 62; light beneath.
Otherwise resembling sugar or rock maple.

Mathews's " Kamilfar Trees and their Leaves."
Copyright, 1806, by D. Appleton c. Co.

542

NATURE STUD7.

1

S

SPRING NATURE STUDY.

543

Horse-Chestnut. Form usually ovoid, not as regular as
maple, and usually more pointed at top. Trunk some-
times extends almost to top, often short, and divided into
three main branches. Branches without plan, very thick,
and irregular in growth. Twigs with many large, oppo-
site, crescent-shaped scars. Very large, brown, sticky
buds, the large buds always on the ends of branches, the
buds on sides of branches, smaller and in pairs.

Poplar. Lombardy poplar, distinguished by its slender
spire shape, with trunk extending to top, and branches
almost vertical, and nu-
merous and short. Com-
mon poplar (cottonwood)

as in Fig. 63. Trunk ^T^BSW^^i

rather rough, light-col-
ored. Branches, except
largest ones, smooth, yel-
lowish. Buds quite large,
at ends of twigs gummy.
Leaf as in Fig. 64.

Birch. The silver or
white birch (see Fig. 65)
is readily distinguished
by the many fine drooping
branches. The outline
is usually cylindrical or
slightly conical, with a dis- F tinct trunk, often extend-
ing almost to the top. Bark smooth, white, peeling off
around the trunk. Branches nearly horizontal, flexible.
Leaves as in Fig. 66. Short green catkins show early.

Evergreens. The pine and spruce and hemlock are de-
scribed and figured in the study of evergreens in December.
(See page 410 and Figs. 36, 37, and 38.)

From Mathews's

" Familiar Trees and their Leaves."
Copyright, 1896, by D. Appleton & Co.

Fig. 64. Cottonwood Leaf.

544

NATURE STUDY.

TY

SPRING NATURE STUDY.
^!

CHILDREN'S PAPERS ON TREES.
OUR FIELD LESSON. 1

" Yesterday we went out on a field lesson to see the horse-chestnut
tree. The shape of the horse-chestnut tree is like a cone. The horse-
chestnut tree is forty or fifty feet high. The trunk does not go up to
the top of the tree. It goes up half way, and then the branches spread
out. The branches of the elm tree are better than the horse-chestnut
tree, because the birds can build their nests in the elm better than
they can in the horse-chestnut. The branches of the horse-chestnut
are thicker than the elm. The branches of the horse-chestnut tree
are not as graceful as the elm." GENE VIE VE HOURIGAN.

"We went out for a field lesson April 5, 1898, to see the horse-
chestnut tree. It is shaped like a honey cone. ( Probably confuses
cone with bee-hive. C. B. S.) It is not the same height as the elm.
Its trunk does not go all the way up the tree ; it branches out. Its
branches point up straight (?). Its branches are thick. It points up
to the sky. The elm is more graceful. I know it by the twigs, be-
cause the buds are on the ends. When the sun shines the buds get
sticky. It is thicker than the elm." GRACE MILLER,

THIRD GRADE, PRACTICE SCHOOL.

OSWEGO, April 6, 1898.

THE BIRCH TREE.

" We went for a field lesson yesterday morning to study the birch
tree. The bark of the birch tree is smooth at the top. On the top
the color is white and gray, inside it is black. At the bottom it is
rough and it is gray.

The tree is about forty feet high. The branches are spreading in
every direction. There are a great many branches on the tree.

The leaves are green and small. They are shaped like a harp.
There are a great many many twigs on the branches.

The catkins make the tree look very pretty. The catkins are
shaped like worms.

The bark on the top is thin, and at the bottom it is very thick.
When the bark of the lilac is taken off, it comes off straight. But

1 Two papers are given, written by children in the same room, at the same
time, to show what can be gained in the way of individual written work, as dis-
tinguished from class reproduction.

546

NATURE STUDY.

when you pull the bark of the birch tree, it don't come off like the
lilac bark. The Indians make canoes and wigwams out of birch
bark." BELLA MILLINGTON,

FOURTH GRADE, PRACTICE SCHOOL.
OSWEGO, May 17, 1896.

Prom MathewB's " Familiar Trees and their Leares.'
Copyright, 1896, by D. Appleton & Co.

Fig. 66. White or Gray Birch.

COMPARISON OF LOMBARDY POPLAR, BIRCH, AND OAK TREES.
"The poplar tree is cone-shaped and the birch tree is cylindri-
cal-shaped. The poplar tree is a very tall tree, while the birch is a
small tree. The branches of the poplar are larger around than the
birch. The branches of the poplar are perpendicular. The branches
of the birch are oblique. The bark of the poplar is a dark brown,
the bark of the birch is a grayish white. The bark of the poplar
is soft, I can scratch it with my finger-nail. The birch tree bark is
smoother than the poplar tree. The poplar twig is hard and can-
not bend, the birch branch can bend. It is like elastic rubber.
The oak tree takes two and one-half pairs of arms to go around.
It is cone-shaped (?). The oak tree is larger than any other tree
around the trunk. The oak tree is dark blackish gray, it is rough.
It has large branches and smaller branches, they have a great many
trees and acorns. The oak tree is about one hundred feet high."

MARGUERITE BRUNEAU,
FOURTH GRADE, PRACTICE SCHOOL.
OSWEGO, May 2, 1898.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 547

BUD STUDY.

In many parts of the country the tree buds do not de-
velop until April or even May, and it may seem wiser to
postpone the study of buds until the children can see them
develop naturally out-of-doors. But during these months
of awakening, many other things must be studied ; the
germination of seeds, the unfolding of the leaves, the de-
velopment of the flowers, all come and must be studied
then, or not at all.

It seems best to study the buds in March, as much as
possible. This can be readily done by " forcing " them.
The branches of almost any tree or shrub can be made to
bud out, and form fairly perfect leaves and flowers, if kept
in fresh water in a warm (not hot) room. The water
should be changed daily. If the water is warm the buds
develop more rapidly. It is well to trim off the lower end
of the branches to be immersed in water with a sharp
knife, making a clean, smooth cut, and to repeat this trim-
ming every few days. It is said that buds will develop
more rapidly if the cutting is done under water.

In this way buds can be made to develop in the school-
room, where the pupils can watch the whole process. There
is a very great advantage in this ; it is much better than
simply studying the buds before and after they develop on
the trees. The children see Mother Nature at work. They
see the gum about the bud softening, the scales spreading,
the leaves unrolling, perhaps the flowers developing. One
who has not thus watched the bud cannot understand how
intensely interesting it is ; very much better than tearing
the bud open.

What better introduction can the children have to the
study of life and life processes? What better study of
protection and care ? The children see how exquisitely the

548 NATURE STUDY.

parts of the bud are cared for. They see how carefully the
younger are protected by the older, how the flowers are en-
wrapped by the more hardy leaves and scales. They see
the work of each part. What better illustrations of the
order of nature and of the value of order ? The children
see each scale and leaf in its place, see each part develop in
order, and see how much is gained by having everything in

order.

" Earth is crammed with heaven,
And every bush afire with God,
But only he who sees
Puts off his shoes."

ELIZABETH BARRETT BROWNIXG.

As early as possible, in March, gather or have the chil-
dren bring branches. These can often be obtained at the
time of the spring pruning or trimming. If selected intel-
ligently, their removal may be a help rather than an in-
jury to the tree. Special care may be necessary to prevent
the children from mutilating trees or shrubbery. The bud
study should lead the boys and girls to be more careful
about injuring the trees.

Particularly good for March study with the primary
children are the buds of the lilac, horse-chestnut, beech,
and linden (and in the W,est the buds of the box elder and
of the red-berried, brown-pithed elder, or " elder-berry " )
and those of the pussy willow, poplar, or balm of Gilead
(or cotton wood in the West), and red or white maple.
Those in the first group are leaf -buds or leaf and flower
buds, and present few difficulties, even to first-year children.
The buds of the last group are flower buds, the leaves de-
veloping later, and are too difficult to study in any detail
in the primary grades. The children c^n enjoy the beauty
of the early buds of pussy willow, poplar, and red maple,
and can observe the flowers of all merely as stages in the

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 549

formation of the seeds, which mature early. The elm
flowers are very small, and should be observed only in
connection with the study of the elm tree.

It is much better to have but two or at most three kinds
under observation at one time, always centering the work
about one. Too many varieties are distracting. A few
branches of each kind are better than many. The teacher
should set the example for the children 'by using no more
material than is necessary.

It is well to encourage the children to watch some
branches at home. This will often interest parents, as well
as children, and may forestall criticisms in regard to " the
nonsense taught at school."

The children should watch carefully the unfolding of
the buds, noting all changes, but should never pick them
to pieces. They can gain little knowledge, and will lose
much of the spirit of bud study or nature study, if they are
encouraged or allowed to pull apart these plant cradles, or
dissect the babies within. Each day one or two questions
may be asked which can be answered only by a study of
the buds. Greater interest can be aroused by encouraging
the more observant children to consider their discoveries as
secrets, to be kept or imparted only to the teacher, thus stim-
ulating the others.

The following may be helpful as an introduction to bud

study :

A MARCH BUD.

"Perhaps you may think, because I am buttoned
And folded and wrapped in my little cloak so,
That I always dress this way in all sorts of weather,
With never a frill or a ruffle to show.

But it's only because I have come out so early,
That only Jack Frost and the winds are astir.
They're hard on the dresses, but under my wrappings
Is my pretty new party dress hidden with fur.

550 NATURE STUDY.

You'll see, if you come to Miss April's spring party,
It's airy and dainty, a beautiful dress !
Jack Frost's not invited — he's a jolly good playmate
But he's rather too rough for a party, I guess."

Author not known.

THE TREE BUDS. f

" Rock-a-by, baby,
Up in a tree,
Rock-a-by, baby,
What can we see ?

Little brown cradles ?
Yes, that is all ;
Little brown cradles
Never will fall.

Where are the babies ?
Oh ! they are there,
Tucked in their blankets
Away from the air.

Dear little nurslings,
Quiet all day,
In their green nightgowns
Folded away.

North wind is piping
Loud lullaby.
He couldn't soften
His voice, did he try.

Sleep till the springtime
Brightens the sky.
Little leaf babies
We love you. Good-by."

KATE L. BROWN.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 551

THE HORSE-CHESTNUT BUD.

No more exquisite illustration of protection can be found.
While the lilac bud is more simple, and its parts and plan
more easily understood, it is not as good as the horse-chest-
nut bud to show how daintily and wonderfully Mother Na-
ture may care for her plant babies.

It develops very slowly, requiring four weeks or more to
unfold its leaves. It should be gathered in February or
early in March.

Important points for early observation are : the position
of the buds, the large buds at the ends of the branches,
with smaller ones in pairs along the sides ; the egg-shaped
form, brown color, and sticky varnish ; the horse-shoe shaped
scars in pairs, each with three to seven dots, somewhat like
nail-holes in the horse-shoe, and the ring-like scars. Do
not ask or tell the children how these are formed. Let
them find out for themselves, — a " secret" to stimulate in-
terest and observation.

A drawing of a twig, showing buds and scars, made by
the teacher as directed by the children, followed by draw-
ings by each child, made 4 from nature, not copied from the
teacher's picture, will greatly aid in securing careful obser-
vation. The children can express by drawing more exactly
than by words.

A week or two later gather up what has been observed.
The large terminal bud has swollen and lengthened, show-
ing green above and within the scaly covering. The var-
nish (the waterproof of the plant babies) is disappearing.
Why ? The brown coat has separated, disclosing several
pairs of scales, each pair filling the cracks between the two
scales below and without it, the outer scales (overcoat)
short, thick, tough (Why ?) ; those next within them longer,
thinner, more delicate in texture, brown where exposed,

552 . NATURE STUDY.

green where covered (Why ?) ; the innermost green and
thin. The projecting green tip is covered with wool, and
shows lines or ribs, like cords, meeting below. As this
lengthens, slowly, very slowly,

" The grey hoss-chestnut's leetle hands unfold,
Softer'n a baby's be at three days old."

These hands are the centre of interest. Do not take
away the joy of discovery by telling the little folks what
they are or will become.

Continue observations a week or more, giving, from day
to day, such questions as these : What grows out of the
woolly ball ? WThat do the hands turn into ? What do the
fingers make ? What is between the hands ? What hap-
pens to the scales ? The woolly ball lengthens, the two
hands push up and separate, the fingers spread apart and
unfold, each showing that it is a leaflet (or " leaf " as the
children will call it), doubled along the midrib, with the
midrib turned outward, and the thin edges toward the centre
of the bud. Why ? Within these are two smaller hands,
placed between the edges of the other two, and sometimes
enclosing a third pair of hands. Jn the thick, " fat " buds
there is, in the very centre, a green mass like a very small
bunch of grapes. Let the children discover later what it
is. As the hands push up, the inner green scales also
lengthen almost as fast, keeping around them. Why ?

Another week of observation will show that the hands
have changed into leaves, each of the five or seven fingers
forming a division or part. Probably the successive pairs
of hands or leaves have been separated by the lengthening
of the green stem. The outer scales have dropped off, and
the inner scales can be easily removed. Each scale leaves
a scar, and all together leave a ring around the lower end of
the stem formed from the bud. Pull off a few of the leaves,

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 553

showing the semi-circular scar each forms, with a dot within
it ior ear>h leaflet of the leaf removed.

Now the children (even in the first grade) can « think
out " for themselves the meaning and story of the scars on
the branches. Each horse-shoe shaped scar shows where a
leaf fell off. Each ring shows where the bud scales fell off.
By counting the number of rings, beginning at the tips of
the branches, we can tell how many sets of scales have
fallen off; that is, how many buds have helped to form the
branch, or how many years that branch or twig has been
growing.

The later development of the leaves and the growth of
the little " bunch of grapes " in the centre can be best ob-
served out-doors in May and June.

The following papers illustrate individual or free repro-
duction by the children. All are given as originally writ-
ten by the children, with errors in spelling and capitals and
serious grammatical errors corrected :

How MOTHER NATURE CARES FOR THE HORSE-CHESTNUT BUDS.

" Mother Nature cares for the buds because they are like children
to her as babies are to their mother. The sticky varnish helps the
little buds because it keeps out the rain. The buds that are on the
sides are smaller than the bud that is on the top because those that
are on the top get more air and light than those that are on the sides."

CLARK ROBSON,
SECOND GRADE, PRACTICE SCHOOL.

HORSE-CHESTNUT BUDS.

" We went down to the park to see a horse-chestnut tree. The
tree was in the southeast corner. The trunk of the tree was four
feet around but it was not as high as the trees near it. It had a
rough gray bark. I counted eleven branches that were big. The buds
grow on the ends of the small branches. The buds are shaped like
a pear. I counted ten scales on my bud. The color of the scales is
brown. The stuff that is on it is varnish. The

*&

V OK THK

UNIVERSITY

554 NATURE STUDY.

keep the water out of it and that keeps the buds from rotting. If it
was flat at the top it would leak through. The scars are right below
the bud and they tell me leaves were there."

JAMES BRADY,
THIRD GRADE, PRACTICE SCHOOL.

THE HORSE-CHESTNUT BUD.

" Some of the buds are on the top and some are on the sides. The
buds that are on the top are called terminal buds and the buds on the
sides are called lateral buds. The color of my buds is a dark brown
and on the top of some of the buds is a little black. The size
of my bud is larger than the common size of buds on otlier trees.
The form of my bud is like an egg. The parts of my buds are
scales and there are ten scales on my bud. The color of my scales
is a dark brown. The under scales are smaller than the upper
scales. On the scales is sticky varnish and the varnish helps to
make the scales stick together. " ESSIE LANPHEAR,

FOURTH GRADE, PRACTICE SCHOOL.

THE HORSE-CHESTNUT BUD.

" My home is an end of a branch. I lived in a little cradle. When
the wind blows I rock back and forth. When spring oomes I push
out my head. The sunshine wakes me up. I throw off my blanket.
Then my little green leaves begin to come out. I have three sets of
scales. When I wake up I push my little head out. At first my
head is small. When summer comes it grows bigger. At first the
norse-chestnut bud is brownish like. My scales are (covered) with
varnish a kind of sticky stuff. My flower is in the middle because
that is the safest place. My flower has the most care of all other.
My outer scales are the strongest. My scales overlap. The sun
wakes me up." CLARENCE MCELVER.

THIRD GRADE, PRACTICE SCHOOL,

MY HORSE-CHESTNUT BUD.

" My twig looks like a sling shot. My bud is out around it. It is
all fur. My horse-chestnut bud has a good many scales. The scales
are brown. Under the brown scales there are green scales. They
cover the little fur cloak. The little fur coat is white. It is very
soft and smooth. On the outside of the bud it is very sticky.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 555

Some of our class said it was varnish and some said it was a sticky
substance. On the outside on the sticky brown scales they have come
off and they looked like petals of a flower. On my bud the scales
have come off. The scales wrap the little leaves to protect the leaves.
A little blossom is all wrapped up inside of the scales. My bud is
very soft and smooth. " JOSEPHINE HART,

THIRD GRADE, PRACTICE SCHOOL.

WHAT WAS IN MY HORSE-CHESTNUT BUD.

44 When we looked at the other horse-chestnut buds then we looked
at these. The scales were all turned back. All the little leaves are
covered with cotton batting. The cotton batting flies away. Some-
times they have seven or five leaves. The lilac has only one leaflet.
Some of them are front some back, some are left, some are right
(Refers to opposite arrangement of leaves, C. B. S.) It (the leaflet) is
shaped like a blade of a knife. All the leaves (leaflets) are fastened
to the same place. It is rough on both sides of the horse-chest-
nut leaf. The color of it is green. The leaves give the tree a new
green dress. It has one rib down through the middle of the leaves.
There are little veins." LORENZO CARLETON,

THIRD GRADE, PRACTICE SCHOOL.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LILAC BUD.

This is one of the best for early study. It is widely
distributed, and easily obtained. While the lilac buds
are not as pretty as some others, they are so simple, their
plan is so clear, and their parts so distinct, that any, child
can understand them, and through them be helped to
understand more difficult buds.

For the first study, the large buds on the young shoots
springing from the ground are good, as they usually have
only leaves. A little later can be studied the thicker buds
near the upper part of the lilac bush, containing both
leaves and flowers.

Begin with the buds at home, on the shrub, as already
urged. Select some bush for special study, — one visible
from schoolroom windows may be best, — and note its

556 NATURE STUDY.

characteristics : its appearance, usually bushy, with many
trunks and spreading irregular branches, but sometimes
tree-like ; its height, comparing with the height of the
children or some other childish standard ; and the arrange-
ment of its branches, in pairs, or "two together7' as the
children say, often forking at the end.

Note the position of the buds, on the sides of the
branches the larger buds usually near the ends, and
their arrangement in pairs like the branches, successive
pairs separated from and perpendicular to one another.
(Have the children express with their fingers position, and
form ideas which they cannot put into words.) The
children will certainly see the little " seat " on which each
bud is perched, and may discover the rings about the
branches.

Have children describe the form and size of the bud,
if not in words, with their hand and fingers, or with a
drawing or clay model. It may be helpful to compare it
to a tent, perhaps, Hiawatha's tent made to . shed the rain.
Even first-grade children can observe carefully, and can
express quite exactly, if encouraged to tell in their own
way, not always expected to express in words, ideas for
which they have no words.

Note from day to day the changes in the form and size
of the buds, and the gradual spreading apart of the enclos-
ing scales. The children will discover that the scales, like
the branches and buds, are opposite in arrangement, in
pairs, each pair perpendicular to the pair below or without
and above or within it. Why so arranged ? Why do the
outer scales cover the cracks between the inner scales ? As
the unfolding continues, compare arrangement of scales
and of the leaves within. The same plan is found through-
out the whole plant. Every branch, bud, scale, and leaf
has its place. Why ?

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 557

Compare the outer two or three pairs of scales (the
" overcoat") with the two or three pairs between them.
Why so much thicker and harder ? Notice outer and
inner surfaces. Why so different ?

Constantly relate to the life and care of the baby which
some of the children may have at home, thus giving to the
lilac bud a " human interest."

Note how much longer, softer, and greener the scales are
the farther they are from the outside. Why ? How many
pairs of scales before we come to the leaves ? The inner
scales are so leaf-like that it is difficult at first to tell
which are scales and which are leaves. Scales finally drop
off. Leaves do not (until much later in the season).

In the lilac the scales are simply modified leaves, which
Mother Nature has made tough and thick to protect the
soft, delicate true leaves within. After once opening, do
they ever draw together over the young leaves at night, or
when cold, to protect them ?

When the leaves can care for themselves, and also for the
young leaves which keep developing within, the work of
the scales is done, and they gradually drop off. Note the
mark or scar left by each, and the set or cluster of scars,
arranged in a ring about the branch, left by all of the scales
of one bud.

After the bud has developed enough for the children to
see that it will form a branch, compare this ring at the
base of the bud with the other rings previously observed
on the branches, and see if the children cannot work out
for themselves the idea that each ring marks the base of a
former bud, and the length of branch between successive
rings shows the amount formed from the bud of each year.
By the number of these rings the age of the branch can be
told.

The leaves in the interior differ from the scales in being

558 NATURE STUDY.

more distinctly veined, and in haying or forming a stem.
Note how carefully they are packed. As the scales fall
off, the central axis or stem to which they are fastened
and the stem of each leaf lengthens, and we have a leafy
branch.

While the children are watching the development of the
buds, and after the glimpses of the interior of the cradle
have added new interest to the undeveloped bud, have
them draw a branch with three or four pairs of buds, or
stitch it on a card, or perhaps paint it. Fasten a small,
simple branch where all can see it. When children are
drawing, place a branch up before each row, where all can
readily see it, and see it always in the same position. If a
branch is placed on desk, do not let them handle it, as they
are almost certain to draw part in one position and part
in another, thus drawing incorrectly. The teacher should
first draw it on the board, under the direction of the chil-
dren as much as possible, to show them how to draw it,
and to aid them in selecting those points which are most
important, but should erase this drawing before the
pupils begin to draw, emphasizing that each must draw
as truthfully as he can only the branch he is looking at.
Little folks will draw best on the board with large, free
motions. It is helpful to have the pupils select the best
of these blackboard drawings, and tell why or wherein
they are best. The wise teacher will also recognize those
which show the greatest or best effort, even though the
result be poor. Later have the children draw, on a large
scale, one bud on its seat, or make a clay model, showing,
as exactly as they can, its shape and markings.

It may be well, when working with older pupils, to cut
a branch into sections about an inch long, one for each
pupil, and have them study and describe the structure of
the stem, the bark, with its outer light-colored layer, and

SPEING NATURE STUDY. 559

inner somewhat fibrous green part, the denser wood, and
the spongy pith or the pith cavity in the centre. The bark
protects, the wood supports or upholds. How is each fitted
for its work ? Show, by testing with weights, the support-
ing power of paper, some rolled tightly, and some rolled so
as to form a hollow cylinder, how much better it is to have
the wood in a hollow cylinder, rather than to have the same
amount of material in a solid rod of much less diameter.

The buds containing flowers are quite similar to the leaf
buds, but have in their centre, wrapped about by the
leaves, a mass resembling a very minute bunch of grapes.
Each little ball is a flower. Why does Mother Nature or
Mother Lilac place the flowers in the centre, the best pro-
tected part of the bud ? The lilac has reason to be proud
of her blossoms. Some time we may learn another reason
why the lilac and other plants take the very best care of
their flowers. The flower buds may form flowers in the
schoolroom, if kept in warm water.

This study of the lilac may take two or three weeks,
alternating with the " spring notes/' or with the study of
the forms of water, or with other bud or tree study.

When the children have observed the whole development
of the lilac, it will be helpful, for a review, to go back to
the undeveloped bud, and have the children tell about the
use of all the parts and the way in which they are fitted
for their work. For the younger pupils the teacher may
tell in story form the life of the lilac bud, or let the lilac
bud tell, in imagination, its own story, the children supply-
ing, as far as they can, the leading facts and incidents.
This review is most important; properly conducted, it
serves to bind together and clinch what might otherwise
be disconnected and of comparatively little educational
value. The success of the review, and the final results of
the work, will depend on the extent to which the teacher

560 NATUEE STUDY.

has led the children to see and think and tell for them-
selves rather than to merely glance and listen or absorb,
and on the faithfulness with which she has reviewed and
related the essentials in all previous work before taking
each new step.

The study of the later development should be continued
in April, May, and June, studying the formation and main
parts (calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil) of the flower, and the
formation and characteristics of the seeds.

THE BEECH BUD.

Like the horse chestnut, the beech bud develops slowly.
Its plan is rather complex, difficult for little children to un-
derstand ; but they can enjoy its beauty, and the story of
protection and plan which it tells.

The buds are not arranged in pairs, as in lilac or horse
chestnut, but each bud is attached separately ; and they are
arranged in two rows, on opposite sides of the stem. Be-
ginning at the lower end of a fairly straight twig, the
second bud is above and half way around the stem from the
first ; the third is directly above the first, that is, on the same
side of the stem; the fourth above the second; the fifth
above the third. This arrangement is called alternate
(applied to all buds which are attached singly, not in pairs
or whorls), and two-ranked, that is, in two rows. This
two-ranked arrangement, contrasted with the opposite
arrangement of the lilac and horse chestnut, will give the
children a good idea of order and plan in nature. There
are other plans of alternate arrangement, — five-ranked,
eight-ranked, etc., — but they are too difficult for primary
children.

The long, slender, tapering buds and their development
are illustrated below. Perhaps the children can see how
symmetrically the scales are arranged on the undeveloped

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 561

buds. As the buds develop, and the brown scales spread
out, the children will see how thin the scales are, and will
discover the fur along their edges to keep out the rain or
snow. When the outer scales drop off, leaving a distinct
ring-scar they will see, in many buds, flattened silky masses,
somewhat like the little " bunch of grapes " in the lilac and
horse chestnut. Let the children discover in their later ob-
servations of the tree that these form flowers, and from some
of them the beech-nuts develop. Do not tell them. Between
these flower clusters, often enclosed by additional brown
or brown-tipped scales, are several slender, silky, light green
masses. Let the children find out what they are. As they
expand, each leaf is seen to be enclosed between two narrow,
delicate scales, and to be covered with silky hairs. Each
leaf is folded lengthways along the midrib, and plaited
somewhat like a fan. Cut a piece of paper the shape of a
leaf, mark on it the midrib and veins, and show how the
leaf is folded and plaited along the veins. All the scales are
modified stipules, but it is doubtful whether little children
will understand this. To older pupils it may mean much,
showing how nature uses the same part for many purposes.
The buds of the linden or basswood are somewhat like
those of the beech in arrangement and plan. They are two-
ranked; their scales are modified stipules, more leaflike
than in the beech ; the leaves are doubled, but not plaited.
They are much simpler than the beech, but not so beautiful.

THE ELDER AND BOX-ELDER BUDS.

In both, the buds, scales, and leaves are opposite. Both
may contain flowers with the leaves. In both the leaves
are compound, each leaf composed of several parts or leaf-
lets. In these the scales are modified leaves, and frequently
all gradations can be found between the scales and the com-
pound leaves ; that is, the outer pair of scales may be short,

562 NATURE STUDY.

brown, and woody, the next somewhat greener, the next
green, and with the upper end slightly cut into divisions,
resembling the ringers, and the next bearing quite long,
fingerlike divisions resembling the leaflets.

THE BUDS OF PUSSY WILLOW, POPLAR, AND MAPLE.

The early stages of the " pussy willow " have been ob-
served in many primary rooms. But few teachers have
carried the observation beyond the first stages ; they have
been satisfied with the study of their beauty, their softness,
and the way they are protected, without helping the chil-
dren to see why they are so warmly clothed.

Gather twigs from several willow shrubs, as thus we are
more likely to get some buds containing stamens and oth-
ers containing pistils, the two kinds growing on different
plants. Keep them in a cool place, occasionally trimming
off the lower ends of the twigs. In two or three weeks
some of the buds will probably develop into pistillate cat-
kins and others into staminate catkins.

Centre the attention on the green pistillate catkins until
the children can clearly see the bottle-shaped pistils, or
seed-boxes, and the seeds which they contain. Then they
will better understand why Mother Willow so carefully
protects these buds. When the yellow staminate catkins
are ripe, a shake will discharge the " willow gold-dust."
Tell the little folks that this yellow powder, or pollen,
helps to make the seeds, that the seeds cannot be made
without it. How it helps, it is scarcely possible to make
them understand at this early stage. The process of fer-
tilization will mean more, and be better understood in
higher grades, when the children have studied flowers more.

Willow twigs kept in water usually form fibrous rootlets,
growing from the joints, or nodes, of the branches. The
observation of the way in which these first appear, and of

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 563

their growth, may prepare for the observation of the early
growth of the root from the seeds.

The buds of the poplar, and particularly of the cotton-
wood, form long catkins, which show very clearly the clus-
ters of stamens and pistils and the stages in the develop-
ment of the seeds. The staminate catkins are worth
observing just for their rich colors.

The flower buds of the white and red maples develop
naturally in March or April, the white maple earliest. The
flowers are difficult for young children to understand, until
they have had considerable study of larger flowers. But
they are attractive in color (those of the white maple
varying from green to reddish yellow, and those of the red
maple from yellow to scarlet), and show clearly the stages
in the development of the winged seeds from the flowers.

This study of tree flowers will be helpful in impressing
on the children the fact of the existence of many kinds
of flowers which they have never noticed, the function of
flowers in the formation of seeds, and perhaps the fact
that the important parts of the flowers, in seed-making,
are the pistils and stamens, not merely or mainly the
colored calyx, or corolla, usually regarded as the flower.

Newell' s " Outlines of Lessons in Botany" (Ginn & Co.,
Boston) will be found most helpful in bud study. Part I.
(price $0.55) has much on leaf buds. Part II. (price
$0.90) relates to flowers and flower buds and to fruits.

CHILDREN'S PAPERS ON BUDS.
THE LEAF BUD OF THE ELM.1

14 The home of the little leaf bud is on the elm tree. The brothers
and sisters never quarrel. The leaf buds are arranged one on the top
of the twig and one on the right and one on the left side lower down.

1 These two papers were written by children in the same room. They
illustrate the possibility of getting individual work while following the same
general line of thought.

564 NATURE STUDY.

The leaf bud of the elm is smaller than the horse chestnut. They are
shaped like an ear of corn. The covering of the bud is the scales.
The scales are a light green and the tops of the scales are brown. The
smaller scales are outside. The scales are shaped like a blade of
grass. The scales are pointed at the top and about a quarter of an
inch wide. The horse-chestnut scales are thicker and wider than the
elm and covered with varnish. The leaves of the little bud are inside
of the scales. The leaves are folded in the middle. We found around
each little leaf two little scales. They were taking care of the little
baby leaf." JESSIE CARDWELL.

" The leaf buds live in the elm tree. They open about the middle
of May. They are smaller than the horse-chestnut bud. The horse-
chestnut bud opens in April. The horse-chestnut bud has a warmer
coat than the elm bud. The elm bud does not need such a warm coat
because they open when the weather is warm. The biggest bud is on
the top of the branch, then there is one on the right side, then one on
the left side, then another on the right side, then another on the left
side. The elm is taller than the horse-chestnut tree. The elm is got
rougher bark than the horse chestnut. It has more branches than
the horse chestnut. The scales on the elm are light yellow."

JOHN SCRUTON,
THIRD GRADE, PRACTICE SCHOOL.

SELECTIONS ON BUDS.
PUSSY WILLOW.

The brook is brimmed with melting snow,

The maple sap is running,
And on the highest elm a crow

His coal-black wings is sunning.
A close green bud the mayflower lies,

Upon its mossy pillow ;
And sweet and low the south wind blows,

And thro' the brown fields calling goes,
* Come Pussy ! Pussy Willow !

Within your close brown wrapper stir,
Come out and show your silver fur 1

Come Pussy ! Pussy Willow ! '

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 565

Soon red will bud the maple trees,

The blue birds will be singing,
And yellow tassels in the breeze

Be from the poplars swinging,
And rosy will the mayflower be

Upon its mossy pillow.
But you must come the first of all, —
* Come Pussy ! ' is the south wind's call,
* Come Pussy ! Pussy Willow ! '

A fairy gift to children dear,
The downy firstling of the year,
4 Come Pussy ! Pussy Willow I ' "

WAKING UP.

•• Millions of cradles up in the trees
Rock to and fro in the gentle breeze ;
Tucked in these bud-cradles snug and warm
The little green leaves sleep, safe from harm.

April sings low as she passes by,
* Dear little leaves the summer is nigh ;
Open your eyes, from your cradles creep,
Wake up, little leaves, wake up from sleep 1 f

Millions of leaves from their cradle-beds
Slowly and timidly raise their heads ;
They see the sun, and they love it so
They back no more to their cradles go.

Stronger and stronger they grow each hour,
Bathing in sunshine and soft spring shower ;
They stretch themselves out on every side,
Saying, 4 Dear me ! but this world is wide.'

They gaze and gaze on the deep blue sky,
They watch the white clouds go sailing by,
The winds sing songs till for very glee
The leaves are dancing on every tree. "

566 NATURE STUDY.

WORK FOB APRIL.
SEEDS AND THEIR GERMINATION.

" Whether we look or whether we listen,
We hear life murmur, or see it glisten ;
Every clod feels a stir of might,
An instinct within it that reaches and towers,
And, groping blindly above it for light,
Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers."

LOWELL.

Ethical Value. No other phase of plant life, not even
the development of buds, has so much in it for the little
children as the germination of seeds. They are babies to-
gether, — the seeds and the little folks, — and the children
are drawn to them, have a fellow feeling, appreciate their
struggles and difficulties, enter into their work, rejoice at
their success, enjoy the brightness and beauty they shed
about them, join in the " Well done " when the work of the
seed is finished, and other seeds have been formed.

If they really study the life of the seed and seedling, not
merely their form and structure, may not our boys and girls
see in the short life of the seed an epitome of their longer
life ? Perhaps. Much depends on what the teacher sees
in the seed and plant — and in her boys and girls.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF DEVELOPMENT FROM BEGINNINGS.

The study of the germination and life-history .of the plant
is very important from another point of view. The children
should, from the very beginning, study the plant as a whole,
and think of root, stem, leaves, and flowers, not as distinct
things, but in their relation to the whole.

The little plant coming from the seed, with tiny root, stem
and leaves, the baby can comprehend and think of as a
whole. If he first studies it when it is full grown, he does

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 567

not see the whole, but the parts. If he watches it develop
from seed to maturity, his idea of the " wholeness " grows
with the plant.

The study of the plant as a whole includes its whole life-
history, as well as all its parts. The child does not know
the whole plant until he has studied the development of
the whole and of each part.

This study of development is equally essential, to the
child, to an understanding of the relations of the parts to
the whole. The child who has seen roots form and branch,
and buds appear, enlarge, unfold, and produce stem and
leaves and other buds, need not be told how these are re-
lated to the plant. When he has observed the roots reach
down into the ground, and watched the leaves spread out,
and the flowers form fruit and seeds, he has the clearest
possible idea of the work of each part for the whole.

This will aid not merely in future work with plants, but
also in animal study. The knowledge of life history and
fche idea of development are as important in the study of
animals as in that of plants. For many reasons the life
history of animals cannot be so readily observed as that of
plants, so the fundamental idea of life history and develop-
ment must be obtained from plants.

This study of life and life history may be supplemented
and broadened by observing one or more trees throughout
the year, and making the tree study a means of connecting
and correlating all the other plant work.

PRACTICAL ADVANTAGES OF SEED STUDY.

In addition to the educational value, the study of germi-
nation has practical advantages. Seeds — the more common,
the better — are easily obtained anywhere at a very slight
expense. They can be raised — during their first month or
two at least — in any schoolroom or home in the most

568 NATURE STUDY.

crowded part of a great city, in any place where air and
water can be had. Sunlight is not a necessity, although, of
course, plants thrive better, and are more apt to reach ma-
turity, when they get sunlight.

If more attention is given to the study of seeds and
leaves and buds, it will lessen the destruction of the wild
flowers, which has been and will be one of the serious re-
sults of the growing interest in plant study. Teachers and
others are apt to think that the study of plants means the
study of flowers, and their first efforts to cultivate a love
for nature and for the beautiful in nature too often result
in almost exterminating for miles around the most beauti-
ful gifts of nature, the flowers.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR ACTIVE WORK IN NATURE STUDY.

Seeds can be planted by the children in their homes.
The writer has seen beans and peas and morning glories
shedding their refining influence in the windows and scanty
dooryards of scores of very humble city homes, the only
verdure to be seen, planted and cared for because the chil-
dren had become interested in them at school.

Seed study furnishes one of the best opportunities for
carrying on what we may call active work in nature study,
getting the children to do something for nature, to take
care of the plants. One of the most gratifying experiences
in the writer's work in interesting children in nature study,
resulted from an experiment in this line. He offered one
spring to give sweet-pea seeds to any pupils who would
agree to plant and care for them. Scores of girls asked for
them, but only one boy ventured to get them. The next
year, when the same offer was made nearly a hundred boys,
as well as an increased number of girls, asked for sweet
peas or nasturtiums. Each summer scores of hitherto bar-
ren dooryards were brightened by the flowers. This did

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 569

more than anything else the writer ever attempted to give
children a positive interest in nature and nature study and
a larger enjoyment of the beauties of nature.

PLANTING THE SEEDS.

Get fresh beans and peas grown last season. For the
study of the seed itself, Lima or other large beans and as
large peas as can be obtained, are best. For planting, get
the early dwarf varieties of beans and peas. They mature
more rapidly, and if planted in April and given sunshine,
will form flowers, pods, and seeds before the closing of
school in June.

Plant not more than an inch deep nor less than an inch
apart, in sandy loam, not too sandy, not too heavy. They
will not thrive or mature in sand; in soil made of clay, or in
leaf mould, the beans are almost certain to sour and decay.

Window boxes six or eight inches deep, or deep flower-
pots, give the roots needed room.

During the first week or two the seeds will grow as well
in the dark as in the light. After this time they should
be in sunny windows. If this is impossible, try, two or
three times a week, to put them where they will have a sun
bath for several hours. In sunless windows peas grow bet-
ter than beans. Beans are more apt to decay. The seeds
should not be near a stove or radiator.

Teachers are apt to have their first planting, particularly
of beans, decay, because kept too wet. For the first ten days
it is well to wet slightly every afternoon, and cover tightly
for the night with several thicknesses of newspaper. This
will prevent too rapid drying or sudden changes in tempera-
ture. After the plants are an inch high it is unnecessary.

For the children of the first grade, it will be best to limit
the study of germination at first to one kind of plant, the
bean or pea. The bean is somewhat more simple.

570 NATURE STUDY.

Perhaps in the second, and certainly in the third grade,
the germination of bean and pea can be observed together
and constantly compared. Later this may be supplemented

— at least in grades above the second — by such seeds as
the pumpkin or squash, sunflower, maple (if it can be found
germinating out-of-doors), and morning-glory or four-o'clock.
Always plant, when possible, early dwarf varieties. They
thrive best in the schoolroom, and mature before the end of
the school year. The corn is very difficult to understand ;
and it seems wise to leave the study of corn, wheat, oats,
and similar seeds, until later years.

If possible, have each child plant his own seeds. Several
can have a large flower-pot together, or the dirt in the
window box can be marked off in squares. The holes into
which the children are to drop the seeds can be made with
a lead pencil. • The children will enjoy watering the seeds,
under direction. (Not too wet, remember.) The resulting
sense of ownership will add much to their interest.

Plant plenty of seeds, several for each pupil. Many will
decay. If too crowded in the window boxes they can be
easily thinned out. Most teachers do not provide enough
material to do the best work.

Encourage the pupils to plant and watch the seeds at
home, and to report results at school.

Plant some seeds (peas thrive best) on damp — not wet

— paper, in covered jelly tumblers or fruit jars, or on
sponges in open tumblers, the lower part of the sponge
touching — not immersed in — water in the bottom of the
glass. These will show the children how the roots are
formed, how they branch and produce root-hairs, how they
grow and get nourishment. These points cannot be studied
on plants in the ground. With the little children it is not
wise to pull up the plants. They should learn, first of all,
to love and cherish and care for them.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 571

Have children watch, from day to day, the seeds in the
tumblers, arid later those in the window boxes, giving them
questions to direct their observations. When they have
something to tell, have a lesson.

APRIL LITERATURE.
AN APRIL WELCOME.

" Come up April, through the valley,

In your robes of beauty drest,
Come and wake your flowery children

From their wintry beds of rest ;
Come and overblow them softly,

With the sweet breath of the south ;
Drop upon them, warm and loving,

Tenderest kisses of your mouth.

Touch them with your rosy fingers,

Wake them with your pleasant tread,
Push away the leaf-brown covers

Over all their faces spread ;
Tell them how the sun is waiting

Longer daily in the skies,
Looking for the bright uplifting
Of their softly-fringed eyes."

PHCEBE CART.

THE SEED.

" As wonderful things are hidden away

In the heart of a little brown seed,
As ever were found in the fairy net

Of which children sometimes read.
Over the pretty shining coat

We sprinkle the earth so brown,
And the sunshine warms its lowly bed,

And the rain comes dropping down.
Patter, patter, the soft, warm rain,

Knocks at the tiny door ;
And two little heads come peeping out,

Like a story in fairy lore."

572 NATURE STUDY.

WAITING TO GROW.

'* Little white snowdrop just waking up,
Violet, daisy, and sweet buttercup,
Are under the leaves and the ice and the snow,
Waiting, waiting to grow.

Think what a host of queer little seeds,
Of flowers and mosses and ferns and weeds,
Are under the leaves and the ice and the snow,
Waiting, waiting to grow.

Only a month, or a few weeks more,
Will they be waiting behind the door,
Listen and watch and wait below,
Waiting, waiting to grow.

Nothing so small or hidden so well

That God cannot find it, and presently tell

His sun where to shine and His rain where to go,

Helping, helping them grow."

THE LITTLE PLANT.
(From the " Plant Baby and Its Friends.")

" In the heart of a seed,
Buried deep, so deep,
A dear little plant
Lay fast asleep.

'Wake,' said the sunshine,
4 And creep to the light.'
4 Wake,' said the voice
Of the rain-drops bright.

The little plant heard,
And it rose to see
What the wonderful
Outside world might be. "

KATE L. BROWN.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 573

THE GERMINATION OF THE BEAN.

A Series of Lessons planned for First-Year Children.

LESSON I. PLANTING THE BEANS.

Read and discuss with the children "An April Welcome"
or " Waiting to Grow."

Tell them that We have something we want Spring to
wake up. Tell about the Bean Mother who was like the
" old woman who lived in a shoe, who had so many chil-
dren she didn't know what to do ; " only she knew what to
do; how she placed her seed-babies, five or six together, in
seed cradles, each seed fastened tightly to the cradle (show
picture of bean pod) ; how she wrapped each baby in a
coat ; how when Jack Frost came the cradles turned from
a beautiful green or yellow to brown, and the babies all
went to sleep ; how some one took them out of their dry
cradles, and took care of them all winter. We have them
here.

It is time for them to wake up. They want to grow.
How can we help them ? What do boys and girls need to
grow ? What do our beans need ? Talk about necessity
of food, water, air, sunshine, care. Have children plant
the beans. It is best to have portions of the box or flower
pots assigned to each child or group of children. It will
add to the sense of ownership and hence to the interest.

Sing with or to the children or read and discuss with
them (from "Songs for Little Children" by Eleanor Smith):

14 Wake," says the sunshine,
"It's time to get up ;

Wake, pretty daisy and sweet buttercup.

Why, you've been sleeping the whole winter long.

Hark ! hark ! don't you hear ? 'Tis the blue-bird's first song."

574 NATURE STUDY.

Summary. Get from children such statements as those
below, write on blackboard, and read to or with them or
have them read.

Mother Nature told Mother Bean that winter was coming.
Mother Bean made a cradle for her babies.
She put five babies in a cradle.
She put a coat on each baby.
: The cold did not hurt them.
They slept all winter.
Now they want to wake up.

We will help them. We have put them in the ground.
The dirt and the sun and the water will help.

LESSON II. WAKING UP.

Preparatory observations. Have children examine each
day the seeds in the glasses. Help them, so far as ne-
cessary, in observing how the seed swells, how the coat
wrinkles and then becomes smooth, how and where the
little white pointed " foot " comes out, how fast it grows
(measure), how its branches first appear as knobs and how
they grow, how it splits and sometimes pushes off the coat
of the seed-baby, how the " foot " insists on growing down-
ward and will not grow upward. To show latter, place, in a
moist saucer, bean with "foot" (or "radicle" or 'fcaulicle")
half an inch or more in length, pinning it through the coty-
ledons to a cork with the point of the radicle upward, and
cover with an inverted tumbler, so that the air around it
will keep moist. In a few hours the radicle will bend
downward. If again fastened with point upward, it will
again bend downward. The pea is somewhat better than
the bean for this and similar experiments.

When the children have- considerable to tell, have a les-
son. A week or more may intervene between Lesson I.
and Lesson IL

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 575

Waking up. Bead again or sing " < Wake/ Says the Sun-
shine " or " The Little Plant." Talk about how boys and
girls wake up, how they open their eyes, perhaps have a
"stretch," push out their feet and hands, push off the
"covers." Relate to bean. If children can be shown
soaked Lima beans, they can see more clearly the open-
ing (micropyle, meaning " little gate " ) in the skin
through which the "foot" is pushed. Months ago
Mother Nature or Mother Bean placed that opening or
thin place in the skin just where the tender "foot"
would begin to push out. Note how the foot bends or
doubles on itself, somewhat like a fishhook. Give name,
radicle (or, if preferred, "little root").

Have children describe bean and foot and coat, so that
teacher can draw it on blackboard as it looked when first
seen and also after it had grown a little.

Blackboard summary.

Our baby bean has waked up.

We have seen it (or them) grow bigger.

It has pushed out a little foot.

The foot came out of a hole in the skin.

Mother Bean made the hole just over the foot.

The foot has a point like a pencil.

It made the skin crack.

We saw it grow longer and longer.

We call the foot the radicle.

Miss Grey made the foot point up.

It soon turned down.

It will not grow up.

It always grows down.

LESSON III. PUSHING OUT OF THE GROUND.

Preparatory observations. Continue observations on
beans in glasses. Note how the root lengthens, and how
the branches form, lengthen, and perhaps branch again,
and how the stem, bearing two folded green leaves, pushes

576

NATURE STUDY.

out from between the two thick halves or cotyledons of the
bean, and always grows upward, not downward.

Watch also the seeds planted in the earth. Note how
they come up out of the ground, always with the radicle,
or part of the stem below the cotyledons, arched ; how this
arch, acting like a wedge, pushes apart the soil, and some-
times lifts up large pieces of dirt ; how, as it grows, it pulls
the cotyledons backward out of the ground, with their lower
(now upper) or united ends always uppermost ; how the
seed coat is pushed off, or splits and drops off; how the
arched stem slowly straightens, turning the cotyledons up-
ward ; how the little bud or plumule with its two folded
leaves grows out from between the cotyledons, turns greener
and begins to unfold.

After the children have
observed and understand the
facts fairly well, ask why the
stem is bent — to push more
readily through the ground,
to make a path for the
cotyledons and delicate bud
and leaves between them;
and why the cotyledons are
pulled out backward — to
keep the soil from injuring
the bud.

Summary. Draw on the blackboard, directed by children
as far as possible, two or three stages in the early growth
of the bean in the soil. Perhaps some of the children
can draw these after the teacher has shown them how.
They should not copy the teacher's drawing, but should
draw from a growing bean. Pictures made by the children
on blackboard on a large scale with a free-arm movement
are much better for the little folks than little cramped pic-

fig. 67. Germination of Bean.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 577

tures on paper or slate. Outlines showing the seed push-
ing out of the ground, pricked by the teacher, and sewed by
the children, may help in impressing the appearance of the
seed as it comes up into the " wonderful outside world."

LESSON IV. GETTING FOOD.

Preparatory observations. Continue 'observations on
growth and branching of roots in glasses. Dig up carefully
one of the plants in the ground (do not pull it up), with all
the soil about its roots, place in water, and move gently back
and forth to wash off the dirt without breaking off the fine
rootg. Observe the root system.

Watch the changes in the thick cotyledons. They spread
apart after their work of protecting the bud is done. Is that
all their work ? Note how they wrinkle and shrivel, get-
ting smaller and dryer. In from four to six weeks they
drop off. Cut off cotyledons from two or three young
plants in glass jars. In a few days these plants die, while
those with the cotyledons may thrive.

How Mother Bean feeds her babies. Talk about how
mother must feed the baby, and how the children go to
their mother when hungry. Some of them may bring some
lunch to school in a bag. How does the bag look when they
have eaten the lunch ? How does an orange look when they
have sucked out the juice ? Wrinkled up. Try to have
them see and tell that the cotyledons are the lunch boxes,
filled with the best kind of food, which Mother Bean placed
there for the baby plant to feed on until it was old enough
to get food for itself. As it grows, it uses up this food,
"sucks it in," and the lunch boxes wrinkle and shrivel up ;
when the food is all gone they drop off. If the lunch boxes
are taken away before the baby can get food in some other
way it dies.

578 NATURE STUDY.

How Baby Bean gets its own food. As the baby at home
gets older it begins to reach out, and tries to get things to eat
and drink. So the plant baby, as its " foot " (shall we call
it "hand" now?) grows and forms branches, or " fingers,"
begins to get food for itself. Its food is in the ground.
Its root always grows first (Why ?). It grows down (Why
always down ?) and branches out and forms many thread-
like " fingers " spreading in all directions. Why ? By the
time the two lunch boxes are empty the baby plant can get
its own food and take care of itself. Emphasize fact that
we must help the plant by giving it water and good soil, —

soil with plenty of plant food in it.

•

Summary. A baby that is old enough to get its own
food is old enough to talk, and tell its own story. Cannot
the teacher, with the help of the children, draw from the
plants " The Story Our Bean Babies Told," have a bean tell
how much Mother Bean and Mother Nature did for her,
and how she is learning to do and work for herself ?

LESSON V. THE BEAN BABIES IN THEIR CRADLE.

Now the children are ready to study the bean itself,
from which the babies came. If they begin with beans be-
fore observing their germination they will not understand
them. They have now seen each part, — coat, caulicle,
cotyledons, plumule, — develop, and have learned by obser-
vation what each does. Now each part means something
to them.

By the latter part of April beans in the pod can usually
be obtained at the market. Show one or two to the chil-
dren, open and show the beans in their green cradle, noting
how they are fastened and arranged, each in its place.

Give children large beans, — Lima beans are best, — soaked
over night, and have them find coat (and micropyle if pos-

SPRING NATURE STUDY.

579

sible), cauiicle, cotyledons, and plumule or little bud with
its two leaves so carefully folded.

Hans Andersen's story "Five Out of One Shell/' read to
the children, will be appreciated.

The observation of the formation of leaves, flowers, and
fruit should be continued during May and June.

Fig. 68. Germination of Pea

GERMINATION OF PEA.

The early development of the pea is quite similar to that
of the bean. The parts are not so large or distinct ; the
plumule is very small, and more complex than that of the
bean; the cotyledons do not turn green, and often remain
in the ground. But the pea is more certain to thrive in
the schoolroom, and grows somewhat more rapidly. The
differences between the early stages of the germination of
the bean and pea are particularly interesting for observation.
Notice the difference in the leaves, the leaves of the pea
being composed of several leaflets and tendrils, fastened to
a central stem or axis; the large parts at the base of each
leaf stem (the stipules), and the way they fold about and

580 NATURE STUDY.

protect the young leaves ; the growth and use of the ten-
drils, the " lingers of the pea," as the children often call
them, and their manner of twining. The pea is much bet-
ter than the bean for the experiments on root growth sug-
gested in connection with the study of the roots of the bean.

WRITTEN WORK OF PUPILS. GERMINATION OF BEAN.

The papers below illustrate different kinds of written
work by pupils of the second and third grades, and may be
suggestive to teachers in those grades studying the. germi-
nation of the bean. All are selected from regular work of
the pupils, and are printed as written, but with gross errors
in spelling and English corrected by the author. All are
from the Practice School of the Oswego Normal School.

The first illustrates class reproduction — with the bean
personified. The statements were gained (mainly) from the
class, arranged in order by the class and teacher, written
on the blackboard, and copied by the children. The other
papers are individual papers. Where two are given under
one title they are by pupils in the same room, writing at
the same time, following the same line of thought, but
showing considerable individuality. If space permitted,
many others might be added from the same rooms.

The last paper (by Ethel Wilcox) illustrates well the
proper order. The paper tells first about experiments and
observations, and then gives conclusions based on these.

THE BEAN'S STORY. „

"I am a little bean. I have been sleeping all winter in my little
black coat. Don't you think that is a pretty long sleep ? How long
do you sleep ? One day some little children put me in a box of earth
and covered me up. Then they put some water on me. Soon Mother
Nature said, ' Wake up I Wake up ! ' Soon I began to swell and my
coat got tight. After awhile my coat burst and fell off. Then the
sun kissed me and I began to grow." MAMIE CUTLER,

THIRD GRADE.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 581

OUR SEED BABIES.

41 We put some baby seeds to bed. They were bean babies and
pea babies. Some sweet peas of ours came up too. We took off the
seed's coat of a bean. We saw the head and foot coming out of the
bean. We put some into a glass and they came up. The bean came
up. I am going to make a picture of a bean and here it is. (Picture
of seed.) I am going to make one more bean. (Picture of bean be-
ginning to sprout.) The knees came up first."

DARLENE STONE,

SECOND GRADE.
PLANTING BEANS.

"We planted beans yesterday in a box with some soil in. We
planted them a half inch deep and then covered them with soil.

44 We then took some jars (and a piece of blotting paper, C. B. S.)
and wet it and put it in the jars and then put beans in the jars. In
the morning they were cracked.

4 4 The beans grew in the garden last year. The pod looked like a
cone. At first (when, C. B. S.) the bean grew the pods were green
but when the sun came they turned white and when it rained it made
them soft and then the men picked them. If the men did not pick
them they would fall down to the ground and grow next year.

44 We had some beans in the room in a bottle. We looked at
them. They had grown a great deal. There was a little sprout on
them. The sprout was green. It would be an inch long but it wasn't
straight. It grew downward. Its cap is black. ' '

EGBERT BRENNAN, %
THIRD GRADE.
THE BEAN.

(Part of a diary kept by members of the class.)

44 April 27, 1897. My bean is hard and the color is black and
white. It is shaped like a boat and it has little dints in it. Yesterday
we planted some beans and we put them in the ground an inch deep.
After we planted them Miss Fuller got some little flags and stuck
them in the ground for the row who planted them.

44 April 29, 1897. Yesterday we put a sponge in a bottle and we put
some water in it too (and some beans, C. B. S.). Then we looked at
it (the bean, C. B. S.) this morning and it was soft. It was soft be-
cause there was water in it. The skin was coming off and it was all

582 NATURE STUDY.

wrinkled and it was swelling. The bean wanted to get it wrinkled
because it wanted to grow. We had to replant our beans.

44 May 7, 1897. Our beans are sprouted. The bean's sprout came
out at the scar and at the place where it is called the little gate. The
direction it came out was straight, then it went down because it was
going to be the root. The sprout of the bean is longer than the
sprout of the morning-glory." HAROLD McCALL,

THIRD GRADE.

THE PARTS OF OUR BEAN PLANT.

44 The roots of the bean help the plant to grow. We measured the
root and it was one inch and a half long. The central root has a lot
of roots. The little roots have a lot of little hairlike roots. The little
root bends out. My stem is white at the bottom. Then my stem was
green at the top. My stem is got a lot of furry stuff on it. The root
was big at the top and it was small at the bottom."

WALTER REYNOLDS.

44 The bean has three parts. One of the parts is the root and one
of the parts is the leaves and one of the parts is the stem. The root
is like a thread. The color of the root is yellowish white. The cen-
tral root is sharp like a cylinder (cone ?). On the central root I saw
' a great many little roots. We measured the root and it was a inch
and one half long. On the root that was near the central root there
are a great many new baby roots. On the root there are white spots.
The root bends down near the ground. The stem is light green and
jlown to the bottom it is whiter green. The stem is shaped like a
cylinder. In the center were the cotyledons. The stem is about
eight inches long." ANNA CAROLIN,

SECOND GRADE.
ROOT OF BEANS.

44 John Wells pulled up two plants. They were bean plants. One
was bigger than the other. The littlest one pulled up harder than the
other did. The littlest one came hard because it had roots on it and
the big plant didn't have any roots on it. That is why it came up
easier.

44 The use of the root is to hold the plant firmly in the ground. If
it didn't have the root when a hard wind or a hard rain-storm came
it would blow it over. We call this root a fibrous root or a spreading
root.

SPRING NATURE STU.

" We put one bean plant in water. The color of this water was red.
Then in a few days the roots turned red. Then in a little while the
backs of the leaves turned red. The way they turned red was that
the red water went up through the roots up through the stem into the
leaves. The red gets into the root through the little hairs on the
root.

" The root takes food to the leaves. The root takes in liquid food.
The use of the stem to the leaves is that it takes up food through it.
The sun makes the plant grow. Another use of the stem to the leaves
is that it holds the leaves up to the sun. The food that the plant
drinks is water. The food that it gets is all ground up in tiny pieces
in the water." ETHEL WILCOX,

THIRD GRADE.

GERMINATION OF THE MORNING GLORY.

(Planned for the Third Grade.)

This is the substance of an outline prepared by Miss
Kate Cambern, while a member of the author's class ; it has
been abridged and slightly modified by the author.

LESSON I. THE LIFE IN THE SEED.

Preparatory observation. Previous observation for a
week or more, with definite questions, of the early develop-
ment of seeds planted on damp paper.

Step I. Protection during the winter. Read and dis-
cuss : —

" March nodded to Winter, * Good-bye! good-bye !
Off to your home in the north you must hie.
Oh ! have you forgotten, under the snow,
The wee seeds are waiting, yes, waiting to grow ? '

They are Spring's little babies, and soon she'll be here,
Whispering her welcome to each baby dear ;
So I'll tidy the earth ; I'll sweep and I'll blow,
Getting it cleared for the flowers to grow."

584 NATURE STUDY.

Review how the seeds were taken from the seed-case last
fall — (Cannot some tell how the seed-case looked. See
Fig. xxx ); how many were gathered by people, while others
dropped to the ground; how the dark color — so much like
the color of the earth — and the hard coat have protected
them from birds and insects and cold ; how they have been
covered with leaves and snow, until sun and rain have
awakened them.

Step II. The awakening. Recall the size, shape, and
hardness of the dry seed and its swelling and the softening
of its coat when placed in water. The pupils should be
able to tell, from their observations, how and where the little
caulicle first appeared, always at the same part of the seed,
coming through, or making a hole in the pointed end of the
seed, and how it lengthened and thickened, perhaps burst-
ing open the coat.

Compare development of morning glory with that of the
bean, if the 'children have studied the bean.

Eead with them and discuss the following : —

" Down the little drops patter,
Making a musical clatter ;
Out of the clouds they throng.
Freshness of heaven they scatter
Little dark rootlets among.
4 Coming to visit you, Posies,
Open your hearts to us, Roses,'
That is the raindrop's song.

Up the little seed rises,
Buds of all colors and sizes,
Clamber out of the ground.
Gently the blue sky surprises
The earth with that soft rushing sound.
4 Welcome,' the brown bees are humming ;
*Come, for we wait for your coming,'
Whisper the wild flowers around."

XPK1NG NATUltfi STUDY,

585

Fig. 69. Germination of Morning Glory.

586 NATURE STUDY.

Step III. Summary. Have children draw the soaked
seed and the seed beginning to develop. Some may write
on "How Our (or My) Morning Glory Seed Waked Up,"
telling what the sunshine and rain did, and how the seed
baby began to grow.

LESSON II. BEGINNINGS OF GROWTH.

Preparatory observations. Observe for a week or more
the growth of the morning glories in the soil: how the stem
arches and backs out of the ground, how the leaves are
doubled and crumpled in the seed, and are partly wrapped
around a little mass of white starch ; how this white mass
becomes soft, turns to sugar, and disappears ; how the leaves
get larger and greener, straighten out, and slowly back out
of the seed coat ; how the arched stem straightens, and car-
ries up the leaves, and sometimes the seed coat on the tip
of one or both of the seed leaves.

Step I. Literature. Read " The Seed," page 571 as a
preparation for the study of the " wonderful things hidden
away in the heart of a little brown seed."

Step II. First stage of growth above ground. Have
pupils tell and show by bending their fingers exactly
how the arched stem backs out of the ground, and pulls
the seed-coat and seed leaves with it. Compare the way
in which the stem pushes up through the ground with the
way in which the bow of a boat cuts the water and with
the way in which people carry heavy loads on their shoul-
ders.

Step III. The second stage of growth above ground.
Have children see how the stem has pulled the seed out of
the ground and is now straightening itself. "But the seed
baby's coat does not fit as well as it did before. It is all
split down the sides, What is it we see peeping out ? ;;

SPRItfG NATURE STUDY 587

" Some little yellow (or green) crumpled things." "And
what do you think they are ? "

Bring out, by having children look at more advanced
stage of morning glory that they are leaves. (These we
can call seed-leaves, because any child can see that they are
leaves. To call the cotyledons of the bean or pea seed
leaves only confuses the children. They cannot grasp in a
few weeks what it took botanists generations to compre-
hend, that the cotyledons of bean or pea are merely modi-
fied, greatly thickened leaves.)

Make sure that the children see the pellet of white starch,
about which the leaves are partly rolled. If necessary,
show this in seeds which have been soaked two or three
days. Perhaps the pupils can discover, by tasting it, that
it is changing to sugar. Note how early in the plant's de-
velopment it disappears. Tell them that this (albumen) is
the store of food the plant mother provided for her babies
until they were old enough to get their own food. The
leaves are wrapped around this food. At first it is dry, like
starch. When the plant begins to grow, Mother Nature
turns it to sugar, which dissolves in water, and can be ab-
sorbed by the leaves. When this food is gone the leaves
have grown enough and have become strong enough to get
along without the protecting seed coat.

Show how it is better for the seed to be pulled out as
it is, and how it is better for the leaves to grow out back-
ward.

Step IV. Summary. Have oral summary or blackboard
reading lesson or individual written reproduction on " How
Our (or My) Morning Glory Seed Came Out of the Ground,"
bringing out clearly, position and change in pos tion of stem,
and reasons; position and changes in albumen, and use and
reasons; position and growth of seed leaves, and reasons;
pushing off of the seed coat, and why pushed off.

588 NATURE STUDY.

LESSONS III. AND IV. GROWTH, USES, AND ADAPTATION
OF ROOTS.

Preparatory work. Watch, if possible, growth of roots of
seeds on damp blotting-paper in glasses. Note increase in
length and formation of branches. Possibly the formation of
root hairs may be seen. Dig up from soil a few plants two
or three weeks old, being careful not to disturb the roots,
and carefully wash off the soil. Try to show that the roots
always grow downward, by experiment suggested in outline
on bean. Mark with point of fine needle, dipped in ink,
minute dots on the root, the first as near to the tip as pos-
sible, the others at intervals of an eighth of an inch or less.
The experiment, if successful, will show that the root in-
creases in length only just back of the tip. If it kept
lengthening throughout its whole extent, it would be con-
stantly disturbing or pulling out its branches. The success
of these experiments depends largely on keeping the roots,
and particularly their tips, always moist.

Step I. Growth of root. Trace its growth from the time
the first little " foot " was pushed out until branches were
formed on all sides. Impress fact of its always growing
downward. Discuss (if it has been seen, but not other-
wise) its manner of lengthening.

Step II. Appearance and parts. Draw on blackboard,
directed by pupils, a well developed root, with branches
(and if seen, root hairs).

Step III. Work or use or functions. Recall substances
that dissolve in water, perhaps including the lime which
forms the incrustation in the tea-kettle. Show how string
or blotting-paper draws up water, with what is dissolved in
it. The roots do the same. If the roots of young vigorous
morning-glory plants are placed in water with some red dye,

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 589

the dye may show, after several hours, in the veins of the
leaves, proving that the roots have taken it in, and the stem
has carried it to the leaves. So the roots take in water,
and food dissolved in water, for the young plant. This is
done by the fine rootlets and root hairs.

Have children show how their fingers help them to cling
fast. Compare with rootlets and their use, bringing out
fact that these also help the plant to hold fast in the ground.

Step IV. Adaptation to work. Summary. How roots
are made or fitted for their work : by growing downward,
by lengthening only near tips, by branching, by forming
fine fibres and root hairs.

LESSON V. COMPARISON OF BEAN AND MORNING GLORY.

Note. This lesson is based on the assumption that the
boys and girls are observing the development of : both bean
and morning glory. There should be some comparison con-
stantly, but it is necessary to occasionally have a lesson de-
voted to gathering up the important points of resemblance
and difference.

If a considerable number of seeds of both kinds are
planted in late March or early April, several stages in the
development of» both can usually be obtained a month after
planting, on account of the unequal rate of growth of the
seeds.

Step I. Comparison of soaked seeds. Different in size,
shape, color, thickness and hardness of coat. Similar in
having a scar, where fastened to seed-box, a little stem, two
parts fastened to it (cotyledons), and a store of food. In
one the food is within and part of the cotyledons, in the
other the cotyledons are wrapped around the food.

Step II. Beginning growth. In both the caulicle grows
first, pushes out through a certain place or hole in the coat,

590 NATURE STUDY.

grows downward, turning and twisting if necessary, length-
ens back of the tip, forms many branches.

Step III. Pushing out of the ground. Both come out
with an arch, pulling cotyledons and seed-coat after them,
and slowly straighten, lifting up the cotyledons.

Step IV. Development of cotyledons. In bean thick,
slowly shrivelling up ; in morning-glory leaf-like, turning
green, and forming leaves. Why ?

Step V. Store of food. Both have it. How do they
differ in the position of the food and the way it is used ?
How alike in way of getting food from ground ?

Step VI. Summary. Alike in being protected by coat,
in having a little plant or embryo inside, with a stem and
two cotyledons, and in having a store of food for the baby
plant. Alike in sending down branching roots to get water
and food in the ground, and in sending up green leaves into
the air. Unlike in way seed food is stored and in charac-
ter of seed leaves, or cotyledons.

CHILDREN'S PAPERS ON GERMINATION.

THE MORNING-GLORY SEED.

" When the baby seed went to work for itself the mother fixed a
box of food for it because it was not old enough to take care of itself.
The food was inside of its little coat. We put the little seed in the
earth and we put water on it. The little seed drank so much water it
burst and the little stem and the leaves began to push out. The stem
came out first. The stem was bent over when it came out and it came
out to make a little place for the leaves. After awhile it straightened
up. I could see the little leaves. There was two of them. They
were green. They were doubled up. And at the end of them was
the little coat." JESSIE CARDWELL,

THIRD GRADE.
THE MORNING GLORY.

" The morning-glory seed is shaped like a quarter of an apple and
they are very small. The color of them is black. It is hard and
rough.

SPUING NATURE STUDY. 591

" Then we got a dish of seeds with sprouts and they were swelled
up because they were in water. The seeds were put in a dish and in
the box April 27. The little gate is the place where the sprout comes
out. It looks like a place where a pin was put in and took out again.
It made a little hole. The skin of the morning-glory is loose.

" Then I went up to the box and saw that the morning-glory seed
was up and the seed was at the end of the leaf and the leaves were
shaped like a heart.

" The leaves were yellow at first, then they turned green. The stem
is white. The seed pushed up and then it turned down to the ground
and then the leaves were yellow. The leaves were down in the
ground, then they straightened up.

" When the leaves were down in the ground they stuck together
then when they came out they were spread out and we call them
cotyledons. Before they straightened up the shucks fell off.

*' The morning glory grow fast very fast."

MARGUERITE BRUNEAU,
THIRD GRADE.

MY LITTLE SQUASH SEEDS.

" My squash seed is shaped like a stone in a plum. The color is
cream color. The one that has the sprout its life has come out. The
sun has come and said ' Wake up and come out ' so the second one
has come out. But the first has never been planted so it can't until it
is planted. There is a point where the little life comes out. And
the other end is round like a ball. The use of the root is to send up
the food and water. The color of the root is white and it has two lit-
tle roots on it." BLANCHE MARTIN.

WATCHING GERMINATION OF SEEDS OUT-DOORS.

Apply what is learned from bean and morning glory by
leading children to observe carefully, and report how other
seeds germinate. One or two field lessons to observe germi-
nation of any weed seeds or tree seeds will be helpful. Give
pupils flower or garden seeds to plant on condition that
they watch them carefully, and report what they see and
learn. Try to have them observe the germination of some
of the seeds whose formation and dissemination were studied
last fall, such as the mallow, buttercup, dandelion, milk-

592

NATURE STUDY.

weed, thistle, maple, burdock,
particularly good for study.

The maple seedlings are

Fig. 70. Germination of Maple Seedlings.

APRIL TREE AND BUD STUDY.

It seems wise to centre the plant study during April about
the seeds and their germination. Much of what was ob-
served in March in the study of the buds forced in the
schoolroom can be reviewed in April by out-door observation.

It will be well to observe also during April the forma-
tion from the flower and the early stages of growth of the
winged seeds of the white maple and red maple. The
sugar or rock maple or hard maple usually flowers during
the latter part of April.

Fig. 71. Deuelopment of Buds of Norway Maple.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 593

MAY PLANT STUDY.
THE PLANT AT WORK.

FOR two months we have been studying beginnings, — the
branch developing from the bud, the root and stem and leaf
starting from the seed.

For two months our boys and girls have been discovering
how much has been done for the plant, how the seeds and
buds have been protected through the winter, how carefully
provision was made long beforehand for their spring awak-
ening and growth, how leaves and soil, snow and rain, sun-
shine and cloud, have all helped.

This side of plant life appeals to the child because it is
like his own life, his own experience as a child.

But he has seen the protecting scales separate, and gradu-
ally fall off, and the warm woolly covering disappear. Un-
covered, unprotected, the tiny delicate leaves unfold, grow
thicker and stronger, separate, spread out to sun and sky
and rain. What for ? The stem strengthens and lengthens
upward. What for ? The delicate leaves one after another
push out from the protection of their fellows, enlarge, un-
fold, spread their faces to the light. What for ?

Why, they have all made a discovery. Pulsating and
throbbing through the plant, from every root and stem, from
every branch and leaf, comes the message : " We have a
work to do. All these months Mother Nature has been
getting us ready to do this work. She has cared for us and
protected us. She has given us everything, done every-
thing for us. Now she tells us we must work for our-
selves."

During May and June our boys and girls will study the
other side of the plant's life, — what it does, its work.

The Root at Work. Review observations on early growth

594 NATURE STUDY.

of root. Review experiment showing that root always
grows first, and always grows downward. The roots are
determined to get into the earth. What do they do in the
ground ?

Carefully dig up by the roots a young bean or pea plant,
shake it gently in water to remove the earth, and then
place its roots in a vessel containing water in which a little
red dye (eosine red is best) has been dissolved, coloring the
water a bright red. After about twelve hours it will be
found that all the fine veins in the leaves are stained a
bright red, showing that the water, carrying the dye, has
passed into and through the roots, up the stem, and into
the leaves. (Laurie's "Food of Plants.")

The work of the root can be illustrated, not demonstrated,
by showing the children how a piece of cloth or blotting-
paper or a string draws up colored water.

The fine furry covering of " root-hairs " usually seen on
peas raised on damp paper, under a glass, will help the
children to understand how or with what the root draws in
water. Each hair is a tube with very thin walls and end,
through which the water passes. It is not true that " the
roots have hundreds of little mouths," as the children are
sometimes told. They have no openings, but absorb
through the thin walls. Hence they can take in only
liquids and gases.

The main work of the roots is to take in food from the
earth for the plants. Why are the roots formed first ?
Where does the little plant get its food while the roots are
getting ready for work? How is it that they can grow so
large without any earth ?

The children will doubtless suggest another part of the
work of the root, — to hold the plant in the ground. Notice
how well they are fitted for this by the branching arid di-
rection of growth of the roots.

SPRING NATUEE STUDY. 595

The Stem at Work. The study of the germination of
seeds and development of buds has shown the children one
use of the stem — to support and separate the leaves.

As the beans planted on sawdust or paper get older, the
children can be shown the skin enclosing the stem. What
is its work ? Compare with the use of the skin on their
hand. Perhaps they will see the threads or fibres running
lengthwise through the stem. If they do, tell them that in
these threads are little tubes through which much of the
water and food passes.

The Leaves and Their Work. There are many reasons
for emphasizing leaf-study. Leaves are much more abun-
dant and can be more easily obtained than flowers. Their
study can be made as interesting and attractive as that of
flowers. If leaves are studied more, our wild flowers will
not be destroyed so rapidly, as the growing interest in
nature study threatens.

We must study the leaves as living things, not as mere
forms. The tendency to emphasize form and structure is
particularly evident in the methods usually followed in
studying leaves. Too often the leaf is nothing more than
a form, supported by a skeleton. Too often the leaf is a
means of giving the pupil practice in exact, concise descrip-
tion, and is nothing more. We are not going to neglect the
careful observation and the clear, exact expression. In this
we will find the leaves and flowers very helpful. But we
must give our boys and girls more, — an interest in the
world about them ; a sympathy with nature ; an apprecia-
tion of the beautiful in form, color, purpose, and relations.

596 NATURE STUDY.

GERMINATION OF BEAN.

( Continued -from April. Planned for First Grade. )

LESSON VI. THE LEAVES IN THE BEAN GETTING READY.

Preparation. Beginning with the two pale little leaves
folded between the cotyledons lead children to watch : how
they increase in size ; how they push apart from one an-
other, and push out from between the cotyledons, tip first;
how their color changes to a deeper and deeper green ; how
the plant stem lengthens pushing them up, and the leaf
stems lengthen pushing them apart, until they turn their
faces to the sky ; how between the bases of the two leaf
stems a little knob appears, which slowly shows itself to be
a bud.

When this stage is reached have a lesson. It will be
much more successful if the children can have before them,
during the lesson, beans (large Lima beans are best) just
beginning their development, and others showing one or two
stages in the emergence of the leaves.

Presentation. The lesson may be in four steps : first, the
baby leaves in their seed cradle ; second, the leaves climbing
out of their cradle; third, looking up toward the sun;
fourth, the parts of the leaf and what they do. The parts
are : the leaf stem, to lift up and hold up the leaf; the leaf
blade ; the flat, thin green part (compare with a knife-blade);
and the veins, to hold up the parts of the blade. (See Fig.
67.) Three blackboard sketches, showing these stages,
and strongly emphasizing leaf development, drawn by the
teacher as directed by the children, will lead the little folks
to observe carefully, and will help to impress the main
facts on their eyes and minds. It may be helpful to have
the children cut the leaves in paper, or take an impress of
them in clay.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 597

LESSON VII. MAKING NEW LEAVES TO HELP IN THE WORK.

Watch with the children the growth and unfolding of
the bud. Why is it between the lower ends of the leaf
stems ? For better protection. Is it covered with scales,
like the buds studied in March, which had been on the
trees all winter ? Why not ? Note how its stem pushes
it up from between the first two leaves, and how it unfolds
until we see leaves quite unlike the first ones. They are
divided into three parts, or leaflets. Note how they are
folded in the bud and how they unfold.

When the most mature leaves are fairly well developed,
have a lesson, having the children draw a leaf, with its
three parts.

LESSON VIII. THE GREAT WORK OF THE LEAVES. MAKING
THE WORLD BEAUTIFUL.

Mother Nature (who is Mother Nature?) has been so
very careful in covering and wrapping and folding these
bean leaves ; she has given them such a store of food ; she
sets the root and stem at work getting and carrying food
for them, she brings them out so slowly and cautiously in
the spring, — she must have a great work for them to do.
What is it ?

Try to have the little folks see how the green leaves give
the main beauty to the bean plant. How bare a bean
plant looks from which all the leaves have fallen ! How
much the leaves differ in size and outline, and how much
better that is than having all alike ! This thought will be
impressed if children are led to try to find two leaves ex-
actly alike. How much the plants in the window boxes, and
mainly the leaves of these plants, brighten the windows
and the room !

At this season, when all nature is dressed in richest

598 NATURE STUDY.

green, turn the eyes and the thoughts of the children to the
trees and lawns and fields. Gathered about the window
(or, better, going out doors), with even one tree or lawn or
bit of green in sight, cannot they see and begin to appreci-
ate the fact that it is the leaves, not the flowers, which
give the chief beauty to this world of ours. The leaves
form nature's dress ; the flowers are only the jewels scat-
tered here and there.

Isn't it a great work to fill this world with life and
beauty and brightness, to help bring joy and happiness to
everybody ? Will not some of the little men and women
apply the thought ? What would we and the birds and all
the animals do without leaves ? What a world this would
be with nothing green !

In city schools, in a world of brick and stone and smoke,
the leaf study may be the means of showing yearning, hun-
gry eyes something of the world of beauty which seems so
commonplace to the more favored children in village and
country.

Bring out another use of the veins, — to carry water
to every part of the leaf. Note how the veins come from
the top of the leaf stem, branch again and again, and extend
-: to every part of the leaf. Compare with water pipes in the
city, or with ditches or drains in the country, or with the
blood vessels in the hands.

The children can understand that, if each leaf is giving
out water, all together throw out into the air an enormous
amount of water. Some trees are known to exhale several
tons of water every day. Those children who have studied
during the winter the forms of water can, perhaps, appreci-
ate something of the use and value of leaves and of plants
in keeping the air moist and thus helping in giving us fre-
quent rains.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 599

LESSON IX. MORE WORK FOR THE LEAVES. THROWING
OUT WATER.

Repeat or review the experiments suggested, showing
that the roots drink in water with food dissolved in it, and
that this is carried through the stem to the leaves. The
roots must take in water every day, to get food for the
plant. What becomes of the water ?

Invert a clean dry fruit-can closely over a bean plant.
Set the plant in the sunlight. Before very long the inner
surface of the can becomes covered with moisture or water.
If the leaves are removed, or the plant is not in the sun-
light, little water will be seen.

The following simple experiment, from Goodale's "Physi-
ological Botany," will help the children to see and under-
stand what the leaves do : —

" Take six or eight fresh, large, healthy leaves, two
tumblers filled to within an inch of the top with water,
two empty, dry, clean tumblers, and two pieces of card, each
large enough to cover the moufch of the tumbler. Near the
middle of each card, bore three or four holes, each large
enough to allow the stalk of a leaf to pass through. Put
the leaf-stalks through the holes, far enough to hang quite
deep in the water, turn the empty tumblers upside down,
one over each card, so as to cover the broad part or blade
of the leaves. Place one pair of tumblers in the sunlight,
the other in a shady place. In five or ten minutes examine
the inverted tumblers."

Thus the pupils will learn that one part of the work of
the leaves is to throw out the water which the roots take
in. The microscope shows us that each leaf has, mainly
on its lower surface, thousands of little pores or mouths,
much too small to be seen by the eye (each apple leaf is
said to have about one hundred thousand of these pores),
through which water passes.

600 NATURE STUDY.

Compare the throwing out of water by the leaves (trans-
piration, the botanists call it) with the throwing out of
water by the skin, or perspiration. Perhaps the children
can discover, in old leaves, that the leaf, too, has a skin.

LESSON X. HOW THE LEAVES AND THE SUN WORK
TOGETHER.

Study the leaves in relation to the light. Note how all
the leaves of the bean turn toward the light. Turn the
box around so that leaves face away from the light. How
soon they twist around.

Any plants growing away from the window show how
the leaves grow toward the light, often greatly lengthening
their stems to get nearer the light.

Bean plants, whose leaves are shaded by other plants, or
bean plants put in a dark place, soon lose their bright green
color and look sickly.

Plants grown in a sunny window are much greener and
much more thrifty looking than those which do not get
the sun.

Evidently our bean leaves love the sun. Why ? Does
the sun help them ? Show the children plants which have
been in the cellar all winter. Ask them to turn over
boards and stones, and see the color of the leaves under
them which are hidden from the sun. How yellow or pale
they look !

The sun helps the leaves by giving them their green
color, and by keeping them healthy. A review of the ex-
periments in the previous lesson, putting all emphasis on
the difference, in the throwing out of water, between plants
in the sun and those in the shade, will show even the little
folks that the sun also helps the leaves throw out water —
somewhat as it helps the water in lake and river and on
street and walk to pass into the air or evaporate.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 601

This lesson may be applied by further observation by the
children of house plants and weeds. Cannot they repeat
the observations of last fall on the mallow-plant, and see
again how the leaves face and follow the sun from morning
to night ? In the spring the leaves of many other plants
do this. Perhaps they can see how the leaves of house
plants, such as the geranium, arrange themselves so as to
get as much light as possible ; those that cannot get light
fade and die.

LESSON XI. MORE WORK FOR THE LEAVES. PROTECTING
THE BUDS.

Watch the further development of the new leaves. Note
how the buds always grow where they are protected by the
leaves. By the latter part of May flower buds are likely
to appear.

This protective work of leaves is better shown by other
plants. The mallow (see work for September) shows it
very clearly, the young leaves being folded fan-like in the
axils of the older leaves. In the common buttercup the
stems of the older leaves are hollow toward the base, and
enclose very securely the leaf and flower buds. The pea
shows very clearly how buds and young leaves are pro-
tected by their older and stronger brothers and sisters.

There is material for several field lessons, related to and
supplementary to the bean study, on " How baby leaves are
protected by their older brothers and sisters."

The leaves have other functions, such as breathing for
the plant and making plant food or starch out of water
and air ; but these the teacher can only talk about, and the
little children cannot see or comprehend, so it seems better
to postpone the study of the other work of the leaves to
later years. (See outline on morning glory.) The three
uses given, — to beautify the world, to throw out water, to

602 NATURE STUDY.

protect the younger leaves or the bud, — the smallest child
can see and understand fairly well.

LESSON XII. THE STORY OF THE LEAF AND OF ITS
WORK. A REVIEW.

Cannot the life and work of the leaf from infancy to
maturity be summarized, more closely related, and more
deeply impressed by a story, « The Story Our Bean Leaf
Told " ? Let the children help by supplying to the teacher
— who has forgotten (? ) them — some of the main inci-
dents of the story.

GERMINATION OF MORNING GLORY.

( Continued from April. Planned for Third Grade. )

The Morning-Glory Leaves and their Work. Follow
much the same general line of work as outlined for the
study of the bean.

Watch carefully the growth of the stem and the way in
which it twines around the string provided for it, compar-
ing its growth and manner of supporting itself with the
bean or pea.

Observe the position of the bud, between the bases of
the seed leaves, the protection, first appearance, and growth
of the true leaves, the ways in which they differ from the
seed leaves or cotyledons, the position and unfolding of
new buds and leaves. Note how the seed leaves change
color, and finally drop off.

Third-grade children should be able to draw the morning-
glory leaf with very little help. The best way to lead
the children to observe the leaf, and to get a clear, exact
idea of it, is to have each pupil draw a leaf.

Bring out by experiment — do not merely talk about —
the use of the morning-glory leaves. (See outline on bean.)

The third-grade children should be able to get a fair idea

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 603

*

of the work of leaves in breathing and in making food for
the plant.

Make sure that the children discover by observation the
importance of sunlight to the leaves, the way in which they
twist and turn and stretch to get the sunlight, and the effect
of keeping leaves where they cannot get sunlight.

The Leaves as Breathing Organs. Begin the study of
breathing by leading the children to see and tell how ne-
cessary breathing is for them. Let them see what is the
effect of " holding their breath " and of breathing the air
in a paper bag held tightly over mouth and nose. Tell the
children that the lungs are two bags, with thousands of
smaller bags or sacks opening into them (illustrate with
paper bag), thus making a very large surface very much
crumpled (like a paper bag compressed into a small space),
that the walls of these sacs are full of blood vessels, and
that the blood takes in the air from the bags, and throws
out the poisonous gases of the body.

The leaves are to plants what the lungs are to the chil-
dren. Each leaf is like one of these little sacs ; but instead
of being in the plant, as our lungs are in the body, it is
outside, somewhat as if our lungs with all their sacs might
be turned'" inside out." Each leaf has a network of veins
and thousands of little " breathing-pores " too small to be
seen by the eye, through which the useful gases, or benefi-
cial parts of the air, pass into the leaf, and the injurious
gases in the leaf pass into the air ; that is, the leaves
breathe in oxygen, and breathe out carbonic oxide (com-
monly called carbonic acid), much as we do.

The Leaves as Factories. The papers given below, writ-
ten by third-grade children, show that they can get fairly
clear ideas of the work of the leaves in manufacturing
plant food or in making starch and sugar.

Lead the children to tell about some factory, dwelling on

604 NATURE STUDY.

the difference between the raw material used and the manu-
factured product, and on the necessity of machinery and of
an engine and furnace or other source of power. Tell
them that the leaves are starch factories worked by sun
power. Through the " breathing-pores " with which they
breathe they take in parts of the air ; through their roots
they take in water; and out of these make, with the help
of the sun, starch and other plant food. Like any other
factory they cannot work without power to make them go.
They only work in the daytime when they have the sun.
Hence we see why every leaf tries to get out vhere it can
see the sun and get sun power. Perhaps the children have
discovered that those leaves which cannot get the sunlight
turn yellow, and many finally die and drop off.

In these factories are millions of minute green bodies,
each of which is a machine for making starch. When the
leaf does not get the sunlight, these starch machines lose
their green color and break down. Then the leaf loses its
green color, and may wither and die.

What could plants do without leaves ?

The Leaves as Air Purifiers.

Beginning with the experiment of breathing into a paper
bag held tightly over mouth and nose, lead children to see
that the air in the bag gets " bad," because we have breathed
into our body the part of the air (oxygen) helpful to us, and
have breathed out into the bag gases poisonous to us (" car-
bonic acid "). But this poisonous gas, which we and all an-
imals breathe out, the leaves of the morning glory and of all
other plants take in, and out of it and water make starch.
So every leaf, as long as it has sun-power, is taking out of the
air this poisonous gas, and making the air more fit for us
and all animals to breathe. Nor is this all. In the process
of making starch every leaf is setting free and throwing out

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 605

the gas (oxygen) that we and all animals need to breathe.
So the leaves, aided by the sun, purify the air for us in two
ways.

What could we do without leaves ?

The Leaves as Food.

Touch on the importance of leaves as food for animals,
— horses, cows, rabbits, grasshoppers, caterpillars, etc.

The Leaves as Homes.

How much more secure the leaves make the birds'-nests
hidden among them ! Perhaps some leaf miners can be
found in the yellow dock or other leaves, spending most of
their life and getting their food between the upper and
lower skin, or epidermis, of the leaves. Some of the chil-
dren may find the " leaf -rollers," caterpillars or spiders,
which have rolled leaves into tubes, in which they make
their homes.

" There's never a leaf nor a blade too mean
To be some happy creature's palace."

What could animals do without leaves ?

CHILDREN'S PAPERS ON LEAVES.
WHAT THE LEAVES Do.

" There are channels in the leaves of the bean plant. The biggest
channel is in the middle of the leaf. There is also a channel in the
leaf stalk. The rain water falls on the leaves and passes through the
channels down the stem and in the ground. The leaves of the bean
spread out and point down. The leaves carry water to the roots. The
roots take the water from the ground and send it to the leaves.

" Miss Schiller had a bottle of colored water and put a bean plant
in it. After some time the plant turned red. The water soaked in
the roots and passed through the stem then in the leaves. The water
must pass through the plant to give it food."

JENNIE BOYER, THIRD GRADE.

606 NATURE STUDY.

THE WORK OF THE LEAVES.

" We got two pieces of grass and one was yellow and the other was
green. The yellow piece of grass was under a stick and the green
piece was out in the sun and light. The sun keeps the factories ago-
ing. The leaf green factories make starch. They make starch and
the starch factories do. They eat and drink like us and if they were
in a dark place they would get pale and sick and so would we. The
little pieces of grass make the starch out of air and water and they eat
the starch. The light makes the engines go and the engines make
the machines go. " WILLIE ALLEN, THIRD GRADE.

WHAT THE LEAVES Do.

" WTien we take up a board the grass under it is white. When our
mothers put plants in the cellar they turn white. The cellar hides
the light. We look at our beans. They are looking toward the win-
dow. The leaves get light for the plant. They can get light because
they are large and they don't lap over each other. When they are one
on each side of the stem they are opposite. When there is one and then
another they are alternate. We need air to live, so do plants need air
to live. Plants do not breathe good air, they breathe bad air. We
breathe good air so there is not enough good air for the plants. They
say that it is healthy for plants to be where there is a good many peo-
ple. There is little holes in the back of the leaf and they breathe
through them. If those little holes were closed they would die. We
breathe through our lungs." CARL CARTER, THIRD GRADE.

WHAT LEAVES Do.

"Miss Schiller got a piece of sod under a plank. The leaves on
the grass was yellow because the sun didn't shine on it. And all
plants in the dark the leaves turn yellow. The plants in the window
box are green because the sun shines on them. In each leaf we find
stuff called green leaf paste or jelly or paste which is leaf green. We
called the leaf the kitchen. We call the sun the fire. The leaf green
lives in all parts of the leaf. The leaf green works in the day. The
sunlight colors the leaves green. The sun and the leaf green work
together. Leaf green and the sun make their own food. The root
soaks up the water and the bad air that we breathe out the leaf takes
in. The sun and leaf green changes the water in the leaf and the air
they breathe into food." JAMES GRIGGS.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 607

" Miss Schiller had some sod that she found under a board. The
sod was yellow because it grew in the dark and did not have the sun.
The plants that are in the window box are green because they had sun.
We find Leaf-green inside of each leaf. Leaf-green is something like
green paste or jelly. We call the leaf the kitchen. The sun is the
lire for the leaf. Leaf -green is a fairy and lives in every part of the
leaf. The sun and Leaf-green are friends. They make food for the
plant. The leaves take the bad air that we do not need. The roots
take the water and send it to the leaves. Leaf-green and sun make food
out of bad air and water. Leaf-green works in the day. When the
sun goes down Leaf -green goes to bed. ' '

JENNIE BOYER, THIRD GKADE.

MY DANDELION LEAP.

4 'The dandelion leaf starts from the root. It resembles the horse
chestnut a iittle in shape. The surface of the leaf in front is rough.
On the back it is smoothest. The teeth curve in a little toward the
end. The notches or teeth help support the plant by leaning against
the grass. There are not so many veins in the dandelion leaf as there
are in the horse chestnut. The middle rib holds the plant together.
There is a little groove in the front of the main rib. This is for the
water to run down to the root. The plant needs rain, sunshine, wind
and a kind of food it gets from the ground. There are little teeth on
the side of the big teeth. Toward the bottom the main rib is wider.
On the back it is light green and on the front it is darker. The num-
ber of teeth on both sides of mine is eleven. The little veins come up
to the main rib for f o'od and drink. The main rib gets its food from
the root. The little veins start from the main rib and run to the end
of the teeth." RICHARD SHELDON OULD.

' ' The shape of my dandelion leaf is like a horse-chestnut leaf, but
it is not as strong and it is narrower. The front side of the dande-
lion leaf is rougher than the back side because it has a great many little
fine hairs on it. The veins of the dandelion leaf start from the tip of the
teeth. The great big rib that is in the centre of the leaf is for the wa-
ter to run down through for the roots. On the back of the leaf it is
light green and on the front it is dark green. It is dark green on the
front because the sun shone on it. The number of the teeth on my
dandelion is ten on one side and eleven on the other side."

MARIE HAPGOOD, THIRD GRADE.

608 NATURE STUDY.

THE LEAVES.1

44 We have a lilac branch. The leaves on this branch are arranged
in twos. The two leaves come from the same part of the stem, but
one leaf comes from one side of the stem and the other leaf from the
opposite side of the stem, like this (drawing). We call this the oppo-
site arrangement of leaves. The first leaves of our bean have an op-
posite arrangement.

The leaves of our plum branch are arranged in ones. There is a
leaf near the bottom of the stem, then a little way up but not on the
same side. It goes on like this until the sixth leaf is over the first.
We call this the alternate arrangement. Our morning glories have an
alternate arrangement of leaves. Mother Nature arranges them in a
plan and this is the plan.

She put them out as far as she could get them out so she could let
them get the sunlight and let their factories go. If their factories did
not go they would die and we would not get so much air. Our bean
plant got the sun in the front row but the ones (leaves, C. B. S. ) in
the back did not and so their stems began to grow and now they are
tall and they can get the sun. The plants ought to get the sun so
their factories can go and «hey would die if they didn't go, so they
don't want to die." JOHN FARREL, THIRD GRADE.

1 The first two paragraphs are copied from a class reproduction. The re-
mainder of the paper is an individual reproduction.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 609

MAY BUD STUDY.
THE HORSE— CHESTNUT BUD.

BRING in the ends of two or three branches showing what
has developed from the buds. Note how the scales have
turned back and how loosely they are attached. Observe
the scar that each scale leaves when it has fallen off, and
the ring about the twig formed by the dropping off of
all the scales of each bud.

Note the green stem which has formed from the bud, its
length (it usually grows much more rapidly on the twigs
near the upper and outer parts of the tree), the woolly cov-
ering still adhering to it, and the way in which it has sepa-
rated the leaves, which were so close together when they
first appeared. Compare the stem and ring formed from
the bud of this spring with those formed from previous
buds. The growth of the twigs toward the top and outside
of the tree is more rapid than that of those near the trunk !

The leaves have been separated by the growth of the
stem and of the leaf stems. Try to get a fresh branch
(not wilted) which has grown vertically, and let children
look down on it, and discover how the three or four pairs of
leaves have arranged themselves so that all can get as much
light as is possible, the younger leaves filling the spaces be-
tween the stems of the older leaves. Each leaf — includ-
ing one leaf stem and all the parts fastened to it — has
five to seven divisions or leaflets, each division narrow
at the base and broader toward the tip, shaped somewhat
like a wedge. When all are spread out, each leaflet can
get the sun.

Compare appearance and arrangement of leaves on a twig
growing horizontally, or nearly so, with twig growing ver-

610 NATURE STUDY.

tically. One leaf stem, the one growing downward, is
usually very much elongated to push its leaflets out from
under the leaves at the side. The stem of the leaf just
opposite this, growing upward, has turned backward to
put its leaflets in the position to get the most light, and has
remained quite short.

Perhaps the children can discover how the young horse-
chestnut leaves sleep. At night, and sometimes on cold,
stormy days, the leaflets droop or hang almost vertically,
making each leaf look like a partly closed umbrella. In
the morning they are lifted up and spread out like an open
umbrella or somewhat like a fan.

As the younger leaves develop, notice how they fill the
spaces between the stems of the older leaves, — some leaf
stems lengthening, some remaining short, some turning and
twisting, so that the younger leaves will not cover or be
covered by the older leaves.

Why do they grow thus ? Keview what was shown in
the work on the morning glory about the leaves as starch
factories worked by sun-power. All the leaves arrange
themselves, in general, so as to get, and allow others to get,
the greatest amount of sunlight or of sun-power.

Watch the stages in the development of the flower clus-
ter from the little " bunch of grapes " found in many buds.
Note how the leaves are turned back to give the flower
room; how the main stem and side stems of the flower
cluster lengthen, separating the green balls; how each of
these balls grows larger, opens at the tip, showing five
(usually) teeth around a white interior; how this white
part lengthens and opens; how growing from within it ap-
pear several brown knobs, each on a slender stem ; how the
mature flower finally appears. The outer green part of each
ball or flower bud is the calyx, with five teeth ; the white
part is the corolla, separating into five handsome petals ;

SPUING NATURE STUDY. 611

the brown knobs are the ends of the stamens. In the ripe
flower is a slender curved stem without a knob, growing
from an enlarged base. The enlarged base is the seed box,
or ovary.

Late in May, or early in June, the petals and stamens
drop off, and some of the seed boxes enlarge, and become
covered with green spines, the beginning of the horse chest-
nut. Watch the changes in it through June. In September
the last stages in the development of the nut can be seen.

Before the close of school review, with the branches be-
fore the children, the whole story of the horse-chestnut bud
and of its development from March to June.

OTHER MAY BUD STUDY.

The development of the lilac leaves, flowers, and fruit
can be watched during May and June. Note how long the
stem becomes ; how the outermost scales drop off, and the
inner leaf-like scales turn green, and form small leaves,
which usually drop off; how the leaves are arranged (oppo-
site) to get the most light ; how new leaves form from the
terminal bud ; how the branches of the flower cluster are
protected by a small leaf or bract ; how the flowers unfold,
and how and where the fruit forms.

The study of the pussy willow or poplar can be contin-
ued, dwelling on the growth of the seed boxes, or pistils, and
of the seeds. Note how the scales and hairy covering drop
off, how the stamenate catkins shrivel and disappear, how
the "little green bottles" appear on the pistillate catkins,
grow larger, split open, showing the cotton and seeds, and
discharge of their plumed seeds. It is not wise to attempt
with primary children any study of the parts of the flowers
of willow or poplar. Merely watch the stages in the de-
velopment of the seeds and of the leaves.

612 NATURE STUDY.

The development of the maple bud shows very clearly
the formation of the winged seeds and the arrangement of
leaves to get the greatest possible amount of light. Relate
to seed study of previous autumn.

The cherry buds are particularly good to show how the
fruit is formed from the flower. Watch the turning back of
the bud scales, the appearance and parts of the flowers, the
falling of petals and later of the calyx and stamens, and
the growth of the cherry and seed from the lower part of
the blossom. There is no good reason why the second- and
third-grade children should not study and understand the
plan and parts of the flower, — the green calyx, cup-shaped
with five teeth at the top ; the white corolla with five or
more petals ; the many yellow thread-like stamens ; the green
seed box or pistil, concealed within by the calyx. Do not,
however, allow the children to separate the parts of the
flower, or to tear it into pieces.

This observation of the formation from the flower of
seeds and fruits will both review the spring plant work
and prepare for the fall study of seeds and fruits outlined
for October and November.

MY HORSE CHESTNUT BLOSSOM.

u The main stem is fastened to a little seat between the leaves.
The shape of the stem is cylindrical and it has little notches on it.
The length of my twig is about a half a foot long. The color of my
twig is green a little lighter at the top than at the bottom. The little
flowers are arranged almost opposite in pairs. The shape of my little
stem is round and it has notches toward the end. The length of my
little stem is about two inches long. The color of my little stem is a
light green almost yellow but not quite. The calyx are under the co-
rolla. Their color is light green. There are five of them (sepals, C.
B. S.). There are five parts to the corolla. The parts are called pet-
als. Their color is white with red and yellow spots in them. Those
with the red in them are the older."

MARGARET BECKER, THIRD GRADE.

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 613

JUNE PLANT STUDY.
THE FLOWERS AND THEIR WORK.

4 ' In all places, then, and in all seasons,

Flowers expand their light and sonl-like wings,
Teaching us, by most persuasive reasons,
How akin they are to human things."

•

" And with childlike, credulous affection
We behold their tender buds expand :
Emblems of our own great resurrection,
Emblems of the bright and better land."

LONGFELLOW.

THE flowers. How shall we approach, them ? How shall
we study them ?

The flower is the summit of the plant kingdom. It is as
perfect in detail, as marvellous in structure, as beautiful in
color and form, as anything in nature. The flower was the
favorite object lesson of the Great Teacher. It has been an
inspiration to the poet, a messenger of peace to the troubled
and anxious, a means of brightening and uplifting darkened
hearts and homes.

Shall we consider the flower simply as something for boys
and girls to pick to pieces and throw away ? Shall we
teachers in the elementary school follow the lead of so
many in high school and college, and teach our pupils to
regard the flower, mainly as something to be picked apart,
or " analyzed," and described, and perhaps pressed out of
shape and laid away, scarcely to be looked at again ?

In the upper grades, more or less "analyzing" is neces-
sary. Even this can be done, with older children, in such
a way as to make the pupils more reverent toward the
flowers.

If we make our flower study with our little folks a mere

614 NATURE STUDY.

pulling into pieces and study of parts, we shall degrade the
most beautiful of God's works. We shall miss the oppor-
tunity of all opportunities to open the child's eyes and
mind to the beautiful, the uplifting and ennobling in the
works of God, to the highest and best thoughts of man.

The study of flowers has been purposely left to the last.
We want to impress very deeply the fact that plant study is
not merely or mainly flower study. We want to preserve
our wild flowers. We want our boys and girls — and their
teachers — to realize that the flowers are the richest gems
in the treasury of nature, which we are opening before their
eyes.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FLOWER STUDY.

What shall we study in the flower ?

First. Its development and unfolding, bringing out its
relations to the plant.

Second. Its beauty and the beautiful thoughts it has
inspired.

Third. Its work or function, to produce new plants.

Fourth. Its parts and plan, and how it is made or fitted
for its work.

The observation in May of cherry or apple or horse-chest-
nut blossoms with some study of their parts, will prepare
the children for the study of the flowers which form in the
schoolroom.

The development of the flower can be best observed in
the bean or pea or morning glory in the schoolroom win-
dow or yard. The bean has not finished its work. Roots
have gone far into the ground. Stems have grown long and
vigorous. Scores of leaves have unfolded and gone to work.
Still the plant grows. What is it going to do now ?

Watch the buds forming and enlarging just between the
leaves or leaf stems and the plant stem. Watch this bud

SPUING NATURE STUDY. 615

unfold, at first all green (the calyx, or outer Covering), later
opening at the top by five teeth (the sepals), and disclosing
a whiter part within (the corolla, or crown). In time this
white part unfolds, showing within it ten little yellow knobs
or threads (stamens), and within these a slender, curved,
pointed stem (the style, fastened to the seed box, or ovary,
concealed in the base of the corolla). Do not be in a hurry
to give the names of the parts. Careful observation and
clear ideas first. After struggling for a time to express
these ideas in their words, to tell about " the green cup,"
" the white part," " the little threads like pins," the chil-
dren will welcome and correctly use any names which
really help them to express their ideas.

Dwell on the beauty of the flower. Begin the lesson
often with a bright, simple thought on flowers — a line or
two on the blackboard — from the poet.

What is the work of the flower ? Everything works for
it. It is so well cared for. It unfolds so carefully. It is
so beautiful and perfect. What does it do ? Make the
world look beautiful ? Yes. Bring happiness to all about
it ? Yes. Make us think pure, beautiful thoughts ? Yes.
That is a great deal, isn't it ?

But this is not all. " Do you know, boys and girls, that
way down in the flower a wonderful secret is hidden?
Well, there is — more wonderful than anything we have
found yet. Shall we watch carefully ? It may take sev-
eral days. And when any one discovers it you will not
tell the others, but just come and whisper it to me. We
want all to discover it, each for himself." The children
watch the development of the flower and the growth of
the pod with the most intense interest. The writer has
seen a roomful of unruly pupils transformed by a bean
plant — and a wise teacher who knew how to make use
of the plant.

616 NATURE STUDY.

Will not such work (supplemented in later grades by a
study of fertilization in the flower and of the development
and life history of some animals) lay the foundation for
a better understanding of the mystery of beginnings ?
Through the flower, that emblem of all that is pure, can-
not our boys and girls absorb a purer, holier conception
of reproduction, of the origin of life ?

For the little folks in the first grade it may be sufficient
to merely watch the growth of the flower and the formation
of the pod. There is no good reason why the children of
the second and third grade should not know the names of
the parts which they can easily see, — calyx, corolla, stam-
ens, pistil, seed-box or ovary — and understand fairly well
the plan of the flower.

It vnll be well to supplement these by studying the
flowers of one or two other parts. The buttercup is excel-
lent. The strawberry is good.

With the final work of the plant, the fruit or seed ves-
sel, before the children try to gather up, as the last step
in the work of the school year, the life and work of the
plant during the year; the formation and protection and
scattering of the seeds last summer or autumn ; the long
winter rest, and the ways the seeds were covered and pre-
served; the spring awakening, and the work of sun and
rain and soil and of man ; the development and work of
root and stem and l^af and flower, and the beauty they
added to the world, and the enjoyment they brought to us ;
the formation, protection, and ripening of the seed, and its
importance to the plant, and to man, as a food.

How much all nature and man have done to help the seed !
Why ? How carefully the plant mother protected and fed
it ! Why ? How little the plant could do at first ! How
much it has done in making the world brighter and hap-
pier, in adding pleasure to our life and in helping to feed

SPRING NATURE STUDY. 617

us, in preparing for another spring ! Now its work is
done, well done. Can the teacher ask for a better closing
thought ?

CHILDREN'S PAPERS ON FLOWERS.
LITTLE Miss BUTTERCUP.

u I ain a little buttercup. My flower is bright yellow. They stand
tall and straight. When the sun shines on them they look so pretty.
If we were shut in a box and could not get air we would die. We
have to drink water and milk. If we did not have it we would die.
It is the same with the plant. When it rains the leaves send the wa-
ter to the roots and the roots send it to the leaves again. The flower
would die without the rain and so would we. God sends the rain and
the sun to make us grow. He sends the rain and the sun for the
flower too. If the flower did not get water in the summer it would
die. Buttercups are wild flowers. But God likes them just as well
as the flowers that are not wild." URSULA KANE, SECOND GRADE.

THE BUTTERCUP.1

li It is called the buttercup because it looks like a dish of butter.
We find them in pastures, meadows and fields. It grows in every
kind of soil but swamp soil. It burns your tongue when you taste of
it. And it tastes like pepper.

"It grows straight up in the air and it is a foot and 7 inches high
so it can get the sun. It has a little slender branching stem and the
blossoming is most in June. We can find it as late as October.

" It is attached by the root to the ground. The roots come from
the same place and they are long and slender. There are a great
many roots. They are from two to four inches long. They are very
strong. The little branches get the water because they can get more
water when they spread out. The use of the root is to hold it in the
ground." WILLIE ALLEN, THIRD GRADE.

THE BUTTERCUP (CONTINUED).

44 The buttercup we had this morning was 27 inches high. It is so
high because it wants to get the sun or the little bees will come and
get the honey.

1 The three papers on the buttercup were written in answer to a series of
questions, all the members of the class writing answers to the questions, but each
answering in his own way. The papers represent three days' written work, about
half an hour each day. All wrote with the buttercup before them.

618 NATURE STUDY.

"It is a hollow slender stem. She (Mother Nature ?) makes it hol-
low so that she will not waste any material. They (the leaves) are
arranged alternate. It branches -in the middle. The base of the leaves
is like the half of a hollow cylinder. It (the leaf stem) is wrapped
around the stem so that it will not hurt the other stem that is com-
ing out.

" The buttercup has two kinds of leaves. One kind comes from
the base of the stem. They look as if they come from the root and
so we call them root leaves. The other kind comes from the stem and
so we call them stem leaves.

" The root leaves are arranged around the base of the main stem.
On our buttercup the steins of the leaves were one foot long. The
base of the stem is shaped like a half a hollow cylinder. It is shaped
like this so that it will fit around the stem and so that it will make a
little bed to keep the little new stem warm.

" The general shape of the leaves is round. Our leaves have from
three to six parts. Our buttercup leaf is simple because the divisions
do not go quite down to the top of the stem. The general shape of
one (division) is like a kite only it is divided so that it looks like a tree
with branches." WILLIE ALLEN, THIRD GRADE.

THE BUTTERCUP CCOMPLETED).

4 ' The blossoms are up on the top of the plant so the bees can see
them and they will come and get honey.

" It is shaped like a ball (in the bud ? C. B. S.) and it has li"1
hairs on the outside. The calyx is the green part. It has five parts.
Each part's name is the sepal. They are shaped like spoons. ~The
corolla is the yellow part. It has five parts. It (each part, C. B. S.)
is shaped like a wedge. The name of the part is the petal. It pro-
tects the soldiers (stamens, C. B. S.).

"The soldiers (stamens, C. B. S.) are in the middle and there are
forty five on my buttercup. They have some yellow dust on their
head because they guard the plant so that the seeds can grow better.
The seed boxes are under the soldiers. ' '

WILLIE ALLEN, THIRD GRADE.

UNIVERSITY

CALIFO*

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 OENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE-pATE DUE. Ty# PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.

LD 21-100m-7,'33

YB 05037

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