X DUKE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY FRANK BAKER COLLECTION OF WESLEY AN A AND BRITISH METHODISM t p^ A New and Accura + e SYSTEM O F NATURAL HISTORY^ C ONTAINING I. The Hiftory of Quadrupedes, includinj; Ampulblous Animals, Frogs, and Lizards, with their Properties and Ufts in Medicine. II. The Hillory of Birds, with the Method of bringing up thofe of the finging Kind. III. The Kiftory of Fishes and Serpents, including Sea-Turtles, Cruftaceous and Shell-Fifnes j with their mt- dic'nal Ufes. IV. The Hiliory of Insects, with their Properties and Ufes in Medicine. V. The Hiftory of Waters, Earths, Stones, Fossils, and Minerals; with liieir Virtues, Propenies, and Medicinal Ufes : To which is added, the Method in which Linnaus has treated thefe Subje<^3. VI. The Hiftory of Vegetables, as well Foreign as Indige- nous, inelu ling an Account o{- the Roots, Barks, Woads, Leaves, Flowers, Fruits, Seeds, Refins, Gums, and con- creted Juices j as alfo their Properties, Virtues, and Ijfcs in Medicine i together with the Method of cultivaiing thofe planted in Gardens. By R. BROOKES, M, D. Author of the Gsneral FraiTue of Phjjtc. In ^IX VOLUMES, LONDON: Printed for 1. Nev/bery, at the Bible and Sun, in St. rajFs Church-Yard. MDCCLXIIL THE NATURAL HISTORY OF QUADRUPEDES, INCtUDING Amphibious Animals, Frogs, and Lizards*. WITH Their Properties and Ufcs in Medicine. By R. BROOKE S, M. D. Author of the General FraSlice of Phyjif. V O L. I. / LONDON: Printed for J. Newbery, at the Bible and Sun, in St. Paul's Church- Yard. MDCCLXIII. THE CONTENTS. pREFACE. "^ An Introduftion to the Hijlory of Quadrupedes. CHAP. I. Of AnimaU nvith an undi'vided Hoof of the Horfe Kind, l CHAP. II. Of ruminati/tg An'unah, or thofe that chsiv the cud, 23 CHAP III. Of the Bull, Ox, and Cozv, 25 CHAP. IV. Of the Urus, Buffalo, B'fon, Bonaffus, and othir Ani^ mals (f the iiee've KirJ, 36 CHAP. V. Of Sheep, 43 CHAP. VI. Of Goats, 46 - CHAP. VII. Of Animals of the Deer Kind, 5 8 CHAP. VIII. Of Animals of the Hog- Kind, .emo(l laborious, as well as the moft volumi- nous Naturaliil among the moderns is JUlrovandus, He v/as furnifbed with every lequifite f<5r making an cxtenfivc body of Natural ll\i\o:y. He was learned and rich, and durin-; the courfe cf a lone life indefa- tigable and accurate. Eat his wo.ks are infupport- vablv tedious and Jilgulling. filled with unneceflary quotations and unimpoitart digrc/Tions. Whatever learning he had he was willing {l:5ouId be known, ;nd unw -lied himfelf, he fuppofcd his readers CO aid The PR E F A C E. xil could never tire : in {hort, he appears an^ufeful af- fiftant to thofe who would compile a body of Natu- ral Hiftory, but is utterly unfuited to fuch aii only wiih to read it with profit and delight. Gefner and Jonjlor^ willing lo abrids^e the volumi- nous productions of Aldrovandus^ have attempted' to reduce Natural Hiftory into method, but their efforts have been lb incomplete as fcarce to deferve mentioning. Their attempts were improved upon fome time after by Mr. Ruy^ vvhofe method we have adopted in the hiflory of Q^iadrupedes, Birds, and Fifties, which is to follow. No fy flematical' writer has been more happy than he in reducing na- tural hiilory into a form^ at once the fhorteft yet mod comprehenfive. The fubfcquent attempts of Mr. Klein and Lin- ncem it is true have had their admirers, but as all methods ofch.fling the produliions of nature are calculated merely to eafe the memory and enlighten. the mind, that writer who anfwers fuch ends with brevity and perfpicuity is moil worthy of regard. And in this refpect Mr. Ray undoubtedly remains Hill without a rival ; he was fenfible that no accurate idea could be formed from a mere diibibution of animals into particular claflesj he has therefore ran- ged them according to their moll obvious qualities ;. and, content v.'ith brevity in his didributions, has- employed accuracy only in the particular defcriptioii. of every animal. This intentional inaccuracy in the general fyltem o{ Ray^ Klein and Linnaus: \\2\q: undertook to amend, and thus by multiplying divi- fions, inilcad of imprefling the rnind^ with diflii'.cl ideas, they only ferve to confound- it, making the language of the fcience more difncuit than -jven the icience itfelf. All order whatfoever is to be ufed for the fake of brevity and perf^>icuity, we have, thtrcitit ii^WowtA tliac: xii The PREFACE. that of Mr. Ray in preference to the reR, whofe me- thod of clailing animals, tho' not fo accurate, per- haps, is yet more obvious, and being fhortcr is more eafily remembered. In his lifetime-he pub- liflied his Synopfts tneihodica quadrupcdum et fcrpentini generis j and after his death there came out a pofthu- mous work under the care of Dr. Derhaniy which, as the title page informs us, was levifed and perfe6led before his death. Both the one and the other have their merits, but as he wrote currcnie calamo^ for fiibfiftance, they are confequently replete with er- rors, and tho' his manner of treating natural hiftory be preferable to that of all others, yet there was flill room for a new work that might at once retain his excellencies and fupply his deficiencies. As to the Natural Hiflory of Infeds, it has not been fo long or fo greatly cultivated, as other parts of this fcience. Our own countryman Moufettj is the firftof any note, that I have met with, who has treated this fubje«ft with fuccefs. However it was not till lately, that it was reduced to a regular fyftem; which might be in a great meafure owing to the feeming infignificancy of the animals them- i'elves: even tho* they were always looked upon as of great ufe in medicine, and upon that account only, have been taken notice of by many medical writers. Thus Dicfcorides^ has treated of their ufe in phyfick; and it muft be owned, fome of them have been well worth obfervation on this account. There were not wanting alfo thofe who long fmce had thoughts of reducing this kind of knowledge, to a regular form, among whom was Mr. Ray^ who was diicouragcd by the difficulty attending it : this ftudy has been purfucdof late however with diligence and fucccf?. Rejumur and Swatnmcrdam have princi- pally diflinguifljcd themfelves on this account j and ihcir rcfpvdive trcatifcs, plainly fiicw that they did jiot The PREFACE. xiii Hot rpend their labour in vain. Since their time, fe- veral authors have publiihcd their fyftems, among whom is Linnaus, whofe method being generally efteemed, I have thought proper to adept. He has clafled thenvin a very regular manner, though he fays but little of the Infects tSemfelves. However I have endeavoured to fupply that defe6^, from other parts of his works, and from other authors who have written upon this fubjeft; by which means it is ho- ped, the curiofity of fuch as delight in thefe flu- dies, will be in fome meufure fatisfied. Such of them as have been more generally admired, have been longeft infilled upon, and particularly Cater- ' pillars and Butterflies; relative to which, perhaps there is the largeft catalogue that has ever appeared in the Englijh language. Mr. Edwards, and Mr. Buffon, one in the hiflory of Birds, the other of Qiiadrupedes have undoubt- edly deferved highly of the public as far as their labours have extended ; but as they have hitherto cultivated but a fmull part in the wide field of Natu- ral Hiflory, a comprehenfive fyfcem in this mofl pleafmg fcience has been hitherto wanting. Nor is it a little furpnfmg, when every other branch of li- terature has been of late cultivated with fo much fuc- cefs among us, how this mofl interefling department fhould have been negledled. It has been long ob- vious that Arijlotle was incomplete, and Pliny cre- dulous \ Aid^ovandui too prolix, and Linnc?us too fhort to afford the proper entertainment, yet we have had no attempts to fupply thefe defecis, or to give an hiflory of nature at once complete and concife, calculated at once to pleafe and improve. How far the author cf the prefent performance has obviated the wants of the public in., thefe ref- pe61s, is left to the public to determine; this much however he may v/ithout vanitv alTert, that whether the xi^r The P R E F A C E. the fyftem here prefen'.ed be approved or not, he has left the Iclence in a better Hate thaa he found it. He h.-.s confulted evory author whom he imagined might give him new and authentic information and painfully fearohed through heaps of lumber to detc£t' falfchood, fo that many parts of the following work^ have exhaufttd much labour in the e; ecution, tho' they may difcovt^r little to the fupcrhcial obferver* Nor have I neglected any opportunity that offered of convcriing upon thefe fubjecSh with travellers, upon whofe judgments and veracity 1 could rely.. Thus comparing accurate narrations with what" has been already written, and following either, as the circumftances or credibility of the witnefs led me^ to believe. But I have had one advantage over almoft all former Naturalifts, namely, that of having vifitcd a variety of countries myfelf, and examined r he pro- duftiotis of each upoa the fpot. Whatever Ame^ rica^ or the known- parts of Africa have produced' to excite curiofity has been carefully obfeived by me, and compared with the accounts cf others. By. this I havemde feme improvements that will appear, in their place, and have b^en lefs liable to be impo- fed upon by the hearfay relations of credulity. A complete cheap, and commodious body of Na- tural Hiilory being wanted in our language, it waS' thefe advantages which prompted me to this- under- taking. Such therefore as chufe to range in the del i[;;h;.ful fields of nature, v/il!, I flatter myfelf, here- find a proper guide : And thofe who have a defign to furnifh a cabinet, will find copious inftrudions. With one of thefe volumes in his hand a fpedator may go with profit and delig,ht thro' the largefi Mu- feu'm, the Briuft) not excepted, fc6 Nature thro'.all: her varieties, and compare her ufual operations with thofe wanton productions in which fhe feems to ' fport" The PREFACE. xv fport with human fagacity. I have been fparlng. however in the defcription of the dcviaticrii from the ufual courfe of pioducliion, tiri\, becaafe fuch rrc almoft infiiiUe, and the Natural Hifcorian v/ha fhould fpeiid the time in ucfciibing deformed nature^ would be as abfurd as the Statuary, who ihould fix upon a deformed man from whom to take his model of perfecSlion. But I would not raife expe£tatioi)s in the reader which it may not be in my power to f^t'sf- , he who? takes up a book of fcience muft not expedt to ac- quire knowledge at the fame eafy rate that a reader of romance does enter:, inment : ory the contrary,, all fciences5andNatu:;^.tr-iiiiory among the reft, have a language and a manner of treatment peculiar to themfelves, and he who attempts to drefs them in borrowed or foreign ornaments, is every whit a& ufeleisly employed as the Gerinan apothecary v/e are told of, who turned the whole difpenfatofy into vecfe. It will be fufficienr for me if ;he following; fyftem is found as plealina; as the nature of the fub- jeft will bear, neither obfcured by' an Unneceflary often tation of fcience, nor lengthened out by an affc^led eagernefs after nsedlefs embeliihments. The defcription of e\'ery ol^'eil: will be found as- clear and concife as poflible, ihe defign not being to amufe the ear with well turned periods, or the ima- gination with borrovs'ed ornaments, but to imprefs the mind v/ith the firi-spleft views of nature. To anfwer this end more Jiftinctly, a picfure ot fuch animals is given as we are leaft acquainted v/Ith. All that is intended by this j% only to guide the enquirer v/ith more certainty to the objed^ itfelf as it is to be found in naiure. I never would advife the young ftudent to ftudy any fcience either Aratom}'-, Phyfics, or Natural Hiftory by looking on pict- ures onJy, they may ferve to diredt him nacre rea- dily xvi The PREFACE. dily to the ob>6ls intended, but he muft by no means fuppofe himfelf pofleiled of adequate and dif- Un6i ideas 'till he has viewed the things thcmfelves, and not their reprefentations. Copper pi ites, there- fore, moderately well done, anfwer the learner's pur- pofe every whit as well as thofe which cannot be purchafed but at a vaft expencc ; they ferve to guide us to the archetypes in nature, and this is all that the fineft pi£lure fhould be permitted to do, for nature herfelf ought always to be examined by the learner before he has done. There have been of late many new difcoveries in natural hiftory? v^hich lying fcattered in different ef- fays required alfo to be reduced into fyflem, each of thefe I have taken care to range under their pro- per clafTcs in the body of this work ; but as this is a fcience that continually improves, new matter arifes even during the fhort period between printing and publication. As I would have nothing omitted, therefore it may be proper to infert here fuch ani- mals as have newly come to my notice. I was once of opinion with Mr. P.ay^ that there was no fuch animal as the Glutton ; but I havefince been better informed. Mr. Kkin tell us, that there was one brought alive from Siberia to Drcfden^ and that the fkin is kept in the cabinet of the King of Poland, He devoured every day thirteen pounds of flcfh, and yet was not fatisfied, which fhews that he had a quick digeftion ; but that he forces out what he has eaten upwards and downward-, by fqueezing himfelf between two trees, as fome au-- thors pretend, is certainly a fable, as well as that he fee !s only on dead carcafl'es. The above was of a bhickifli brown colour, an til and almoft eight inches Ion?, and aboutafoot and ahalfhi;2h , which is all the defcription he gives of this animal. But Schrffer tells us, the Glutton has a head fomewhat more The PREFACE. xv'd more round than that of a Wolf; that the teeth are firong andfhaip, thebodylarge, the ftet fmall, and the fkin black. It is generally agreed that the (kin is extremely valuable^ and that he inhabits the im- ■ menfe foreits of Siberia. There is another Qiiadrupede which has been ta- ken notice of fr9m Captain Hamilton, and which he calls a Shoe-goofe ; but the real name in the Per- fian language is Siyah Gi are black, and like thofe of a man. The face, head, and fore part of the back, the external parts of the thighs before, and thofe of the thighs and legs behind, as well as the fore legs, the fore feet, and the tail, are black. The hinder part of the back is of a blackifh brown ; but the fides are red. All the lower part of the body; namely, the throat, breaft, belly, inner part of the thighs before, and thofe of the legs and thighs behind, are of a dirty white and yellow colour. There are four toes on the fore feet, and five on thofe behind. The tail terminates in a point, 2ind is covered with hair throughout its length, except on the lower part from the end to one third of its length, where it is covered with a furrowed flcin. The tail performs the office of a hand, for he car- ries his nouriftiment to his mouth therewith. ThcGERBUA is a very extraordinary animal ; it is focne times called the Egyptian Rat or Pharaoh*s Rat. Its head is oblong ; the crov/n of it convex, and the fides feeni as it were fwclied out. It has an The PREFACE. xxiii an oval body ; its fnout is {hort, large and obtufe ; the opening of its mouth is fmall ; its upper jaw is large, and coinporcs the whole fnout j the under jaw is very fmall, and hid in the upper one. It has two teeth before in each jaw, convex and fharp ; its n-'ftrils are at the end of the fnout, broad, round, and near each other,- being nearer the upper than the lower part of the fnout. On thefe noilrils is a little round fubttance, fomewhat raifed, termina- ting; at the bottom in tv^o excrefcenfes as ftrait as a line. Its whifkers Stre copious and in three rows ; the firft is at the lower edge of the fnout ^ the hair is here very thick, foft, fhort, and v/hlte ; the fecond row is near "the noilrils, near th-3 upper part of the fnout ; thefe are harfli, long, black, and few in number ; the third row is betwixt the other two, towards the back part of the head, and confift of about ten hairs, which are very harfh, and very long, one of them exceeding the animal's whole body in length ; the^ are black and white. Its tvjo eyes are en the fide of the head, and litu- ated rnther ba^kw^ard, and when compared to the body are lar^;e, promirient, and black. The ears are fituated near the back part of the head ; they are ere6l, of an oval form^ broad at the top, naked, tranfparentj and the arteries in them are very dif- tindly fcen. The fore fe^t which are called the hands, are near the neck, very fhort, round, n^^kcd, never touch the ground, and are fo hid in the ani- mal's tur, as to be fcarcely vifib'e : The toe^ are feperated, fmall, and almoil of equal length. The hind legs, which, comprehending the thighs, are three times as long as thofe before, and tw'icQ as long as the animal's whole body, are fet clofe, and are na^ed. The rhighs have no hair on them. The foles of the f. et are long and thick j the toes are feparate, clofe, and of equal lejigth. The tail, which xxiV The PREFACE. which ^ of fquare form, and uniform fize, is at leaftjhree times as long p.sJ:he body, and is co- vered with very fliort harfh hair ; at the end is a tuft of long foft hair, for about three inches in length. The body and head are covered with long foft thick hair. The upper part of the head and body of this animal is of a pale brown to the middle of the fides ; the other part, and the belly, are white. It has white hair in form of little cir- cles, near the tail, which is of a pale brown co- lour, fomewhat brighter than the body. Its ears and feet are of a flefti colour. This animal ufes only it^ hind feet in walking ; it frequently leaps in its motions. It refts on its hams, at which time its fore feet are not vifible. With thefe forefeet it feeds itfelf like a fquirrel, and the fingers or toes being crooked, it takes water in them to drink. It fleeps all day, and is awake all night. It eats wheat, and a plant called Sefanus. It is not afraid of men, yet is not eafily tamed, and muft therefore be kept in a cage. It is a native of £gypty and the mountains that feperate Jrabia from Egypt. Its Arabian name is Garbua^ and it is about the fize of a Rat, INTRO- t XXV ] INTRODUCTION. Of QUADRUPEDES in general, and their way of living, Jtr^^'^HEN we turn our eyes to that variety of ^A \xr J^ beings endued .with life, which fhare with ^ '^ v^v us the globe we inhabit, we fhall find ^^^^ that Quadrupedes demand tlie foremoll *^*- **-** place. The fimilitude between the flruc- ture of their bodies and our own, thofe inftin6ls which they feem to enjoy in a fupcrior degree to the other clafles that live in air or v/ater, their conftant fer vices to man, or the uncealing enmity they bear him, all render them the foremoft objedls of his cu- rioflty, the mofl interelling part of animated nature. In the iirft ages of the world it ii probable, that all living creatures were nearer an equality than at pre- fent. Man, while yet favage himfelf, was but ill qua- lified to civilize the forefl. While yei naked, unarmed, and without fhelter, every wild bcaft was a formida- ble rival, and the dellruflion of fuch was the firll employment of heroes. But when he began to mul- tiply, and arts to accumulate, he foon cleaied the plains of its brute inhabitants ; he foon eflablifned an empire over all the oixlers of animated nature ; a part was taken under his proteftion and care, while the refl found a precarious refuge in the burning de- fert of the howling wildernef^s. Vol. I. L b 3 Tjlie xxvi INTRODUCTION. The m oft obvious and fimple divifion therefore of Quadrupedes, is into the Domeftic and Savage ; by 7r>omeftic I mean, fuch as man has taken into friend- Jiiip, or reduced to obedience ; by the Savage, thofe who IHII preferve their natural independence and fero- city ; who either oppofe force by force, or find fafery in fwiftnefs or cunning. The favage animal preferves at once his liberty and inftindt, but man feems to have changed the very na- ture of domeftic animals by cultivation and care. A domeftic animal is a flave, which has few other defires, but thofe which man is willing to grant it. Humble, patient, refigned, and attentive, it fills up the duties afTigned, ready for labour, and content with fubfilt- ance. But not only its native liberty, but its very figure is changed by the arts and induilry of man ; what an immenfc variety in the ordinary race of dogs, or hor- fes ; what a difference between the large EjgUfh maftiff, and the fmall Spanijh lap-dog ; yet the whole has been eiTeded by the nature of the climate and food, feconded by the induftry of man, in continuing the fpccies without mixture. As m external figure they bear evident marks ©f human cultivation, fo is there alfo fome difference in the internal flrudlure of their bodies. The ftomach of thedomellic animal is not ufually fo large : For fuch feceiving food at certain and expefted intervals, and that but by little at a time, this inteftine feems to r.on- tra(ft to its contents, and fits tl>e animal for the life it is obliged to lead. Thus we, in fomc meafure, fee Nature under a con- tinual conflraint, in thofe creatures we have taught to live about us ; but it is oiherwife when we come to examine the favage tenants of the foreft, or the wil- der ncfs ; there cveiy fpecics preferves its charaderiflic form, and i. flrongly impreft with the inflinfts and ap- petites of nature. The more remote from the tyranny of mankind, the greater feems their fagacity ; the beavers, in thofe diftant folitudes, where miCn have r«.jciy paft, exert all the arts of architects and citi- zen? ; they build Reater habitations than even the latioRal INTRODUCTION. xxvii rational inhabitants of thofe countries can fhew, and obey a more regular difcipiine than ever man could boaft ; but as foon as man intrudes upon their fociety, their fpirit of induftry and wifdom ceafes ; they no JQnger exert their fecial arts, but become patient and dull, as if to fit them for a flate of fervitude. But not only their induflry, but their courage alfo is repre^ bv the vicinity of man : The Lion of the deferts of Nubia, that has been only taught to mea- fure his flrength wi'.h weaker animals, and accuflom'd to conquer, is pofTeffcd of am.azing courage ; inllead of avoiding man, as other animals are found to do, he attacks whole caravans croffing the Defert, and, when over povver'd, retires flill facing the enemy. But the Lion of Morocco, v/hich is a more populous country, fcems to acknowledge a fuperiority, and is even feared away by the cries of women and children. Wherever man approaches, the favage beafts retire; and it is thought not without fome ihare of reafon, that many fpecies of animals had once birth, which are now totally extind. The Elk, for inllance, which we are certain was once a native of Europe, is now no longer, except in Canada : Thofe monftrous bones of the Mahmout, as the Siberians call an animal, v/hich mutl have been at lca;l four times as big as the ele- phant, Wiiiciia.^ v^ug "p 17^ t..I! CCUntry, uuu wiiiCA by no means belong, to the Whale, as has been falfely imagined, may ferve to convince us, that there were once animals exifring, whidi have been totally ^extirpated. The hi'.lories of ArifiotU arid Pliny, ferve to confirm us in this opinion, for in them we find de- fcriptions which have not their archetypes in the pre- fent flate of nature. It is in the foreft therefore, and remote from man, that we mud exped to find thofe varieties, inftinds, and amazing inllances of courage and cunning, which Quadrupedes exert in a very high degree. Their va- rious methods of procuring fubfiftance, may well at- trad our admiration ; and their peculiar conformation for the life ii\ which they find greateft pleafure, is not lefs furprizmg. The rapacious animal is in every xc(^c€t formed for war ; yet the various kinds mak'5 [ b 2 ] xxviii INTRODUCTION. their Incuriions in very different ways. The Lion- and Tyger purfue their prey by the view alone, and for this purpofe they have a mofl piercing fight. Others hunt by fcent, while fome lie in wait and feize what- ever comes near them, or they are able to over power. The teeth of carnivorous animals differ in every rcfpecl from thofe ulvch feed upon vegetables. In the latter they feem entirely designed for gathering and comminuting their iimple food ; but in the rapacious kinds, for holding and tearing their prey. In the one the teeth ferve as grindftones, in the other, as wea- pons of offence. In both, however, the furfaces of the grinding teeth are unequal, with cavities and ri- Cings, which fit each other when the jaws ar« brought into contadl. Thefe inequalities ferve the better to grind and comminute their food, but they grow imoother with age, which is the reafon why old ani- mals take a longer time to chew their food than thofe in I he vigour of life. The legs and feet of Quadrupedes are admirably fuited to the motion and exercifes of each aninlal. In fome they are made for flrength only, and to fupport SL vafl unwieldy body, as in the Elephant, the Rhinoce- ros, and the Sea-horfe, whofe feet in fome meafure re- ^ femble pillars. Deer, Hares, and other creatures thsf are remarkable for fwiftnefs, have theirs flender, yet nervous. The feet of fome ferve forfwimming, as the Otter and Beaver ; the toes of thefe animals are joined together with membranes like thofe of geefe and ducks ; which is a fufficicnt demonftration that they are de- figned to live in water as well as on land : Though the toes of the fore feet of the Beaver are not thus united, liecaufe they ufe them as hands. The feet of fome are made for walking and digging, of which the Mole 3s a remarkable inftance ; and others for walking and flying, as the Bat. The legs of fome are weak, and of others ftiff and ftrong, that they may traverfe the ice with lefs danger. The common Goat, whofe natural habitation is on the rocks and mcantains, has legs of this kind, and the hoof is hollow underneath, with fharp edges, fo that when become domcflic, it wiii walk as fecurely on the top of a houfe, as on le- vel INTRODUCTION. xxlx vel ground. Many are fhod with rough and hsrd hoofs, of which fomeare whole, and others are cloven ; fome again have only a callous fkin, and thefe are compofed of toes which fupply the place of hands, as in all of the Monkey kind. Many have only ihort nails, for their more ready and fafe running, or walk- ing, while others have Iharp and flrong talons ; as the Lion, and moll ravenous beafts to deftroy their prey. The heads of Quadrupedes alfo differ greatly from each other ; for in fome they are fquare and large, fuitablc to their flow motion, food, and abode; in others, ilender, and iharp, the better to fit them for turn- ing up the earth, of which a Kog is an inilance. Seme Quadrupedes have long necks, and not very flrong, ferving chiefly to carry their mouths to the ground, in , order to feed ; in others they are fhorter, bravvney, and flrong, as in Moles and Hogs, thereby the better to turn up its furface, while in general the Quadru- pedes that feed upon grafs, are enabled to held down their heads, by a flrong tendonous ligament, that runs from the head to the middle of their back ; by the help of which, the head, though heavy, may be held down a long while, u'ithout any labour, pain, or un- eafinefs to the mufcles of the neck. The flomach is generally proportioned to the qua- lity of the animal's food : Thofe who live upon flefh, and fuch nourifhing fubflances, have it fmaJl and glandular, affording fuch juices as are bell adapted to digefl and macerate its contents. On the contrary, ruminating animals, or fuch as chew the cud, v/ho feed entirely upon vegetables, have four flomachs, all which ferve as fo many laboratories to prepare and turn their fimple food into proper nutriment. la Africa, however, where the plants afford greater nou- rifhment than in our temperate cli»iate, feveral ani- mals which with us have four, are there found to have but two. Eut in all, the difference in the manner of living, feems to arife from the internal conformation ; and each animal lives upon food more or \t{?, nourifh- ing in proportion to the fize of its inteflines, which are to digeii: it. In general, whatever be tkc food, nature feems [ b 3 ] finely XXX INTRODUCTION. finely to have fitted the creature for procuring it, the' never without a proper exertion of its ftrength, or in- duflry. Large animals of the foreft, fuch as the Elephant, and Lion, want fwiftnefs, and a diftinguifh- ing fcent for catching their prey, but have flrength to overcome it : Others who want ftrength, fuch as the Wolf and the Fox, make it up by their cunning ; and thofe to whom nature has denied both flrength and fpeed, as the Hound, and the Jackal), follow by the fmell, and at lad overtake their prey by perfeverance. Thus each fpecies feems only poiTefTed of one talent in perfeftion, fo that the power of deflruftion in one clafs, may not be greater than the power to efcape in another. Few wild animals feek their prey in the day time, but about night the whole foreil: echoes with a variety of different bowlings. That of the Lion re- fembles diftant thunder; the Tyger and Leopard's notes arefomething more fhrill, but yet more hideous ; while the Jackall, purfuing by his fcent, barks fome- what like a dog, and hunts in a pack in the fame manner. Nor is it uncommon for the Urongefl ani- mals to follow where they hear this cry begun; and when the Jackall has hunted down the prey, to come in and monopolize the fpoil- It is this which has gi- ven rife to the report of that little animal's being the Lion's provider ; but, in f2<5l, the Jackall hunts for himfelf alone, and the Lion is an unwelcome intruder upon the fruits of his induflry. This is a common method with larger animals, yet their moft ufual way is to hide and crouch near fome path frequented by their prey, or fome water where cattle come to drink, and with a bound feize them inftantly. The Lion is faid to leap twenty feet at a fpring, and, if we can credit father Tachard, the Ty- ger goes flill farther. However, notwithftanding this furprifing force, it would often happen that they might pcrifh for want of food, had not nature endowed th^m with an amazing- power of fuftaining hunger for a longtime; for as their fubfiflance is precarious, their appetites are complying. When once they have feized their prey they devour it in the moft voracious man- ner. INTRODUCTION. xxxi ner, often bones and all, and then retire to their re- treats, continuing inaflive till the calls of hunger again excite their courage and induflry. But as all their methods of purfuit are counter- adled by their prey, with all the arts of evafion, in this manner they often continue to ran^e without fuccefs, fupporting a life of famine and fatigue for eight or ten days fuc- ceffively. Beafts of prey feldom devour each other, nor can any thing, but the greateft degree of hunger, induce them to it. But, in fuch extremities, and when hunger makes them lefs delicate, the weakeft affords its antagonift a difagreeable repaft. What they chiefly feek after is the Deer, or the Ox, thofe harmlefs crea- tures which feem made to embellifh nature ; of which when caught they firft fuck the blood, and then devour the carcafs ; between fuch there is caufe of enmity. Yet there are antipathies among the rapacious kinds, which render them enemies to each other, even though no ways inftigatcd to it by hunger. The Elephant and the Tyger, the Dog and the Wolf, are mortal foes, and never meet without certain death to the weaker fide. When at Siamy fays father Tachard, I had an oppor- tunity of feeing a combat between three Elephants and a Tyger. The place of engagement was in a fort ef railed amphitheatre, and the Elephants were defend- ed by a kind of armour which covered their heads, and a part of their trunk ; but as if this were not fufficient, the Tyger was alfo rellrained by cords from making the firft onfet. When one of the Elephants approach- ed, he began the combat by giving his enemy three terrible blows with his trunk on the back, which ftun- fied the other fo much^ that he continued for fome time as if infenfible, but the inftant he was let loofe, he flew at the Elephant with an hideous howl, and at- tempted to feize him by the trunk ; this the Elephant artfully evaded by wrinkling in his trunk, and then receiving his antagonift upon his armour, he in the moft dextrous manner flung him up into the air. This ferved entirely to intimidate the Tyger, who durft no longer face him, but made many efforts to efcape ; n«w and then trying to fly up at the fpe^ators, but the three xxxii INTRODUCTION. three elephants now beginning to prefs him, they ftruck him fuch terrible blows, that they would foon have difpr.tched him, had not the fignal been given for finilhing the combat. But to have a more diftind idea of the life of a beall of prey ; let us turn to ci.e among the number ; the Wolf, for inilance, and view him in his. native deferts ; with the moil infatiable apetite for animal food, nature feems to have granted him the mcH va- rious means of fatisfying it. PoiTefTed of flrength, agility, and cunning, he feems fitted for finding, over- coming, and devouring his prey ; yet, for all this, the Wolf often dies of hunger, for he is the declared enemy of man. Being thus profcribed, he is obliged to frequent the moll folitary part of the forefl, where his prey too often efcapes him, either by fwiftnefs, or cunning, fo that he is moft frequently indebted to hazard alone for fubfiflance. He remains lurking whole days in thofe places where the lefier animals moft frequently pafs, till at laft becoming defperate thro' want, and courageous through necelftty, he ventures forth to attack fuch animals as have taken refuge under the protedlion of man. He therefore falls in among the fold, deftroys all he meets, kills merely from a pleafure in (laughter, and, if this fucceed, he returns again,, till being wounded, or frighted by dogs or men, he ventures out only by night, ranges the fields, and deflroys whatever he has llrength to conquer. He has been often feen when thofe Tallies -have proved unfuccefsful, to return back to the woods -and purfue the wild animals ; not fo much with the hope cf overtaking them himfeif, as in expedlation of their falling a prey to fome other of his own fpecies>« with whom he may come in to divide the fpoil. In ihor":, V. hen driven to the laft extremity, ihe attacks even man himfclf, and grown quite furious, encoun- ters inevitable dcilrudlion. Such are the beafts of the foreft, which arc formed for a life of hoftility, and, as wc fee, poffeft of va- rious, methods to feizc, conquer, and deft'roy. Nor are fuch as are their deftined prey,--lefs fagacious in their efiorW to cfcapc dcftrui^ion. Some find protec- tion INTRODUCTION. xxxHI tion m holes in which nature has directed them to bury themfelves j others feek fafety by their fwiftnefs, and fuch as a;;e pofTeft of neither of thefe advantages, generally herd together,, and endeavour to repel inva- fion with united force. The very iheep, which feems the moft defencelefs animal of all, will yet make refiftance, the females falling into the centre, and the males with their horns forming a ring round them. Some animals that feed upon fruits, which are to be found only at one time of the year, have the fagrxity to provide againft winter ; thus the Badger, the Hedge- hog, and Mole, fill their holes with feveral forts of plants, which enable them to lie concealed during the hard frofts of the winter, contented with their prifon which affords them fafety. Thefe holes are conftrufted with fo much art, that the builders feem endowed with an inftindl almofi: approaching reafon. In general there are two apertures, one by which to efcape, when an enemy is in poflellion of the other. The doublings of the Hare, and the various tricks of the Fox to efcape the Hounds, are not Icfs furprifmg. Some animals have the power of raiding fuch an into- lerable flench, that no Dogs will follow them : Many creatures which herd together, place a centinel upon the watch, t© give notice of an approaching enemy, and take this duty by turns Thefe are the efforts of inflindl for fafety, and they are in general fufHcient to repel the hoflilitics of inftinA onl", but no arts the wretched animal can ufe, are fufhcient to reprefs the invafions of man. Wherever he has fpread his domi- nion, terror feems to follow ; there is then no longer fociety among the inferior tenants of the plain ; ail their cunning ceafes ; all their induflry is at an end ; the whole is then only fubfiiiance, and human art, inftead of improving brutal fagacity, only bounds, contradls, and conftrains it. The wild animal is fabjeft to few alterations, *till he comes under the dominion of man. In their na- tive folitudes they live ftill in the fame manner ; they are not feen to v/ander from climate to climate, the forell where they have been bred feems. to bound and fatisfy their defires, they feldom leave it, and when they do. xxxlv INTRODUCTION. do, it is only becaufe it can no longer alFord fecunty. Nor is it their fellow brutes, but man they in fuch cafes feem to avoid. From the former their appre- henlions are lefs, becaufe their means of efcape are greater. In their fellow brutes they have an enemy to whom their powers are equal ; they can oppofe fraud to their force, and fwiftpefs to their fagacity ; but what can be done againl fuch an enemy as man, who finds them out though unfeen, and though remote dell:roys them. We have obferved, that among animals of the fame kind, there is little variety, except what is produced by the art of man ; but \vc would have this obfei-va- tion extend only to animals of the fame climate. As in the human fpccics many alterations arife from the heat or cold, and other peculiarities of the region they inhabit, fo amo«g brute animals the climate marks them with its influence, and in a few fucceffions they entirely conform to the nature of their fituation. In general it may be remarked, that the colder the coun- try, the longer and warmer is the fur of each animal, to defend it from the inclemency of the feafon. Thus the Fox and the Wolf, which in temperate climates have but fhort hair, yet have it much longer in the frozen regions, near the north-pole. TbofeDogs v-hich with us have long hair, when carried into the hot tro- pical climates, in a few years ca'c their thick covering, nhu oiTu.T.C one iTiOiC fitted to the place. The Elephant and Rhinoceros, which live in the hottcll countries, have no hair at all ; while die Beaver and the Ermine, which are found in greateft plenty in the cold regions, are remarkable for the warmth and the finenefs of their furs. There i* one exception to this general rule, in the Quadrupedes of Syna^ which though an hot country, are remarkable for the length and finenefs of their hair ; the Syrian Cat, Sheep, and other animals afForciing fufficient quantity to be manufadlured into that fluff called Camblet, fo common over all Europe. The quantity of food in any country, or its nutri- ment adapted to each peculiar fpecies, fcrvcs alfo to make a variety in the fize of the rcfpedlive animal. Tkus the bcails which feed in the valley, are much larger. INTRODUCTION. xxxr larger than thofe which glean a fcanty fubfiftance on the mountains ; fuch as live in thofe hot countries where the plants are much larger and more fucculent than with us, are equally remarkable for their bulk. If Africa has been remarketi to a proverb, by antiqui- ty, for its monflrous Serpents, it is no lefs remarkable for its Lions, its Elephants, and Leopards alfo. Their difpofitions too feem to partake of the rigours of the climate ; and being bred in tlie extreme of heat or cold, they fhew a peculiar f&recity, that neither the force of man can conquer, nor his adulations allay. The fame phyfical caufe-s which have rendered the men of thoie wretched climaies barbareus and unfo- cial, feem to extend their influence even to brutes. For ever where the men are mcft favage, the brutes are moll fierce, the reafoning powers on one hand being lefs, while the aftive powers on the other being greater, the forces on both fides feem almoft 1§ veiled to an equality, and in thofe regions brutes and men feem to ftruggle for divided dominion. All the at- tempts which havo hitherto been made to tame the favage animals brought home from the pole or the equator, have proved inefFe£lual ; while young the Lion, and even the Leopard, are harmlefs and gentle ; but they acquire all their natural ferocity with age ; catch at the hand that feeds them, and as they grow up become more dangerous and more cruel. A per- fon who Ihewed wild bcails about the country, fome years ago, had confined a young MallifF and a Wolf cub from Senegal, in the fame room. While young they played together, and feemed much delighted witk each other's company ; but as the Wolf grew older, he began to acquire new iiercenefs, and they often had Hight quarrels about their food, which was given them together. It always began upon the Wolf's fide, who, though there w^s much more than b^th he and the Mallifi^ could poffibly confume, yet ftill kept the Maftiff^ away, and watched over the remainder. This ill-matched fociety therefore every day became more turbulent and bloody, till it ended in the death of the Dog, whom the Woif caught at an unguarded moment, and tore in pieces. Thus xxxvi INTRODUCTION. Thus we find, that even among carnivorous animals, there are different difpofitions, fome generous and valiant, others cruel and cowardly : Some animals are rapacious merely to fatisfy their hunger, but the Ty- ger. Hyaena, and the Panther, deftroy whatever they meet, ilay without diftindion, and are cruel without neceflity. It has been obferved, that the extenfive Deferts of Jifrica^ lyi'^g between the tropics, produce the largefl and fiercefl animals, yet in the fame latitudes in Americay the animals are in no wife fo terrible. It may indeed be remarked in general, that all the Qua- drupedes of that new world, are lefs than tlwfe of the old, even fuch as are carried from hence to breed there, are often found to degenerate, but arc never feen to improve. If with refped to fize we fhould compare the animals of^the new and the old world, we fhall find the one bear no manner of proportion to the other. The Afiatic Elephant, for inflance, often grows to above fifteen feet high, while the Tapurette, which is the largeit native of America^ is not bigger than a calf of a year old. The Lama, which K)me alfo call the American Camel, is Hill lefs ; nor is the Bifon, though really bulky, by any means large to appearance. Their beafts of prey alfo are quite di- verted of that courage, wkich is fo often fatal to man in Africa^ or Afia. They have no Lions, nor properly fpeaklng, either Leopard, or Tyger. Travellers, however, have affixed thofe names to fuch ravenous animals, as aie there found moll to refemble thofe of the ancient continent. However, the Cougar, the Jaquar, an^ the Jaquarette, among them are defpica- ble, in comparifon of the Tyger, the Leopard, and tlie Panther of Afta. The Tyger oi Bc7igal\\2i% been known to mcafure twelve feet in length, without in- cluding the tail ; while the Cougar, or American Ty- ger, a» fome affc<5l to call it, feldom exceeds three. ^11 the animrds therefore in the fouthern parts oi Ame^ rica, are different irom thofe in the fouthern parts of the anticnt ccntinent ; nor doei rhere appear to be any commo: to both, but thofe, which being able to bear ihe rigour* of the norili, have travelled froni one continent INTRODtrCt'ION. xxxvii continent to the other. Thus the Bear, the Wolf, the Rain-deer, the Stag, and the Beaver, are known as well by the inhabitants of Canada^ as Ruffta ; while the Lion, the Leopard, and the Tyger, which are na- tives of the fouth with us, are utterly unknown in fouthern America. But if the Quadrupedes of ^/«mf« be fmaller than thofe of the ancient continent, they are in much greater abundance ; for it is a rule that obtains thro' nature, that the fmalleft animals multiply in the greateft proportion. The Goat, imported from Eu- rope to fouthern America^ in a few generations becomes much lefs, but then it alfo becomes more prolific, and inflead of one Kid at a time, or two at the moft, generally produces fiv^e, fix, and fometimes more. The wifdom of providence in making formidable ani- mals unprolific is obvious -, had the Elephant, the Rhinoceros, and the Lion, the fame degree of fecun- dity with the Rabbet, or the Rat, all the arts of man would foon be unequal to the conteft, and we fhould foon perceive them become the tyrants of thofe who afFeft to call themfelves the mailers of the creation.* Final caufes are obvious, but as the gjeat Baccn fays, In'vejligatio caufarumfinalium Jierilis eji, i^ njeluti qjirga Deo dedicata, ml parit ; fuch in faft produce no difcoverics ; it is for the efficient caufe we fhould enquire ; and yet fuch is the darknefs of the fubjeft, that we muil be contented in the prefent inllance, only with the for- mer : Upon anatomical infpeftion, the matrix of fnaaller creatures is evidently fitted to produce ma- ny at a time, while that of larger Quadrupedes is adapted for the geftation of one alone, or cf two at the moll. As large animals require proportional fupplic^ from nature, providence feems unwilling to give new life, where it has denied the necefiary means of fa bfiflinp-. In confequence of this pre-ellablifhed order, the larger creatures which bring forth but (t\Y at a time, feldom produce their fpecies till they have acquired, or almofl acquired, their full growth. On the other hand, thofe which bring forth many, engender before * The reafons of this fascundity are not fo eafiJy aifigned as th& treator'-fi motives for this difference. [ C ] thev. .Yxxvlii INTRODUCTION. they have arrived at half their natural fize. The Horfe and the Bull come almoft to their Acme before reprodudion ; the Hog and the Rabbet fcarce leave the teat before they become parents themfelves. The jarge animals alfo go with young in proportion to their fize. The Mare continues eleven months with foal ; the Cow nine ; the Wolf five ; and the Bitch nine weeks. In all, however, the young are produced by the female without haemorrhage, and moftly without pain, the intermediate litters being evermoft fruitful. Whatever be the natural difpofition of animals at other times, they all acquire new courage and fierce- r.efs in defence of their young ; even the mildeft, if wild, will then refill and threaten the invader ; but fuch as have force, and fubflft by rapine, are at fuch ilmes terrible indeed. The Lionefs feems more hardy than even the Lion himfelf; fhe attacks men and beafls indifcriminately, and when fhe has overcome, carries them reeking to her young, whom fhe accuf- toms betimes to flaughter. We are told by fome tra- vellers, but with what truth I will not take upon me to determine, that the hunters who find her cubs, and carry them off, have no other method to efcape her purfult, but by dropping one at fome diftance from the tien, which finding, fhe takes care to carry back, be- fore fhe attempts to refcue the reft, and fo the hunter cfc^pcs with apart. The firft aliment of all Quadrupedes is milk, which i-i .1 liquor at once both nourifliing, and eafily digefted, this being in carnivorous animals in much lefs quan- tity than others, the female often carries home her p;ry alive, tliat its blood may fupply the deficiencies of nature in herfclf. Uut their care in the protedlion of their young, is rot greater than their fagacity in chufing fuch months for bringing forth, as afford the greateft quantity oi provifion, fuitablc to the age and appetite of each jxculiar kind. In general they couple at fuch time* ns >iiat the female fiiall bring forth in the miideft fea- fons, fuch ar, the latter end of fpring, or the legin- i.i:v^^ of autumn. T)ic Wolf and the Fox, for inftance, ccwplc in Ddcrnber, fo thai the time of gcftation con- • INTRODUCTI ON. xxxi^- tinuing five months, they may have ^eir young in Jpril. The Mare who goes eleven months, admits the horfe in fummer, and foals in the beginning of May-. On the contrary, all thole which lay up provifions for the winter, as the Beaver and Marmotte, couple irt the latfer end of autumn, fo as to have their young shout January y for which fevere feafon they have al- ready laid in the proper fupplies. This provifionaf care in every fpecies of Quadrupedes, of bringing forth at the fittell feafons, may well excite human admira^ tion ; in man the bufmefs of procreation is not marked by feafoiis, but brutes feem to decline indeterminate copulation, as if conduced lefs by appetite than the future fubfillance of their offspring. Their choice of fituations too may be remarked., for in moft of the rapacious kinds, the female takes the utmoft precautions to hide the place of her retreat from the male, who, when prefTed with hunger, would- be apt to devour her cubs. She feldom therefore flrays far from the den, and never returns while- the male i& in view, nor vi fits him again till her young are out of danger, or capable of refiftance. Such animals a^ are of tender conflitutions,' take the utmaft care to provide the warmeft lodging for their young ; thofeon . the contrary that are hardy, and are found to fubfift ii> northern climates, are not fo cautious in this particu= lar. The rapacious kinds bring forth in the thiekeffe woods ; the Ruminant, with the various fpecies of - leiTer creatures, chufe fome hiding place in theneigh"- bourhood of man ; fome chufe the hollow of a tree.j . and all the amphibious kinds bring up their young by the water, and accuftcm them betimes to either element There are^ however, fome animals which • leave their brood to chance alone, and their own ^ early inftinft for their prefervation ; I mean the ovi- parous kind?, or thcib which bring forth eggs, fuch as the Tortoife, the Lizard, and the Crocodile. Thefe take nO' farther care of their young than by burying their eggs in the fand, and the heat of- the fun alone brings them to perfedion. As foon as Jiatuhed, without any other guide than inflinft,. they- immediately make to the water, though not without : [,c 2.] ^ \sxw§^. xi I n;^t roduction. having^ their numbers diminifhed in their pafTagC, by fuch birds as make them their peculiar food. All the kinds of Oviparous animals are covered with (hells, or fcales ; thofe of the viviparous, or fuch as b mg forth their yi-.ung alive, with hides and hair, Th: Oviparous are much more fruitful ; a Tortoifeor a Crocodile, laying not Icfs than an hundred eggs at a time. Thefe as being more imperfedly formed than animals of the viviparnis kind, fooner arrive at a ftate of maturity, for in general it maybe obferved, that the more imperfedl each animal is, the fooner it arrives at its greatell ilate of pf^rfeftion . The Lizard is capable of providing for itfeif as loon as hatched ; the Otter fwims in queft of food at one day old ; the dog takes longer time; the Horfe ard the Lion are more flow in their advances, while man, the moft per- fet\ work of nature, kbours under the longefl imbe- cill'ty. But while I divide animals into viviparous and ovi- parous, perhaps it may be obferved, thac adiftinftion i' made where nature has made none, and that all creatures are produced in the fame manner, equally proceeding from eggs. The generation of animals has excited curiofity in all ages, and the Philofophers of every age have undertaken to explain the difficulty. Hippocrates has fuppofcd foecundity to proceed from the mixture of the feminal liquor of both {txc^^ each of which equally contributes to the formation of the in- cipient animal. Jrijloile^ on the other hand, would have the feminal liquor in the male alone to contribute to this grand efFcft, while the female .only fupplied the proper nourifhment for its fupport. Such were the opinions of thefe two great men, and they continued to be adopted by Phyficians or Schoolmen for a long fuc- C'^flion of ages, with blind veneration, till Steno and ilervef guided by anatomical infpeCtion, perceived in every viviparous animal, two glandular bodies near - ilie womb, refcmbling that duller of fm all tg^% which is fo'jr.d in fowls, and from the antilogy between both, they gave thefe alfo the name of Ovaria. How- tv;.'r. as they fecmed detached from the womb, it was objected at firll that fuch could contribute no way to the INTRODUCTION. xli the formation rf the foetus ; but upon more minute in- fpedlion, Fallopus, the great anatomift, perceived two tubular veiTels, deper.ding from the womb, which like the horns of a fnail, had a power of eredling themfelves, embracing the Cvaria, and receiving the eggs in order to be fsecundated by the feminal liquor. This difcovery foon altered the opinion of Philofophers, and as the followers Qt Arifictle afcribed the rudiments of the foetus to the male, the followers q{ Htwey gaye it. entirely to the female. This lad opinion therefore was eftablilhed in the fchools a long time without much controverfy, till Le^tvenhoek difcovered, that the feminal liquor in the male had numberlefs living crea- tures, each of which might be confidered ss a minia- ture of the future animal. The bufinefs of generation was now therefore given back to the male a fecond time, though not without long controverfy, and fome abufe. Succeeding fpecula'iors, willing to compound the matter, were of opinion, that the feminal animal might enter the t^g predifpofed for its reception ; and thus both fexes might confpire in the formation ; the fubjed offered infinite fcope for conjedlure. Mr. BuJ'on loved to fpeculate, and he was unwilling to let flip (b fair an opportunity of fpeculation. He therefore broached a new theory ; he found by microfcopial in- fpedion, that the feminal liquor, both of males and females, equally abounded with the moving beings, firft taken notice of by Le^-enhcek, Thefe he takes not to be real animals, but living fubHances, which have the property of making a part in all organized bodies, without being organized themfelves. AW ani- mals, he continues to obferve, as well as vegetables, are compofed of thefe living unorganized fubrtances, apart of which are taken up for the animals own fupport and growth, and the fuperfiuity thrown off in the feminal liquor of both fexes, for the reprodu6lion of other animals of the fame fpecies. This hypothefis, as well as all the reft, is embar- raffed with unfurmountable obje6"tions, and only ferves to fhew that too minute a purfuit of nature, leads to incertainty ; in fucli cafes, every hi ft opinion krvcs to overturn the preceding, v^'hiIe iueif only waits to be over- xKi INT R.O D U C T I ON. overturned by fome fucceeding fpeculation more plea- fing, becaufe more new. Happily for mankind, the mofl intricate enquiries are generally the moft ufelefs. Modeft nature has concealed her fecret operations from rafh prefumption ; it may fufRce man to be certain, that ihe always afts with uniformity and fuccefs. Tho* we cannot difcover how animals are generated, we know that every fpecies is ftill tranfmitted down with- out mixture, and that the fame charafleriftic marks which diftinguifhed them in the times of Arijiotle and Pliny ^ divide them to this day Creatures of different kinds may be brought to produce between them, in- deed an animal partaking fomething of each, yet dif- ferent from either, but here the confufion ends ; for this new being, this monfter of nature, is incapable of continuing the breed, and is marked with perpetual fterility. Nor does this arife from the figure, for there is more difference between the MaftifF and L'ap-dop, with refpe6l to external fhape, than between the Horfe and the Afs, yet the animal produced between the two former is prolific, while the Mule, which is begotten by the latter, continues unalterably barren. But though nature has provided that every fpecies of animals fhould be thus kept diflin6t, yet we have ma- ny reafons to believe, as has been obferved before, that fhe has not been fo folicitous for the prefervation of them all. We have already taken notice of the Mah- mut, which is computed to have been at leaft five times as big as the Elephant, and if fo might confe- quently require the produce of an immenfe traft for its fubfiftance. How fo huge a body, th^erefore, could be fupported upon earth, or if the bones once belonged to an inhabitant of the deep, how they came buried at fuch an immenfe diftance, as they are found from the fca, arequeflions that ignorance may afk, but fagacity never refolve, the ufe, and not the caufc of things, is all allowed us here. 'Tis fufficient for us that every thing we fee is good, and that all thofe good things havcbeeii granted for our enjoyment. A mind willing to cm- ploy itfclf in vain conjcdures can never want fubjeifli! upon which to expatiate ; thus for inftance, whether liutcu have fouls ? whether they reafon ? v/hcther they have INT R O D U CT ION. xliii Kftve memory ? or are only mere machines ; thefe are topics that may employ the fpeculative, but that can never recompence the enquiry They are quef-. tions concerning which we may form doubts, and afic queftions, but can never have them refolved till brutes thcmfelves find language t© inform us, and farther cr- lightcn our philofophy. THE Natural History O F QUADRUPEDESj O R Four-footed ANIMALS. CHAP. I. Of Animals ivith an undi'vided Hoof, of the Ho R S E Kind. HORSE is a noble animal fo well known to every one that he needs no defcrip- tion ; however it will not be amifs to fay fomething of the beft properties of a Horfe, which may ferve as diredlions how to chufe a good one, and firft of all it will be necefTary to determine his age, the knowledge of which is principally derived from his teeth. The firft teeth that appear are four, t^vo above and two below, which are called foal teeth, and may be eafily diftinguifhed from the others by their whitenefs. The 2 The Natural HISTORY of The reft come out afterwards till they are twelve in number, fix above and fix below. When a colt is be- tween two years and a half and three years old, he cafts fourofthefe teeth, two above and two below. Thefe we call nippers or gatherers, and are much longer and larger than the fore teeth, with thefe he nips olf the gral's and pulls the hay from the Rack. When thefe are complete the horfe will be three years old or fomewhat more. When he is about four he cafts again two above and two below, one on each fide the nippers ; fo that now there are no fore-teeth remaining but the corner teeth ; and hence it may be concluded that he is about four years old. The tufks appear next after thefe, and are a little crooked. Thofe below come out before thofe on the upper jaw, and at four years old they are very fmall. When all the colt teetli are caft, and the corner teeth begin to Ihew themfelves, then the Horfe comes five. From five to five and a half the corner teeth remain hollow within, and are not quite filled up till the Horfe is fix. At five and a half they are about a quarter of an inch high, and when he is full fix near half an inch. Every thing that is to be examined at fix years old, are the corner teeth and the tufks. That part of the corner teeth that had flcfh in at firft turns to a brownifh fpot, like the eye of a garden bean. At fevcn the mark or fpot becomes faint, and the tooth, mere even. At eight it quite difappears, though it pofTibly may remain in a very fmall degree for two or three )ears more, which has deceived many. The longer the corner teeth are the older is the Horfe, and they are apt to grow foul and turn yellow. When the mark is gone if you touch the tufks on the upper jaw with your finger, and find it worn awny and equal with the palate, you may certainly judge that the Horfe is ten years old at leaft. Laftly, when the Flanks of a Horfe are much funk, the feet broken and fpoiled, the pace bad, and the eye pits very hollow, you may cer- tainly conclude the Horfe ii confiderably advanced in ycaii. When QuADRUPEDEs, or Four-footed Animals, 5 When the Horfe is without blemilTi, the legs and tTiighs are clean, the knees ftrait, the fhin and Ihank thin, and the back finew ftrong and well braced. The linews and the bones Ihould be To diftinft, as to make the legs appear thin and lathy, not full and round. The pattern joints fhould never be large and round, nor muft there be any fwelling near the coronet. The hocks fhould be lean and dry not puffed up with wind. With regard to the hoof, the coronet fhould be equally thick, and the horn ihining and greyifh. A white horn is a fign of a bad foot, for it will wear out in a fhort time, and likewife when the horn is thin it is liable to be fpoiled in fhoeing, and by travelling hard on flony grounds. This is bell known when the fhoe is taken off, for then the verge all round the fole will appear thin, and the Horfe will wince at the leaft touch of the pincers. A ftrong foot has the fibres of the hoof very diftindl running in a diredl line from the coronet to the toe like the grain of wood. In this cafe care muft be taken to keep the foot moift and pliable. The greateft incon- venience attending a hard ftrong foot, is its being fub- je6t to rifts and fiffures, which cleave the hoof quite through fometimes from the coronet down to the bot- tom. A narrow heel is likewife a defeft ; and when it is not above two fingers in breadth the foot is bad. A high heel caufes a Horfe to trip and ftumble often ; and the low one, with long yielding pafterns, is very apt to be worn quite away on a journey. Too lai-ge a foot in proportion to the reft of the body, renders a Horfe weak and heavy. The head of a Horfe fhould be fmall, and rather lean than flefhy. The ears fhould be fmall, ered, thin, fprightly, and pointed. The forehead, or brow, fhould be neither too broad nor too flat, and fhould have a ftar orfnip thereon. The nofe fliould rife a little, and the noftrils fhould be wide that he may breath more freely. The muzzle fhould be fmall, and the mouth neither too deep nor too fhallow. The jaws fhould be thin, and not approach too near together at the throat, nor too high upwards towards the onfet, that the Horfe may 4 rhe Natural HISTORY of may have fufficient room to carry his head in an eafy graceful poilure. The eyes fhould be of a middle fize, bright, lively, and full of fire. The tongue Ihould be fmall, that it may not be too much prefled by the bit ; and it is a good fign when his mouth is full of white froth, for it Ihews that he will not foon be over- heated. The neck fhould be arched towards the middle, growing fmaller by degrees from tlie breaft and fhoul- ders to the head. The hair of the mane fhould be long, fmall, and fine ; and if it be a little frizzled fo much the better. The Ihoulders fhould be pretty long, the withers thin, and enlarge gradually from thence downwards; but fo as to render his breaft neither too narrow nor too grofs. A thick-fhouldered Horfe foon tires, and trips and ftumbles every minute ; efpecially if he has a thick large neck at the fame time. When the breaft is fo narrow that the fore thighs almofl touch, they are never good for much. A Horfe of a middle fize fhould have the diftance of five or fix inches be- tween his fore thighs, and there fhould be lefs diftance between his feet than his thighs near the fhoulders when he ftands upright. The body or carcafe of a Horfe fhould be of a mid- dling fize in proportion to his bulk, and the back fhould fmkjia little below the withers ; but the otlier parts fhould be ftrait, and no higher behind than before. He fhould alfo be home ribbed ; but the fhort ribs fhould not approach too near the haunches, and then he will have room to fetch his breath. When a Horfe's back is fhort in proportion to his bulk, and yet other- wife well limbed, he will hold out a journey though he will travel flow. When he is tall at the fame time with very long legs he is but of little value. The wind fliould never be overlooked in the choice of a Horfe, and it may eafily be known by his flanks if he is broken winded when he ftands quiet in the ftable ; becaufe he always pinches them in with a very flow motion, and drops them fuddenly. A thick winded Horfe fetches his breath often, and fometimes rattles and wheezes. This may be always difcovered when he is put to brifk cxercifes. The QuADRUPEDEs, Of Four-footcd Animals. ^ The temper of a Horfe fhould always be obferved ; a vicious Horfe generally lays his ears clofe to his pole, fhews the whites of his eyes, and looks fullen and dogged. An angry Horfe may be known by his frowning looks ; and he generally feems to Hand in a pofture of defence, when he is very vicious he pays no regard to the groom that feeds him. Howe- ver fome Horfes that are ticklifh will lay back their ears, and yet be of a good difpofition. A fearful Horfe is apt to Hart, and never leaves it oiF till he is old and ufelefs. A fretful Horfe is very unfit for a journey ; and you may difcover his temper as foon as he gets out of the liable. A dull, heavy, fluggifh Horfe may be eafily known, whatever tricks are ufed to roufe his fpirits. With regard to the colour of a Horfe the bright bay, and indeed all kind of bays in general, are accounted a good colour. The chefnut Horfe is generally pre- ferable to the forrel, unlefs the former happens to be bald, or party coloured with white legs. Brown Horfes have generally black manes and tails, and their joints are of a rufty black. Thofe of this colour that are dappled are much handfomer than the reft. Horfes of a Ihining black, and well marked without too much white, are in high efteem for their beauty. A ftar, or blaze, or white muzzle, or one or more feet tipped with white, are thought to be rather better than thofe that are quite black. Of greys the dappled are accounted bett ; though the filver greys make a more beautiful appearance, and often prove good. The iron grey with white manes and tails are thought not to be fo hardy. Greys of every kind will turn white fooner or later ; but the nut- meg grey, when the dappled parts incline to bay or chefnut, are faid to be good hardy Horfes. Roan Horfes have a diverfity of colours mixed together ; but the white is more predominant than the reft. They are all generally hardy, and fit for the road ; and fome are exceeding good. Thofe of a ftrawberry colour moft refemble the forrel, and they are often marked with white on the face and legs. When the bay is blended with it he feems to be tindured with claret ; and 6 The Natural HISTORY of and fome of thefe prove to be very good. Dun, fal- low, and cream coloured Horfes have a lift down their backs; and their manes and tails are black. Dun Horfes are feldom chofen by gentlemen, and yet they may be very ufeful to the country farmer. The fallow and cream coloured are better efteemed, both for beauty and ufe. Thofe Horfes that are finely fpotted with gay colours like leopards are a great rarity, and for that reafon are only in the hands of great men. It likewife will not be improper to take notice of the different denominations of the external parts of a Horfe ; becaufe thefe are often the fubjed of common difcourfe. The coat of a Horfe is called the hair, which has different names in feveral parts of the body. The foretop is the topping or tuke, the hairs on the under lip are the beard ; and thofe which grow along the upper part of the neck :ue called the mane. That part of the neck which is moft arched has the name of the creft, and when that fmks a Horfe is faid to be creft-fallen. The tuft of hair which grows on the lower part of the leg behind .above the heel is termed the feet-lock, or fetlock. The hair that grows round over the top of the hoof is the crown, or crow- net, and the hair on the eye-lids is the brills. The ufual term by which the body of a Horfe is diftinguifhed is the carcafs. Thus a Horfe with a large body is faid to have a large carcafs ; and when it is compadl and well made he is faid to have a good carcafs. The forehead is often called the brow ; and the two hollows above the eyes mofl remarkable in old Horfes, are termed the eye pits. The mark, if any, that runs down t\ e face, is the rache ; and where there is a white fpot in the forehead it is the ftar. The back part of the head that joins to the neck is the poll ; and thejundlure of thehead and neck theonfet. The lips with the tip of the nofc form the muzzle ; and the place in the infide of the mouth where the tongue lies is the charnet. The flefliy rows that run acrofs the upper part of the mouth are called the bars, and thefe are very remarkable in young horfes. The top of the fhoulder blades, and higheft part of the fpinc, at the fetting on of the neck, are the withers ; and QuADRUPEDEs, or Four-footed Animals. 7 and from the top of this a Horfe is meafured to know his fize. From the withers to the hind part of his back are the reins, and next thefe are the loins. The extremity of the reins above the hips to the tail, is called the croup ; and the part where the crupper lies, is the channel ; the tail is the dock or runt, and the finking of the back, if any, has the name of the fway. The hinder part of the belly next the genitals, is called the flank, and this reaches from the fmall ribs to the haunches. The loofe fkin which covers the yard, is the Iheath, and the belly reaches from this to the brifket. The point from the withers to the top joint of the thigh, inclofing the whole breall on both fides, is called the fnoulder, at which the fore legs or arms begin ; and the hind part pointing to- wards the brificet, is the elbow ; the middle part is the knee, to which the fore leg or arm reaches. The ex- tent from the knee to the pallern, is called the Ihank ; and the ftrong tendon behind the lliank inferted into the heel, is the back finew. The place where the ihank joins the paftern, is diftinguiilied by the pallern, or fetlock joint ; and the paftern reaches from the lower part of the joint to the foot, and has a joint in the middle to facilitate the motion of the foot, and which diftinguifhes it into two parts, namely, the great paftern next the ftiank, and the lefs next the foot. The joining of this laft with the foot, is called the coffin joint. The hoof is generally called the horn or the coffin, becaufe it inclofes the bottom of the foot. The tender part of the hoof next the heel, is the frufh ; and the ball of the foot, the frog. This reaches from the middle part of the foot to the heel ; and the fole is the horny part which covers the reft of the bottom of the foot, and adheres to the verge of the hoof, where nails are driven in, when a Horfe is ihod. The fides meeting on the heel, are called the quarters. The haunches begin at the two bones of the back part of a Horfe, which enclofe the loins, and defcend to the ham, or hock, or hough. The ftifle is the knee-pan of a Horfe, and is feated in the middle . joint 8 The Natural HISTORY of joint of the thigh ; and is out\vardly that part which jets out from the thigh towards the belly. The thigh or gafcoin begins at the flifle, and reaches to the bending of the ham or hock ; the hock is the bending of the hind leg ; and the round knob behind is the heel of the hock, in which the great mafter fmew is inferted. The fmall of the hind leg, has the name of the inftep. The pafterns and feet, are dilHnguiihed in the fame manner, as in the fore legs ; and that fide of a Horfe which we approach, is called the near- fide, and the other the off-fide. Hence comes the terms of near-foot, and off-foot, near-eye, and the off-eye, and fo of the reft. There is fome difference in Korfes according to their different countries where they are bred j for in- ftance in France, thofe of Bretagne are pretty ftrong made, and have generally black hair, or brown bay ; and they have good legs and feet, with a hardy mouth, and a head fhort and flefliy ; but in general, they are pretty clurafy. The Horfes of Franche Co/npte, are laid to have the legs of Tigers, and the belly of a Hind ; but they are Ihort and thick, and of a middle lize, being much more proper for drawing than riding. The Horfts of Gafcony, are not unlike thofe of Spain^ but they are not fo handfome, nor fo active, and therefore, they are more proper to draw carriages. The Limojin Horfes are very vicious, and are good for little till they are fix years old. Their colour is ge- nerally bay, or a bay brown. The Horfes of A^o/-/??«//r^', are much like thofe of Bretagne, and thofe of Poitouy have good bodies, legs, feet, and eyes ; but they are far from being liandfome. The Horfes of Ger/najiy are much better and more handfome, tlian thofe of the Lcnv Cciaitries. They are of great ufe for carriages, but much more for the army, and for drawing the artillery. They have a great deal of hair, efpccially about the legs. They are not large, but they arc well fet, and yet they have tender feet. The Hungarian Horfes are excellent for the coach, as well as for riding; but they arc large, though well proportioned, and they are of all colours, and in general very fwift. QuADRUPEDES, OT Four-footcd Animals. ^ Thxc Englijh Horfes are of all kinds, they having been brought at firft from different countries ; but for racers no country can equal them, they having been bred from what are called Barbs. The Danijh Horfes are low, fhort, and fqiiare ; but they have a fine head, and Hiort hair. The Horfes of the Louo Comitries are very fit for the coach, and they are bell known by the names of Flanders Mares. The Polijh Horfes are like the Danifry, only they have not fo fine a forehand. There colour is generally a bright bay, and that of the outward peel of an onion, and they are fiery and vicious. The Horfes of S-ivitxerland ^vq pretty much like thofe of Germany, which is no wonder, fmce the Germans purchafe a great number of them. The Horfes of Piedmo?it are fiery, of a middle fize, and of all forts of colours. Their legs are good and hand- fome ; their eyes fine ; their ears fmall, and their mouths good; but they do not carry their heads well. The Horfes of Naples and Italy are generally ill made, and lean, and yet they are good and ufeful^ for they are light and proper for racing, though not for a long courfe ; they never do well in a colder climate. The Spanijh Horfes are very well made, and handfome, as well as very adlive and nimble ; they have good eyes, handfome legs and heads, and are eafily managed ; they are alfo good for racing, if they are well kept. Hov/ever they are not fo good in. northern climates as in their own country. The Turki/h Horfes are of different fhapes, but they are generally fwift, though their mouths are bad. Moft of them are white, though there are other colours, and they are large, handy, flrong, and fit for the road. The Horfes of Barhary commonly called Barbs» have llrong hoofs, and are more proper for racing then any others whatever. Some have faid they never grow old, becaufe they preferve their vigour to the lull. They are excellent ftallions, and fome of them are ufed as fuch in Engla-nd i however the Arabia7t Horfes are not quite fo good as the Barbary ; though fome think they are both of the fame land, only thofe lo The Natural HISTORY of thofe that are ufed to the deferts of Arabia are always in a6lion. The African geographer Leo^ affirms, that there are wild Horfes in the deferts both of Arabia and Africa ; and that when they happen to catch one, he always ferves for a feaft. The Horfes of the Gold Coaji of Guinea are very few in number, and in other parts of that coaft there are none at all ; for many of the Negroes when they have been firft brought over to our American plantations, have exprefled great ad- miration at the fight of a horfe, and have been afraid to come near one. However thofe that arc there, are of the fame fize as ours, and yet they are good for little, for they are ready to fall every Hep they take. The Horfes of the Cape of Good Hope wc^q originally brought from Perfa^ and they are generally fmal), and of a chefnut colour ; for thofe that are natives oi that country, are all wild, and could never yet be tamed. The Horfes of China are good, and more particularly thofe in the province of Tun Nan, for they are very vigorous, though a little low. The Horfes of the Eluth Tartars are good and full of fire, and their fize is much the fame as the Polijh Horfes. They are afraid of nothing, not even of Lions and Tigers ; but perhaps this may be owing to ufe. In the coun- try of the Mogul they are very numerous, and of all colours. They are generally of the middle fize, tho* there are fome as large and as handfome, as thofe in Europe. The wild Horfes of Tartary differ little from the tame ; but they are fo fwift, that they avoid the arrows of the moft fkilful hunters. As for the Horfes of America, they were all originally brought from Europe ; for there was not one in all that vafl country before they were carried over. A great part of our plantations in the northern parts is fo low and findy, that they never llioe their horfes ; hov/evcr thofe of Ne^u-England are in great cflecm for their fwiftnefs. After all, there is fo much difference among the Holies of the fame country, that no general charadlcr will fervc for all. With regard to the anatomy of a Horfe, I fliall not mention the mufcles, becaufe that would lead me too far out of the way; but it will be neceflary to take no- tice QuADRUPEDEs, D}' Four-footcd Animals, h ticeof the internal parts, becaufe therein confill the prin- cipal difference from other quadrupedes. The peri- tenaeum as a kind of a bag confifting of a thin mem- brane of a pretty clofe texture, and yet capable of a confiderable cxtenfion and of returning to its former ftate. It contains the greateft part of the vifcera of the lower belly, namely the guts, the llomach, the liver, and the fpleen. The internal furface is fmooth and fleek, and conftantly moift, and when this is opened the vifcera of the lower belly will appear. The liver, the biliary du£l, and part of the gut called the colon, are on the right fide, and the fpleen, part of the colon, the caul, the bottom llomach, and the pancreas are on the left. The caul lies over the inteftines, and is a very fine membrane larded with fat, which reaches from the bottom of the llomach to the region of the navel, and refembles an apron tucked up. The Oefophagus, or gullet, is part of the inteftinal canal which reaches from the mouth to the anus ; this part of it extends from the mouth to the diaphragm, be- hind which the ftomach lies. This is in fhape like the bellows of a bagpipe, and confifls of four coats, as well as the gullet. The inteftines, or guts, are fix ia number, and have the fame names as in other animals. The* fmall guts, from the pylorus to the blind gut, are generally about iifty-fix feet in length, and the ciixum- ference of the duodonum is about fix inches where thickeft. The coecum, or blind gut, proceeds ob- liquely forward in the back part of the lower belly from the right iliac region to the middle of the belly, and a little to the left fide. Before the colon joins to the coe- cum there are two thick oblcng bag?, that are feparated by a fort of a neck, and are nearly of the fame length ; After which there is a part not quite fo tliick, but near as long, and terminates in a third bag whofe length is al- moli the fame as the two firft. The colon begins in the right fide where it joins to the coecum, and forms an Arch that furrounds the coecum before, and on the fides, the arch takes up the right and left fides of the lower part of the abdomen by its tv/o fiift bags, and the neck between them, lies behind the diaphragm under the flo- jnach on the left fide. The colon forms feme finuofi- tics 12 The Natural HISTORY of ties in the hypogaftric regions at the extremity of the aiched gut fpoken of; and makes a fecond which reaches over the firil, to which it adJieres by a cellular web, and it is terminated in the right fide by the third bag, whofe extremity extends backwards as far as the kidney on the right fide, and to the left as far as the other kid- ney. From the place where this bag proceeds, the co- lon forms circum\ olutions throughout the whole ex- tent of the left fide over the jejunum, and the greateil part of the ilium, then it joins to the re6lum by a bend- ing that proceeds from the famie fide. When the cae- cum lies on the right fide, the two firft arches of the co- lon are always entirely on the left. The colon pro- ceeds from the right fide, in tlie umbilical region and bends back to the left behind the diaphragm; after- wards it runs along the whole length of the leit fide, and thus the two iirfi bags of the colon are formed, which occupy the middle on the left fide of the abdomen, then it bends upwards over itfelf, and returns forwards to- wards the diaphragm where it turns to the right; and the thii-d bag reaches all along the right fide. Some make three diftinft colons of thefe bags. The ilium is feven inches in circumference, and the coecum is two feet and a half in length, and is two feet in circumference where thickert, and that is about eight inches diftant from its infertion with the ilium. The circumference of the ccecum is afoot and ten inches nerj- this infertion ; and a foot, and three or four in- ches below, from its extremity which is conical, and ter- minates in a point. The firllpart of the colon forms a fort of a bag that is crooked like acrofs, and termi- nates in a crooked point ; for which reafon this cavity may be taken for a fecond coecum, though it is not pro- portionable to the iirfl, yet it is a foot and eight inches in circumference ; the lall portion of the colon and redlum are eight feet in length; but that of the v/hole colon and redum, taken together are twenty-eight feet, •which being added to fifty-fix, the length of the fmall guts, make the entire length of the inteilines fcvcnty- fcven feet, without the coecum. The ftomach which is not unlike that of a man, lies more on the left fide than on the right, and the left fide QuADRUPEDEs, or Four-footcd Animals. 13 fide is raifed, and a little bent inwards, and is three feet and an inch in circumference where the convexity- is greatell. The pylorus is five inches in circum- ference, and that of the duodenum where thickeft, a foot ; as aifo the gullet is four inches near the ftomach. The liver extends almoil as much to the left fide as the right, and is divided into four lobes ; one of which lies agairift the middle of the diaphragm. There are three pretty deep furrows in the lower part of this lobe ; and the lufpenfory ligament runs in the firll furrow to the left ; there is but one lobe on the lower part of the left fide ; and the right part of the liver is compofed of two lobes, one of which is bigger than the reft, and the other very fmall, and feated behind the large one. The liver is a foot and a half in its greatell extent, and that of the right lobe is ten inches and a half from the top to the bottom ; the left lobe is nine inches and a half long, and that in the middle eight inches and a half. It generally weighs near five pounds ; and there is no gall bladder ; but the hepatic duft is very large ; the colour is blackilh both within and without. The fhape of the fpleen is that of a longifh triangle, and it is feated obliquely, the bafe being upv/ards and backwards ; and the point lowermoft and forward ; and the left fide lies againft the ftomach. It is nine inches and a quarter in length, and four inches and a half broad at the bafe ; the greateft thicknefs wants fomewhat of an inch, and the weight is upwards of twelve ounces ; it is grey without, and of a blackifh red v/ithin. The pancreas is feated between the left kidney, the ftomach, the duodenum, the liver, and the firft portion of the colon over the third bag of this gut. The figure is irregular, it having three branches, the ihorteft of which terminates at the duo- denum, another at the right kidney, and the third reaches to the left, Thefe branches where they unite, form a flat mafs, that may be called the body of the pancreas, whofe greateft thicknefs is but half an inch. The kidneys are much of the fhape of treefoil or clover grafs, and the emulgent veftels reprefent the pe- 14 The Natural HISTORY of pedicle ; however, they are fometimes roundifh. They are not always of the fame fize, for the right is ge- nerally bigger tlian the left, and is about five inches long, and as much broad \ the left kidney is narrower on the fore part. The nervous center of the dia- phragm is very large, for it is fifteen inches broad in the middle, and nine from the vena cava to the part next the fternum ; likewife it reaches backwards as far as the laft baftard rib. It is very thin, for the flefhy part is but the twelfth part of an inch in thicknefs near the nervous center \ but it is more thkk near the ribs ; where it is feven inches broad, and four above the ilernum. The right fide of the lungs hath only a fmgle lobe, wliofe part is furrowed on the lower edge ; tjie left part only confills likewife of one lobe, but the fore part is furrowed in two places towards the lower edge. There is alfo a third lobe, which is very fmall, and feated near the bafe of the heart, and is extended from the right to the left ; this is partly conncdled to the right lobe. The heart is feated in the middle of the breaft, the bafe being upwards, and tlie point down- wards, and a little backwards. It is large in propor- tion to the bulk of the animal, and is iharp pointed ; it is fifteen inches in circumference at the bafe, and it is iix inches and a half from the point to the rife of the pulmonary artery. The great arter\' is neai" an inch and a half in diameter, where it proceeds from the heart, and is divided into two branches. The tongue is a foot in length, roundifh at the end, pretty thin, and two inches broad ; but much narrower between the firft of the teeth called the grinders ; the palate is croiTed with about feventeen crooked fur- rows ; and the epiglottis is pointed and terminates in a fmall globe, infomuch, that it rcfembles the rump of a fowl. The brain Is four inches and three quarters in length, three inches and a half broad, and two thick. The length of the cerebellum is two inches and three quarters, a^d the greatell breadth a little abo^ e two inches i the former weighs fourteen ounce?, and the latter two. The QuADRUPEDES, OT Four-footcd An'imals. 15. The uiinaj-y bladder is fmall in proportion to tlie fize of the animal, and of a roundilh Ihape, and is connedted in Horfes to the reClum, but in Mares to the vagina, and in both to the os pubis. The parts of a Horfe that are made ufe of in medicine are, the tefticles, the warts, the hoof, andthedung^ to which may be added, the Mares milk, though it is feldom ufed in thefe parts of the world. The tellicles are faid to be an efficacious remedy to promote the lochia, and to cure the cholic. They are to be cut in flices, dried in the oven, and then powdered ; the dofe is from two fcruples to a drachm, either alone, or mixed with fafFron and borax. It is alfo faid to be good to bring away the birth and the after-birth j but in the cholic it muft be mixed with an equal part of annifeed. Zivelfer looked upon it as a fecret againft this difeafc, and gave it with fafFron in flower de luce water. The warts on horfes legs, contain a great deal of oil, and volatile fait, and are recommended againfl the cpilepfy and hyfteric difordcrs. Some affirm, they are good againft the gravel and fuppreffion of urine. The dofe is from a fcruple to a drachm. The hoof has the fame virtues as the warts in hyfleric diforders, and Ibme give an extra<5l of them inwardly in the fame dofe. In the German Ephemcvides v/e have an inftance of a man that was afflicted with an immoderate flux of the piles, who after )ie had tried feveral remedies in vain, was advifed to fit over the vapour of the -fhavings of a Horfe's hoof, which did him more good than any thing he had taken before. The dung of a horfe is looked upon as fudorific and refolvent, and has been advifed by fome againft a pleurify, and in- flammation of the lungs, and afthma, and a bilious cholic. It is to be infufed in white v/ine, which helps to deftroy the difagreeable tafte. The method is, to take two or three balls and infufe tliem for fome hours over hot cinders, in a quartern of white v/in? ; but the veflel muft be clofe ftopped up, and when it has been on long enough, the wine muft be fqueezed out very ftrongly, and given hot to the patient in bed. Outwardly the dung is faid to be good againft the Vol, I. D quinft-,-, i6 The Natural HISTORY of quinfey, applied as a cataplafm ; but for a pleurlfy, it muft be mixed with hydromel and the urine of a found perfon. Mares milk is commended by many in coughs, afthmas, and confumptions of every kind. It has much the fame virtues as Affes milk, but as it is not fo common, it is very feldom made ufe of. How- ever, among the Tartars and other people in AJia, it is a great part of their food, and they likewife diftil it to make a fpirituous liquor therewith. Some pre* tend that the ftones that are found in the gall bladder, inteftines, and urinary bladder of a horfe, have the fame virtues as bezoar ; which may well be, for it is now generally believed they are no better than common abforbent powders. Some likewife pretend that the urine of a horfe is an excellent remedy againft the tooth-ach when held in the mouth j and they have given inftances wherein it has fucceeded when other things have failed ; however, fome have been known to make ufe of it without fuccefs. The ASS is an animal whofe inward parts and fiteleton, have an cxa^fl refemblance to a horfe, and yet they may be readily diftinguiilied from each other with the glance of an eye, for the head is larger in proportion to the body ; the ears much longer, and the forehead and temples furnifhed with longer hair ; the eyes are not fo prominent, the lower eye-lid more flat, and the upper lip more pointed and hanging. Befidcs, the withers are not fo high, the back- bone ge- nerally (lands more out, and the buttocks arc higher than the withers ; add too this, that the tail is with- out hair, from the root to about three quarters of its length, though it is furniflied with hair at the end, and likewife the mane is more Ihort. However, the fore legs are like thofe of a Horfe, though in the hind legs there is fome difference, for they are generally more crooked. The large head, the forehead and tempks are loaded with hair, the eyes funk into the head, and at a great diilance from each other, with the muzzle prominent .towards the end, give an air of llupidity to an Afs, that never appears in an horfe ; nor is the ihape when take* QuADRUFEDEs, or Four-footcd Animals. 17 taken altogether by far fo beautiful, as that of this noble animal ; likewife his paces are quite different, and he is much more flow and iluggilh. Notwith- llanding all this, AfTes would be of great value, if Horfes were not fo common, and if he was taken as much care of, he would in all probability turn out to a much greater advantage than he does atprefent. But we muft not forget that an Afs is not without fome good qualities, for he feems to know his mailer, and can dilHnguifh him from all other men, though he has been never fo ill treated ; he alfo knows the roads he has been accuftomed to, and can find them out without a guide ; he has good eyes, a fine fmell, and an excellent ear. However, when he is over- loaden he will hang down his head and ears, and when he is beaten more than ordinary, he will open his mouth and draw back his lips in a very difagreeable manner ; if you cover his eyes he will not iHr a flep, and if he is laid down in fuch a manner that one eye i:> covered v/ith the grafs, and you hide the other with a ftone or a piece of wood, he will continue in the fame fituation without the leaft motion, and will not fo much as attempt to rife and free liimfelf from thefe impediments. He walks, trots, and gallops like a Horfe, but his pace in all other refpedls is much more flow ; likewife, though he may fet out very freely at firft, yet he is foon tired, and then no beating wil! make him mend his pace. The Horfe neighs, but the Afs brays in a very difagreeable manner, infomuch, that a mufical ear can hardly bear it ; but the fhe Afe has a more fhrill and piercing cry ; likewife, an Afs that is gelded^ makes a very weak noife in comparifon with one that is not, infomuch, that he cannot be heard at any great dillance. Of all animals that are covered with hair, the Afs is leail fubjeft to vermin ; for he has no Lice, which. perhaps may proceed from the hardnefs and drynefs of his ikin, which are much greater than in the ge- nerality of moil quadrupedes ; for the fame reafon, he is lefs fenfible^of the ftrokes of a whip, and the fting- ing of Flies than a Horfe. The teeth fall out, and grow at tlie fame age, and in the fame planner a? ih D z ;^ i8 7he Natural HISTORY of a. Horfe, and he has the fame marks in his mouth. Afles generally breed in May and yunct and in the tenth month the milk appears in the dugs of the fe- male ; but Ihe does not bring forth till the twelfth month ; feven da}'s after which, Ihe is ready for the male again- She always brings forth one at a time, at leaft, there are few inftances to the contrary, for it has not been known in many ages, that ever fhe pro- duced two. The Afs like the Horfe, is three or four years in growing, and will live till twenty-five or thirty. They fleep much lefs than a horfe, and they never lie down for that purpofe, unlefs, they are very much tired. In general, they have much better health than a Horfe, and are fubjedl to fewer difeafes. Travellers inform us, that there are two forts of Afles m Perjia^ one of v/hich is ufed for burdens, they being flow and heavy, and the other is kept like Horfes for the faddle, for they have fmooth hair, carry their head well, and are much quicker in their motion ; but when they ride them, they fit nearer their buttocks than when on a Horfe, They are drefled like Horfes, and are taught to amble like them ; but they generally cleave their noilrils to give them more room for breath-, ing. Dr. RuJJell likewife, tells us, they have two forts m Syria^ one of which is like ours, and the other very large, with remarkable long ears j but they arc both put to the fame ufe, which is to carry burdens. The ONAGER or wild ASS has been by foraeAu- thors been confounded with the Zebra, but very im- properly, for this lad is a diftind fpceics ; for the Ona- ger is not ftreaked like this, nor is his fhape fo beau- tiful. Likewife, fome have been of opinion, that the wild Afs is not a diiUnft animal from the common Afs; but all judicious travellers that ha\e taken no- tice of them, affirm the contrary. They are faid to be very fwitt of courfc, and when they fee a man, they will make a bound, and immediately fly away j infomuch, that there is no taking of them, but by traps and gins. They have much the fame fliape as common Afle.', but they are of a brighter colour, and tncre runs a white liil from the head to the tail. Of QuAORUPEDEs, or Four-footed Animals. 19 the hide of thefe afTes, and particularly of that part next the rump, they make that excelen^ leather, which we call ihagreen, and which is put to fo many curious ufes. In Jmerica they had no AfTes at all, nor yet Horfes ; but they have been carried long ago, at firll by the Spaniardsy and afterwards by other nations, where they have multiplied greatly ; infomuch, that in fome places there are whole droves of them that run wild, and are very hard to be caught. Alles in general carry the heavieft burdens in proportion to their bulk, and as their keeping cofls little or nothing, it is a great wonder they are not put to more ufes than they generally are among us. The flefhof the common Afs is never eaten in thefe parts of the world ; though fome pretend their colts are tender, and not difagreeable. The parts that hvave been ufed in medicine, are the hoof, the urine, the dung and the milk. The hoof contains a great deal of volatile fait, and fome pretend it is good in all diforders of the brain, v/hen reduced to powder, or calcined to a whitenefs ; and the dofe is from a fcruple to a drachm every day for a month, in fome cephalic water. I'he urine of an Afs according to fome, ia an efficacious remedy in diforders of the kid- neys, and applied outwardly, it is faid to cure the itch ; Hkewife, others affirm, it will take away the fici and callous excreffences. Alles dung is recommended to ftop bleedings, when gathered in May^ and reduced to a powder. The dofe is a drachm in fubllance, or two drachms in infufion with fome aftringent water ; but all thefe remedies are of little or no ufe with us, becaufe we have much better for the fame purpofcs. AfTes milk is well known to be of great ufe; becaufe it will yeild neither fo much cheefe or butter as other milk ; befides, it is clearer, lighter, and more eafy of digeftion ; for thefe reafons, it is greatly employed in curing difeafes of the lungs, and may be of fer- vice in all internal ulcers. Some affirm, it helps the gout and the rheumatifm, by abating the acrimony of the fluids. D 3 The 20 The Natural HISTORY of The MULE is an animal ingcndercd between a Horfe and a fhe Mi^ or between an Afs and a Mare, ;md it confequently partakes of both their natures. Some authors pretend that there arc Mules in the Mouritains of ^Wtr, produced between Bulls and Mares ; but this mull be a fable. The common Mule }* very healthy, and v/iil live above thirty year?, and they are ver)' tit to carry great burdens, for they fel- dom or never ftumblc. In Spain the coaches are all drawn \gendered between an Afs and a Mare, and that they aie better, and more beautiful than thofe that proceed from a Horfe and flie Afs ; but this is doubtful. The medicinal ufe of the parts of a Mule, are much the fame as in a Horfe. The ZEBRA has been miftaken by many Authors for the wild Afs, though it is a quite different ani- mal. They are very common in the fouthern parts of Africa, even as far as the Cape of Qcod Hope ; but there are none in the northern. They are the moft beautiful quadrupedes yet known, and are of the fize of a middling Horfe. The legs are (lender and well proportioned, and the bair is foft and fmcoth. There is a black lift runs along the back from the mane to the tail, from which proceed a great number of flreaks of fevernl colours, that form fo many cir- cles and meet under tlie belly ; fome of thefe arc wliite, others yellov.-, and others of a clicfnut colour. 7 he head and ears arc adorned wit'a fmall ftreaks of the fame colours ; and thofe that are on the mane and tail are generally \\hite, chcfnut, and brown. Tlicy herd together in great droves, and they are A cry liard to be tamed; however, that fome have i:dually been fo, appears from the female that was iji the pofllifion of the late Prince of irulci^ at Ktnv ; of "^aae qo. ^m 2.O. QuADRUPEDE-s sf Four-footed Animals. 21 «3f w hich Mr. EdxvarJs gives the following, defcrip- tion. This curious animal was brought alive together with the male from the Cape of Good Hope, and her general colour exclufive of the ftripes, which are all black, is of a bright bay on the head, neck, upper part of the body, and thighs ; but the belly, legs, £.nd the end of the tail are white. On the joints of the legs, it had fuch corns as we fee in Horfes, and the hoofs are blackilli. The head is ftriped a little different from that of the male, and the mane is black and wiiite ; the ears are of a bay colour, and there is a little white on the forehead, with feveral broad firipes round the neck, which become narrow on irs under fide. It has a black lift runs along the ridge of the back and part of the tail, and another along the middle of the belly ; the ftripes on the body pro- ceed from the lift on the back, and fome of them end iii forks on the fides of the belly, others in fmgle points, and thefe have fome longifh fpots between them. The upper part of the body is fpotted in a more irregular confufed manner, and the two fides are marked very uniformly. The noife it made was much different from that of an Afs, refembling more the confufed barking of a maftifF dog. It feems to be of a favage and fierce nature ; for no one would venture to approach it, but a gardener in the Prince'* fervice, who was ufed to feed it, and could mount on its back. He faw it eat a large paper of tobacco, paper and all ; and he was told it would eat flelh, or any kind of food they would give it. He fuppofed that pro» ceeded from necefTity or habit in its long fea voy- age ; for it undoubtedly feeds naturally much a* Hoifes and AiTes do, he means on vegetables. He ne- ver faw a fkin brought over agreeing with this, which makes it a much greater curiofity than the male. The male ZEBRA, continues Mr. Edxvards, is about the fize of a Mule or a middle fized faddle Horfe, and its general 'iliape is like that of a well made Horfe. The head is fhaped like a Horfe, except that the ears are a little longer, but not quite fo long as thofe of an Afs, The mane is Ihort, not hanging D 4. dowa 22 The xNaturai. history of down like a Horfe*s, but ered'l ; and the muzzle is of a duiky colour. The head is ftriped, with fine ftripcs of black and wliite, which in a manner center in the forehead. The ears are alfo variegated with a white iind dufky brown ; and the neck has broad ftripes of the fame dark brown running round it, which takes in the mane, leaving narrow white ftripes between th'.m. The body is ftriped alfo acrofs the back with bi-cad barF, leaving narrower fpaces of white between them, raid ending in points on the fides of the belly, which is while, except a black line peftinated on each lic'.e, reaching from between the fore legs along the middle of the belly two thirds of its length. There is a line cf feparation between the trunk of the body and the hinder quarters on each fide, behind which on the rump is a plat of narrow ftripes joined together, by a ftripe down the middle of the rump to the end of the tail, which forms the figure of a fi(h bone. 7'he tuft at the end of the tail is dark brown ; and on the outfides of each thigh are drawn obliquely three bars of brown, ending roundiih at the both ends. The tail is rather like an Afs's than a Horfe, having Ihort hair on it, except that at the end it has a tuft of long hair; its under fide is white. The legs are all encompafied with rings of white and brown, alternately in an irregular and broken man- ner. It is hocfed liked a Horfe, and the feet are brown a little way abo\-e the lioofs. All the marks arc of a dark blackilli brown, and all the fpaces be- tween them are white. This defcription v/as taken from a fluffed fkin prefer ved in the Royal College of Phyficians ; and from the accounts that other Authors have given of this Animal, particularly Kclben, it appears that the marks and colours are not the fame in all ; efpecially i'lixQcKclben had an opportunity of feeing great num- bers of them. It has generally been believed, that there is another animal with an undivided hoof, with a horn in his forehead, and which is called a UNICORN. The body hi:s been faid to be like that of a Horfe or Afs, and many Authors preteud to defcribe him, as if they wexe QuADRUPEDEs, cr Four-footcd Animals. 25 were Aire of his exiftence. But after the moll dili- gent enquiry made by the moft judicious travellers in all parts of the world, there is no fuch creature to be found. We know of no quadrupede that has a nngle horn, but the Rhinoceros ; and that is not in the middle of the forehead, but on the nofe ; however, this has in all likelihood given rife to the fable of the Unicorn ; and in fome Tenfe, he may be properly fo called, as that word figniiies no more than a fingle horn. There are indeed many horns kept in the cabinets of the curious, that have been faid to be Unicorn horns; but they do not belong to a qua- drupede, but to a fifh that is now known by the name of the Sea-Unicorn ; of which more will be faid hereafter. CHAP. IL Of Ruminating j^nima/s, or thofe that cbeiv the Cud. ALL ruminating animals of every kind have four ilomachs ; the firft of which is called the paunch, which receives the food after it has been flightly chewed. After it has continued there a little time and rendered foft, it is returned back again into the mouth, and chewed over again. The fecond is called the honey- comb, becaufe the infide of it is like the cells into which the Bees convey their honey. The third is called the manyfold, on account of the many pellicles of (kins contained therein. It is never ufed by the cooks in making tripe, becaufe it is fo difficult to be cleanfed. Thefe (kins are befet with tubercles on both fides, but in the fore part they are longer and larger then in the hind part. The food is contained betv/een thefe, and they have a kind of circular motion, by which it was formerly thought to be ground fmall ; but \t is now found to be a miftake, for digeftion in thefe animals is now well known to be performed by a menltruum or li- quor. The fourth has no diftinct EngUJh name, for D 5 it 24 The Natural HISTORY of it goes under the general one of the ftomach or paunch. it is fmooth on the inilde, and divided into large cells by pellicles or Txiins ; by which the aliment re- ceives farther concoftion. In this ftomach is contained, v/hat in calves, they call rennet, fo well known for curdling milk, when the making of cheefe is in- tended. All ruminating animals, as well horned, as other- wife, are endowed v/ith thefe four ftomachs ; and they have no fore teeth in their upper jaw. Some have foolifhly afTerted, that the horned animals of this kind are without them becaufe the matter which ferves to produce fore teeth in other creatures, went to nourifh the horns ; whereas they did not confider that the want of thefe teeth was rather ufeful then orherwfe in procuring their food. It is very certain that Oxen, and Sheep, can crop the grafs in good paftures, more eafily and fpeedy then Horfes, which are furniflied with upper teeth. Ruminating animals, efpecially thofe that have horns, have all fuet ; whereas all others have only fat, which is foftcr, and melts more eafily before the fire. The horns of thefe creatures are generally hol- low, except in the Deer kind. Likewife the horn of the Rhinoceros is quite folid, and yet it is differ- ent from thftt of a Deer, becaufe the lall has branches. Likewife no horned animal, except the Deer, flicd their horrs. Bifulced or cloven footed animals have each toe covered with a fort of a hoof, v/hofc upper part is of a hard horny fubilance ; and the lower, which is the fole of the foot is callous, and more foft in the Deer, Goat, Sheep, and Hog kind ; which however is not continuous to the horny part ; for when it is dipped in boiling water, or held before tlie fire, both the bottom and top will come off together, nor can they be divided from each other, except by cutting or fomc other force. Likewife, thefe fort of animals have two frnall hoofs or nails behind, which are of no other ufe then to keep the feet from fliding. However, there is a great difrerence between the cloven-footed anl- xnals that ruminate, and thofe that do not. As for initance. QiTADRUPEDFs, or Four-fbotcd Animals, z^ inftance. Goats though they ruminate, have no hoofs or nails behind for keeping the feet fteady, nor yet any bone ; but a fort of foft round tubercles. There are indeed very little bones, but they are of no ufe for this purpofe. The Hog kind have not only a fort of hoofs be* hind, but they have alfo toes, one of which has three joints like a man*s little finger, and the other two like the thumb. They have likewife bones of the me- tatarfus, but fo flender and weak, that they are of no more ufe in walking, then the hind hoofs of rumi- . nating animals. CHAP. Ill, Of the Bull, Ox, and Cow. WE have no EngUJh name for all thefe animals, except Beeve, which is now almoft out of ufe, though very proper to be retained, for which reafon we fhall make ufe of it, becaufe it anfwers to the Latin word Bos, which comprehends an Ox, Bull, and Cow ; and may be extended to all of this kind. The Ox is well known to be a caftrated Bull, with cloven feet, and the moft general colour is fallow, though there are many others ; for fome are entirely black, others white ; as alfo reddilh bay, brown, and varie- gated with diiferent colours. In general the hair of an Ox, is fofter than that of a Korfe j and the proportion of one that was mea- fured is as follows. He was from the end of the muzzle meafured in a right line to the anus, about feven feet and a half in length, and four feet two inches high before, and four feet four inches high behind. The head was a foot and nine inches and a half long, from the end of the lips to the hinder part of the horns. The dewlap is the fkin which hangs under the lower jaw, runs along the throat, and de- fcends as far as the forelegs. The 26 The Natural HISTORY of The Beevc, like all other ruminating animals, has no fore teeth in the upper jaw ; but in their Head, tliere is a thick hard membrane formed of the inward Ikin of the mouth, which ferves for the fame pur- pofes. The fore part of the lower jaw, is furniihed v.ith eight incifive or cutting teeth of different lengths, and fo difpofed, that thofc in the middle are longer and broader than the reft, which grow lefs gradually. There are no dog teeth at all between the inciders and grinders ; infomuch, that there is a large fpace without any teeth at all. In each jaw there are twelve grinders, fix on each fide ; and there are feveral pointed protuberances on the top, between which, there are little cavities, in fuch a manner that when the upper and lower meet the points of thofe above, fall into the cavities of thofe below and the contrary ; however, they allow the under jaw a motion lide- ways, which is not above half fo broad as the upper, and renders it more proper for motion, as well as to grind the food ; for this reafon, the teeth in the up- per jaw are much broader, which confequently fup- ply their want of motion. The age of a Beeve is known by the teeth and horns ; for the firft fore teeth fill out at the age of fiX months, and are replaced by others that are not lo white, but they are all broader. At the end of hxtcen months, the next milk teeth likewife fall out, and others grow in their room ; at the end of three years, all the inciders are renewed, and then they are long, pretty white, and equal. In proportion as the animal advances in years they become unequal and bUck, as well in the Ox, as the Bull and Cow ; for caftration makes no change either in the teeih or horns, only that thefe laft become much longer in an Ox after it ; but at the age of three years the horns fall off, and new ones arife in their places, that continue as long as they live. At four years of age, tlie Ox has fmall pointed, neat, fmooth horns, that are much thickcft near the head, v/hich the next year rife to a greater diftance, and are thruft forwards by a horny cylinder, that is alfo terminated by another I'welling part, and fo on j for as long as this animal lives QuADRUPEDES, or Four-footcd Animals. 27 lives, the horns continue to grow, and thefe fwel- lings become fo many annular knots, which may be eafily perceived in the horn, and confequently the age certainly known ; but then the point or upper part of the horn to the firft knot, mufl be reckoned for three years, and one year for each of the reft. They are all hollow, and in the middle there is a bone, which is alfo hollow, and whofe cavity reaches a great way in the frontal bone. The head of an Ox is not fo long in proportion as that of a Horfe, becaufe the jaws are not fo long ; the orbits of the eyes are placed on the frontal bone, and under its apophyfes. The articulation of the head with the firll vertebra, is a little above half the height of the upper furface, and there are feven vertebrae in the neck, of which the iirft is very like that of a Horfe ; but the five laft are not fo long by far, as the iirft and fecond ; the back bone confifts of thirteen vertebras, to which the thirteen ribs are joined, and of thefe there are five true, and five that are called the baftard ribs ; the longeft of which are the eighth, ninth, and tenth ; but it would be too tedious to give an account of all the bones, efpecially as they come cften under every ones infpedlion. When an Ox is opened, the epiploon appears, which covers all the inteftines, as far as the bladder. There are four ftomachs, as has been taken notice of in the former chapter, and therefore need not be repeated. The gut called the duodenum, extends backwards as far as the right flank, and the jejunum and ilium have circumvo- lutions backwards, and on the right fide of the paunch under the coecum, which reaches tranfverfely from the right to the left in the iliac and hypogailric regions. The colon occupies the right fide, and forms feveral circumvolutions, that are heaped up as it were to- gether. The fmall inteflines are an hundred and fif- teen feet in length, from the pylorus to the coecum ; and the length of the colon and redum taken toge- ther, are thirty-four feet ; fo that the length of the whole inteftinal tube, is an hundred and forty-nine feet without the coecum, which is two feet and a half long. The liver is placed on the right fide, and is divided 28 The Natural HISTORY tf divided into three lobes, two of which are large, and the other fmall ; the colour is blackifh, and the gall- bladder which often extends five inches beyond the edge of the liver, forms a bag feven inches in length. The fpleen is feated on the right fide of the paunch, and is a foot and eight inches in length ; it is grey- without and hlackiili within. The pancreas termi- nates by one of its branches in the duodenum ; and the kidneys are compofed of feveral tubercles, and divided as it were into fo many parts. The nervous center of the diaphragm, is a foot and feven inches broad in the middle, and it is a foot and a half the other way. The fieftiy part is five inches broad be- tween the point of the nervous center and the breafl bone. The right fide of the lungs is divided into four lobes, of which three are pretty equal, and the fourth is the fmallefl. The left fide is divided into two lobes, whofe fore part is almofl cloven into two by a deep furrow, like that of the fourth lobe on the right fide. The heart is feated in the middle of the breaft, with the bafe above, and the point below. The tongue is about a foot and three inches long ; but this is cf different fizes, as well as the parts of all other Beeves in proportion to their bulk. On the upper furface of the fore part, there are pointed threads that are very hard, and lie backwards, that feel like a rafp when the hand is pafTed along them contrary to their direftion. The brain is four inches ajid a half in length. An Ox is of the greateft efteem among all horned animals, and he is maintained at a very fmall expence ; for wherever he feeds he renders the ground rather better than worfe by his dung ; whereas a Horfe and moll: other animals will make the befl: ground become poor in a few years time. The Ox is not fo proper as Horfes, Affes, Mules, and Camels to carry burdens ; though they are made ufe of for riding in fomc eallern countries ; however, he is of great ufe in ploughing, and harrowing land, and is very fit to bear the yoke. In fome parts of Europe they do not yoke them together by the necks, but by the horns ; and not long ago in Ireland they obliged them to draw the QuADRUPEDEs, or Four-footcd Animals. 29 the plough with their uils. In fhort, the large fize, the flow motion, the Ihortnefs of their legs, and the patience of thefe animals in enduring labour, render them very proper to cultivate the fields. Though the colour of Oxen as was obferved above is greatly different ; yet thofe are in the higheft efteem that are reddifti, and thofe that are black are next. But whatever the colour may be, the hair fhould be always fhining, thick, and foft ; for when it is other- wife, it is a fign that the animal is not in health, or at leaft that he is weakly. The time of inuring them to labour, is at the age of two years and a half, or three years at fartheft ; for when he is older he be- comes untra«5lable, and fometimes will never be tho- roughly tamed. At ten years of age it will be pro- per to take him from his labour to feed him, and fell him to the butcher ; and with proper care he will be- come fat in four or five months time. An Ox fleeps but a little at a time, and he will wake at the leaft noife ; he lies generally on the left fide ; and the kidney on the left fide is always larger, and furrounded with more fat than the right. The Ox is very quick in feeding, and fills himfelf very foon, after which he lies down and ruminates, or chews the cud. The two firft ftomachs, are nothing but a con- tinuation of the fame bag, and are very capacious. After the grafs has been chewed over again, it is re- duced to a fort of paile, not unlike fpinage ; and it is under this form, that it is retained in the fold of the third ftomach ; but the digeftion is not entirely perfected till it comes into the fourth. The Ox fills the two firft ftomachs as faft as poflible, and then the membrane being ftretched re-afts upon the grafs that it contains, which has been chewed very little ; but it undergoes a fort of fermentation there- in ; if the aliment had been liquid, the fame power of contra<5lion would make it pafs into the third ftomach, which communicates with the former by a narrow conduit, and whofe orifice is feated near the upper part of the firft, and almoft as high as the gullet ; for which reafon, this conduit will not admit of dry aliment. It is therefore nece/fary, that the drieft parts ihould re- afcend 30 The Natural HISTORY of afcend through the guUet, whofe orifice is larger than that of the conduit, as in reality does. Then the ani- mal chews the grafs over again, and it is more inti- mately mixed with the faliva ; confequently rendered proper to pafs into the third llomach, becaufe it is more fmall and fluid ; after it has been macerated in this, it pafles into the fourth, where it is reduced into a perfect mucilage or pulp. This is farther confirmed by the calves which fuck ; for at that time they do not ruminate at all ; becaufe the milk being liquid, it readily paiTes through the firft rtomachs to tlie lall ; add to this, that tliey chew the cud mod in winter, when they feed upon dry grafs or fodder. There are the greateft plenty of Beeves in Europey efpecially in the northern parts ; for in general they can bear cold better than heat ; for this reafon, they are not fo plenty in the fouthern countries ; for there are but few to the fouth of Armenia in Afta^ nor hz~ yond Eg yptj 2L.nd Barhary in Africa. As for America there were none at all before they were carried thither by the Europeans. There is indeed a kind of Beeve, which fome call a Bifon, and fome a Buffalo to be defcribed hereafter ; but thefe could never be tamed. Thofe likewife that are found at the Cape of Good Hope, have been tranfported thither by the Spaniards^ and the Dutch. The largell Beeves are to be met with in Den- marky Podoliay the Vkrain, and among the Calmuck 'Tartars ; likewife thofe of Ireland, England, Holland^ and Hungary, are much larger than thofe of Per/lay Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain, but thofe of Barbury are the leaft of all. The Bull that is to be turned among Cows, (liould always be the moft beautiful that can be found. He ought to be large, well made and flefhy, with a black eye, a fierce look, and open front, a fliorthead, thick f>iort black horns, long hairy ears, a big muzzle, a fliort ftrait nofe, a fiefliy thick neck, large breaft and fhouiders, a ftrait back, thick flefhy legs, a long tail well covered with hair, a firm gait, and red hair. He ought to be of a middle age, that is between three ana nine years old ; he ought not to have above fif- teen cowi- i though this rule is never obferved near Juondon^ QuADRUPEDEs, or Four-footcd Anim ALS. 31 London. Beeves generally arrive near their full growth at the age of two years, and the term .of their lives is faid to be about fourteen or fifteen at moft. Cows commonly take the Bull from the middle or Jpril till the middle of July, they go with young nine months, bring forth at the beginning of the tenth ; that is, this would be the cafe if they were en- tirely left to themfelves ; but now by a particular ma- nagement we have veal in London at all times of the year^ Some fay that black cows and others that the red give the bell: milk, and that the white yield moft. However when a cow is chofen fhe ought to be ilelhy, young, and to have a brifk eye ; and then with proper care and good feeding there is no danger but ihe will give plenty of milk. In all cold mountainous countries cows arefmail ; for which reafon thofe which are brought from Wales and Scotland are much lefs than thofe in England. In Lapland they are exceedingly fmall, and almoft all white; befides many of them have no horns. Thofe that have made a trial affirm that Beeve? are very fond of wine, vinegar, and fait, and that they will devour greedily a fallad that is dreifed. In Spain and fome other countries they put a fort of a faltilh. ftone, got out of the mines of fal-gem, into the ftable with the calves ; and they will lick it all the time the dams are feeding. This either occafions a great ap* petite or thirft, for the moment the cow comes into the ftable they immediately lay hold of the dugs. This, is done to make them grow fat fooner, which they certainly will do than when they have no fait. Like- wife in fom.e parts of Europe they will give the cows grafs fteeped in vinegar, or in fait and water, and they believe it makes them grow fat the fooner. Ox beef contains a great deal of oil and earth ; and is in great efteem as well as in common ufe among moft people in the world ; it is very nouriftiing, and yields a lirong aliment ; and we feldom or never per- ceive any bad efFefts from it ; on the contrary, thofe that live chiefly upon beef are ftrong, vigorous, and healthy ; but it ought to be young, fat, tender, and well fed, for otherwife it is hard, tough, breeds grofs humours, and taufes obftrudtions. -It agrees at all times 32 The Natural HISTORY cf times with thofe that are young of a hot conflituticn, that have good appetites, and ufed to labour and ex- crcife. But as to thofe that are weak and live feden- tary lives, as well as infants and very old people, they ftiould ufe it with great moderation. With regard to its medicinal qualities, beef fuet is emollient and re- folvent, and it may be ufed in glyfters to an ounce, to abate fharp humours in the inteilines. It is exceeding good to heal chapped lips, and it is very common in fome places to fee the lower fort of people make ufe of tallow candles for the fame purpofe. The marrow is ^"•ood againft weaknefs of the nerves, and trembling C'f the limbs, as well as for the rickets and the fcurvy ; for which purpofes it is made into a liniment mixed \^ilh wine. The gall of an ox or cow is preferred be- fore that of any other animal, becaufe it is more acrid, vclatiie, and penetrating. Some have given a drachm of it in laxative glyfters to render them more fliarp when the body is bound. A plaifter compofed of this gall, aloes, myrrh, and oil of coloquintida, laid upon the navel, produces the fame cffedl, as well as kills worms ; it is very proper for thofe that cannot take medicines inwardly. For children, a little of this gall, mixed with aloes, and applied to the belly, has been often found beneficial on the fame account. A bit of cotton lleeped in this gall and introduced into the ear, will cure hardnefs of hearing if continued for fome time ; water diflilled from it is faid to be good againft fpots in the eye, and dimnefs of fight from the opacity of the cornea ; the beft way is to lay it on with a pencil, and then it v.ill work a cure in a fhort time. The tindlure of Ox's gall is an excellent cof- metic when rubbed all over the face ; but it muft not be wiped off, nor expofed in the open air for three or four days, for in that time it v/ill give a charming whitenefs to the fkin. This tinfture is made by dry- ing the gall in the fun, and infufing it in fpirits of wine. It is well known that the dyers make ufe of this gall to cleanfe their ftuffs ; for it is of a foapy nature, and will take fpots out of cloths. It is alfo fometimes ufed by painters to give a brighter tinge to their colouit' ; ai alfo to cleanfe old pictures. Some QuADRUPEDES, OY Four-footcd Animals,. 33 Some have applied the dung of an Ox or Cow in the form of a cataplafm, to appeafe the pain of inflamma- tions, and more efpecially that of the gout. In the German Ephemerides we are told that feveral obftinate intermitting fevers have been cured by taking an in- fufion of the frefh dung in ale. It muft be taken warm before the fit, and it muft be repeated two or three times when the firft dofe will not do ; it caufes a plentiful fweat. Bull beef cont^.ins a great deal of volatile fait and oil, but it is hard, tough and dry ; for which reafon it is feldom ufed for food. However it is pretended that when a Bull is killed after he has been baited, the fleih becomes more £t to eat , and this has been prac- tifed in fome parts of England, but then the beef is only purchafed by poor people. The blood of a Bull has been always looked upon as a poifon by the an- cients ; which opinion however is found to be falfe, for fome of the moderns have given a drachm of it mixed with wine vinegar againft all internal haemorr- hages ; though with what fuccefs it is hard to fay. The fuet, marrow, and fat, have the fame virtues as thofe of an ox or cow ; but fome have looked upon a drachm of the pizzle in powder, to be an excellent re- medy againft the bloody flux and pleurify. The flefli of a Gov/ is not fo good as that of an Ox ; though when fhe has been well fatted, efpecially when young, it is not much inferior, and this is commonly called heifer beef. The urine of a Cow has of late been recommended by fome as a medicine, it being purgative, bringing away ferous humours without gripes. It is good in the afthma, dropfy, rheumatifm, fciatica, and gout ; but then it muft be that made in the fpring, or towards the end of may when flowers abound in the paftures. Twoglafl"es are to be drank in a quarter of an hours time, and every morning falling ; it muft likewife be drank as hot as poflible, that is when it is juft made. Cows milk is of uni- xerfal ufe, and is always preferred for food before that of iiny other animal where it can be had. It is very balfamic, and good in many difeafes, efpecially when attended with a falling away of the flefli. Some pre- fcxibe 54 'The Natural HISTORY of Tcribe it againft the pains and fiuxes of the bleeding" piles, and in all difeafes of the fkin that proceed from the blood. It is excellent in the gout, and all other difeafes a-kin thereto, particularly the rheumatic gout. It is beft in the fpring and autumn, and when the cow is not above two or three years old. It fhould be taken while warm from the cow, nothing that is four or acid fhould be ufed while it is taking. It is apt to curdle upon the llomach, to prevent which fome mix it with fugar, and others with crabs eyes. It is not good in diforders of the head and brain, r.or in ob- ilrudions of the vifcera ; becaufe milk is thought ra- ther to increafe than to cure them. Externally it is anodyne, aad eafes pains ; and is recommended by fome in the gout, and in contradions of the limbs. Whey is an excellent remedy in many diforders ; as in heats of the vifcera, drynefs of the breaft, efFerver- fcences of the bjood, coughs, all forts of cholics, cof- tivenefs, burning fevers, and particularly thofe of the malignant fort, either alone, or with the juice of oranges and lemons. It may be given fafcly to wo- men with child to keep their bodies open ; and it h very convenient when the vifcera are obllrudled, be- caufe it has an opening quality. In moil cafes it fhould be given twice a day with a little fugar, or the fyrup of violets for a months time. However it will be bcH in particular diilempers to mix it with the juice of thofe herbs that are recommended againft them. Some of late have been very profufc in the praife of fugar of milk ; which is made by boiling four or five quarts of milk with an ounce of cream of tartar in very fine powder. As foon as the milk is curdled the clear part muft be taken, filtred, and clarified with the white of an egg ; then it muft be evaporated to a pel- licle, and the ve/fel muft ftnnd in a cool place for a day or two ; after which you will find chryftals at the bot- tom and on the fides of the vefiel, Thefe are called fugar on account of their fweetnefs, and they are good in all cafes where milk is ufeful. Some alBrm that it is excellent againft the gout, but that ought to be chofen >N'hich is brought from Sn.ijiJJcilaNd, and -QuADRUPEDEs, tfr Four-footcd Animals. 3^ IS generally mixed Vv'ith pedoral infufions and decoc- tions, in the proportion of one drachm to three to a pint of liquor. In the German Ephemerides it is not only recommended in the gout, but in £ts of the gravel, the bloody flux, the fcurvy, cancer, and all other diforders that proceed from the acrimony of the fluids. The dofe prefcribed therein is from one drachm to two, three or four times a day in tea. Almoft every one knows that butter is extra