wmsm rE illv^ivt "€ Bi p.u MM Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2009 with funding from Boston Public Library http://www.archive.org/details/newanatomicalnomOObarc NEW ANATOMICAL NOMENCLATURE* Printed by John Brown,? Anchor Close, Edinburgh, J NEW ANATOMICAL NOMENCLATURE, RELATING TO THE TERMS WHICH ARE EXPRESSIVE OF POSITION AND ASPECT IN THE ANIMAL SYSTEM. By JOHN BARCLAY, M.D. LECTURER ON ANATOMY, AND HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL PHYSICAL SCCIETYj EDINBURGH. QVTi Ti^yrif ovTt coftv) iq.iy.rov, it /u.y /u.y.$y Tig. AHMOKPAT. OIAOXO*. rNflM. XFT2. (EfchtSurgfj t PRINTED FOR ROSS AND BLACKWOOD, SOUTH BRIDGE STREE" AND T. N. LONGMAN AND O. REES, LONDON. l80 2, TO Da THOMAS THOMSON, V LECTURER ON CHEMISTRY, EDINBURGH. Dear Sir, I could not hefitate a moment about the Perfon to whom I {liquid dedicate the following EfTay. Our long and intimate friendfhip, with our frequent conventions up- on the advantages that might be derived from a New Anatomical Nomenclature, led me unavoidably to think of You. Whether the Public will approve or condemn the attempt I have made, or whether they will even deign to take notice of it, I pretend not to fay. But be that as it will, the favourable opinion of a Friend whom I highly refpect, of one fo generally vi Dedication. generally known as You are, and of one fo eminently diftinguifhed for learning, fcience, and accurate obfervation, will, I can aflure You, ever be a fource of inward fatisfadion to. My Dear Sir, Your's very lincerely, JOHN BARCLAY. Edinburgh, "I April 20. 1803. J CONTENTS. CONTENTS, Introduction Page i CHAP. I. On Language and its Kinds • • * * 47 CHAP. II. On the changes of Language ......... 62 CHAP. III. Technical Language fhould be diftincT: from the Language of the People ....;... 86 CHAP. IV, Technical Language of Anatomy ...... 94 CHAP. V. On Terms relating to Pofition and Afpect 112 CHAP. VI. New Terms relating to Pofition and Af- pecl 1 19 CHAP. V1U CONTENTS. CHAP. VII. The New Terms enumerated .<.».... i6l Sect. i. By a change of Termination may- be ufed Adverbially . 165 Sect. 2. By another Change may exprefs Connection . 16S Sect. 3. By another Change may be made to enter into Compoiition • . . 174 Sect. 4. Divifion of the Sanguiferous Sy- llem into two Parts, and new Names . 176 Explanation of the Plates .„.,.. 179 NEW INTRODUCTION. r-p 1 he chemical analyfis of the fprings, wheels, and pivots of a watch, never can explain its movements, nor its ufes; nor the chemical an- alyfis of the bones, mufcles, blood-veffels, and nerves, their functions in the animal. Many of the functions depend evidently on mechani- cal caufes, and many more originate in a caufe which feems to be neither chemical nor me- chanical. In every living organifed ftructure, there is plainly a power that preferves, regulates, and controls the whole ; directing at firft the different procerTes in forming one part of the organs, afterwards employing the affiftance of the organs which it has formed to produce more, till at laft it completes the whole of the fyftem in fuch a manner as to fuit its future conveniences and wants. In thefe operations wre fee it obferving determinate proportions, A mag- 2 INTRODUCTION. magnitudes, forms, numbers, &c. ; marking the times, feafons, and circumftances for every change in ftru&ure or function ; daily conti- nuing to fupply the parts in proper time and in due proportion with the vigour of life; and carefully repairing their waftes and their inju- ries, till the period fixed for their final diflblu- tion. This power, or rather this agent, phyfio- logiils have named the vital principle; though not a few are inclined to fuppofe it, to be the effecT:, rather than the caufe, of the organization. They adopt an hypothefis fimilar to theirs, who3 finding a chemift always in his laboratory, are led to imagine that it could not be he who formed the laboratory, but the laboratory, on the contrary, that formed him. At the fame time, we mould err egregioufly if we afcribed the plan of the fyftem to this vital principle. In conftru&ing the body, it acls, not like the chemift, with any defign or forefight of its own ; but, in all operations that are per- formed without either volition or confciouf- nefs, appears fubordinate to a much high- er Power — to that almighty and omnifcient Being, INTRODUCTION. 3 Being, who difpenfes his laws to the boundlefs univerfe, and whofe laws, except by Himfelf, can never be improved, altered, nor abrogated. As in every fpecies of living body, the indi- viduals are, bating the ufual differences of fex, all conftructed in the fame way ; and the vi- tal principle always confined in its operations to fpecific forms, ftructures, and organs, and fpecific modes of connection and arrange- ment-— it neceffarily follows, that there muft be as many vital principles, fpecifically di- ftinct, as there are fpecies of organifed ftruc- tures. The various phenomena in which they agree, and in which they differ, are to be learned in fludying their functions, manners, and habits, and in examining and compa- ring the ftructures which they produce : For, like to oxygen, hydrogen, and azot, which act fo very important. a part in the economy of Nature, they are known only from their ef- fects ; and however anxious thofe may be, who can trull only to the evidence of fenfe, to fee, handle, tafte, and fmell them, they have ne- ver yet been detected nor examined in a fepa- A 2 • rate 4 INTRODUCTION. rate ftate, and probably never will, unlefs the belief and conviction of mankind, in this re- fpecl, appear an object of greater importance to the Author of Nature than they feem to have been hitherto. With a knowledge of fuch different caufes operating within us, we, in all phyfiological in- vestigations, mould carefully diftinguifh between what is chemical, mechanical, and vital ; and endeavour to afcertain, by due experiment and obfervation, the part which each acts in the fyf- tem, and how they ufually oppofe, affift, and regulate one another for the general good. But to make thefe experiments and obfervations, we ftiould likewife know how to examine and accurately defcribe organifed ftructures. This information we are naturally led to ex peel from anatomy ; while, unfortunately, anatomy has not always in its power to give what we look for. A curfory glance muft demonftrate to any one, that thefe ftructures are complex and va- ried ; that much depends on pofition and di- rection, on relative fituation, connection, and afpedfc ; and that no clear or accurate defcrip- tion INTRODUCTION. 5 tion can poffibly be given, where a language is wanting to exprefs thefe circumftances. Such a language, it is much to be regretted, is not at prefent known in anatomy ; although the want of it has often been felt, often complain- ed of, and partial attempts frequently made to remedy the evil. The vague ambiguity of fuch terms asfupe- rior, inferior, anterior, pojlerior, &c. has been felt and acknowledged by every perfon the lead verfant in anatomical defcription. Vicq D'A- zyr, who faw the confufion with which they were attended in comparative anatomy, had refolved to reject them as definite characleriftic expreffions ; and perhaps had he ferioufly thought of their confequences, would have re- jected them as occasional adjuncts. But with all refpect for fo great a man, he faw more clearly to point out the error than to remove it. His terms occipital, fyncipital, and fron- tal, to denote three afpects of the head, are borrowed from bones, none of which are ever confined to a fingle afped \ and his ufe of A 3 com- 6 INTRODUCTION. compounds, in which prepoiitions, with a fenfe equivalent to our under, above, and before, enter as parts, was fcarcely more than exchanging an old error for a new. His divifion of the body into numerous regions different from thofe ex- preffed by fuperior, inferior, &c. and with the intention to get quit of thefe terms, has been equally unfuccefsful. The divifion on which they are founded is natural; and fhown, by experience, to be not only convenient and ufe- ful, but even necefTary. It was not therefore the divifion that was faulty, but the expref- fion ; and D'Azyr, notwithstanding his new arrangement, is often obliged to recur to the old, and make ufe of the language which he had condemned. Chauffier, in his Tabular View of the Ske- leton, exprefTes pofition by a reference to the parts in vicinity or contact. Thus the two extremities of the clavicle axejlernal and aero- mial; the two of the humerus, fcapular and ulnar ; the two of the ulna, humeral and car- pal; the rows of the carpus, radial and meta- carpal; and the two extremities of the meta- carpus, INTRODUCTION. 7 carpus, carpal and digital. When he comes, however, to the digital phalanxes, and wants the neceflary terms of diftinction, he is forced to invent for the firft, fecond, and third, or what I would call the proximal, medial, and diftal phalanxes, the terms phalange, phalangine, and phalangette. This method of expreffing pofi- tion by a reference to the parts in vicinity or contact, has long been known, though hither- to too fparingly employed. It is attended with peculiar advantages in minute defcription, and is a part of the general plan which is recom- mended in the following Effay. But though ufeful in its place, it muft be obvious that it does not fuperfede the general divilion into thofe regions denoted by the words fuperior, in- ferior, &c. We defcribe not a country by enu- merating all thofe that furround it ; we wifh to know how each part lies with refpecl to the eaft, weft, fouth, and north, and all their fub- ordinate divifions in the compafs ; and to fa-. tisfy the mind, muft alfo be informed of what is its general fituation on the globe. Although I be told that one extremity of the clavicle is A 4 Jlernal 8 INTRODUCTION. Jlernal and the other acromial, I may Hill whir to know what is the afpecl: of thefe two with regard to the trunk, and what are the afpecls of its other four fides. More general divifions here become neceffary ; and Chauffier therefore, as well as D'Azyr, who found the neceffity of fuch divifions, is likewiie obliged to have re- courfe to the old terms fuperior, inferior, he. ; or to ufe compounds of which prepofitions e- quivalent to before, under, above, conftitute a part. In the following EfTay I have retained the ufual divifions, and ventured only to change their nomenclature: the intelligent reader muft decide on the merits of the change propofed. The general views by which 1 was guided are explained in fome preliminary difcuflions on the nature of language and of nomenclatures, particularly the nomenclature of anatomy. And fhould what I have done be compared to a building, it may be faid that the general plan of the fabric is new, the feveral apartments more regular and uniform, more convenient, and ex- tenfively ufeful ; at the fame time that mofl of INTRODUCTION. 9 of the materials, and fome fubordinate parts of the work, were already prepared, and are only new-modelled and arranged, to fuit the defign and outline of the ftructure. The terms indeed which are here fuggeiled are chiefly confined to the expreflion of pofition and af- pect ; but are fo contrived as to form an inde- pendently diflincl nomenclature for general de- fcription in all the different branches of anato- my, and may be ufed while the other names continue as they are. Should they fortunate- ly meet with the approbation of the public, I (hall afterwards (how their application in de- tail ; and add, on a general and connected plan, the nomenclatures of the Bones, Muscles, Blood-vessels, Nerves, Ligaments, &c. In the names of the Bones few changes will be introduced : there is no good or rational objection to their ufual arrangement into bones of the head, trunk, and extremities-; and tho' fome of their names might have had originally different meanings, yet as they have long ceafed to convey them, and are now entirely appropria- ted 10 INTRODUCTION. ted to anatomy, it would anfwer no reafonable end to run back to the aeras of antiquity, and to conjure up ghofts and fpe&res from obli- vion to confound and embarrafs them in their prefent office. The depreflions and procefTes of the different bones may probably require fome kind of arrangement, as thofe of different forms and ufes are at prefent exprefled by the fame term, In the names of the Muscles it will eafily be forefeen that more changes will be found ne- cefTary. Some are diftinguifhed by fuch epi- thets as fuperior, inferior, anterior, pofterior ; fome by the epithets oblique and flraight ; fome by the epithet ferraius or ferrate 'd ; fome by e- pithets defcriptive of their form, which, if they be ufed as arbitrary terms, and have cealed to convey any allufion, are harmlefs enough ; but if they happen to convey an allufion, or refer to characters that are found only in the human body, they naturally become a fource of am- biguity, and when limited in fenfe can feldom be extended to comparative anatomy. Some INTRODUCTION- II Some names are a kind of defcriptions, pretending to explain ufes and functions, which thofe who impofed them did not un- derftand. In all cafes thefe defcriptions are extremely imperfect ; often are falfe ; and fhould we creduloufly receive them as com- plete, and proceed to reafon upon them as data, they muft always lead to erroneous conclufions. On this principle fome mufcles are named pronators and fupinators of the ra- dius; fome flexors and extenfors of the car- pus ; as if thefe were the only mufcles con- cerned in performing fuch movements. Now every anatomift certainly knows, that all the digital flexors and extenfors that arife from the humerus or fore- arm, muft like wife be flexors and extenfors of the carpus ; that the fublimis, the radial flexor, and palmaris longus, affift in pronation ; that the fupinator radii longus brings the arm to the middle pofition, be- tween pronation and fupination, and then adls as a flexor of the fore- arm ; that the bi- ceps, attached to the fcapula and radius, is an 12 INTRODUCTION. an extenfor of the humerus, a flexor of the ra- dius, and one of the moil powerful of its fupi- nators; while other mufcles, as the extenfor ter- tii internodii pollicis, although indirectly, occas- ionally affifts it, in that office. From the variety therefore of functions, in which mufcles attached to the bones are ufually concerned, every name impofed with a view to denote thefe functions muft either be uncommonly long, or extreme- ly imperfect, with regard to defcription ; and if any fuch be retained in anatomy, it ought to be intimated that the function implied is mere- ly the function that characterifes it, and not the only one it performs. Of all the names that have been hitherto im- pofed on the mufcles, the beft are thofe which are made to diftinguilh them by their origin and infertion, or the attachments at their op- pofite extremities. This was certainly demon- ftrated by Window ; although the great and accurate Albinus, who had the writings of Window before him, feems to have thought fctherwife. Moft anatomifts are pleafed with fuch INTRODUCTION. . 13 fuch names as flylo-gloflus ■, ftylo-hyoideus, fly- lo-pharyngeus ; and have often regretted that all other mufcles were not named- and diftin- guifhed in a fimilar manner. It was to com- ply with this general wifh, and their own opi- nions upon the fubjec% that Chauflier and Du- mas have, each on thefe principles, given us a new nomenclature for the mufcels ; although, in the execution of their plan, they perhaps have not fully anfwered expectations. Unfor- tunately imagining, that a principle, if right, could not be carried too great a length, they feem to have forgotten the old, though juft, ob- fervation of the poet, that Eft modus in rebus; funt certi denique fines, Ultra citraque nequit confiftere re6tum. Such names are admirably calculated for muf- cles that have only a fimple origin and a fimple infertion ; but where the origins and infer- tions are numerous, the name that pretends to enumerate the whole muft often run out to the length of a fentence. It will therefore be dif- ficult to reconcile the anatomift to fuch names as 14 INTRODUCTION. as, Sterna- cofto-clavio-humeral, Pterigo-fyndef* mO'ftaphili-pharyngien, Sus-fpini-fcapulo-trochi- terien, Sus-optico-fpheri-fcloroticien, Occipiti- dorfo-clavi-fus-acromien #. As names were intended to mark objects in a general way, with a view to fuperfede the tedi- oufnefs of defcription, to accelerate intercourfe, and to make our language keep pace with our ideas; any attempt to reverfe the procedure, to check the natural ardour of the mind, to retard its operations, and increafe the difficulty of lite- rary intercourfe, appears to be rather a retro- grade flep in the way of improvement. Birth, marriage, funeral, and triumph, are four words each of them denoting a group of circumftances. Now fuppofe we intended to inform our hear- ers that we had been witneffing fuch groups of ceremonies ; and that, inftead of the gene- ral * Pe&oralis Major; the Pterigo pharyngeus, the Syndef- mo pharyngeus, the Staphyle pharyngeus, or including all under one name, Con ftrictor fuperior ; Suprafpinatus; the Rectus fuperior, or Levator oculi ; Trapezius, INTRODUCTION". 15 ral names, we made ufe of minute and parti- cular defcriptions, the day would fail before we could inform them that we had been wit- neffing a birth, a marriage, a funeral, and a triumph. Many names in Dumas are liable alfo to an- other objection: Beiides admitting fuch words as intus, extus, intra, extra, fus, and fous, he has often founded his names on circumftances that are peculiar to the human fpecies. Mufcles of limilar fituations and functions have not the like origins and infertions in all animals; and if we mould always vary the name with the varying circumftances on which it is founded, we (hould often imagine things to be different which in all effential points are the fame. In many cafes a different arrangement would exhibit the origin and infertion of mufcles without the affiftance of long names. Sup- pofe that one genus of mufcles were the muf- cles attached to the humerus by infertion, it would furely be unneceifary to mention this circumftance in the name of every individual mufcieo i6 Introduction. mufcle. Suppofe, again, that thefe mufcles of the humerus were fubdivided, according to their origins, into mufcles of the fpine, fternwn, clavicle, and fcapula, it would be equally un- necessary, after knowing what mufcles origi- nate in the fcapula and terminate in the hume- rus, to repeat the information in the name of each mufcle. Would it not be fufficient, after knowing where they originate and terminate, to mark them by fome individual diilindion, which would not require a very long name? nor would it be neceffary to mark every individual diftinc- tion, but the moil obvious and chara&eriftic, leaving all the reft to be noticed in the hiftory and the defcription. Thus fterno-humeral, or fterno-uumeren, could poffibly lignify no other mufcle than the pecloralis major ; although this mufcle, upon examination, would be found to originate, not only from the fternum, but ribs and clavicle ; two origins, which might be omitted at leaft in the name, as they are common to fome other mufcles inferted in the humerus, to the deltoid for inltance, which arifes INTRODUCTION. 17 arlfes from the clavicle, and latiffimus dorfi, part of which arifes from the ribs. The mufcles have been clafTed according to their flrata, and according to the different re- gions which they occupy for the purpofe of diffection ; they have alfo been clafTed, by Cow- per and others, according to the bones in which they are inferred; while Winflow, to fhow a more general connection, has, in regu- lar order, enumerated the bones, with their mufcular attachments, whether by origin or by infertion. This method, if the mufcles which originate and the mufcles which termi- nate in every bone had been feparately arran- ged, would have fuperfeded the neceffity of Cowper's, and would itfelf have been greatly improved, had the remaining attachments of the mufcles been exhibited according to their origin and infertion in lateral columns. To illuflrate the idea which I mean to convey, fuppofe that we took the mufcles of the hume- rus by way of example, I would form, in the firft place, three diftincT: columns, as reprefent- ed in the following Scheme. B MUSCLES It INTRODUCTION- MUSCLES OF THE HUMERUS. .5 3 ffi .£3 3 3 o s o CO 13 £ -Q ^ *" s-. co c •i— • fco c • C/J 4-> "1 CJ J-i c a S-i ^ O w CO -9 <5 8 ■> 5S % § J3 <*j tq- -s> •k. <^ ■£ *C5 <>> r> "S5 •e* s J* 8 .8 •** •*■» £ P teries, muft make every one who is truly and ferioufly interefled in anatomy extremely anxi- ous to fee them more generally employed. The objections ftarted againft thefe terms, if there be any, will, I conceive, be probably fomewhat of the following nature. The words atlantal, facral, and Jlernal, al* lude to parts that are not to be found in thofe animals which have no vertebrae; and, befides* the allufion is not confined to the part itfelf, but extended to a fort of imaginary plane that is fuppofed to be in their vicinity. The an- fwer is, that the parts occupy correfponding regions in all animals in which they are found ; ihow where the planes are to be drawn \ and that, infiead of multiplying terms, and forming new and diftincl: nomenclatures for all the diftincl clafles of animals, it was thought better, where no ambiguity was to be dreaded, to give to the epithets borrowed from thefe parts a fort of general and arbitrary fenfe, and transfer them, by analogy, to all the corre- I fponding I3O NEW TERMS RELATING TO fponding regions of the fyftem in every fpecies. The objection ariling to the anfwer itfelf, that thefe terms, taken in a general and arbitrary fenfe, can no longer allude to the parts from which they are borrowed, is eafily removed by caufing a change in the termination, to fhow when they allude to the part, and when to the afpecl. Similar objections may likewife be made to the words ulnar, radial, tibial, fibular, rotular, and popliteal; and a fimilar anfwer may alfo be given : though this may be further faid in their favour, that they have been adopted by other anatomifts, particularly Chauflier ; and if their ufe here be extended, it was to avoid the unneceffary multiplication of terms, and to preferve, as much as poffible, fimplicity, unity, and concifenefs of arrangement, by limiting the number of general afpedts to which the fubordinate ones are referred. The meaning of the words anconal and the~ nal is likewife different from their primary meaning \ but the language from which they are POSITION AND ASPECT. I3I ar*i borrowed is dead, and the primary mean- ing will have little chance of being fuggeiled, along with that in which they are employed, to denote two afpe&s of the arm. From the rotatory motions of the radius, and its varying pofitions with regard to the ulna in various cafes, it may be difficult, in certain places, to diftinguifh the afpecls when they happen to run in a fpiral courfe ; but though this difficulty may often occur, it may always be removed by afcertaining the different af- pe&s at the joint of the elbow, when the ra- dius is placed, or fuppofed to be placed, in a Hate of fupination. From that point their fpi- ral courfe may ealily be followed in oppofite di- rections both along the humerus and fore arm. Proximal and dijlal are chofen in preference to proximate and diftant, as being no parts of colloquial language ; and likewife for the fake of their termination, as all the other words de- noting pojition terminate either in a I or ar. Central is a word borrowed indeed from col- loquial language; but here can occafion no am- I 2 biguity, 132 NEW TERMS RELATING TO biguity, it being underftood in the fame lati^ tude with the other terms. As for the terms peripheral, mejial, and der- mal, thefe, or words of a fimilar import, were abfolutely neceffary : but whether or not more agreeable founds might have been gotten to ex- prefs their fenfes, was a fubject on which I have not bellowed very much inquiry. Having now £ttn the defects of the terms denoting pofition in the trunk and extremities, and tried to remedy them, let us next fee whe- ther or not there be any defects in their ex- preffion when applied to the head. In the hu- man fpecies the word fuperior, in its primary fenfe, will allude to a part of the frontal bone, and that part of the parietals which lies near the fagittal future. It will likewife allude to iimilar parts in the meep and ox, and fome other quadrupeds ; but were thefe quadrupeds to alfume the erect pofture, the parts that are fuperior would be pofterior : and were man to affume the pofture of the quadruped, the parts that POSITION AND ASPECT. 133 that arefuperior would become anterior. Su- perior therefore, in thefe cafes, denotes always, to a certain extent, fimilar parts, when the at- titudes of the two fpecies are different; and diffimilar parts, when they are the fame. In- ferior, on the contrary, fimilar parts, when the attitudes are the fame; and diffimilar parts, when they are different : For, in the natural and ordinary pofture of flanding or walking, Inferior alludes to the bafis of the cranium in the human fpecies, but to the mouth and lips of thefe quadrupeds; yet both terms would fignify a ftill greater variety were they farther extended to birds, fifhes, reptiles, and infeds. Anterior and po/Ierior, at the fame time, if thus extended, would be equally vague ; while ex- ternal and internal would be almoft an endlefs fource of ambiguity. But the force of this rea- foning will appear more evident from the fol- lowing Statement, where the terms are ufed in their primary fenfe, and applied to each fpecies in its common attitude of moving or ftanding, I 3 Superior. 134 njew terms relating to Superior. In man, part of the frontal and parietal bones. In fheep and oxen, part of the frontal, parie- tal, and occipital bones. In dogs and horfes, part of the parietal and occipital bones. In frogs, ferpents, and various fifhes, all the ^ of the cranium and face which com pofe the plane oppofite to the bafe. Inferior. In man, the bafe of the lower maxillary bone, and the bones forming the bafe of the cra- nium. In fheep and oxen, the middle part of the maxillary curves. In dogs and horfes, the fame. In frogs, ferpents, and in various filhes, the bafe of .the lower maxillary bone, and the bones Position and aspect. 135 bones forming the bafe of the crani- um. Anterior. In man, the eyes, the middle part of the max- illary curves, and the bones of the face, op- pofed to the riling part of the occiput. In oxen and fheep, the bones of the face, op- pofed to the bafe of the cranium and head. In dogs and horfes, the fame. In frogs, ferpents, and in various fifties, the middle part of the maxillary curves. Posterior, In man, part of the parietal and occipital bones. In fheep, oxen, and mofl quadrupeds, exclu- ding the amphibia, the bafe of the cranium. In frogs, ferpents, and in various fifties, the occiput, 1 4 External I36 NEW TERMS RELATING TO External and Internal Are as faulty when applied in fome of their fenfes to the regions of the head as they are in other parts of the fyftem. What mean- ing, for inftance, can we affix to the exter- nal and internal angle of the eye where the eye is round, where it is lateral, where it is vertical, or where the line palling from one angle to the other runs not tranfverfely, but longitudinally with refpect to the head ? ^From this ftatement it mud be evident that the prefent terms for denoting Jituati on will be attended with as much confufion in defcribing the head as any other part of the fyftem ; and that other terms ought to be employed, if we either wifh to avoid ambiguity, or make ufe of general and precife language. At the fame time, it will readily be granted, that if the terms already propofed for the trunk or extre- mities could, with any propriety, be extended to POSITION AND ASPECT. 137 to the head, new terms would not only be un- necessary, but abfurdly fuperfluous. But while anxious to avoid an improper multiplication of terms, we mud recollect that two or three words, having each a definite and precife mean- ing* are not fo troublefome and dangerous in fcience as one word with two or three meanings that are different ; for every word employed to exprefs two or three objects fpecifically dif- ferent, muft neceflarily introduce a fort of con- fulion into our ideas ; tend to miflead us in the paths of inquiry ; and unlefs we are guard- ed, conduct us at lail into the regions of igno- rance and error. Forewarned, therefore, of the evils which arife from fuch redundan- cies in fenfe or expreffion, let us inquire whe- ther any of the terms already fuggefled can be extended to the parts of the head. In doing this, it is needlefs to obferve that thofe containing particular allufions to parts of the extremities muft be ill adapted to exprefs thofe of the cranium and face ; and that, if we con- fider the pofition of the head in different ani- mals, I38 NEW TERMS RELATING TO mals, we muft inftantly perceive that Jiernal, dorfal, atlantal, and facral, can do no more than mark the relative lituation of parts, or the different politions of the head and trunk with reipect to one another. But as even this may be an object of fome importance ; as it may introduce into our defcriptions a greater degree of clearnefs and precifion ; and lead to con- clulions in phyfiology that may be both inte- refting and ufeful — I fhall here mow the man- ner in which the application of fuch terms may be extended ; and fliall take firft, in the way of -illuftration, Atlantal and Sacral. In applying thefe terms to the head, let us call the line which follows the direction of the vertebral column from the facrum to the atlas the Vertebral Line ; and fuppofe it conti- nued perpendicular to the plane of the foramen magnum till it fall on fome bone of tire cranium or POSITION AND ASPECT. I yj or face. Let this bone, whatever it be, in that cafe be called the atlantal ; we fhall find, on inquiry, that the parietal bones will be atlan* tal in one fpecies, the frontal in another, and fome different bone in a third \ that the angle formed between this bone and the vertebral line will vary confiderably in different animals \ and that when the line happens to fall on the fame bone, it will often fall on a different part in a different fpecies. In man, for inflance, it will fall on the fagittal, a little behind the co- ronal future ; in all other animals it will fall more towards the face. In the ape, it will fall on the frontal bone, a little before the coronal future ; in the dog and horfe, as far down as the orbitary ridge \ in the mole, the rat, and fome other quadrupeds, it will flrike on fome part of the nofe ; in frogs and ferpents, will defcend as low as the maxillary curves ; and in fome animals may pafs obliquely from above downwards through the bafis of the head. If the term facral be applied to the head, it mufl always denote that fide which is oppofed to 140 NEW TERMS RELATING TO to the atlantal, and may eafily be found from obferving the place of the foramen magnum, which in all cafes muft be necefiarily facral. The fituation of the facral fide will therefore vary with the foramen, which in human fculls is found in the bafe \ but as we defcend thro' quadrupeds and birds, proceeds backwards, till in ferpents and flfhes we find it at that part of tHe head which is oppofite to the mouth or middle part of the maxillary curves. In fhort, it recedes more and more backwards, towards the one extremity of the head, as the vertebral line comes more and more forwards towards the other. From this fixed and mutual rela- tion we may, from knowing the atlantal point, afcertain in fome meafure the fituation of the foramen ; obtain fome idea of the form of the head, of its relative pofition with regard to the trunk, of the moil: ufual pofture of the animal in motion; and a variety of other circum- fiances that neceifarily depend upon thefe diflinclions, Sternal position and aspect. i4i Sternal and Dorsal. These terms, when applied to the head, will fignify parts in the fame plane, in planes paral- lel, or nearly parallel to the fternum and dor- fum ; and mould the fternum and dorfum be parallel, thefe planes will always be fternal which are on the fternal fide, and thofe dorfal which are on the dorfal fide of the vertebral line. In the human fpecies the whole face bound- ed by the chin, the hairy fcalp, and the two lateral parts of the head, will be fternal. 1 — In fheep and oxen, when the head is in the ufual pofition, with the bafe feemingly at right angles to the vertebral line, the maxillary curves only will be fternal. — But in ferpents and frogs, the bails of the cranium will be found fternal, while the maxillary curves will become atlantal. In the human fpecies, the word dorfal will denote the rifing part of the occipital bone and pofterior part of the two parietals. — In fheep 142 NEW TERMS RELATING TO flieep and oxen, not only a part of the occipi- tal bone, but the upper part of the parietal arch, thro' its whole extent, from behind for- wards, including a part of the frontal bone. — In ferpents and frogs, not only the upper part of the cranium, but likewife moft of the bones of the face, which are not on the fides or ba- lls of the head. It feems to be therefore a general law, that the parts of the head which are atlantal and flernal in man mould, in defcending through the lower animals, gradually approach more and more to the dorfal fituation, and the parts which are facral more and more to that which is fternal. From knowing therefore the parts of the head which are fternal and dorfal, we will be led to nearly the fame general conclu- fionsthat we drew from the points atlantal and facral; w7e will learn the relative polition of the head with regard to the trunk, the fitua- tion of the foramen, the uiual attitude of the animal in motion, the form of the cranium, and how far it deviates from die human fTiape. We may POSITION AND ASPECT. I43 may alfo acquire, in this way, fome general idea of the nervous fyftem, The proportion between the diameters of the cranium and fo- ramen magnum is ufually connected with the fhape of the head and the fituation of the fo- ramen : from knowing therefore the fhape and fituation, we may form fome idea of the relative proportion of the two diameters ; and from knowing the proportion of the two dia- meters, we may know the proportion between the brain and the fpinai marrow; and as the fa- gacity and vital energy feems to be regulated by this proportion, we hence may form pretty- accurate conjectures with refpecl to the de- gree of the intellectual functions, the tena- cioufnefs of life, and power of reproduction poffefied by the animal. But altho' the extenfion of thefe terms may be highly ufeful in many phyfiological deduc- tions, they are not adapted to the feparate ana- tomical defcription of the head. In the cafe of a defcription, the bead, which eoniifts of two parts, the cranium and face, neceliarily re- quires 144 N£w TERMS RELATING TO quires terms of its own, as well as the trunk and the extremities ; and thefe terms might be borrowed from the bones, if it were pof~ fible in that way to make them precife. But, unfortunately, in the cranium there are no bones, not even the ethmoidal, entirely confi- ned to one of its afpe&s ; and the bones of the face vary fo much in their form, proportion, and general appearance in different animals, that they are equally unfit for our purpofe. We mud therefore endeavour to contrive names for defcribing the afpects of the cranium and face, that contain no allufion to the fituation of particular parts. Taking the head as a whole, thefe afpecls mould be eight in number ; but fuppofing the falx a mejial plane, dividing it into two fi- milar halves, they will amount to nine ; and by dividing it into cranium and face, a tenth may be necefiary. But as dermal \ central, dex- tral, Jiniftral, and mejial, are equally applica- ble to the head and trunk, we only require five that are new : two for the bafe and crown of the POSITION AND ASPECT. 1 45 the head, two for the hind and fore part of the cranium, and one for the face. The bafe and crown of the head, which are oppoiite, may be called the Basilar and Co- ronal afpects. Between thefe tw7o and the lateral afpects there is a projecting part of the cranium be- hind, which the Romans called occiput, and the Greeks inion. The Greek word is prefer- able to the Latin, as it does not convey any al- lufion to the occipital bone, which is found in two different afpects, the bajilar, and that which may now be called Inial. In the oppoiite extremity of the cranium* where the nafal bones are found connected with the os frontis, there is a part w,hich fome anatomifls who have written in Latin have called glabella. This particular afpect of the cranium, the afpect which is always oppofed to the inion, may be named Glabellar. The part of the face which is placed at the greateit diftance from the inion, following the courfe of a ftraight line, is in fome animals a part of the inferior, in others a part of the fu- K. perior I46 NEW TERMS RELATING TO perior maxillary bone, or in birds, of the mandibles which correfpond to them, this diftant part of the face, whatever that happens to be, may be called the Antinion. So that the ten afpecls of the head will be the Dermal, Central, and Mesial, the Dex- tral and Sinistral, the Coronal and Ba- silar, the Inial, Antinial, and the Glabel- lar. Of the laft feven, if lines be drawn between every two of the oppofite afpects, they will conftitute the four following diameters : The Dextro-sinistral, theCoRONO-BASiLAR, the Inio-glabellar, and the Inantinial*. The two former may be taken at different places of the cranium, towards the glabella, where it has in general the lead depth and the lean: breadth, and towards the inion, where the depth and breadth are ufually greateft ; the firft behind the temporal procefTes of the os frontis ; and the other oppofite to the prominent parts of the pa- rietals, or of the parietal, as in fheep, oxen, &c. # Inantimal, a contraction for Jnio-antinial. POSITION AND ASPECT. I47 &c. where the fagittal future is found only in the os frontis, and where one bone fupplies the place of the two parietals. In this way we mall have two dext'ro-jinijlral and two corono- hajilar diameters. The meafurement of thefe feveral diameters will mew the limits of varying proportion in the heads and craniums* of the fame fpecies; and when applied to comparative anatomy, will difcovera number of fpecific differences as we defcend in the fcale of being. The inio- glabel- lar, the two corono-bajilar, and the two dextro- finijlral, or tranfverfe diameters, will, in general^ be found to have a lefs proportion to the inanti- nial than they have in man. The inantinial ap- pears therefore to have fome connection with the facial angle, which gradually diminifhes as the inantinial diameter increafes. Should any of my readers require an explanation of this an- gle, it is formed by two lines, one drawn from the middle of the meatus audit orius externus K 2 to * An Englifh plural inftead of crania, as the fingular is partly naturalized. I48 NEW TERMS RELATING TO to the inferior part of the noitril, and another called the facial line, drawn from the fame part of the noftril to the fuperciliary ridge of the os frontis. In fome of the Grecian an- tiques, this is an angle of 100 degrees, and in fome negroes an angle of 70. When beyond 100, the face is monftrous; when below 70, it is that of a brute. Even when 100, the face is unnatural ; and it is very feldom indeed that we ever find it fo high as 90. In the Grecian antiques, the maxillary bones, with the depth and firmnefs of maturer years, re- tain the fhortnefs peculiar to youth ; and are ne- ver lengthened fo as to hold a quantity of teeth of the number and dimenfions that are ufually found in the jaws of an adult. The brow there- fore projects beyond the face, and the nofe de- fcends in a ftraight line. In reafoning coolly, the form would ftrike us at once as abfurd, and as an unjuftifiable deviation from nature; but the fenfes and paffions get interefted, and we feel pleafed with the genius of the artift who, thus combining with tafte and judgment whatever is comely and beautiful in youth, with what is noble POSITION AND ASPECT, I49 noble and dignified in age, infenfibly produces an agreeable impreflion. Although the fea- tures be rather extraordinary, we feel pleafed with the general appearance, in the fame man- ner, as we like to fee what is not very common ; a fteady and prudent manlinefs in a child, and a certain degree of fprightly vivacity in an old man. But ihould it be aiked, Why a fimilar projection of the face mould be lefs agreeable than that of the forehead ? the anfwer is ob- vious : The projection of the forehead, to the extent in which it is carried in the Grecian an- tiques, only furpafles our flandard of excel- lence ; and fo always imprefTes us with an idea of a more than ufual dignity in the counte- nance. The projection of the face, on the other hand, is rather below our ideal flandard ; neceffarily lengthens the inantinial diameter ; and produces an appearance that is very near- ly approximate to the brutes. The aflbciation of our ideas, it mufl be allowed, has alfo its in- fluence. Many of the Simiae, though beau- tiful in themfelves, become exceedingly ug- ly and difgufting when viewed as men, or as K 3 ^ intended 150 NEW TERMS RELATING TO intended imitations of our fpecies ; while the longer face and the more receding forehead of the greyhound are deemed elegant, becaufe he is tried by a ftandard of his own, and no comparifon fecretly instituted between him and man. The facial line does not therefore fhow what is beautiful and deformed in nature ; but mere- ly afcertains the inclination of the face to that line which is drawn from the ear to the infe- rior part of the noftril. In Camper's figures, this line is always fuppofed to be horizontal, and drawn from the middle part of the orifice of the meatus auditorius externus. Did Camper forefee that this line might change its pofition while the form of the head continued the fame? In the young fkeleton, where the bony meatus is entirely wanting, and where the line muft confequently be drawn from the middle of the ring to which the membrana tympani is attach- ed, will its direction be found the fame, with regard to the face, as in the adult ? Certainly not. The membrana tympani, or bottom of the external meatus, is more forward, inward, and POSITION AND ASPECT. 151 and downward, than the orifice where it is joined to the concha ; and therefore the di- rection of this line, with regard to the head, muft vary with the changes and relative fitua- tion of the meatus; a fituation which is known to be different in different animals. In the cat, for inflance, it enters horizontally; is more ba- filar than the zygomatic arch ; and its bajilar margin, if we now may venture to ufe that lan- guage, is more bafilar than the bafe itfelf, or advances farther in the bafilar direction. In the babyrouffa, the meatus is long ; runs from the tympanum in the coronal, lateral, and inial directions; or rifes upwards, outwards, and backwards, fuppofing the erect poflure of the animal, and the bafe of the head at right angles to the vertebral column. In this animal the external orifice of the meatus is more coronal than the zygoma, or more towards the crown of the head. If in thefe two inflances, there- fore, we were, in the manner of Camper, to draw the horizontal line from the middle of the orifice of the meatus, we mould draw it from different points of the head, or from K 4 points 152 ®EW TERMS RELATING TO points that do not correfpond in relative fitua- tion. The other point to which it is drawn is likewife variable with refped to polition. In man and quadrupeds it is found near the max- illary curve. In birds it is fometimes at one extremity of the maxilla, fometimes at the other, and fometimes in the middle. In ceta- ceous animals, the fpirucula, or breathing holes, run in a direction obliquely from the bafe to- wards the corona, and terminate in the face near the glabellar part of the cranium. The angle formed by the facial line and the hori- zontal, in fuch cafes, would, in fome inftan- ces, be larger than the human t For thefe reafons, if we wifh to afcertain the fhape of the head in any refpect, it would be more accurate, inftead of this auri-nafal line, to draw a bajilar, or even two bajilar lines ; one running along the bafllar fide of the palatine plate of the upper maxilla, and another along the bafe of the lower maxilla, and both produ- ced, till they meet the facial line. With this line? which is likewife produced, they will form POSITION AND ASPECT, 153 form two angles ; one, the baji-facial of the fu- perior or coronal; and the other, the baji-fa- cial of the inferior or bqfilar maxilla. Where the line drawn on the palatine plate is interrupted by the alveolar procefs, a line may be drawn from the dermal fide on the fup- pofed continuation of the palatine plane. Where the palatine plate is convex or con- cave, the line is fuppofed to be drawn on a plane that pafTes through its inial and antinial extre- mities; and in the other maxilla, if thebafilar lide be convex or concave, it is fuppofed to be drawn on a plane that proceeds from the angles to the bajilar or lower fide of the curvature. As the palatine plate is either parallel, or nearly parallel to the plane of the mouth, the angle formed by that plane and the facial line may alfo be taken, and diftinguifhed from the others by the name of the ori-facial angle ; nay, as this angle may always be eafi- ly and accurately taken in the living body, it may oftener be ufeful in afcertaining, analogi- cally, the inclination of the face and the form of the head than the other two. Should 154 NEW TERMS RELATING TO Should the queftion be put, What advan- tages are we to expect in compenfation fot all this trouble ? the anfwer is, That a Hea- dy attention to thefe lines, diameters, and angles, muft lead to more clear and precife ideas than we hitherto have had upon the comparative anatomy of the head ; and if ever a language peculiarly fitted to exprefs thefe ideas were generally adopted, no anato- mift, no phyfiologift, or phyfiognomift, would prefume to indulge in vague declamation ; or venture, with any reafon, to complain, from affectation of myftery, or of fomething new, that he wanted terms to exprefs his thoughts and his lingular obfervations. It is true that every object in nature will ex- hibit a number of difcriminating characters if accurately examined, and every one may have marks of his own by which he diftinguifhes them ; but if every one mould defcribe an object only by marks peculiar to himfelf, we fhould ne- ver difcover that the object, was the fame ; but rather conclude, that the objects were as diffe- rent POSITION AND ASPECT. I 55 rent as the defcriptions. In this way, no one could poflibly underfland the defcriptions of another ; and one might defcribe an object as new which had been defcribed an hundred times before. It is therefore neceffary to at- tend to marks of a certain kind, particularly thofe by which an object is claflified and ar- ranged. After acquainting us with thefe cha- racters, we come to know the genus and fpe- cies to which it belongs ; and then an author may enumerate as many characters as he choo- fes, for now we begin to underfland the fub- ject of which he is treating. It was thus by directing the attention of mankind to certain characters, that Linnaeus taught naturalifts all to fpeak in the fame language, and to be intel- ligible to one another ; and it is by adopting a limilar method that we ever can expect, on rational principles, to improve our knowledge in general anatomy. It is therefore to be ho- ped that were anatomifts, in defcribing the heads of different animals, always to give us the proportions and magnitudes of certain lines, diameters. I5# NEW TERMS RELATING TO diameters, and angles, we fhould very foon ac- quire more general, and precife information upon that fubjecl: than we now poffefs. As an accurate knowledge of relative por- tion is likewife of the greateft importance in anatomy, we mould never negledt, where it is poffible, to mention the fituation and afped: of every part that is worthy of notice. A careful attention to thefe circumflances will gradually fecure to us more accuracy, with regard to de- fcriptions in furgery, phyiic, zoology, and an- atomy ; will render our knowledge of the ufes and functions more perfect ; and will therefore give more than an ordinary degree of clearnefs and precilion to our phyiiological reafonings and conclufions. The terms here fuggefted for the head con- taining no allufion to the bones, and being fome- what different in principle from feveral of thofe which have been fuggefted for the trunk and ex- tremities, I fhall illuftrate the mode of applying them by a few examples. Let us take, for in- fiance* POSITION AND ASPECT. 157 fiance, the parietal bone of the human fpecies. It has two fides, one convex and the other con- cave ; which, in point of afpecl, are dermal and central. In point of fituation, coronal and late- ral. It has four margins, which, in point of fi- tuation, are likewife found coronal and lateral; but, in point of afpecl:, glabellar, mejial, inial, and bajilar. It has alfo four angles, each an- gle lying between two of the different mar- gins ; and which therefore may be named the glabello-mejial, glabello- bajilar, the inio-mejial, and the inio-bajilar. Examining this bone in the deer and fheep, where we fee no divifion by fagittal future, its two furfaces are convex and concave ; and in point of afpecl, dermal and central, as they are in man. In point of fituation, they are fome- what different, being inial and lateral ; and with refpect to the different afpecls of its four margins, two are antinial, one coronal, and a fourth bajilar. Take the frontal bone of the human fubjed as another illuRration. Its two furfaces are dermal I58 NEW TERMS RELATING TO dermal and central ; their fituations coronal, bajilar, lateral, glabellar ; the afpect. of its margins, where connected with the fphenoi- dal bone and glabellar part of the ethmoi- dal, is inial ; where connected with the late- ral part of the ethmoidal bone, mejial ; where it joins the malar bone, lateral ; and where it meets the nafal and maxillary bones, bajilar. The eye will ferve for our lad illuftration. In the human fubject its fituation is glabellar. The afpect of the pupil, as in all animals, pe- ripheral or dermal; but where the nerve enters, it is inial, or, more ftrictly fpeaking, inio-mejial. The other afpects are coronal, bajilar, lateral, and mejial. In thofe animals where the eyes are in the lateral parts of the head, the pupil is dermal, the entrance of the nerve mejial ; the other afpects coronal, bajilar, inial, antiniaL Where the fituation of the eye is coronal, the pupil is dermal, the entrance of the nerve bajilar ; the other afpe&s inial, antinial, late- ral, and mejiah Such POSITION AND ASPECT. I 59 Such language, it will eafily be feen, is chiefly neceffary in comparative anatomy, where we foon learn that the lingular variety which we difco- ver in the actions, habits, and functions of ani- mals is principally owing to certain changes or modifications in the intimate ftru&ure, in the relative magnitude, fituation, and afpects of the different organs ; and where we perceive, that the Author of Nature has by thefe changes varied the fame general fabric innumerable ways ; given it a thoufand different inftindts, appetites, and paffions ; adapted it to every element and climate, and to endlefs diverfities with refpect. to food and the modes pf life. As the means by which He has produced thefe effects cannot be thought unworthy of inquiry, a language calculated to exprefs the circum- ftances on which they depend, muft furely be defireable to every perfon the leaf! interefled in zoological invefligations. In mere changes of afpecl and pofition, the naturalifl muft obferve a number of important and fpecific differences ; the phyfiologifl muft fee correfpcndent and neceffary l6o NEW TERMS RELATING TO neceflary changes on the functions ; and the natural theologift, in iuch changes, cannot fail to remark, with peculiar fatisfaclion, the admirable difplays of that boundlefs power, wifdom, and forefight, by which the great Sovereign of the Univerfe has peopled the air, the water, and the earth, with innumerable myriads of animated beings ; varied the fame general ftruclure fo as to fuit every poffible circumftance ; and, amidft the daily and the hourly millions of thofe events which we call contingencies, fecured the perpetuity of the fpecies, fixed the time of individual exiftence, regulated the periods of thofe functions which return occafionally, and every where fettled the extent, duration, and fucceflion of thofe which produce growth, vigour, and decay. If fuch fpeculations accord not with the views of the medical practitioner, he is at leafl cer- tainly concerned in the knowledge of relative lituation and afpect fo far as regards the hu- man body ; the furgeon requires it in all his operations; the phyfician requires it in rea- foning POSITION AND ASPECT. l6| foiling upon fymptoms and the feats of difeafe; arid for the anatomift to attempt any deicrip- tion without it, is like venturing to fea with- out a compafs or a fiar to guide him ; like a geographer trying to explain a map without lines of meridian or longitude, where he can- not diftinguifh the north from the fouth, and has no fcale to afcertain the relative diftances* In fhort, without a knowledge of polition and afpect, he is a traveller wandering at ran- dom, blind and in the dark, not able to fay whence he came nor whither he is goins;, and who fleps as readily over a precipice or into a river as he does into the road. CHAP, ld2 NEW TERMS* CHAP. VII. THE NEW TERMS ENUMERATED. FOR THE HEAD. See Page 144, &c. and Plates III. IV. V, Coronal Bafilar Inial Glabellar Antinial FOR THE TRUNK. See p. 100. and PI. I. II. Atlantal Sacral Dorfal Sternal To be occafionally extended to the head, when we mean to exprefs its relative fituation with regard to the trunk. See p. 102. TERMS NEW TERMS. 163 TERMS COMMON TO THE HEAD AND TRUNK, Seep. 121. and PL I. II. III. Dextral Siniftral Lateral Mefial FOR THE ATLANTAL EXTREMITIES* See p. 124, 125. and PI. I. II. Ulnar Radial Anconal Thenal FOR THE SACRAL EXTREMITIES, See p. 127. and PI. I. II. Tibial Fibular Rotular Popliteal L2 TERMS I64 NEW TERMS. TERMS COMMON TO BOTH KINDS OF EXTREMI- TIES. See p. 124. and PL I. II. Proximal Diftal TERMS COMMON TO THE HEAD, TRUNK, AND EXTREMITIES. See p. 120. Dermal Peripheral Central SECT. NEW TERMS. 165 SECT. I. The new Terms, by a change of Termination, may he ufed Adverbially. Instead of the words upward, downward, back- ward, forward, outward, inward, and toward, which fo frequently occur in almoft every ana- tomical defcription, and in a fenfe fully as vague asfuperior, inferior, poflerior, anterior, external, and internal, we may, with a flight degree of variation, employ the' new terms as fo many adverbs. Thus, IN THE HEAD, Coronad will lignify towards the coronal afpec"l Bafilad ... ^ ... . towards the bafilar Iniad towards the inial Glabellad towards the glabellar Antiniad towards the antinial L 3 in l66 " NEW TERMS. IN THE TRUNK, Atlantad will fignify towards the atlantal afpe$ Sacrad towards the facral Dorfad ........ towards the dorfal Sternad ........ towards the fternal IN THE HEAD AND TRUNK, Dextrad will fignify towards the dextral afped Siniftrad towards the finiftral fcaterad ........ towards the lateral Mefiad ........ towards the mefial IN THE ATLANTAL EXTREMITIES, Ulnad will fignify towards the ulnar afpecl Radiad . towards the radial Anconad . towards the anconal Thenad ....... towards the thenal IN THE SACRAL EXTREMITIES, Tibiad will fignify towards the tibial afpect Fibulad towards the fibular Rotulad ....... towards the rotular Poplitead ...,;. towards the popliteal in ^EW TERMS. 167 IN BOTH KINDS OF EXTREMITIES, Proximad will lignify towards the proximate afpedl Diftad towards the diftant IN THE HEAD, TRUNK, AND EXTREMITIES, Dermad will fignify towards the dermal afpect Peripherad towards the circumference Centrad towards the centre L 4 SECT. i68 NEW TERMS, SECT. IT. The new Terms , by another change of Termina- tion, may exprefs Connection* W hat belongs to the atlas, fternjmi, and fa+ crum ; to the radius, ulna, and ancon ; to the tibia, fibula, rotula, and poples, being fome- what different from that which belongs on}y to their afpect or fituation, in order to prevent any confufion, it may be necelfary to mark the diftindtion by another change in the termina- tion. Thus, Atlanten Sacren Sternen Radien Ulnen Anconen Tibien Fibulen Rotulen Popliteen May NEW TERMS. l6o May be ufed in cafes where the reference is not merely to the afpecl, but to the part from which the afpedt has derived its name. On this principle a radial artery, or a radial muf- cle, will be an artery or mufcle belonging merely to the radial afpect ; while a radien ar- tery will be one that enters the radius itfelf, and a radien mufcle one particularly connect- ed with the radius by origin or infertion. Or the principle may even be extended farther, and a regular diftin&ion made between the terms that denote limply pofition or afpecr, and thofe which imply a particular connec- tion. For inftance, let the terms of the firft kind always terminate in al or ar9 and thofe of the fecond always in en, as reprefented in the following columns. Coronal Coronen Bafilar Baiilen Inial Inien Glabellar Glabellen Antinial Antinien Atlanta! 170 NEW TERMS. Atlantal Atlanten Sacral Sacren Sternal Sternen Dorfal Dorfen Dextral Dextreri Siniftral Siniftren Lateral Lateren Mefial Mefien Radial Radien Ulnar Ulnen Aconal Anconen Thenal Thenen Tibial Tibien Fibular f Fibulen Rotular Rotulen Popliteal Popliteen Diftal Diften Proximal Proximen Dermal NEW TERMS. 171 Dermal Dermen Peripheral Peripheren Central Centren Nay, as there are other terms in anatomy which allude to particular pofitions and af- pects, and which are likewife occafionally em- ployed to denote a different fort of connection, it might alfo contribute to accuracy of de- fcription to intimate this difference in their fenfe by a fimilar difference in their termina- tion, I fhall here enumerate feveral of the terms to which I allude. Frontal Fronten Parietal Parieten Temporal Temporen Occcipital Occipiten Sphenoidal Sphenoiden Ethmoidal Ethmoiden Nafal Nafen Malar Malen Maxillar Max Men Cervical 1 7 2 NEW TERM Si " Cervical Cervicen Lumbar Lumben Coital Coften Chondral Chondren Clavicular or Clavar Claviculen or Claveo Scapular Scapulen Humeral Humeren Carpal Carpen Metacarpal Metacarpen Digital Digiten Ilial Ilien Pubal Puben IfcbiaJ Ifchien Femoral Femoren Tarfal Tarfen Metatarfal Metatarfen But as this change of the termination is in- tended always to intimate forne change in the .meaning, it can never be neceffary in thofe cafes where the meaning of a word is always the fame, or where the meaning is fixed by the context and cannot be miftaken. It would be a NEW TERMS. 1 73 a childifh and abfurd affectation, for inftance, to fay, fronten, temporen, and parieten bones, or mufculen, glandulen, and reticulen ftruc- ture ; when we mean nothing more than what is expreffed by the ufual words frontal, tem- poral, parietal, mufcular, glandular, and reti- cular. It mould therefore be remembered, that the change is intended only for the cafes where the words convey, or are apt to con- vey, a twofold meaning ; where they fame- times allude to pofition and afpect, fometimes to connection, and where it is proper at the fame time to mark the diftinclion, as often happens in our defcriptions of the nerves and blood- veffels, where the double fenfe mod: fre- quently occurs. SECT, 1 74 NEW TERMS* SECT. III. Tojhorten Befcriptioni the new Terms may hi made to enter into Compojition. In expreffing pofition, direction, or attach- ment, the above epithets may occafionally be compounded by fubftituting o for the al or ar of the firft column, and by adding it to the en of the fecond. Thus the pofition of the heart in the thorax will be expreffed by the two compounds mejio-jiniftral and atlanto-facral; or> uling the adverbs, we may fay its direction from the melial plane is Jini/lrad and facrad> or jiniftro-facrad. In defcribing the direction of the fuperficial femoral artery, we may fay that at firft it is rotulo-tibial, then tibio-popli- teal. In mentioning the direction of the farto- rius, we may fay that, like the artery, it is at firft rotulo-tibial, then tibio popliteal, and at laft, after*paffing the knee-joint, tibio- rotular. But ifl NEW TERMS. 175 in mentioning its attachments, we mull lay alide the epithets which are made to terminate in at or ar, and employ thofe which terminate in en. Thus in expreffing its origin and infertion, I would not think of uling the word Mo- tibial, but ilieno tibien. In many defcriptions, though this minutenefs may not be necefTary, it is al- ways fome confolation to reflecl, that when it is necefTary, we pofiefs a language calculated for fuch minutenefs and accuracy. SECT. ij6 NEW" TERMS*. SECT. IV. Bivifion of the Sanguiferous Syftenl into two Parts, and new Names. If the fanguiferous fyftem of man and others of the nobler animals be divided into tWcf parts, the Pulmonic and Syftemic, in that cafe there will naturally follow a change in the lan- guage refulting from the change of claffifica- tion, which the Table fubjoined is intended to exhibit. See p. 122, 123. Pulmonic veins* All the veins which con- vey blood from the fyftem at large to- wards the lungs, Pulmonic finus. Right finus. Pulmonic auricle. Right auricle/ Pulmonic ventricle. Right ventricle. Pulmonic artery. Pulmonary artery. Syftemic NEW TERMS Syftemic veins. Sy Hemic finus. Syftemic auricle, Sy Hemic ventricle. Svilemic artery. 177 Pulmonary veins, or the veins which convey blood from the lungs to the fyflem at large. Left finus. Left auricle. Left ventricle* Aorta. M EXPLA- EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. See p. 162, 161, 164. Flates I. and II. are two outlines of the ike- leton, drawn in the attitude given by Albinus* They mow all the afpecls of the trunk and extremities except the dermal and central* which are eafily underftood without any afr liftance from a figure. The four lines in which the trunk and part of the neck are inclofed, exhibit the attentat, facrat, dextraly and Jiniftral afpe&s, marked at.fac. d.lf.i (d.L for dextral or lateral, and ././. for Jiniftral or lateral). The line drawn in the middle, marked mef. is the flernal edge of the mejial plane, palling through the body from the Jternal to the dor- M 2 fal l8o EXPLANATION OF jal afpedl, and dividing it into fimilar and .la- teral halves. In the atlantal extremities, the four dotted lines marked r. u. th. and an. {how the radial, ulnar, thenql, and anconal afpecls. Where the radius is in a (late of pronation, the afpecls appear to crofs one another towards the car* pus. In the Jacral extremities, other four lines of the fame kind, marked tib.fib. rot. and pop. fhow the tibial, fibular, rotular, and popliteal afpe&s. From the relative position, however, of the leg and foot towards the ancle, thefe £ines convey only a general idea of thofe af- pecls, which are very eafily diftinguifhed in the ikeleton and living body. In both kinds of extremities, the lines mark- ed prox. and dijl. fhow the proximal and dijlal afpects. Plate III. fhows the afpecls of the head and the mejial plane in different views. Fig. 3. exhibits at the fame time the mio-glahellar and the THE PLATES. l8l the inantimal diameters ; which compare with figures 3. in Plates IV. and V. Plate IV. fig. 1. and 3. mow how the af- pe&s of the head and trunk correfpond refpec- tively in man and the babyroufTa. Fig. 1. fhows, befides, the ori-facial angle. Fig. 2. the two baft-facial angles, and the ori-facial. Fig. 3. the inio- glabellar and inantimal diameters. Plate V. fhows farther how the afpecls of the head vary with refpecl to the trunk in dif- ferent animals ; and how the parts that are at- lantal in man, become dorfal ; the parts that are inial, facral ; the parts that are bafilar, flernal; and the parts that are flernal, atlcpn- tal as we defcend in the fcale of being. Thefe afpe&s of the head, however, will have other pofitions with regard to the trunk, according to the motions of the living animal; and diffe- rent parts may in fuccefiion be flernal, dorfal \ atlantal, and facral. To guefs therefore at the form and ftru&ure of the animal, from thefe re- lative X%% EXPLANATION' 01* THE PLATES* lative pofitions, we niuft fix on fome one that is definite. The poiition here fuppofed is that where the vertebral line is continued through the cranium at right angles, or perpendicular to the plane of the foramen magnum. Fronted by John Brown,? Aaeh©r Close, Edinburgh, J Plate. 3. Flgrl. y^rf^'" ^-^ "W //■■ (i '■■ 1 ' ; JSU0 £2aj$.- -D- \ X W^i H* # /*? ■■■/ \ V .^4- • gap BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY lllllilllllllllllllllllllllll 3 9999 06561 499 0 OCT ~: 1Q4