CI{£ B, Ji. m pbraru 54-1 D3 This BOOK may be kept out TWO WEEKS ONLY, and is subject to a fine of FIVE CENTS a day thereafter. It is due on the day indicated below: 0ik^l^ 52829 THE NEWENGLAND FARMER ■ OR GEORGICAL . DICTIONARYo CONTAINING A COMPENDJOUS ACCOUNT OF TBB PFATS AND METHODS IN WBICB THB IMPORTANT ART of HUSBANimY, IN ALL ITS VARIOUS BRANCHES, IS, o& MAY BE, •RACTISED, TO THE GREATEST ADVANTAGE, IN THIS COUNTRY. BY SAMUEL DEANE, B. D. ViCEPRKSIDENT o? BOWDOIN COLLEGE, and FELLOW of thi AMERICAN ACADEMY of ARTS and SCIENCES. THE SECOND EDITION, SORRECTED, IMPROVED, and ENLARGED, by the AUTHOR. *• FRIGORIBUS PARTO AGRICOL^ PLERUMQl'E FRUUlTrUS, MLTUAQT'E INTER SE LJETI COXVIVIA CURA>rT : INVITAT GENIALIS HYEMS, CURASQLB RESOL\ IT." riRGIL. PRINTED AT WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS, AT THE PRESS OF ISAIAH THOMAS, By LsoNARD WoRCESTSR, for Isaiah Tuoma(| \ ' i797t TO THE FARMERS or NEWENGLAND ; THIS EDITION UF THE GEORGICAL DlCTlONART, REVISED, CORRECTED, an a ENLARGED, IS INSCRIBED, WITH MUCH RESPECT, BY THEIR MOST OBEDIENT, AND VERY HUMBLE SERVANT, THE EDITOR. WORCESTER, MARCH, I797. CONTENTS. Cabbage Calf Canker Canker Worm Carriage A. ract Agriculture 9 Air 10 Anticor ii Ants 13 Apples 13 Apple Tree 14 Arable Land 15 Arncho]iLe,Cynara 15 Artichoke,// 71 7» 72 72 72 74 74 74 75 7b 76 77 77 77 78 79 79 79 79 60 Divifions 80 Door Dung 81 Drain 82 Dray 85 Drefling 85 Drill 86 Drought V Dung 89 Dunghills 94 Dung Mecrs 95 Dutch Hoe 95 Dyke 95 E. Earth 96 Eddifli 97 Effluvium 97 Elder 97 Elf Shot 97 Elm 08 Employment 98 EncJofure 58 Ewes <)8 Excrement 99 Experience 99 Experiments 99 F. Faggot 101 Fall 101 Fallowing 101 Falfe Quarter 103 Fan 103 Farcy 103 Farm 104 Farmer 105 Fen los Fence 105 FcrmetUation 110 Fern 111 Fefcue 111 Field 111 Fifh 111 Flail 112 Flanders Grafs 112 Flax 112 Flax Brake 52829 VI CONTENTS. Flnx Brake 115 Hidebound 153 Flooding 115 Hoe 1.54 Flour 116 Hoeing >54 Flower 116 Hoglly V57 Flv 117 Hop 158 Foal 117 Horn Diftemper 160 Fodder 117 Horfe i6o Foddering liq Horfe Hoe 162 Fog 121 Hurdle 162 Folding 121 Hurls in the 1 Withers J 163 Food of Plants 122 Forci'l 125 Hufbandry 163 Foandcring 125 I. Freezing 127 F^ uit Trees 129 Improvement 163 166 Furrow ^31 Inarching Furrowing '31 Inclofure 169 G. Increafe 169 Indian Corn 170 Garden 131 Inoculating 176 Gardening 132 Infect ^77 Garget 132 Intcrral /4 Gigs Glanders »^3 K. Goats »33 Kale 185 Goofe m Kalendar 185 Grafting ^34 Kali i-^e Grain '34 Kalmia 186 Granary *3'' Kid 186 Grafs 136 Killing 186 Gravel J 37 Kiln 187 Greafe ^3^ Kine 187 Green DrefTing 139 Kitchen Garden 4 Greens '39 L. Green Scouring ^39 Gripes 139 I^ambs 188 Ground ' 140 Lampas 1H9 Grove 140 Land 189 Grub i4i Larch 189 H Layers 189 J. X . Lay Land 190 Harrow 14 » Leaves 190 Harrowing H3 Lees 190 J-iarveft »45 Lice 191 Halchel 146 Lime 191 Hay .147 Limeftone 192 Hayhoolc 147 Loam 193 Haymaking H7 Locuft Tree 193 Hemp 15^ Luccfn 194 Heniin^ Furrows i"."^ Lupines *94 Herds Grafs 153 Lye 195 M. ft,, Malanders 195 Malt 19^ Malt Duft 195 Manure 196 Maple 203 Mare 2?o Marking of Cattle2oo Marie 201 Marlh • 203 Mattock 2C4 Meadow 204 Meafles 2C5 Melon 205 Meflin 205 Metheglin 206 Mice 2c6 Mildew 207 Milk 210 Millet 210 Mofs 211 Mould 212 Mouldboard 213 Mow 213 Mowing 213 Mowing GrouDd2i4 Muck 217 Mud 217 Mulberry 219 Mulch 219 N. Nave 219 Navel Gall 219 Nectarine 220 New Hufbandry 220 Nurfery 225 Nut Tree 226 Nympha 227 Oak Gats Olive Onions Orchard Ore Weed Ofier 22 S 231 232 233 23; 237 239 Overflowing 1 ofiheGallj ""^ Olli HQUfi?3 C O I^ T E N T S. Out Houfcs 240 Ox 240 Oyfter 340 P. Pale 241 Pan 241 Panax 242 Panic 243 Parfnep 243 Pafture 245 Pafture of Plants 247 Peach Trees 249 Pear Trees 249 Peafe 250 Peat , 253 Pen 255 Perkin or Purre 259 Perry 255 Perfpiration "• ot Plants / ^^5 Plant 25^ Plafter of Paris 257 Plat 258 Plough 2 -,8 Ploughing 260 Plum Trees 265 Poll Evil fi66 Pond 266 Poplar 267 Potato 268 Poultry 274 Prong Hoe 275 Provender 275 Pulfe 275 Q. uakingMeadow275 275 275 276 juincunx Order 276 ►uitch Grafs 276 >uick Juicks [iiickfilver Kiince Tree R. Rabbit Rack Radicle Radilh Kags 276 277 277 277 Rails 278 Rain 278 Rats 279 Red Worm 279 Reed 279 Ridgling 279 Ripling Cart 280 Rod 2 80 Roller 28o Rolling 28o Rood 281 Roots 281 Rot 283 Rotation of Crops283 Rowel 2^4 Runnet 285 Rufh 286 Ruft 2B6 Rye 286 Rye Grafs 287 S. Salt 287 Salting 288 Sand 289 Sandy Soil 291 Sap 291 Scratches 292 Sea Water 292 Seeds 293 Seeding 294 Seedling 294 Semination 294 Shade 295 Shed 295 Sheep 29J Shells 297 Shrub 298 Siliquofe Plants 298 Sithe 298 Sled 298 Slips 29?i Slough 299 Sluice 299 Smut 300 Snead, or Snathe 3'->5 Snow 335 Soil of:Qi Soiling 307 Soot 307 Sow 308 Sowing 308 Spade Spavin Spaying Spelt Spiky Roller Spring Springs Spring Grain Springe Spur in Rye Squalh Stable Stack Staggers Stale Stallion Stercorary^ Stock Stones Stone Wall Stooking Stover Strain Stfangles Straw Strawberries String Halt Stubble Stump Sty Sucker Summer Sunllovver Surfeit Swamp Sward Swarm Swarth Swath Rake Swine Sycamore T. Tail Sicknefs Team Teafcl Tetl'.er Thatch Thill Horfe Thidle Thrafhin^ Tike ° VII I'ag« 312 312 3»3 313 3^3 3H 314 315 3^5 3»5 316 316 3V 317 3id 318 318 320 321 323 323 323 323 324 325 32/? 326 326 326 327 32 > 328 328 328 33a 33-^ 331 33^ 331 33 i 337 33« 3-1'^ 340 340 340 341 341 Till,-o VHI CONTENTS; Tillage 342 Tiller 342 Tilth 342 Timber 342 Timothy Grafs 343 Tobacco 343 Top Dreffing 34 s Tranlplantiilg 346 Tree 347 Trefoil 34>J Trench 348 Trench Plough. 34*$ Trowel 348 Tumour 348 Turf 350 Turkey 350 Turnip 351 Turnip Cabbage 354 V. Valley 355 Van, or Fan 355 Udder 356 Veering 356 Vegetable 356 VegetatioH 356 Ventilator 357 Verjuice 357 Verminc 338 Vetch 358 Vmc- 358 363 364 364 304 365 366 Vinegar Vineyard \'ives Ulcer Urine Uftifago W. '^Vaggon 366 Wall 367 AVane 367 Warbles 367 AA'ater 367 WaterFurro^'ing 369 Watering Weather A\'^edge ^^[eedlng A^'eeds 'V\'^eevil Wheat W^heel Wheezing Whelp Whey White Scour White Weed Willow Wind Gall Wine Winnowing 369 369 371 371 372 376 377 3«i 3«3 3^3 3«3 383 383 384 386 391 Winter Winter Grain Withe Woad Wolf Wood W^ood Land Woody W^ool Worms Wound Y. 39 » 391 391 392 392 392 392 392 393 394 394 Yard a Aafure 395 Yard an enclofure 395 Year Yellow Weed Yellows Yeoman Yeft Yew Tree Yoak Z. Zapctino Zea Zebra Zephyr Zeft 395 395 395 396 396 396 397 397 397 397 397 397 INTRO DUCTJOI^, INTRODUCTION. It is much to be regretted, that the moft complicated of all the arts, in which the brighteft genius may find fufficient room to exert and difplay itfelf, fhould be flighted and neglecled, by a people not generally wanting in ambition. And it is equally ftrange and unac- countable, that the moft ufeful and neceffary of all em- ployments (hould have been confidered, even by the en- lightened people of Newengland, as below the atten- tion of any perfons, excepting thofe who are in the low- eft walks of life ; or, that perfons of a libeml cr polite education fliould think it intolerably degrading to them, to attend to praftical agriculture for their fupport. Perhaps, one occafion of the low efteem in which huf- bandry has been held, in this country, may have been the poor fuccefs which has moft commonly attended the labours of thofe who have embraced the profeflion. Not only hare moft of them failed of rapidly increafing their eftates by it, bu too many have had the mortification of making but an indiEFerent figure in life, even when they have ufed the ftrideft economy, and worn out their con- llilutions by hard and incellant labour. The misfortune has been, that a great proportion of their toil ha^ been loft by its mifapplication. To prevent this evil in fu- ture is a leading defign of the prefent publication. And fmce manv among us begin to be c6nvinced of the ur- gent neceffity of having the attention of the publick turn- ed to agriculture, it is hoped that the following attempt to promote the knowledge of its myfteiies, and a. fpinted at- £^ tentiQQ a I N T R O D U C T 1 ON. tcntipn to the operations of it, will meet with the grciitT' approbation and fuccefs. And as a very refpe61able So- ciety in the Commonwealth of Maffachufetts have under- taken to propagate the knowledge of hufbandry, the day may be at hand, when the employment of the farmer fhall no more be treated with contempt ; when the rich, the po- lite, and the ambitious, fhall glory in paying a clofe at- tention to their farms ; when refpedlable perfons Ihall confefs it is one of the noblefh employments to aflift na- ture in her bountiful prodiiftions * when it fhall be our ambition to follow the example of the firft man in the nation, who does not think an attention to hufbandry degrading ; and wlien. inftead of being afhamed of their employment, our laborious farmers fhall, as a great writ- er fays, " tofo about their dung with an air of majefly." Amidfl the laudable efforts that are now making to promote fo excellent a defign as the revival of agricul- ture, the writer of the following fheets is humbly attempt- ing to throw in his mite. He has been more prompted to engage in fo arduous an undertaking, by an opinion he has long entertained of the need of a work of this kind, adapted to the Hate and circumftances of this country, than by any idea of his being thoroughly qualified to undertake it. European books on agriculture are- fufhciently plenty in the world, fome of which are extremely well written ; and this country is not wholly unfurniflied with them. But they are not perfedly adapted to a region fo differ- ently circumllanced. Though the produdions of En- glifh writers may be perufcd by the judicious to great ad- \'antage, it would be unadvifable, and perhaps ruinous, for our farmers to adopt the methods of culture in grofs, which they recomnvend to their countrymen. Local cir- cumilances fo widely differ in the two countries, that, in many cafes, the right management in the one mufl needs be wrong in the other. Britain, being generally liable to too much wetnefs, the EngliQi methods of culture mull in may refpeQs be different from thofe of a region that is moflly annoyed, as ours is, with the oppofite extremity of drought. Difference of heat and cold muft require a coriefpondent variation in thefuitable crops and manage- ments INTRODUCTION. g •Tnent- DifFercnce of fcafons and climates vary the fit times for fowing the fame kinds of feed ; and the ma- nures that prove to be mofl profitable in one country, cannot always be rationally cxpt61cd to prove fo in an- other, although they were equally obtainable. And though Americans fpeak the Engli(h language, yet the di6lion peculiar to different farmers on the eafi and wcfl; of the Atlantick, and the manner of their communicat- . ving their ideas on hufbandry are fo little alike, as to ren- der it highly expedient that we fhould be indructcd in it by our own countrymen, rather than by flrangers, if any among us can be found capable of doing it in a tolerable degree. The writer confeffes he has never had fuflicient leifure to attend very clofely to the ftudy of agriculture. But, having always had a high relifh for natural philofophy, and particularly for this mofl profitable and important branch of it, he. has paid all pofTible attention to it for a number of years, employed many of his vacant hours in perufing what has been publifhed by tjiebcft writers, and in making ufeful experiments in hulbandry. He flatters himfelf, therefore, that he Ihall not have the unhappi- nefs of grofsly mitlL-ading any of the moil ignorant of his readers. Many things are written from his own exoeri- .ence, and from that of others in this country, on whofe veracity in their communications he can rely. Things which are not certainly known are mentioned on- ly as opinion or conjc6lure. Extra6ls are made from fome of the beft authors, and marked as '';'ch. He has not wilfully allerted any thing which he does not know tobefa^.t. And though he has adopted the ideas of others, he has not paflTed any thing on the pubhck as his own, which has beeu publifhed by others, unlefs it be throuoflible entirely to extricate it from them. It is therefore confidered by fome as a kind of chaos. That it has much water in it is eafily obfer\'- able. The dew^ that nightly falls out cf it proves it. Ten thou- fand different fl^eams from min- erals, vegetables and animals, are continually afcending, and mix- ing with the air. The air, therefore, contains much of the food of plants ; for it is well known, that all animal aad vegetable fubllances nourifli plants. A I R plants. Accordingly, the molt barren turts laid high in dikes, or fuch as in fomc countries are pil- ed up for fences, or the walls of buildings, by being long expofed to the air, become [o highlv im- pregnated wiih the food ot plants, as to be a rich manure. And it is well known to farmers, in fomc countries, that laying the furlace ot the land in fteep ridges, only during one winter, conduces much to its fertility. The tcrtil- izing particles in the air cafily enter the foil, when it is loofe and open, and much expofed to the penetration ot air. Seeds that are fecludcd from the air will not vegetate. Thofe which are buried deep in the ground will not fprout, till by fome means they are brought fo near the fur- lace as to fupply tliem with air. Numbers ot new weeds will ap- pear on fallowed land, alter eve- ry ploughing : The realon -of which is, that each ploughing brings up fome feeds to the air, which were before too low, or too clofely confined, to receive its in- fluence. Mr. Ray fowed feme lettuce feed in the glafs receiver of an air pump, exhaufled of air, which feed did not grow, nor fprout at all, in eight days : Whereas fome of the fame feed, fown at the fame time in open air, was rifea to the height ot an inch and a half. But tlie air being admitted into the receiver, the fame feed, which had not difcovered the leail fign ot vegetation in fo many days be- tore, in a week grew to the height ot three inches. A plant needs air in every ftagc of its growth. Itsoutcrcoat needs a free air to keep it in a dry ftate and give it lolidiiy. It abforbs air and perfj)ircs it. It is an ef- Ijpntial part ot the nourifiimentof plants, which enters chiefly at A X T 11 their roots, but very plciuifully, alfo tlirough the pores of the leaves. Air is known to cxift in all plants ; they fenfibly fend tWth much of it w Ilea they are burxi- ing in the fire. A tree circulation of air about all parts of the furfacc of a plant is nccelTary to keep it in a healthy ftate. It is the want of this, which caufcs thick grafs and grain to lodge, before it is come to matu- rity. Therefore, care Ihould be taken that grain be not fowed too thick, nor the weeds lufrered to grow among it, in fuch plenty as to Hop the tree current^ of air through it. The flcms will be fott and feeble, if they are not hardened by a free current of air among them. ANTICOR, " a fwclling in the gullet and throat of a horfc, and IS the fame which in man is called angina. It proceeds from the fame cauies that brin^ on ma- ny other difeafcs on hoHcs, trom hard riding, expofing a horfc to the cold, giving him cold water to drink when he is hcrt, full feed- ing, and whatever elle may cauie a itagnaiion in t!u? blood. " The Cgr.s of this diforder are all thofe tliat accompany a fever i foran anticor, while it is internal, never wants a tever to attend it ; But when it fhews itfelf external- ly the tever begins to abate, un- lefs it continue to be both exter- nal and internal. '* So long as the inflammation continues in the gullet, the horfe forfakes his food : And though he has lixquent inclinations to drink, the fidl gulp deters him from meddling with it again, un- til he has forgot the pain and ag- ony it put him iijto. And the pain in the gullet is yet more man- ifeft trom this, that whenever » drench is given him be ftaggers, ajid fcems as if he would faJi down, 12 A N T ate, you may leave off purging : For what is intended by that e^^ac- uation, is chieCy to difperfe the inward diforder. Nextly, you are only to apply ripening cataplafras, allowing him fal prunellse, nitre, or the fal polychreftum, diflblv- ed in his drink. " Cow's dung alone, applied warm to the part, with lard, or ointment of marih mallows, may be fufficient to bring the fwelling to maturity. *' When the matter fecms ready for a difcharge, it may be opened in the dependent lower- moft part, by the application of a hot iron ; afterwards keeping a doffel in the mou:ii of the wound till the running abates ; and ap- plying comprelfe?, and conveni- ent bandage to keep the elevated (kin clofe to the fiefh, that it may be the focner united. But if the cavity of the impofthumadon be large, it Avill not be amifs to lay It op>en an inch or more. " The cur:* may be finifhed with applying only the unguen- tum bafilicum ; or a digeftive made with rc?rpentine, the yolks of ^gs, or honey, with a mode- rate mixture of brandy, c«^ fpirit of wine. And if any foulnefs ap- pear?, cr if it heal too faft, or it fpungy foft flefh arife.pledgits dipt in copperas water, or a folution ot blue vitriol, may be applied, which will keep it fmooth and even, "But ANT "But if the fwelllng incroafe fall, with no tendency to digcl- tion, and it it rile up towards the neck, affecting all the mulcies of the part, the horlc will he indan- §er of fiifFocation, unlcfsicotirlc ifferentfrcinihetvirnicrbctakeii. " Befides rcpc.ucd bleeding, if he is not too much woin out, take a hot fearing iion, and apply it to five or fix places on the lower part of the fwelling, cauterizing thofe parts, that they may be fpeedily brought to matter, which may be drefled with flax dipped in tar and turpentine, mixed be- fore the fire, and ioplied warm. For by giving pain iji thofe de- pendent and interiour parts, yoii caufe the humours to flow down- wards from the fwel'ing ; and by making vents you prevent exccf- five violence of pain. Nor need you be afraid of the fwelling that may happen in the fore-legs, &c. by cauterizing ; tor that cannot be of fo ill confequence, as when it is upon the neck and throat ; nor will it be of any confcqusnce, if care be taken ot the vents. " SolUyJ'cll recommends the making ol fmall incifions with a fleam or lancet, in eight or ten places, on the fwelling ; and to thruft into the holes, between the fkin and the flelh, pieces ot the root of black helebore : And li the tumour be "cry large, lie rec- ommends the ufe of white hele- bore ; at the fame time charting the part with the ointments ot a- grippa and marlh mallows. The roots, by their hot auality, draw down and incrcafc tht; fwelling ; and the ointments ire to ripen the inclofed matter, and fit it for a difchargc. " The (aipc author aifo recom- mends the ule ot Kuptories, tor drawing an immediate flux ot moifture from the difeafed part. Thcfcarcpinur.ents ot ikc f««ncna. A P P 13 turcasthofcrnaJc to draw blifters on the human body .and conipo fed ot the fanu: materials. The way to apply them is, to fpread tlicin by iutlc at a time on the part al- tected, holding a b.tr ot hot iron to make tliem link in. " (iibjon s farriery. AMI S, an infect, which fome- tiraes annoys fields. " I'hey will deltroy barley, rye, hemp leetl, fiax feed, and rape feed. Other grain is cither too lar^e, double Ikinned, or too bitter aiul ill tatt- ed tor them. Wh^iii you find them in quantities near home, pour hot water upon them. The tarmer, when he dungs his land, if he ufcs alhes, lime, or ialtfand, he may be certain no ant will ever llay upon the ground where any of the three is fpiead." Scot's Farmer. APPLES, a well known erv:u- }ent fruit, of great ufe tor food, and for making cyder. An ap- ple confills of the rind, the pa- renchyma or pulp, the leed vef- fels, and the feeds. The forts, or varieties, are nuir.erous almolt be- yond account : And it is faid a feed will not produce fruit ot the fame kind with that trom which it is taken. Sometimes I iliink I have found tluit it will ; but I do not know that it will in ali cafes. The feed of grafted fruit will not produce fuch truit as the f;raft produced ; but probably uch, if any, as the (lock wonld have produced, it it had not been gratted. All the kinds of apples are dif- tinguiljied into Iweet and lour ; thoiigh fonie partake fo equally of both qualities, that it is doubt- iul to which cUfs they belong. They are alfo divided into natur- al fnnt and grafted, i he gratt- ed and the iiatural fruit were originally the lame. The crait- ed fyrt have been fclectcd tor propagation. 14 A P F propagation, and are generally more pleafant for eating ; the latter are oi equal value lor other vifes. Some apples ripen early ; thefe are ufed to make into cyder ; Others ripen later, and are better to preferve for ufe in the winter and fpring. One fort is ripe in June ; therefore called a jennet- ing or juneting apple. But moft forts are not ripe till autumn, and fome not till winter. The fecret of preferving them through the winter, in a found ilate, is of no fmall importance. Some fay, that Ihutting them up in tight cafks is an effedual meth- od ;" and it feems probable ; for they foon rot in open air. But an eafier method, and •which has recommended itfelt to Kie by the experience ot feveral years, is as follows : — I gather them about noon, on the day of the full of the moon, which hap- pens in the latter pait ot Septem- ber, or beginning of Oftober. Then fpread them in a chamber, or garret, where they lie till about the laft of November. Then, at a time when the weath- er is dry, remove them into caflcs, or boxes, in the cellar, out ot the way of the froft ; but I prefer a cool part, of the cellar. With this management, I find I can keep them till the lail of May, fo well that not one in fitly will rot. In the autumn of 1793, I packed apples in the fhavings ot pine, fo that they fcarcely touch- ed one another. They kept well till fome time in May following ; though they were a fort which arc mellow for eating in Decem- ber. Dry fawdufl might per- haps anfwer the end as well. Some barrel them up, and keep them through the winter in up- per rooms, covering them with blankets or mats, to prevent freez- ing. Dry places are bell for them. A P P Some may think it whimfical to gather them on the day above mentioned. But, as we know both animals and vegetables are influenced by the tnoon in fome cafes, why may we not fuppofe a greater quantity of fpirit is fen.t up into the fruit, when the attrac- tion of the heavenly bodies is greateft ? If fo, I gather my ap- ples at the time of their greateft perfe6}ion, when they have mofl in them that tends to their pref- ervation. — I fufpeft that the day of the moon's conjunftion with the fun may anfwer as well ; but I have not had experience of it, The fame caution, I doubt not, Ciould be obferved in gathering other fruits, and even apples for cyder : But I have not proved it by experiments. APPLE TRKE, py r us, z well known fruit tree of great impor- tance to mankirjd. The way to propagate them is, by fowing the pomace from cydermills, dig- ging, or hoeing it into the earth in autumn. The young plants will be up in the following fpring. And the next autumn, they Ihould be tranfplanted from the feed bed into the nurfery, in rov/s from two to three feet apart, and one toot in therows, where the ground has been fitted to receive them. The ground for a nurfery fliould not be very rich, but mellow, and well pulverized, and cleared of the roots and feeds of weeds. It is a good rule. That the young trees, at their final tranfplanting into orchards, fhould not be put into poorer, but rather into rich- er ground, than that to which they have been accullomed. For by not finding their ufual fupply ot nourifhment, they will be ftmt- ed in their growth, and never be- come good trees. If apple trees happen to be full of fruit, the firlt year of their bearings A R A bearing, they will be fo exhaufl- ed as to bear little or none the following year : But by the third year they will be (o recruited as to bear another plcntitul crop. Having got into tliis alternate bearing, rhey mud continue in it. But trees which begin their bear- ing gradually become annual bearers. Thcfc oblervaiions do not foabviouHy hold with refpeft to any otiicr fruit trees that I know ot. The reafon may be, that no other arc fo plentiful- ly loaded with fruit at any time. It is wifhcd that naturalifts would obferve whether accidents do or do irot fometimes difadjuft this regular alternate bearing, as when the fruit happens to be all killed by froft at the time of bloffbming, or when the roots of a tree arc highly manured in its barren year. vVhen a tree has part of its limbs grafted, thealternation will be the fame in the grafted and in the natural part of the tree. For the nourifhrncnt aboiinds or is deficient in both at the fame time. So tliat it is not to be expelled that a fcion will follow the rule of its parent tree in bearing. It is faid, that when an apple- tree has become barren, its fruit- ful nefs may be renewed by (trip- ping ofTal I the bark from its body, and from lomcpartof the largcft limbs ; and that this operation rauft be performed at the time of the fummer folflice. But con- cerning this 1 can (ay nothing from cx}>erience. ARABLE /and, that which is fit for ploughing ; or which has been ploughed from rime to time. The name comes tioin the Latin atarc, to plough. Any land is naturally arable, which is not too Ifrcp, too rocky, too wet, or too much filled with ffrong roots. But moft, or all, thefe hindrances of the plough may be removed ; ASH X5 and land may become affually arable, which is not naturally fo. It is ncceflary that each farm (liould have a (ulFicient quantity of this fort of land : Otherwife the farmer will not be able toraifc his own bread, roots, flax, &c. Nor will he knf)w how to bedow" his manure to (b good. advantage. But if fo mnch as a tenth part of a farm be arable it may anfwer well enough. ARTICHOKE, called cynara by botanifts, an efculcnt plant highly elteemed. It is much cul- tivated on the other lide of the Atlantick. AKTlCnOKY.Mianthustu^ btrofus, called Jerufalcm Arti- choke, a plant oi the (unflower kind, with an efculent root that is perennial. It is laid to be a native of America. It grow^ luxuriantly ; and yields as plen- tifully as any kind of potatoes- Many perfons are fond of eating them ; but they are faid iO' be a flatulent food. Swine are excef- fively fond ot them, and will fat- ten upon them. It would b& worth while to cultivate them for this purpofe : Efpecially thofe (hould do it who have not warm cellars, to fave potatoes from freezing, as is often the cafe in new plantations. As thisrootwill bear a great degree of troll, they may be left in tiie ground all win- ter. They are cultivated in the fame manner as potatoes, and ttie fame kind of foil fuits both. A Mr. Crow in England obtained at tberateof 480 bulhcls per acre, of this root. ASH, hraxinwi Americana, a well kno\>m and ulefultrcc natur- al to this climate ; ot which wr reckon three (orts, the blaek, the wlute, and the yellow. The body of the bl.uk alh is ealily ("eparai ed into thin ftrips, by bruiiing it with a b?et!e ; and is, tijcrelorfi, n:uct\ i6 ASH much ufed for brooms and haf- kets. The white alh is of tno lorts. or varieties, one of which is a fliff, hght, and durable tim- ber. It is, therefore, liighly ei- teemed by the farmer, and much ufed for ploughs and carriages, and many of the tools ufed in agriciUnu-e. That is tougheft which grows upon high bnd. But implements made of this wood (hould not be much expofed to the weather. For it foou rots, if it be not kept dry. The bark of the afli is ufed by many to make velTels for lloring of grain, feeds, &c. They are light to handle, fufficicntly ftrong, and extremely durable. The feafon of felling afh for timber is from November to Feb- riiary. If it be cut in the wrong icafon, the fappy part of it will be deftroyed by worms : And turned to what is called powder- poft. ASHES, a duU, confifling of the terrene and faline parts of wood, and other combuftibles, which remains after burning. It is not to be doubted, but that all the fub fiances which plants contain are the food of lilants ; and as tliey have con- tributed to the growth of one plant, they may be made to nour- i!h another. The fine particles of earth, and the fixed falts, which were contained in a tree, remain in its allies. The growth of ^'eg- etables on burnt fpots was evi- dence enough to convince men, ]oii^ a^o, of the advantage of this kind oi manure. Alhes were found to be a good manure, as long ago. at leaft, as the time ot Virgil. He fays, ne j-udcdt Effodos anerem '(mmumluin jac- tar^ per agros. A flies are commonly accounted a raaaure moll fuitable for low ASH I and moift lands. A cold and four ; fpot certainly needs them mcM-e than any other. But I have found J tliem to be good in all forts of foil. I They are not only a valuable manure, but an excellent antidote ; to the rapacioufnefs of worms and other infefts. Therefore they I are a more proper manure for all thofe plants, which are liable to fuffer by worms and infects ; fuch I as cabbages, turnips, cucumbers, j melons, peas, and other pulfe. They fhould be fpread evenly, ! and not in too great quantity. I Wood ajhes is an excellent nourifliment for the roots ot trees. j They reftore to trees what has j been taken from trees ; and tend I at the fa3"ne time to drive away ' certain infefts, which are hurtful to trees. Alhes of all kinds are a good ; ingredient in compofts, which i are kept under cover. But when ! they aie laid upon land immixt, they fhould he fpread as evenly as pofTible. They are thought to 1 do better on the top of the fur- 1 face than buried in tlie foil ; for there is nothing in them that will evaporate. Their tendency is I only downwtirds ; and their falls will foon fmk too low. if they i be put under die fmface. If they I be fpread upon ground, which has tejider plant*, it fhould be ■ done jult before a lain, which will diffolvc and foften their ac- , rimony : For tender plants, when i the weather is dry, will be apt to I be injured by them ; at leall, if they are in contatt with the I items or leaves. Alhes in their ful! ftrength are ; certainly bell for manure ; and ; ihey wiil not be in full fliength, j unleis ihey be kept dry ; nor will j it be eafy to fpread ihem proper- ! ly. And iliey fliould not be laid j on Iduds- long betore there are ' jof.its to be njiirilhed bv them» ASP left the rains rob them of their falts, by walhing them into the Hollovrs, or Iiy finking thcra to <> eresu a Hepth in the foil. A ,i twelve indies deep. If it be c)oic to the li»uth fide of a garden '.*-all, it Will be »«p the earlier in the fpring. Fill Axe 17 the trench half full of good dung ; make it level, and fpnnkle a lit- tle rich eaiih over it, and lay on the roots, in their natural po- fition, eight or nine inches apart. Or. if you cannot get roots, place the leedsat half thediHance Irom each other. Cover them by fill- ing up the trench with the black- ed of the e trth which vas taken out. II you plant roots, the Ihoots may be cut the fecond year after ; if feeds, they will not be fit to cut till the third year. All the llioots which come up belorc the middle of June, may- be cut off without injuring the roots : After which time, the late fhoots (hould be left to run up, and feed ; othenrifc tlie root* willbeweakened. Thefeeds may be well preferved on the branches through the winter, hung up in a dry fiiuation. This plant grows well in ground that is Ihaded. The fprouts will be very large and tender ; but they will not be fo early. It is not amifs to have one bed in a thady place, lo fupply the table, alter the feafon is over for cut- ting the firft. In autumn, after the tops are turned white by the; troll, they fhould be clearefl off, and a layer of dung, or rich foil, an inch thick, laid over the bed. This fhould he done yearly, and the bod kept clear of weeds. If the bed (hould get too high by this management, the furface may be taken off with a iy^vAe early ia the fpring to the depth of two inches, before the young Ihoots arc m the wr. But when thic is done, a thin drrffing of rotten dungorcomp>ft fhould be laid on. ASPhiV. See Pop/ar. AUILMN. the thu-d feafon of the year. See fa//. AXt.a neceliary toolforfarm- ers. A na:Tow axe is meant ; for a broad a\e is a carpenter's tool. A iS BAR A narrow axe fhould have a thick poll, as in that part it com- jnonly fails fooneft. It fhould be made of the heft of iron and fteel, bequite free from cracks and flaws, and nicely tempered ; not fo fott as to bend, nor lo hard as tobreaL Take care that you do not grind your axes thin at firft, till you learn by inlng them what their temper is, and whether they will bear it. Aroundingedge is befl for chopping large logs, a ifraighter one for fmallerwood. Let the helve of an axe be made of the tougheff of wood, either walnut or white oak. Let it be fet in the centre of the eye, and at right angles with the outer fide of the axe ; let it be fmail near the eye, thnt the hands may not be too much jarred by the flrokes in chopping, and gradually larger towards the other end. Three feet is the greateft length thatal- mofl ever will be needful: Short- er for chopping flicks not un- commonly large. It fhould nev- er be lefs than 32 inches^ A good deal of rubbing with a whetflone, /after an axe is ground on a coarfe grindflone,; is befl ; not only to bring- it to a good edge that will not crumble, but chiefly to make the blade very fmooth, that it may enter the wood eafily, and not flick too "fail when entered. B. BARLEY, Hordeum, a well known grain ot which malt is made. In fome countries, it is alfo much ufed for bread. If it be kept long before g'-inding, it vill be the better for this ufe, as a certain bitter tafle, which it has when new, is abated by age. — Barley is accounted cooling and deterfive ; a broth of it is there- fore given to perfbns in fevers ; BAR But it mufl be hulled before it is fit for this ufe. It is a fort of corn very fuitablc- for cultivation in this region, as it feemsliabletonodiflemper.inour northerly part of MafTachufetts efpecially ; bears the drought well, and never fails of yielding a crop. I have commonly gained 40 bulhels per acre, without any extraordinary tillage, and without much manuring. It will grow in a- ny foil : Even a foil fo clayey that it is fit for fcarcely any othergrain, will anTv/er well for this, as I have found by long experience. But it does better on fome other foils. It fhould be fowed as early as the feafon and foil will admit. About the beginning of May is a f uitable time. The quantity of feed for an acre is two bufnels, if the grain be fmall ; if larger, more in proportion. A corref- pondent of the Bath Agricultur- al Society writes : " The lafl fpring (1783; being remarkably dr)-, I foaked my feed barley in the black water,taken from a refer- voir, which conftantly receives the draining of my dung heap and ftables. A5 the light corn float- ed on the top, I fkimmed it ofF, and let the refl ftand 24 hours. On taking it from the water, I mixed the grain with a fufhcient quantity of fifted wood afhes, to make it fpread regularly, and fowed ths-ee fields with it. The produce was 60 bufhels per acre. I fowed fome other fields with the fame feed dry ; but the crop, like thofe of my neighbours, was very poor, not more than 20 bufhels per acre, and much mix- ed \\'ith green corn and weeds, when har\'efled. I alfo fowed' fome of my feed dry on one ridge in each of my former fields^ but the produce was very poor in comparifon of the other parts of the field." The ground fhould have: BAR liave two ploughJngs at lead. It Ihould be well harrowed after fowing ; and then a roller palfcd over it to dole the foil aho;»t nte corns, that they may not fail of vegetating. And rollnig prepares llie furfacc for mowing the crop, and raking it i|p clean, which is a matter of great imponance. For it 1% ijnpoilil)le to rake it up clean, when the ground has been laid ^iigh at fowing. In Scotland, after the grain is up, the farmers, near t lie lea coall, give It a top drelFuig ot lea weeds, which has an excellent effect. This practice I would recom- mend to thofe of my country- men who farm near the fea. 1 fhould luve obferxed, that barley mull he lowed foon after ploughing, lell t'i\c mcillure ot the foil be two much evaporated. It being a dry bulky grain, a con- fiderable degree ive for the deftruction of the barley, which allowed the oats more room and nouriihment. If ever fo few oats are fown among barley, the crop, in a few years, will come to be mofl^ly oats ; becaufe oats increafe more tlwn hai'iey. Svrimming the bar- ley before it is fowed, will in great meafure prevent this in- convenience. Almoft every oat, and a tew of the wcrft of the bar- ley corns, will be on the furface of the water, and may be taken off. BAR But the fpeedy degeneration ot barley is a good reafon for chang- ing the feed very frequently. In fome parts of the country, the barley, for want of changing, has come to produce little or nothing. Not only changing feed, but forts of barley, fliould be attend- ed to. Some forts are at leaft more produtfive than others, if not of a better quality. The two rowed barley has feldom more than 32 corns on an ear : The fix rowed has fometimes 72, that is 12 in a row. Of the latter fort one pint produced me three pecks in a fingle drill row. It was at the rate of about three pecks of feed, and forty bufliels crop to the acre, on a poor grav- elly foil. This fort is called bear, here, or barley big. It is a win- ter grain in England and Ireland. But I muft mention one inconve- nience attending the fix rowed barley, which is, that the feeds are apt to break ofl" and tall, it the corn ftands till it is ffllly ripe. I now cultivate a four rov.'ed barley, which has not this inconvenience attending it : And it yields as plentifully as any other. I would recommend the drill and horfe hoeing method of raif- ing barley, v/hen it is defigned for hulling, as the corns will be the more full and plump, and have a lefs quantity' of hull in proportion to the flour. The farmers in Pennfylvania have a four rowed barley, which is the fort that they principally cultivate. This alfo has the name of bear in Europe. Bear is much cultivated in Ireland and Scot- land ; but, in England, they chief- ly cultivate other forts, which they think better for malting. I have received a naked bar- ley, fo called, with no more hull on the corns than wheat. How profitable this wi^ be, time and experieiKe BAR txpcriencc mull difcover. But this is unrloubtedly what is c;il!- ed German barley, tnttco Jp^i- tum, or, in Englifh, {\mi\x. BARN, a (ort ot hoafc ufed for iloring unthrclhcd crain, hay and ftraw, and all kinds ol fod- der. But the other ufcs ot barns in this country are, to lodge and feed beads in, to thi-clh gram, drefs flax, 8cc. A barn fhould be large cnouj^h to ferve the farmer for all thele pui poles : For there is always more loft by Itatking of hay and grain, ihan enough to balance the cxpcnte of barn room. Regard mult be had to the fit- uation of a barn. It fhould be at a convenient diftance horn the dwelling houfe, and other build- ings ; but as near as may be with- out danger of fire, it the Ihape of the ground permits. Too low a fpot will be miry in fpring and fall. Too high an eminence will bfc bad for drawing in loads, and on account ot laving and making manures. It other circumllances germit, it may be bell to place a arn in fucli a manner as to dcter.d the dwelling houfe from the force ot the coldell winds. The nloft confidcrabie parts of a barn are, the floor, the bay, the cow houle, the fcaftblds, the fla- ble. See Cozu Hviifi', and SlahU. The threlhing floor Ihould be laid on llrong and ifeady flcepers, well fupported beneath ; other- wife cartmg in loads upon it will foon loofen it, and render it un- fit for the operation of threlhing. It fhould be made of planks, well feafoned, and nicely jointed ; and care Ihould be taken to keep it very tight. If it Ihould be lo o- pen a.s to let grain, or any feeds, pafs through, the grain will be worfc than k>fl, as it will ferve to feed and increafe vermin, A floor of boards Ihould therefore be laid under the plankj. BAR 21 The fills of a barn (houlJ be made of the tnolt durable kind of timber, as they arc more liable to rot than thole of oilier build- ings, on accouiu of the dung ly- ing aboiu them. Wnite oak is very fit tor this ufe. The (ills mull be laid rather lo\^', not only for the (:onveI^ient entrance of rattle and carts, but bccaufc tlic ground will be lowered round barns, by the yearly taking away ot lume ot the fujlare wuh the dung. They Ihould be well un- derpiimed with ffones laid a lit- tle below the furfacc of the ;;round ; and well pointed with lime, to prev'ent \oh of manure. And dung Ihould not lie ferment- ing againll the fides of a barn ; but be fpcedily removed \v!ieii warm weather comes on. BARN YARD, a fmall piece of inclofcd ground, contiguous to a barn, in which cattle are ulual- ly kept. It Ihould fiave a high, clofe, and ftrong fence, both to fhcltcr the beafls from the force ot driving ftomis, and to keep the moll unruly ones trom break- ing out. By the he!}) ot this yard, a farmer may prodigioully in- create his quantity of manure, if he will be careful to uke the right m.ethuds. I'he groimd of a yard for this purpolc Ihould he ot luch a Ihape as to retain all the manure, or prevent its being walhed away by rains. It Ihould be louvlt in the middle ; or at Icalf fo hii^h on all the (ides, that even the greatelt rains Ihall not carry away any of the manure. This is a matter of lo much importance, that it may be well worth vs bile to form tin? ground to the ri;^ht Ihape where nature has not done it. But a bafin fhould not be dug fo deep as to go thifiugh tfie hard under ffratum, th^t the manure may not efcapc into the earth. 12 BAR A yard fhould be larger or linaller in proportion to the ftock that is kept in it. A finall one is bad, as the cattle vill be more apt to puQi and hurt one another. A large one is more favourable to the defign of making abnn- •dance of manure. Not only fhould the yard be contiguous to the barn, but as many of the oth- er out houfes as conveniently may be (hould be placed on the fides of the yard, efpecially thofe cf them which afford manure or rubbifh, as the hogfty, &c- Many, who have good farm yards, are not fo careful as they {hould be to make the greateft advantage by them, by confining the cattle continually in them, during the foddering feafon. The practice of driving cattle to wa- ter, at a diflance, is attended with great lofs of manure. Inftead of continuing in this abfurd. practice, the well that ferves the houfe, or one dug for the purpofe, fhould be fo near the yard, that a v-ater- ing trough may reach from it in- to the yard- Some have a well in the yard ; but this is not fo ad- vifable, as the w^ter may become impregnated with the excremxCnts of die cattle, and rendered lefs palatable. He that has a large ilock, may fave enough in ma- nure in this way, in one year, to pay him for making a well of a moderate depth : Befides fecur- ing the advantage of having his cattle under his eye ; and of pre- venting their flraggling away, as they fometimes do. Innumera- ble are the accidents to which a if ock are expofed, by going to wa- tering places, in winter, without a driver, as they commonly do. And oftentimes, by means of fnow and ice, the difficulty is fo gr«at, as to difcoarage them from going to the v.-ater ; the confe- ^uence is, that they fuffer for BAR want of drink, and the owner it ignorant of it. All thefe things plead ftrongly in favour of the mode of watering I have here recommended. — They {hould not be let out, even when the ground is bare : For what they get will caufe them to winter the worfe ; and they will damage the fields. There fhould be more yards than one to a barn, where divers forts of cattle are kept. The Iheep (hould have a yard by them- felves, at leaft ; and the young flock another, that they may be wholly confined to fuch fodder as the farmer can afford them. But the principal yard may be for the cows, -oxen, calves and horfes. And the water from the well may be led into each of thefe yards by wooden gutters. If the foil of the yard be clay, or a pan of very hard earth, it will be the more fit for the pur- pofe of making manure, as the ejl- crements of the cattle will not be fo apt to foak deep into it. Other- wife a layer of day or marie jnay be laid on to retain the flale, and the \;afh of ttie dung, which other- wife would be almoft entirely loff. Some farmers feem well pleaf- ed to have a wafli run away from their barns upon the contiguous Doping lands. But they are not aware how much they lofe by it. A fmall quantity of land, by means of it, may be made too rich. But thequantity of manure that is expended in doing it, if oth- erwife employed, might be vallly raoread\antagcous;efpeci3llyifit werefo confined as to be incorpo- rated with a N'ariety ot abforbent and diffolvabie fubftances ; and afterwards laid on thofe parts of the farm where it is mofl wanted. It is bell, in this climate, that a bam yard fhould be on the fouth. fide of a barn. It being lefs fhad- ed, the manure will make the fafU BAR rr. as it will be free from froft a I rtot the year, diul confc- «1 ivc a longer time to ter- Bient in. The tcct of the cattle will aJfo mix the materials the more, which are thrown mto the yard, and wear them to pieces, fo that they will htecome ihort aiid fine. Alter the yard is cleaned in the fprirvg, the tarmer Ihould em- brace tlie firll leifure he has, to ftore it with a variety of materi- als for making manure. For this purpofe, he may cart into it fwamp mud, clay, brick duR, flraw, thatch, fern, weeds, leaves of trees, turfs, marlh mud, eel frafs, flats, or even fand and loam, f he cannot get all fhefe kinds ol rubbifli, he may take fuch of them as arc the moft eafily ob- tained. Any of thefc fubftances, being mixed with the dung and flale ol cattle, will become good manure. But lome regard may be had to the nature of the foil on whichthemanureistobelaid. Ifit be clay, tlie lefs clay and the more brick duft and fand will be prop- er: Ifa Tandy foil, clay, pond mud, and flats will be better ingredients. All the materials above men- ♦ionetl, and many more that might be named, will in one year become g«x>d manure, by being mixed with the excrements of the cattle, and prevent the wafte ot them. And this is thought, by the bell wrners on hufbandry, tobe thecheapeft methrnl a tann- er can take to manure liis lands, confidering the fmall cert of ilie laateriaU made into manure. It water ihould Hand long in any pan of the yard, the manure muft be raked out of the water, and hf.ipcd round the borders of the puddle, that it raav be dry. For there will be no fermenta- lion where there IS tmuch wet- ■efs : The materials Will not dif- ialvc, but turn four. As thefc B E A *3 heaps grow dry, the water fliould be Icooped up, and thrown »>rH»i» them from lime to time. This will incrcafe the fermentation ia the heaps, and they will grow mellow the taller. — It will be of fervice to fhovcl the whole of the inatiiire into heaps, a icw days before it is carted out, as it will bring on a brilk fcrraenu- tion, and make it fitter to belaid upon the land. Or if (hovelling be thought too laborious, turning it up with a plough will be ad- vantageous. Or it there be not a deep layer, tearing it with a harrow may be fufficient. BLAN, I'iiiit, a kind of pulfc much ufed as food, both for man and bead. The forts and varie- ties ot beans are numerous almolk beyond account. Butthofewhich are moll cultivated in this part of the world are, the Englilh bean, to which the name Windfor is ap- plied J kidney beans of various kinds ; fuch as the cafe knife bean, the Canada bean, die cran- berry bean, the fhort bean, the white bean cultivated in fields, and the fcarlct bean. Sivy, or Saba beans, areaifocultivated in thiscli- mate ot late to advantage. They are known in fome places by the name of tlu>ufand for one beans* Engjifh beans require a moift and ftrong foil. Nothing that I know ot will tlourilh better m a rtiff cl.^y. They Ihould be plant- ed as earlv as poflible in the fpring. In Europe they fow them in February. There is rjo dan- ger of their being bun by a fmall degree of froU, if they fhould happen to come up early. In Europe fome fow them in the broa^l call way : But the drill is better, on account of . ctweeii ther'«ws, as they w.;i need ho1, thoi-.gh no oth- er iTCatiire will fat diem. Ot beans calUd Icarlet the white are the be ft and moll pro- du^iive. As dried beans are of late be- come a tonndcniblc article of ex- p«-)iTdt!on, farmers Ihouid be in- ionned that the whiti* beans are moll prized by far in foreign markets, and bear a higher price thai) any other. Cdllivance are a bean of great vahie, and yield great crops in fc^nc of the A>rarnier parts of Ncw- CM^iland. BEER, a pleafant drink made with malt and hops. It is dif- tinguilhcfl from ale by havin;^ a greater quantity of hops ; whence n IS more bhter, and will keep longer. And beer that ii made of the highell dried mait has the runie of porter. Much has been publifhed for the dirc^iion of thofc who under- take large breweries. It is much to be wjlJicd that many fuch were carried on in this country, where barley for making malt can bc- ff) caiily raifi'd. I'he vAe of ar- dent fpiriis, which are more coft- ly. and lefs wholefome than beer, might thus he Icifctied. They who are difpi^fed to undertake brewing, may fupply themfelves with volumes on the fubjecf. — I Ihall only underuke to d;ro6l farmers, who may be dilpofcJ to brtw beer for their own con- fuii'piion. Alinoft any houfrholicr may brew, without putting himlelt to imiv-h :f anv charge lor a!i appa- rees, or working bees, which are by tar more numerous than the other two kinds. A bee houfe ihould be fitiiated .".t a good diitancc trom places s\ here cattle are kept, elpcci.illy Irora hogitics, hen and dove honfes, and remote trom filth and dunghills. It Ihould be (i*:- fcndcd from high winds on .dl lidcs, lo tar as nuiy be, coniiJl- cnily with adnjittiag the heat gl BEE 29 the fun. 1 he houfe fhould be open to tlie fourh, or louthwell, and tlie backfidc Ihould be very tight ; with a tight root proje^t- inp, diat driving rains may not injure the bees. If fnow lodge* upon or about the hives, it Ihould be brullud off without delay. The bench on which the hives Hand, lliould be a little canting outwards, that if wet Ihould tall on it, it may run oH" without en- tering the hi\'es. jVlir. Broinwich nropofes, " that a bee houfe be boarded in front : And that the hackfide fhould confift oi three doors, which, opened, give a full view ot the hives, and give op- portunity to allift or lift them. All feams are to be flopped, which would admit inlects, trom which the houfe is often to be brufhed. " If the houfe fhoidd be in danger ot being too hot, when thus inclofed, it may be occafion- ally ihaded with bougtis of trees. As win'er approaclies, ail the f earns ot the houfe are plaiflcred with clay, in veiy eold climates, the houle ihould be filled witli ft raw, to keep t!ie bees warm, watching againll mice, and re- moving the itraw in the fpring. " Cut a hole through the front, ot the lame fi/e as the mouth ot the lower hive, and directly a- gainil it. Under this palliige, on a level with tlic floor, is a lighting board, at the mouth of each hive, ot abi'iit hvc inches long, and tiirec wide. It is a little (belt tor tiie hees to land upon after their excurfions. Thcfe being feparatc, iu)t in on< piece of the length ot the houfe, iK to prevent iniercourfe between colony and colony. But more cffcatial to prevent mice, fn.;ils, and other mtrutiers. Theie a- lighting boards ^\rc fometiires paiiitea ol different colours, to dircti 30 BEE dircft each bee to his home more j readily.— A long fnelving board I (hould be placed over the alight- ing boards, to Ihelter the bees in a rainy time. It fhould be twelve inches wide, and placed nire inches above the mouths of the hives." Broom, clover, and muftard, are faid to afford bees an excel- lent pafture ; and they appear very tend of the flowers of pop- pies. Gardens, and any places where flowers abound, and ef- pecially where there is a fuc- cefTion of flowers through the greater part of the year, are moft favourable to them : For they undoubtedly draw the principal par^of their honey from the nec- tar>a of flowers. Fields ot buck wheat are good, as they continue in bloom for a long time. In Germany they move their bee hives in boats to the neighbour- ing fields of buck wheat. Bees are wont to fend out new fwarms in May and June. Much has been Avriiten concerning the management of them on thefe occafions. But the new mode of managing them renders all this unnecelTary. It is this : Let the bee houfe be made fo tall as to admit three tier of hives, or boxes, one above another. The hives fhould not be tall fhaped, but rather broad and fliort, tb^at they may take up lefs room. A hiv.e of fuch dimenfions as to be equal to a cube of 13 inches, %vill be fufficiently capacious. Mr. Tliorley directs that they fhould be 10 inches deep, and trom 12 to 14 inches broad in the infide. If hives be made larger, the fwarms will not mul- tiply fo fall. An under hive i* made with a round hole through the top of three inches diameter, covered with a Aiding fhutter. ^ch hive or box fiiould have a BEE paflage at the bottom for the bees to pafs in and out, four or five inches long, and about one third of an inch deep. One of thefe hives fhould be placed direftly under an inhabited hive, before they are difpofed to fend out a new fwarm. This will prevent the going out of a fwarm, and fave trouble and svatching : For inftead of fwarming, when the upper hive is full, th£y will build and depofit their honey in the one that is below : And w^hen that is full, let them find another beneath it ; they will take pof- fellion of the lowermoft. It is their manner always to begin at the top, and build downwards. For another method of manage- ment, fee IVhite's collatteral Bee Bcxes. \\'^hen tiie top hive is well fill- ed with honey, it may be dif- covcred by lilting it, or more ac- curately by weighing it gently with a fleelyard, in a cool morn- ing, when the bees are fliff, and not apt to come out. When a hi\ e is taken up. there is no need of murdering the poor infecrs with fire and brim- ftone, as has been the ufual prac- tice. Only drive in the fhutter, and run a thin long knite round, to part it from that which is be- low it ; flip the hive off upon a fmooth piece of board, or Aide the board under, and carry the hive into your dwelling hoafe, which you may do in a cool morning without any danger from their flings. Lay the hive upon its fide, and have a window of the room open. As the fun gets up, and the air grows warm- er, they will quit the hive, and go into the hive next to the place whence they were taken. When you take out the honey, which fhould be done fpeedily, thfi bees that are found among the BEE tlie honey, ftiff and unable to fly, ihould be thrown into a lub ot Water. They will foon lecovi'i their activity, and go alter their companions. Some prafiife feeding bees. But, favs one, *' There is but little uTe in it, becaiile thofc which have not a good ftock oi honey to ferve them through the winter, arc not fit to keep." — He adds, " There arc fome Uocks ot bees in the fpring time, that may feem worthy ot our care to pre- lerve ; fuch as have but httle honey, and a good number ot bees, by means of a cold and dry fpring, yet in all probability may prove an excellent flock, and may be worth confidcration." " The beft method ot lupply- ing bees with food, is by fmall canes, or troughs conveyed into their hives ; and beginning in March, when they begm to breed and fit on their young, it mtift be daily continued, till the fea- fon a/fords them eaie and provi- fion abroad. " Honey is not only the beft, but the inofl natural of all food, and will go much further mix- ed well >rith a moderate quanti- ty of good (weet wort. Some prefcribe toads of bread Topped in flrong ale, and put into the hive, whereof tliey will not leave one crumb remaining." Mr. Thorley advifcs when flocks of bees are weak, to double them, which he thinks the moft efTe^iual way ot preferving them in common hi<(<. He do<*s it by the help ot a fume, or opiate, wliich will fo flupify them for a time that ihev may be handlnl at plealure. Having done this, the queen mull be leaiched for and killed. And examine wlielh- er the ftork to which you intend to join the bees of another, have honey enough to maintain the B E E Si bees of both : It Ihould weigh 20 pounds. ** The narrotick, or ftupifying fume, is made with the large mufhroom, commonly known by the name bunt, puckHlf, or frog chccfe. It is of a biowri colour, turns to powder, and is exceeding lig)»t. Put one of thele pucks into a large paper ; Erefs it therein to two thirds, or alt its fonr.er bulk, and tic it up very dole : Tiicn put it into> an oven, alter the bread has been drawn, and let it remain there alT night : When it is dry enough to hold fire, it is fit for ufe. The manner of ufing it is thus : " Cut off a piece of the puck, as large as a hen's egg, and fix it: in the end ot a fmall Uick flit tor that purpofe, and Iharpened at the other end, which place fo that the puck may hang near the' middle of an eni])ty hive. This hive mull be let with the mouth- upwards, near the flock you in- tend to take. This being done, fet fire to the puck, and imme- diately place the Hock tf bees over it, tying a cloth around the hives, thai no fmoke may come forth. In a minute's time, you will hear the bees fall like drops- ot hail, into the empty hive. You may then l>cat the top ot" the hive gently \^ith your hand, to get as many ot them as you can : After this, loofing the cloth, lift tiie hive ofl to a table, k.iock it feveral times again (I the table, leVcral more bi;es will tumble out, and perhaps the queen among them. She often is one of !h2 lafl that falls. II fhe is not there, fearch for her atuimg 'le main body in the empty '.- .x, fpread- ing them for this purpofe on a laMe. '* You mull in tlie fame mann.'-r w \ . er h!vc, with the bses oi a i*icii ihcftf Me- to 32 BEE to be united. One of the queens being fecured, you mull put the bees of both hives together, min- gle them thoroughly, and drop them among the combs of the hive ^\'hich they are intended to inhabit. When they are all in, cover it with a packing or coarfe cloth, ■which will admit air, and let them remain fnut up all that night, and the next day. You will foon be fenfible they are awaked from their fleep. " The fecond night after their union, in the dufk of the even- ing, gently remove the cloth from off the mouth of the hive, and the bees will immediately fally forth with a great noife : But being too late they will foon return. Then keep them con- fined for three or lour days ; af- ter which the door may be left open." It is convenient to have a pane of glafs in each hive, in order to watch the motions ot the bees, and to know by infpeftion when is the right time to take up a hive. The Reverend Mr. White fays, " In the back part you muft cut a hole with a rabbet in it, in which you are to fix a pafie ot the cleared and bell crown glafs, about fi\ e inches in length, and three in breadth, and fafien it with putty. Let the top of the glafs be placed as high as the roof within fide, that you may fee the upper part ot the combs, where the bees with their riches are moflly placed. You will, by this means, be better able to judge of their ftate and flrength, than if your glafs was fixed in the middle. The glafs muft be cov- ered with a thin piece ot board, by way of fliutter, which may be made to hang by a firing, or turn upon a nail, or flide fideways be- tween two mouldings. Such as are defirous of feeing more oi BEE the bees' works, may make the giafs iis large as the box will ad- mit, without weakening it too much. Or they may add a pane ct glafs on the top, which muft likewife be covered with a fhut- ter, taftened down with pegs to prevent accidents. " Be careful to fallen the Ihut* ter fo clofe to the glafs, that nd light may enter ; lor the bees feem to look upon fuch light as a hole, or breach in their houfe, arid on that account may not fo well like their habitation." BEET, Beta, a well known ef» culent root. There is a fea beet which grows in fait marfhes ; and a white beet cultivated in gardens for the fake of its leaves, which afe fome- times ufed in foups. The root is fmall, and commonly hard and tough. But the fort which is mofl val- uable is the red beet, Mith a large, pyramidal, flelhy root ; the leaves oi which are large, thick and juicy. The larger thefe roots grow, the more tender they are : And the deeper their colour, the better. The befl ot red beets have reddilh leaves. In fome of the varieties the leaves are all over red< Beets require a mellow and warm foil, moderately rich, and well pulverized to a good depth. For as they naturally run deep, in fliallow ground they will be fliort, ftringy, and irregular fliaped. Beets fhould be fown early. A good method is, to fet the feeds in fq\iares of about eight or nine inches in poor ground ; in rich ground they Ihould be at leafl a foot afunder. If a fourth part of the feeds (hould fail, the crop will not be leffened. When the feeds are ftrong and good, they are apt to come up douLJe. in this cafe they fhould by BEE by ail means be fingled while they are young. Otherwile it mav be expelled that the roots will be final!, and iorin'times twilled about each other, rhofe which are taken out may be tranf))lanted ; but they are not fo apt to make gixxl roots. Though they may be thick, they will be apt to besvaruitjj? in leiigh. The ground nu)uld be hoed two or three times, alter which the leaves will fo rover the ground, as to flop the further growth of weeds. The under leaves may be brok- en off towards fall, and thrown to the fwinr, which are very fond ot them. This \^ill not injure the rt>ots at all ; tor if they are left on, they will foon decay. Taking away part of the leaves will let in the (im and air, whicli will be ot advanti!^e to the tools. The roots IhouM be taken up bclore any (^verc froft comes ; none ot the fibrous roots Ihouhl be tal.en away ; nor the heads cut very clofe. In tliis Ibte, al- fo, thev (hould be ^boiled, that *ione ot their rich juice may ef- cape. They may be ufcfl in autumn, and kept go' at the outlet, and its length, rauft be confidered, and alfo the depth of the foil in the bog. If the foil be very thin, it will not be of fo much value when drained. It will be thinner after drying than before ,- but it fliould have depth enough for the deepeft plough- ing, after it is dried and fettled. Otherwife the operation of drain- ing may as well be omitted. See Eiiof on Field Hvjbandry. BROWSE, young fprouts from wood, twigs ot trees, and bufhes. In a new coimtry, browfing is a confiderable part of the food of cattle. They will eat browfc all parts ot the year, unlefs when the fnow is fo deep that they cannot wander in pur- fuii of it. Late in autumn, and early in fpring, much hay may be faved by turning out cattle to browfe. In the former part ot fummer, when the young flioots- are in the moft tender ftate, fome cattle will even grow fat upon browfe. Salt hay is found to give B U L give cattle an extraordinary ap- petite for this kind ot food. BUCK WHllAT, Poly go. num, a dark coloured grain, Ihap- ed like the fci-J ot onions, bnt much larger, and o\ a dark bro\vn colour. It yields pleutitully, and is faid to be better than bar- ley tor fattening of hags and poultry. It thould not be Town ^n this clifmate, till after the mid- dle of Mav. One buihel is e- nough to feed an acre, it fown broad call ; lefs than half that quantity, if drilled. In the Itate of Newyork, farm- ers fow it with their winter wheat about Auguft. It affords them a ripe crop in the tall, and is no «lamage to the crop ot wheat which grows with it, and fuc- cecds it. — When the plants are green, they are large, fappy and tott. European writers, there- fore, greatly recommend lowing i: tora green dreffing, and plougli- ing it into the ground, in its moft green and juicy Itatc. BULL, the maleot theox kind. The marks of a good one tor propagation, according to Mor- timer, arc thefe. Helhouldhavc a quick coinitenance, his tore- head large and curled, hrs eyes black and large, his horns l«irge, (traight and black, his neci: tlelhy, his belly long and large, his hair fmooth like velvet, tiis brealt big, his back ftraight and flat, his buttocks iquare, his thighs round, his legs tlraight, and liis joints (hort. One good bull will anfwer for a large number ot cows. But to mend our breed of cattle, more attention fhould be paid to the properties ot bulls. 1 hofe calves which are not large, or not well (haped, fliould he callrated while they are young, that a mean race of cattle may not be propagated. Neither fhould tljc pradite of BUR 35 fuflfering bulls that are too young, to go to the cows, be c«)ntinucci. For either the cows, through the infutliciency ot the bull, will go larrow, which is a great lofs to the farmer, and a bieach upon the daily ; or at belt, the calves will be t'mall, and fcarcely worth rearing ; as fomc of our befl farmers are now iully corivinced. A bull Ihouki be three years old, before he is ided for propagation. Croiling the 'uv:eA is account- ed a matter of confideruMe ini- f)ortance. A bull pjocurerl from omc place at a confiderable dif- tance, is believed to aiifwer bet- ter than one that is home bred. Gentlemen in Ireland will fomc- limes give an enormous price for a young bull from fome parts ot England. BURN BAKING, or bum beating, often called dcnihiring, or devonfhiring, from its being long pratttfed in Devonthire. The tints of fv.arded land are cxxi up with a kind of hoe, called a beating axe, which, after drying, are piled and burnt. I'he uliiet and burnt foil are tpiead over the furface, from whence the turfs were taken, by way of manure ; then nioughed in. and mixed with the toil ; fJril with a fhoal fur- row, and deeper at the fecond ploughing. 1 he Marquis ot Toiirbilly fays, " The paring mattock, or beat- ing axe, fhould have an edge like an adze, of well tempered fteel, and about nine inches wide; that the iron part Ihould be fix inches in length, groAving nar- rower towards the liandic ; that the hole to rcn-ive tlic handle fhould be two inches in diame- ter ; that the han«lle fhould be of wood, about tliree feet long ; that the inflrtiment without the handle fhould weigh from ten to twelve pounds ; that the turii raifcd 36 BUR raifed will be about 18 inches long, a foot broad, and four inches thick ; that they muft be fet up to dry, leaning againfl each oth- er ; that when the feafon is not very wet, they will b>? dry e- nough to bum in about three weeks ; that when dry, they muft be piled up in the form of- ovens, the mouths to the moft windward fide ; that a hole ihould be left in the top for the fmoke to go out ; that as foon as they are piled, they muft be fet on fire with fome ftra^v or heath ; that if they burn i-.o faft, earth muft be thrown on to deaden the flames ; and that they will con- tinue burning fom.e days. When the burning is ended, he ad\'ifes, that the alhes be piled up in round heaps ; that when it is time to fow winter grain, the alhes {hould be fpread, and the corn fown on them, and then the ground ploughed with a Ihoal furrow, and harro^^■ed/' He fays, " half the ufual quan- tity of feed will be fuflicicnt ; anJ that it oug-it to be fo;ved two weeks later than other ground." The reafon is, becaufe the grain will grow rapidly, and be un- commonly large. I conceive this muft be a good method of culture for our cold lands, inclining to moh, which can no other way be made to produce well the firft year after breaking up. But this method will not readily be adopted in a country where labour is dear. The work, however, might be greatly diminifhed.by paring the furface with a very fharp ironed plough ; though in order to do this, the ground muft have an extremely even furface, and be free from ftones. I have faid fo much of this culture, in hopes of exciting fome, who are curious, to make trial of it. BUR BURNET, Pimpindla, a val- uable f>erennial plant, which has lately been brought into ufe as a grafs for feeding cattle, by Mr. Roque, in the neighbourhood of London. Several Englifh farm- ers have tcftified, from their eJi- perience concerning it, that it grows and flomifties well, e\'en on the pooreft and drieft of fandy and gravelly foils ; that an acre will yield three loads of hay, by cutting it twice in a year, or more than forty bufiiels of feed ; that the feed is better for horfes than oats, and the ftraw, alter it is thralhed, equal to the beft oi. common hay ; that it continues in perfect verdure, and even gro^ving during the winter ; that it affords excellent winter paf- turc for cattle and horfes ; and that it makes cows give an ex- traordinary quantity of the very beft tailed milk. I have had a bed of this grafs for two years paft on a hungry fand. It has grown luxuriantly, the ftems riling to the height ol three feet ; and the feeds ripen- ed the year it was ft>wed, though it was not fowed till the end of May. The fecond year the iceds ripened, I think, in June^ The fevcHty of our winter froft nei- ther killed any of it, nor fo much as altered the x'erdurc of the ftems or leaves. Some of it was cut up and given to cattle, as foon as the fnow w^s off, which they ate very greedily. I think this plant bids fair to be a profitable grafs in tliis country', where troft occafions the connning our ftocks to dry fodder for fix or feven months. For, on a pafture of this grafs, cattle, horfes and llieep, may feed till the ground is covered with fnow ; and again in the fpring, as foon as the ground is bare. ■ It BUR It is ilfo exct'lleiu tor foiling, or togive^recn toc;utIe in rack.*; and when it is made into luy, the leaves are not apt to c.nnible, or any j>art ol the hay to he waiteti. Thcv who wilh to propagate this grafs, may be aflured, that there is not the ieail diHicuUy m doing it : l"'«»r it is not only a moft haixly plant, but I have not Jound it to (k- at all liable to he hurt by any kindot infecis. The EngliihIarmcrsrccoiunierKi keep- ing It clear of weeds dining the firll liimmer. or till it is fo large as to cover the ground. This may be done partly by harrow- ing : For as it is a lUong tap root- ed plant, the teeth of the harrow will not injure the roots at all. BURNT CLAY, a inaimre very proper for all clofe and com- pact foils, elpecially ior a foil that is clayey, which it opens, warms, and invigorates ; and k> difpofes fuch lands to part with their vcgeutive virtues, oi which they are not wanting. " 1 made," lays one, " a num- ber of clay walls nine inches i high, the fame in thicknefs, and placed at the fame diftance from each other, in the fame parallel direction, lonning a fquarc ot a- bout three yards. Thele vacan- cies I filled withbrulh wood, and on that ilirew loine cindeis, or fmall coal : Alter which 1 cover- ed the whole fquare with clay a- bout three inches thick, leaving the ends ol the tunneU open, which I then lighted on the wind- ward iidc. As foon as the (ire had got fufBcicnt head, 1 Hopped tlie mouths of them ; and w hen I perceived the covering was al- moft burnt through, I had a fmall fprinkling <>t fmall coal thrown on the heap, and then another cover- ing ot clay as thick as the tormer : And thus I went on till my he^p Wis fevcn or eight ieet high. \V he a BUR 37 I found my fire was well kindled .'which W.I.S commonly alK)ut the lime I put my iecond coat oii; 1 II fed to enlarge the bafe ot the hre, hv continuing the tunnels, and adding new ones to the fides, wiiich were filled and covered as I he others, and then lighted, till I made my fire about (even yards Ivjuarc : for I lound it never burnt well in the middle, if it wa» too large at firll." '* I put about ten cart loads on an acre, and lound it an adniira- ble manure, tor either meadow, pallure, or corn. Tor the latter it will not lad longer than three crops, though longei tur the two tormer. And wiiti this manure 1 have made prodigious improve- ments. But 1 do not belie\'e it will anfwer ior a fandy loil, as it will render it Ihll lighter. ' I have inyfelf tried it upon a fandy foil without any advantage. Mr. Eliot projwfes o method of burning clay lomcwhat difk-r- ent from this and more liinple. See /us Ftf.lii Huflyattdry. BURNT GRAIN. Wheat is faid to be burnt, when the mealy part of its kernels is con\eited to a black powder, of the confitl- enccol lampblack. M. Duham- el calls this dillcmper ujldnf^o^ the burnt ear. Grain which is fo affeftcd, ihould not be ufcd ior iood without walhing, being very unwholefome. Grain dil- tempercd i.T this manner, is call- ed by our farmers, fmutty ; but the. bell modern European writ- ers choofe to call it burnt grain ; and they affix the name fmut to another dillen)per. 1 greatly fuf- pett that the thus pre- pared, muft be fpread upon a lloor, till it is dry enough to fow. BUSHES, Ihrubs. Thefe are apt to fpring -up and increafe in pafture lands, which have n^ver been tilled, if timely care be not taken to deftroy them. Eradi- cating them requires fo much la- bour, that farmers are moft com- jnonly content with cutting them once in a few years. But the more cuttings they furvive, the longer lived they are apt to be ; and the harder to Kill, as the roots icontiaiially gaiji itiength. ■ BUS Keeping cattle fhort in paftures will caufe them to browfe the more ; and this will have a ten- dency to fubdue many kinds of bufties. Thofe which giow on high ground are oftener fubdued this way than thofe which gro^7 in fwampy low lands, the latter being lefs palatable to the cattle. It has orten been affert^^d, that when the fign is in the bean, and the moon in her wane, in June, July or Auguft, if buihes are cut they will certainly die. But, by a fufiicient trial, I have found this to be a great mJftake. la AuguS, 1782, on the day recom- mended, I cut feveral acres of al- der bufhes. And on the follow- ing day, when the moon was in the next fign, I cut a large quan- tity more ot the fame kind, and in the fame fwarap. The former are fprung up again very gener- ally, and are become tall now in the year 1789 ; and fo are the latter. The cutting was as incf- fettual on the one day as on the ether. But it is undoubtedly true, that cutting buihes in the fummer will do more towards deftroying them, than domg it in any other feafon ; and the former part of fiunmer is a better time than the latter. Other circumftsmces be- ing equal, the wetteft weather is beft for deftroying ftirubs by cut- ting ; becaufe the fap veffcls of the ftumps will continue open the longer ; there will be the greater difcharge of fap through them, and the roots will be the more wealiened. Bufhes which grow in clufters, as alder, and fome other forts, may be expeditioufly pulled up by oxen ; and this is an effeftu- al way to fubdue them. The ex- penfe of it I fuppofe will not be more than that of cutting them twice would amount to. Elder CAB F.lder is a kind of bu(h which fprcads fafl in feme foils, and has been accoiuitfd harder to lubdue tJian alinoil any other. Mr. El- iot fays, " He inows by experi- ence, that mowing thcni Hvc times in a year will kill them." This has been proved by the experi- ence ot other dinners. The ro(/ts of the Ihrub oak will xK>t be kill- ed, but by digging them out, or by pafluring goats on ihem. The bufhes iti fwamps are in general more hard to conquer, than thofc which grow upon upland. FK>oding a fwanip, where it is praHicable, or can be done without too much colt, is perhaps the moll approved meth- od which can be taken. Flood- ing for two or three fummers. will totally deftroy tliem, root : and branch.- I But it a fwamp cannot convc- i niently be flooded, the next thing is, to confider whether it cannot j be drained to advantage. Drain- ing will fo alter the nature of , the foil, that tl:e ihrubs which , it naturally produced before, ■ will not be any longer nour- ' iflied by it. Therefore they v/ill mollly die without cutting, or it may be c\pei-tcd that once cut- ' ting will be fufficient. But if draining were not (orviccable on ! any other account, perhaps it ' would not anfwer to go to the I expcnfe ol it merely for the fake af cLarum a iuatiip of tlie lmlli»:i. CABBAGi:, ni^ljicr., an cf- culent plant in high eilimation, which, when well fodden, is a vexy wholflome food. Many forts of cabbages arc culiivatecl. The common wlntc and red cab- bages, the favoy, the cauliflower, and the low dutch cabbages are comifton in this country. The CAB 39 fas'oy, for keeping in the winter,, feems to be equal to any. Be- fides thefc, otlier forts arc culti- vated in Europe, as tlic borecole^ tlie broccoli, tlie batterfea, &.c. Cabbages require a rich foil, rather moid than dry. A clay foil well mi;(ed with other mat- ters, is very proper lor thciii. They are faid to grow well iu drained Iwamps withoiu manure. Hog dung well rotted, door dung and aflies, arc fuiiable ma- I nures ior them. — Each plant fliould have at leaft four feet of I ground : In other words, the I plants fhouJflbc twof'ietafunder. I In gardens and finall yards this I is a good diflancc. But in fields, ' where they are to be cultivated by the plouj;h, » greater diflancc. is noceflary. The rows may be three feet apart, and the plants two tcct in the rows ; or perhaps a foot and a hall may anfwer, un- lefs it be for the largeft fori. Some think cabbages will not anfwer more than one year on the fame fpot. But this is an er- roneous opinion. 1 have raifcJ them ior eighteen years in the fame part of my garden, being an untavourable foil, dry and grav- elly : And the croj^s arc Ijclter than they were at firft, tb.oii;;li the ground has been but litilr manured. Thouj^h cabbages fr*em to requiri uiu>:h nourslh.'ncnt, they do not mipovcrifh the fuil. Thi!> is fo well known to Euro- peans, that ttjey call cabbages a tallow crop,mcaning a crop which anfwers mllead of fallowing. 1 hcv form fo clofc a covering lor tlie Curlacc of the ground, as tocaufea putrefa<:tion of the foil, whkliincrcafes its fertility. Some fet TJie feeds wjiere the cabbages arc to grow. By this they efcape being fli:iica by franfplanting. For winter cab- bages, the latter pan oi May i». carl); 40 CAB early enough to put the feed in- to the ground, whether the plants are to be removed or not. I have tried both way s, and on the whole, I preier tranfplanting. They are otherwife apt to be too tall, and to have crooked flems. Wet %veather is favourable for tranf- planting them ; and the holes ihould be filled with water before the plants are fet, unlefs the g^round be naturally very moift. Then the roots fhould be infert- ed immediately into the vrater, held with one hand in the right pofition, and fine foil fcattered in with the other. This has a better effeft than pouring a much greater quantity of water on them afterwards. Suds would be bet- ter than clear water for wetting the plants. — Covering of plants with leaves is not a good prac- tice. They will be much heated through fome forts of leaves, the free circulation of air about them will be prc^'ented, and their per- fpiration partly obftrufled. If a hot fun caufe them to droop, a fhir,~le ftuck into the ground will be a fufficient (helter. if it l>e on the fouth fide of the plants. I commonly allow each plant two fhingles, one on the foutheafl fide, and one on the fouthweft, meeting at the fouth corner. The principal things which prevent the gro\\'th of cabbages, are, tlie fumble foot, fo call- ed, grubs, maggots and lice. Manuring v.-ith afnes and lime tends to prevent the firfl, as the roots become misihapen by m.cans of being M'^oundcd by infects, to Avhich the hot qualities of alhes rind lime are antidotes. The gnib, or black worm, travels in the night from plant to plajit, cats off the ftalks juft a- bove the ground, and buries it- felf in the foil when the fu« is up. To guard ngainft this worm. CAB a little circle of lime, or rock- weed round the plant isof fervice. To deftroy lice on cabbages, they fhould be wafhed with ftrong brine, or fea water, or fmokes fliould be made among them with ftraw, fulphur, tobacco, &c. But the hard frofls in autumn do not fail to fubdue them. A moderate frofl will very much thin them. If cabbages grow near to a barn yard, Or other yard where cattle are lodged, the under leaves,, when they begin to decay, may he taken off, and thrown to them. The plants will not be at all in- jured, and they are an excellent food for cattle, and will increafe the milk of cows. But the leaft decayed of them Ihould go to the cows, left they give the milk an ill tafte. Much account is made of cabbages in England for feed- ing cattle in the winter. But the difficulty of preferving them alters the cafe with regard to us. They can gather them there as they have occafion to ufe them, through the winter, and in the fpring. Preferving cabbages through the winter for the table, is a mat- ter of fome difficulty in this country. My method is, to pull them up in windy, dry weather, and let them lie, a few hours, with the roots upvrards, to drain ; or hang them up on trees or fences for this purpofe. The later they are taken up, the better, while the ground continues open. I let as much foil remain on the roots as I can, and fet them up- right together in a cellar, which is fo cold as to admit of fome de- gree of trcft ; and I feldom fail of making them keep till April. In very warm cellars they will foon decay ; and in rotting the fmell becomes extremely difagreeable, and undoubtedly very unwhole+ ferae. But C A L EuL that I may have a few yet '*;itcr in the fprin^, I make a ticiich in ihechiell laiuly grouiul, 'line inches wide, and oi equal depth ; in which I place a row of cabbapes, with the roots up- '.vaids, contiguous to each other ; fill the cavities about tlieui with foine dry flraw ; and tlten (hovel thecartli up to thelhilkson each fide, ahnolJ as high as the roots, fhapin^ U like the root ot a houfi;. The cabbages will come out in May as found as when they were put in, and the outer gicen leaves will be turned quite white. As they are not apt to Lcep well al- ter they are tak.cn out, two or three at a time may be taken, as they are wanted for ufc, and the breach immediately clofed np with draw and earth as belore. CALF, the young of a cow, whether male or female. The method of managing calves to ad- vantage is of no liiiall importance to a tarrJior ; for on the raifing ol young flock, his living and wealth in great meafure depend. When calves are dcligned for veal, the> Ihould be taken from the cow the next day after they are calved. Let them iuck only two teats during the firft week ; three during the fccond ; and let them have the whole of the milk during the thir I and fourth weeks ; and then kill them. If they have all the milk at firft, they will grow lo fall that they will foon need more than all : The natural confcquencc is, that they will grow lean, ant! not be fit lor veal. Many kill tiiem at three weeks old ; inn the ved is not commonly fo good, and the (kins of calves fo young, arc of but little value. Whrrn calves are to he reared, fomc let them go with their dairis tiji fall. Though ilu» makes ilie ' -ft laiilc, it is ;i.)i beft for the I >• C A L 4t owner : It is too expenfivc. They may go with the cows the iirft three or four days. They Ihould have milk, more or lefs, for about twelve weeks, 'i'hey may be led wiihlkimmcd milk, or water porridge, after the firll fortnight ; or hay tea may be mixed with their milk; or their imik may b« mixed with meal and water. Af- ter a calf has ft'.cked, or drunk milk, for the fpace ol a month, take fome of the frefliefl and Iweeteft hay, and put little wifps ol it into fome cleft Hicks, Uuck up in fuch a manner that he can ealily come at them, and he will fooa learn to eat. As foon as the grafs is grown, calves fliould be turned to grafs, houfmg them a few nights at firft,, and giving them milk and water, till they are able to feed thcm- fclves fufticienily with grafs. Thofe calves are generally beft, which are weaned on grafs : For if they are weaned in the houfe, on hay and wnter, they are apt: to grow big bellied. .Mortimer fays, ** The beft calves lor bringing up. are thofc calved in April, Nlay, and June : Becaufe it is leldom that thofe wliich conje later acquire fulli- cierit vigour to fupport them during the inclemency of the fol- lowing winter ; and the cold caufes them to droon, and many ol theta to die." Nluch oftener iiiay this be expe^fed la be the cafe in 1 his c»)untry,where the cold in winter is lo mutli moreintenfe. Tlirtle which come earlier are preferred in this country, being more hardy, and better able to endure tlie rij^our <»f the firft win- ter. But tin- coft «»f rearing them is greater. All things confidered, April may be as luitable a tunc as anv. " When calves are weaned, tUty IhouM n h Uc lu.TercJ to bo with 4-2 C A NT ■with their dams any more till fall : Neither (hould they be paf- tured \\'ithin fight or hearing of them. It will caufe thern to neg- lect their feedinej ; and they will not forget their lucking. " At the ietting in of cold nights in autumn, calves muftbe nightly houfed : And not be out «ariy in the morning, nor late in ihe evenmg. And as the pinch- ing cold of winter will be ex- tremely detrimental to them, they Ihouid be kept very warm in their houfe, well fupplied with water, and let out only in the warmeftdays. A great deal of care is neceflfary to bring them through the tirft wintef, -vv'hich is the moil dangerous period ot their lives, Xhey will acquire fo much Hrength during the following i'ummer, that they will have noth- ing to fear from the cold of a fecond winter." Buffon'^HrJioirc Naturellc. CANKER, " a difeafe inci- dent to trees, proceeding chiefly from the nature of the foil. It irrakes the bark rot and fall off. If the canker be in a bough, cut it off : A large bough fhould be cut off at fome diflance from the body of the tree, and a fmall one 1 iofe to it. But for over hot, flrong ground, the mould is to be cooled about the roots with pond mud and cow dung." Did. of Arts. CANKER WORM, an infea, fo called, I fuppofe, from its hav- ing much the fame effetl; upon apple trees as canker. This worm is produced from the eggs ef an earth coloured bug, ^vhich having continued under ground dTiring winter, pafTes up on the bodies of apple trees early in the fpring. They are hatched as eaily as the end of May, and are fo voracious, that in a few weeks they deflroy all the leaves of a C KU tree, prevent its bearing for that year, and the next, and giVe if the appearance of its having been burnt. As the perfpiration of trees is flopped by die lofs of their leaves, they ficken and die, in a few years. The wonns let therafelves down by threads in queffof prey, like fpiders ; by means of which, the wind blows them* from tree' ^o tree ; fo that in a clofe orch- ard, not one tree will efcape them. But trees which ftand fingly are feldomerinfeffed with thele inietf s. As they are the mofl pernicious kind of infects with which Newengland is now in- fefted, if any perfon could invent fome eafy, cheap, and effeflual method of fubduirig them, he would merit the thanks of the publick, and more efpecially of every owner of an orchard. Several methods have been tried, with fome degree of fuc- cefs : 1. Tarring. A flrip of canvas, or linen, is put round the body of a tree, before the ground is open in the fpring, and well fmeared with tar. The females, in attempting to pafs dver it. If ick faff and perifli. But unlefs the tarring be renewed every day, it will become hard, and permit the infefts to pafs fafely over it. And renewing the tar in feafon is too apt to be neglefted, through hurry of bufinefs and forgetful- nefs. If birdlime were to be had, it might anfwer the purpofe' better, as its tenacity will contin- ue for fome time. 2. Some tie ffraw round the bodies of the trees. This ferves to entangle and retard the ihfe6fs, and pre- vents the afcent of many of them. But they are fo amazingly pro- linck, that if ever fo few of them g«t up, a tree is- greatly damag- ed, at leafl for an enfuing feafon- or two. The CAN The pafturiug of fwinc in an orchard, where it ca i-v:oiivcnjcnt- ly be done, I luppjfe to be an excellent method. With ihcir fnouts and their tet't, they uill dellroy many ol the inletts, be- fore they conic out ot the ground, or while they are coming out. And I have never known any orchard, cmiilanily ufcd as a hog paHurc, wholly dellroy ed, or e- ven made wholly untruittul by thefe worms. But this method cannot always be taken ; and it it could, 1 do not liippole it would be quite cllet:t.nal. When the trees arc younj?, the fwinc will he apt to injure them by tearing tlie bark. There are feveral experiments I could wilh to have tried, for lubduing thcfc infecls : Such as burning brimftone under the trees in a calm time ; — or piling dry alhes, or dry loole land, ! round the roots of trees in the i ipring ; — or throwing pow- | dered quicklime, or loot, over the trees when they are wet ; — or fprinkling them, about the be- | ginning ol June, with iea water, : or water in which wormwood, ; or walnut leaves, have been boil- ; ed ; — or wiili an iniuhon ol el- 4er, from which I Ihould enter- i tain fomc hope of fucccfs. The i liquid maf be cafily applied to ] all the parts of a tree by a large | wooden fyringc, or fquirt. j I fhould fuppoie that the bcft j time tor making trial ot thefe ■ methods would be loon alter the I worms arc hatched : For at that | ftage oi their exiftencc they are ; icndei, and the more ealLly kill- j «d. Somctiniet a frolt happen- I ing at this leafon has dcilroyed ihem. Tlus I am told was the i cafe in fome pLce« in liic ycir But as tarring the trees is die ^ok irotiijote flwt vrc yiet know CAN 4S of, and as many perfons ot expe- rience believe it is pollible that the infecis may be thus quite pre- vented palling up the trees, I Ihall here fjive directions how to per- form It in the moil etFettual man- jier. In the firft place. It is ncceira- ry tt) begin the opeiatiiin very early in the year. Not obferv- ing this caution, has occahoned the want ol lucccls which winy ha\e complainc 1 ol : For it is certain that the Imgs will Ixgin to nafs up af. loon as the ground is lo much thav.ed, thai they can extricate tiiemfelvcs from the foil ; which is, in fe of an invert- ed funnel. The outfide of the paper Ihould be well fmeared with filh oil. The ipfects will proceed to the brim of the paper, but will not be able to pafs it ; us the oil will hang on that pan. CAR I Another expedient, much rec- ; ommended, is,, to put a firip ot ; raw Iheep or lamb fkin round the , body ot each tree, the wool out- i wards. It is alfcrted, that, though ; the inle6ts can pafs over hair and ' llraw, they cannot pafs over the i wool. But, to reijder this the ! more efiefctuai, it will be proper i to op,en the fibres of the wool i now and then, with a coarfe comb. j When it fo happens that aha worms are permitted to prevail in an orchard for two or three j years, the limbs will be fo corrupt- I ed, that the trees are not ypt to j recover their fruittuJneis, al- I though the afccnt ot the worms fhouid be afterwards prevented. In fuch a cafe, it is advilable to cut oft all the limbs from the trees, near to the flock where they are produced, that fo the tops may be wholly renewed by frcfh Ihoots, as they will be in a few years. It is not lefs than about fifty veai's, fince this infect began its depredations in Newengland, in the pans which had been longefl cultivated. But perhaps there is fome leafon to hope that Provi- dence is about to extirpate them : For a kind of Utile birds has late- ly made its appearance in fome pans of the country, which feeds upon the canker worms. Should thefe birds ha\e a rapid increafc, the infects will be thinned, {o as to be lels fonnidable, if not wholly deflroyed. CARRIAGE, a general name of carts, V. aggons, iieds, and oth- er vehicles, employed in ca:Ty- ing loads, Thofe which are de- figned for riding, are called nleafure carriages. CARROT, Daucus, i weil known and ufciul root tor iood. The feeds are carminative a»id diuretick, and the root is ufetui to abate themaiigizity ot cancers, A landy CAR A r.mdy foil is very piopcf for carrots ; but tliey do very well m gravelly, and even in loamy ioils, when made nclj .md II- eiicd to a luHicient depth. I'hc Jargfft I h.rvf ever i oiled has been in gr.tvel. The ground Ihmjldbv" i)lo:i;^hrd, or dug, more than twelve inches deep, aiid Ave 11 pulwrized. I have found by lon<» experi- ence that caiTots Ihould be low- ed early. The lall weik in A- pril IS late enough, when uitend- eJ lor feeding ot cattle ; and they may l)e fowed earlier, it the ground be in gCK^d order, and lo r , is the ground apt to be cxhaulled ; by continued crops. j Carrotj may be fown pretty ! thick. AS they are remarkalde tor ; growing better in a crowded fit- ! itatioM tfun almoit any other ! ktnd oi roots. And it is eafy tu | thin then at any time when it is ' thought propei, as they are fo 1 ihaped as to ijiled. They are fo ealily cultivated, and lo hardy, that they may be railed ia Heidi to great advantage. They will gr' coarfe, and not near fo valua- ble as hay in general. This ^rmer found, that his carrots anfwered extremely well, not only for fattening fwine, but bullocks ; and for feeding milch cows, fheep and horfes ; and that the land was left in a better con- dition for a fucceeding crop, than land after a crop of turnips. It is with pleafure that I find the attention of fome of my countrymen turned to the field culture of tliis excellent root. They who have but little land may probably enable themfelves to keep coufiderable flocks by means of it. This root has gr-eatly the ad- vantage of turnips, not only in its being a richer and more nour- ifhing food, and in yielding a larger produce, but alfo in its being never, or very feldom, an- noyed or hurt by infecls. This crop, rightly managed, I have never kno'.\-n to fail, as it is well known the other often does. The drill method, fowing on narrow ridges, raifed by the cul- tivator, is preferred by fome, and is that which I ufe. But the la- bour %\'ill perhaps be increafed a little. The feeds will do beil fown by hand, as their fliape will not well admit of their being diailed. To prepare them for fowing at ail, they fhould be well rubbed, and paffed through a fieve. The firfl hoeing of carrots in rows mufl be alfo by hand ; a^ which hoeing they fhould be thinned to one or two inches afunder, if large ones aie defired. The after hoeings may be expe-. ditioufly done by the horfe hoe and cultivator alternately. It is CAR ftot amifs, if thev grow large and rank, when they arc chief- ly defigiied as tcR)d ior cattle, though fmall fized ones arc pre- ferred tor the tabic. For this ale they need not be thinned to more than halt an inch aliiiidcr in the rows : And perhaps not fo much in good ground. I'he way to keep carrots good tor eating through the winter, is to bury them in a dry fand of the yel- h)w kind from pits. Or, it ihcy are put into cafks, covering them with trelh turfs may be futhcient. I will conclude this article with an extratt troin a writer in the Scots Fdrmer. " Let the fpirited farmer," lays he, " ap- ply much of his land to the cul- ture of carrots ; for he will find no article half fo profitable in his whole farm, as this, well conduc- ed. Few men will bellow atten- tion or expenfe enough to culti- vate this plant on a large* fcaie, notwithftanding the undoubted profit attending it. A fpirited fanner, that has money in his pocket, will introduce carrots in- ttead of turnips. He Ihould, when his foil is proper, totally fubllitute rhcm in the room ot turnips ; for it is no exaggera- tion to fay, that one luli-crop of carrots will pay better than ten of turnips." Whether this writer is not rather too fanguine I will not undertake to lay. But trom long experience I niuth prctir them to turnips on the whole. CART, a wheel carriaged, it fiiould run in the beft of pafture till autumn, and be carehilly tended, kept warm, and live up- on the befl of fodder, through the firft winter. AftcrAvards it will become fo hardy as to re- quire lefs care. But cattle fhould be frequently looked to and ex* amined ; that fo, if they be over- taken with any ficknefs, hurt, or lamenefs, fuitable remedies may be feafonably applied. And ia order to do this, they fhould be accuftomed to come home, and be fhut up in the yard every night. By this method, a farmer will* favc a much larger quantity of dung. And, in cafe of an un- commonly cold ftorm, the cattle may be houfed with very little, trouble, as the yard is contigu- ous to their houfe. Cattle, from one year old to three, wiilufiially get a living in fummer, and even thrive, upgn the commons, or in the meanell, and mcft bulhy paflures. And in winter the pooreft fodder will keep them alive. And, as our farmers know thefe things, they are ver\' apt to treat their young cattle ia tliis manner. Thofe which are io treated, may often- times become as hardy cattle as any ; but they will be fmall, and therefore not fo profitable. Farm- ers in general are too ambitious to keep a large flock of cattle : A neceffary confequence of which is, that they are pinched in tlieir food, aad never come to tiieir, full CAT full growth. Another ill confe- qurnce is, their growing unruly and mifchicvous through hunger, learning to leap over fences, or break through them. It wouhl ccrtainfy be more conducive to the intoreft of fann- ers, to keep {mailer ftocks of cat- tle fhan moll ot them do : Kor then they would be able to feed them to the lull. Their oxen would be much larger and fl rong- er than they are, and their cows would give plenty of milk, and bring larger caKes : Not to fay how much they would iave in taxes, by reducmg their number •f rateable cattle. Farmers ihouid allow their young flock a pretty good paf- turc. This would keep them out ot mifchiel, prevent their learn- ing bad tricks, and prevent ma- \ ny ill accidents which beta! them. | And it would be no Imall advan- tage always to know where to find them. But, in the common method of treating them, it is too common a cafe lor them to flrag- gle fo tar troin houic, that the owner entirely lofes them ; or elfe lj>cnds as much time as they are worth in feeking after them. II a young Hock were well ted M all Icafons, the heifers would commonly have calves at two years old, which is no fmall ad- vantage, and (leers would be fit tor labour earlier in proportion. And when they come til, ufcd for guin, this will often be the cafe : So that KHit ot the manure laitt-on it will e entirely loll, uulels a crop of tap rooted plants (hould over- take it in its Jefcent. Pi eventing the prevalence of weeds is another good reafon fop the changing of crops. Weeds will fo incivafe, efpecially in old farms, as almofl to fpt)il a crop, uulefs a hoed crop iniei-vene to ciieck them once in two or ihrrc vears. And a green hoed cr^p helps to prepare land for ptolier(', arc plentitully imbibed. See iioia- iion pf Crops. Alii), a change of crops, judi- cioufly manage part oif the milk, it affords liitle noiuilli- ment, and is fcarcely worth m4tk« 1115. The method of making chcefe, ill Yorklhiie in Krhglaml, is as fol- h)ws.— " If your milk b«i not jiiffc come from the cows, make it bl<)Oft warm, turn it int ) a clean vefTel for the purpofe, and put in the rennet ; be furc to give it nd more than what \sill make it come lightly. After it comes, ftir it with yiMir hand, till it be gathered, and parted from the whey. Then take the curd up in a ffrainer, and work it with your hanWs, till you get as much of the wiicy from it as poflible : Then lay it in a clean linen cloth, and put it into the hoop : After it is lightfy covered with the cloth, put it into the prefs : Let it (fiind in the \nr.ls two hours ; take it out, and the cloth from it. and rub it over with h'ne fail : Put it in a dry cloth, and prels it eif^ht hours : Then put It in another cloth, and let it re- main in the prels till your next cheefe be reiidy. VVhen yo'j- take It out, rub it well with fait, and wrap the round ring of the cfietfe with a garter made oi lin- en yarn, and pm it at the cttd^ which keeps tiicchccie in a j;t)od fhajie : Then let it lie in brine twenty four hours. Add a little fait to your brine ryrry time yoii put in a new chee!e. When you hnd the hrine turning unfa- voury, make new brine ; and turn the chcefe in the brine vat twirc in twenty Inur in-uis, al- wavs rubbing a iiitic fall on the 56 CHE top of it when it is turned. Wlien you take it out of the brine, dry it with a cloth ; and turn it eve- ry day on the ftielf for two months. The fhe!f fliould be a Httle wider than the cheefes, and the garters fliould continue round them five or fix days." A dairy woman in ray neigh- bourhood, whofe cheefe is mofl excellent, is nearly in the York- shire prattice. But lefl the fait thould not penetrate the whole of the cheefe equally in every part, fhe fprinkles a little fine fait on the curd, when fhe breaks it, perhaps as much as an ounce to a cheefe of fifteen pounds weight ; and her cheefes never appear to be too much faked. Tiiis may be partly owing to another improvement in her method. To the brine, in which ihe lays a cheefe after it is preff- cd, (he allows as much nitre as will lie on a fliilling. She has fo'und, by long experience, that tlie nitre not only gives a reddifh caff to the rind of the cheefe, but makes it more tender alter it is thoroughly dried. It alfo pre- vents tiie cracking of the rind, which is a matter of much confe- qi>^nce. At the fame time it prevents the diffention of the cheefe by wind, makes it mellow and fo ft throughout, and improves the tafte. But it is in vain to attempt the making of good cheefe, unlefs the rennet be uncorrupted, and perfectly fweet. See the Article Rennet. In this country', where the fummers are hot, and flies a- bound, cheefes are otten deftroy- ed, or greatly damaged, by mag- gots. To prevent this, every precaution ougfit to be taken to prevent fly blows getting into a ehccfe while it is making. For it is ccrtaia that cheefes will fome- C H U times prove maggotty, which could not have been fly blown after they were made. To prevent this evil, the milking paih, the cheefe tub, &c. fhould be kept in dark places till the moment they are ufed, after be- ing dried before a hot fire. And if the milk ftand any time, or more than during one night, the room it ftands in fhould be dark : Becaufe flies are not apt to lay their eggs in dark places. After cheefes are made, they will fometimes have little flaws in them, or cracks in dr}'ing, which the flies will be fond of depofiting their eggs in. To prevent this, the cheefes fhould be fmeared with a little tar mix- ed with fait butter : Or the cracks may be filled with a fott pafte of flour as often as they appear. But all this precaution will be apt to prove infufScient, unlefs the cheefes be dried in a dark room. As flies do not frequent dark places, cheefes dried in a dark room i^y be full oi cracks, and yet efcape maggots. Some perfons choofe to medi- cate their cheefes with the juice of fome wholefome plant, as fage, baum, mint, tanfy, }>ennyroyal, &c. which they put into the curd. But I think this is no re- al improvement. To give cheefe the hue of that which is made in Glocefterfhire in England, a little of the annotto may be put into the milk. CHICK WEED, the famear alfine, a tender creeping weed, often troublefome in old gardens, and which grows luxuriantly in fhady places. Swine will teed upon it when they are hungrj'. CHURN, a wooden veffel, in which butter is produced by churning. It is broad at the bot- tom, and naiTOW at the top, to prevent the contents from com- ing C II I •■.i; oitt at tlic top (lining ilit ^i^- naiioti. But the IhajH" docs not pcrteilly anfu'ci this rlcfign. Churns aiccomnionly made of pine. But vhen ihoy arc now, they give the butter a tanx ot the wood ; f(» th.«t oak is gener- ally prcferied. 1 he hoops are of afh, and fliould be made very fmooth and regular, that the vcl- fcl may be cafiiy cleaned and kept fwcct. Bin on great farms, and where the dairies aic large, the barrel churn is to be preferred. Its name gives the idea of its ihapc ; and wnen it equals a barrel in fi^e it can be eafily managed. On each head of it is an iron fpindle, and on each fpindle a winch, by which the veHel is turned on a horfe made lor the purpofe. A much greater quan- tity ol cream, or milk, may be churned in this than in the com- mon churn ; and the labour is caiier. There are two boards with- in this churn on each hdc of tiie centre, like fhelves, which lerve to agitate the cream. The aperture in the barrel rhurn ought to be five or fix inches fquare, to whicha flopper mull be exadly Htted, which mull be kept in its place by a bar ol iron acrufs it, held faff by ilaples. CHURNING, the mofion "vhich is given to cream or milk, I a churn, in order to feparatc the butter. In common churns, this work is very l.il)orious, though it tails to the lot of the weaker lex moll commonly to perforni it. But the li' .be lightened by a Ipr. placed over head, in tia: Ij.'.ie manner as that i A turnei's latjie, to the loofe 'id ol which the HafT ol the Inirn is ucd. This pole \viil pull up the da(h after every flrokc i whicii, whoa done bv >l C I D 57 hand, a the hcavicfl part of the work. CIDER ,a palatable and whole- fome drink, conlilling of the juice of apples.— The juice of Iweet apples contains more fpirit than that of four ones, and there- lore is ot more value. 1 he more palatable the apples are, other things being equal, the more pleafant will the cider be, when new, which is made of them. But it is believed by- tome, that a mi.xture of difTercnt forts makes the bed cider ; info- much that a number of poor forts together will do better than one good fort by itfelf. But dif- ferent forts, which are made to- gether into cider, thould by all means be nearly of equal ripc- nefs ; otherwife the juice will not agree in lermeniing. Ap- ples tliould be Ibrted according to their different degrees of mcU lownefs and ripenefs. The ap- ples which are firll ripe may be ground in Septeinher, the next in Ottober, and the lall in No- vember. The firfl Ibrt muff be lor immediate nie, unlcfs it be preferved longer by means of boiling: The lall will be proper to keep the longcft. The mod craljbed apples make the moft durable ci inercafc ; and live /:.8 C I I> the cider made of apples partly rotten will be weak, and have a dilagreeable talle. The management of cider, af- ter it is made, is of the greateft importance. It fhould be flrain- ed through a fieve, to feparate tlie liquor as much as poflible from the palp of the apples, and from dl the rubbilh mixed with it. Some flrain it through fand ; but this robs the cider of its rich- ell particles. And the fooner it is put into a cool cellar, the bet- ter, as it will tend to prevent a too hady fermentation, 'which fhould. always be guarded againft. If a hole be dug in the ground, fo near to a cider prefs that the cider may run into a ftrong cafic placed in it ;.this is no bad meth- od of preferving cider in a fweet ifate ; the callc may be bunged up tightly, and the hole covered with boards, and earth over them. The ft^rmentation will be fo fmall that the liquor will be very fweet in the fpring following, as has been proved by experiment^.— But I am fufpicious of its ter- xneming too rapidly, after it is tTiken out, unlefs it be fined, and then racked off without delay, and after^/ards kept in a very cooi cellar. " An experiment,, fays a valu- able correfpondent, in the coun- ty of Suffolk, was made in the year 1764. Some iron bound calks of cider were placed in a cellar \\hich was always fo full of cold fpring v^ter, as to keep the cafks conftantly covered, with the water running upon them continually. As the water was at all times equally cold, it kept the cider not only from the in- fluence of the air, but alfo from all thofe changes which can raife frets and fermentations in liquor. In which place it continued trom O6lober to May tbllowing. It e I D I was then drawn off into barrels^ and was pronounced to be the befl of cider, by very good judges." He adds, " In this manner the famous Faler«ian wine, fo often, mentioned^ by the Latin poet Horace, was kept, being funk ia the riven Tyber, which wafhed the walls of Rome." If cider were firfl purged of its fa?ces by fermentation, racking and fining, putting it thus under water, I think, would render it a. very durable liquor, if not un- changeable till its removal. And it need not be removed long be- fore it is ufed. Much cider is fpoiled by its being put into bad cafks. New ones are generally the beft. But even thefe fhould not be trufted, without fcalding them with water in which fome fait has been boiled^ When a cafk has get a putrid t^nt it fliould be unheaded, eve- ry part of the infide well fcraped, . and a fire made in it. To prevent cafks becoming, foul and unfit for ufe, they fhould as foon as they are empty be wafhed clean, fcalded, and a lit- tle brimflone burnt in them, and then flopped very tight, that no air may enter them. Some fay the lees may be left in a cafk, without any danger of giving it an ill fcent, and that for a long time, if it be tightly flopped. But I prefer the above, method. The calks in which cider is kept fhould be well hooped. Old Vr'ooden hoops fhould not be trulted, unlefs they will bear a fmart driving. They may look found, when they are fo decayed as to be eafily burft afunder. If a caflc be muily, by means of re- maining too long empty and foul, in the cellar, it may be cleared • C I D oT its muftincfs by burning a few matches of brinmonc within the bung hole. But cafks, which have had pricked cider, or vinegar, in them, (hould not be ufed any more for cider. A fmall degree of nuiftiriefs may be cured by a dccottion of fwcet fern. It Inould be poured hot into the calk, and wcH agitated, that it may equally affctt every part of the inner furface. They who wilh to prc^er^'e their cider in a very fwcet and mild flate, (hould manage it in the following manner : " After ftraining, let it ftand a day or two in an open tun, covered on- ly with a cloth or boards, to keep crat tiie dufl, that the more grofs parts may fubfide. Then draw It off into velFels, wherein it k intended to be kept, obfervingto leave an eighth part of tliem emp- ty. Set thefe vellels in your coldefl cellars, with the bung open, or co^'cred only with a loofc cover, both that the vola- tile fleams may have fircc vent, and that the mull may be kept cool : Otherwife it is apt to fer- ment too much. Having fer- mented in this manner for fif- teen or twenty days, the velfel may be flopped up clofe ; and in two or three months time, the cider will be fit for drinking. But if you expe6l cider in per- feHion, fo as to flower in the gl-i.^s, it muft be glued, as they call it, and drawn off mto bottles, alter it has been a (hort time in the cafk. Glueing is done by pouring into each vefTel a pint of the infufion of fixty or fcven- ty grains of the moft tranfparent ifiuglafs, or filh glue, imported from Archangel, in a little whue wine and river or rain waur, Itirred well together, after being ■flrained through a linen cloth, \V'hcn this vilcous fubftancc js c I n 59 put into the calk, it fprcads itfclf [ ovei; the furface like a net, and carries all the dregs to the bot- torn with it." /);,7. of Art j. I Cider (hould not be too often 1 drawn from the lees ; for each ' time it will lofe r<*me of its flrength. The firit r.icking, in ; December, ma^' often be fufi^.- cient : If not, it Ihould be r.ick- ed again in March. And to pre- vent its fretting or fermenting at other times, care fhotild be taken at every racking to Itum the cafk well with matches of brimftone. This is found to conduce more to keeping liquors in a good (late, titaR anv thine: elfe. Te mate matches for this pur- pofe, take flrips of old canvas or linen, fix or leven inches long, and nearly as wide as the bung hole ; anfl dip them half their length in melted brimflone. Burn one of tlu-fe matches in the barrel to be filled, put in two or three pailluls of the cider, then burn aiKnher, flop up the cafk, and roll or fhakc it well for a few minutes ; fill up the calk, and bung it tightly ; for there will be no tlrtiigerof airy fermen- tation that will injure the cafk. It new cider be treated in thi.s manner when it comes from the prefs, it wiM not need racking till Febniary or March. The above method isdoiibtlefs good. But "I have found it an- jwer well, to do nothing to cider till March, or the beginning of April, except giving a cafk a fmall vent hole, and keeping it open till the hi ft lermentation is over ; then draw it oR" into good cafks ; and then fine it with fkimmed milk, eggs broke up with the fhelh. or molafTes. A quart of molalles will give a fine coh^ur to a barrel of cider, as well as carry all the lees to the bottom. Co C I D bottom. But left it (houlci in- cline the liquor to prick, I put in, at the lame time, a quart ot rum or brandy ; and it feldom lails of keeping well to the end of fummer. — But cellars fhould have neither doors nor windows kept open in fummer, where ci- der is kept. And the calks Ihould ftand fteady, and never be fhaken, fo as to difturb the fediment. Thofe who choofe to boil their cider, muft do it as foon as it runs from the prefs. Some boil it, till it is reduced to one half. But much of the fineft fpirit e- vaporates ; and though it will be made a good deal flronger by boiling, it becomes a harlh, heady and unpleafant liquor. The befl method of reducing the quantity without wafte, if llrong cider be thought defnable, is by freezing. A ftrong calk, two thirds filled, may be expofed to the greateft cold ot December and January ; and then the fluid part drawn out from the fur- rounding ice. The liquor will be ftrong, pleafant and whole- fome, after mellowing by age ; and be tree trom that tang ot the kettle, which renders boiled cider unpleafant, and unwholc- fonie. The bell way is, to give cider no more boiling than is neceffa- ry to purity it ; that is, to boil it no longer than the fcum contin- ues riling upon it. And the fcumming muff be continued fo long as it continues boiling. Boiling in brafs kettles, even for a fhort time, gives cider a difagreeable tafle, and renders it unwholefome. I Ihould pre- fer iron kettles tor this ufe rather than any other, in full confidence that if particles of iron fliould be plentitully mixed with the liquor, they would have a falutary effect. C I D rather than the contrary. But> this will make it a black liquor. When cider is in danger of pricking, almoft any alkalious fubftance will prevent it. But fuch fub fiances fliould be ufed cautioufly, either in a fmall quantity, or juft before the liquor is ufed. Two or three fpoonfuls of ginger in a cafk ot cider will cor- reft its windinefs, and make it more palatable. Honey and fpice* will mend cider that is two vap- id and flat. But medicating it with raifins and currents, often occafions cider to turn four, un- lefs prevented by the addition of fpirit. CIDERKIN, the Englifli name ot what we call water ci- der. The torementioned cor- refpondent very judicioufly rccr ommends the Englilh method ot making it, which he reprefents as follows : '' When the cider cheefe has been prefTed till it will run no longer, remove the pomace into the trough at even- ing, ^nd throw a fufRcient quan- tity of hot water upon it ; let it lie all night, and in the morning make a new cheefe ot it, and prefs out the liquor."' If the pomace was ground over again, the ciderkin would be llronger. But there is danger ot its becom- ing piicked during this opera- tion, unlefs the weather is very cool. If the attempt is made in a warm feafon, cold water Ihould be ufed. And in any feafon, though hot water will make the ciderkin the flronger, it will have a bitterifh tafle, which will not be agreeable to every palate. This, he fays, will be fit for drinking in June or July, as free from change as cider commonly is in February or March. But I fliould think it more fafc- to ufe it eaiiier, left it fhould be fpoiled C I D fpoileil for want of flrenjjtli lul- hciciu to picldvc it ; but tlic bell inctliod ol keeping it is to bottle it. But the bell way ot niatidging citlerkin is, to take it (iiiettly from the prels, ^ive it a heating, or a gentle boil, and take ofl tlio fcuni. 1 his greatly prevents fermentation, and piepares it lor long keeping. From my own experience I can tellily the ex- cellent quality ot boiietl water cider, when it has been made in the common way ; efoecially when it has been bottled in the latter part ot winter, or begin- ning of fpring. So that 1 can give Inll credence to his aller- tion, " That in the hottcll part ol the following fununer, it will be one ot the pleafantcll of liquors, that can be procured fiom any country : And that it might make a very good export to the Well Indies ; there being HO danger of the burlliiig of the bottles, as there is when cider has a lironger body." When apples are not plenty it is good economy to iiicreale the quantity of good drink, by the jnaking of ciderkin. A cliccfe of middling fi/e will yield at leal! one baiTcl ol cideikin. When cider needs lermenting, Mr. Chapman dirccls, " To one hoglhead ot cider, take three pints of folid yell, the mildell you can get : If rough, walh it III warm water, and let it Hand till it is cold. Pour the water from it, and put it in a pail or can ; put to it as much jalap as will lie on a fix pence, beat them well together with a whifk, then apply lome of tlie cider to it by degrees, till your can is lull. Tut it all into the cider, and llir it well together. When the fer- ment comes on, clean the hung hole every luoruuig, and keep C I D 61 filling the veflrl up. The ter- uient, tor the fii It H\eor fix days, will be black and llifl ; let it Hand till it teruieiits white, as it will in lourteen or hlieen days ; at wliK h time Hop ilu- leiineiit ; oiheiwile it will impair iK Ureiigth. " Jo Hop this ferment he di- rects to I aek it into a clean calk, and when near full to put in tluee pounds «)l coarle red Ivoiuitif' land, and llii it well together, an«I. till it within a gallon. Lci it (land five or fix hours, then pour on it foltly a gallon ot Liiglilh Ipirit, bung it up dole, but leave out the vent peg a day or two. Then jull put it in the hole and dole it by degrees. If the cider be llroiig, the longer you keep it the better will be the body. It may lie in this flate a year. If it be not then bright and clean, torce it." The torcing he recommends is this : " Take a gallon of i>er- ry or flale beer : Put to it an ounce ot ilinglafs, and let it llecp three or tour days. Keep wlulk- ing it. When it comes lo a ililT jelly, beat it well in your can with a wliilk, and mix cider with it till you have made the gallon lour : Then put two pounds of brick rul)biiigs to it, llir it with two gallons more of the cider added, and apply it to the hogf- head. Stir it well, and Hop it clofe. 'i'hc next day give it vent, and it willbeHneandoright. " To cure acid cider he diiects to the ufeoi weak alkalies, cliaik, oyller and fcollop Ihelis, egg Ijiells and alaballer, calcined. But when a hoglhead is loon to be drunk, fait ol tartar, or fait of wormwood with milk and ilin- " To cure oily cider — one ounce fait ot tartar, and two aiul a lull ot iwcet ' ; and when wet viicid and tenacious. It is of various colours in differ- ent countries. But in this coun- try it is moftly either a dull blue, or of the colour of alhes. In Novafcotia, C L A Kovafcotia, the clay is of tlie colour of a well burnt bric^. CLAY SOIL, land which con- fifls almoll wholly of clay, wiih perhaps a thin {"uilace of dark mould over it, made by fubitances which have confunicd upon it. This kind of (oil abounds in the northtraftern territories ol Maila- chufetts. Clayey lands are apt to be ve- ry barren in their natural Hate, unlefs when a funinicr is fo di- vided betwixt rain and funlhine, that they are kept on a medium continually betwixt drought and vctnefs, which feldom or never happens. In a wet feafon, plants growing on luch a loilare drown- ed, as the clolcnefs of the clay will not fuflfer the water to foak into the ground : And in a dry feafon, the groiuid becomes fo folid that the roots ol plants can- not penetrate it, fome few ftrong feeders excepted. This kind ol earth, however, is thought to contain more of the food of olants than almoil any other. But fomeiliing needs to be done to bring it into action. The European tarmers think their clay foils the richeft, and moil valuable ot their land. But many ol our farmers defpife them, for want of knowing what methods to take to render them {►rofitablc i or through fear of liie abour, or expenfc, of doing it. Some of tiiefe loils, without much alteration, will bear good crops of grafs, il care only be taken not to feed them clofe in autumn, nor to let cattlein upon- them in the fnring. But the farmer, who wiUicsto keep them in tillage, mull alter them by the admixture of fuch fubftances as may ferve to open the foil, and break the cohelion of its par- ticles. When this is once ac- compliibcJ, the Und will become C L A ^3 hfghly valuable ; holding th» manure to admiration, and never returning to its prifline Itatc. Dung IS helpful towards open- ing a clayey foil, by the ferment- ation it raifes, as well as by the mixture of its earthy, faline and oily particK'S. But dtTng of it- lelf will not be fufhcieni, unlefs it were laid on more plentifully than farmers can well afford. A mixture ot dung and fand is found to be a much better drelT- ing for this fort of land, than dnn^ alone. And if fand be not too far diftant, it would be advif- able to put on a layer of it two or three inches thick. Beach fand is preferable to any other, as the fahnefs of it will help to make the groimd fruitful. But pit fand will do very well ; or rather, that which has been wafh- ed down to low places in the roads. In places where fand is not to be had, the ground may be loof- ened with other fubftanccs. Grav- el, or light loam, from neighbour- ing fpots,.may be carted upon it ; dud from faw pits, chips and rub- bilh from the liack yards of houfes, ftraw and Itubble, fwamp mud, the bark ot trees and rotten wood, or burnt clay. I have known a clayey fpot made very fruitful, merely by the remains of a rot- ten log fence, when mixed witli the foil. When a clay foil is fanded,or any other thing laid on to open it, it will take fcveral plouglungs and hariowiiigs to mix it, fo as- to bring the land to a good con- firtence. As the exnenfe of mixing it at once would be too great, it is better to ufe it for two or three years iifter, tor the grow- ing of fuch tillage crops as arc moll fui table to a c layey foil, fuch as bailey, flax, ike. The foil will gro^v batCT vear after vear, ■ till Ci C L A till the fand, &c. is thoroughly mixed with the foil ; after which it will be fruitful forever without large drefhngs. Hoed crops will mix it fooner than any other method, and without any expenfe. A fmall (juantity of dung, each year that it bears a hoed, or a greencrop, will be proper : And the moft fuitable dungs are thofe of horfes and flieep, pigeons and other fowls, which by their heat will correft the natural coldnefs of the foil. — Folding with fheep has an excellent effeft on this kind of land. Such a ftifF foil is alfo mend- ed by frequent ploughings. The Europeans allow three plough- ings previous to feeding, to be enough for a free foil ; but to a clayey foil they give four or five. The oftener it is ftirred with the plough, the more the cohefion of the particles is broken, and the more eafily the roots oi plants can penetrate it in fearch ior their food. But it never fhould be ploughed when it is fo wet as to potch with the feet of the cat- tle, or to run like mortar. In this condition, the more it is worked the ftiffer it will become. On the other hand, when it is very dry, it cannot well be ploughed, by reafon of its hard- nefs. Suitable feafons fhould be embraced, for ploughing it, •when it is neither too wet nor too dry. At the firft ploughing it comes up in large clods ; but the oftener it is ploughed in fit times, the fmaller the clods will be, and the more fine mould will be among them. Expofing the clods to the fun and air has fome tendency to mellow the foil : But a winter furrov/ is of very great advantage. The frofl: does much towards breaking the cohefion, as I have found by experience. CLE Clay foils, after all the melio" ration that can be given them, will be more fuitable for fome plants than for others. Thofe plants in general which require a great degree of heat, or a long fummer, are not fo well adapted to be cultivated in a clayey foil, fuch as Indian corn, tobacco, &c. But it may be made to produce good crops of wheat, grafs, barley, oats, flax, cabbage, &c. No good eating potatoes or carrots are ever produced in fuch a foil. Fruit trees, in general, and I think all forts, excepting pear trees, anfwer but poorly in a clay- ey foil, how much foever the furface may have been mixt with other fubflances. The roots of trees will need to draw fome of their nourifhment from a part of the foil below that which has been meliorated by mixing ; but the compaftnefs of it will fcarce- ly fuffer them to penetrate it. Fallowing and green dreUing may help to pulverize a clay foil ; and fowing it frequently with peafe is recommended. Any crop that forms a clofe cover for the furiace caufes the foil to pu- trefy, breaks the cohefion of its particles, and prevents the ground from hardening by the influence of the fun. If a clay foil lie fo flat that water flands on it fome part of the year, it cannot be brought to a good con fiflence without plough- ing in ridges, and water furrow- ing. The ridges may be wider or narrower, according to the degree of wetnefs to which it i?? fubjett. Sometimes deep drains will be neceffary to give it the needful degree of drynefs. CLEAflING of LAND, an operation often neceffary to be performed in this new country, eljpeciuUy in the molt inland parts. CLE parts. Lands which were before ill a Date ot nature, are laid tube cleared, when they are l\) treetl from their natural jjrowth, as to become fit tor tillage, mowing, Or pallure. In thole part< ot the country where wood is t)t little or no val- ue, the method ot clearing up- land is as tollow.s : — The trees arc tolled in one of tlie (lUTinier months ; the earlier in tummer the l>etter, as thef will have a longer time to dry, and as the iliunj>s will be lefs apt to fprout. 'I'tje trees he till the tol lowing fpring ; when the limbs which do not lie very near to the ground lhi)uld be chopped off, that they may burn the better. Fire mull be put to them in the d\\vi\ part of the month of May ; or if the whole ot May prove wet, it may be done to advantage in the be- ;;inning of June. Only the bodies of the trees will remain after burning, and fomc of them Will be burnt to pieces. Then they are to be cut into pieces near- < ly of one length, drawn togeth- j rr by oxen, piled in chde heaps, I jiw\ burnt ; only referving fuit- able trees, whicli will be needed i for the fencing. The heating ot , the foil fo deftroys the green | rt)ots ; and the allies, made by burning, are (o beneficial a ma- nure to the land, that it will pro- ' duce a good crop ot Indian corn, or wheat, the fame year, with.out'. i)loughing, hocing, oV manuring. ' ndJan corn is mofl ci)mn)onIy i liie fii ft crop ; and it will bear a good crop of winter rye the fec- und year, it the feeU be only ■ hacked in with hoes iii Septem- ber, bofoie the Indian corn is i harveltcd. After which, if grafs j fee. Is be thn)wn in with the rye, | the lujid will be fit for pTlliirage, ; it not lor movving. The few , Iprouts wluch Ipiiii^ up from the r I C L t 65 flumps in tl;e firfl fummcr, fliould be pulled tdi. and the ground is quite fululued. But if wheat or rye be the firfl crop, the groimd mufl be well harrowed ; once betoic fowing, and once after. And it often happens that the firtt and fecond crops pay the farmer wt-II for all the labour of clearing and tenting. It is cer- tain that fometimfcs the firfl crop will do it. The invention of tliis kind of culture has been of edcntial ad- vantage to the poorer fort of people : And it has been condu- cive to bringing forward rapid fettlements in our new towns and plantations. A farm may- be thus begun in the wildcrne/s with little or no flock. But thofc pcrfons who are a- ble to do it had better ploug+i and harrow their ground after burning, before they feed it. The alhes will thus be well mix- ed with the foil ; and the land has always been found to retain its fertility the longer, when fa manag-ed. If new land lie in fuch a fitu- ation, that the natural growth may turn to better account, whether tor timber or fire wood, fencing or charcoal, it will be an unpardonable walte to burn the wood on the ground. But if the trees be taken off, the land muft be ploughed alter clearing, or it will not produce a cropot any kind. And fonie warm kind of manure will be needful, if Indian corn is planted on it. This is the cafe at Icall in the moft north- erly parts ot N'ewcngldnd. Buc rye will anfwcr extremely well withottt manure. When new lands arc deftitute of trees, and co- cred with oaL fhrul)s, the clearing is more ex- pcnfive, and the lirfl crops not lb proiiiuble. Bui fuch Iaitd» flioukl 66 e L I fliould not remain urirabdiicd, as, ifl their prcfent flate, they are ^uite unprofitable, and a nui- lance. The bufhes (hould be cut M-ith ftub fithes or axes, pil- ed in heaps, and btu-nr. After \)iiiich the roots ir.ay be fubdued by goats ; or ploughed up with a flrong team, the plough being proportionably llrong. Someol ihofe rpots will require a team oi 50 oxen to plough them. Af- ter ploughing, the roots muft be ukcn out with a flrong narrow iioe, wi*h a good Iharp edge. Other methods muft be uken for fubduing low fwampy lands. See the articles Bog, £i(/fu~s. Draining. CLIMATE, a word ufed by Geographers, to denote a fpace on the earth contamed between two parallels oi latitude, fo far riiftant from the next climate, mat the length of the longeil dar in one, difiers hali an hour irom that in the other. But the Avord is often ufed lefs accurately, 10 iignify a region, or large tratt of land, or a diftincl country. A farmer muft pay due atten- tion to the climate, in which he is fituated, or he will not carry on agricuhure to advantage* He muft govern all his fchemes of management by the peculiarities of the climate : Becaufe that which proves fuccefsiol' in one, will not do fo in another. •' The climate," fays Mr.Dick- fon, '■ determines the times of ploughing and fowing ; it di- rects our choice in tiie kind of plants to be cultivated ; it regu- lates the whole economy of the iarra, and informs the hufljand- mai:s ho>v- to appoint the order oi the different kinds of labour nec- elfary, fo as he may be always -.ifetully employed. Nothing has more effeftoally retaided the progrefs of agriculture, thaii the C L O , attempts that have been made tcr I introduce general fchemes, with- j out any regard to the climate. j A lover of agriculture, captivat- ed with a fcheme of huft)andry- I which he has obfcrved in Flan- ders, or in fome of the foutliem counties of England, without anr proper preparation, attempts to pu: this Icheme in practice in one ct the fhires of ScotJaiid, not- withftanding trie great difference ot climate. This attempt proves unfuccefsful, as it is natural to* expeft. where circumftances are (o different. No perfon is few foolifii as to fuppofe, that all kinds of plants can be cultis'ated with equal fuccefs in all climates : It is even %-aia to imagine that they can be cultivated with e- qual fuccefs in all parts ©f this ifland. or in all places in the fame latitude. A very fmall dif- tance fometimes makes a ver>^ great difference in climate, in the degrees oi heat and cold, and in the quantity of rain that falls.'^ CLOG, a wooden inftrument, fafiened to the neck or leg of a beaft, to prevent his leaping over, or breaking fences. The beft clog for the fetlock of a horfe, is made oi one piece of tough wood bent over at one end. Into a notch, near this end. a leathern llrap, nailed to the long pan of the clog, is fdpped over the end. It may be put on, or taken off, ia an inftant. CLOVER, Trtfohum pra. itn/t, a fpecies of trefoil, efteem- ed as an excellent grafs for the ieeding of cattle, both green and dried. The hay made of clover is more fuitable for horfes than any other that this countni' af- fords. Hcrfcs kept on it will fatten, even in the moft unfa- vovirable feafon of the year. It anAv^ers well ^vhea ufed as foil- c t o ing, or eaten out of racks with- out drying. Green clover i? known to be ^ooH tecdmg tor Iwlne. -Keep- ing them in pafturcs, where there IS plenty oi tliis gr'.r-, will make them grow faft, and latten (o as toalmoU become Ht for the kriitc. But when they go in paftures they ihculd have rings m their nofes. Otherwife they will root out the clover. Red and white clover arc the only forts known and eftcemed in this country ; as to the wild fort, or \'ariety, wii!\ a rough leaf, it is of no confequcnce. It k the red clover that is ot moll im- portance for mowing. The white IS generally too fmall and fliort, anlefs when it is drawn to a greater height by being mixed with other gralfes. Many farmers, in (lead of Tow- ing ch'an feed of clover, content themfelves with fowing chaff and duft from the floors of their barns. This is a flovenly and uncertain method, oftentimes attended with .great lofs. Fowls are ufually ad- mitted into barns ; and when this is the cafe, none can tell how much, or how little of the hay feed remains among the dufi: So that the farmer who fows it, may either over feed his land ; or, which is a more common cafe, not feed it half enough. A confequence of which laft will be, that he will have no good crop of hay from his fowmjj. He muii either plough up his land again, for the mere purpofc of feeding it with grafs, or lot it lie ufelefs till the grafs gradually Sets in ; either oi which expe- ients will be attended wirli in- convenience and lofs.— 1 am a- n-are that farmrrs, efpeciaily thofe in the ivdthcrn parts (»♦ Newengland, wiii . grafs do not gn i-::^ C L Cf "V it will the fecond. But tliey (hould confidcr that the lofs ot the fiifl year's crop is confidcra- ble. Not only lo, but it is loi-' ing the beft crop that is to" bt* expected from a clover lay ; and the land will become bound and weedy, before u is filiod with grals roots ; f.> that uo Iw^c crop will be had tioiii it aftvrwardis, nor any clean or unnii.\cd crop, from which it wiil anlwer to take clean feed. The quantity of ciovcr feel proper for an acre is about tell pounds, or fome fay Ids. The price of a pound is from eight pence to oiu* fhillinj^. 1 lie* coif of the feed need not terrify a fanner ; bcc.ui.'i- !'.c will bemortt than paid doubJe lor the feed, by the advantage the firft ycar'^ crop will rccei^-c from a good feeding of the ground. It is no fmall recommenflation of this giaf:"., that it is adapted to a foil, that is fuitablc for Karce- ly any other graifos, -whic!! arc cultivated in tiiis country' ; to a foil that is dry, light and L.ndy. It does well a Ho oi\ gravel and loam. A v.ct fori is not good for this grafs, efpeciaily if watei and ice apiM!jr }>n it in the* win- ter, or fpnng. In rr-fecfflrought, it is lucky for fai-mers to have fome of their mowing lands in this grafs : It bears drought bet- ter than molt other gratfes, a'; might be cxpeclcd for two rea- fons— becaule it is fo early as t«* be grown up to maturity, beforr the hotteft part of funimer, when tlic fevereft dfoiight<; molf com- monly happ^-n ; and becaule the plants, being tap rooted, draw great pan of tluir nourilhmcnt from a depth, where the foil is not much affctfed with an early drought. I !'■''• V ■ -'riicnd .. ... . . ., V r tlie grau". 68 C L O grain is up. and harro'.ving it in ; and they tell us the harrowing will not damage the corn, but rather be a fer^'ice to it, when it is eitherfpringorwintergrain. That it fhould be fowed in the fpring is granted, unlefs it be in coun- tries where there are no fevere winter frofts. The young plants, ■which come up in the tall, can- not bear the froft fo well as tbofe which have had a whole fummer to bring them on towards matUT lily. Their reafon for not fow- ing it at the fa-ne time as the grain it grows with, is an appre- hended danger ot its growing fo fall as to obitrucrt the growth of the gram. But I have never found this to be the cafe in tact. Mr. tliot recommends a dif- ferent method, which is plough- ing in the feed ; which, he thinks, and not without reafon, will caufe it to bear drought the bet- tf^r, and become the more ftrong- ly rooted. I believe I may add, that it will be more likely to ef- cape in the hbih of winter, which are fo intenfe in this country, as tiften to kili almoU whole fields o{ clover. Peat alhes are faid to be a ve- ry proper drelFing for clover grounds. — But this grafs anfwers lo well in this country without rnanure, that the farmers choofe to fet apart the whole oi the ma- nure that they can get for other purpofes. Some think clover is {o far from needing any manure, that it will recruit lands which are worn out. That it will do it more than other graffes I cannot yet fee any reafon to believe. It will bear no crop worth mowing, on lands which are quite exhaust- ed. But it is probable it may produce good crops, on lands \vhich are much impoverilhed pear the furface, by bearing C L O pJants with fhort, fibrou';, cr hor* izontal roots ; becaufe clover fends its main roots to a great depth. And while a field lies feveral years in clover, the foil near tlie furface may be confider- ably recruited. But whether the land on the whole will be in better heart, ziutr feveral heavy crops of clover are taken from it, and no manure laid on, feems rather doubtful. Writers on agriculture feem, however, to be agreed, that a clo, ver lay is proper for the culture of wlieat. The rotting of its large roots and flalks may an-r fwer as a good manure, no ways adapted to diftemper the wheat, as fome other manures are thought to be. Some fKilful farmers infifl much on the propriety of fow- ing clover feed with barley. I fu'ppofe it will anfwer well with ! ajmoff any grain that we call En- gl ifh. But with a crop of peafe, or with any other crop that forms a clofe (hade to the foil, it will not anfwer. Tlie young plants muft have fome advantage of the iun and air, or they will not live. And if it be fown with flax, at leaft in foroe loofe foils, the pull- ing ot the flax will be apt to e- radicate much of the clover. — Crops which lodge are alfo de- ll ructive to the young clover, by forrning fo clofe a cover as to ftifle it. Therefore, when clo- ver {ced is fown, either with barley or flax, the ground fhouid be rather under than over feeded, to prevent lodging. Clover being an early grafi, it is commonly fit to cut in June. When halt the heads are turned from red to brown, and on the decay, it is- the right time to mow it. But if the {^ed is to be faved for ufe. it mufl fland till it is all ^ead ripe, both heads and l>9lks. C L- O fia;k.<;. It rcquiirs more care to m.ikc clover into buy than tnofl otIicT j?r^lles. 'LUai which is mowcfl in a rKornmg ihould he (ipreaH. turnefl. and T\krd uy be- fore night. 1 he next day, it the weather he fair, it niuft be open- ed, ftirred once or twice, and rocked up aj^ain. Then, after IweatinR a day or two, it may b<» put into the barn. K^nk. clover requirc> much more diym;; than that which is <»f a moderate growth. And tl»e hay is not fo good. In tlie nioft fouthcrly parts of Newengland, land in ^ood heart will bear two creeps of clover in a year. Mr. tliot, therefore, rec- ommends lavinc; the iecond crop for feed, the nrff crop having been mowed early. But two crops are not to be obtained in the northern pans of this coun- try. And, it they were, fo fre- quent a cutting would be apt to make the roots Ihortcr lived. It is advifable to pafture it in May, and then let it grow for feed. It is bed to cut clover for feed on land that is foon to be broken up : Becaufe a crop of Cced weakens the roots much more than a crop of hay ; and it is doubtful whether it will f)ear any confiderable crop aitenvards. Indeed, no crop of clover is of an^ RTeat importance ft>r hay, after the ferond year. For it is a biennial plant. The white clover, vuij;jriy called honeyfuckle, is an excel- lent grafs, and fcems ver>' natur- al to this country : But when fown by itfelf, it does not grow tall enough for mowing. It is good i(ir feeding in paflures. during the lore part of fummer, at which time it often appears m ;;reat plenty. The hop clover is new in rliis country, but fcems to appear not COL 6) very promifing. It is faid to flourifh on tise nioft barren fands, and continue long in any foil. It is of two . kinds, large and iniail, and the heads are yellow. 1 once fowed a fmall bed of iu It did not profper, being almofl wholly deftroycd by the follow- ing winter. 1 he l'.urope;jiri-int giren clover, for fear of their he- ing Jicvfri with it. as it is called, or i'o fwelled by eating it greedi- ly, as to be kiU:?d by it. But this is an inconvenience, which I have never known to take place in this country'. 1 he way to fave the lite of hoven bcalfs, is, to flab them between the hip and the Ihort ribs, where the {welling nfcs highell. It is performed with a narrow, (harp pointed knife, which makes an orifice in the maw, and lets out the air that oppreffes. 7 he wound foon heals ot itfell. COLE SEED, Brajua Rnpr. " This plant, which is generally known by the title of rape, or cole feed, is much cultivated in the iflc of Ely, and fome other parts of England, for its feed, from which the rape oil is drawn; and it hath been alii) cultivated of late years, in other places, for feeding of cattle, to great advan- tage. "The cole feed, when cultivat- ed for feeding of cattle, fliould be fown about the middle of Jui]e. I he ground Ihould be prepared for it in the fame manner as for turnips. The quantity of feeds for an acre of land is from fix to ciglit pouutlt, and as the pri :e of feed is not great, it is better to allow eight pcninds ; for if he plants are t<»<> dole in any part, they may becafily thinned, when tiic ground is hoed ; which mull bo yO COL be performed in the lame naan- iier as is praftifed tor turnips, with this difference only, oi leaving thefe much nearer to- gether ; for as they have fibrous roots and flender llalks, fo they do not require near fo much room. Thefe plants fiiouJd have a fecond hoeing, about five or lix weeks after the firft, which, it well performed in dry weath- er, will entirely defiroy the weeds, fo that they will require 1:0 farther culture. " Where there is not an im- mediate want cf food, thefe plants had better be kept as a referve for hard weather, or fpring feed, when there may be a fcarcity of other green iood. If the heads are cut off, arKi die llalks left in the ground, they will Ihoot again early in the jpring, and produce a good fec- ond crop in April, whidi may be either fed off, or permitted to run to feeds, as is the pra6lice where this is cultivated tor the feeds : But if the firll is fed down, there ihoiild be care taken that the cattle do not dellroy the ilems, or pull them out ot the ground. As this plant is fo hardy as not to be deftroyed by froft, £0 it is of great fervice in hard winters for feeding of ev/es ; for \vhen the ground is fo hard fro- zcn as that turnips cannot be taken up, thefe plants may be cut off. for a conflant fupply. This v,ill affoid late tood after the turnips are run to teed ; and if tt is afterwards permitted to iland for feed, one acre will pro- duce as much as. at a moderate computation, will fell tor fivn, and to dcUroy all .ill i<.(.i. -. ot weeds. They thouid be kept, if prafti- cable, in a temperate degree of m nllure. If they lie too wet, they will turn four, and not pu- trefy : It too dry, there will be no fermentation at all. Comports are ellcemcd better than dune for the drelTing of land for w-hcat. as there is not (o much danger of diffempering the grain, nor of incrcafing the growth of weeds, nor of propa- gating infcfls. A compoft of clay, turf, ditch earth, witn lime, foot, or afhes, is an excellent drelTmg for grafs lands. The time to lay it on is in autumn. Nerther would it be i amifs to do it in liie fpring ; on- 1 ly at carting it on would be apt ' to injure the furface when it is ! wet and foft. See Dunghill. j COPSE, Of COPPICE, a: piece of underwood. " When ' a copfe is intended to be raifed 1 fro.n mail or feed, the ground is | ploughed in the fame manner as ; for corn ; and, either in autumn • or in fpring, giKxl /lore of fuch marts, nuts, feeds, berries, &c. \ are to be fown with the grafs, ! which crop is to be cut, and then \ the land laid for wood, liiey may alfo be planted about au- ' tumn with young fcts, or plants, ' in rows about ten or fifteen feet \ diAance. If the copfes happen to grow ihirv, the bc-rt way of . thick? m is, to lay fome of the or laye.sof th'- trees, ih^t J c !jti:reft to the i places, on t!ie ground, or a ! m the ground. Tlicfc, detaincil with hooks, and covered %m:1i ti^^ mould, at a compc'.ent ' COR 7« depth, Will produce a world of fuckers, and tlucken a co]>fc fpccdilv . " Did. of Arts. CORN, the farinaceous feeds of certain vegetables, of whicfi bread is ma»le. But the name is lifually applied, not only to the feeds, but to plants whub pro- duce tliem. As thefe feeds are various, tlvc idea commonly aflixed lo tbc word corn, differs in different countries, according as one or another fort is moll cultivatcd. In this country it is chiefly ap- plied to maize, or Indian corn- But in Europe it is a general I name of grain, including wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice, buck, wheat, ii:c. It is greatly to be wiflied that feveral Rinds cf corn were raifed in greater plenty, in tlic norther- ly parts of Ncwengland ; that we might no longer depend up- on imponation forthofc necella- ry articles, while wc are fo poor- ly able to make lemitiances for them in our own produce. I am perluaded, the fame quantity of labour, which is ufed for this, purpoie, and on a leis quantity of foil, if wifely applied, would produce the happy effett. Ni> fort of corn fhoiiid be fown on a foil which is naturally unfuit- able for ii. Mai/e, for inllance, not on cl.iy, nor wheat upoa fand, or gravel. Neither fhould attempts be made to raife grain without luflicicni tillage ; that fo what is done may not be la- bour thrown away. It is ridicu- lous, in ordinary cafes, to liopc Un a large crcp of grain fro;u one ploughinj; ; or to imagine th^t the <;r,iiii will be plump ^nd :l i'j fufferrd. to be weeds. In the old- It couMti'.c*, farmers do not fow wheat, nor Icaiccly dnv i,t' ■•.^ grsit^ till after two r' • , 72 C O W ploLighings : And tliey make as much account of weeding their grain, in fome places, as we do of weeding our gardens. The more tillage is given to land, the lefs maj}ure is needed : And the increai'e of crops would richly pay for the extra tillage. The cofl of fecond and third ploughings is but little, as it miiy be performed with one horfe, or a fmall yoke of oxen. The only grain, to which w-e afford near, enough tillage is In- dian corn : But even to this more might be profitably appli- ed. They who hand hoe it without ploughing are no fmall lofers by that management. See more concerning corn, under W/ieaf, Rye, Barley, &c. COULTER, an important part of a plough. See Plough. COW, " the female of the ox kind. The marks of a good •cow, according to fome, are thefe : The forehead broad, the eyes black, the horns large and clean, the neck long and flraight, the belly large and deep, the thighs thick, the legs round with Ihort joints, and the feet broad and thick. — Red cows are faid to give the bell milk, and black ones to bring the bed calves. But the cow that gives milk longeif is the moll beneficial for breeding and profit, efpecially where one only is kept. Juit before calving, cows fhould be very well fed ; and if they calve \^ winter, their drink fhould be a little warmed, a day and a night after their calving." Did. of Arts. I may add here, if the cleaning of a cow after calving be delay- ed, it may be promoted by giv- ing her a pail of warm water vrith iome afhes in it. Cows fhould be milked regu- larly, morning and evening, and C (5 W always at the fame hours, a^ nearly as may be. At fix in the morning, and fix at night, is a good general rule, as the times of milking will be equidiftant from each other. But if they are milked three times a day, as a modern writer on hufbandry recommends, it may be done zrt five, one and eight. He believes that if they afe full fed, they will give half as much again milk, if milked thrice as if only twice. At the fame time, it would pre- vent a too great diflention of their bags, to which our beft cows aie liable. If the milking be once omitted, they will give much more at the next milking ; but it will caufe them to give lefs mik on the whole, and tend to dry them up. No animals that we keep are more profitable than cows, Sup- pofing a cov/ to yield one gallon of milk per day, one day with another, tor forty weeks, (and it is a poor cow th«t wiir not d6 more th^ra this in a yearj at only- two pence per quart, the milk, will conie to 9I, 6s, 8d, which will pay tor her body, and for her year's keeping. The c;car profit of a cow, therefore, in two years, may be allowed to be a - bout lol. fuppofing her to be worth 5I. and her keeping to coll 4I. 6s. 8d. per annum. But in fome places their keeping is low- er than this ; and ottentimes a cow may be purchafed for ten or twelve dollars. COW HOUSE, that apart- ment in a barn, in which cows and other neat cattle, are tied up and fed, during the winter,- and part ci autumn and fpring. Farmers may think they need but little teaching concerning thefe apartments, as they have been fo long acquainted with thein. But I ihall take the lib- erty cow f \'c them the foUo'.ving i>, which they may rc- '.cn f or rnett, as they think fit. Irt the hril place, it is ot no fmali importance that the Moor under .i cow iioulc he very tipht, io that none ot the ftale may be loft, which i% ot great value as a r'. '. :,:rc, when mixed with other 1 .: itances. A iamier would he no more bUmeworihy for throwing away the dung than the urine ot bealls, which con- tains abundance of fertilizing ' ^ and oils. But it it be fut- ti re i to run through the lloor, it IS entirely loft. The defcending pofition of the floor has been inentioned under 'he article Gi///(r.' This defcent will conver the ftale through the chinks in the fide ot the bar.n, unlefs fomc camion ~be ufed to prevent it. One edgeol a plank may be fitted to the fill, nailed to the polls of the buildmg, and [ ihc joint between that and the '' " :".?d. Or a ouaniity of i : may be laid along on ' the Iiil. Green fods willanlwer I as well. It will take fcvcral '-art loads for a long apartment. This earth will he gradually tak- en up and mixed with the dung, as it is fhcr\"e!ed out during the winter. Or if lods are ufed they Avill be well impregnated with tiie excrements of the cattle, and partly diHolved, by lying from irtll to fpring in fuch a fttuation. It" the dung be clefigncd for a y foil, clay will be the t>cft ' ■:■'.'. for this purpofc ; it for a « Iws' foil, faiid will be moft I i.,v r. Any kind ot e.irfh, how- r:\:. will lervo to ablorb aiui prt i-rve 'he flale. — But if a rarm- *-r clMKife to lay ftraw, wt-eds, i»r Ii^rn doll, for i^ .le, I rvill not confcnti; • '.ink ftnh is better, as rt ,. n! L- • trjcr ^om wccJ-i, and iVjiicr fit toufc K COW 73 as a manure, than thofc vegeta- ble fubftanccs. After this earth is thrown out and mixed with the dung in the heaps, it will be ot fervice in prc\ cnung the evap- oration, and loakiiig away of the bell part of the manure. ^V iicn a farmer thinks hlmfelf not well able to be at the ex- penfe ot a floor of good planks, let him get a quantity of gooil clay, make mortar, and lay a bed of It a foot thick or more, tor a floor ; giving it a pmper defcent backwards, that the cattle may lie diy, and raifing it at the hind- er border, to prevent the cfcapc of the urine. The floor will grow thinner by being gradually Ihoveled up with the dung ; but it is eafy to repair it ; and the tafter it wears away, the more the quantity ot manure is in- creafed. Alfo, tlie floors over a cow houfe fhould be more tight than they commonly arc. It would prevent the defcent of dutt and chaff. It would caufe the hay above it to be lefs injur- ed by the air ; as well as left contaminated by the breath ok* the cattle, and the fteam of their excremems. There are diflferent ways of tying up cattle. Some prefer one way, and fome another. I prefer ftanchions to bows : Not only becaufe the cattle take up lefs room in this w«y, but are lefs apt to walle their fod.ler. They arc alio more fecure in this way ; fo that ihcy do not fo often break loofe, and worry and wouitd each other. A cow Innife Ihould be in the fomhcrly pan i>l a bam, when it can well bo li> ordered. The rattle will be lefs pinchwl with the col«l nortlit-rly winds. An- ot* " -.. that the heips o: ^ . jui on that fide, bciiig n C R E being in a funny place, will be thawed earlier in the fpring, fo as to be fit to be carted out in feafon. On the north fide, ice will fometimes remain in the heaps, or under them, till the laft of Alay, or beginning of June, In this ciimate, canle muft be houfed near half the year ; from the middle of November to the laft of April, and occafionally at other times. Though they muft have fodder for two or three weeks before and after thefe pe- riods, I think it advifable to let them lie in the barn yard, and eat out of a rack, unlefs the weather be ftormy or the air un- commonly cold. For if they be kept too warm in the fall, they will become tender, and not win- ter fo well ; or if lodged too warm in the fpring, they are more apt to be loufy. CRADLE, a frame joined to a fithe, ufeful in harvefting, by the help of vv'hich, three times the quantity ot grain may be cm down in a given time that can be with a fickle, and laid tolera-- bly even and regular, for bind- ing in bundles. It is oftener ufed for cutting oars and rye than for wheat. There is dan- ger, however, of too much wafte in cradling, when the corn is thick and heavy, or does not iland upright ; the labour alfo would be too painful and tire- fome. CREAM, the fat part of milk which rifes to the furface. To produce the greateil quan- tity of cream, the pans in which the m.ilk is fet thould be flat Ihap- cd, fo that the milk may not be more than three inches deep, Thofe in common ufe are not much air.ifs. They (hould be well fcaided with hot water, as often as milk is fet in them, and be thoroughly cooled. If the C R O place v.-here milk is fet be torn warm, it will be apt to turn four» before the cream has had fuffi- cient time to afcend ; and none will rife after the milk begins to coagulate. If the place be too dry, the cream will become tough and hard before it is taken oiF, If the place be fo cold as to freeze the milk, every one knows that but little cream wnW be gotten from it. The time of fkimming muft be regulated by the weather, and other circum- ftances : But nearly the whole will rife to the top in twenty four hours. In large dairies it may be troublefome to let it Hand longer. In the Scots Farmer, the fol- lowing method of fkimming is recommended. "The maid gent- ly raifes the difh, laying the lip of it on a large pan, and with her fingers ends fhe divides the cream near the lip of the difh, in fuch a manner that the milk which is underneath may be poured into the great pan through this divifion, leaving the cream by itfelf in the difh." Some fet their milk in trays lined with lead. This fhould never be done. For the leafl a« cidity in the milk will diffolve the lead, and poifon the milk. Tin pans are good, being light and handy, and wooden trays anfwer very well, if kept fweet. CROP, a year's produce of corn, hay, &c, which a piece of land yields. The variablenefs of crops is fo great, that none can judge from a fingle one, whether the fame fort would be profitable in the long run. A feafon that does not happen to be fuitable to the foil and plants may either pre- vent a crop, or render it unequal to the labour laid out to produce it. We Ihould not, therefore, iudg& cue judge of the comparalivc .ulvan- t«igc of any kind ol crop Irom one inftancc ; nor be dilcourag- cd, but by the failure ol a crop in a feafon which is luitable to the foil on which. it is raifcd. The continual cropping ot land with wlieat, without inter- vals of fallowing, will foon ex- haufl all its llrengtli, unlefs much be expended in manuring it. For this reafon, the horfe hoeing liulbandry is much recommend- C'i by fome writers, by which land is not fo eafily impovcrifh- ed, as the intervals are always fallowed. So that there is aii al- ternation of cropping, the inter- vals this year being where the rows were la ft year. But tiiis culture can hardly be cxpc6led to be advantageous in a new country ; nor in any foil which is not quite free trom obftacles. The trouble and coft ol it would be intolerable, to Nevvengland farmers, in general. Small crops are often more {)rofitable on the whole than arger ones. That is the beft crop which amounts to a given quantity, with the Icaft expcni'e ol labour, feed and tillage ; pro- vided it leave the foil iu equal condition for luture crops. Yet, in general, land will pay far bet- ter lor generous raanuriug and tilling, than lor a partial and flovenly cultivation : For, in the lormer cafe, a large crop is al- moft certain ; in the latter no crop worth tlie culture, inch as it is, can be rationally expctted. And, in the former cafe, the land IS Ictt after the crop in a far bet- ter condition. CUCUMBERS, Cucumn, a cold fruit, which is pleafant to thctaftc of moft people, and much ufed by thofc who ^nll to the middle of April ; but when it is done, the fap oui^ht not to be too much in the top ; neither mull it be very dry or Icanty, for the r.ip in the branches ailifts it to Itrike roots. It done in the fpring, let them not fail ol hav- ing water in the fummer. In providing them, fuch branches as have burs, knobs or joints, are to be cut off, ike. and the leaves are to be llripped off lo far as they are placed in the eartii, leaving no Jide branch. Small top fprigs, ol two or three years growth, are the beft for this op- eration." Did. 0/ Arts. Cuttings of tiie grape vine, gooieberry, willow and currants, are cafily made to llrike root ; thofe uken from the quince will com- monly, and the apple tree will fometimes do fo, it the earth be kept very moill. It is beft to fet them a good depth in the earth, not lels than twelve or hf- leen inches, or the greater part ol their whole length. In this country, the bed time that I have found to fet them is in A- pril. It iliotild be done as loon as the troll is quite out ot the ground. CYON', or CION, a young Iprig or fprout of a tree. Cyons, lor grattmg, Ihould always be taken trom the moft thrifty trees, not Irorn thole efpecially which are ol' o( wood may be ercttcd ovor k, for a chcefc room. The D I T 19 \ arch will be the cooler in fum- mer and wanner in winter, as well US more durable, as it will be defended trom ram, &c. It rats and mice cannot enter the- milk room, there will be no need of having (helves in it. The floor is the bcft place (o fet the vcffels of milk on, it being cool- cit in (ummcr, and perhaps warm- eft when the weather is frofty. DARNEL, Lohum, a trouble- fome weed, wliich (onieiimes ap- pears among grain, and is often \o fruitful as to fpoil a crop. The feeds of it relemble corns of blafted rye, but are more light andchaff"v.' Thefcweeds (hould be pulled up before they go to feed. But grain for fowing may- be moftly cleared of the feeds bv fwimming it in wafer. DENSHIIUNG, fee the arti, cle Burn Bahng. DIBBLE, among gardeners the name of a tool, or forked ftick, with which they fet plants, Dul.ofArts. DITCH, a narrow channel, or trench, of great ufe in agri- culture. Ditches ferve two pur- pofcs, to enclolc groun.^s and to carry off fupertluous water. When they are ufcd for fences, they (hould be four feet wide, at leaft, at the furfacc. In England they make them wider. But four feet ts enough, when the railed earth is laid all on one fidr. When they (erve only a*; drains, they (hould be wider or narrower, in proportion to the quantity of water which is to pafs through them. And the earth may be laid in heaps, iii- ftead of laying it in a continued bank. Thus the water \Vill the better find its way into the ditrh. A ditch (hoi:!d W t!ir»*e times wider at the top than h» the bot- tom, to prcvrnt the failing in rtl the {'J.ci. Wh«i' there js avur- rcnt 89 D I T rent of '.vater, the fides v.-i11 fome- tirnes be undermined by it. But in this country, the fides ot ditch- es are often hove in by the fe- vere frofts in winter. Nothing will fo much prevent the filling up of ditches as flrong rooted graffes, or other pianti, growing pientifuliv on their margins. DITCHING, the making of duches. This work is tnoft commonly performed in fum- incr, or early in autumn. When this work is to be done in very low and wet land, a hot and dry feafon is beft ; that the water may not prove troubkfome, nei- ther by its quantity, nor by its coldnefs. When it is to be per- formed in a fait marfh, not only a dry and warm time fhould be chofen for the bufinefs, but it Ihouid be done alfo at a time when the tides are loweft. On high lands, ditches may be made at almcfl any feafon, when the ground is not frozen. But in the fpring the digging will be eafieit, the ground being foften- ed by the preceding frofts. But as the ground is driell in autumn, then is the beft time for ditching in moft of our low lands. At leaft, the month of September is a good feafon. But farmers muft be governed, as to the time, in fome meafure, by their own con- veniency. Itmuft be done when no other bufinefs of greater im- portance demands the whole of their attention and exertion. W'hen bulhy ground, full of ftrong roots, is to be ditched, the Rev. Mr. Eliot wifely recom- mends beginning the ditch in the winter, when the ground is frozen two or three inches deep. The furface may be chopped into pieces by a broad axe with a long heive, and the fods pulled out with an inftmment made like a dung croom. The farmer may D I V probably hit upon a good timi ior this work in December, when there happens to be no fnow,- and when it will not interfere with other farming bufinefs. The lower part of the ditch may be done in the following fummer, or autumn. In a free and firm foil, a ditch may be begun with a plough, drawn by an orderly team that will keep to the line. This faves labour. To make a ditch ftraight, and equal m all its parts, it is recom- mended that the work be regu- lated by a frame of flit deal, nail- ed together, to the exatt iize of the intended ditch. It may be a rod or more in length, and a5 wide as the intended ditch. DIVISIONS, of a Farm, lots enclofed for the convenience of tillage, pafturing, mowing, &c. The judicious dividing of a farm into lots, may fave much labour, efpecially much travel- ing from one part to another. The more fquare lots are made, the more is faved in fencing. Crooked fences fhould if pofli- ble be avoided, not only to fave expenfe, but to add beauty to a field, or plantation. All tillage lots, and efpecially fmall ones, fnould be nearly ot equal dimenl fions on all fides ; for if a lot be out of fquaie, the labour of ploughing will be increafed, as there muft be a number of fhort farrows. If a lot be long and narrow, crofs ploughing will be either prevented, or the labour of it much increafed. W^hen it can conveniently be fo ordered, the lots defigned chiefly for tillage fhould be near- eft to the houfe and barn, to fave labour in carting manure, and to prevent lofs in getting in the crops. The nearer grain is, the !efs it will fhatter out in caning. The mowing lots fhould be ne.\t D 1 V tfl the till«j:c, if the foil permits ; ■4 lil beJur.^Cvi.autl ihcir Ci , -- "{"oi: Th;! l<;;s tor|>ailiir- 4ge iWuld be C9&irivc'i to he next. Mvi tn« vfooii lots t'^rthcfi ot all the lots Irom the lioufc. ih«a fo the viev*' — f "W c (i V ^ / < Where 4 i-^ the fartn luxtle, b the b«m ; f c /■ r the tillage lots, «i whicJi one of the corner onc$ fnay contain the orchard, that it may rtot obflrufi the view o\ the t»tlter i>Jris ol the farm. Ti>ele tots arc fotnmimeii to be rcftcd, by Ijying them to grafs ; d d d d Mie^Mag lot?;, once in awhth^ to he ufefl as tilltgo ; c « pallure lots ; f J v»ood lots, to be uied dift) M p»ftures. Tlje imni lots are fivt; .nrei each, tl»o reli. ten, excepting what ^h.^. lane lake^ f.p. whjcii ttn>uld not be very nirruw, l«il it be bloi:ked up f(iO ionch wifh fiTow \x\ wiiuev. The find »i cuntjins \*ill be nfchd ' "p^ ; fo thai Its wide- !)e no lofs. y\i tnii plan, the laboiir <»f irivic.7 cattle out an I m, morn- '♦ig and evening, will be laved, ! th'" I'll" f-mv Hf" alu'.iys in ■ • • ' re whi':h ' ^i^es ol ail If the lane pafs through funk- en land, the owner had belter bo at the expenfe ot a little cauley- ing, tlwn fpoil the regularity of his lots by making it crooked. Or, fi)nietimes a bog or a lleep hill may be avoided, by niakinK the lane a little on one [\<\t ot the centre of the farm, biK dill par- allel to the fitlcs. If tl;c lots dcf- tined tor tiiUne be too low, or wet, it fliouM be confidered whether they may not be made fufiicicsitly dry by draining. If fo, there will be no need of cau- feyiiig. Wlien a farm is niord oblong (hapcd than I ha.ve here fuppol- rd, the lots may be Ipngthenci the other way, or made fmaller, as Ihall be found convenient. Small lot5 arc generally the moll protitable, in proportion to their nuantity of lauKl.efpecially whea iQcy are nfed as paflurcs. If a farm be out of fauare, a lane, perhaps, may l>e had paral- lel to one of its fides ; fo that fome fquaie lots may be obtained I bw- tillage. The ilupc of lots utd only for other purpofcs, \^ not ot \yi much conlequence. Leafl of all ihofc which are for-* I efts. j 1 here are doub tlefs many farmi I fo broketi and irregular as to be I c ot great adv;in- I tagc to tlic farmer, in fanng I Uine and UU^ur. I DOOR DUN'G. a ruanurc taken tiom the b-U^k vards and \ doors of dwe.lUng houfcs. ; Thotigh it may fcenj to bo mafomc cafes, he necefTary to go very deep. It large rocks fhould be found in the way, they may be blown to pieces with gun powder. But doing this is fomewhat expeu- live. Alfo, the depth ot' the black foil in the fwamp mult be examined, and the liratum ne.vt under it. It the under ilratuin be clay, the f\Vdmp may be well worth tiraining, though no more than fix inches ot till or niudl)e above it ; for the mud and clay mixed, will make an excellent foil. But if the under llratuin be gravel, or white faad, it will not be bell to undertake drain- ing, unlcfs the depth of black mud be as much as from fifteen to eighteen inches, Yur it is to be remembered thai the foil will fettle after draining, and be not fo deep as it wa.s btf<>rf. II. af- ter draining and haidening. there fhould be a fufficieot deptli for tillage, the foil will be moil ex- cellent ; and will pay well lor an exjKnfive draining. The manner of draining a fwamp is as follows : Beginning at the outlet, pafs a large ditcli through it, (o as moflly to ^ui the lowell part*. Thcji make another ditch quite round it. near to tKc berd-r. Ui cut oir f! <• D R A 88 fprings which come from the up- land, and to receive the water iliat runs down from Uic hills upon the fiirlacc, ni gr«!at rains. 1 liefc tlitrlu's er acre, and Indian corn at the rate of n:ore tlian ninety biifhels per acre, witliout ma- nuring. Such land . are highly ad/nn- tageous, as they require no dime ; and cannot be cafjly, if at all, Avorn out by cropping : Alio, as th«v bear drought remarkably \<.rU \<-'i; . .ytintry vciv oft* eff ^4 D R A en has its crops greatly dimin- iflied by dry feafons, it would be ■\\ei! if evei"y farmer had contin- ually fome of this kind of foil in tiliage, or mowing, or in both. Covered or hollow drains are moie ufed for the dr\'ing of fpringy, wet and fpungy uplands. They may he ufed with advan- tage on gentle declivities, where the foil appears fpewy and cold, by means of fprings. They will caufe the foil above and below them, to be more dn,' and fruit- ful. But it the defcent be ver)' ffeep, or if the wetnefs of de- clivities be owing only to water running down on the farface, the open drains are to be preferred : For if they were covered, the water would pafs over them, and the drain v.'ould be of little ad- vantage. To make a hollow drain, dig a channel between thirty and thirty fix inches wide atop, and fix inches, or the breadth of a fpade, at the bottom, and three feet deep, giving it juft defcent enough to make the water run brifKly. Fill it half lull, or more, with fmall ilones, thrown in at random, and cover them with a layer of Itraw, leaves, or the fmali branches of trees with the leaves on them ; then fill it up to a level with the fiirface, with the earth th»at was tlirov»!i out. Such a drain, as it will notcltoke or fill np, will never i^eetl repair- ing, li the defcent ihould be but juft fo much as to make the water run ilov^'ly, there may be fome danger ot its choking np, and ceafing to rjm at all. But this danger will be greater or Icfs according to the difference of foils. There will be no danger of it, in a foil that does not eali- }y diffolve in water. If floijc-s be fcarce, long fag- gots, or tafcines, I£d in the D R A trench, will anfwer as well, fo long as they lad ; \.'hich being fecluded from the air, will not rot foon. Some fay they have known them to anfwer weW for forty years. If a plain piece of around be too wet to be made fit for tillage by ridge ploughing, it IhouW be made drier by hollow drains. If no lower place be adjoining, where the drains may have an outlet, holes fhould be dug iti fome of the loweft parts of the plain, to examine what ftrata are under the foil. It is likely that a llraium of clay, or of fome oth- er earth not eafily penetrated by- water, is the real caufe of the wetnefs of the foil. If you find it foj then dig through the ftra- tum, and below it, till you com* to loofe gravel, fand, or fome- thing that will eafiJy imbibe wa- ter : Fill up the hole with ftones, and direM your hollov,- drains to it. It will ferve for a perpetual outlet ; and conduce much to the drying of the foil. The peculiar advantages of hollow drains are, that they will not need repairing, as they do not fill up ; th^i! no foil is wait- ed, or rendered ufelefs by them ; that a plough may pafs over them to 2S great a depth as is neceffary in any kind of tillage ; and cart> ami other carriages are not obflru£ied or incommodetl by thern. So that thefe drain*, may pafs acrofs roads vnthxjut detriment, when the defcent re- quires it. It is often nejceiFary to hollow drain roads to lay them dry, and found to be ot great advantage. The drai.niiig of a mtrifb, or fhaking meadow, which feems vo be a foil floating on the water, it fometiines pratticable. I fh«U give the reader the method of doing it in rhe words ci tile ift* gcniaus D R A j»caioi« Mr, Dickfon.— " To bccs, as is frequently the cale, t will be iiecellary to make drains at the fides, as nearly par- allel to the principal drain, as the fiiuation of the marilh will allow, to intercept the water that comes from the heights, and fupplies I'ne fprings. It will be niceirar^', liKewifc, to make com- munications, by crofs drains, be* twixl the parallel drains at the fides, and the principal draiiv.n the middle." It is no wonder if the coti of draining a ftiakinjj mead- ow Ihould be connderable, as it feems like u foil tloating upon water. Hut there is norcafi>n to doubt its becoming (ome of tire bed f«>il, when fo dnitned as to give firmnefs to if. DRAY, or car, a flight kir.d ot rarfijce dra'..f: by o?re horie. h confift? oi a pair of thilfJ, con- D R E «5 Reeled by two or three crofs ban. The hinder ends of the thills lliit>ing moiflure. Lime, where It is cheap and plenty, may h6 ufcd with great advantage ; alh- cv, coals, and faw dufl, arc alfd very proper. Sonre kinds of drcfTmg fhould be \rell mixed with the foil, by the plongli and harrow ; efpc- cially fucn as arc apt to lofe their flrc.Tjilh, by being c.xpofed ia the «6 D R E the air. Of this fort are duii»s in genera], and fome other ma- nures. Dung is to be ploughed in with a hght furrow. Com- poits, which connil of dung, earth, and other fubllances, need only to be harrowed. If drefT- ings are laid too deep, as under deep furrows, they will be in a manner loll ; the roots of moft kinds of annual plants v,dll fcarcely reach them ; and, be- fore the next ploughing, the ftrength of them will be funk ftill deeper into the earth. There are other manures which fhould be ufed only as top drelT- ings. Their cxpofure to the air takes away little or none of their virtue, being of an alkalious na- ture, mch as aihcs, lime, and the like. They are fpeedily fettled into the foil by rains, and melt- ing fnows ; and afford a more kindly nourifhment to the roots of grafs and grain, than if they were buried in the foil. Being laid lower than the furiace, their ifrength would be more apt to be carried lower than the roots of plants commonly reach. Some drefhngs are thought to be more fuccefsfully applied fome time before fowing. Such a one lime is faid to be, as being apt to burn, or too much heat the feed. But this, I think, can be only when it is laid on un- flacked, and in large Quantities. Other dreflings anfwer beft at the time of fowing. This is the cafe as to mofl kinds of dung that are ufed, and of feveral oth- er manures. But thofe manures which ex- ert all their flrength fuddenly, are allowed to be belt, ufed only as top dreffings, after the plants are up, fuch as foot, afhes, cer- tain warm conipofls, and malt jduff. If they are laid on winter grain in autumn, there will be D R I (?anger of their caufmg too rapid a growth : In confequence of which, the grain will be after- wards flinted, and languifh, un- lefs another and larger dreffmg be given it in the following fpring, or fummer. It is proba- bly bell to apply thefe drefhngs jufl before the time when the plants will need the greateft fup- ply of vegetable nourilhment, which is when their growth is moft rapid, or near the time when the ears are (hooting out. The adapting of dreffings to the nature of plants will be found, in thofe parts of this work, where the moft ufeful plants are treat- ed of. DRILL, " a name given to an inftrument tor fowing feeds in the new method of horfe hoe- ing hufbandry. It plants the corn in rows, makes the chan- nels, fows the feeds in them, and covers them with earth when fown ; and all this at the fame time with great expedition. The principal parts of a drill are the feed box, the hopper, the plough and its harrow, bt all which the feed box is the chief. It meal- ures or rather numbers out the feeds, which it receives from the hopper, and is for this purpofe as an artificial hand ; but it de- livers out the feed much more equally than can be done by a natural hand, " Whoev.er is defirous of knowing more intimately the whole apparatus for this method of fov/ing, may fee it fully de- fcribed, and illuftrated with fig- ures, by Mr. Tull, in his Hor/e Hoeing Hujhandry." Did. of Arts. . The drills which are defcrib- ed by European writers are very complicated and collly machines. But I have had barley, carrot, and fopgie other feeds, evenly and expeditioufly D R I expeditiouny drilled by a hand dull, being only a light tin meaf- uff , with a hole through the hot- torn, and a broad lieaded fpike in the hole. When this is iifcd, channels on the ridges mull be previoufly made with the head of a rake. But a drill, which I %vould rather recommend for ufe, on account of its lightncfi, and fimple conftniftion, is a drill upon fiiiall wheels, to be drawn bv a man, or by one or two boys. 7*0 the hinder part of the axis is faflcned a long Ihapcd, tapering 1 cifel, ferving at once as a hop- per, drill box, and hofe. Below the middle is a partition, through ^hich is a hole for the feeds to pafs into the hofe. The hole has a Aiding cover, which flops and opens it two or tliree times in a fecond, by being faftcncd to a fpring that is moved by one of the wheek, A coulter to open the channel may be made !aii to the fore part of tlie axis, as much longer than the fpokes of the wheels as the deptli at which the feeds are to be buried : And this, as well as the box, may be fixed higher or lower o,n the axis at pleafure, according as the fow- ing is to be performed, on ridg- ts or on a level ; or according 1 to the depths at which different feeds are to be fown. A final I j harrow, or rake, to cover the \ feeds, may as well follow this, as i a drill of any otl>er conllrutlion. j I have fecn a drill nearly of this { conflruction in pofli-fTion of the Rev. Mr. Little of Wells. And I cannot but prefer fuch a hand I drill to a he«\y conjp.^rx one, i drawn by a horle : For the tre^id ' ot a hoife makes fuch holes in the foil, as mull needs render the opcfittion ol drilling lefs accu- | fate, or more iinpcrfett. Two boxes with coulters may as well be fixed on the machine I rcc- ' D R O 8 7 ommend as one ; but it will in- creafe the l.ihour of drawing ir. DROUGHT, fuch a contin- nance of dry weather, that plant* cannot draw a fufficicncy of noiiiifhment from the e^rth, to give them their full growth and perfe6tion. Some countries are mucli more liable to this inconvenience than others. Newengland, for in- flance, is oftcner troubled with it than Greatbritain ; one occa- fion of which is, tlie greater heat of our fimimers, by which lands grow dry fafler here than there. Another caufe may be our hav- ing a greater quantity of fair weather. And our being more liable to dronght, makes it nee- effary that our methods of cul- ture fhould be different from tfiofe pra6tifed in that country. Heating manures are generally more needful there than here ; and ridge jiloughing is a more proper kind ot tillage for the Engiifh than for us— (hough if might be of great fervice in ma- ny of our fields, I have found confiJerahle advantage from it rn land that is flat and wet. To plough our driell lands in ridgt*<5, would undoubtedly he lolt labour, unlefs for certain particular crops, as it would caufe a drought to be more hurtful to the crops, ?n\d there is no dan- ger of ^too much wetnefs. And yet it may be, that when :in o^^cr flrynefs of foil on the fide of a hill, is owing to the rain's rim- ning off before* it has time to foak into the fori, ploughing the land imo ridges, and making tfie glitters rrearly parallel with the jjorizon, may caufe the foil to re- tain moiflirre the better. But as this would bv- difficult plotigh- ing, prrhai)s libbinj^ the furfai e with furrows half a rod aparr, TU'ght as well retard the efcape of 83 PRO of the rain water. This latter | incthofi voiild be proper for paf- ture grounds, which lie in fuch a fituation. It IS in the pover of the f^rm^ er in good meafure to guard a- ^ainft the ill effects of drought. It is a matter that certainly ought to be attended to in thi^ country, in vhich almoflji^lt vi our fammers are complained of by many, asbeingvery dr>'. The heft method is, to have more of our loweft lands under the heil improvement in tillage. If this were the cafe, we Ihould not fo often hear of a fcarcity cauf- ed by drought. If it u-ere be- come cuflomary to plant and fow on drained lands, and in thofe which are fo low and wet as to need laying in ridges, pof- f;bly our dry fummers would be *s fruitful on the whole as our wet ones. But, as we manage our lands at prefent, the cafe is far otherwife. A great number pf i^eople are always reduced to j a difijelTed condiiion by a dry \ fummer. And they are too ready j to confider the fhortnefs of their '■ crops in a dry year as a divine ] ^judgment, though they might I have prevented it by a more pru- dent management. _ ' Another way to guard againft having our crops pinched by drought is, to have a variety of e meat and drink of the cattle axe cut ofTaJ once. This fhews the propriety and neccfhty of having fome low lands in paliure, when it is prac- ticable. And a few txe^s, grow- ing at proper diifances in a paf- ture. will panially fhade the foil, and prevent its drying fo rapid- ly. The more grafs will be pro-" duced ; and the cattle will be re- frefbed by the fhade j beiides t) U N the advantage the fanner will gain in fewel and timber. In tliofc parts of the country where trees have become Icarce, the o- hiiffion of planting quick grow- ing trees in our panuic grounds is unpardonable. When a paf- ture IS dcftitutc of water, Mr. Eliot advifei to die a well on the fide of fome hill in the paf- ture, and having come to water, to dig a trench below, level with the Bottom of the well, and bring the water through a hol- low drain out to the furface, where it may be kept in a little bafin, made in the foil, for a wa- tering place. DUNG, the excrehient of an- imals, ufed to increafe the fertil- ity of land. Dung may be faid to be almofl of the fame im- portance to the farmer, as flock in trade is to the merchant. There are but few lots, or pieces of lots, in this country, which Can be tilled to any great profit, in the common way ot culture, without manure ; and dung is of all manures the moft ufeful. The very beft of foils, when dunged, will more than pay for it, by the increafe of their crops, and the poorefl will produce next to nothing without manure. Some think it more profitable to apply dung to their beft foils than to their pooreft, as they think the increafe from it to be greater in the f(jrmer cafe than m the latter. This opinion is probablv founded in trtuh. The (oTts of dung which are, or may be ufcd, are that of black cattle, Iheep. Iiorfes, fwine, goats, hcn^, pigeons, ducks, gecle and rabbits, bcfides human ordure. The dung of animals confifts 'if oils, 6xed and volatile fahs, . -thcr with nitrous and eiirthy i.a::iilc$. But in different forts ot dung thcfc princii>lcs arc dit- M b U N Bg fercntly compounded ; fo that the dung of one animal is si f (roper manure for one kind of oil, and that of another for an- cther. And yet there is no kind ot foil that may not be enriched, in fome degree, by any kind ot dung, Mr. Dickfort fays, " Dung promotes vegetation, by increaf- mg the vegetable food ; it being compounded of the fame princi- ples bf which the vegetable food itfelf is compouiided. It pro- motes vegetation, by enlarging the pafture of plants : It attratis acids from the air and foil ; and by raifing a fermentation with them, feparates the particles of the foil with which it is mixed. It promotes it, by communicat- ing to the foil a power of attraft- ing the vegctablo food from the air ; for the eanh it contains, is ot the abforbent kirtd, and at- tratis all the other principles o£ the vegetable food. And u like- wife promotes vegetation, by preparing the vegetable food for the notirilhmertt of plants ; for, by the falts which it contains, and produces, it not only attra6U oils, which is probably one of the principal ingredifents of eve- ry plant we cultivate in the field, but diflblvcs them, and thereby makes them fit to mi.x with wa- ter, and to enter the roots of plants. But though it operates m all thcfe ways, it is more than probable that it principally ope- rates by incrcafing the tood of plants : And this feems to be confirmed by experience ; for when the virtues ot dung are ex- haufted, the foil is no poorer than before it was laid on." The dung of oXen and cawn is a cool, mild and oily fub- ftance ; and is, therefore, moll fuitfiblc tor Warm, landy, and gravelly foils, li tcndi lo pro vent 9© P U N vent the foil's becoming tod dry, and keeps the plants on it from being pinched for want of moif- ture. The dung of fheep is more hot and fiery; than that of black cat- tle ; It ferments quicker ; it is fitter, therefore, for cold, heavy lands. Perhaps the belt way of applying the dung of fheep to land is by folding, in countries efpecially which are not greatly infefled by wolves. For in this method their urine is all faved, as- well as their dung. But it ought to be turned in with the plough as foon as pofTible, that the fun and air may not deprive the land of It. In Flanders, it is thepraftice to houfe their fheep at night, under night fheds, the ground being fpread with dry fand, about four or five inches thick, laying on a little more frefh every night. This is cleared out once a week, aaid carried to a dunghill, or ap- plied to the foil. This mixture of fand and hot dung, makes a yery excellent drefhng tor cold and ftiff land. For there is fcarcely a richer manure than the dung and urine of fheep. M. Quintinie thinks it the great- eff promoter of fruitfulnefs, in all forts of ground. This meth- od of folding fheep in a covered fohl, and of mixing their dung with ff iff earth or fand, according to the nature of the foil it is in- tended for, is, alfo, with much reafon, recommended by Mr. Mortimer ; who alfo fays, " that he has known vaft crops of rye upon barren lands, that have been old warrens, v/eH dunged by rabbits, and large oak and afh trees upon the fame, though the foil was very fhallow." Some have recommended the reducing of fheep dung to aow- der, by pounding it with mallets. DUN and ufing it as a top drefling for grain, perhaps half a dozen bufh- els on an acre. But this is a te- dious piece of work, and of no lafting advantage : Whereas too much can hardly be fald in praife of the Flanders method of ufing it. A prodigious quantity of good mapure may be thus ob- tained from a flock of fheep, by houfing them regularly every night. If a light foil is intended to be manured with this compofl ; in- flead of fand, clay, pond mud, or the mud of flats, may be ufed, thefe fubffances having been firljt mellowed by the frofls of winter. The dung of goats is fuppofed to be nearly of the nature of fheep's dung.' Horfe dung is a flill hotter manure, as appears by its quicfc fermentation in heaps, even in cool weather. It is confequent- ly fittefl for hot beds, when it is new, ajid for nourifhing thofe plants which require the greatefl degrees of heat. The dung of horfes that are fed on grain, is a richer manure than that ot thofe fed only on grafs and hay. Great care fhould be taken that horfe dung be not fpoiled, by being overheated, or burnt in the heaps, before it. is ufed. For, in this country, it is very commonly the cafe. When it has been fo heated as to give it a white and mouldy appearance, the virtue of it is gone. • It is difficult to -give it age, v/ithout mixing it with other fubflances. A mixture of horfe and cow dung is very proper for land that is neither too light nor too flifF. Horfe dung is a much If ronger manure than it is fuppofed to be by thofe whofe conftant praftice is to fuffer it to be fpoilt by over- heating in the heaps. This ma- nure, when ufed as an ingredient* DUN in compofts, has an excellent ef- icti, as, by its quick and itrong lermentaiion.it Ipccdily diH(jlvcs other iubtlances that are mixed with it. Mr. Miller fays he has frc- quently feen new horle dung buried as it came troni the liable in very cold, mo ill land ; and always oblcrved that the crops have iiiccceded bettor than where the ground was drclled with vc»y rotten dung. The dung of fwine is a very rich and fat manure, and fo cool ^ to ferment very llowly. It is fo rich and oily, as to be doui>le in value to neats' dung. It will render the moll dry and hungry foils exceedingly truitfid in a wettilh feafon, as 1 have found by experience. It refills the ill etletts of drought, and docs mod lervice in a hot country. By as Heady and gradual fupply of a rich nounlhment, it is peculi- arly adapted lor the growing of hops, pumpions, running beans, and every plant which has long vines. Nothing can equal it for the growmg ot potatoes. It has produced me more than a peck in a hill on tlie poorell hungry fands. Or rather 1 might lay, llraw only a liiile impregnated with the dung o^ hogs has done it. This IS io llrong a manure, that it anfweis well, when mixed with a Urge proportion of earth, weeds, llraw, ov other bibulous lubllanccs. It is almofl incredi- ble how great a quantity of good manure may be obtained, by fup- plymg a hoglly with rubbifh to raix with the dung. I have heard ot 40 loads ol matuire be- ing made in a year by means ol one hoglty. And I have no iioubt ot its bring pra6licablc. The dung of ducks and gcefe, is deemed too hot and burning. Jlut lithe tanner woulrf gather DUN 91 it in a heap, and mix it with the dung of cattle, he would bring it to a temperate heat, and dnw trom it fuch ad\-anuge as would iuJi mnifj' him lor the pain.< he Ih'UiM tdAe. Ihe virtue of tlivK method is known by experience. A fanner having aFk;idonicc of dunging in holes. For the newcft dung will anfwcr well for fpread- ing, and ploughing into the foil. DUNGHILLS. 94 DUN DUNGHILLS, heaps of raa- tiure laid up to ferment, confift- ing of dung and earth, together with hme, or maile, and any an- imal or vegetable fubfLances, ■which eafily putrefy and con- fume. It would be well if every farm- er had fome of them preparing, to be carted out in autumn, or to lie two fummers, when it is found convenient. He would avail himfelf of much manure that might be collefted between ipring and fall ; for, in the fum- mer, the crops on the ground Tnu ft prevent carting it ; fo that it fnould he preferved in the heft manner to prevent wafte. And this can in no way be fo well prevented, as by mixing it with other fubitances. Farmers Ihould have fuch dunghills, fome at their barns, or cow yards, one at a hoglfj', ■when fwine are fliut up, and an- otlier not too far from the back .I ami iTu-llowed, Soid the : T u/e. J lie Ift-ds c. ., .iiciu will vegetate, and be dcllroyed, wlmh is no iocon^derable advantage ; cf- pcciplly if the manure is to be implied to unhocii nlldjje crops. DUNG MEERS, " places wlicff l»)iis and dungs are mixed jmd digeilcd ioi;ctliar. For this purpofe, it >s iifual to dig a pit hiihcient to hold the Hock ot foil the hulbandman is capable of making ; and to prepaic it at the bottom with ftone and clay, that it may hold vrater, or the moifture of the dung ; and befides, it (hould be fo fituated cfadt the finks and drips of the houfes and barns may run into k. Into this pit they caft retufe fodder, litter, dung, weeds, &c. where they lie and rot together, CtJl the farmer have occahon tor It." DiCl. of Arts. Thefe piu anfwer nearly the fame end as dunghills. But they are attended with more cx- penfe and labour ; and arc more apt to fuffer with wetnefs in a rainy (eafon, unlcfs a ihed be built over them.. If this be done, and the right proportion ol wa- ter applied, there can be no bet- ter method of roaking cotnpoit. I know ageutlcman in the coun- ty ol Brillol, who lia^ a friiall cellar iiinler cover, adjoining to his Hable, m which he lodges only one horie ; arul who makc5 ta it 20 loads yearly ot c<;mi>oft, iar fuperiour in Urength to any unmixed ba/n dung. In funi- raer Ivc Ium it hllcd with weeds and various vegetable matters : In aiiuimn two «»r three Iwme are ^att< ncd in tiic npnrtment. In winter a very 1: ': of ihecp lodge there : . ^j ol one horfe is gradually thrown in as iait as it li ina/ic ; and a few k>wl« rooil over lU The whole ! D Y K 95 is'Wateredoccariouailyty a fpouf tuiiied in*vards, '] he crops he laifcs horn this manure are fur- priiiiigiy large and goo^l. DUiCH HOE, fometimea called a Scufflt ; an iron inAru- ment, with a Iharp Heeled edge, nearly \\\ the fhape of the letter D. with a Ihank Irom the round- ing part, hve or fix inches lc»ng» which i>allc» into a Iwndle of a- bout fix feet in length. It is of ufe to clean walks and avenues in gardens. No gardener Ihould be Without (meol thefe inlliuinents. DYKE, or DIKE, a fort of dam, conllrucled uf earth, timber, falcines, &c. to oppofe the en- trance kA water from rivers and irom the lea. Dykes made to exclude the fe» from marlhes, are built witli lod» cut out of the marlii, io as to make a ditch near the dyke, or elle a ditch on each fide, fhe fot enter ; ami fomc flen- der bulhes Ihould he laid between them, that the work may hold together the better. Some ot the bulhes Ihould have roots to them, that they may grow, and more Itrongly bind the fods to- gether. Shrubs without root* will not hve placed in the dykes at riiidlummer, the time when dykc^ Ihould be huiU. But they may be inferteJ afterwards, at a proper fealon. A dyke, feven or riglit ftet wide at bottom, and three atop, and made a little higher than the liighell ipnng tides life, will be luihcient on higfi marlh. Whca a dyke palies through a low place, or through a creek, it miilk ^»e wider at bottom in pi^tportion to the depth of the hollow, or creek, {q that the fides ot the dyke may be perfe6i inclinelanes. Though this will make it very thick at bottom, it is nec- eflary , that it may refift the great- er pr'eflure of water again ft that part. When we build on an oozy, foft fpot, it is beft to fill the mud with piles, driven as deep as they will eafily go, and then cut off even with the furface or a little above it. This will give inability to the foundation, and prevent the water's undermining the dyke. On a fideling place, ftakes fhould be driven through the dyke into the marlh, to hold the fods in their places. There fhould be many of them, and they (hould be ftrong. In the creek, or creeks, there muft be fluices, larger or fmaller in proportion to the quantity of frefh water that will need to pafs out. See Sluice. EARTH, the foil, or land, in which the roots of plants find nouriftiment. There are fever- al Cmple kinds of earth, confid- ered only with rcfpeft to huf- bandry ; as clay, marie, loam, gravel, fand, peat, and black mould. Perhaps tbefe are near- ly all the limple foils that are found on or near the furface of the earth, in this country- ; though others, diftinft from them all, are foimd by digging deep. There is not one ot thefe earths, in its unmixed flate, that is fo friendly to the growth of plants, as when mixed with fome other forts ; and it is happy for us that nature in moft places has blend- ed them. Though the original foils are fo few, they are fo va- rioufly compounded in different places, as to prefent us with an cndlefs variety of foils, fome or Other of which are liioft fuitable E A ft to nourlffi every different plan^; But for moft of the purpofes of hufbandry a fandy loam is as good as any. Good earth for the general purpofes of huftjandry, is moft commonly of a dark colour, or quite black, unftuous to the touch, eafily ploughed, on a due medium betwixt dry and wet, not compaft, nor too loofe and open, and eafily made to ferment. To find whether land be good, fome recommend the following experiment : Dig a hole, and return the earth into the hole. If there be more than enough to fill the hole, fay they, tlie land is good ; if juft enough to fill it, indifferent ; but if there be not enough, the land is bad. Doubt- lefs, in warm weather, good earth expofed to the fun will immedi- ately fwell by fermenting ; fo that fuch earth will more than fill the hole it is taken out of, unlefs it be forcibly ram- med. Mortimer obferves, *' That mixed foils are beft ; efpecially where the mixtures happen to be of the right kindj as thofc of the hot and dry foils, blended ' with the cold and the moift. All I fands are hot, and all clays are , cold, and, therefore, laying fand on clayey lands, or clay upon ' fandy landsj is the beft of^all ma- j nure for both. This alters and i changes for the better, the very nature of the land itfelf, whereas I dung only improves it for a I time, and after that leaves it ! nearly as bad as it was before. ■ It is not only the nature of the I foil we are to confider, but the depth of it, and what kind of 1 earth is underneath ; for the richeft foil, if it be only eight or ten inches deep, and lies upon a cold clay, or upon a quarry of ftoae, will not be fo fruitful, oi advantageouj ELD ^ilvantageous to the farmer, as the leaner foil that lies upon bet- ter under ftrau." But an under ftratum of clay, not too near to the furlace, ana where the ground has not too much wetnefs, is lound to be SDod, as the ttrength of manures oes not efcapc through it. A ftratum of clayey giavel, or mere clay, or almoft any that is not too eafily penetrated, is good : But one of loofc f.md or gravel muft nccelTarily be bad, as the foil above it will not hold its manure. EDDISH, or EADISH, " the latter paflure or grafs that comes after mowing or reaping ; oth- fcrwife called eagrafs, earlh, and ttc\\." Did. of Artf. EFFLUVIUM, an invifible vapour, confining of minute par- ticles, wliich exhales trom bodies of alinofl every kind. A copi- ous effluvium arifcs from all Elatus while they are growing ; ut more while drying alter they are cut down, as appears Irom the ftrong and agiecable fcent ot mown grafs. The exhalation of fome plants while growing, is very fcnfible to the fmcll ; and the flowers of moft of them fend forth a perceptible odour. That of clover fields, and of orchards in full bloom, is grateful and re- frelhing. See Perfpiration of Plants. The effluvia of rotten fuhftances Jire fuppofed to breed di leafed : The farmer, thcrctorc, Ihould be cauti«)ns that he do not breathe in the Reams of his old dun»lulls more than is necclfary, efpecial- Jy when they have a very difa- grecable flench. ELDLR, Su/nhucus nigra, an ill fmcliing Ihrub, which grows plentiiully in moft parts ol this country, produces a black berry, and is too well known to need ELF 97 defcribing. I mention it, be« caufe it is believed to be an excel- lent antidote aeainft deflruftive infefts. But as I have not yet fuf- ciently proved it by experiments, not makingany trial till rather late in laft fummer ; I fhall give the reader a briet account of fome experiments which were com- municated to the Roval Society, by Chriftophcr Gullet, Efquire. He whipt cabbages gently with green boughs ot elder, juft at the time when the buttertlies appeared, after which, though they hovered over them, they were never obferved to touch them. He whipt the limbs of a plumb tree as high as he could reach. That part remained green and flouriftiing ; but all above fhrivcled up, and was full of worms. He concluded that, if a tree were fprinkled with an infu- fion ot elder, once a week or fort- night, it would effcHually pre- ferve it, without injuring the tree, or the fruit. He prevented the yellows in wheat, which is caufcd by an infett, by brulhing the M'heat with elder ; and preferved a bed of young colliflowers. He prcters the dwarf elder, as it emits a more ofTenfive effluvium. Perhaps it may be found, as this writer fuggefts, to preferve turnips from the fly, and thefe and other plants from grafshop- pers, and all other infects. Noth- ing is eafier than to make a thor- ough trial ot it. ELFSHOT, or ELFSHOT- TEN, a dilcafe in horned cattle, the fvmptoms or concomitants of w^ich are fluggifhnefs and lofs of appetite. The original of the name fecms to have been a fupcrftitious opinion, that cattle were (hottcn and wounded by elves, or fairies. The difcafe, however, is not imaginary. It is believed ig be an opening ia 9S E M P the peritonaeum, or film of the belly, caufed by relaxation. It refembles a hole made by a bul- let, and may be felt thi-ough the jkin which remains unhurt. Thefe openings are clofed, and the animals cured, by rubbing the part with fait and water. It fhould be repeated two or three times in the courfe of a day. ELM, Uhnus Am.ericana, a tree that is commonly found in our iorefts. It is tall and beau- til ul, longlived, and grows to a Luge fize. The wood is not apt to fplit, or crack ; and is very fit ior the naves of wheels tor car- riages. Oi this tree ther€ are iaid to be tw^o varieties, the white and the red. The Elm is a prop- er tree to plant in groves. It is fightly and durable ; and not apt to be broken bv high \wnds. EMPLOYA'IENT, bufinefs which takes time, and isan exer- cile of abilities. No one that confiders the condition of a fanner, can doubt of his having i'ufiicient employment. He has lb many objecii: to attend to, that liis life muft be filled up with carefulnefs or exercife. If he grow remifs, he will foon find that he has loft fomething through neglett, or failed ot availing him- lelf of fome advantage. In our climate, befides care, the farmers are necelfarily hurri- ed with their bufinefs during much the greater part of the year, that is^ from April to No- vember inclufive. But in the winter, they may be in fome danger of fpending fome ot their time idly, if they do not take fome care to prevent it. Feed- ing and tending their cattle, it they do it faithfully, will take fome confiderable part of each day, it the ftock be large. The dreJIing of hemp and flax re- E W E quires fome time, and ought te be done in winter. Getting home tewel for maintaining fires through the year, and hauling ftuff and fitting it for the building and repairing of fences ; threlh- ing and cleaning of corn and grain, and preparing farming implements, may all be done at this feafon. And tliefe things ought to be done at this time of the year, to prevent hurry at a more bufy feafon. So that, though our farmers cannot plough, or do any thing to the foil in winter, unlefs it be fome- times in part of December, they need not be idle. In maritime places they may employ them- felves and their teams in getting manure from^ flats and creeks, and drawing it to their hungry high lands. This will turn te very good account, and pay them well for their labour. Holes may be dug in the ice over flats, from whence rich mud may be taken, and drawn upon fleds to the high parts of a farm. And this w ill be found to be a profit- able emplovTnent. ENCLOSURE, a piece of ground tenced by itfelf, to pre- vent the entrance of cattle, &:c. In fome places men farm in com- mon fields. But this method, pafturing excepted, is not eligi- ble. Some lofe more by it than enough to pay for enclofing. And it is too often the occafion of quarrels, and endlefs uneafi- nefs among neighbours. EWES, the females of fheep. That they may be profitably managed, we fhould keep none for breeders that have not long and fine fleeces. The reft fhould be killed off during the firft year. ■ Otherwife the flock will degen- erate ; and a large proportion of their wool Avill be coarfe, or too fhort, and of little value. from EWE From the firft of ORobor. to the twentieth ol November, the rams fhould be kept trom them ; that (o their lambs may not come till the twentieth ot April, when the ground is moll commonly bare, and the grafs begins to fpring in many places. For a few days, or weeks, be- fore yeaning time, they Ihonjd be more generoufly led. Some juicv food, whicn they are fond of, ihould be given them, fuch as turnips, potat«9es, &c. that they may haxt plenty of milk for their Iambs : For it is the o- pinion of careful obfervers, that want of milk is the caufc ot the dying of fo many lambs in the firft ifage of their exiftence. From their firft going to paf- ture to the lall of JurK*, or the middle of July, the ewes ihould have plenty of feed, by means of which the lambs will come forward rapidly in their growth, fo as to be fit lor weaning. Nor »vill the ewes become fo lean, but that they may be fattened in autumn ; which would be other- wife, were the lambs to fiick them as long as they are pennit- ted to do in this coimtry. As to the advantage of the milking ol ewes, after the lambs are weaned ; as it has not yet been much praMifed ammig us, 1 can only teftitr, that the heft cheefes 1 ever tafted, made in this country, had a mixture of this milk in them. But a writer in the Scots Farmer declares, from his own experience, it is of great advantage to the owner. He thinks they (hould not be milked more than eight weeks at the farthcft ; — fays tliey ought to have goor»ng, than a harrowing with a heavy drag. On half an acre of poor ground thus managed, and without any manure, I once railed a hundred bufhcis ot po- tatoes, FALSE QUARTER, a rift or chink in the quarter ot the hoof ot a horfe, trom top to bottom. It happens generally on the in- fide, that bemg the weakeft and thinned ; and proceeds from the drynefs ot the hoof, butefpecial- ly when a horfe is ridden m dry, fandy, or ftony ground, in hot weather, or in trolly weather, when the ways are flinty and hard. It i», likewife, caufed by had Ihocing. and all other acci- dents whereby a horfe becomes hoot boimd : For the narrownefs of the heels, and brittlenefs of the quarters, continually expofc a horfe to all the faid accidents. " This accident is both dan- gerous and paintui ; for as often as a horfe fets his foot to the ground, the chink widens ; and when he lifts it up, the fharp edges ot the divided hoof wound the tender flelh that covers the coffin bone, which is for the moft part followed with blood ; and it miift of courfe be apt to render a horfe ia/ne, as it i& very difficult to torm a reunion. To remedy this imperfection, Firll, draw the whole length of the clcti with your drawing iron, then anoint the hoot with tar, honey, anJ fuet, molten togeth- er ; tor nothing oan be more proper tor the hoof ; and lay a thin pledgit dipt in the fame a- iong the cleft. After this, take rope yam, fuch as ilic failors FAR 103 I ufc, which is no other than hemp nioiftened in mtlted tar, and fpuu loofe : Apiply the yarn all down the hoot, begiiining at the coro- net and defcending downwards, one lay alter another, as clofe a^ the binding of the hoops of wine talks, laying a fmooth pledgit of flax behind, to keep it trom fret- ting the heel. This ftiould be opened once in three or four days, that the cleft may be dreft. Aind to prevent any inronvc- niency tliat may happen by th« opening, a thin ftaple may be al* fo contrived with points like horfe Ihoe nails, call off oblique- ly, to take a (lender hold, the plate ot it croffing the cleft-, where part of the (hoe is cut ofF (as it muft be under the cleft) and the nails coming out on each fide ot the cleft, on the upper part, to be clinched as the other nails. By this method a cleft in any part of the hoof may be ea- fily cured, if the horfe be not ver>- old, or djfeafcd." Gihfons Farriery. FAX, an inftrument ufed ia feparating corn from its chaff. Of late the i^n is almoft out of ufe. See Riddle^ IVinnowinz FARCY, a difeafe in horfes, fimilar to the fcurvy in men, and arifiiig trom a fimilar caufe. The farcy is caufed in horfts from their being for a long time confined to dry meal. And as the fcurvy in men is cured by a diet of green vegetables ; fo the tarcy in horfes may be cured by turning them into a good frefh pafture. But it is only in the beginning ot the difeafe that it can be fo eafily cured. Gib- fon prefcnbes blecdin?^, and moderate purging ; and after- wards dofes of antimony. Sec his Farriery. Mr. Mills calls it a cording of the veins, and the appearance t04 FAR appearance of fmall tumOurs in feveral pans of the body. Mr. Bartlet deems this di^emper eafy of cure, when it appears on the head only. Mr. Bourgelat fays, a decoction of the woods, anti- mony, powder of vipers, with fome mercurial preparationi, are looked upon as fo many fpecif- icks in this difeafe — and that hemlock will cure it. FARM, a traft, or piece ot land, under improvement, fit for a fanner to live on, or one that is adapted to ferve the general purpofes of a hufband- man. That a farm may be conve- nient, it fhould be compact and regularly fhaped ; well watered vitn rivulets or fprings ; and contain a variety of foils, fit for the growing of all forts of plants that are needful to thofe who live a country life. It fhould contain high and low lands, dry and moift ; lands that are fit for tillage, orchard, mowing, paftur- ing and wood land. And a farm, with fome rocky land in it, is not the worfe. Thofe farms will, in the long run, be the raoff profitable, which contain flones enough to make a wall round them ; it not to enclofe them in lots. Farms that have a fouth- crn expofure are generally pre- ferred ; but a nonhern expofure is beft in a dry feafon, in partic- ular for grafs, and fome other vegetables, which require no great degree of heat. Flat land IS not fo good as land lying in gentle declivities. Flat land is commonly too much incommod- ed with ^vater. In fome countries men choofe to hold large farms. But in places where labour is dear, as in this country, fraall farms are to be preferred. One hundred acres of good land may be enough FAR for a man, whofe work is moftly done by himfelf and family. Near to a market town, a much lefs quantity may be fufficient ; and, all things confidered, equal- ly profitable. They who hire farms fhould confider, and be well fatisfied what they will produce, before they bind themfelves to be tenants. Otherwife they may repent when it is too late. It is a kind of rule in England, that a farm (hould produce the value of three rents ; one for the landlord ; one for the charges of cultivating, &c, and the third for the farmer and his family to live on. So that a farm will not rent for ico unlefs its produce, commumhus annis, be worth 300 pounds. But farming muft be better underltood and praftifed, before farms with us will pay for three times the la- bour done on them, or labour rauft grow cheaper; orboththefe eaufes muft concur. Perhaps 100 acres produces 40 tons of hay, which, commumbus annis^ /. s. d. may be worth, 60 o o ioobu{helsoflndiancom,2o o o 100 weight of flax, 400 50 bulhels of rye, 10 o o 30 bufhels of wheat, '900 100 bufhels of potatoes, 600 pafture for 10 cows, one horfe, and 2 oxen, 1100 Total, i2o o o i The third part of this fum is \ 40I. But I know of no farm of this fize which brings fo high a ; rent. I fuppofe it muft be part- : ]y owing to the dearnefs of la- j hour, and partly to the want of ■ better management of farms. i The higher the price of labour is, the lower rents ought to be. Forty pounds will by no means j purchafe the labour that muft be I done on fuch a farm. FARMER, FARMER, one who culti- vate^ a farm. His addition is HuJbandfMaH. In England, the \v(»rd givfs the idea ot one who hires a iarm to cultivato, as ia a inaniRT all the tanners are ten- arils. But, thanks to j(o(kI Prov- idence, the farmers with us are moftly landlt)rds. One would tlii.'ik this mull conduce to the better cultivation oJ our lands in general. A fcnant does not in- tend hitnlcif in the improve- juent ol the farm : He aims to vhich (hould ftand until the hedge is grown up. \\'lie:i a fence is made without a ditch it ought to be fenced on botl^ fides. Mprtimcr io8 FEN Mortimer dirctls, •' That if the hedge have a ditch, it fhould he three feet wide atop, one at bot- tom, and two feet deep : Tliat if it be without a bank, or ditch, the fets be in two rows, ahnoft perpendicular, and at a toot dif- tance ; and, that at every thirty foot diftance, a young oak, elm, crab, or the like, be placed : That when a hedge is grown tall, it may be plalhed, by giving the ihoots a cut half through, and weaving them between the ffakes, trimming off the fuperfluous branches." Mr. Miller fays, " It will be proper, before planting a hedge, to confider the nature of the foil, and what fort ot plants will thrive bell in it ; and alfo what the foil is from whence the plants are to be taken : That when the bank at the fide ot a ditch is to be planted with quicks, the fets ought to be about the fizc ot a goofequiil, and their tops Ihould be cut off within tour or five inches of the ground : That they ihould be frelh taken up, ftraight, fmooth, and well rooted. Part of the turt taken off the furtace of the ground, where the ditch is to be dug, fhould be laid with the graffy fide downward, on the fide of the ditch where the bank is intended to be made, and fpme of the beft mould Ihould be laid upon it to bed the quick. The fets of quick are then to be laid upon that mould, a foot afunder, with their cut cuds fomewhat Hoping upwards. When the firfl row ot quick is thus laid, it mull be covered with mould : Some ot the remaining turf muff be laid upon that mould, with the grafs tide downwards, as he- fore ; and more mould mufl be laid upon the turf. When the bank has been thus raifed about jg^. foot high, a fccond row of fets FEN (liouid be laid in the fpaces be- tween the lower quick, and with their ends turned the oppofite way, in order to thicken the bottom of the hedge. Thefe are then to be covered in the fame manner as the former. The bank is to be topped v.- ith the bottom of the ditch ; and a dry or dead hedge mufl be made ^n the other fide, to defend the young plantation from cattle. The quick mufl be contlantly weeded ; and in Feb- ruary it fhould be cut to within an inch of the ground ; for this will make it thoot flrong, and greatly help its growth. When a hedge ot this kind is about eight or nine years old, it will be proper to plafh it. The befl time is in Ottober or February. Alter it has flood twenty or thir- ty years, and there is iii it old itubsy as well as new fhoots, tliofe flubs fhould be cut floping off, within two or three inches or the ground." It takes time to make thefe hedges. But, on the whole, they are cheap fences, as they require but little repairing, befides trim- ming and pruning, to prevent their growing fo high as to call too great a fhadow. It is greatly to be wifhed that farmers in many parts of this coimtry, where ma- terials for othef fences are fcarcy and dear, would go into this method of fencing. The cofl of making the ditch and bank, would be no more than tvv'o fhil- lings a rod, cxclufive ot the quicks. And when fucha fence is ijitended, the farmer fhould have a nurfery of quicks prepar- ed. For though flips and cut- tings may live, quicks with roots are more certain. And it is bet- ter to make a good hedge at firfl than to have it to mend after- wards. T\\c befl times to place thefe quicks iji the fence ia ^hi5 FEN this country arc April or Ntay, au'l October. There is a Virginia fence, lo called from its being inndi iifcti in Virginia. It is nia»lc bv lap- ping the ends of rails or poles on eacU other, turning alternatciy to the right and left. There mull be ftakcs acrofs under the upper- moll rails, to make tiic icncc fleady, and prevent its falling. As it is ealily made, ar>d loon iak.cn up, it may do bell where a fence is wanted only lor a Ihoit lime : But it ukes up too irucii room, and has not an agreeable appearance. Another kind of fence is made with rails, or poles, with ev- ery hut end on the >»r()und, and every rail lupported by a pair ol iiakes cro'led. It may be built exactly on a line, and be put up with great c>cpedition. Cattle feem afraid to attempt to leap over it, nor can they pufli it down, nor remove any oi the parts of it with thcic horns. It IS not to be coveted for the beau- ty of its appearance. At a (mail di fiance it might be millaken for a CluxHiux di frije, Bulh fences arc fomeiiines made by piling bulhes, or Imall trees with the limbs on them ; finilhed withcrofs Hakes .md rid- ers. It will be continually let- tHrig ; and theretore mult be made hghcr e^ch year. It poor- ly pays tor the labour of making it, and ihould never be m.!de, hut where fuirable njateriaU tor better fences arc not ealily to be Iiad. ^>omc make a compound fence, with two or three rails ahove, and ftoncs beneath. Potts that have ftood in a rail fence till the bottoms are rotted off, will an- fwcr to hold the rails in tliis kinil of fence, it c ire be taken to fr.nwort ll.env ^^ th liruvv /Icm-- F K N 109 agaiiifl their fide"!. But if the wall be not mailc with Ifoiles tlini are lonicwhat large, fwiuc will be npt to difplace them, and make breaches to pals through. Fences tor lorne inclofures muy be made with iwo rails or three, and open belov/, Jb'or di- vilion lences on a farm, fuch fences will be fully fulh- cient, where neither Iheep nor luigs are to be oppofed. They are convenient alio, and prefer- able to almoU any other, on ac- count ol the facility ol Ibifiinj? tiicm trom place to place, as a farnier may often find occafjon to do. ? or the pofts being j)oint- cd in the manner ol itakes, the holes may be made with an iron bar, and the polls driven into the gnmnd with a beetle, li> as to Uandlufficiently llrong. In Tome parts of the country, where nei- tlicr Ihcep nor 1 wine are permitted to go at large, thefe open tences are uled againft roads. And it is not amils to adopt tlie chedp- cfl ways ol fencing that will jin- fwer the purpofc, A fort ol leiice is made of the ftumps and roots ol white pine trees. In a fofl foil the root* run deep : But the Humps on i foil ct clay may be taken up without mui;h lalx>ur. 1 he meth- od ol doing it is, to cut off the roots all round, about two leet horn the body of the llurnps ; Or nearer the lidc ot the Hump which is to lie on the ground, ?a\A farther on the other : I he 11 heave at them with a l')ng lever, till they are fo loolened that they may be pulled up by oxen. L.'iy them in a range where you want your fence, inciulm;? the K^ps with the fmallerrooLs ; they will be a good fen^x' fv)r two or three generations. Betides durable- nefs, the fence has thefe things ro rr-rorir.r. -r! 1 \* : It clears the land iio F E R land of a bad incumbrance, and will {land well on a clay foil, .which is bad for other fences in general. For ditch fences, fee Ditch. FERMENTATION, an in- ternal motion excited in fubftan- ces, by which the cohefion of their parts is deftroyed, and their nature changed. But, that a fer- mentation may take place, it is neccfTary that fome particles in ihe fermenting body be fluid ; or that the body be moift. Bod- ies perfeftly dry can have no de- gree of fermentation in them. Fermentation does much to- M'ards the produftion and growth of plants. It is therefore a thing of much confequence to the farm- er ; and he ought to know by what means he may increafe ii in his ground. The pafture of plants is increaf- ed by fermentation, as it loofens the foils, fo that their roots do more eafily find their food. AH rich foils contain the principles of the food of plants in abun- dance : And a fermentation is produced among them by any thing that alters the arrangement of their particles. A fermenta- tion is produced by heat from the fun, and by rain : But when the foil is too much filled with water, the fermentation is abat- ed, or deftroyed. Ploughing, and otherwife ftirring the ground, is a principal caufe oi fermenta- tion in the foil. The plough not only increafes the pafture of plants by pulverizing the foil, but by mixing the falts and oils contained in it, fo as to bring on a degree of fermentation, if the foil have neither too much, nor too little water in it at the time of ploughing. I fufpecl that our fevere frofts in winter may have a tendency 1 to excite a degree of fermenta- ' F E R tion, which takes place after die ground is thawed. For the heav- ing and fettling of the foil will make fome alteration in the dif- pofition of its particles, and con- duces to its imbibing more free- ly, fnow water and rains, which contain food of plants. But dung, and other ftrong manures, are perhaps the chief caufes of the fermentation of foils. -Dung is no fooner mixed with the foil, when there is a proper degree of warmth in the earth, than it ftrongjy ferments in itfelt, and brings on a new fermentation in the earth which is in contaft with it, which is communicated to remoter earth : By all which the cohefion of the parts oi the foil is broken, the foil highly pulverized, and the paflure of plants proportionably increafed, fo that their roots cart freely extend themfelves in queli of their food. By the fame fermentation, the food or nourilhment of plants is increafed ; becaufe tlie dung it- feif is diffolved, its falts and oils mixed, its fine earthy particles fet at liberty, the vegetable fub- ftances, fuch as roots, weeds, 8<.c. corrupted and diffolved : AH which confpire to increafe the iood of plants, and prepare it to enter the minute pores of their roots. That plants may flourifli, it is thought to be needful that a fer- mentation of the foil be contin- ued during their growth. Oth- erwife a fufficient quantity of fteam will not arife to their roots ; a probable confequence is, that they will be Hinted in their growth. It may be for this rea- fon that tillage, during the grow- ing of plants, is found to be fo very advantageous to them ; ef- pecially when they are hoed to a good depth, by which the ferr mentativn PER ^nlatien of the foil among the roots is incrcafcd. FERN, or BRAKES. Pohpo- i^j/OT.awcll known lortof weeds, that is ohcn trouhlcfonic to fuch of our cleared, or pantdlly fub- ducd lands, as ha\e not been tilled. They are fo lull of falts, that they fhould be cut green, and laid in our barn vards to pu- trefy, and mix with dung. Per- haps there « fcarcely any better method ot increahng manure. Pafturing the land where they grow, efpccially with hungry cattle, that will eat them as tall as they come up, will help to fubduc thctn. Pukiing will kill them ; tor tl>cre is nothing fo iatal to them as uriin: : But not lefs than two or three year's til- lage will fubdue them. They arc hardeft to fubdue in deep foils. Flentilul dunging, with tillage, will be efTeclual ; but a TOoU certain remedy is urine ; this ihcy get in plenty by lold- iflg. " Fern, cut while the fap is in it, and lett to rot on the ground, is a very great improver of land ; for if burnt when fo cut, its alhes will yield double the quantity of fait that any other vegetable can do. In fcvcral places in the north pans ot Europe, the inhabitants mow It green, and bui-ning it to allies, make thofe albes up into balL, with a lutie water, which they dry in the fun, and makt.- ufe of tiiem to walh their hnen with ; looking upon it to be near as good as foap for that purpofe." Did. of Arts. In the Farmer's OtUndai you may read, under September, '* Now is the proper time to cut fern, called in lonie places brake>. This is moll prohtdble work, and Ihould never be ne^lcfc^cd. Car- ry it into your farm yard, and build large ilacki of it for cui- F I S >J1 ting down through the winter, : as t.:fl as the cattle will tread u \ into dung ; alio tor littering the I Itables, ox houles, cow houfes, ' hogllics, &c. By having great plenty of it, you will W able to I raife iininenlequantitirs ot dung, which is the toundation ot all good hufbandry ; and it is well known that no vegetable yields fuch a Quantity of falt.c neglect- ed. Qtteutimes it may be of great fd vantage. Sometimes it is done for the purpofe oi deffroying the natuir al grov.'tU ot trees, bullies, ii:c. The water not only miJces au eflcntial alteration in their food, but alfo excludis them from the free air, which is ellentially ncc- ellary to vegetation. It is no wonder, theteforc, tliat it proves tlieir deftruiiion. The flowin;', of two fummers IS found fuihcicnt to kill every plant of the woody kind, fo that it ii6 FLO it will not fprout any more. — But feme advife to drawing off the water in Auguft, that the ground may be, for a few days, heated by the fun. The plants thus fuddenly pais from one ex- treme to another, which will doubtlefs tend to deftroy thera the fooner. But when the fea- fon is fo dry that another pond of water could not be immedi- ately raifed, the drawing off had better be omitted. Another intention of flooding is, to enrich the foil. Some lay their lovr grafs lands under wa- ter during the whole of the win- ter. This may be a good meth- od for lands which are fo low and wet, that none of the beli gralTes can be made to grow on ihem. The poor v.ater graffes ■will grow the fafler ; and the crops of hay, fuch as it is, will be the larger. But places where cloyer, or herds grafs, or red top will flour- ifh, fhould not be flowed during the winter : Becaufe the winter frofts are known to be neceffary to the production of thefe grades. Flooded lands fhould aKsays be laid bare early in the fpring, that the grov.'th of the grafs be r.ot prevented : Or th«!t the ground may be dried fo early as to be fit for tillage crops. And ditching of flooded lands, at Icalt round the herders, will be necef- fary to lay them dry enough for tillage. As ftanding M^ater catches duft from the atmofphere, and ahvays contains more or lefs of the fln- eft particles of foil, it depofits a rich fediraent ; a fat flime. there- fore, will remain on the furface after the water is removed. And a time fhould be chofen for draw- ing it off, when the air is calm, and the water cleareft, that as lit- tle a quaiidty as poflSble of tlie FLO food of plants may pafs off wkk it. Such land is no more liable to fuffer by drought than the fer- tile land of Egypt, which is year- ly enriched by the overflowing of the Nile. Though winter flooding do not fuit the nature of good graff- es, a few days flooding in the fpring and fall will not hurt them ; but will enrich the foiJ, and fo promote their growth. The foil will have the fame ad- vantage as intervale land, which, is made rich and fmitful by oc- csfionaJ flooding : Yea, a great- er advantage, as the water may be applied and removed at pleafure. f LOUR, the edible part of corn. The name is chiefly giv- en to the meal of wheat com, af- ter it is cleared from the bran, by fifting or bolting. The flour of wheat is the beft fubftance for making bread that is known iii the world. That flour may continue good and fit for ufe, it Ihouid be put into dry cafks, and then kept in a place that is cold and dry. Oth- erwife it will be apt foon to turn four. And if it be paffed through a fieve once in a while, it wil! keep good the longer. It is greatly to be regretted that this country does not pro- duce flour in greater plenty. That it may do fo, I fliould think nothing is neceffary befides the following things : i. To procure new feed of wheat from fome re- mote place, once in three or four years ; and from the northward, tliat it m.ay ripen the earlier : 2. To give the land three or four ploughings before fowing, fo as to make it very mellow and fine, like gaiden mould : 3. To pre- pare the feed in fuch a manner as to prevent fmut. See Sjnuf. FLOWER, or BLOSSOM, the moft beautiful part of a plant, many F O A in»ny of which have an agreea- ble llavour. 'I'he flower cont.uns the or- gans of generation, the Jarina jecundam, which is neceHaiy to fruitfahiefs, ;ind the iiutimcnts of the fruit itfcU contaimng the feed of a future nbrit. FLY, an infect that cats, cor- rupts and ilollroys young plants. See In fed. rOAL, a colt. •• Foals are ufually foaled ahout the hcgui- ning of funimcr, and it is tlie cuitom to let them run till mich- aehnas with the mare, at which tune they are to he weaned. — When firfl weaned they nnill he Jiept in a convenient houfe, with a low rack and manger ior hay and oats ; the hay mull be very fwcet and fine, elpccully at firll, and a little wheat bran Ihould be mixed with their oats, in order to keep their bodies open, and make the.u eat and drink, freely. When the wmtcr is fpenr, they fliould be turned into ibuie dry ground, where the grals is fweet and Ihort, and where there is good water, that they may drink at picafure. 1 he winter atier this, they may be kein in the flable, without any further care than that which is taken of oth- er hoifes : But after the firfl year, the mare loals and horfe foals arc not to be kept togefher. There is no difhculty to know the fhape a foal is like to be ol ; lor the fame Ihape he carries at a month, he will carrv at fix years old, ii fic be not abuled in alter keeping." We olten hear it lamented, that f'Ur breed of horles is fo bad. But I am convinced tliat, as our colts arc managed, if we hatl any other breed, we ihould fix)n make it appear to be us n:can as our own, li noiworfc. 'riieabuling «f colts iu the fiiil winter, is the F O D 117 principal caufc ct their proving ?o bad. For our farmers fcldom allow their waned colts any l«)()(l hcfides hay, and that is not alw.iysof the bell kind. So tliat ihey leldom tail of bring ilintcd in their growth, in the tirft win- ter, to iuch a degree that they never get the better of it. A colt that is foaled laie, Ihould not be weaned till February or March, and Ihould have oats during the whole of the winter. In Ionj« countries they allow a young colt fifteen bufhcls. We need not grudge to feed them with meal, oats and bran, befides the belt of clover hay ; for they will pay for it in their growth. Af- ter the firfl winter, they wiJl need no extraordinary feeding till they are grown up. — Were the above direttions cbfcrvcd, we Ihould foon fee an improve- ment of our breed of horles. — They would be capable of doing n;uch greater fcrvicc, and be likely to huld out to a greater age. FODDLU.dry food for horfes and other cattle. The term in- cludes corn or grain, luy and flraw, the llalks and leaves of Indian corn, the haulm of peafc and beans, &c. Dried weeds, and leaves of trees, may alio fer^•e %s fodder for hungry and fiardy cattle. Mr. Lille recommends elm leaves, dried on the ima'l branch- es, as a great relief to cattle in winter. He fays the cattle will eat it before oats, and tlirive ex- ceedingly with It. Alf«), the chaff of all kinds o! grain, in the old countiies, is referved tor ttul- der, and made more account of than the ftraw. In this coimtry it is fuffered to be driven away by winds. This is an inllance ol ouf want ol economy. In fuch a country as ours where the winters arc long an4 cold, ii8 F O D coid, and where grafs does not ferve for the cattle fo much as half the year, providing fodder, .and preferving it, are matters of high confequence. In this bufi- nefs, a great part of the farmer's care and ilrength is employed. For there is not more than two months in a year, in which farm- ers are not either preparing, and Jaying up fodder for their Itock, or elfe deahng it out to them. — But this need not difcourage the Kewengland farmer. For the cafe is very much the fame in niofl parts of Greatbritain, where the nation has become rich by hufbandry, and where lands will bear a high rent. One guinea per acre per annum, is not ac- counted high rent for good land, in tillage or grafs, in that country. Lands that lie near to great towns and cities are rented much higher. The ways to increafe the quan- tity of fodder, will be found un- der other articles. The ways to preferve it, fo as to make the greatell advantage from it, may be here confidered. One important caution to be obferved is, that hay, which is the principal fodder, Ihould not be fo much dried as to occafjon its wafting. When it has been properly made, it fhould not be carted in, if it can be avoided, at a tim.e when the weather is dry and windy, nor in the hottefl part of the day. Mornings and evenings are the beft times for removing it, as there is a damp- iiefs in the air which prevents its being too crifpy. The leaves ivill not crumble, nor the feeds fliatter out. The beft parts of the hay are often loft by not ob- fei-ving this caution ; or at leaft jnuch diminifhed. The hay which is to be ftored in fmall or narrow^ mows, and on fcaffolds, will keep well with lit- F O D tic drying. That which g08» into a large mow, will need to be dryer, as the air will not pen- etrate fo near to the centre of it. To prevent the hay from tak- ing damage, by overheating in a large mow, fome recommend a barrel, bafket, or a fluffed fack, to be placed in the centre, and gradually raifed as the mow rifes. This forms a kind of chimney, which takes away the fteam of the hay when it is overhot, fup- plies frefh air to the hotteft part, and keeps the hay from turning mouldy. But as good a meth- .od may be to pitch fome of the drieft hay in each load, into the centre, and the greeneft round the fides. In this way no room will be loft. In difpofing of the different kinds of hay and other fodder, fome regard fhould be had to the places, or parts of the barn, in which the different forts of cattle are kept. The clover hay, for inflance, fhould be laid up near to the ftable where horfes are kept, as this is the moft fuitable fodder for them. The good hay of otlier kinds, fhould be put where it can be handily given to the calves, milch cows, and work- ing oxen. The meaneft fodder neareft to the apartment of the growing young flock, on which it is commonly beftowed, and which is more proper for them than for the reft. In thofe parts of the country where fait hay cannot be had, it is a good method to apply fait to hay that has been damaged in mak- ing, and to ftraw, and hay of low meadows, as it is put into the mow. The fait will make it more palatable both to horfes, and neat cattle. One peck of fait is enough for a ton of hay. Some choofe that a barn fliotild have large gaps between the boards F O D "boards on the fides, that the hay, 8<.c. may have air. This is fure- ly a miftakcn notion ; for the liay that is ncarcU to the gaps will lofe its fwcctncfs. Tlic roof of a barn fiiouMalfohc kept very tight ; and none of the hay fhould he laid very near to the ground. I do not approve of ftackingany kind of fodder, excepting in cafe of necclTuy. For fome inches of the oiufidc of a ftatk is certainly fpoilt by the weather. It is wcfl if ilie refl happen to be well fav- ed. It often proves othcrwife. When a farmer has more hay tlian his barn will hold, let him flack it near to the barn ; and, as foon as he has made room, in fomc damp or calm day take it in. There will be the lefs dan- ger of its getting damage. Farmers, who mean to Jceep good their flocks, and to have plenty of manure, fliould not be fond of feHing hay. If they fhould have fomc left in the fpring, it will not grow worfe, hut fomc forts will he better, by keeping. Aik\ if a (hort crop fliould happen, (hey will be glad tliey have kept it. Straw that is refervcd for hnl- dcr, may help to prcferve the liufksand bottom flalksoi Indian corn, v'iiich conimonlv have too much fap in them to be niov/ed by thcnifcUes. If they are mowed together, in alternate thin layers, the ftra\v- wilt prc- ferve the corn ftalks, and the ftalks will impregnate the l^raw with their fweclncfs, fo that the cattle will eat them together with a good rclilh, and be well nourifhcd by them. Another inciliod of managing flraw, which I have found to be ol fingular advantage, is to m\x \ it with fdit hay which is not more than half dried. The hay i-; thus kept from heating, and the i F O D 419 ftraw is fo tinflurcdwitli tl»c fait and fa'poi the hay.a-; to be render- ed an agfrceable fodder for cattle. It is well known th.-»t cattle prefer fhort ftnw to that vhicli IS long : Therefore fome farm- ers I ui their flraw ai fliort as oats, and to tempt the horlVs to cat it, mix fomc oats or barley among it. FODDERING, fcedirtg cat- tle with dry food. We have occafion to begin to fodder, mof? commonly, about the beginning oi November ; and to continue doing it till the middle of May, and mmetimes fatcr. We fhould take care not to be- gin to fodder till it is realJy neccf- iary : Becaufe cattle that are fod- dered, will notgra^cc fodihgcntly. When it is once begun, the cat- tle will cxpeft it, and i: mufl be continued. When we firfl be- gin, we fhould fodder early in the morning only ; for at that time of the day the froff is ufual- fy on the gnfs ; fo that the cat- tic wiir not graze. They fhould not yet be houfed, horfcs except- ed ; But in wet weather the whole flock fhould be houfc the nature of this aliment, than to examine what plants contain, or what they are made up of. For they almoft entirely confift of what pafles into them during their groA\th, The fee^ is fo fmall, that the fubftance contain- ed in that can make but little al- teration in' the nature of the whole plant produced from it. Or, if it did, feeds may be re- duced to their firft principles, as eafily as the plant that bears them. Plants have been found by chymical analyfesto contain air, water, earth, fait, and oil. But - any one may convince himfelf of it, without the aid ot a chym- ical procefs. If we take notice of wood that is burning, we fhall find F O O find, by its hKTing ajxd riMpi»ing, that it dlfcharges no (mall ijuaiu tity of air : Water is fctn palf- ing out at the ends ot the flicks on the fire : The llame prove* tlie exiftcnce of the oily part : And falts are eafily p*-o;;y betwixt animals and plants, fo tar as their natures arc invriliL^st- ed. Thcreiore, as animaU have difTerent appetites, why may we not 124 F O O not fuppofe fomething fimilar in plants ? Or, that fome roots may rejeft one kind of particles in the general food that nature provides, and other roots rejeift other par- ticles. A flag, for inilance, may imbibe more Abater, than a bufli of the whortleberry of the fame bulk. Why may we not fup- pofe further, that as fome ani- mals feed on airaoft any thing that comes in their way, fo fome plants may be deftitvite oi any Tiicenefs ot appetite, and admit all food proraifcuoufly ? But whether the difagreeable parti- cles are rejected, without enter- ing the roots, or expelled aker they have entered ; yet the real nourilhment ot different plants, as well as of different parts of the fame plant, mult needs be foniewhat difrerent. For that which nourifhcs a plant, muft be rr^de up ot nearly the fame par- ticles of matter, that the plant is when it is grown. As there is a real difference in the latter, there mufl be alfo in the iormer. So that there is a real difference in their nounfhment ; though not fo great a difTerence, but that the food of all plants may be con- fidered, in general, as being much the fame. So a company of men are faid in general to feed alike, when they all eat of the faine number of difhes at one table, though one take a greater proportion of his m.eal from one dilh, and another from another : Or though, taking e- qually of all, one fl^omach digelts that which another does not, but thrcv.'s it oS as unfuitable ali- mei'.t. If the above reprefentation be agreeable to truth, it will follow, that as all foils do not contain the ingredients of vegetable food in the fame proportions, fome fbils duil be fitter to uouriih oiic FOG kind of plants, and others anoth- er kind ; and the fame may be faid of manures. And as expe- rience proves that this is fo, it is favourable to my theory, Butffill the food ot plants is, in general, nearly the fame. In confirma- tion of this opinion, it may be ob- ferved that fallowing always en- riches a foil ; and, for ought that appears to the contrary, m.akes it more fit to produce 'all forts of crops. But the food which en- ters into fallowed land from the air muft be, in general, nearly the fame. It has been afked, whether a piece of ground, which has borne the fame crops, year after year, till it will bear the fame no long- er, may not be in a good condi- tion for bearing fome other crop that requires equal ffrength in the I foil ? I think it doubtful wheth- j er tliis has ever appeared to be the cafe in ia£i. But have ob- ferved, that a piece of ground, tired of producing white crops, as they are called, v>'hich require much nourifhment from the foil, may be in a fit condition for crops that require little : Not becaufe the food of different plants is effentially different, but becaufe the latter takes from the air a greater proportion of its nourifhment than the former. Thus land which appears to be ex- haufled by cropping with wheat or oats, may be fufficiently rich for peafe or potatoes. And a- gain, as fome plants draw their nourilliment from a greater depth in the foil than others, a fpot that feems to be exhaufled by fi- brous rooted crops may be in a condition for tap rooted ones. And this is perfe6^1y confiftent with the opinion that the food of both kinds may be nearly the fame. And on the whole it ap- pears, thit there niay be fufii- cieiit FOR It reifon for a rotation of | « rops, though the food ot a!l plants were the fdinir, or ncaily i'o, as I fuppolc thfiii to Lc. FORKSr, a tra^t of ;jroun(l prodiuing wood. Karli larni of any confidcralilo fiiwiicls, Ihould Jiavc a forclt to aflurd a fuoply of fcwel and timber. lu clear- ing farms in a new country, due rcgiifd Ihould be had to prelerv- ing a perpetual toreft. Some have milfaken tlu-ir intereU To much, as not to leave a lulfieient ouantity ot land uncleared. So tnat they arc put to the difagree- able neccflity, either of buying their fire wood, or cHe of go- ing fonie niiles after it. That part of a farm Ihould be let apart for this purpofe, whicli is lead adapted by nature tor tillage, or grals. Land which is fwampy, with a very thin foil over a lan- dy bottojn ; land that is rocky and mountainous, or which will but poorly bear a dry fealun, cre\en the mod fandy, or gravelly heights, or Ueep declivities whicli cannot be ploughed, may an- fwer well tor a foreft. tore f I trees, having long roots, fome of which penetrate dteply, will find fufficicnt nourilhment, in places where corn andgrafs can- not be cultivated to advantage. So that it is very bad economy to fuffer any fnch places to be deftitute of growing trees. For if they do not produce wood they are in a manner ufelefs. Or if they produce any grafs, trees will not hurt them for paf- turago, but in fomc cafes make ibem better. The quantity of ground that I fliould be fet apart tor this ulc, intift vary according to the large- nefs ot the farm it belongs to, and accordins; to the demand for wood, tlic quality of the foil, and tiic- luiure uf llic I Iii;;..t'-, If ;hc FOR 12- climate be hot, the forcll may be final ler. A fmall farm cannot fo well ad- mit of a large lot foi wo(,d as a larger one. Some inteil!t;cnt farm- ers iii ihis country iiave thought tliry could make a lot of ten or a do/en acres anlwer the purpofe ot fupporling one conilant kitch- en tire. But it certainly will not, unlefs the (oil be uncommonly fruitful, and the trees fucli as are of the (juickeft growth. If land be poor and dry, it will require twenty acres or more, to hipply one (ingle fire, and keep the (lock of trees undiminilhed. To thicken a ioieil.or to pre- vent its becoming too thin, cattle (hould be kept out at all lealons, that all the trees which Ipring out ot the groiiiid may live, and grow up to maturity. And \A\cii u is found needful, acorns, or other feeds, Ihould be planted, (o that none of the ground may continue unoccupied. In our nioft fouthcrn climates, I find that hard wood is n»ore rapid in its growth than in the northern. And fpiouts oftener grow up from Humps ot trees that are felled. 'Ihe trees that grow up quickelt in general lliould be moll cultivated. — Thole of thefe kinds Ihould be more generally left (landing than others ; fiicii, for i:illance, as the red and grey oaks, aji, whito maple, &c. That a foreft may be prcferv- cd from wade, as lew trees as po{rible (hould be felled in fum- mer, orfpring ; not only becaulc the wood and tin:bcr is of lels Naiue, but bccau(b no fuckers will be fo apt to come up from their roots. It is a frugal meth- od to fell all wood, an.l timber trees, in December and January, ur a little before and after th'->rc •T.onihs. 'J'lic wood will lalt longer, 126 FOR longer, will be more durable on the fire, and burn better : And the timber w\\] be more lading. When a number of fuckers fpring up from a ftump, all, excepting one or two, fliould be taken a- v»ay as early as pofTible ; then the remaining ones will grow with rapidity. Thofe are to be left which are tallcft, and mo»l rap- id in their growth. When a farm is quite deftitute of a foreff, fome fpot, or fpots, the mo ft barren of any part of the farm, Ihouldbe converted to this ufe, and be planted with fuch trees as may be expecled to thrive beil. If thefe fpots be tillable, " cat- tle of all kinds, and fwine fhould be fenced out ; and the ground ivell ploughed and harrowed, and made mellow. Acorn-3 may be put in, in rows four feet afun- der, t^vo inches apart, and two inches deep. The intervals may bear fome hoed crops, while the trees are fmall. They fhould be hoed the firfl year with the hand hoe ; the fecond with the horfe hoe, and (o on afterwards. When they are a year old begin to thin them. When they are, by re- peated thinnings, as they grow larger, reduced to the diflance of eight feet, all the reft may ftand for timber, till fome of them are fit for fome.ufes. But the final diftance for large timber trees, is from twenty to thirty feet." — Cotnplete Farmer. But if places defigned for for- efts cannot conveniently be till- ed, the trees fhould be raifed in & nurfery, and tranfplanted into fuch places. The coft of doing it will be ulfling, to compare with the advantage to be obtain- ed by doing it, efpecially in thofe parts of the country' where wood is become a fcarce article. Small clumps of trees on little emi- F O U nences, have an excellent ef- feft on the beautv of a country. FOUNDERING, a very pain- ful difeafe in the feet of horfes. A horfe affetted with this difeafe draws himfelf up in a heap, and is loth to move. It is faid to be occafioned by bruifes on the legs, by bad fhoemg, by ftanding in cold water after being heated with exercife ; or even by ftand- ing ftill in the ftable for feveral days. As the diforder is in the feet, covered by the hoofs and foles, it is difficult to make application to the parts affefted. But drawing out the fole Mr. Snape does not approve of, with- out paring the hoof. Something muft be done without delay, left impofthumations come on in the feet, by which the hoofs will be caft on : In which cafe, the horfe muft lie by ufelefs for a number of weeks betorc the new hoofs will be grown. The fame writer di- re6ts that the hoofs be razed from the coronet or top to the bottom, quite through the hoofs to the quick, fo as to make the blood ran. Thefe channels in the hoofs may be readily made with a common marking iron. To cure the wounds made in the hoofs, apply to them tar, tur- pentine and honey, melted to- gether, with a fourth part of fpir- it of wine, foaking pledgits of clean flax, or tow, in this mix- ture, and laying them upon the chinks, not opening them till two days after the firft drefling ; afterwards making frelh applica- tions every day, till the channels in the hoofs are grown up. The fame applications muft be made to tlie fole, it that has been drav.-n. But fimilar chan- nels in that, as I apprehend, may anfwer well enough, and paring the fole thin. They muft, how- ever, have the fame drcCTings as the F R E the hoofs. A piece of leather fhoiilil bf laid over the fole, and the whole foot fo bound up with flrong bandages, that the appli- cations may not get difplaced. See Gil'fon's Farrury. FRHKZIN'G, or congelation, the fixing of fluids, or turning them into ice, by their being ex- pofed to vcrv cold air. " PhiJofophcrs are by no means agreed as to the caufc of this phenomenon. The Cartefiaus account for it by the recefs, or going out of the ethereal matter Irom the pores of the water. — The Corpufcularians, on the other hand, attribute it to the in- grefs of fiigorifick uarticles, as they call them. Hi)bbcs alTcrts, that thcfe particles arc nothing clfe but common air, which, en- tangling ilfeif with the particles of water, prevents their motion. Others will have a kind of ni- trous fait to be the caufe of con- celaiion, by infinuating itfelf between the particles of water, and fixing them together like nails. And indeed it fcems prob- able, that cold i^xtii freezing do arife from fome fubftances of a faline nature, floating in the air ; Hnce all falts, and particularly nitrous ones, when mixed with ice and fnow, greatly increafe their cold, and even bulk." Did. of Arts. The trcezing of the groiind ii that in whch the farmer is chief- ly intcrcftcd. But when wc fay the ground Ircczcs, wc mean that the watery and moifl partiiles in the groimd are turned to ice, by which thi! particles of the ft»il are fo ftrongly bound together, thai tlie ground is harder to pen- etrate than ice ftfelf. As to the ground itfcll, it would be inca- pable of C" ■ I, if wholly divcflcd of Wc fee iio &£Qs of Irwli iu dxe fands of f R E »»7 an hour glafs, however cxpofc*! to cold. When the ground is , bare, it commonly freezes to as great a depth as water does, which, in this country, ii foniQ- times not lefs than 30 inriicc. But in Britain, the cieateU depth to wliicli Mr. Boyle ever couKl find the ground frozen in any fituaLi<»n, was only 14 inches. The farmer is m fome refjte^rU, greatly benefited, and in other reipehs, feems not a little injur- ed, by frofts. He is certainly benefited bf the winter frofls, as they are tl^ means of the growth of his heft gra (Fes. Such is their nature, that the affion of froll upon the foil, is needful to fit it to nourifli them. Thus Providence has wifelv and mcrcitully contrived, that the beft gralFcs Ihall be pro- duced in cold countries, where they are moll needed, for the fupport of bcafts in the winter. Prufls ferve to open and foftcix the foil, and fo ferve to increafs the pafture of plants, making it more eafy for the roots of grallcs I and other plants to extend thcm- fc'lvcs in qucfl of their looend uj)ori liring unmo- h'fted by troll. Such is the un- evrnnols ot our clinjatc. On the whole, I rather think ihc incor1\enientes of our fe- veic frolic, more of which I mi;i;ht have mentioned, are mucli more than a balance for the ad- vantages of them. But the gifts of Providence, on the whole, are dealt out more equally to the people of each hjnitable coiiri- try on this globe, than fome arc readv to imagine. What makes the difference app<*ar the greater, to a curfory obferver, may be, fhat till* people of one country do not lo well improve natural advanfage<;, v^". thoJe of another. FKL'IT TREES. The forts which are moil common in this country, are apple, pear, peach, f)lum ani cherry. And per- laps there are no others that would be more profitable. Biit a greater variety might be cafi- ly had ; ;md would be a real im- provement. The apple tree I mention firft, as being of the moll importance of all our fruit trees. In about five or fix years alter the leeds are (own in the nurfery, the young trees may be fit for tranf- planting into the orchard. Mr. Donaldlon advifes that ihey be planted thirty feet apart. But I nave known orchards anlwcr verv well, that were planted as clofe as twenty five feet. No Hated luir, however, (houid be alfigi?ere the tree is plants cd, cfpecialiy if it is carried to any diflancc, or cxpofed at all to the fun or air : Hut ilie mouths v.-herc they are gut off will re- ceive fome lap irom the earth, though the dried fibres would not. But if trees are planted without any delay, it is next to impcftblc to pi event ihcfe (len- der tjO F R U der roots from being twilled or turned out of their natural pofi- tion, antl if this (hould be the cafe they woilI.I neither inhale nor con- vey fap to tlie tree. There mult be lome lofs of roots. There- fore, to balance the lofs of nour- ilhment by the roots, when the head is large, a proportionable part of the limbs fhould be taken away. The tr^es may be tranf- planted in fpring or autumn. I have generally had the beft fuc- cefs in the fpring, and rather pre- fer that feafon. I do it at the time v^^hen the buds are juft beginning to open into leaves. The holes fhould be made fo broad as to allow the roots to have their nat- ural fituation, wdthout contor- tion. And if dead earth be thrown out, rich earth from the furface fhould fupply its place. If tlie earth be not rich, a little old dung may be mixed with it.. But dung unmixed will be hurt- ful. Trees are fometimes killed by having dung heaps lying near to their roots, which ihcAvs that they ought to be dunged fpar- ingly, and with caution. If the trees be planted in a fit- uation much expofed to winds, ihey Ihould be made fteady with itakes during the firft year, that the roots may not be loolencd, and the air let into them, by the motion of the tops. And fome woollen, or other foft fubftance, fhould be put between the flake and the tree, to prevent galling of the tree. Pear trees require much the fame management as apple trees. But as their tops are more coni- cal Ihaped, and not fo broad, they may be fet .rather nearer to- gether. Perhaps twenty feet or lefs may be fumcient in a foil that is not rich. One thing that recommends them is, that they will thrive well in fome of the F R U moft vmpromifing foils, and even-' in a fliff clay. The moft crab- bed natural fruit is valuable, a» from it may be made the agreeable liquor called perry. But for eating they muft be grafted. See Fear Trees. When apple and pear trees- need pruning, it fhould be done betcne the middle of winter, in November 'or December. A gradual pruning, from year to year, is generally better than greatly diminilhing their tops at once. But fuckers that grow rapidly fhould be taken off at any feafon, as tail as they appear; or they will bring on fterility, either partial or total, and a fpeedy decay of the tree. In pruning, every dead and decaying limb lliould be removed, and cut off clofe to the trunk, or where it originates. It is^ recommended that wounds made by large am- putations fliould be made fmooth, and fmeared with clay mortar. It w^ould be better ftill to fmear the wounds with a little melt- ed pitch, which would form a coat impenetrable by the weather. With regard to ftone fruits» as plums, peaches and cherries, they do not w-ell bear much- pruning. They fhould, howev- er, be cleared of their fuckers, both round the roots, on the flems, and in the tops. See Peac/i Trees, &c. Cherry trees grow luxuriantly in this coimtry, and are apt to live long. But peach trees are foon pall bearing, and on thede- 'Cay. The early decay of peach- trees is fuppofed to be partly owing to worms in their roots. For it is a certain faft, that a tree, apparently part bearing, has been fpeedily recovered, by re- moving the earth from above its- roots, and layingrOn alhes and' earth over them, Plum FUR Plum trees of tho dam.»fr<*:ic i kind, will boar no Jriiit. it the | j^round about tbein be luarle. GAR 131 G ARDEX^', " J pieceof ground cultivated an much out of light, it ll; out of mind, .uid the n cultupc of tt too much neglctu ed. A garde* 132 GAR A garden Oiould have a clofe j fence, that the \\nnds may not j drive feeds ot weeds into it. The j fence fhould be at leaft feven j feet high, and picketed, to pre- vent the entrance of thieves. | The height and clofenefs of [ the fence, will increafe the veg- j etation by increafmg the warmth of the air in the garden, except- ing perhaps in the pans which j are Ihaded by the fences. The rage of high winds will be fo op- I pofed as to prevent the tearing j and di Sorting of tender plants ; j 3nd fowls may be the more eafiiy I kept out. A garden fhould have a bor- ■ der of about three ieet. and next | to the border a walk of the fame j width or one toot wider. The \ v.alk through the middle may be from fix to eight feet as the owner pleales. This may be croifed by one, tA\"o,or three narrower ones, if the fhape of the ground re- quires it ; or if it is half as long again the one way as the other, which is more elegant than an e- qiiilateral fquare. On thefe crofs walks may be efpaliers for grapes. Trees Oiould not be in the outer border, but on the oppofite fides of the outer walks ; not two ma- ny of them ; perhaps one of the dwarf kind in 20 or 30 feet. — Standard trees in gardens give too much fnade. Dwarfs are commonly cut into efpaliers. — But this torruring of trees makes them lefs fniitful, and fborter lis'ed. Thofe who prefer it may make this facrifice to elegance and beauty. In fruit trees which jieed much heat, and placed a- gainft northern walls, I object not to it. GARDENING, a kind of ag- ricidture, ufually called horti- culture. It may be confidertd as farming in miniature. It is coaverfant in preparing ground GAR for different kinds of feedi, and in treating them proj>erly during their growth. The garden is the fittefl place to make the firft ex- periments in, with exoiick roots and feed*, as the lofs is mconfid- erable, ii they fhould not prove a- greeable to the climate. If they pro.^per well in the garden, they fhouid afterwards be tried in the field : And even then not at firfl on a very large fcale. He who would make his gar- dening profitable, fhould have his kitchen garden near to the dupghiiis, that the manure may be applied without too much la- bour. Dung that is old, and de[- titute ot feeds, iliould be ufeu, that 100 many weeds may not be propagated. And that a garden may be kept clean, no: one weed fhouid be iuffered to have its ieedi ripened in it : And every rootweed that appears in autumn, fhould be extirpated in fuch a manner that, if pofhble, no parts of its root may remain in the ground. The feeds of many weeds may alfo be deftroyed, by Uying the ground in high ridgts during the winter. At the fame time, it will help to enrich the foil ; and many of certain kinds of infetts, or their eggs, will be deftroyed : Efpecially if the ridging be performed aboiU the iaft of November, or the begin- ning of December. Ground that is fo managed, will be dried the earlier in the fpring, to fuch a degree, as to be fit for digging and feeding. It is of more ad- vantage in land that is apt to be too wet, tb.an in that which is fan- dy and drv. GARGET, a difeafe in cattle. Cows foraeumes have their ud- ders greatly diflended, and indu- rated, with this dillemper ; of which they will pine away and die. unlsfs a remedy be fpeedily applied. i)i the glaud and tongue. O O A applied. The incihtKlof cure is, • to mike an ojx:iiing tii the dew- ld|), and inlert iaro it a picrc o\ the root ol"mechodcan, a^ bij5 as a niituieg, uith a iliwig niauo iaU to It, that it may be diawu out when the cure is effected. The humour, in abotit tuenty tour hours, will be jcvulfed trom the udder to the de«vlap, and loon diichar^e iilell at the oiirice, which compleies the cure. GIGvS, httic tuuiours or blad- ders in the mouths ol horles. To cure ilit them open to diftharge the matter ; and waihthem with iajt ccome carious, the difeafe is at- tended with an intolorable llench, and may be pionuunced incur- able. In the firft and fecond fi-iges, Gibfon directs to purges, diaph- oreiicks, and rowclhng in tiK: binder parts by way ot jxvulfio.i. To clear his uoflrils, burn brim- jlune, feathers and bits oi leath- er under hts noitt, paflin^ the ivHnes into ins noRriis.throiiU^h a iwinel. And when much mat- ter ift dilchar^ed by Incc'.invj, fyringe the noltnls with bramly, or rca wine. Atterwar J.> a linall quantity Uiujucntum Kgypiia- curii, dilHdved m oil ol turpen- tine, may be injected tluough a large pipe, wliifh will be help- ful towards ckMnfing the iilcei- atetl part). See /K Gibfon on furntry. GOATS, a well known lamo kmd ot ^innL, n. . tor climbiug. Tkc c. ; L.cai twins. 1 hey aie hanly, rtot fub- jctl to many dil^.dts, but the kuls arc apt to ])oiioti tliemlelvcs by earing launl, or Uuib poifou, as it is otien calleil. I he colt of tetding goats is ne.xt to nothing in a utA' country, as tlicy pre- ter mt>ls, leaves, twij^s and bark ol trees, to all oiher IchkI. But they inuy be eafily made veiy lat \\ ah corn. They wouUl be a profitable anin^ial to keep, efpecially in 4 new country, were it not ihatnu tence ol a common height will coiirine them. The kids arc ex- cellent for the table ; and the old ones are eatable, and apt to be well filled with tdlowofan excellent quality. Their milk, is e.Kirciiiely nourifiiinj;, good to mix witli cow's milk in chcefe ; an excellent reilorative, highly valued in comfumptive cafes. 1 hey give a greater quantity of milk than any cither anunal <4 ihcir ti/.c. And their ikins make a much llrongcr leather than thole oi flieep : It is nearly of the fame Urength as dec is ikin. They may be made grcMtly ufetul in lubduing new land. 1 he meihod ot managing them ior this purpofe. is as tollows. When tlie large trees «ire all tell- ed, let ten acres be eucloled tor thirty goats, or in that pr'J^w'r- titm. i'he fence thouM be lev- en Icet high, and leamng a little inwards towaids tlie top. Tliis pafturc will feed, and evai tat- tt n them the firU year ; tor they wiji cat the bulhes and giH.lc the finall trees ; and in tb;ee years every finall tree, bulh and f)lant, of tlie woody kind, will )e totally killed. After which, when fufhcieiit time has been al- lowed for the roctts to decay, the land may be ( loughcd with as linall 1 leain as is uied tor plough- ing ot common green iward ; and i3'4 G R A and it will be in excellent heart. The fhnib oak land is very prop- er tor thera, and difficult to fub- 4r.e Avithout thera. In v.inter, goats fhould be driv- en into a thick wood, fomewhat diftant from inhabitants, and a flight fhelter made for them, a- bout •'A'hich they wiil haunt, and live well upon the mofs of trees and browie, till fpring. Or, they may be kept in a pen af home, and fed with the meanefi: fodder. The kids will be apt to die if they come too early ; there- fore, the ram fliould Pe kept from the ewe"; tiil the lal^ of November. GOOSE, a well known bird. The tame kind are fome of them entirely white, but they are inoit- Iv particoloured, grey and white. The belly and wing feathers are white, even in thofe that have moft of the grey colour. Geefe are m.ore profitable than BToft other e fowk, on ac- count of the cheapnefs of their feeding, and the value of their flefh and their feathers, befides their greafe and quills. Some ftrip them of moft of their feath- ers twice ayear. But this buns the animals, and is on the whole, no profit to the owner. Moulting time is the right feafon for pluck- ing them ; for then the feathers are loofe. and begin to fall off of themfeNcs. Geefe begin to lay their egg5 in March ; and begin to fit on them in March or i^prii. The time of incubation is four ■weeks. GRAFTING,orEKGRAFT- IXG, the taking a ihoot from one tree, and inferting it into another, in fuch a manner, that both may unite and become one tree. Trees which are of the fame genus will unite. Nut trees will take on each other. Apple and pear will fonietimes unite ; ihe G R A latter will grow on the commoa thorn. Plumb, peach, almond, nettarine, and apricot wiil unite. But peach and ne6tarine fiiould be inoculated. The general rule of grafting is, ftone fruit on ftone fruit, and feed fruit on feed fruit. The methods of grafting are various ; as grafting in the rind, or crown grafting — whip graft- ing, or tongue grafting — root grafting — i-narchmg, or grafting by approach — and cleft grafting. The laff is moft commonly prac- tifed in this countrv", and is at- tended with ftiecefs. it is done on the flocks, in a nurfer)', or on the iinaU limbs of trees, in an orchard, or garden. The lat- ter part of April, or beginning of May, is the feafon for doing it, beiore the leaves open, and when the fap flow* upwards iR abundance. The head of the flock, or branch, muft be cut off floping, and a flit made the con- trary- way in the top of the flopc, deep enough to receive the cion, which fhould be em like a wedge, with a very {harp knite, the out- fide of the wedge being muc^ thicker than the other. The rind of the cion mml; exactly join to the rind of the flock. The flit fhould be opened by a wedge of hard wood, that the cion may be gently put in its place. The whole fliould be clofely covered with clay, or with a mortar of ftiff^ loam and horfe dung, fo as to keep out the air from the joint for feveral months. It (hould be confined with rags or tow, to guard it a- gainfl rain and winds. Two buds of the cion, at leafl, fliould be left above the mortar. For a more particular account of graft- ing, fee Did. of Arts. GRAIN, a general name for all forts of com, as wheat, rye, maize, barlev, oat*. rcilLet. &c- GIL-^N.IRY, G R A • CRANARY, a norehoufe foi* thi edied corn. A granary Ihoultl tc- fo conftrurtcd, that corn may hi- kept tree troni dampiiefs, ii>- ictis, and vcrniine. To avoiil the lall of fiteff evils, us being mounted on blocks, capped with flat flones, like ioiiie oi the hoiilcs for liidian corn, is no ill expe- dient. But tor laf^c granaries this will not be convenient. In granaries, where corn is in- tcndeu to be kejrt lor years, a very particular care thould be taken in tl>eir conftruftion. Tlie root ftioiild be made perfectly tight, that iK> rain nor fiiow may enter. /The lfor.*es fliould be low, that too much room may not be unoccupied. Each floor Ihould be covered with boxes- ;4bout lour feet fqiiare, leaving a l>anage all round between them and the outward walls, tor the convenience <)f coming at the windows, and to prevent any wet trom penetrating to the boxes. — The Ihitting and tofTing ot grain tram one box to- anoth- er, will help to prevent or cure dampncfs. In England, where they are worn to keep grain in lacks tor a long time, they turn the facks bottom upwards, which anfwers the end ot Ihittmg, as it gives a new fituation to every kernel conuined in them. To prevent the heating of corrv in granaries, the windows (hould be opened when tlic air is dry, and the weather windy, but clofed at other times. • The graji> Hiould be laid thin at hrl\, not more tharv three inches deep, and kequently llured. After it is well dried, it may be laid in thicker heans ; or put up in calks, or faclts, as may be louiul convenient. But if it lie long in large bodies, it Ihould be fre- quently attended to, that it may •oi be fuffcrcd to hrat, and take C R A 135 I damage. To find whether the : Ixjttoin or centre of a heap be hot, I puUi a lath, or other Itick, into It, and let it remain a few min- utes. If there be heat in the grain, it wiH be communicated to the lath. If it be found to be hot, It Ihould be (hificd and laid thin, or ventilated. When the degree of heat is fmall, ventilat- ing may be fuflicient to cool it. See J'tniiidtor. " They have, near Grand Cai- ro, a nva^azi-ne, or granary, de- fended with good walls, and call- ed Joleph's granaries. Many parts of Atrica abound with gra- naries ot this kind. They are io many deep pits made in the folid rock. The dcfcent into them is but jufl large enough for a man to go down into them ; but they grow larger as you de- fcend, and are ufually fquare, trom 20 to 40 teet in diameter. In thefe the great men ot the country prefervc their cori^ They firft llrcw over the floor with ftraw, then they lay oii their corn, flLll as the heap rife* placing a thin lied of flraw be- tween the corn and the (ides, as they did at the bl)ttoin. In this manner they proceed, till the whole cavity is filled. When this is done, they cover the mouth ot the erurancc with a lort of hurdle of green boughs ol trees, interwoven one with another. This they cover with Mboiii two feet thick nefs of fand ; and over this raife a ridge of earth, well beat together, in or- der to throw off the rain both ways, tlut nunc may fettle on the place, and loak into the mag- azine. The corn thus Uored, keeps three, four, or more years. All the care they lake with re- gard to the corn is, to cxpofe it two- or three days to the fun's heat, to dry it tliorouglily bcloie they 136 G R A they put 11 into the magarine. Great care is to be taken in open- ing thefe ftore rborr.s ; tor if people defcend into them be- fore they have had fuificient eommunication with the frefh air, they are killed by ^he damps." Conp/efe Farmer. GRASS, a genera} name for rnort of thofe plants which arc ufed in feeding cattle, both in their green and dry flate. " The land on which grafs feed is intended to be fown, fhould be well ploughed, and cleared from the roots of nox- ious weeds. Before the feed is fown, the furface of the ground fnould be made level and fine : Otherwife the feeds will be buri- ed unequally. When the feed is fown, it Ihould be gently har- roM'ed in, and the ground rolled >ith a wooden roller, which will make the furface even, and pre- vent the feed being blown into patches. It is the comrnon way of proceeding ; if a farmer wants to lay down his land to gi"afs, he either takes his feeds indifcrim- inately from his own hay rick, or fends to his neighbour for a fupply. By this means, befides a certriin mixture of nibbifh, which n^ufl necellarily happen, it is not unlikely but that which he intends for dry land, may have come from moift, where it grew naturally, and fo on the conrrary : And the confequence of this floveniy method trequent- ly is, that the ground, inftead of being covered in one year with a good feed, is filled with weeds, net natural to it, which would never have fprung up, if they had not been brought thither. " Some fay thai if you ma- nure your ground well, good graffes will come in of them- leives. 1 own they will. But tiJe queftioa is, hov/ long will it G R A DC before that happens ? And why will you be at the exp>enfe of lowing what you muft after- wards try to kill ? Which muft be the cafe, fo long as people fow all kinds of rubbiih under the name ot hay feeds. Others fay it \s-ill be better to have a mixture of different' feeds. I fuppofe this to be true. But can- not a mixture be had, though thund, it will become, and produce the fmaller crops. Of profitable grafies there are many forts, fome of which thrive befl in one country, and forae in another. The grafies which are moft ufcful in this country, be- fides red clover and bird grafs, which have been mentioned in their places, are herds grafs, red top, G R A tip, or what is called Kiiglifh grals, honey (uckle, or white clo- \ rr. and wire graf^. There arc (rvenj! other grades produced in this countiy, as quich gi'afs, dogs grafs, and fcratch crals, relern- Bling arfinart, on the uplands ; and in low places, blue joint Rrafv, J/fipfi anef frrtica/^ftts, and goole grafs, Gahum, which arc Bccoufjtcd good fodder, bcfide many other kinds of Ids value, which delcrvc not a particular mention. The herds grafs. or fox tail, AKohfCftrai prndn/tf, is a native ot tliis country, and is perhaps as valuable as nfiy that we cul- tivate. The cattle arc fond of it both groen and dry. It is eafi- ly matia^ed, and makes a nour- ifhing kind of hay. It often grows very rwH, and conuiionly produces a larger crop than grafs of any other kmd. It is not apt to lodge when it grows rank, and it thrives well on any kind of foil, except hungry faiid and gravel ; more cfpccially in the nortlrern parts ot Ncwengland. In inmc foils it does well to mix this grafs with clover. For it will be found that, as the lat- ter diminifhes from year to year, tliis will itureafe, fo that the crops will rv)t Kul tor a confider- ablc ntmiber of years. The time i<) cut herds grafs, is when it is juft out of blofTom ; but when it is mixed with cloxer, svhich rtpcas earlier, it nuid be cut a little ff eating it. White clover, or honcyfuekle, io called for the remarkable fweetnefs of its tafte, Trifolium rfpens. Itbloffoms in June, and is ripe eaily. It is good feeding in paffures in the beginning ot fumincr. Rut when it grows by itfelf, it does not ufually rife to a height fufHcient tor mowing. Wire grafs, Pea compirfja^ \% of a bluifh colour, and fnaped much like the red top grafs, but is more folid and heavy, having fcarccly any cavity in the flalk. It would be highly prized, could it be made to produce largely. — It grows bell where the groimd is baked, or hard trodden, and where the foil is not deep, as in a thin fward over a flat rock ; and it bears drought to admiration. Rhodeifland Bent, Agrojfis intcrrnpla, is allowed to make a very excellent hay. Lucern and St. Foin, have been tried a little in this coun- try ; but it feenis they will not prof^per well in our climate, as our winter froffs arc too hard for them ; though they do extreme- ly well in fome countries that are in tlie fame latitude. The burner, which is now up- on trial, will be found to anfwcr, I think, very well. GRAVEL, earth of the fame nature with fand, only more coarfe and harfn. Both fccm to confifl wholly of minute pebbles. Gravel is ufeful in mending roads, in making dams, and for walks in gardens, &c. A foil of mere gravel is tlitf meaneft ot all foils ; and will produce next to nothing, till it be mended with fbmethinLj mix- ed with it ; and even then if Will .j8 G R E viil need a wet feafon, unlefs it ! be in a wet fituation, as at the toot 1 of a hill, or watered with fprings. ' The bcft manures for this fort [ of land in general, are mai 1, clay, ! the mad ot fwamps. ponds, riv- i ers and creeks. If applied in- large quantities, they will meli- orate it for a long time. The heft yearly dreffings are the dung of cows and fwine, fea weeds, ; ihaw partly rotted, bits of leath- i er, woollen rag";, and almoft any | ipungy fnbftances which retain ! jrioifture for fome time. J This kind of foil, well manur- ! ed, fometimes produces good crops of luch plants as require much heat, as Indian corn and tobacco. And it does well in a I good feafon, for rye, clover, | beans, peafc and potatoes. ; GREASE, a diftemper fo do- ! nominated, is a fwellmg and I gourdincfs of the legs of hones, i which frequently happens to ; them after a journey. Moit '. lieople have believed their greafe to be melted by hard riding, and ! fallen into their legs : And that i which may have given encour- agement to this opinion, is the : colour ot the nvatier iiluing from 'he chinks and lores in thofe nans, when they come to break, iomcwhat refembling greafe. — The diftemper may arife irorri V arious caufes. If the greafe be an attendant on fome other dif- temper. the cure will be the more difficult, and it will be in v^m to expett a recovery, until the difeafe is removed which oc- cafioned it. Therefore, methods for the cure of Aofe diftempers iriuft be followed, and applica- tions made outwardly for this. But ii it be an original diforder, and if the horfe have been pamipered, , ©r well ted, the cure ought to be : begiui by bleeding and purging, ! to leiTea the i edunddncy gi hu- ' G R E mours. Neitlier fhould thcfe be too often repeated : But what is wanting imhat way had much bet- ter be eifettuated by a more fpare diet, w-ith daily exercife. After moderate evacuations, a rowel may be made on the iufide of the thigh, or on the belly ; which may be continued for a month, or longer if necefrar}\ In the mean time the cinaber or anti- monial balls ought to be con- ilantly given. And while thefe things are doing internally, the legs Ihould be trequently nibbed, not with hard inflruments, but with a good wifp of hay, or a brufh. Baths and fomentations, fuch as may caufe the humours to go off by perfpiiation, or ren- der them fit to return in the cir- culations, are alfo to be made ufe of. For tliis pitrpofe the iol- lowing is recommended. Take wormwood eight hand- tuls, Johns won, centaury, cam- omile, of each four handiuls, el- der flowers two handiuls, bay- berries half a pound : Boil them in two gallons of water till one third is confumed, and make a tomentaticn. The horfe's legs are to be bath- ed diree or four times a day, with woollen cloths \^Tung out of' the liquor, and applied as hot as he can bear them, adding a little of the fpirit ot wine or brandy. And if they be much inflamed, as happens when the finews are afFefted, a good quan- tity of the athes of the green twigs of A'ines, walnut or oak, may be* boiled in the decoction^ adding more water, when the oth- er ingredients are eaCly to be had. The lees of wine, with a mix- ture of foap. are alfo ver}' proper to be applied warm : As alfo cow's dung boiled in vinegar. Suitable cataplafms in bad cafes are proper. The camphorated fpirit- G R E fpirit of wine alone is good, viz. an ounce of camphirc fo a pint of fpirit. Frequently ufcd, it will anfwer well when the fwelling is new. Sec- CI- fen's Far ri fry. GREEN DRESSING, turn- ing a crop of j;rccn plants into the f [round in funinicr, to enrich the oil, and fit it to produce a good crop ot wheat. By repeating this culture, poor or worn out land may be brouclu to any de- gree of richncfs that is dclired, witiiout any otlier manure. Buck wheat, rye, peafe or oats, may be fowcd in the fpring, and in June ploughed in, when they are tull- eft of fap, and moll eafily rutted. The ground Ihould be again ploughed in the tall, G)wedwiih winter grain, and well harrowed. The cort of ploughing and feed, is not fo much as th.^t of dung, when it can be had, and carting i<. This management, therefore, may ottcn appear eligible, efpc- cially in places where manures are not plenty. On account of the cheapnels of the feed, Mr. Eliot recommends millet as a moft fuitabic crop for green drefTing ; and fome have ufed clover and rye grafs. In Britain, buck wheat is much ufed, as the flalks, when gre«n, are very large and juicy, and as they require but a fhort time to rot. It is af- ferted, that about ten days ^re fufficient ior it lo lie under the furrows. The chief difficulty J can think "^f, which tends to dWcoura.cje this practice, is, the choking of the plough in going among a ull growth of plants. It may be needlul for a boy to tend it. But in Bnnin, t'j pieveni chok- ing, they ncommend to pa's- a roller over the crop to be turn- ed in, whicli iays it flat, and m the fame direction that the pic tgli k. to pafs. G R 1 139 GREENS, the general natne of thofc pot herbs which are boiled lor foo a Scoth kale whichniav be reared earlier than alinoft any other greens, and is equal in goodncis to any. To have greens- early, let kale and French tur- nips be fowed in Oclober, and- the young plant covired clofely with ccl grafs, or llraw, during the winter, and till the iiifuicncc ot the iun be fufficient to renew their vegetation. GREEN SCOURING, "a difeafe to which fheep and bul- locks arc often fubjett. The bcft remedy tor this diflempcr is ver- juice : A vine glafs full is e- nough for a {lieep, nnd a pint for a bullock." CombUu- Farmer. GRIPES, cr ckolick p^:rjs. Horfes are very fubjcFt to grip- ing, or cholick pains. They may proceed from flatulencies, or wind pent up in the ftomach and bowels, from inflammanon of the coats of the ftoinadi and intellincs.orfrom worms, ipafms, &c. In fuch cafe it is very wrong to give Iwm heating things by the moutji, as is too common- ly practifed. fiiccding (hould be the ^irll thing in thefe cafes, it the diforder be violent, which may be known by the creature's motions, Irequeacy of lying down, and llarting up again, &c. As horlts are coflive in thefc cafcs,ihe rectum Ihould be clear- ed of the h.ird dung, by back •. as it is called, that is, it . ne taken out by a hand, \»luch gives a horfe great relief. For the prrirurc on the nrrh of' , .. -} *» 140 G R O ent clyftcrs are then of great ad- vantage, as they not only bring away the excrements, which at-* lords a paflage for the wind backwards ; but they at\ as an internal fomentation, to remove fpafms from the bowels. They iTiay be frequently repeated, till the confined air finds a palfage backwards. If it Ihould be found neceffary, a fpoontul of lawdanum may be given in a pint of watergruel, either by the a- nus in a clyfter, or by the mouth. See Clar/i's Farriery. Nearly the fame treatment is proper for horned cattle under the fame diforders. GROUND, a general name for land, be the foil what it may. Ground that is fit to produce crops is neither too fott nor too hard ; neither too wet nor too dry. It is light and eafily puU verized. It is not fo tenacious as to clea\-e to the fpade, which enters eafily. That is the beR mould which cuts like butter, and yet eafily crumbles, and has no ill fmell. It does not crack in dry weather. It is dark col- oured, or quite black ; does not foon poach with wetnefs. It fhines after the plough : Flocks ot crows follow the pioughman, and, as Pliny expreiles it, peck at his heels. GROVE, a row or walk of trees, 'planted clofe cr a little open, for ornament and fhade. Formerly a grove made in reg- ular lines, was conlidered as mofl: ornamental. But modern im- provers are rather difguiied with the uniformity ot a grove, and prefer thofe which appear as if they were the work ot nature or chance. As tafte alters from time to tim.e, I fhall not undertake to determine which are moll grand or beautiful. As my great ob- je6l is real improvement and ad- G R O vantage, I fhall here only attend to groves in regular lines. Groves in gardens are both ornamental and ufeful, if th« trees be not too large. They fhade the walks in the borders ; fo that we may walk in gardens with pleafure. in the hotteil part of the day. It is fcarcely need- ful to fay thefe garden groves fliould confifl of fruit trees ; and they fhould be of the fmaller kinds, if in a garden of a fraall or middling fize. A double row has the belt effect, as it refpefts fhade, one near the wall, the other on the oppofite fide of the walk. But this on the whole I do not recommend, unlefs it be in gardens uncommonly large. In other fituaiions groves oi larger trees arc preierrea. Lanes and avenues, leading to manfion houfes and other buildings, may be ornamented with rows of trees, either on one, or on both fides : It only on one, it fhould be tlie fouthernraoft, on accomit of the advantage ot fhade in the lane. Such trees are beii, the limbs of which are not apt to be low ; fuch as elm, aft, raaple, poplar, &c. Lots and enclofures fhould be bordered with rows of trees, ei- ther f J uit trees or timber trees, in clofe order. They will do better a yard or more from the ience, than in hedges accord'ing to the Englifh method, a^ rec- ommended by Mortimer. But fuch trees fhould be choien, as are not apt to propagate and multiply, left the borders be foon filled with fhrubs. It would be advantageous to the publick, as well as to the owners of adjoining farms, it all our roads were lined with groves, of barren or timber treei>. They might be either within or witli- out the fences. Jn the laik^r c^e, goveiaraent G R O "' ' > rnmc'itTnisht interpofc, and u ...1 in t!ic roads aK^inll their i.ci-is ; an H A R 141 on oui fruit trees would be abat- ed. The fnows that fall would be laid more e\ en on the ground. Roads would be iefs blo;:k.ed tip, and icldomer vcnderod impilla blc by ihcm. But for iheie Lit purnolcs, groves of evergreen* wilf iiave the crcatcil cflctK Groves fhould be planted thick at tirfl, that the above advanta- ges may be had from them while young. When the ticcs become fo large as to be crowded, they fhould be thinned. And thus a con lidei able quantity of fewel and limber may be foon realis- ed by the proprietors. The increafing fcarcity and dcamefs of wood, efpe.cially in thcoMefll'ettlcmcnLsinthiscwun* tryjalToidsan unanlworahle argu- ment in fa\our ot fuch a piece ot good hufbandry. GRUB, " the name of a large maggot produced from the eggs ol a certain fpccics ol biiticrily. It is of a laigc li/.c, and often docs great injury to the corn by unJei mining it, and preying oii its loots. It produces tlie beetle, and is by fome called the rook wgrm, becauie rooks are partic- ularly fond ot it. The belt way to dedroy the grub, is good and trequent ploughing, which will clear ilie ground, however in- f«tted with this infctt. for fome years at Uafl. ' Lompl<'te Farm- er, l\. HARROW, a kind of drag ufod in tillage. By drawing a harrow over ploughed ground, the clods which remain alter ploughing, arc broken, and the ground made ir.el Urvv and fine, ft ferves alio to ileflroy wecd.s. by pulling out their roo(», and i.\p4)fing them to the fun and witid. And it is ufed to cover feeds i42 H A R feeds newly fown. The wood of a harrow fhould be the ftrong- cft and beft feafoned white oak. There are two kinds of har- rows commonly ufed ; the fquare barrow, and the bifurcate har- row ; the former is for old and clear ground, the latter for land that abounds with flumps of trees £ind other obflacles. The fquare harrow is armed with fixteen, or with twenty fe'e tuQies, or teeth. The fharper the.fe teeth are, the more they will pul- verize the foil, if they be fteel- cd at the points, they will hold their fharpnefs the longer, and ftir the ground more effectually. And the co^ of doing it is fo little, that it is furprifmg to fee that it is fo generally neglected fey our farmers. It has been the common practice in this country to place the teeth in the ioints of the fquare har- row. But this has a tendency to ^•eaken the joints, and the teeth are more apt to become loofe. They fhould be placed in the folid parts between the joints. The befl way to faften them is, ^'ith fhoulders uHder the harrOM% and nuts fcrewed on above. Some ufe harrows with wood- en teeth, but they are of fo little advantage to the land, unlefs it be merely for covering feeds, tiiat they may be confideied as unfit to be ufed at all. The treading of the cattle that draw them, will harden the foil more, perhaps, than thefe harrows will foften it. The bifurcate, or triangular harrow, is either a fork of natural growth, orelfe made artificially. The artificial one is commonly ifrongefl, when well made, as timber may be chofen which is fufticiently tough and flrong. The two legs may either be lap- ped together at the angle, or elfe H A R framed together like a pair <^ rafters, excepting that the butt ends, being tougheft, and flrong- efl, mufl be put together. But the joint mufl be flrengthened by a good iron hoop fmartly driven on to the nofe, after the wood is thoroughly dry, and faflened with flrong nails ; and further flrengthened with a brace from one leg to the other, fram- ed in, about tM'o feet from the junfture of the legs. The angle may be more or lefs acute, according to the flate of the land in which the harrow is raoftly to be ufed. For the rougheft ground the angle mufl .be more acute ; bivt for well cleared ground, the angle may- be of 45 degrees, or more. The more obtufe the angle is, the more near together the teeth mufl: be placed. In this kind of hcUTOw fome pnt 9,1ome ii, and fome 13 teeth, or even 15. The rougher and harder the land, the fewer the teeth ; and the fewer they are, the longer and flronger they fhould be. Twelve inches clear of the wood is not too long, nor three pounds too heavy for a tooth in the ftrongeit harrows. To prevent thi* machine from faftening itfelf often in immovea- We flumps and roots, the teeth may be fet leaning a little back- wards. But where there are no obflacles, they fhould rather in- cline the contrary way, or at leaftthey fhould be perpendicu- lar. Some make ufe of a horfe har- row of the forked kind, and very narrow, to mellow, the ground and kill weeds, betwixt rows of Indian corn. But the horfe ploiigh anfwers the purpofe bet- ter in general, unlefs it be upon green fward ground, in which the horfe plough will not an- fwer at all. The fliffnefs of the 014 H A R oUl lurrow* will prevent its reg- ular going. Lord Katmes rec- ommends what he calls a clean- ing harrow with no lefs than 56 teeth, which teeth are no more Uian fi\ inches apart. The ufe of it is to clear land of roots, in an expeditious and effetlual man- ner. The wcigiu of a tooth- is OHe pound only. If they arc fct wking forward they will pene- trate the deeper, aivd iiavc a bet- ter cfFeft. HARROWTNG.workingthe (oil with a harrow. A team that travels quirk, is heft tor hairowing, unlels the land be loo full of obftacles. Horfcs, therefore, arc better for this work than oxen, becaufe their motion a quicker. The faller the har- row moves, and the more it jumps, the more the hard cloda arc broken, and the turts torn. The teeth will alio keep cleaner and go deeper ; lo that the land will nc more mixed and mellow- ed. But clayey land is fo apt to be cloddy, that it is often necef- fary to follow the harrow with a maul, or a hoe, to break the re- maining clods. Befidfcs pulverizing the foil, covering feeds, and drawing out the roots of weeds, the dcfigns of harrowing arc to make the land level, or fmooth ; and, on fal- lows, to caufe the feeds of weeds to vegetate by expofine them to the air, in order that f ney may be dcftroyed by after operations, either with the plough or the harrow. When land is wet and poachy, or at all muddy, it can be of no fcrvice to harrow it. It will rather do damage, as it will make it more coinpa6l and fliff. Land that is too light and puffy, as drained fwanips often '♦re, cannot eafily be too much harrowed. The rno»c it is har- H A R ii^ rowed, the more compaft it wilF be ; and this is what \t wants. The harrowing of new ground tor feeding, witiiout ploughing, may be performed in ainioff any weather, if the ground be only dry enough to be mellowed by the harrow. And the fooner.ai- ter burning, this work is done, fi> much the better, as. it will pre- vent the afhes being blown away by high winds, and as it will fpread it more equally,, and more efleHually mix it with the foil. Here the (liong- ell harrow niufl be ufcd ; and it ought to be heavy, in or- der to make any confiderable imprefhon on the foil. It is often neccfTary that the harrow pafs feveral times in the fame place, in order to raife a fuffi- cie . t quantity of mould. There is no reafon to fear its being loit labour. 7 he iuore fuch ground is harrowed, the better crop may be rationally expected. On furrows of green fward, newly ploughed, the harrow fhould pafs the fame way that the plough did : Otiierwife, fome of the tui ro>\'s, which lie a little higher tiian the reft, will be turned back again, grafs up- wards. This fort of land re- quires a heavy harrow, or one made fo bv loading it. A- light one will tink into the fuiTow."; but little, aiid be of iittjc (ervice. On old ground, ^ilouglied plain, the harrow thould pals the firft time, acrofs tlic furrows, as the teeth will better take hold of tlic roots of weeds, and more dccolv pencti^te the foil. It wlllalfo do more towards level- ling tlic ground. Afterwards u fhould be harrowed tlie (uhcr way, lengtlr.vifcof the furrows. Harrowmg conunonly docs the raoll fcrvice immediately af- ter ground is ploughed, is the 144 H A R teeth godegperjad raife tha more mould. It it be neglected at this jiinftiire, a time fliould be chofen ^vhen the foil is not too dry. After a gentle rain the clods win crumble the more ea- fily ; and the foil underneatli beins; drier, ^v■lIl not be harden- ed by the treading of cattle. In light fandy, or gravelly foils, or where there is occafion for harrowing land which is ex- ceffively dry, or in danger of foon becoming fo, it fhould be done when the dew is on the ground, early in a morning. This will increafe, rather than diminifh the moiflnefs of the foil. And on the contrary, land which is apt to be too wet, (liould be harrowed at a time when it is drieft, as in the middle of a fair day. The firft fcratching will caufe it to dry faft, and fo pre- pare it to be made fine and mel- low by the fecond. The European farmers r?com- Riend harrowing ground once over before corn is fowed, and then to harrow in the feed the contrary way. The grain will be the more even, and not ap- pear fo much in rows, as if it were fowed upon the fur^o^vs ; but it ^v^]\ not be fo deeply covered. Perhaps fowing upon iurrows, both winter and fummer grain, may be generally the better meth- od in this country, which is fo much more liable to fufferby fc- vere frofts and droughts. Some of ourfarmers even think itbeft to plough in the feed with a Ihal- low Kl^•o^v^ The roots will lie the deeper, and be lefs expofed to fuffer by froft and drought. Harrowing tallows is doubt- lefs a beneficial operation. If it be done two or three times be- tween ploughings, the feeds of weeds will be encouraged to veg- etate, and confequently will be H A R killed at the next plooghing Of harrowing. Thus the land will become very clean after a year ot tallow ; and the food and paf- ture of plants will be more in- creafed than it could be by ploughing only. For every weed, that confumes in the foil is of fome advantage. Some have found their ac- count in harrov^ing moAnng grounds, when they have become bound and flifl". Though the roots of the grafs are much torn and mangled by harrowing, the foil will be loofened at the fur- face, and the vegetation of the grafs fo much increafed, that the excefs of the next crop will more than compenfate the labour of harrowing. It fiiould be done in autumn, and before heavy rains fall, but after a gentle one, when the furface is a little moift- ened. It would be belt, before harrowing, to afford the land a fprinkling of old dung, or corn- poll : Or elfe imtned lately after, and bulb it in. Its fruitfulnefs will thus be greatly increafed. The harrowing of land that is ploughed in ridges, Ihould be per- tornied lengthwife, and by two harrows abreaft, or three, if the breadth of the ridges require them, that the trenches may not be too much filled. The fecond harrowing may be acrofs, if the land needs to be laid even for mo:.ing. But then the trenches fliould be cleared out with a fliovel or plough, if the land be fo flat and wet as to make it proper or necelfary to lay it down in ridges. Harrowing of winter grain, in the fpring, is approved of be- yond the AtlanticK. When tha- roots are well fet, and in fuffi- cient plenty, I think this may be a laudable piece of huiband- ry. The harrow will deftroy but tt A R but a few of the plants ; and the lofs of tlicin will be more than made up in the increafed Srowrth of the reft. But, in or- er to make the loofened plants take rooting, Mr. Lidcadvifes to I8rivc a llocK of (heep about over the field.' Others ad vife to roll- ing the ground, which appears tnore rational. HARVEST, the feifon when corn is cut down, and fecured. In this countrN', there arc two feafons which are called harvcft : tnglilh h:u-veft and Indian har- vcft. The former is about the tnd of July or beginning ol Au- gnil, the latter in October or No- vember. Wheat and rye arc harvefted in much the fame manner. Both ?rc reaped and bound in Iheaves. t is ufual to cut rye rather Rreencr than wheat, that the flour may be the whiter. When a fevere blight or ruft has ftruck the ftcms of wheat, or rye, it anfwers no purpofe to let it ftand longer to ripen, or grow hard. It is agreed that it fhould be cut though lull in milk. And afterwards it may lie on the ground, e.xpofcd to the fun and weather.till thegrain is hardened. But the heads Ihould lie lo as not to touch the ground ; which may be eafily done, it the reaj)- «rs will only take care to lay the top end of each handtul on the lower end of the preceding one. Some fay it will anfwcr to cut it three weeks before the ufual time, and before the ftems are turned yellow. It grafs or weeds grow among train, it ftiould be cut high, that fo the lefs quantity of tralh may be bound up in the (heaves. And when taking weeds with the grain cannot be avoided, it ihould be reaped a little the car- her, that it mav have time to lie S H A R 145 in the field, till the weeds are well dried, without danger of fcattering the corn by its being over dried. The bands Ihould be made in a morning early, when the dew is greateft.and the ftraw moft fup- ple. But the beft time to bind the (heaves, is when the air begins to be damp toward.^ evening, as the leaft degree of moifture will toughen the ftraw and ])revent the Icattering of the grain : And there is fome degree of damp- nefs in the air, for an hour or two before funfet. A late writer advifcs to make the flieaves with only one length ot ftraw. After binding, it fhould be made up into Ihocks without de- lay, or after ftanding in theaves one day, if the weather be fettled and dry ; where it is to ftand in the field till not only the ftraw, but the grain, be thoroughly dried ; and till a fuitable oppor- tunity prelent for carting it in. It Ihould be done v;hen the air has a fmall degree ot dampnefs, to prevent the fcattering of the grain. It woiild be beft on fome ac» counts, that grain ftiould be thrafhed as foon as it is carted in. But as it is ufually a hurrying feafon, it is but fcldom that the farmer can fpare time for it. It muft, therefore, be ftored moft commonly. The beft method of ftoring it, is, to lay the Iheaves up in the barn. But it want of room re- quire them to be ftacked, care Ihould be taken th;tt the grain may not draw moifture from tlie ground, by laying boards, ftraw, or rubbilh under the ftack. A better way ftill is to have a tight floor of tx>ards mounted on four blocks, fet in the ground, and fo high from the ground as to pre- vent the enteriiig ot ver::Mri, In 1^6 MAR In building a ftack, care fliould be taken to keep the feed ends ot the iheavcsin the middle, and a little higher than the outer ends. No fowls nor birds can then come at the grain ; and the rainthatfallsontheftraw ends will run off, and not pafs towards the centre. The ftack Ihould be well topped with ftraw, that the rain may be completely turned off. As to the harvelfing of barley, oats snd peafe, fee thcfe articles. With refpect to-harveft^mg In- dian corn, I would obferve, that many do it much too early, to their own damage and lofs. As long as there is any greennefs, or fap, remaining in the %vhole length of the ft:alk^ below the ear, or even in the cob ; fo long the corn improves^ by ftandirig. Tor the fap will continue to- dif- charge itfelf into the grain> Though a crop harvefted earlier may meafure as much in ears, or more, when it rs newly hulked^ it will fhrink a great deal, fome- times lo much that not two corns on an ear will toiich each other. Befides, there will be the great- ,er difficulty in drying and keep- ing it. Corn that is harvefted early, will not be fit to ft:ore in out door cribs,, nor in our com- mon corn houfes, unlefs it be firil -fpread thin on floors, and dried. And this is troublefome, ar leali, if not impracticable. Squirrch, and rapacious birds, dikrderly cattJe and bad fences, drive perfons to harvefiing early. But there is commonly more loli than faved by it.- \Vhen the corn Hands tolerably fecure, and is in no danger trom froft, nor from thie\'es, harvefting early is an error. I ihould not think the beginning oi November at all too late. It is not fafe to let it lie long 1 the ixuiks after it is gathsr- H A T ed, left; it fliould heat, or cont5a£l dampnefs. One unripe ear or green ftalk, in a heap, may dam- age many. The common practice of collecting large companies to hufk the corn as foon as it is gath; ered,is a laudable one. And after- it is hulked, it fiiculd have a dry place, and fo much benefit of the air, that it may be fure not to grow warm, let the air prove to be ever fo moift. Sometimes a fevere early froft; drives the farmer to harvefting, as he knows the froftbitten corn is apt to rot in the hufks. But in fuch a cafe, or when corn holds its greennefs uncommonly late, an approved method is, to cut it up clofe to the ground, bind it in fmall bmidles, and fet it up in fmall Ihocks in the field. It will ripen kindly,, and take no dam- age. By this method the grain has the benefit of all the fap con- tained in the ftalks, to bring it nearer to maturity. I have heard of fome perfons in the county of Lincoln, who, finding their Indian corn very green at harvefting, have boiled it in the ears after hufking : By which expedient they were able to dry it in the ears, without its rotting, or moulding. This may be no ill method at a pinch. But rather than be obliged to do it yearly, I Ihould think they had better lay afide the culture of this plant, or elfe ufe no feed but from the northwaid, which will ripen in feafon. HATCHEL, an inftrument called fometimes a comb, lull of long pins of iron or fteel for teeth, with which flax and hemp ar£ combed. They who manufac- ture thefe articles, as perhaps all the families of farmers ftiould, ought to be provided with fever- al hatchels of different fineneiTes. •Where onlv fla.x is manufatlur- ed. HAY eJ. two comhs, one coarfe, and the other fine, will be luffi- cient. HAY, dried jjrafs. HAYHOOK. an inftrument to pull hay out ot a tnow, or Hack. This inftrument is often made of wood ; but an iron one h far preferable. It fhould be ftarp pointed, armed witha fluke, and have a fockct to receive the wjoden handle. The han- dle Ihould have a turn at the end for the eale of pulling. There ran be no better handle than the half of an old ox bow : Or a little more than half. But this inllrument will warte the hay, and divclt it ol much of the feed. A better way is, to cut oH dices ol two or three feet in thicknef<;, from a mow or (lack, as it is wanted for ufe. HAY.MAKING, the cnrint;, or dryiiijr ol grals for f(xlder. The hrll ihin^ to be confidored aboi;t haymakmg, is the time of cutting the grafs. It fhould not be cut too early, or before it has got its growth : For this will caufe it to (brink too much in arying. On the contrarA", it fhould not ftand too late, or till the feed he quite ripe. -It is not only hardier H) cut, but the ripc- nefs ot the feed will catdc h to fhatter oiK while dr^nng, wliich will l>c a confiderable lols, as the Iced is the moll rich and n'nir- iihing part ; and the foil will be the more cvh.iufted ly nourilh- ing the (ccd till rt come to ma- riirity, and the next faceted - ing crop will be the poorer. There never can be any advan- tage in mowing late, unlcfs it be thickening the grafs roots, by fcattenng fome o! the feed, where they were before too thin. He th«t mows early has the advan- tage of longer days for drying his liay ; and ol fhor?or nights, H A Y 14*7* when the dews are Icfs detri- mental to haymaking. The right time for anting clover isw^hen half the heads be- gin to lofc their bright colour, and turn brown ilh by ripcncfs.* A general rule for other gralfes is, to cut them foon after they have blofTomcd, or. as foon as the feeds are forriied. The .^f> is then in its perfection, as it is full- ert of.juices.and the juices will not evaporate nor the fhaw Ihrink too intich in drying, l-'our pounds of greL-n grafs will, commonly, make one pound of dr\' ha^'. Btu the furmerwho ii?s many acre> of the rtine kind of graf>, cannot always expert to cut the whole of it in e.xattK' the right (rafon. Tiiat he may approach as near to right as p damp. And it is good to Ivive fome greener hay to mix with it. Some think that mown grafs Oiould never be expofcd to the full influence ol the fun, left it be ro!)Iied of too much of its fap, while it is in its im^ft fluid (late. A very ingenious gentle- man, ot my acquaintance, does not permit his grafs to lie in fwarih, hut tor an hour or two alter it is cut ; or no longer than till its wctni-Ts be gone, and it jiift begins to appear wuhereil : He then gathers it into very liiiall parcels, which he call.« grafs cocks, not more than a good tbrktid in each : Turns them o\cr once in a while, about funlct is the bell time : Doubles them as they grow drier : And when the hay is almoil dried e, nough, makes up the whole into large cocks. Grafs thai is thus dried, will not wafle at all by crumbling ; nor will much of its juices evaporate. I have fecn his hay, the liavour ot which excelled ainioH any other that I have met with. The colour of it, indeed, was rather yellowifh than green : But that is a matter of no conicqiifiice to the tarmer who does not fend his hay to market. I cannot but think that, in dry fettled weather, this is an excellent method of haymakiiir;. Bvt in catching weather, pcr- iiaps a method which takes lefs time is to be prcfcrre 1. From the above Mr. Aiiderfon's meth- od is not much different. ** In- ftead," fays he, " of allowing the hay to lie, as ufual in mofl places, for fome days in tiic fwarth, at- ter it is cut, and altcrwards put- ting it up into cocks, and fpread- ing it out, and tending it in the fun, which tends grratly toblcach the hay, c.\iia!c& its natural juice.' : and then make the gather- ers follow clofe upon the cut- ters, putting it up immediately into fmall cocks, about three feet high each when new put up ; always giving each of them a flight kind of thatching, by drawing a few handfuls of the hay from the bottom of the cock all around, and laying it lightly on the top, witli one of the ends hanging downwards. This is done with the utraoil eafe and expedition ; and when it is once in that Hate, I coniider my hay as in a great mcafure out oi dan- ger ; for unlefs a violent wind Ibould arii'e, immediately after the cocks are put up, fo as to o- vertum them, nothing elfe can hurt the hay ; as I have often experienced tliat no rain, how- ever violent, ever penetrates in- to thefe cocks but for a very lit- tle way. And, if they are dr^' put up, they ne\'er fit together fo ciofely as to heat ; although they acquire in a day or two. Inch a degree of firmnefs, as to be in no danger of being over- turned by wind after that time, unlefs it blows a hurricane. " In thefe cocks I allow the hay to remain, until, upon -n- fpection. I judge that it will keep in pretty large tramp cocks, &c. The advantages that attend this iretbcd are, that it greatly a- bridges the labour, that it allows the hay to continue almoil as ereen as when it is cut, and pre- lerves its natural juices in the greateft perfefition. For it is dri- ed in the moft flow and. equal manner that can be defired. Laft- \y. ♦ha: it is thus in a great meaf- H E M ure fecin-ed from almoft the pof- fibility of being damaged by rain." EJjays on Agriculture. Clover is a fort of hay that re- quires a critical attention in cur- ing : Becaufe, though the flalks need much dr>'ing, the leaves and heads will bear but little without wafting. It is befl to rake it towards night, when the dampnefs of evening begins to come on ; open it the next day, and never lUr it much w^hen there is -danger of its crum- bling. Salt hay, in this country, has ufually been hurt by lying too long in the fwarths. The meth- od in which I have treated it for feveral years, is, to cock it the next day after it is cut, and car- ry it m, without delaying more than one day, and put a layer of fome kind of drs' flraw between load and load of it, in the mow, to prevent its taking damage by overheating. The ftraw con- tracts fo much of its moifture and faltnefs, that the cattle will eat it very freely ; and the hay is far better than that made in the common way. If this hay be permitted to lie out in rains, the faltnefs of it will be diminifeed, which they who have but little other fodder may be apt to confider as an ad- vantage. But it will contratl no virtue, while it lofes its falt- nefs. The frefh water will dam- age it ; efpecially for thofe who have plenty of other fodder, or even llraw to mix with it. Salt hay ftiould not be cut when the full or change ot the moon is approaching, left the tides fliould be high, before it can be got off from the marfh. HEMP, a plant with a tough fibrous coat, which anfwers the fame purpofes as flax, but is coarfer and ftronger. The HEM The plant is tap rooted, and therefore does beft in a deep and free foil. It is luxuriant, and c The more mellow the land is, the larger the hoe fhould be, that work may be done more expeditioufly. The tough and hard foil requires a narrower hoe, to render the labour more eafy. Where land is not ftony, hoes {hould be kept fliarp by grind- ing. They will enter the ground •le more eafily, and deftroy weeds and their roots more ef- fectually. For the eafe of the labourer, hoes (hould be made as light as is x^onCitent with the needful degree of flrength : TTieir han- dles efpecialiv fhould be made of fome light kind of wood, as ajh, or white maple, or a young tree of fpruce. For the Horfe Hoe, fee that article. HOEING, either burying feeds in the earth with the hoe, or breaking and ftirring the foil, chiefly when plants are growing in it. This after tillage, as I may eall it, has been found to be of great advantage to almoft every kind of plants, and to fome it is fo neceiTar)- that no crop is to be exf>eSed without it. The deeper land is hoed, the greater advantage do plants receive from hoeing, if due care be taken that their roots be not difturbed, or too much cut to pieces. The ends to be anfwered by hoeing are chiefly thefe : — i. To deftroy weeds, which are always ready to fpring up in ever}' foil^ and which would rob the culti- vated plants of moft of their food. Scraping of the furface, if it be done frequently, may anfwer this purpofe ; but to de- ftroy tlie roots of weeds, deeper hoeing is neceffary. 2. To keep the foil irom becoming too com- pact, which prevents the rc*Qts extending HOE r- ' r thcmfclvcs frpcly in heir too(i, at the lame (.'..c kc-ping up a trriTR'ni.ition, bv which the vcljcUiMl" KxmI is f 1, and brought into <. (h the roots. For this f he flcepcr land is hoed t But hoeing fliould cr-'.v, or be only fupcrficial, wtH.i the roots are fo far extend- ed as to be much injured by hoeing. 1 hey will bear a little cutting without injury. For where a root is cut oil. fevcral now branches will come in its place. 3. To render the foil more open and porous, lo that it fhali greedily drink in the night- Vy dews, and that rain may not run off, but readily foak in as it falls, and be retained. Accord- ingly, the more and ofteneriand n hoed, the more moiUure it re- tains, the better it bears drought, and the more its plants arc nour- ifhed. 4. Another dchgn of hoeinj;, and whicji has not been enough attended to, is to nour- iih plants by drawing trtMli foil near to them, the effluvium ol which enters their pores above ground, and increafes their growth. 5. At the fame time, earthing of plants makes them ftanrl more firmly, and increafes their paUure in the fpots where the roots mofl abound. At the fame time it prevents the drying of the earth down to the roots. But earthing, or hilling of plants, fhould be done with cau- tion. Hilling excefTively is hurtlul, as it does not permit the roots to have fo much benefit from the rains, and too much hinders the influence of the fun upon the lowermoft roots, w hatcvcr hilling is done, (hould he done by little and little, at fevcral hoeings, that the roots may gradually and eafily accom- modate thcmfclvcs to ihc altera. HOE i/^ fion of their condition. Laftly, frequent hoeing (erves to pre- vent the (landing of water on the furfacc, fo as to chill the ground, and check all fermenta- tion ill it. V\'!icn all the hoc':;;; betwcrn rows i)f plants is pei formed with the hand hoc, the labour is fe- vere, and more e?cp?!:fi\e to the owner ; and the plants will, on the whole, receive far lefs advan- tage from hoeing. Theretjrc, wiicre land is tolerably free from obllaclos, I would carnelt- ly recommend that the hoc plough, or the common horfc pK)itgh, whicii anfwers nearly the fame end, he much u(od ; and thfi eanh flirrcd with it to a good depth, and trequently, dur- ing tlic proper fear'>n of hoeing, which is the former part ot fiim- mer, but varies witli rcfpetf to different cn»ps. A plough, called a cultivator, has been coj|^tt||ted, wiili two mou!d^'>".'d^HEch turns the mouH •!i^^[ys at once, to- wards eai li of the two rows be- tween whitli it pafles. But, as it requires more than one horfc to draw it in (lift ground, two fmrows made with a hoe plough, or horfe plough, according to the cuilomary practice, may an- fwer full as well. When the foil is light and mellow, it will be a faving ot time to ufc this cultivator ; and the work wil! be done with more regularity and ncatncfs, if guided with (kill, and due care. The ufual method of horfc hoeing is as t«»llows : At the firft hoeing, turn the furrowg from the rows, fo that they form a veering, or ridge, in the inter- vals between the rows. The plough fliould pafs as near to the rows as may be without dan- ger of Oiddicating or UiAurbing tlie 156 11 O E the plants ; for it is bell that the foil be loofoned as near to the roots as podible : Becaufe when they are tender and weak, they will extend their roots but little; and there will be no opportuni- ty afterwards of ploughing and {hrruig the earth fo near to tliem, without too much danger of tearing and injuring their roots. After plougliing, the rows are to be cleared oi weedf^ with tlie hand hoe, and a iittle frefh earth brought into conta£l: with them. At the next hoeing, and all after hoeing"?, in our common huibandry, the furrows are to be turned towards the rows, fo as to form a henting, or trench, in the middle of each interval ; and C3-ofs the furrows lail made, that the land rriuy be tiie more thoroughly pulverized. This operation carries the fhare of the piough iarther from the roots, and at the faj^^jj^ime altords plenty of ^'^'^^^^W^^B. aboi:t the plants ; which ffll|(Ppbc finiflied with the hand hoe. But if, in ploughing, any of the plants ihculd chance tobe.covered,.they inuiL be fct fri^e Avithout d^lay. At the lafl hoeing, either of Indian corn, or of any thing that is planted in hills, as it is vulgar- ly called, it is beit to make but one furrow in an interval, and to pafs tlie plough both ways, or cut the ground into fquarcs with the plough, or father with the cultivator. This leaves the roots the more room, tml lefs v.'ork M-ill remain to be done with the hand hoe. If the horfe be weak, or the giound hard and lliff, it may be needful to let the plough go twice in a place, which nrakes four time:> in an interval. For the ploiigii iiiould go as deep for >i.oting, as in any other plough- HOE ing, cr elfe the intention of ifc will be partly defeated ; which is to keep that quantity of foit light and mellow from which the plants are to draw the moil of their nourifhment. V/e apply horfe hoeing to In- dian corn, when the ground i? well cleared from obftacles, and could not be eahly pcrfuaded to neglefl it. Every farmer knows how much it faves labour, and that the crop is increafed by it. Why then will they not be per- fuaded, by o«l that has been expe- rienced, and written, by fome of the wifeil farmers, to apply this method of culture to many other plants ? I have no doubt it might be done with equal advan- tage. Indeed, we cultivate but few plants in tillage, ior which this kind of culture would be im- proper. In Europe, they horfe hoe all kinds of grain, and cver^ fpme kinds of graffcs. In a ury feafon, or in land that is in no danger of ever be- ing too wet, it is advilable to hoe jOnly in the morning and even- ing. And if farmers will work, as early and late as they can, they m,ay afford to defill, and reft themfelves from nine till tour, when the air is hoiLcll. Thq ground will get and retain the more moiilure which is thus ho- ed early and late. And in the middle of fome of our hottell days, there is danger of hurting, tender 'pl'*"ts, by drawing the fcalding hot earth dole to their {ferns. But the opinion enter- tained by many, that no hoeing' at all Ihouid be done in a dry fea- fon, is irrational and ridiculous. They depri ve their land of the benefit ot the dew, by neglcft- ing to hoe it, fuller it to be over- run witli deltructive weeds, which rob the plants of molt of iheii houri/hmf nt, and allow the ground HOG gfO'inJ to be fo compa^ied an^ liarH, thai the rain when it comes XV! ! I not penetrate it. This Ihange opinion will occafioa luuck lofs to thofe whofe con- dua\e danger of loling great part ot the crop. The hop will foon run itfelf out of hcan, if it be over poled. Neither can a good crop be cx- pe^ed from over poled ground ; TCcaufe the branches which bear the hops grow very little, till the buJi have overreached the poles. HOP »59 which they cannot do when the pole is long. Two fmall poles arc fufficieut for a hill in a young groimd. A hop garden, Mr. Young fays, will lad almoll foie\cr, by re- newing the hills that fail to the amount ot about a fcore annual- ly : But it is reckoned better to grub up and new plant it every 20 or 25 years. In torward years hops arc ripe at the beginning of September. When they begin to change col- our, or are eafily pulled to pieces; when they emit a fragrant fmell, and when their feeds begin to look brown and grow hard, you may conclude that they are ripe. Then pick them with all expedi- tion ; for a ftorm of wind will do ihem great mifchief at this time. When the poles are drawn up in order to be picked, the vines around fliould be cut afunder at the height ot three or four feet from the ground : For cutting them lower, efpccially while the hops are green, would occafiorv fo great a flow of fap, as would weaken the root. It has been remarked by one who had much experience, that^ hops which are late picked bear more plentituily the tollowing year than fuch as are picked ear- ly : For which realbn he recom- mends late pickin(^. But the hops which are picked early look, better, and arc undoubtedly fl longer. The befl way of drying hops is on kilns. Four pounds ot un- dricd hops, will make one pound alter they are dried. Before hops are bagged, they (hould be laid in a heap, that they may fweat and grow tough : And if they arc covered tor a while with blankets, they will be the bsitcr. The bags are coarfe Unea i6o HOP coarfe linen cloth. They are coinmonly about eleven feet lon^, and near two yards and a tali in circumference, and con- tain about 250 weight ol hops. The fmall bags, called pockets, contain about half as much. The manner of bagging is thus. Make a round or fquare hole about 26 or 30 inches over, in the floor of tlie chamber ■where the hops are laid in heaps after fweating. Tie with a piece of pack thread, a handful ol hops in each lower corner of the bag, to ferve as handles for the more cafy lifting or removing the bag, - and fafien the mouth of the bag to a trame, or hoop, fomewhat larger than the hole, that the hoop may reft on its edges. The upi>er part thus fixed, the refl of the bag hangs down through the hole, but not fo far as to touch the lower floor. Then thro\.' into it a bufhei or two of hop';, and let a man go into the b^g, and tread the hops down till they lie ciofe ; then throw in more and tix:ad ; and fo on till the bag is full. Loofe it from the ho«3p, and few up the mouth as clofc as poflible, tying hops in the up- per, as was done in the lower corners. The harder the hops are prcfTed, and the clofer and thicker the bag is, the longer and better the hops will keep. A fmall manuring of hop pjound every fecond ye?r is fut- ficient. Dung was fonnerly more in ufe than at prerer.t, ex- perience having Riewn that lime, iea fand, marie, aflies, S:c. an- fwer the end better, and laft longer. But hog dnng prevents mildew from taking hops. Each pole, according to Dr. Kales, has three vmes, ^vhich makes fix vines to a hill. All .the fprouts above' this number, ihoi'ld Liebrokcn oiTinthe fpring. H O R HORN DISTEMPER, adif. cafe of neat cattle, the feat of which is in their horns. Co^v8 are more fubjeft to it than oxen. It does not attack bulls ; and fteers and heifers, under three years old, have not been known to have it. The diftemper grad- ually confumes the pith of the horn. Sometimes it is in both horns at once, but more ufualjy in one only. The difeafe is difcoverable by the coldnefs, or lofs of the nat- mal ^^'armth of the horn ; by dulnefs of the eyes, fluggifbnefs, lofs of appetite, and a difpoOtion to lie down. When the brain is affefted, cattle will tofs their heads and groan much as if irf great pain. To efieft the cure, the hor«i fhould be perforated with a nail gimblet, through which the cor- rupted thin matter will be dif- charged, if care betaken to keep it open. By this boring, which Ihould be nearly horizontal, or in the depending part of the horn,anQ two orthree inches from the head of the animal, the cure fometimes h completed. When it proves othcrwife, a mixture of rum and honey with myrrh and aloes, fhould be thrown into the horn with a fyringe ; and be fev- eral times repeated, it the difeafe continue. For a more particu- lar account, fee a letter from ti?e Hon. C. Tufts, Efq. in the ift Vol. of the Memoirs of tkc Acad' emy of Arts and Sciences, HORSE,oneof themoit ufefuJ of tame quadrupeds. The marks or evidences ot a good one are thefc, a high neck, a full breafl, a lively eye, a ftrong back, a JfifF dock, fall buttocks, ribs reaching near to the hips, well mude hoofs rather large, and a good gait. The fi/.e of a hori'c fiiouid be in proportion to the v.'ork inr which H O R v.liicli he is chiefly to br rm- I Icycd. Smtill ri/.el'le. PlonRh horfes, A'.\(\ aW draught horle^ fh«)uld be large, a< their weight isot iinp'^ancc in dra'A'inR ; and as it IS oltcn incoavcilient to put iwo horfcs to one phn^gh, efpc- tially in horfe hoeing. Lirsrc- tK'fs i^ alfo ol importrf'ice, when they arc iifcd (iaplc, in joarney- inR. as they mull uiualiy aie, ina chaife or flciijh. A horfe's m.inr.cr of going is a rnaticr of no fhiall importance. Tlic aitjbling gate, or whit in this country is vulg-irly calK'd pacing, is not <^ood, neither for tht: horfe nor the ri(ler. It is tirefonie to both. It habiiUitcs a horfe to carry liis feet too near to the ;jround, fo that he is the more liable to trip and flumble. The meil'od fo much pra^Uf- fcd formerly in this coiintry, of levelling horfes to p.4cc fwihly, arid racin;; in that pate, is high- ly pcrnici«>us. It puts tr.em to a much greater flraitl than run- ning ; and Humbert have been t'aus rained. Some colli natur- ally ami)le, and others trot. But all may be made to trot, if due care and pains be takeri with Hicni while they are Vour.g, or as fonn as they are ftril ridden. In a carriafjc an amble is tirefome to a horle, appeats higlily improp- er, a.id isdifgulling to every one; And I do not fee why it Ihould j'P'" all moie tolerable in i'. W :r 11 .iny rhange of gait is wanted for the cafe of the rider, tae c inter is to be preferred, thinu'achnonecaf.beinoreeafy. The w^v ol hrf.iking a young horlr that i> ji.'.lllv ulv*d ut thii U 11 O R l5^ cou?i:ry, is higr.ly abfurd, hurt- ful, and dan^tTOiis. He is mounted and ridden before he has been ufed to the bridle or to bearing any weigb.t on his b.ick; If he will not go for- ward, he is rroft unmercifully beaten ; by which his fptrits are broken, and his ftrcngth imnairetl. If he rears i;p, he is ptilied back- wards, with th? rilk of hurting both horie and man. If he runs and Ibrts, as he probably wdl tinder fuch tnanagement, he (ling? the rifler, perhaps is Inglucned, gains his liberty, and is encour- aged to do juft io the next op- portunity ; and the unfonunatc rider bleftes Ijlmlelf, as he has reafon to do, if he efriipe with- out broken limbs. Or if the horfe Ihould chance to go kindly, thf rider tontlnues the exercifc till the horle is fatigued, difcour- a^ed, and injiired. Inftcad ni this mad manage- ment, the ^foy praRiled in the older countries Ihotild be adopt- ed. Let a horfe (irft of ail be tamed with the bridle, by leadiiifj him again and again ; in the Hrft place, after, or by ti^e fide of an- other horfe ; and after he walk^ well, bring him to trot after his leader. In the next place, put on the fitddle, and lead him in that, time after time. Then lay a Imall weit^ht on the faddlc.and if he be apt to ffnrt, faften it, that it may not be f}ung oflF, increaf- ing the weight from time to time, till he learnt to carrv what h c- ^ual ro a mans weight. Laftly, let a man g^-ntly mount him, while anothri hold* him by the bridle, aid hy Innilelf firmly in ilic faddlc. ']']!•' place of riding is rrcommrnded lo be a plough- ed field. Let hi.'n thus be nd- df.n with a hone going b»rforc liim, til! lie iearn the ulc oj tb« bit, and will Hop, or go forward, a( i6o H O R at the pleafuic of the lidci . and without tlie application cf inuch force. Being exercifed in this riiaiinor a tew times, and treated v.ith all poIliblegeniieneG;,tiiere will be no more occaJion for leading him. He will go well Oi hiinielt ; and be thoroughly broken, without fo much as giv- ing him one blow, and wuhout danger or fcitigue, to the horfe or his rider. And, what is much to be regarded, the horfes fpirits v.ili be preierved, though he be f.ifficientJy tanied. In teaching a hoifc to draw, gentlcnefs muft Leafed. Kefiiould be tried 5r{l in company with other horfes, whether in carting or ploughing ; and the draught ihould not be fo heavy as to fret him or pat him to great exertion till he has learn- ed to draw fieadiiy. After this he maybe put to draw light load:3 by himfolf. Lailiy he may be put toa pleafurc carriage, but coupled with another rather than alone, and to a lleigh rather than a chaife. It may be tahen for a general rule, that the gait which is eafi- eft to a horfe, will be the eafieft to his rider. For jaded horfes, it has always been obferved. are apt to go hard, and to tire their riders. I'he feeding of horfes, as I conceive, has not been fuffi- ciently attended to in this coun- try ; which is, doubtlefs, one reafon why they are in general fo mean and defpicable. Too S, many keep hcrfcs v.ho cannot well afford to feed them. They fhouid neither run upon the roads and coramotM;, nor in paf- ti.rcs that arc filled with wild and wjter graffes. They love a dry pailure, not too much ihad- ed, and fhort graffes of the bed kinds. Clover ind white honey- iuckle, both green and d;y, are t.vccJier.t food fox Uieui. It H O R nouriOies them we!l, and pre* vents ccftivenefs, which is very hunful to them. The beft of clo- ver hay will keep them as well as mofl: other kinds of hay with oats. To fit a horfe for a journey he Ihould not be fuffered to grow too tat and grofs. He ihould for fonie time be k-cpt in the ftable rather than in the pafture, and fed raofllywuh hay and proven- der : But rather fpajingly if he incline to be fat. He fhculd have exercife daily to harden his flefh, and keep him in the habit oi travelling. Ke fnould be (hod fome days before he begins a journey, that the Ihoes may be well fettled to hi» feet, and the nails a little ruHcd at the points, that they may Tioid the fafter. And the pads of the faddle ihould be weM frttcd to his back, fo as to fill the hollows, and bear eqiidiiy on every part. And ^v•hiIe he is cnthe journey, he Ihould be ftabled every night. It is deftructivetoexpore a horfe to the dampnefs and cold oi the night after fevere exercife. But it would be bed, if neither horfes, nor any of our cattle, V. ere wholly confined to dry meat in winter. Horfes indicate this, by their eating fnow witk their hay. Set a balket of fnow within reach of a horfe, when he is at his manger, and he will take a mouthful from each alternately. Of ail juicy food for horfes in winter, writers on hufbandry fecm to give carrots the prefer- ence. They have been foujid by experience to anfwer well iii- ilead of oats for labouring horfes ; and to fatten thofe wliicE are le^n. He that avouM be fure to keep his horfe in good order, muft be- ware whom be faiTers to ride him, and muil fee that he is never abufed. Prcfufe fv.-eating fhculd always H O R to r:>"v and fno'v. If ' mtly ruSbcd (. I nvIhth wari!», he iJjutilJ [is corcfLvi with ii blanket ; and he IhotiH always hjw: A Jry llablr. an'l bif >vtl! !:•• • !. The neglect o\ ihefc ns mny bring on incur- u iJeis. Morico lhou!J not be too TT'trh deprived ot the liberty of motion, as they too often arc. l--l«>fe confinement ahcr hird la- bour, will be .ipt to abate tiieir circulations too fuddenly, make them chilly, and llitfen their joints. To be deprived of mo- lion. is bad for man and bealt. I? ' 'ii'relorc Ihouid not be J : iorrfMjtn in their ftibles. bi^jlci ihould not be lo low as to prevent thrir tofTmg up their lie ids as high as ihf y pleafe. Some {{ablcs have fo little room o.er head as to bring horfcs into a Ijahit of carrying their heads too lo'A*. They become afraid to lift them up. They fhould alfo hdve room in their Iluld always be lo long, and their liable lo wide, that they may br* rc .•: will a: be better tor lervicc. But it rub- bing and fiiftioii be wholly nc^- lc6tod, cr fii^luly performed, th~ hair will appear diy and rough ; tite perfjyirable matter hardens in the pores of the Ikin, or re- mains Jodge, 1 ■ V ,...nt. h iiiidt' tit tl.; \ hmdlp is oIk'U w.ui'. • II t.c- ', \k.ittri, l>ciiig niull fuit.ili!!.- ! ' i(» puiitufe, a& il may l»i* i.; . n-'l by Hioiig ilakcs at t'\ocn.l», ai\J as it rcfwU the tiiirt'iit ot -vaifr but lutltf. '] hey arc ufettil to iciic"e Imali pens ^iid y4rds on any liiclr by that means they hrniL- the llolha- Raialt the Ipinr^ot tiiclecondand third vcric'jrj'ol lU^- hack, which tor:n tiiat proniin^nce which rues a|K)\e ihfir Oionhlers. Whcii tlie rwelling ii ni<;derate, the ufual nicthod is to waih the part with full and wat.T, or to apply \yj\lti dung, o\ ial: and bia<. k fciJp tm.sed togctli^r, whi«h very often facceeds. Any rellringiMU charge, as bole and vhi<'r,ir nith wljiicsoteggi.liai il. * ci ; a', alfo the whites o. .Mip into a loam with a piece ot ainni. 1 Mn is vei y much coaunended. " .Sonieinncs the hair is rub- bed otr, and the part becomes galird. in which caie nothing is preterabie to me rcttihed fpirit ol wine or brandy, which ought to be uUd oticn, covering the part With a flaXt-n cloth dipped ii: bcrfwax, and u l.tilc oil mcll- I M I* i63 ed together, to kee-,' flie dirt ♦roiij It and deiei-.d it fj o;n the atr." Cibjjnf I .r. HL'hfcANDKY, .heart ami buliurlu ot a f^riiur. l*!ioui;1i • lie Word *s coinnionly ufLd a\ if it were perfeftiy (ynonyinou* with rfgjicidtnr*". it is, in llritt- nefs, • word *;! larger liginfica- tion. It inchulfs not t)niy tie bn{iiie(k oJ itllage. and tiic caic and n3aniig*nicni of vegetables, bat it extends to i!ic rearing and Icciirig ol cattle, (wine, pouluy, the management of ^iio tiairv", r4ihng fl..x and iicmo, frnit a)»ying of lands, thoui;ii the word is too often fa uled impropeily. In this ieiw'c of the \»oi(l, fonic ha\e improv, ed Lndi till shcy would piwducc nothing at all. By ilie improvement (d lands, I w«uild be nndcrll.jod to mean, making tlu:jp better and rnoic profitable, Tq improve lands tlial ar(5 wortj out, or bring tliem inio luch a flare that iliey will bear gy lying, it n).»y Le thonglit to be c»)nrKier.d)Iy recrinted. Jint it ;nay be done in a ninch ibort- cr tune by tallowing and plciiii- ial manuring, il the owner will be at the expenfe ot di>ing it. Land that is fo poor, cith(T naturally, or by K'vcrc ciuoping, OS to p:o(!uie lc\v* or no Vfgeta- blcx fpontaneonlly, may as well be laid common. Tlu.s wili be ihc pioll profitable rucil;,..d, when i64 I M P the fePxce is fuch that it can be caiily removed, and profitably Mk-d cl few here. More manure \viit he dropped by cattle, on land that is common, whil'e fb joj/jny people depend upon the rOfKls ka'd corrunons ior paftur- a^e. than it it were an incloi'ed vdRme : Tlieretore it may wc-ii he expetted to recruit the taft- er, aad b» fooner in a condition to bear qood crops. But U the circuiviftances of the farmer be fuch, that he cannot excul'e his ^oorcft land from til- lage, let him either provide plen- ty of manure for it, or elfe let winter rye be foAvn on i'. Some Irave fou'.id that a fucceiTive cropping with this grain will re- cruit land, and that each crop will be better than the preceding one. But if the land be ver/ poor, fuch a courfe fhould be- gin with a year of tallow, or elfe manure fhould be applied. Tlut M^eeds may not increafe, fome hoed green crop ihonid inter- vene once in three or four years. But tiie molt quick ^nd effethial methods of recruiting land, per- haps, are fdllowing and green drelfing. Mucii may be thus done in one or two years. IF a Held be not too far exhauft- ed, laying it to clover will re- cruit it, if the foil be deep, and fuitable for clover. But the grafs fhould be fed off, not mow- ed. The belt management v/ould be, not to lufTcr lands to become (o poor as to rteed much recruit- ing ; hut to keep them, at leaff, in the fame degree of richnefs, as they are when newly cleared. There is great lofs in cropping land fo fciverely as to wear it out, and ufing methods afterwards to recruit it. For, by doing this, we mufl be content with crops for om or tv/o years, which will I M P fcarcely pay the cod of culturft Or with none at all : Whereas^ by a judicious courle ol tillage^ if the ieafons pro\'e Jruitfal, prof- itable crops of fome kind or oth- er may he always obtained. We Ihall fcarcely find any fpot in this country, that is not capable of much improvemeut. And, by the help of manures, lands which are continually cropped, may be made richer and richer ; even by fuch manures as are obtainable in mod parts of this country. We are too apt to be fatisfied with a fmall degree of richnefs in our tilled lands. Being uied to poor fucxefs nx farming, we content ourfelves with a crop of ten or a dozen bulhels of wheat or rye from an acre, and think our lands are m heart, if they will produce fo much. But, in old countries, where the foil is not naturally fu- periour to ours, tanners get more iuan twice this oi,jtocs. 2. Mai/e, hemp, l\.\\, barley or oats, dii'i^- ed. The third courfe, 1. Rye. p. Clover two years. 3. Wheat. I jm convinced that, by fucli a i; nt, uith deep and Ire- q. i|»hin'4s, our lands in j»ca> no _ j^e at all from his , laai; tnUii inn^ better acoodi- I I M P 165 tion th.An he v.ho buys his bread ; whllr the former clearly pains ten bulhels from an acre. The more a farmer gets in a crop, over and abo%'c paying nrccllary chati'es, the greater is his cleiT gain, Aurle of tillage. I may add, there is the fame or more labour in thralhint;. An attention to thefc thmgs is e- nough to convince any one of tiie great important* of endeav- ouring ro improve cr'"»ps by a iTior«i fpirited a. id rational hiilbandry. If a farmer think he cannot afford to lay out a farJhinp uiorcr on the tillage of an r.crc, than he has l^en accu Homed to do. let him be entreated to Live a Intic in fencing, and ft) enable himlelt to do it, leaving out ftJine of hi^ lands that bring litile or no prof- it, and pay taxes l«,r a lefs quan- tity of laiul in tillage; or lethlj;i turn fome ot his tdla^e land to grai's ; and lay out the fajnc quantities of labour and manure on a third lefs l^ind in till4ge. Liuds in tillage niiirht thus he r.Mflc prcMti^lde ; and more fo than many areiea(iy to imagine. It has ofit-n been <»l»rcrvcd, that ihofe farn:ns inthi^ coiintiy who have the ft.w. 1! rxra, com- rtonly get the 1 • i: wn their farms. It :'. '■ •. 'k-- t M\ic. their laiuls ,ii(- under cultivation. An i lomc hav: CD occafioa ij remark, that ey call it, any lafler j Nothing is wanfirig'o produce th.in he can make ofe of the foil ! thcfe, and other agreeable effetrts, to the heft adx-anta^e ? What ; but a better knoAviedge of,- and need h3<: he to be at the c.\penfe j clofer itiention to. matters of of enclofing more than hi.? neigh- i hnfbandry, v/ith their necelTary hour d(»es, who has only one • confequcncc", Avhicb would be huntlrcd acres, v.-hilc he has no | a more perlett culture, a judi- more abili'v, or occafion, for 1 ciour choice of crops, and doing it ? Or to pay tstcs for i change of frcds, and making moie acics in grafsor tillcjjjc ? It ' every advantage of mannres. isafooliihandrurnating ambition I Improvements of valt iirjpor- in any one, to defire to have a : lance, might irlfo be mzdz in the ■wide farm, that he may appear to I management of meadows anil be rich, when he is able to give j paflure.^. See thofe articles, it only a partial and Dotenly cul- ! INARCHING. " a method of tiirc. ! grafting, commonly called graft- If fiich improvements n.-; a:'e ! ing by approach, and is ufed poGibie.and even eary,were made ' when the flock intended to graft in the hi*ft>andrt of this cotintrV, i on, and the tree fronr. '.vhich the many and great ad >^ antagv-s . graft is to betaken, fland fo near,- vouid be found to arifc- As 1 or cm be brought fo near, tiiat twice the number of people \ they may be joined together. Blight be fupporkrd an the fame ! The method of pertofming it is in whicli it is raifcd. It is generally true that the fmalier the quantity of fee adapted tc givt; it. But pLnts tiiat are fv n^ar together that their rooti inurminglc, do more or lefs rob each oilirr of (heir foud. But we mull notcondu.Ie W I N C 169 from hence, that the Icfs ouaiili- ty of feed we fow, the better. Becaufc, in getting a crop, other things befide ihe increafe Iroju tlie teed, arc to be taken into cgii- {]d«* ration. Oiher tilings being ecjual, thofe crops are nudl to be coveted, which require tlie fma!K:llprop{;r- tioii of feed. Rut the greateil profit, on the whole, is to tlireit the choice of crop.';. The cheao- nefs ot feed fcmetlmes rntneaui the farmer. To this caufc i.iay be afciibed, ilct fcldom, the cul- tivation of mi«i/.e on foils thai are moic faitable f fleer or heifer may be worth 3/. the \t2i\\\v\g\os. and the calf 2cj. So that the increafc from a cow : worth 4/. in three years may be worth w. Conrequently,he that lets out acow for hali her increafe, as is the practice in fome places, gets 25 per cent, fimple intereft on the money that lie buys her with. No man therefore that 1 Isas a due regard to his own in- terefl, will choofe tohire cows at , this rate ; or take them to the \ halves as it is called, engaging to \ return the cow and half her in- ! 1 N D i cr onghf to rifque the cow and ' her offspring. I The increafe of fliecp is a mat- ; ter of greater uncertainty, as they I are liable to more fatal difeafes I and accidents than black cattle j are. But as they often bring i two at a yeaning, it many times \ happens that CAves increafe as faff as cows, or fafter. But as a Iamb grows to maturity in one year, and a fhe calf not in lefs than three years, ewes may be faid to increafe three times as fafl a« cow<;. even when thcv bear fingle. INDIAN CORN, Zea, a^vdl known and ufefu! plant of the grain kind. It is called maize in moil countries, zea in fome. The parts of generation are on different parts of the fame plant. The panicles, or tofTels, contain thcfarinajacundans, which fall- ing on the fiik, or the green threads at the end of the ear, im- pregnate the ear, and render it fruitful. H the tofTels, or fpin- dles, were cut off before the grain in the ear is formed, the crop would be fpoiled. This has been proved by experiment. But this effeft will not take place, unlefs all the tofTels be removed ; becaufe one of them will be fuf- ficient to impregnate twenty plants. The filks, or threads, muft be undifturbed to the time of impregnation. They are a^ neccfTary as the fowing itfelf. If part of them are taken away or pulled out as foon as they ap- pear, part of the corn will be every thefe wanting on the ear : For frngle grain has one of tlireads. It is therefore a bad practice to fuffer weaned calves to go among the corn, as fome do, at the feafon of impregnation. Maize is confidered, in this country, as a mofl important crop, creafe at the end of three years. | It is prefcired to wheat and r^'e, 'WT.ec cows aie thus let tus own- • becaufe it is not fubjcil to blaft- ing/ I N D «''g, nor to any oiher Hiftempcr tliji is ant, in any great ilrgrcc, fi> cut Ihort the crop. A goo*! ioil, ivell tillctl ana matuired. ii-'Klom laiJs ol giving a good pioducc. Anottter advantage o( it is. that it is more pr«)dutfive than cither uhcai or rye arc, even when ihcv cfcapc Walling and fnint. No grain on the whole is more ufotul ; tor there is no icher ^lain equal to it, for the faiten- ing ol cattle, poultry and fwinc. Xo other beel is fo well tafted as that which has been fed with it. riie pork fattened with it is very white, firm and fweci ; and it Micikes the !lefh of all animal* very folid and good. Though it he not fo light and eafy to cTigolt as moll other forts of corn, it is louad, that people >vhj arc icd on it Irom their in- i-ui:y, grow large and iirong, and enjoy very good health. There are a variety oi ways of preparing it tor tood. The In- rth while to plant this corn on clay, n(»r oq mere loam : For it requires much heat, and thefe foils are not fo much warmed by (he fim, as fand^ and gravelly okcs. Oii any foil it requiics much tillage and manure in this country ; if cither be fcaiiiy, a good ciop is not to he cxpeticd. I think it is not t!xe bcft meth- od to plant it on what we call green fward ground, at Icaft in ilic northern parts. It is aj>t to be t(H) backward in its growth, and not to ripen io well. But if wc do it on fuch land, the boles Ihould be made nuiic through the lurrows, and Jung put in die hoJes. It lhi> caution be not oblcrve*], die crop will bo uneven, as the rot»ti m fome places where the fum>ws arc ihickcll, will ha.e but litde ben- elii from die luliui;} vl the fward, Bui 172 I N D I N D But iT the holes be mafic through, j tance. If he fhould bring i*, for the roots wil! be fed '.vith both j inftance, a hundred miles from the foiithward, his corn would tail of ripening; if as far from the north he muft expc£f a lighter crop ; and in cafe of drought, the latter will be rcore apt to fnffer, as it has been proved by experi- ment. A farmer in the county of Briftol, took feed from the county of Cumberland. It came on Aell at firil. But the fummer being pretty hot and dry, it parched up, and produced next to nothing, though the feed he had taken from his ou'n field turned out very well. If the farmer cannot conveni- ently obtain new feed ; or if he be loth to part with a fort that has ffrved him avcU, and choofe rather to ufc it than feed he has not tried ; lei him, at leaft, {hift feed from one field to another, and efpecially trom one kind of foil to another. And in the choofing of feed, fome regard Ihculd be had to the {late oi the foil on which it is in- tended to grow. 1 1 it be poor» or wanting in wannth, the yel- low fort with eight rows will be moff fiiltjbic. as it ripens early. A better foil fhould have a larg- er kind of feed, tljat the crop may be greater, as it undoubtedly will. If twenty loads of good ma- nure can be afforded for an acre, it ffiould be fpread on the land and ploughed in : If no more than half of that quantity, it will be beft to put it in holes. In the former cafe, the corn uuially comes up ^etter, fuffers lefs by drought,, and worms ; and the land is kit in better order after the crop. In the latter cafe, the plants are more sfliiled in their growth, ifj proportion to the quantity of manure. If the manure be new dung, burying it under the furroxvs is by far the better fixed and putrid air, fupplied by the fermeiuation in the grafs roots of the turr. In this way, I h?.ve known great crops raifed on green fward ground, where the foil was a fandv loam, but moft- ly r.nd. But in the courfe of my expe- rience, I have found peafe and potjitoes the mofl fuitable crops for tlie firil year. In the lecond, it will he in good order for In- dian corn. This cafe, however, may be pecidiar to the northern parts of Newengland. For this crop, it is certainly beft to plough in the fall pre- ceding ; and again in the fpring, j'lft before planting. If the land be flat, r>nd i'lclining to cold, it fhjuld he in narrow ridgcsdurmg the winter ; and tf it is naturally moiil, the rcrr fhoi'M be pUnt- cd on ridges; olherv»'ife it (hould be plv)Ug:ied pLiin in tlie furing Sti.ne reccmn'^end gatlicring feed c^rn bef'ire iiie tir.^e of har- veft, beirigtliecars that ftrff rip- en. But I think it woiild be better to marl: them, and let thfin reni.un on the flslks, till ^ey become faplefs. Whenever ffiev are taken in thev fhould be hung up by the hufRs, in a dry pl.'oe, fec.'re from ei:rly frofl ; and they whI be fo hardened as to be in no danger of injury from the frofl in M'intcr. I \yould net advife the farmer to plant conf^antly his own feed ; but once :n two or three years, to exchange feed with fomebody at the diffance of a few miles. Charge of feed is doubtlefs a ma?ter of importance m moft kinds of vegetables ; though it has not yet been fo plainly dif- covered in this as in fome others. But let the farmer beware of tak- ing his feed from too great adif- I 1^ o I N D m h^t'rr met^.M. Kone In It oW • ill tlic holes. .• cTiiinto ex- by Ih'jil .furrows horfr nl Mi^lt. from H t Ujuio, nia.-le with a throe to tow: ii i-r f> ; t'j tht- I ir^<^onvl^ <'i ..' fort ot corn to hr planted. This ftirrowin? i<; cafily done with one horiV.inl's by no m^Hnsl(>ft labour, a< the iTjorc the ground is ftirrcd, the more luvunanily the corn will grow. If dung is to he put in tin." Hiii^ifs where the furrows c: )rs r.ich other, the furrowing uld be the decjKT, that the JuT»g may not lie too light. The right time of feeding the gnund may be from the firfl to tin* tliird week in May ; or a lit- tle iooncr or later according to the drynefs of the foil, and the f(>rw,iriincfs of the (prmg. The l.irncr"v hive a rule in this cafe, fatd to be borrowed from the abo- riginals, wluch is, to plant corn wiicn the leaves of white oak bc- g:n to appear. But fo much time IS commonly taken up in plant- ing this corn, it being tedious ^^>.I'v tj vl.;i^ it in holt's, that it •w:II be ncct iiiry to begin in the driert pan of the Held a little ear- lier than this rule dircMs. Shell the feed gently by hand, that it may not be torn or bruif- cd at all, rrje£ting about an inch at eacii end of the ear. And, if .iny corns anpe:!r with black eyes, .''t fhcm alio be rejected, not bc- •'(• they will not grow at all, ' contrary being true ; butbe- tlie bldckncfs indicates, < r (omc defect in drying, or ot porfeHion in the grain. t'nr five corns in what is cjllcd z hill, and let thcmi not l.c very : ' ■ •• .. more the 1. the more tir,-y w:!; pr* c;r;; :;.c growth <>f each ottier. ¥c.::v c«»rns wou' I perhapc be a belter naniber, it it were certain they would all prof- per. The true rc-i.'^ns for put- ting more than one in a place I take to be, that by means of it, the rows may be fo far a part z% to admit of ploughing between them ; and that fotne labour in hand hoeing is fave!, it being n» more work to hoe a hill with five plants, than with one in it. Some fleep their feed. But in general it had better be omitted; for it will occafion it to pcrifh in the ground, if the wcatlicr fliould not prove warm enough to bring it up fpeedily. • If planting a fecond time Ihould become necclfiin', by means of the dellruftion of the fir ft feed ; or if planting be delayed on any account till the beginning of June, then it will be proper that the feed fhould have boiling water poured on it. Let it not foak more than half a minute, and be cooled fpeedily, and planted before it dries. Ihe corn will be forwarder in its ^ro^^^h by fcvcral days. The Iced fhould be covervl with a- boiit two inclies of CHrih. To prevent birds and vermine from pulling up the corn, fleep fome corn in a ftrong infufionof Indian poke, or refufc tobacco, and fcjttcr it over the ground before the corn is up. White threads ftretched over a field of com, will prevent crows from a- lighting upon it : But I doubt whether this will deter any other birds. A handful of afhes on each hill, will nourilh the plants, and have a tendency to prevent their being annoyed by wonns. Some |jy it on jud btlore tlu' firft, or fecond hoeing. It will ha^ c a better effect in preventing worms, if laid on before the corn is up. [ But it i"i corr.monly dcfigncd to I anfwcr chiefly as a top drelling ; aad p«^, 174 ^ ^' ^ and for this purpofe itwoulaan- fwer better near the third hoe- ing ; for then the plants want the greateH degree of nourifli- rnent, as they be^in to grow very rapidly. Two dreflings with jilhes, to an fwer the two pur- would not be amifs. When the plants are three or four inches high, the plough inuflpafs intheuitervais, making two furrows in each, turned from the rows ; and then the weeds hilled with the hand hoe, and a little frcih earth drawn about the plaats. This operation we call weeding. In about half a month after, plough again, but acrofs - the former furrows, and turn the fur- rows towards the rows. Then ■with the hand hoe earth the corn 9=; much as it will well bear. This is called moulding, or haJf- hiiling. When the plants are about knee high. and before they fend out their panicles, or fpindies.gi ve them the third and lalt hoeing. The beft way at this hoeing is to plough one furrow in an interval, both ways. The cultivator with two mouldhoards v.'oald be better tor this work, tlian the common borfe plough, as it would throw I N D tt « fuitable diftance from die furface. Some think high hills are needful to make the corn (land upright. I never could perceive the advantage of it. But I am confident it Is ofiener broken by winds when the hills are uncom- ly high, which is a greater evil than its leaning half way to tlie ground, if indeed that be any evil at all, which I think may be doubted. The farmer, who wiflies for a large crop of this corn, Ihould not annoy it with running beans, or pumpions ; the former, by w^inding round tl:!e flalks and ears, cramp them in their growth, and fometimes bend them down to the ground by their weight • the latter, by their luxuriant growth, rob ilie hills of much vegetable food, and by their thick Ihade, Ihut out the influeiKe of the fun from the roots of the corn. So that ibey muft needs be rery cetri- mentai to its growth, and ripen- ing. At the fccond and third hce- ings. all the fuckers L'^ould be buried under the foil ; not brok- en off, as is the common prac- tice, becaufe this wounds the the mould equally towards each ) plants. II the fuckers be fuSer- row, and fave labour in hand hoeing. The ground would thus be cut into fquares, and the hills almoft completely formed. In fiuilhing them, car« fliould be taken that they be not made too high, or lleep ; that fo they may not divert the water, which falls in rains, from the roots. When hills are too much raifed, they alfo prevent the warm iniluence of the fun upon the lowermoft roots, by too great a thicknefs of earth ; in conlequence of which, the plants are put to the exertion of fending out a newiisiQf roots. ed to grow, they feldom, or nev- er produce fjir and perfedt ears ; and they rob the ears on the main ftalk of their nourifliment. I mention the fecond and third hoeings, becaufe the luckers will not all appear till the third; and the fooner they arc deJlroyed the better the crop will be. Inftead ot the common meth- od of planting, if your land be rich and cafy to till, and free from obflacies, I ihould tliink it would be bcft to plant the corn in the drill method, the rovs being of the fame diilancc as I N D as in the common way, placing the coins about five or fix inches i^undc^ I have found byexperi- mfift, mat a grcatrr quantity of corn may be produced in ibis method, thsn in bills ; and the labour is but little, if at all in- creafed. In a final I field, where the dung had hrcn evenly fprcad, and ploughed in, I planted one row thus, the reft beinj in the common way ; and it yield- ed, at harvcft, one eighth part more corn by mcafure than cither of the two ncareft rows, the corn being equally ripe and good. When there is reafon to appre- hend that the ground will prove foo moiH tor this crop, it will be advifable to plough it into nar- row ridges, and feed each ridge , with one or two rows, as fhall be foimd mod convenient. S!nin ploughing, it commonly j • ' '(.'ns thjl a lull Ujnd"; pre- • in the place of a hill ')t the preceding year. When this is tiie cafe, the plants will receive ]efs iiourithmeui than it the hill had had a new fituation. That each hill may always have thir. advantage, let a ridge be formed by two furrows, turning part of a row of hills on each hde, fo as to meet cath other, in the la!t year's interval : Thus (mall Tidges will be fo: .isd, ob whicli I >: D '75 the rows fhould be planted. If dung be firlt fpread over the ground, the molt of it will be buried where it Ihould be, in the bottom of thele ridges. At the timeof weeding, or at the feconJ ho.ing, the remainders of the old liills may be turned towardj the new rows. With fuch a mode ol culture, land could not foon be exhaufted, even by a fuc« ccflivc cropping with maize. Land which has before beea planted on ridges is as proper for this management, as if it had been planted in hilh, or even more proper. For the fuccefs of a method not very diflinxilar to this, fee Experiment for raijing Indian corn, in the M.fmiori of tfu Ainericnn Academy ^ by Jofeph Greenleaf, Efq. Thetollels, ortop fl3lks,thoul(l not be cut oft, till the top ot the fpindle is perfectly faplefs. I think we iifually cut them too early, unlefs their total greennefs for fodder be a fufficieut com- penfation for pinching the ears. The wounding and mutilat- ing of moft other annual plants, in their green tlate, is known to make them lefs truittuk I have fufpecicd the eiTc6k mull be the fame on tliis plant. To f^tisfy myfelf, I made the following experiment. The whole ot a fmatl rield was topped, Sept. lo, 17S.5, excepting two rows through ttie middle, the ex- tremities of the Ipindlcs being quite dry. 1 he tops ol the two rows were not cut at all. The two uncut rows produced a tenth part more corn by meafurc, than the two nearell rows did. The quantity oi ripe corn wa« e<)ual, all the excefs being in the green tars. I ^\ri led by this ex- periment to think theflalk ought never to be lopped at all : Tor the gieenu«r> oi the llalks mak- ing 176 I x\ D ing thcra a belter focder, will not cornpeiiiate for the lufs vi a tenth part of the corn, it nothing be reckoned for the ex- tra labour of topping and preferv- ing them. P.ut as ?vl. Aimen I'.as fuggefted that the panicles fnoukl be cut oft as foon as the plants are impregnated, I cuoofe lather to fufpend my judgment concerning it, till I fee the reiult of more experiments. We are certainly giility of an error when we har\ eft this corn too early. The difference of ear- ly and late harvefted corn may be feen by the thrinking of corn in the former cafe^ In drying, loige fpaoes will be leit between the kernels on the cob ; but that >\hich is well ripened on the jialk, will fnew no fuch inter- itices. The corn will undonbt- cdly be growing better till the flalk below the car is perfectly iaplcfs, and the cob dry ; receiv- ing continual nouril'imcnt from the fan, unlefs the trofl or fome accident fliould happen to pre- vent it. Squirrels and other an- imals drive people to early har- vei'iing ; but there is commonly • re lull than idved by it. Vv'^hen corn Hands tolerably late from the ;;ttacks of tame arid \v:lil annuals, hai \eitiug early is aa unpardcnable error. See This plant is fo luxuriant in i.s growth tliat it impoverifhes the foil tdfter than almoil any other crop. Therefore it is not s;ood hulbandry to plant it more than two years in fnccc'Iion. It would be better fliil to grow it bat one year in the fame place. Tmopean writers fay, the land thould be ploughed as foon as tb.e crop is off, to prevent the italks trom drauing the moiflure out ot the ground. But the rea- ion of tkis is not fo evident as< 10 t xV O carry conviction, unlefs the ftems arequiteinagreenflate. Itis,how- ever, a good method to plough all fields in tillage, as foOn as the cr jp is off. INOCULATING, or BUD- DING, inferting a bud fo that it will live and grow, in the fide of the trunk, or limb of a tree. It anfwers the fame end as grafting. ! Mr. Miller fays, '* This iscom- j raonly praftlfed upon all forts of ! ftone fruit in particular, fuch as I peaches, nettarines, cherries, j plums, &c. as alfo upon orang- j es and jafmines; and is prefera- I ble to any fort ot grafting. The method of performing it is as , follows : You muff be provided [ with a (harp penknife, having a ■ ildt haft (the ul'e of which is to I raife the bark of the ftalk to admit I the bud i and fome found has mat, i ^rhich Ihould be foaked in watcr^ I to increafe its Itrength, and make j it more pliable ; then having taken off the cuttings of the trees I you are to propagate, you fliould j choofe a fniooih part of the ftock, ! about five or lix inches abov£ ] the furtace ot the ground, if de- I f'gncd for dwarfs ; but if for } ffandards, they iliould be budded : fix ieet above ground ; then 1 with your knife make ahorizpn- i tal cutcrofs the rindof theitock, and from the middle ot that cut make a flit downwjrds about two inches in length, fo that it may be in the form of a T ; but you mufl be caretul not to cut too deej), left you w^ound the ftock. Then having cut off^ the leaf from the bud, leaving the toot Hock remaining, you Ihould make a crols cut about halt an inch below the eye, and with your knife flit off the bud, with part of the wood to it, in form ot an efcr.tcheon: This done« you muff with your knife pull off that part of ihe wood which . was I N O "as tiken with ilic bud, obferv- 1:1:: whetlicr the eye ol the bud ' ',ch to it or not (tor all thofe N which lofc their eyes in pinj?lhould l)c thrown away, ^ good for nothing. J Then hjvnij; gently railed the bark oi the flock ^vjiere the crofs inci- fion was maile, with the flat haft of your penknife, cleave the bark from the wood, and thrufl the bud therein, obferving to place it rmooih between t!ie rind and the wood ot the ffock, cut- ling ofTany part ot the rind be- longini{ to the bud, which may be tiK) long for the flit made in the flock : And lo having exaft- ly fitted the bud to the flock, you mufl tie tliem clofely round with has mat, beginning at the under part ot the Hit, and [o proceed to the top, taking care that you do not bind round the eye of the bud, which lliould be left >pen. " When your buds have been inr>cu!ated three weeks or a month, you wiil fee which of them have taken ; tliofc of them which appear fliriveled and black being dead, but thofe w'aich re- main trelh and plump you may de- pend are joined. At this time you ihouldloofen the bandage, which, if not done in time, will pinch 'he flock, and greatly injure, if • '>i deflroy, the bud. " The March following" (per- haps April in this country) "you muft cut oif the flock about three inches above the bud, floping it that the wet may pafs off, and not enter the ll<»ck. lo this part ol the flock, left above the Dud, it is very proper to fallen the (hoot which the hud inakLS in fummer, to fccure it from be- ing blown out ; but this part ot th« flock niufl continue on no longer than orr: viir. after which it mufl be cm oil ciofc above the X I x\ S 177 bud, that the flock may be cov- ered thereby, '* The time tor inoculating is from the middle of June to the middle of Augull, according to the torwardncfs ot the feafon, and the particular forts of trees to be inoculated, which may be eafily known by trying the buds, whether they will come off well from the wood. But the mofl ?;eneral rule is, when you ob- erve the buds formed at the ex- tremity pi the fame year's fhoots, which is a fign of their having finifhed their fpring growth.' Gardener's Did. INSECT, anumcrcur. clafs off animals. They have the name infe6l trom their appearing to be almoft cut off in the middle, or in fomc part of their bodies. But the name is alfo applied to worms, &c. which have not thi* mark of diflin6fion. A general divifion of infe£ls is into wingyd and naked ones. Both k.rts arc generated from eggs. They are either hatched in the form of their parents, or into maggots cr worms, which, af- ter feveral tranfmutations, come to be in the form ot their parents. I do not undertake fo great a tafk as to difcourfe of all forts of infects ; but only of thofe which are found to be noxious to the plants that are cultivated in this country. As I have already faid fome- thing concerning ca:erpillars, and treated more largely on that formidable infett the canker worm ; I thall here begin with one that is aln.ofl equally terri- ble in its cffccis, the ipecies of ?|ryllus, or locufl, called the Irajshopper, wfiich is as difli- cultiogujr! ^ the canker worm, or n. To. More or fewer ot tiicie well known in- fers appear every year on our grounds. lyS I N S grounds, more efpecially in dry fummers ; and in a fevere drought, they ufiially appear in cndlefs fwarms, hurting the mo ft, and deftroyingmany, oi the Irnits of the earth, by eating off the more tender parts, and depriving the ileins of their fap. They tave this year, 1789, in fome places, eaten off the bark of the limbs of trees and fhrubs. An infufion of v.-orm\vood, or a decoFiion of almoft any bitter plant, fprinkled on vegetables, it IS aflerted, will prevent their eat- ing them. But this labour will be thought too tedious, unlefs it be in gardens or other very fmall mclofares. And this would be to no purpofe, when green tood to fupply them became fcarce. In this cafe, they will eat onions, 2nd all forts of plants, worm.wood not excepted. It our farms were always plen> tifully flocked with fowls, and particularly with turkies, thefe infetts would be thinned, as they are fond of them, and eat mul- titudes of them, efpecially in the beginning of fummer, before they can make much ufe of their wings. But this can be only a paitial remedy. As the grafshonpers depofit their eggs in the furtace of the foil, it is thought that the greateft I produftion of them is in mowing grounds, and in open fields that are not much trodden by cattle. They are feldcm fecn to tarry in forefis, or in very moiil or ihady places ; though they irav- erfe fuch places in quelt of their food. The only way then, it leems, to guard again ft them moll effectually, would be, to ' paflure the whole of our high I lands clofely, excepting the pans j that are in tillage. For the eggi' ! will be moflly cruflied by the | £ett of cattle. But for a whole : I N S country to do this, ^vould pei^ haps be confidered as m.aking too great a facrifice ; and for one or. two farmers in a village or neigh- bourhood to do it, would have hut little effetf, unlefs where they are furrounded with large- forefts ; becaufe the infe£ls, when they come to be furnilhed with ffrong wings, at which time they devour faftefl, pafs from field to field with the rapidity of horfes. However, as they abide and eat- cbiefly where the foil is natural- ly dry, a proper expedient may- be, to cultivate hay crops only on low and moifl lands, which is prafiicable, as thefe lands might be made far more produftive than they aie. Or, if on high land, it fhould be fome early crop, fuch as clover, which may be mowed before this infeft has attained to its full growth. The blaik zvorm, an infe£l fo- called, is an alb coloured worm,, v/ith a Itripe aJmoft black upon its back. At its full growth, it is about the bignefs of agoofe quill, and an inch and a quarter in length. The greateft mifchief that they commonly do, is ta young cabbages, cauliflowers, &c. They never choofe to ap- pear ovk the furface in the day time ; but keep themfelves buri- ed about an inch or two beneath it. In the night they come up, eat off the fteras of the young plants, and again bury them- felves in the foil, often attempt- ing to draw in the plants after them. They fometiraes deilroy oth- er vegetables. I have know^n them to cut off great part of a field of IndiaH corn, before the firft hoeing : But this is not a comn^^^n cafe. They begin to devour in Mar, and ceaie in June. INS I X S t79 ciicUng tliem with rock weed. . vcrv <. :•- KTOund that Prom the finr i«cs c f of incni I concl Lin.t.' .1:; it IS very . ...s to them. Tome meafurc but in water. lioaig fait. miichiet^ or brine. won!-' 1 whitf woi :n jDin.iin the ' n,.,. ••--lotes. ij,a -ket, ot a plant ot n-.a;/L the Item ot ;he M \> un. Ii ai C itrip- I ed with yellow and black. They cat anti dciboy the young plants j ot cucunibcri, niekns, Iqualhcs i and pumpions. They iK'gin to | eat while the plants are in iced I leal ; ai " - j ed. will • "I pccially in a ::. Th'--iV \rAc confidcr- ably tin: ::i in a 1 dewy ni . have , not the Jrtv: cir wings, and cannot ^. I have ion. i' !<-•. a2:i 1:1 1:; •dihe V en* ravage's are lo genera!, a fuch confequence, that the inge- nious have attended to the matter, and exploied many inetliods, both preveiiti% e and remedial, to '^p- pofc them. One oi the preventive meth- ods is, making the ground fo rich that the plants will grow rapidly, and continue but tor a ihcrt time in the feed leaf ,• for, after the evolution oi rough leaves, the plants are aimolt or quite out of danger ot this infect. It is alfo recommended, to pafs a roller over tlie ground, as loon as the feed is fown. This not only prevents the too fud- den efcape of the moiflure in the furface, and caufes the plants to rife fnoncr and in<>re vigoroufly ; but fills i.p o\ cloli-s ti*n tliou- fand little :ntcrllic fur- lace, which lervc : ^ a« places ot rcneat. 1 lic confe- qtience is, cthfr that they are d . driven away b :.s, or ilifTcn- ed With the dcw^ of the cvldeit nigliti. i8o I N S Mr. Tull thought it bell that the feed fhould be buried at dif- ferent depths in the foil, and fays, 3s they will come up at different times, either the firfl; or the laft will probably efcape the fly. He iiccordingly conftnicled his tur- nip drill in fuch a manner as to bury the feed at different depths. The fame thing in effeft may be done in the broad caft way ot fowing. The ground may be harrowed with a common harrow with iron teeth ; then half the feed fowed, and the ground fmoothed with a bufli harrow and rolled ; then the other half fow- ed, and huihed in, or raked. Al- ter which the roller fhould be again paiTed over the furiace. Some writers on this iubjeft are confident that the bell meth- od is, to fow the feed very thick, equal to double the ufuai quanti- ty oi feed, that when the flies have eaten all they can, there may be a luifficient number of plants remaining toinfure a good crop. Another project is fowing a mix- ture of old and new feed, as the latter is known to come up foon- cr than the former, one or other of which may happen to elcape. After the turnips are up, if the flics appear in plenty, it is advif- able to pafs a fmooth roller over them. If the roller be drawn carefully by hand, or even by a horfe, turning the roller about on the head lands only, the opera- tion may be performed without hurting the turnips ; and the flies Avill moflly be cruilied by the roller. This operation fliould be performed in a dewy morning, when the flies are fo ftiff that they cannot make their efcape. Or, inflead of this, I am confi- dent that the fifting of foot over the turnip ground in a dewy jnorning will be effeftual ; at the fame time that it \vin anfwer as a I N S flight top drefTing, and increafo the growth ot the plants. Some writers alfert, that only drawing a green bufli of elder over the young plants will h\e them from the fly. I think it may have fome tendcHcy towards it ; but 1 have never made the experiment. An inf ufiori of el- der, applied by fprinkling, would probably have a greater effeft. But I fhould expeft more from an infufion of tobacco. Some fet plants of tobacco thinly in their turnip ground, thinking that the fcent of them does fomething towards repelling the fly. I have jio objection to this, excepting that a much rich- er ground is requifite for tobacco than for turnips, in our climate. Some attempt to clear a turnip grotind from flies, by making fmokes ori the head lands around it, or chiefly on the windward fide. Ike red worm is another ene- my to the farmer. This infc6Hs flender, and ufually about an inch long, with a hard coat, and a pointed head. It eats oflT wheat, barley and oats, above the crov/n of the roots. It perforates, or bores quite through bulbous roots, turnips, potatoes, &c. My turnips for feverai years, which were fown in the fpring, have been thus almoft ruined, though on a foil that fuited them. When a turnip is once wounded by them, it grows no bigger, unlefs it be in ill fhapes, and hard cx- crcfcences, and becomes totally unfit for the table. As to pota- toes, I have feldom known them do much hurt, unlefs when liiey were planted in a foil that did not fuit them, particularly in a clay. It IS eafier to fay what will not flop thofe borers, than what will do it. I have manured with fca mud ; applied dry fait. t9 I N S < tlic foil after the plants were ..p ; minjlci dry (".it with ilie Jced when itwasfowcJ ; ftcepod the feeds in bruic bcfarc fowing, and coated tlicin wiUi fuli»hur ; but all in vain. I luppole the burning of a ftub- ble as it Hands would dcllroy .ill the woi rr.s i\ut happened to be very near to the furtace. A cer- tain Englilh writer thinks that a ported fummer fallow would def- troy them, partly by expofing fomc ot them to the heat ot the fun at each ploujjhins, and part- ly by depriving them of food. I ihould think ploughing late in autumn might deflroy many of them, by expofing ihemtothe mod violent attion of the froll. Or in a girden, throwing up the foil in riiiges with t!;e Ipade, fo to lie during the winter, would have a good efFech Liming jdentitully, if it ct»idd be afford- ed, I (hould rely upon as a moft cffei'f ual antidote to this, and fev- cral other kinds of infeHs. The CompUtc Faimer mentions lime and foot as good antidotes to this infcft in particular. The garjenflfu is a minute fly that eats cabbages, and other plants ot the brujjua kind, while ihey are in feed leaf. They arc of a very dark colour, or nearlv black. I once applied fome clefts of the flems ol green elder to fome drills ol young cabbages, which this fly had begun to cAi, and could not find that they eat any atterwards. But as I made this trial but once. I dare nger, or till the juice of the wood, be- ing altered, is unfit to nourilh them any longer. Steeping the wood feafonnbly in lalt water dcdroysthe worms, or prevejrts their entering the wood. li the trees be fcorclied in a Ught flame, before they have entered too tar, the cflect will be the (axwe. To prevent and cure worms in timber, Mr. Evelyn recommends the tollowing, as much approv- ed. '■ Put common fulphnr into a cucurbit, with as much aqua- tortis as will cover it three fingers deep ; dillil itio a dryncis, which is perfonned by two or three rectifications. Lny the fulphur that remains at bottom on a mar- ble, ur piif it in a glafs, and \z will diflolve into an oil ; witli this oil anoint the limber wliicii is infrHed with worms." Bcfides the dcflruriive infe6}s. which appear more or lefs every year, there appear fonictimes Formidable Iwirms, or armies ot worms, which luller fcarcelyany crccn thing to cfcapc them. I'hcy overran \v. • ' j ot the county of Ciui in tlwr vcar i84 I N year 1770, rather before the raid- dle of July, to the extreme con- ilernation, as well as the great injury ot the inhabitants. They firippcd the corn and grafs of the leaves, leaving only the bare Hems, and thofe deprived ai their fap. They were extremely vo- racious ; and appearing to be in the utmoft hafte, they all moved in the fame direcHon. They fuFFered nothing that they could elimb upon to itop their courfe. They crawled over houfes, and all other buildings, unlefs when they found a door, windovr, or chink in their courfe, where they cotild enter. Whether they pafT- ed in this manner over the plants they deflroyed I did not take no- tice. Between twenty and thirty years ago the fame dreadful in- fect appeared in the county of Eflex ; and between 1770 and 1780, in fom^ places imthe terri- tory ot X'ermont. The only ways of oppofing their ravages that have been uied, are, either to mow a field of grafs, whether it were firliy grown, and fit to cut, or not ; or. to fence a- gainftthem with narrow trench- es, made perpendicular, or rath- er hanging over, on the fide next to the field. Many fields of corn have been thus faved ; and bulhels of tlie worms being una- ble to climb fitch crumbling walls died in the trenches. If their hillory wei^ attended to, perhaps it would be found they have flated periods. It is not fuHicient tor the far- mer to defend his vegetables againft infects. There are in- fects alfo that annoy and hurt his animals. Lice are often found on colts, and on neat cattle, efpecially on yearlings in the fpring. When thefe anijnals become poor, they I N T moft commonly grow louff, which makes them ftill poorer. Poffibly it may be owing to aii obftruftion of perfpiration. For there are doubtlels many oily particles in the effluvium of healthy cattle, and oil is an anti- dote to this infeff. Oiling their {kins will clear them of lice ; fo will a flronginfufionof tobacco. But when they are cured, better teeding is the bell prefervative from the return of the infefts. The tick, or tike; is the fheep loufe.- When thefe infefts be- come numerous, they are very hurttul to die theep. In Eng- land, the farmer fmears his fheep,, after fhearing, with a mixture of butter and tar. This fortifies them againft being injured, either by the weather, or by infetls. But at any time, oil, or tobacco, will deftrov the ticks. . INTERVAL, the fpace_ be- tween two places, or things. The word is ufed in hufbandry to denote the fpace between rows of corn, or other vegetables ; ef- pecially in the horfe hoeing huf- bandry. By interval, alfo, and more nfually in this country, is under- flood land on the border of a riv- er. Interval land is commonly fo high and dry as to he fit for tillage : and yet always folow as to be frequently overflowed by the fwelling of rivers, efpecially in the fpring. On fomeof thele lands the water often continues fo late in the fpring that they cannot be fceded till June. But the increafed fruitfulnefs of the foil feems to more than make up for this delay. For when the waters fubfide, they leave a fat fllme upon the foil, moft friend- ly to vegetation. The foil on thefe intervals is moft commonly fand, Avith a large mixture of the fincft vege- table K A L uahic nijulil ; anJ much ot u is iTiadc, Irora time to lime, by the Hutting of the channels ol rivers. This fort ol land has generally bcca prized highly in this coun- try. But in ioine places it has become lefs fruittui ot late than lijrmerly. The reafon ot this altcrjtiun molt probably is, that ihc floods are iiot fo great as, or that thc> luhfide quicker than tor- merly ; owing to the more culti- vated Itatc ot the country, and a quicker evaporation ot die waters. KALE, Colewort, an excellent potherb, early, and of quick growth, which ought to be culti- vated in this country. . KALENDAR, an account of time. Thar great natural ill. Dr. Linnxus, did not approve of larmers' confining theinfelves, to tcrtaui fet days, or weeks, for committing their feeds to the earth. The feafons are nuich forwarder in fome year's than in others. Thcrclore, he who thus governs hinifclf. will affuredly low his annual feeds fometimci too early, and fomeriraes too late. That a better practice might be introduced, he recommended it to his countrymen to take notice at what times the trees unfold tlieir leaves. Nature is fo uni- form in her operations, that the forwardnefs ot trees is an unfail- ing indication ot the forwardnefs of the fpring. And the grnial Warmth, which caufes trees and Ibrubs to put lorth their leaves, will l;e iumcient ;o caufc feeds to vtgctate. In order to reduce to practice fa ingenious a hint, an account ihould be made out of the firlt leafing, and I may add, the hlof- fooiiiig of a variety of trees and i ihrubs. I luppolc tr«cs and 1 Y K A L §5 itirubs to be moft fuitablc lor tliia purpolc, as they are more deep- ly rooted, and theretore more ileady and iiniiormin their appear- ances, than any plants which are pcreiuiial only in their roots. 1 hey arc tfpecially much more fo than annuals. It is certain that fuch an ac- count taken in one place will riot anfwcr alike tor every part ot the country ; bccaufe the vegetation in every part is not equally forward. Therefore, I would earneftly recommend, that in each degree of latitude, throughout Newcngland at lcaft» fome attentive naturalift would, make a lift of a confiderable num- ber of trees and Ihrubs, whicli arc common, and near at hand ; carelully watch their appear- ances, and minute the times o£ the firft opening of their leaves, and alfo of their bloffoming. By comparing the accounts, tha abfurdity will immediately ap- pear, of fowiitg the fame kind of feeds at the fame time of the month or year, in the pd, 43d, 44th, and 4jth degrees ot latitude! This ir a matter that farmers ought to attend to ; that fo thofc who remove trom one degree of latitude to anothe.^ may not be contoundcd concerning the trite times of fowing, on fuppofition that they have been once in the right pra';iice. The right in one place will be wrong in another. When theie accounts are ob- tained, let trials be made, by fowing a certain kind of feed be- fore, at. and attor the foliation, or the flowering of fome particu- lar plant, and the produce com- pared. Let accurate experiments ot this kind be yearly repeated, with all ihe molt ufcful fpring plants ; by this, in a few years, complete kalendars may be ob- tained toi every Jcgfce of lati- tude 160 K A L tude in this country. The con- fequence will be, that the farmer will be able infallibly to read the true tiiiiCS of fowing, by cafting his eye upon the trees and ihrubs that are about him. We have already fach a rule as this, with relpeft to Indian corn ; but it perhaps ought to undergo a fur- ther examination. But fuch rules, after all that can be done, mufl not govern us invariably. The right times of feeding admit of (omc latitude, on account of the degree of dry- 3iefs of the foil, and ot its expo- iure to the folar warmth. Land ihould have the right degree of moiflure when feeds are fown on it ; and a fouthern expofurewill afford an earlier vegetation than a northern. That I may fet an example oi what I have been recommending, and begin the neediul work, here follows an account of the leaiing and bloifoming of trees and fhrubs in that part of Neweng- land which lies in the 44th de- gree of latitude, in the fpring o£ the year 1789. Leafing, RIofToming. Goofebery, April 16 May 12 Englilh Willow 28 Wild red Cherry 29 - - 19 Lilac - - 30 Currant ; May 1-9 Alder - - 5 Apple Tree - - 6 - 25 Thorn Bufh - - 7 White Birch - 8 White Maple - 9 Beech . _ . 10 Phmi Trees - - ij Hi2;le - - - 14 Elm - - - i> Summer Pear - 17 - 31 ^^''lleat Plum - . . - 19 Common red Cherry 19 - 20 Damafcene Plum - - 22 Grey Oak - 20 White Oak 23 K I L ! KALI, Sa/icor?ua, glafs wort» 1 or rock weed, a fea plant which grows upon rocks near the flibre. i By burning of this weed a hard I fixed fait is obtained, which is a ' principal ingredient in the com- pofition of glafs. Rock weed is J alio an important manure. ! KALMIA, angujli folia, a j flirub commonly called laurel, or lamb poifon. It is an ever- green, with narrow leaves of a dirty green colour. The flowers are red, growing round the up- per pa>t of the flem. It grows plentifully in low flat land, which has nevef been ploughed^ It indicates a cold foil. But I mention it in a work o^ this kind, on account of its poi- fonous quality. Sheep and goats, efpecially young lambs and kids, will eatit, whcncompelledbyhun- ger, by which they licken and die. The W'ay to cure them of this fick- nefs, is drenching them repeated- ly with milk, mixed with oil, or frefti butter. Or, 2 tea of rue, given in Icafon, may have the fame good effett. KID, the young of a goat. Sec Goat. KILLING of beafls. As fev- eral of the tame kinds of animals are, by divine leave, ufed as the food of man, it is requifite to de- prive them at their lives by vio- lence. This may well be ac- counted a difagreeable operation, as it is apt to hurt the feelings of tender hearted people, w ho have not accuftomed themfelves to it. Mercy, which ought to be ex- tended to beafts, and even to the meaneft animals, pleads that their lives Uiould be taken in a way which is lead painful. The fpeediefl method is therefore in general to be preferred. The ufual method of flunning neat cattle by a blow on the head is laudable. K I L laudable, as they have pr.il).iMy :u) fenie of pain after it. Hut iorone to knock dorvu ;i hcafl whilo aiuuhcr is holdiiicr him, is not without danqcr to ihc. holfl- cv ; and fuch a pratlicc oui;jht not to be contiiuied. Iiiftcad ot this, the bcall Ihouldbe lied, and in luch a manner that he cannot cfcape, nor caufe the blow to be mifplaced by ilarting. Thrufl- inp; the pointed knife into the heart ot a hog, if it can be done without crrii\K, is nearly the Ame, as he expires in a tew fec- onds. But who cm approve of the barbarous pra^Uce, of hanp;- iiig up calves ali\e by the heels ? Or ot carrying thcni to the butch- er on horfes in a poflure ftili more uneafy ? Decapitation with a finale ftrokc is a good method of killing flicep, lambs, and calves. Some will obie^i that it isnot cleanly ; but greater clean- linefs will not atone for cruelty. It Ihould be remembered that no death can be more inilantaneous than beheading ; therefore none lefs paintul. For our own advanta;^*, care llioidd be taken that the blood be entirely difclnrged ; and bchead- iMg is favourable to this defign. lilood is not wholcfome food ; one reafon perhaps why it was anciently foi bidden by divine uithority ; and the lawtulncfs of ating it leenis difputable among liridians. Tlie time of killing beef is to be regulated by the market, and the advantage and convenience of the tarmor. And the fame things muff fix the time, if he fells them to the butchers. Reef that IS only grafs fed muft be kill- ed as early as the beginning of November ; becaufc after this time, grafs will not incrcafe the faincfs of cattle. This may be afforded at the loweft price, per- K I T i8f haps 2] pence prr Ik, without lofs. Cattle that are l.ttr 1 till Decem- ber mufl have, befides grafs or hay, corn or juicy vegetables, or both, to iiicreale their fatnefs. 1 he price of beef therefVjre ought to be higher, by about two far- things. If not killed till January, the price Ihould continue rifing, at lead in flic fame j)roportion ; and foon, till the time ot fatting by grazing returns. / KILN, a fabrick for admitting heat, to dry or burn various things. Malt is dried on a kiln. Another fort of kilns is ufed for the burning of liinc (lone. A lime kiln Ihould be conflru61ed of a fort of Hones which will eii'- durc the fire. Hut it fuch can- not beeafily obtained, bar 1 burnt bricks wilt anfwer, and laft a goodwiitle. The Ihapeofalimc kiln (hoidd be like that of a pitcher, widcff in the middle, and gradtially narrower to the top and bottom. Tiie fire will be the more ccnfined, and acl the more powerftllly. In countriefe where lime fl >nc is plenty, each eonfidcrablo larmer is furniried with a lime kiln, in which he makes lime to maniue his foil. This practice might doubtlcfs be imitated with advantage, in a few places in this coutury, where this fort of ftoi'.e is at hand. KINR. See the artirjc Cow. KITCHEN GARDEN, a garden to produce vcgttablcR foj- the kitchen. Mr. Mdl t fayr, " A kitchen gniden is dimolt as neccflary to ;\ coimtry feat, as a kitchen totlie houfc : For with- out one there is no way of being fupplied with rmed in nil parts ; fo that there is no need of any caution, but only tiiat tlie farrier do not penetrate fot> deep, To as to Icalc tlie thin bone that lies under the upper bars ; for that would beattenng and narrow, produced out f litUc tubercles, ui tlic form ©f 1. A Y 189 a painters pencil. The cones arc produced at remote diIUnce:t from the male flowers, on the lame tree : The male Mowers are very like fmall coin-s at their firff appearance, bui afterwards flretchout in length. In autumn they calf thttir leaves. From th« wounded bark of this tree exudes the purefl Venice turpentine." Cowpl^tf. Farmer. A fort of trees whicbgrow nat- urally, and in great plenty, in the northern parts of Newen- gland, called juniper, I take to be t(ve true larch, as it anfwers to the above delcription, as well as to that given by Mr. Miller. Thcy thrive bell in poor, wet and cold fbds, and fhouid by all means be cultivated. This is ealily done by lowing the feeds which are found in tiioir cones. The trees arc an excellent tim- ber for fbmc ules. They are conunonly ided as pods tor fences, and are laid to be more durable than aimofl any other timber, when fo ufed. But tor rails in fences, or any work that is expofed to the weather, this limber will l.ill a long tiinc. LAYERS, tender twigs buri- ed in earth, which having flruck root, arc afterwards cut off, and become dillincf plants. Potatoes, and many other her- baceous plants, may be in this manner propagated. But there is lutlc advantage to be gained by doing it. As to thofe trees and fhrubs which yield no feed in this cli- mate, neither can be propagated by cuttings, there may be often occifion tor bymg them. The manner of doing it is as follows: Take fhoots v\ the laft year's growth, bend them to the earth, and burv them .n good mellow [ foil half a foot under the furface, and iaAea ihepi ',vitU hooks tu prevent i^o LEA prevent tlieir rifing, bending the tops fo as to bring them above the furface. A flit up- ■«rards in the twig Ihould be made in the part that lies deepeft in the foil, or a wire drawn fail round it, to prevent the fap mounting too fall ; and mofs ihould "T" laid on the furface, to prevent 'be fudden dnt-ing of the mould. "vft;rwards they fliould be water: '^ there may be occa- fion. If - •" form roots, they may be r "■ md tranfpiaiTted the nex- o the nurfery. The ^ 'aying ever- greens i= -Ji Auguft ; for lavin? d? .:ius tree?. Otiober. "LAYL ^ND, or LEYL A XD, or LAYS, Fallow ground, or that which lies imtiiled. LEAVES, the moft extreme parts of the branches of trees, flirubs. Sec. — " Their ofHce is to fubtilize the nourifhing fap, and convey it to the little buds, and to cover and defend the flowers and fruit. " Dr. Grew obferres, that the fibres of leaves confift of two general kinds of velTels, viz. for fap. and for air ; and are ramifi- ed out of greater into lefs, as veins and arteries are in animals. " If the furfaces of the leaves are ahered, by reverling the branches of trees on which they grow, the plants are flopped in their growth, until the foot ftalks are turned, and the leaves recov- er their former pofiiion. If leaves are eaten, or cut off, the enclofed buds will not grow, and the plants wiJ! be weakened. The winter feeding of wheat, therefore, is hurtful ; and it has been found fo by experience. " Another' principal ufe of the leaves, is to throw off by iranf- piration what is "unnecefTary to the growth of plants, anfwering to the difcharge made by ^veat LEE in animal bodies. As plants re- ceive and tranfpire rr.uch more, in equal times, than lirge animals, fo it appears how necefTary the leaves aie to prefervc the plants in perfect health : For it has been found by the mofl exaft calculation, made from repeated experiments, that a plant of the funflower receives and perfpires, in twenty four hours, feventeen times more than a man."' Ccm^ pUit Far?n.er. Mr. Bonnet made many ex- periments, which proved that leaves imbibe the moiflureofihe atmofphere on their under fur- face ; excepting fuch as have the upper furface covered with hairs, or down. The leaves undoubt- edly ferve for infpiration,aswell as for tranfpinitioa ; and plants draw through their leaves, fome confiderable part of their nour- ilhraent. Leaves alfo fer^e for ornament, and to fcreen vegetables, and their fruits, from the too intenfc heat of the fun in furamer. Leaves of trees are ufeful as a manure, excepting thofe of the refinous kinds. They fhouid be colle6fed into farm yards, tram- pled by the cattle, and mixed with their excrements. Some recommend leaves of oak for hot beds, inftead of tanner's bark, as, by fermenting more lli»wly, they afford a more regular and perma- nent heat. Dr. Hunter proved the advantage of them by his continued prattice. SeeG^t^rgi- cal Ejfays, by A. Hunter. LEES, the grofs fediment in fermented liquors. Moft kinds of lees contain much of the food . of plants. But they (hould not be applied to the foil as a manure till dieir acidity is deftroyed, by mixing and fermenting them w-ith large proportions of alkali- oas fubflances, fuch as marie, lime. L I M \\mc, aflics, foot, fee. Even the J ; cyder mills, which has 1, iiccn conliiicrcd hy our faiuurs as good for nothing, might be thus changed into a good nianurc. It is nearly the lame fiihltancc as the Ices of cy- der. Cyder lees will alio pro- duce brandy bv dillillation. I.ICB:. Scc'l/i/fCh. LIMK, a crunably fott Tub- ftance, made by burning ftones, and the Ihells of Ihell fi(h, and flacking iheni with water. Lime has been proved, by the long experience ot European fanners, to be oncof the moll ef- ficacious manures. This may be thought ftrange by thole who know it to be a mere alkali, con- taining neither oil nor fait, which are certainly the principal ingre- dients in the iood ol plants. Od is an indifpcnfably nccclfary part of this food. But, by experiments made of late, it has been cU-arly proved that plants are greatly nourilhed by fixed air, of which it is known that lime contains a large quan- tity. It has been proved by thce.x- pcriments of Mr. Lavificr, that one third part ot calcarious earths, and particularly of lime ftone, confiAs of fixed air. But bcfides affording to plants this noiirifhment; which is known to be in plants, lime afts as a manure, by attrafiingand imbib- ing the oils and acids which are contained in the earth and atmof- phere. It not only collcirfs thefc ingredients of vegetable food, but fo alters them as to fit them to ent'T the roots of plants. With the acids it forms a fait, whicli, by mixing with the oils, becomes a faponaceous mucila?;e, which is the true pabulum for the nourilhmctit of plants. Thefe changes cannot be made n the ingredient! of which veg- L I M *9i tabic food is compofed. without* conlidr ! menta- tion. I , breaks and mellows the Joil. and fo in- crcaics the paihirc o! plant.s, that the roots can nicn: freely extend ihctnrelyes in qucU ol tlicirfood. Accordingly it is found that lim- ing renders a foil very foft and open. And AS lime, when it is flack- ed, is a very loft lubflance, 1 can fee no reafon to doubt of it« containing a ver^ confi irr ible quantity of thole iy Imall particles of . .|i enter inf^ -e part of ihf ,)^ It u\'.ii n. ,.e IS fi: L) ;;:i; ^ ol li'lrinLiIvr. ■;© ingic»iie!if. ,f produces i- -71 though iw)t tions as duii^ \ i to be the moll . . I manures. Lime has been complai..^ . . ., as impoverilhing the foil ; ard it has been ohcii remarked, that though one d re (Ting will pro- duce feveral good crops, the land is lefs fruitful forfome time after, than before it has becR limed ; and that a fecond drelT- ing with lime, will not have fuch an cdeH as the firll, in increafing the fertility of the foil. But the farmer Ihould confider how far he has been rccornpenled by extraordinary crops, for the ex- haulling of his foil ; and that if lime will not, other manures will recruit it. hio will fallowing, refl, or uling it as u paflure. It is granted iliat linie may have an ill elicU, when it is injti- dic^onlly applied, as in too great quantities, or to an improper foil l hree cart loads, or 120 i els, are allowed to be a ; cient dreflinf for an acre. But in ^92 L I M Ireland, where they plougli ex- tremely deep, they lay on twice as much. This dreffing enriches cold, ftiff and clayey foils, lor jnany years after ; and in iuch foils it may be faiely repeated. If it force any foils too much, it can be only thofe which are weak and fandy. The beft time for applying lime as a manure is, when land is newly broken up, or alter ly- ing a long time in grafs. This may be afcribed to the plenty oi roots in the foil, which the lime foon difTolves, and changes into food for plants. Mr. Evelyn advifed to the mixing of lime with turf in al- ternate layers, to lie ia heaps for months ; in which time it wdll become fo rich and mellow as to run like alhes. He thought it would nouriih the foil more than if ufed alone in a greater quanti- ty, and without any danger of ex- haufling the vegetative virtue of the earth, which Ihould be i)re- ferved. It it were mixed with a large proportion otciay, or with mud trom the bottom of ponds or rivers, it might be applied even to fandy and gravelly foils without c rger, and to great advantage. Lime is a very important ingre- dient in compofls, as by raifmga llrong fermentation it diiTolves and prepares the other materials. There fhould be fome layers of it, wh.ere it can be eafiiy obtain- ed, in every heap of compoif. It \yi!l be the fooner fit for ufe, as well as prove to be a more fertil- izing compofition. When lime is laid on land which has a quick defcent, it fhould be always mixed with dung, and laid on the higheff part ; bacaufe it fo loofens the foil, as to difpofe it to be plentifully wafhed downwards by rains, foil and manure together. I. I M Lime is an excellent manurs for foils that are mofly, as it fpeedily diffolvcs the oil which is contained in mofs, which is not foon diffolved by other nia- imrcs, and changes it to vegetable food. It deftroys all aquatick weeds, and difTolves the remain- ders of decayed vegetables in the foil. Therefore it docs well in moory and peaty fwamps that are drained. While I am treating on this excellent manure, I have the dif- agreeable reflection, that it will be to little purpofe ; as lime is f* fcarce and dear in moff parts of the country, that it muft not be ufed as manure. Moll people' can fcarcely obtain a fufficient quantity of it for building. But thofe farmers ^vho know tbcy have lime ftone or lliells in plen- ty near them, fhould not negleft to make ufe of them as manures, after reducing them to lime. LLME STONE, a ftone of a calcarious nature, which, by cal- cination, or burning in the fire, becomes lime. There are many kinds ot lime Jtone ; the hardeft kinds make the befl: lime, and require the moH burning. Chalk will burn into lime, ot the nature ot ftone lime, but a great deal weaker ; lime may be made of marble and alabafter, &c. But the ftones ufed for lime are moft- ly ot a bluilh colour, orinclining to grey. They are fometimes purely calcarious, but often mix- ed with undiifolvable ftones, which lefTen their value. Some countries are very plen- tifully furnilked with thefe ftones, Great Britain and Ireland in particular. It is ftrange they have been found in fo few places in Newengland. It has proba- biy been owing to want of atten- tion. An infallible way to dif- tinguifii the-Ti is, by dropping up©a L O A Upon ihem a tew drops of aq\ia foriis, fpiril ot fcd lalt, or oil ot vitriol. All tlule llonos, on whicli thfjfc, or any other Hrong acids, cHcrvc'fce. onilc intobub- blcs, arc lime Hones, and will bum into lime. It i . ^,'rv.Mtly to be wifhed, that iojr.c jKiloni in ihe various parts of this country, wotdd be turnilh- ed with one or other ot theic aci(1s, and make frequent trials with them. They wIk) arc not fur- nilhcvlwith the proper acids, may prove flones, by burning them lor lomc days in a Imith's Hrc, and then throwing them into) water. Pollihly we may hnd the benevolent Author of nature has not kit us (o unfurnilhed with thefc valuable ftoncs, as we have been ready to imagine, LOAM, orjc ot the principal kinds oi earih. Some fuppole it to be not oneoi the natural (oils ; but gradually made fmce the cre- ation, by the putvefied vegetables which have tallcn upon the earth. This docs not appear probable ; tor, it lo, why do we meet withany orher kind of foil ? This foil confilis ot very fine particles, without grit, almoft as nnc as thofe ol clay, but do not co- here like them. It it lie long under water, it is apt to have the appearance ot clay. It receives water readily, and re- uins it long ; on which ac- counts it IS prcierable to clay or fand. It is better adapted by nature to nourilh vegetables than cither the one or tlic other. But it needs manure, and will com- monly pay well for it by the in- crcale ot its crops. Loams are ot various kinds. Some IS It I If, approaching to (he ruitdre of clay, and is apt to t>c adhelivc in wet weather. This is not tit torthcnourilliing ot thole vrjfetdblts wkick i«r«juirc muck Z LOU 193 heaf. It needs to be drefTed with hot and opening manure* tor amy kind of crop. Other loam is more light, foft and mel- Itn/, and does not fo much need the moft heating manures. Some loam is of a dark red, hazcly, or brown colour. This is com- monly a moft excellent foil. Other loam is of a light yellow, or whitilh colour, and requires abundance of manuring to ren- der it fruitful. All kinds ot loam are apt to be too wet, and to be covered with a thort green mofs, if they lie tlat. In this cafe, ridge plough- ing is beft, and hollow drains otterr neceflary. Loam that hai a mixture of gravel, or land, is warmer, and fitter tor tillage ; but all loams are good for the grow- ing of grade'?. LOCUST TREE, Robinia, > well known tree, which grows in great plenty in the vicinity o£ Bollon, and is a native of this country, but does not flt>itrilh fa well in the Province of Maine, as the froft of winter is apt to kill the extremities of the limbs. There* are particular places, how- ever, in this diltrid, where the growth ot this tree is confidera- bly rapid< This tree would be morepri;?- ed for its beauty, were not its limbs olicn broken by high winds. Its lea\ es put out late n\ the Ipring, and tall off early in autumn. It bloflbms about the beginning of June, at whicti time it makes a l^eautilul appear- ance, and perlumcs the circum- ambient air with an agreeable odour. The branches are armed with hooked Ipines ; and the leaves comjiofcd of ten pair of oval lobes, terminated with an odd one. The Wood is not only good tew- el, but exccllcui timber, very du- rable 1^4 LUC rable in any fitiiation; and particu- larly when ufed as polls in fences. This tree grows beft in afcindy foil, and will pupagate itfelf in the jnoft barren places, where the foil IS fo light as to be blown away by winds. By fliekeringfuch places, and dropping its leaves on them, it causes a fward to grow over them, and grafs to grov.- upon them. It is not advifable to plant groves ot the locull tree on the borders of fields, on account ot their fpread- ing too much by fcattering their feeds, unlefs on thofe Vrhich are iTioft barren. But thofe who pof- fefs hills ot barren land, and in a climate that fuits them, fhould not delay to make fcrefts of thcfe trees on fuch fpots. It may be cafily done by fowing the feeds in a nurfery, and tranfplanting them. A plenty of -nood may be thus fpeedily produced, without the leail injury to the laad, yea, with advantage to it. It is much to be regretted, that oi late years a v.onn has dcllr»y- ed many of the trees, by eating and boring them through the trunks and linibs. Perhaps it will be found that quickfilver is a> anti- dote to thefe infefts. LUC£RN, medicagp, a plant with a perennial root, and an an- nual top. I'he bloifoms are of the butterfly kijid, of a fine pur- ple colour, growing upon fpikes Irom two to three inches long. The feeds are kidney fliaped, and contained in pods. 1 his plant is fuppofed to have beenbroughtfrom Media, wlience the namesmedicago and mcdica. It has long been profitably culti- vated inFrance,mofc in the fouth- ern than northern parts of that country, where they call it Bur- gundy hay. It loves a foil moderately rich, and not very dry. It is tender , while young, and muil be culti- I L U F vated with care ; afterwards ir grows more hardy. No other plants,nor weeds, fhouldbe luffer- ed to grow with it. Tliemofl ap- ]>ro\ ed method of culti\ aiing it IS by traniplaniing it in rows. It grows fo iait that iix crops of hay may be cut from it in one year. After each cutting, the weeds fiiould be killed, and the ground fiirred with the dutch hoe. It ihould be cut a good while be- fore the time of its bloffcming. The leaves and flems are fo juicy, that they require abundance of drying, to make them into hay,^ The beft ufe it can be put to is, to cut it and give it green to cat- tle and horfes.. It is a very fweet and fattening food for them ^ and fome lay it will cure them, when they happen to be Cck. Three acres ot luccrn, in Eng- land, has yielded fo much as tcJ feed ten v.orking horfes from the end ot April to ^he firft of Octo- ber, in which time they would have eaten 20 tons of hay. Mr. iloque fuys it has yieldc*d him at the rate of eight tons oi hay per acre. And M. Duhamel had 40 tons green from an acre, equal to ten tons ot hay. Volumes have been written on the virtues and advantages of this plants But, irom repeated trials, it ap- pears that our winter frolls def- troy it. I have been informed that it profpers well in \'irginia. In that and the more fouthern ftates greater attention than hith- erto has been, ought to be paid' to its cultivation. LUPINES, a fpecies of wild pea, cultsNated principally for a. green dreiling. They will grow well in almofl. any foil ; efpecial- ly in that which is dry, landy and poor. The red and blue lupines, which are cultivated in gaidens, arc M A L ■arr -..ui lo grow wild ia great picntv in Spain. LVK, or /K, a fluid itTjprt\:;nat- ^ci with (alts. M. MALANDKRS, a horfe Mif- -rafc, cauic(l by corrm)t bl<>ocd with linfeed oil, tying it on with a roller. Continue that till the r.'cds lall off and the lores bo- omc clean. Afterwards % niix- f.ur it turpentine and quickfil- vci \\\\\ ho a proper applicaricn. MAL r, barley, or other corn, prepared for making beer or ale. As it is of great i;n;>c^rtance that r carding — lovered with tlic plough in a dry foil. They will lorvc as fpungcs to retain moiihirc, and be a nth totxl for plants when they arc dil- folved. i^o will U'colUn rags, chopped to piec- es, tor a lic»h» foil. They Ihouid be ctit as fraall as an inch fquare. Twenty four buflicls are faid to be a fufhcient quantity lor the drcflingof anacre. Thefeftiould be under the furface. Ilonfs of c,xttl>-,J]ifeb, &c. It large hoots were fet in holes with the points downward in a dry foil, fo low as not to be diflurbed by the plough, they wowld caufe the land to retain moifture, and hold the manure, not only by the fpungincfs ot their fubftance, but alio moreefpccially by their hol- lownefs. Hours, of all kinds, pounded or broken into fmall pieces, with hammers or malleLs. This is an incomparable manure, it they have not been burnt, nor boiled in foap. But in cither way they fhoula befd\ed tor manure. Six- ty bulhcis are a fiiHicicni dreiring lor an acre. Raw^/itns o^ aW kinds of ani- mals. Thefc Ihould be cut into fmall pieces, and ufed for light foils, ploughed in. Uathfr, new or old, in fmall bits, for dry foils, ploughed in. Curriers' JJiujnijrs, cut fmall, for a foil ol fand or gravel, ploughed in. Ou, of all r'>rts, ufed in com- poits, not applied to the foil ti'l a year after it is mixed, that it may be difiolvrd snd altered. J i/h, of all kinds, from the whale to the mulcle ; they are bcfl ufed in compofls ; and MAM >97 fliould lie a year, that thrir oil may be dilTolved. ard fitted fur the nourllhrng ot plants. Ojfal of filh, in tompofls, fit tor one foil or another, accord- ing to the predominant ingredi- ents ot tlie ujixture. Thciegttahic manures arc good, though not fo flrong as animal ones. They can be had in great- er plenty in mod places ; and ought to be laid on in larger quantities. Green vegetable, fuch as all the otherv/iie ufelefs weeds in fields and gardens. Thefe (hould be col- letlcd and rotted in heaps. They arc a good manure for all foils, and to nourifh ail lorts of plants. Aqihitick iveed^y fuch as grow in the i)orders of ponds and riv- ers. Thcfe fhould be collected in Iar"[e heaps on the higher groimd, and covered with turls, the grafs fide outwards. Thefe heaps will be eafily made in fomc places, and will be a valuable manure. Some fay, care thould be taken to prevent their taking fire by fermenting, as their heat will be very great. Sfrj:i\ and other offal of corn of all kimls, rotted in farm yards, or dung pits. Rejuje hay, both frcfh and fait, rotted in yards, and trampled ou by cattle, and mixed with their excrements. Thatch, that crrowshy the fides of fait creeks, or the parts ot it which cattle will not eat. (liouUl be tlirown into the tarni yard, lo putrefy. Thus a gu-at incrcafe «t good manure may he made. ihchuuim ot all dr>- vcgei.i- hies, fuch as the fialhs of pota- toes, t>eans, peas, ii.c. Kven the offal of flax, if it have fiitficient time to rot, will beaf;i)od manure. I'-ri^y a vegetable peculiarly a- dapicd lo the purpoic ol making manure. Sec /cv 7. Las Fermented with other ^manures.to f be laid on 1^8 M A N Lees o\ fermented liquors, rot- ten iniit, and pomace, in compoft. Oil cakcs^ which may be got at the mills where linfecd oil is fac- tured, for top drelling, being lirft pulverized. Ta n ners barr.,from the oak tree. Leaves of decidu- ous trees, Rotten wood, } clavev and ! n"" A„ Uiff foils. ! Decayed Jhips, J 1 Wood qJJies, a good top dreffing j for alraofl any kind of foils, but » beft for a moift one. | Coal ajhts, top dreffing for j cold damp foils. Coal diijly top dreffing for low j meadows, j Malt dujl. See that article, i Sea plants^ rock weed, eel j grafs, Bcc. are the moft valuable ' of green vegetables for manure. ; They fhould be either ploughed , into the foil, or mellowed in . compoft dunghills. Itisawrong practice to ufe them as top dreff- j ings. Aluch of their virtue in ! this w^y is loft. Mofs, mixed with dung in j holes for a dry foil. Good for potatoes. Linen rjgs ; thefc will be a ma- nure worth faving, but they take a long time to puuety — m com- poft. Tke fojjil or earthy manures are thefe : Une, mixed with the foil, or in compofts, for ftiff foils. See the article Lime. Marie, moft fultable in gener- al for light foils. See the article Mark. Sand, in roads, waflied down from hills, to open a ftiif clayey foil. See the article Sane. Plaijler of^ Abforbent ma- Paris, and I nures for cold ^'{^ of I wetfoils, for top hainjloncs^ J dreffing. M A X Gravel, for a wet puffy fwanrp. Clay, to mix with the plough and hartow in a fandy or gra'el- ly foil. It ftiouM be expofed to the action of thefroft one winter before it is ploughed in. Other- wife it will remain a long time tmdilTolved. ITo be mixed with a fandy or gravelly foil; but beft in compofts, with dung. See the article Mud. AJhes of fea coal— for coldiliflf land. Ptjf, when reduced to afhes, top dreffing for all foils, beft tor a cold one. See Peat. Turfs, either in compofts, or dried and burnt. They may be taken from the fides of high- ways without damage. Thefe places arc the walk^of cattle and fwine, where much dung is drop- ped ; the turt is tlierefore a rich ingredient in manure. Shells of Ihell filh, ploughed in whole, are a good manure for drv foils ; and ground or pound- ed'fmall for ftift land. Brick diiji, 1 To open a clayey. Burnt clay, J or warm a cold foil . Beach fand, to open a ftilF, and warm a cold foil, 1 hat which has a fine grain is the beft. Pit fand, of any coloiu-, to meliorate a foil of ftiff clay. It fhould be laid on plcntituHy. The mixed folid manures are thefe. Dvng of all kind<:. Though it chieriy ccnfifts oi rotten vege- tables, there is a mixture of ani- mal juices in it, and fome oi the fineft particles of the earth. Moft dungs ffiould be mixed with the foil, by the plough or hartow. See the article Dung. Comppfis of every kind, fit tor light or^ Hiff foils, according to ibe diHercnce of their predomi- nant l^f A N r Its ; or a general . foils. i,u jKiabi ngs of Inuk ya rdi , for all kinas of foil, but when containing chips, IhaNings of wiHxi, or much law dull, tor ftiff foils. Ruhbtlh of old houfis, for cold and flifir foils. This contains much nitre — in compoils it is of molt advantage. Ear(h that has been long un- der cover. This commonly col- lects much nitre. Bcft in com- poils. Scraping of flreets, a general manure, fit lor all foils. Fann- ers who live in the vicinity of cities, and great towns, Ihould always avail themfelves ot this kind of manure. Mixed liquid mantircs. Old brine ol failed meat or fifh, which contains, befidcs lalt, fonic blood, oil, &c.— in compoils. Sea u:aUr^ which contains other things befides water and fait, fit to nourifh vegetables. It may be fpnnk.lcd on land, or ufcd in compoils. ..V.j^/'yi/i/j — replete with a pre- pared loud tor plants ; excellent i tor watering gardens in dry ! weather. None ot this ihould be loll. If the garden be dillant, or wet. it may enrich the dunghill. Vrin' of all animals that are mingciu. This contains earth and animal juices, falts and oil ; and is, next lo dung, perhaps the moil valuable and important of all manures. Sc*e the article I. 'i ir.i'. V.'.:i-r tn the hollows of farm yards. Inllead of fufFering this rich liq!U)r to foak into the bow- els ot the earth, it iti iken up by mulch, or !• . . -nt fubliance thrown uuu it, uj i carried out in a water cart, fprinkJed over a foil that uecu^ it. MAN 199 Water that runs ftom compojl dunghills. This Ihould be thrown back upon dunghills, or elfc ufcd as the preceding artitlc. Liquors from du Itcu/n. This fhould be ufcd in compofts. Alter all, I may add Salt^ be- ing dillinct from all other ma- nures, an important ingredient in the food ol plants, and adapted to prepare other ingredients. Some apply it as it is, but it has a better efic£i when ufed in com- pofts. If our farmers in general would be perfuaded to avail themfelves ot io many of thcfe manures as tall in their way, or can beeaftly obtained, we ihould no longer hear io many difmal complaints as we do, of Ihort crops, and worn out lands. The tace of the coun- try would foon be iurprilingly improved. But that manures may fully anfwer their intention, they mull be judiciouily applied. \\'e ihould not only apply each ma- nure to the foil for which it is moll iuitable, but at feafons when it will produce the moll valuable cfTetlrt. For a general rule, it is hcil to apply ihofe rich tcnnent- ing manures, which are to be mix- ed in the foil, as near as may be to the time when the ground is iecded. Dung Ihould be plough- ed in with tiie feed turruw, as it is called. Compoils may be har- rowed in with the iced. The reafon for applying ihefc ma- nures at this time is obvious. They will begin to raile a fer- mentation in the toil, almoU as loon as they arc applied ; fo that if there be no Iced, nor plants to be nourifl'.ed bv them, ionic part of the good cfleti ol the manure 1 be loll. As part o* the ter- ;:iation will be pail, before the plants begin to grow ; fo there may be dangor ot its being o\ er, before 203 M A X before ihey have attained to their fall growth. It fo, the ioil will harden, and the plants wiil re- ceive the leaft quantity of nour- ifhincnt at the time when they need tlie greatefl. As to thofe manures which raifc little or no fermentation, they may be laid on at any time when the farmer has leifiire for it, as fand on a clayey, gravel on a boggy and puffy foil ; or clay, iiiarle, or mud, on a light foil. It has been too much praftifed in this country, to apply fcanty dreffings to lands in tillage, hard- ly fufficient to have a perceptible effect, and to repeat it year alter year. But this, I think, is a wrong practice. A fufBcient dreff- ing once in two years, I have al- ways found to do better than a half dreCing each year. This lafl method does not fo well agree with a fucceflion ot crops ; be- caufe fome crops require a much greater degree of itiength in the foil than others do. Let us then rather follow the example oi the European farmers, who common- ly manure very plentifully once in a courfe of crops, and no more ; and the year the manure is laid on, take a crop that re- quires the greatefl afliftancc irom manure, or that bears high ma- nuring 'jcft, or makes the beft re- turns for manure : A{terv>ards, crops that need lefs manure, till the end of the courfe. Perhaps tlie year ot mailuring in this country fhould be chiefly tor In- dian corn. This crop is not ea- lily overdone with manure, and it pays well fur high manuring. And this happens well for us, as a hoed crop, when the dung is ufed, wii! prevent the increafe ot weeds, which a plentitul dunging will greatly promote in ever)' kiai of foil. MAR MAPLE, acer, a tree. See Sycamore. MARE, the fem.ale of a horfe. Breeding maies'lhould be free from dileales ; and have good eyes ; becaufe the colts are apt to inherit their dilterapers. They fhould be the flrongelt, beff fpir- ited, and well Ihapcd ; not of any bad colour. If any dcfetts are difpenfed with, the mare and the ftallion Ihouldbynj means have the fame defecls. In fuch cafe there can be but little profpeft that the iffue will be good. Some fay they Ihould not breed with ftallionsot the fame blood. Crolf- ing the breed is faid to be of great confequence. Mares fhould not be fuffered to breed till after lour years old ; and the beft ti.me for them to take horfe is about the latter end oi June, then they will not loal till the fame part of the month of the following May, when the grafs will be gruwn, which is better to make mares give milk than dry food is. Mares that are with foal fhould be houfed the earlier in the fall, and fed well till foaling. For the laft month or two before foal- ing, they fhould not be ridden fwiftly, nor be put to draw at all, nor to carry heavy burdens on their backs. MARKING of cattle. As one man's cattle, horfes, and Iheep, have very often fuch a re- femblance to thofe of another, that they cannot eafily be diflin- guifhed ; and as they often graze together on commons, or in com- mon paffures, marks ior thefe different animals have been found neceffary. I have kno'.vn no ether mark- ing ufed for horfes than branding with a hot iron, on the fhoulccr or thigh. As thefc marks are not ornamental, moft perfons choofe that tlteir horfes fhould have no marks MAR mark«:,but natural ones, as they arc called, fiich as i)arlirular fpois on Ihcniof differcut colours, ike. In this cafe, thclc natural difcrinii- nations fliouldbc rcgillcrcd ; be- caufe, in cafes of dilpute inlaw, no owner's word, who is a party, will be idkcn us evidence. "The marking of neat cattle on the horn, with the branding iron, isfocafily donc,aild without giv- ing them pain, and is fo permanent, that it Ihould never be neglcfcled. The brand (hould be made near- er the point than the root of the horn, on the outhde which is moU expofcd to view, and not very deep, efpecially on young cattle, which have thinner horns tlian older ones. Burning a horn through to the pith will hurt a creature, and will fpoil the horn for certain ufcs afterwards. The fame kind of mark would be preferahlie for fheep, if they all had horns ; as thty have not, fonic other mark, alike fuitable for all, (hould be ufed. Mark- ing them on the wool is a bad firafticc. Some ot the wool is polled and loflby it ; and.atlong- en,itcaiilaflonly tothcncxt {hear- ing ; oftentimes not fo long ; and an uncertain mark is worfe than none. The ear marlt muft be ufed, though the operation gives fomc pain to the animals. Thefc marks may be diflintUor a great number of flocks. And thefe marks (liould be matter of record. MARLE, a fine fat kind of earth, but litttlc coherent, and i ejfily dillolved in water. It is j aflowcd to be one of the richcft of manures. It is of various | colours in different places, grey, : blue, brown, yellow, rid, ancl ', mixed. It isdilUnguifhablo into ', three forts, (lone marie, clay ; niarle, and natcmarlc. Thcfiiil i-. hud, the fec-on I f<»ft, the Ul\ A a MAR aot is found inlliin lamina, like (latc; Each kind, however, is of the fame nature as the others. Marie is faid to hav? been found in fcveral parts ot this country. Foflibly it may abound iji all parts ; if To, it may double the value of our lands when it comes to be in general ufe. People fhould make themfelves ac- quainted with the nature and ufe of it, that they may be difpofed to feek for it, and be able to dif- tinguifli it trom all other earths. It often bears lb near a rcfem- blance to clay, that the one may be eafily millaken for the other. That we may be able to diftin- guilh thefe lubftanccs, w'e Ihould remember, that marie is apt to break into little Ikjuare bits, like' dice ; that when it is wetted, i£ has not the tenacity of clay ; that alter being cxpofed to the weath- er, it eafily lalls to pieces with a blow ; that after lying on the furtacc for fome time, it looks as ii it were coverctl with white froft, or with a fprinklingof fine fait. Marfe effervefces with acid.s j but thiscffer;. eiccncc does notdif- tinguilh it from other calcariou»> foftils. It has been faid that a mofl in- fallible way to (liftinguiih marie from other earths, is, to drop a piece ot dry marie, as big us a nutmeg, into a giafs of clear wa- ter, where it will lend up many fparkles to the iurlaceof the wa- ter, and foon diflolve into a foft pap. But I have found that fome clays exhibit nearly tho fame appearances. Sometimes the beds of marie are near the furfacc, but they are oltcncr found deep in the earth. It is fomct.mcs tdund on the banks of ditches, by means of the rank growth of weeds and i^rafs on it. Boiiiig wiih a l«)ng aui^cr, 20» M A R aager, or the" fcrew borer, inay difcover where it is. Two ki nets of marie were lat.elj' i"ound at Fenobfcot in digging a well. Sometimes it is very dry and €ompa£t in the earth, but in fome places alraoft liquid. Earths, thrown out of wells, if they have a clayey appearance, Ihould al- ways be examined. Maries have been known to fertilize all kinds of foil, but light fandy ones more than any other. But as Dr. A. Hunter, by decompounding, has proved that marie confifts of particles of lime ftone, mixed with clay or fand, or both ; according as ei- ther of thefe ingredients is more Eredominant in it, the foil will e indicated for ^N^hich it is mofh fuitable. That which contains the leaff proportion of clay will be proper manure lor a riifTfoil, being of themoft ahforbent kind ; that which has the largell propor- tion of clay fliould be applied to a fandy foil. To difcover the proportion of thefe fubffances in marks, the fame ingenious wri- ter advifes as follows : " Having dried and" powder- ed the marie to be examined, pour upon any given weigiit of it a fmall qviantity of water. To this mixt'jre, well fhaken, add a little of the acid of fea fait, and when the confeqaent cRer- vefcencc is over, add a little more. Repeat thi'^ addition at proper intervals, till no more et- iervefccncc enlues. I hen liirow the whole, with an equal or greater proportion of water, into a filler of grey jjaper, whofe weight is known. V/henali the fluid parts have paffcd through, fill up the filter again and again, with warm water. By this means the diifolvcd particles of calcarious earth, adhering to the refidue, or ont'fidiium, with the filter, mufl be completely dried and weigh- ed. 1 hen (he difference be- twixt its w^eight and the orig- inal weight of the filter, givt;* you the weight of unfolubie parts contained in the marie under ex- am ination. This being knpwn, the proportion of calcarious earth; in the fame marie is evident. The proportions of clay and fend in it are difcoveredby fijb- je6fing the refiduum to a proper elutriation. This operation is. very fimple, and pertormed thus : Having weighed the dry refidue^ mix and Ihake it well with a fuf- ficienr quantity of water. After allowing a little time for the fub- Sdence of the groffer parts, let the water, with the fineft parti- cles of clay fufpended in it.begent- ly poured off. When this is done, add more water to the remainder, and alter fuflicient mixture and fublidence, pour ofFthat likewife. In the fame manner repeat the operation, again and again, tilji the water cornes over perfe6Uy^ pure. The fubftance which theq; remains is land, mixed perhaps with Ibme ftakes of talc ; and whatever this fubftance wants of the weight of the refidue employ- ed, is tlie weight of pure cjay canied away l)y the water in the procefs of elutriation." Gtorgicat EJfuys. Ii five parts in fix prove to be calcarious in a piece of marie, the lime is predominant, and it is fit for the ftiffer foils ; if two thirds only he calcarious, and the refl clav, it is fit for a fandy foil, &c. The calcarious part of marie does not produce fo quick an ef- fect as lime, when ufed as ma- nure ; becaufe die latter is burnt, and MAR »nd flakes fuddcniy. Thisfcmis to be the true di (Terence, wliu ii is not efTential ; hccaurc tlii- till- qaricus part oi inaric gradually flakes in the earth without burn- ing. Like lime, it attra^ls and inibibes the acids otthccarth aiul air, forming a fait, which dif- folves the oils, incrcafcs the paf- tUre of plants, and prepares the food of plants to enter their roots. The quantity of marlc to be applied to an acre is about fixty loads. Some fandy foils may bear more of the clay marie ; rich foils need not near fo much, of the kind of marie which fuits them. Marie fhouid be mellowed by the Iroflofonc winter before it is buried in the foil ; even in this cafe, it. will iioitcrlili;'.e the foil fo much the firll year as afterwards. Some marlos do not produce their fuU eHl-rttill the third year, as they dilFolve flowly. Sonte lay the good eiTcct of one full ilrcfTing with marlc will lall thir- ty years. As good foils may be over- done with this manure, it is bet- ter to err at firfl in laying on too Jittic than too much. More may be a.ldeil at any time. As the iirincipal effects of marlc are like tliffe of lime, it is not to be expertfd that marlinpf a fccond Time will have fo good an cfle^l as •. !:• Tuft. I'hisobfervation is faid " !'e confirmed by experience. 1 licrc is another fori ot marlc no lefs vaiuable than the foinior kiad ; and much ufcd in old cMUDfries. It is cotnpofed chief- ly ol br«Aen (hells, which were undoubtedly once the (hells of riirine annuals, mixed with a proportion of fmd. It fome- nmes alfo contaiiii a mixture of !iiofs and (Iccd) cd wood. This iiiarle is ufually found ;.:!Jcr rnofiiOrpeat, iiiiow funk- 7VI A R 203 en partR of tlie earth ; and efpe* cially thole whii h aie iiiRli to 'Jh- fed, or coii(!«lir.il!e nvcrs. Mr. Mills fa^s, " Whoever finds this martc finds a niinc ot great value. It is one of the befl and moll general inanuies in nature; proper lor all foils, and particu- larly lo for clay." This fort oi marie, as wcllasthcother.may be eafily found by boring. It has been fometimes dl (covered by ant hills, as ihefe infetts brine up fome fmall pieces of Ihells from their holes. One would think tliat this country mufl be turnifhedasjdcntifullyasany oth- er with this kind of rcarlc ; wheth- er we fuppofe the beds to hav^ been formed' by the general del- j uge, by thcragingol thefea andin- 1 undationsrmcet!K\tgr<^atcvent,or by t he f hi f ting of the beds of rivers. The goodnefs of this marlc depends ui)on the fhclls, whicli are the principal, and fometimes alrnofl the whole that itcontains. It is much of tfie nature of lime^ and will go funher than other marie. It tlleivcfccs flrongljr with all acids. MARSH, according to Dr. fohufon, a fen, bog, or fwamp. In this countr>' the word is ufed only to fignify fiat land, border- ing on tiie fea, and lying lo low as to be of(eu oyerflo\%ed by the tides, when they arc fullcft. Marlhes are difliriguifhed into liigfi raarfh and low m^rlh. The former hears a veiy (h^rt grals, but in many places very tliick ; the latter produces a tail rank grals, called thatch. Roifi iiiefc forts ot grals arc tn<» highly imprej;- nated with Inlt to be a conflant food tor cattle ; but the long prafs is falter tl:uii the fhort, as it IS oftener wetted with fea water during its prowil^ It js eilremed healthy for h^rfes, cattle, aud ihcep, to have iom* 204 M E A fbme of this fort of land in their paflure ; or to be turned, now and then for a few days, iftto a marfli. At leaft it faves the trouble and cxpenfe of giving them fait. In England, it is thought to fave fheep from that fatal diilemper, the rot. Marfhes are certainly the rich- eft ot our lands, as appears by the aftonifhing degree of fruitful- nefs, apparent in thofe peices from \vhich thfe fea has been ex- cluded by dikes. Marlh may be fo far improved by diking and tillage, without manuring, that inftead ot producing leis than one ton of fah hay per acre, it fliall produce three tons of the beft kmds ot hav. The value of this foil mail needs be great, as it is not cxhaufted by cropping, and needs no manure, unlefs it be f«nd, or fome other cheap fub- ftance, to dry and harden it. Some marfhes require a long dike to exclude the fea, in pro- portion to the land it contains ; others a Ihort one, as where the marfh is narroweft towards the fea. He tiiat poffefiTes a marfh of the latter kind, can vrndertake no bulinefs that will be more profit- able than diking it. Two men can eafily build a rod of dike up- on high marlli in a day. Through the hollows and creeks, more work will be ;-eqaired. If a marfh, after it is diked, fliould be rather too wet for til- lage, a ditch ihould be made round by the upland to cut off the trefti water, both above and below the furtace, and lead it to the outlet or fluice. See Dike, and SIukc. MATTOCK, a pickaxe. This isa ufet'^ul inilrument in fink- ing wells, digging trenches, ditch- 'mEADOW, grafs land for mowing. In this country' the word is feldom ufed to fignify upland M E A mowing ground, but that which is low and moift, and feldom or never ploughed. In other coun- tries it is the name of al! mowing grounds. Too much or too little moif- ture is hurtful to thefe meadows. Thofe that are apt to be too wet fhould be made drier by ditching or b^' draining, if it be pra6iica- ble. They may be made drier alfo by fpreading fand, gravel, or coal dull, upon them : At the fame time, their fruitfulnefs will be increafed, and better kinds of grafs may be introduced. When they are become dry, I they Ihould be ploughed and till- ' ed,it the foil be not a tough clay ' with only an inch or two ot black ] mould above it. In this cafe, I j thmk a low meadow fhould not be ploughed at all. Inftead ot ploughing, perhaps it would be better to cut away the hillocks and unevenneifes ; which by rot- ting in heaps, or burning, may be converted into good manure lor the foil. And to increafe the thicknefs of good foil, let fand and other earths, with dung, be fpread over it. When the foil is a loofe crum- bly clay, fach as is found under fome meadows, fuch a meadow may be converted to tillage land with great advantage. Floodmg in the fpring not on- ly enriches the foil of meadows, but makes them bear a fliarp drought the better. It caufes the grafs to grow fo rapidly that the foil is fooner fcreened from the fcorching heat ot the fun. Particular care fhould be al- ways taken to keep cattle out of meadoM's in the fpring and fall, when they are very wet and fott. For they will fo break and fpoil the fward with their feet, that it will not be fit for mowing, nor bear more than half a crop. All the MEL e fall fc«4in^ of fuch land mould be over, ocforc the heavi. ell rains of autunjn. In the fpiing, no hoof fhould, by any means, be fiiffcrcJ to go npon a foft mca'low. It ttccafions fo much lofs and cjamagc, that a farmer had better give treble price for hay to feed his cattle, or buy corn lor them, than to turn them in, as fomc do, to eat the giafs that Hrfl fprings, and which has but little more nourilhment in it than water. No hulbandiy can be worfe, if hufband/y it may be .illed. Meadows that bear poor water grafles Ihould be mown rather be- fore the grafs is grown to its full fize. The hay will be fo much fweetcr and better, that what it wants in quantity will be more than made up in its quality. And the lofs ot quantity may perhaps be made up in tall feeding ; or elfc a fecond crop may be taken. I have long ohferved that heavy rains commonly fall before the end of Augull, by wliich low meadows are often flooded. Therefore, there is danger in de- laying to mow them till it is fo late. The crop may be either totally loft, or men rauft work in the water to favc ii in a damag- ed condition. MK.^SLES.adireafein fwine. Thr eye; are red and inflamcil, ^nd the fkin rifes in pimples, and rims in'o fcabs. To cure a fwine of this difeafe, tiike half a fpoontul of fpirit of hartOio.n, and two ounces of bole armeni- ae, mix it with meal and water, and give it him in the morning when he is hungry. Repeat the dofe every day, till he is cured, which will be in four or five d.ivs. S^r.LON, a plcarmt tan--d, ig fruit. It grous beffina •rm climate ; and is large and M E S 205 excellent in the fouthern dates. But they will ripen in Neweng- land, in the common way of planting ; but are not fo Lirgc, nor fo early in the mod northern parts. Some iniprorcinent has lately been made in this fruit, by bringing feeds from the fouth- ward. Whether this will be a lafting advantage time will fliew. Ot all the kuids of melons, Mr. Miller greatly prefers the cantaleiipe, a native of America. But I have not heard whether it has yet found its way into this country. The fame writer fjys, the feeds of melons {hould be three' years old before they are planted ; and that thofe feeds which are fo light as to fwim on water, are not good to plant. Melons grow beft on a fandy loam, which has a warm expofure tothefouih orfoutheaft. The vines fhould be Iheltercd a gainft cold winds which flop their growth ; and again ft boifterous winds from any quarter, which will hurt them, by diflurbing and difplacing their vines. A good manure to be put un- der melons, is an old compofl of good loam, with the dung of iicat cattle or fwine. The ends of the runners, and the fruit lat- eft formed, flioui'l be taken off, that the fruit firft formed may have more nouiilhmcnt, grow larger, and arrive to the greater nerfettion. To raile melons oil not beds, under l.amcs, or un- der hand glalfcs, fee Gardener's Diclionary. MESLIN, wheat mixed with other grain in fowing. The name is moft commoMJy applied' to a mixture of wheat and rye. But there is an unfitncfs in fow- ing thtfe together, as wheat re- quires the be!l foi|f;»nd tillage, an.l rye Will anfwcr with the poorcft. 2o6 M E T I fliouli greatly prefer the rtixture of fpring wheat and bar- ley, as barley requires nearly as good a foil, and as many ploiigh- iftgs, as wheat. But that which chiefly recommends this mixture, is, that wheat will not blight when it ii fown with barley. This has been proved by the ex- perience of a number of farmers in my neighbourhood, who are encouraged to perfift in the prac- tice. This confirms a hint that w^as thrown out by Mr. Eliot, in his EJfays. Whatlhouldbe the reafon why barley prevents the blighting of wheat, may be worthy of the in- quiry of naturalills. May it not poITiblybe this ? That the large, biifhy beards of the barlev To en- clofe the necks of the Items of wheat, as to defend them in fome degree from cold in the cool nights ; fo that the fap in the items of wheat is not fo much thickened by the cold, as to be obftrufted in its afcent to the ear ? The worflcircumftancea'iend- irig this kind of meflin, is the difficulty oi feparating the two fons of grain. Though wheat does no harm in malt, barley is a poor ingredient in bread. So that there is need of making the reparation. Barley being light- er than wheat, will moftly fall nearer to the uil of the (beet in winnowing, by means of which, fome ef the wheat may be almoft or quite extricated from the bar- ley. Throwing it with a Ihovel may do (lill more towards feparat- ing the two forts. The lighter grain will drop fhort of the heap. METH EGLIN, a pleafant fer- mented liquor, made of honey ao j water. It is made thus : Put fo much na-iv honey into fpring water, that when the honey is dJlTolved, an egg will not fink to the bottona. Boil the liquor for M I C an hour. When cool, barrel it up, adding a fpoonfulot yeaft t6 ferment it. Some add gihger half an ounce to a barrel, and as much cloves and mace ; but I have had it very good without any fpices. One hundred weight of honey will make a barrel of metheglin, as ftrong as good wine. I once had a barrel made with 90 pounds of honey. Af- ter iermenting and fining, it was an excellent liquor ; fome part of which I kept bottled fevcrai years ; it lofes the honey tafte by age, and g'-ows lighter colour- ed : But on the whole, it does not improve by age» like forac liquors. MICE, a well known genus of quadrupeds, troublefome to all houfekeepers, but more ef- pecially to farmers, and thofc who keep quantities of grain in their houfes, or in granaries. Farmers fliould know the beft ways of oppofing their depreda- tions, and of deflroying thsm. The field moufe eats the bark of trees in nurferies and young orch- ards, when fnow is on the ground, and moftly when it is deep. A good M-ay to prevent this mif- chief is to tread down the fnow, and make it verycompacl, about the ftems of the trees. And though laying mulch about the roots of trees be good for the tree<:, it occafions the mice to in- creafe ; therefore I do not go in- to that practice, while the trees are fniall, and have a fmooth ba'rk. It is only v/liile ihe trees are young (hat mice eat the bark. In fpring, tlie field mice eat corn and other feeds under the furface ; in the fummer they hurt the grafs ; and in autumn I have fo«nd that they eat potatoes be- fore they are dug up. I know not whether the field moufe and thofe in hcufcs, barns and grana- ries. M I L rie^, be of the fa;ne fpecics ; ihoUKh the forinerart! larger. But it hasDccn tournl that both may be dcdroyvil hy the fame poifoii. Tike a fpooniul ol flour, mix- ed with fonic Icrapiiigs oi old clicefe, and {teds ot hemlock, njade As fine as poflible. Set it where ihcy haunt. It it be fct in a liourc, let it not be in the fame apartment with any thing that is to be ufed as the food of man. This mixture will deflroy all the mice that eat it. But fince many fear to ufe poi- fon, th<^y may take them alive in wire cages. However, inftead of the round ones which arc com- monly ufcd, I would recom- mend fquare ones, cnclofcd in thin wooden boxes, with a hole ill the box againft tlie entrance of the cage ; bccaufe a moufc will not To readily enter into a place where he fees another con- fined, rhe bait may be a rind of cheefe fcorchcd, made fall to the cenire(;f the bottom of the cage, and fo far from the hole that a moufe cannot reach it till he has got quite into the cage. For if he Ihoidd ftick in the paf- fage, he will prevent the entrance ofothers. MILDEW, or MELDEW, or HONEY DEW. a certain fwcot tafted clammy fubflancc, found in mornings, on the leaves of (omc vegetables, the pores of which do not abforb it. Many have believed Uiat this dew is the real c;aufe of the luA, or dark colouied fpots. on the Items and leaves of blaflcd grain. Thii has bei:u the popular way of ac- cquutuiK for the difeafe, antong my cquutiymen. It has been fuppofed, tliat this raoiflurc ad- heres to the ulams, and fo con- dcnfcs as to ohllrufl their pcrfpi- .' ratiqn, by which they lickCQ ajid become unfruitful. I M I L JO/ 1 he French call this diftempcr in grain ; ouiU<, or ruft. it is un- doubtedly the fame which the Romans called Rubi^o. The ftenis and leaves are be(iiattcrc(i with brown loots, and the grain appears fhrunk and Imall.in oror portion as thefe fpots abound OQ the plants. It mollly attacks wheat and rye, but lometimes al- fo oats ajid barley. Mr. Worlidge, an ingenious writer on hulbandry, was an ad-! vocatc for the hypothefis I have mentioned. He therefore adviifJ ed to brufliing off fuch dew witbv a r»jpe, before the fun could con- denie it on the grain. But it 19^ much to the difcredit of this opin-. ion, that though brufbing has oft- en been tried, it has never beea. certainly known to have had the defiled cffeO. I am one among the many who have tried it without ci- {ct\. M. Duhamel made trials, to determine wlicther this were t'ne real caule, by applying to the. leaves of plants fuch glutinous lubllances as were fufhcient to flop the perfpiration ; but it had; no fuch efletl as rult. Hovr much lefs can fuch an e{fc£l be expected from adhefions tq the llcms, fince the leaves are the principal organs of perfpiration? Or when not a fourth partof the fuilace o| a plant is ever covered by the fpots ? Some impute this diftcmperin grain to intenfe heai from the fun, happening after dry gloomy weather. But it is known that it attacks young plants in aur timii), when the heat from the fun IS not grea;, nor the weather dry, and covers tlie leaves with fpots ol ruO. .VIr. MilLr and others fuppofe infects to ha\c a hand in this djf- temper ; either originally, or af- ter tnc Rems are wounded. Bia nicrofcopical obfcrvations have not 208 M I L not afforded reafon to believe this to be the true caufe. And Mr. Til let has obferved that thc^fpots are of difFv^rent colours ori dinerent plant?, according to their differ- ent kinds of fap ; from whence it may feem probable tliatthfefap, rather than infects, or their eggs or excrements, is the fubflance of which the fpots are formed. Some have fuppofed the fpots to be made by the intenfe aftion of the fun on the drops of com- mon deu', A\-hile they adhere to the items after the fan is up, and coUedt the rays as lenfes, by ■which the ft ems are over heated under the drops, or rather burnt. But the ihape of thefe drops will hardly juftify fuch an opinion : For though their convexity on the outfide is confiderable, their concavity on the infide is altnoft the fame' Or if it fhould be al- lowed that the rays do converge a little in the drops, yet their ac- tion on the ftems cannot be fo great as to diffolve their fub- i^ance into that powder, of which the ruft is known to conlilf . Be- fides, if this were the caafe, the fpots would be made only on the caflern fides oi the ftems, which is contrary to faft. They ap- pear equally on every fide oi the Items. Mr. Tlllet's hypothefis feems to bid fairer than either of the toregoirg to account for tliisdif- temper. He thinks it is caufed by a fharpnefs in the air in dry cloudy weather, which breaks the vefiels interwoven with the fiibftance of the blades and ftems, and makes thein difcharge a thick oily juice, which, by degrees, is turned into that ruily powder. He examined W' ith a microfcope. and faw fmall openings in the membrane covering the plant where the powder lay : And ob- ferved thai the juice iflued M 1 L through thefe fmall openings^ over Avhich he faw fome pieces of the membrane, which partly covered the openings. Hence he juftly concluded that the caufe of the difeafe is the wound- ing of the fap vcCels,from which wounds the fap exudes, which fhould pafs into the ear to per- feFt the grain : But I greatly fofpect he- does not here affign the true caufe of thefe fraSures. If they were caufed by any un- faAotirable ftate of the air. one w'ould think that, of tw o adjoin- ing fields, one would not efcapc this diftemper, and the other be ruined by it, which is not an ua-^ common cafe. And M. Chat-, eauvieux has remarked, that the whole of the fame field of wheat is not ufually affcfted at the fame ^ime. Beiides, M. Duhamel often applied to plantii acid and corrofive, alkaline and fpiritoiis , liquors ; which trials did not produce any thing like nift. How then can any fuch effluvi- um in the air be fuppoled to cor- rode and break the %^effels of the ftems ? M. Chaieauvieux helieved that the powder which forms the ruft, is the extravafated juice of the plants, becaufe it fiops their grow- th. As he had not obferved the ruft to com.e but in dry weath- er, and when there were no dews, he conjectured that the want of moifture caufes the furfaces of the ftems to crack, and pour forth their contents. Whether this be the true caufe or not, future obfer\'ations and experience may enable us to determine. To me it does not appear very probable ; becaufe, in this country, in fome of the drieft feafons, grain has been moft free from ruft:. I rath- er think this is generally the cafe. Were it proper that I fhould attempt to afhga another caufe, after M t L after the vain inqiiirirs ot io ma ny vi my fuperiours, I (houlJdl- cii})c the burflln;; ot the fap vef- fcls to cold. Till- taiti that have led mc lo form this hypothcfis are chiefly thcfe : I'lrft, that in the colder parts of Noi th America, grain is far ottcncr hurt by thv5 dillemjier than in the warmer ; ofic^iiT In the northern than in the iouthcm ftates. Secondly, bccaufe early rioc grain molf com- monly ofcapcs the ruft. Thirdly, bccaufe the riift does not often apprar on fi!mmcr grain, before t!;? nights begin to grow colder, as they do about the latter end of July. From thefe obfer\'ations, I have been led to think, that the increafing cold of thefe nights thickens the fap in the leaves and the neck of the Hem, julf be- low the ear, where it has thethin- neft covering, fo as to form ob- ftrut^ions in the fap vclTels : After which the pre itu re of the fap up- wanls, in a warm daV, is [o Arong as to burft the vcllelsj and out- ward membrane, and fo to form fjafTages for the fap to the fur- ace of the lleuK, &c. I am the more induced to adopt this hy- pothefis, becaufe I have obferv- ed the fprits nfually appear firll on the neck of the flem, and are always there in the greatcU plen- ty. By a grejfcr degree of cold than that whicii formed the firll ohUruttions, I conceive new ob- ftruttions are formed below the wounds or fijfures, by means of which new cracks arc made from whence the fap exudes : .''\nd thus the (lems may become Itjot- ted, as they fomciimcs are, quite to the ground. I dare not abfolutcly depend upon the tru:h of this theory, though I d ii -'.f len u V. .;i inin ivc- ^f lands, when th. Uid Ju.vn to grafs, often become M O S 2ti niofly, cfpeclally when they are too long in grafs. Cold loamy foils are moil fuhjeD; to this e« vil. The mofs on fucii land is often (o fmall, as to appear only j'.s a giecn mouldinefs of the fur- t.icc. But this mould confifts of dillinfl minute plants, as well as all other niouldinel's, as may be feen by the help of microfcopcs. If drcflings ot warm manures do not prove fiiilicient to clear the ground of this mofs, it fliould be icarified, or harrowed, or clfe broken up and tilled. For if it be permitted to continue, it will rob the grafs of moft of its foocL A very long white or ycllowifh mofs grows in wet fwamps. Draining the fwamps, and let- ting fire to the mofs in a dry fea- fon, will connnonly be fufficient to lubdue it, I mentioned mofs under the head of manures. As mofs i.s known to contain a large propor- tion ot nndiirolvedoil, any thing that will diffolve that oil, will convert it into a rich food for plants. Lime is excellent for I tkis purpofe : Mofs and lime, therefore, mixed in compofldung hills, may well be c.\pcfclcd to make a good inanure. As mols retains water more tlwn almofl any thing clfe, fomc UdVe foiiuil advdnt.igjhy mixing it with [dudy and gravelly foils. It enables the foil to retain th(H moiftnre it nc^ivc.s from rain^ and dews, and to hold the ma-^ nurcs that arr laid on it : And' tUc luols itielf llowlv diffolvL^i aiitl bcc'jnics (. Richard To tcr in the ■ aei cxperimc: . in iheciiltui was /nam: i i.onm:s;u yellow uxms. i lie firft $12 M O S iirft row yielded 438 fe of pota- toes; the fecond 515 ft. Kn- couraged by this great fuccefs, he tried a row of potatoes on lia- ble dung by itfelt, another on mofs by itfeif ; the crops were of equal weight ; thofe on rqofs more fizeable than the other. In the firft experiment, I fuppofe the heat of the liable dung dif- folved the mofs as faft as was neceffary for the nourilhment of the potatoes, \yhich vvas moft needed in the latter part pf fum- mer. The refult of the latter experiment is more furprifing. Doubtlefs the ground had been before richly furnifhed with fome fubftance which was adapt- ed to diflblve the mofs : Perhaps it had be-en limed in the year pre- ceding. If fo, it renders the Itory more credible. Nothing is more common than to fee mofs of a light green colour upon foreft trees. The feeds being carried in the air, lodge in the crevices of the bark, where they vegetate and grow into plants of a larger or fmaller ifize, according as they happen to be more or lefs fliaded. This is fo dilferent from the yellow fwamp mofs, that cattle cat it very greedily. Mofs on fruit trees is detri- m.ental to their fruitful nefs. " The remedy is fcraping it off from the body and large branch- es, with a kind of wooden knite, that will not hurt the branches ; or with a rough hair cloth, which does very well after a foaking rain. But the moll ef- fectuaf cure, is taking away tlie caufe. This is to be done by drain- ing off all fuperfluous raoiflure from about the roots of the trees. And it may be guarded againll in planting the trees, by not fetting them too deep in the foil. M O U " If trees (land too thick in a Cold ground, they will always be covered with mofs ; and the befl way to remedy the fault is to thin them. When the young branch- es of trees are co^'ered witii a long and Ihaggy mofs, it will ut- terly ruin them ; and there is no way to_prever]t it, but to cut off' the branches near the trunk, and even to take off the head of the tree, ifneceffary, for it will fprout again. And if the caufe be in the mean time removed by thin- ning the plantation, or draining the land, the young fhoots will continue clear after this. " If the trees are covered with mofs it! confequence of the ground's being too dry (as this will happen from either extreme in the foil) then the proper remedy is, the laying mud from the bot- tom of a pond, or river, pretty thick about the roots, opening the groimd to fome dillance and depth to let jt in. This will not only cool it, and present its giv- ing groVth to any quantity of mofs ; but it will prevent the other great mifchief which fruit trees are liable to in dry grounds, which is the falling of the fruit too early." Mortimer's llujhund- MOULD, a word that imports the finefl parts of a foil, or the furface abovethe foil. It is the flra- tum or layer of earth which forms the furface, or turf, in paflures or grafs land, in which the roots get the principal part of ilieir nourilh- ment. The plough afts in tl.e mould ; hence the name mould- board is given to that part of a plough which turns up the foil and mould. In fome places this lay- er is thicker, \x\. otfiers thinner. The deeper it reaches, the richer the land may be efleemed ; and it is the more valuable. It is com- monly black, or of a dark brown colour. M O W colour. The layer wliith is next under it is foii.whicli is al- fu fit for tillage. But in tilled lauds the rich inoulij and foil arc blended, and the mixture has the name ut muuld. The bell mixed mouUl is of a hazelly or ciieluui colour; neither too adhclivc nor too loofe ; nei- ther baking to a crull with drought, nor turning to morter Kith wctncfs ; it is fwcet fcent- cd ; and tcels unttuous and fine. All good mould and foil will be- come black, by being expofed to the fun and air for a year or two. An alh coloured mould b not good, a pale vellow mould fl.ll worfe. A good mould contains much of that extremely fine impalpa- ble earth, which is a real iu^re- dient in the food of plants. This IS called, by fome writers, vege- uble mould. The word mould is alfo ufcd to fignifv foil that is made loofe, light and fine by tillage and ma- nuring. Hence i)lants arc faid to b-- moulded when this fine earth IS drawn up to their ftems by the hoe. And a garden mould is made bv tilla>;e and manure. MOULD BOARD, that part of a plough which turns over the furrow. For ploughing green fward an iron mouldboard is befl : For it it be wood it oujht to be plated witii iron to prevent its hcin; foon worn through. For ] ' : in tillage laud a wood. e:; ;ioard will anfwer. MOW, a quantity ot hay, or grain \n the flraw, piled in a barn for kee;i:ng. Ground mows ^re more liable to take damage by radifturc, than mows upon fcat- folds. Mows oi grain Ihould be laid upon the latter. Tiielargei the mow, the drier tli.- hay orlljc-avcs ihould be of which ii couOUs. See Fodder, M O W 213 MOWING, the operation, or art of ciuiing down grafs, corn, S:c. with a lithe. I hey who have not been in ihi-ir youth accullomcd to do this work, arc fcldom found to be able to do it with cafe or ex- pedition. But when the art is once learnt, it will not be loft. As this is one of the moll la- borious parts of the hulband- man's calling, and the more fa- tiguing as it muft be performed in the hotieft ieafon of the year, every precaution ought to be ufcd which tends to lighten the labour. To this it will conduce not a little, for the mower to rife very eaily, and be at his work before the rifing of the fun. He may eafily perform half the ufual day's work before nine in the morning. His work will not only be made eafier by the cool- nels of the morning air, but alfo by the dew on the jBfrafs which is cut the more tafily lor being wet. By this means he may lie ftill and reft himfcif during all the hottell of the day, while oth- ers who begun late are fweatiug themrelvescxceflivcly ; and hurt- ing their health, probably, by taking down large draughts of cold drink to flake their raging thirft. The other half ot his work may be performed after three or four o'clock ; and at night he will find himfelf free from fatigue. It the mower would hu.Q)3n uneven, that it a crop of grafs fhould grow, it could not be mown clolely, it at all. Therefore, through want ot har, the foil and fward muft be mangled in the fame way the fpring following ; and (o on from year to year perpetually. How abfurd and ruinating is this praflice ! If our farmers would refolve they will mow but halt the quan- tity of ground which they have mowed hitiierto, I Ihould think they might foon finvl their ac- count in it. But it will be nec- effary that they fhould adopt a new kind «f management, MOW 215 with rcfpctl to their mowmg grounds. In the fir ft place, let them not lay down to grafs tor mowmg, any lands that are quite exhaull- ed by fevcre cropping ; nor without manuring them well. Good crops of grafs are not to be expected when tlier« is no flrength, or next to none, in the foil. Therefore the lands Ihould be dunged when the grafs is fown, unlefs we except clover and oth- er biennial graffcs. And even for thefe it is often quite neceffa- ry, always advantageous. Mr. Miller advifes to fowing perennial gralTes in autumn, not with corn, but by thcmfclves. This is the right v/ay to have the ft)il well filled with good grafs roots, before it fubfides and be- comes compact. I think the far- mer need not grudge to forego his corn crop in this cafe ; but perhaps this is not necedary ; for no crop will be milled by fowing ^rafs by itfclf. If it be fown with winter grain it will not produce a crop for mowing the next year ; but if fown by itfell it will produce a good crop ; and a plenty of lining roots will be edablilhed in the foil. But when grafs is fown with grain, the grain kills part ot the roots, and flints the growth of the reft to fuch a degree that they will never recover. But whether the feed of red clover will come up fo well if lowed in autumn, as if fowed in the fpring, ii perhaps yet to be proved. Concern- ing other grafs there needs no queflion. Alfo, the furface fhould be rolled after the feed is fown, to clofe the mould about the feeds, to prevent their being removed by ftrong winds, to prevent the furiace from t)eing irregularly tora bj the frofl oi winter, and to i2i6 MOW to make the foil fmoother for mowing. Graf's land, by lying, is apt to become uneven, and knobby. For this reaCbn the good tarmeis in England pafs a roller over their grafs land every fpring and fall. It gives the roots ot grafs a more equal advantage lor nour- irtiment and growth, and facili- tates the mowing of the grafs, and the raking of the hay. When land becomes bound, or moffy, fo as to diminifh the growth of the grafs, if it be not convenient for the farmer to break it up, it (hould be cut, or j fcarified, with fome fuch inftru- inent as the three coultered I plough, invented by M. de Chat- | eauvieux. Then dreffed with j ibme Ihort rotten manure fuited ; to the foil ; bufhed, and a roller ; palled over it. Inllead of the three coultered plough, when that cannot be had, a loaded har- row with Iharp Heeled teeth may anfwer. There is no danger of deftroying the roots ot the grafs j by this operation. Though they are broken they will be fpeedily renewed ; new offsets will be more plentifully formed, and the crops will rife with renewed vig- our. Let farmers keep their mow- ing land fo completely fenced, that cattle and fwine may be ef- feftually prevented from break- ing in at any time ol the year. I think every one muff be lenfi- ble of the necelTity of this. It is ridiculous to think of tak- ing many crops of hay from any piece of upland, in uninterrupt- ed fuccelFion, without affording it any manure. For it does not imbibe therichnefsof the atmof- phere fo plentifully as land in tillage. Grafs land fhould there- fore, once in two or three years at leaft, have a drefling of good M O W I rotten dung, orof acompoft fuit^ i able for the foil. But the heft ^s'ay is to do it every year. Au- tumn is the time for applying the ■ manure, according to long ap- I proved praftice. Buta v/riter in the Georgical Effays recommends doing it immediately after the firft mowing, when a fecond crop is expected, which will nndoubt- ' edly be the larger. Whenever it is done, a bulh harrow fhould be drawn over the furface, which will break the fmall lumps re- maining in the manure, and bring it clofer to the roots of the grafs. By this m.anagement, four or five tons of hay may be the annual produce of an acre. Or if the furface be not dunged, the crop fhould be fed off once in three years ; that the excrements of the cattle may recruit the foil. No cattle fhould, on any ac- count, be turned into a mowing ground in the fpring. The mif- chief they will do, will be ten times more than the ad\'antage they can get. In the fall, neat cattle may take the aftermath : But fheep and horfes will be apt to bite fo cJofe as to injure fome of the roots. Therefore I think they fhould be kept out, efpecial- ly after the grafs comes to be fhort. Whatever dung is drop- ped by the cattle, fhould be care- fully beat to pieces, and fprcad, before winter, or early in die fpring. Thefe lands fhould never be fed fo bare, but that fome quan- tity of fog may remain on them through the winter. The fnow preffcs it down to the furface, where it rots ; it holds the rain water from pafTingoff fuddenly ; and the virtue of the rotten graf? is carried into the foil, where it nourifhes the roots. Grafs lands, with fuch a man- agement as is here recommended, woald M O t •!J prndttrc crop«; inrprinnt;- iieiy tidtural tu graiis. ■..oc woultl be covered ciily in the Jpnng vriih a fine verdure. The crops would ccv-- er the ground fo (oon as to pre- vent nioli ot the ill etfeit of droui;ht m lummer. It would, h\ ! >r" Mig a tlofe cover to the 1 moll ot the moifture I. ...I i.iii> in dews and rains. So that a dry fnnimer would make bill little differ<'nce in the crop ; and the rich lands v.'ouid olten produce ixvo crops in a year. On this plan ot management, much lal>our might be laved in haymaking; anci the grafs might " c cut in due feafon ; not on- 1 . icaufe the farmer has more 0, by having fo much lefs nw to do ; hut alfo bccaufe op is not apt to dry up ly, as a poor and thm one. I iie grafs in our mowing grounds is often faid to be win- I trr killed. It is obfervabie that ' thi< happens only in the little , h';i.o\s I !.u *s, where the melting ' Ino'.v U)w.trearas much work to mow a half fwarth as a whole one ; which is a good rca- fon why the beds (hould not be very narrow. Ten or twelve feet is a good breadth, as it is equal to two Iwarths. MUCK, dung or other filth* fuitable for manure. MUD, a black or dark colour- ed fcdiment, found at the bottom ot ponds, rivers, creeks, ditches, and wet funken places. It is moftly compofed ot a fine vege- table mould, mixed with the fub- ftance of perifhed vegetables, &c. and theretore it contains much of the natural food of plants. In ponds and rivers, this fedi- ment is made up of fine duft, to- gether with a rich variety of oth- er fubftances, which liave been watted in the air, and have fallea into the water ; together with the fubtilcU particles of the neighbouring foils walhed down into them by rains. That isfup- pofed to be the richelt mud, which is near to the borders, and which ha&hccn alternately flooded and fermented; as it will ferment when it lies bare, in fome degree. In rivers, and in long ditches that have currents, there is h greater proportion of foil in the mud. It has been 1)1 . ' ' iwii trom folt, nirllow L:. .srh which ■ pals ; and lome ot it ft^m h«'d5 ot ni ■ 'in th . . ..ch re iu lite water. are totally dried up ui a Uut and dry furemer ; an'A ai8 M U D %t U D and all ponds and rivers are fo diminifhed by a copious evapora- tion, as to leave part, and the fichelt part, of their beds uncov- ered. And thefe beds, where there has been no rapid current, are always found to contain a rich mud. In fome places it reaches to a confiJerable depth. This mud, though taken from frelh waters, has been iound to be a valuable manure ; more ef- pecially for dry, fandy and grav- elly foils. I have known it to have as good an effeft as barn dung, in the culture of Indian corn, upon fuch foils. The advantage of it is not found to be only tor one feafon ; it meliorates the land for feveral years. It rcHores to a high piece of ground what x'egetable mould the rains, in a long courfe of years,, have been wafting away from it. It is happy for the farmer that Providence has prepared for him thefe magazines of manure in ai! parts of the country. None but the flupid will let them lie un- noticed, or unrem.oved. When a dry autumn happens, the pru- dent farmers will be very induf- trioiis in carting mud up from evaporated pond?, and other funken places in their farms, and laying if upon their light foils, efpecially upon high gravelly knolls ; or into their barnyardsj if the diltancc be not too great. Wc-had a fine opportunity for doing nmch of this work in the autumn of 1786. \Vc might thus in great meafurehaverecompen- ied ourfelves for the difiid van- tages wc iuflered by the uncom- mon drought. But with refjieft to ufmg mud asamanure, the maritime farmers have the advantage of all others. For the fea oofe, that uliginous matter which appears 0x1 the flats, nd IB creeks and harbours, along the Ihores of the fea, has all the- virtues of frefti water mud, witht that of fea fait fuperauded, which is one of the mofl important in- gredients in the compofitioa of the belt manures. I might add, that it abounds, more than any other mud, with putrefied animal fubflauces. Much of thefe are contained in the fea itfelf : And innumerable are the fowls and filh that have perifhed upon flats frnce time began ; and the com- ponent parts of their bodies have been fealed dowi^ by the fuper- venient flime. Mud taken from flats where there are fhell fifh, or ev€n where they have formerly lived, is bet- ter for manure, than that which appears • to be more unmixed. The fhells among it are a valua- ble part of its compofltion. If it abound much with fhells, it be- comes a general manure, fit to be laid upon almofl every kind of foil. Tb^t mud, however, which is a richer manure than any other, is taken from docks, and from the fides of wharves in populous towns. For it has been greatly eanchad by the Icouring of foul itrcets, and from common (ew^ ers ; as well as from an unknown quantity of animal and vegetable fubftanccs, accidentally fallen, or deligneuly throuvi.into fuch pla- ces. Sea m.ud may be taken up at any feafon, whenever the farmer has moll leiture. It is a good' method to draw it up on fleds from the flats in March, when the border is covered with firm ice. 1 have thus obtained nmd from fiats, with great expedition und little expcnfe. Mud that is newly taken up, may be laid upon grafs land. But if it is to be ploughed into the foil, it tbould firft lie expofed to the M u r -The froft of one ■winter. The iidft will tleftroy its tenacity, aiul reduce it to a fiiif powder ; alter xvhich it may he (prcatl like alh- cs. BiU il it be ploiighetl into the foil, before it li.is been nicl- Jowerl, It will remain in lumps for fcveral years, and be ol lefs advantage. A layer of mud will be no IkuI ingredient in a heap ot compoit. Rut it lliouid be C(mtiRUous to a llratum of lime, if that can be obtained. But where this is want- ing, new horfe dung is the hefl fublhtute, to excite a ftrong fer- tneniation. The bcfl method of managing ^11 forts of nnul, were it not tor increafing the labour, woulvibc to lay it in Kirm yards, and let it be thoroughly mixed with the ddn^ and Hale of animals, V/licn it is fo managed, the comport is ex- cellent, and fitforalmoll any (oil, though beit for light or.c^. Per- haps the advantage oi it is fo great as to pay lor the increafed expcnfe of twice carting. For it will abforb the flalc of cattle, and retain it h('tt'*r than ftraw, and other light kr^iluices. MULBiLRKV, Morns, Rv,cU known tree, the leaves of which are the proper food of (ilk. worms. Yor this ufc, ihoic which bear a black fruit are prelcrrcd. Ac- cording to Mr. Miller, the male and female organs ot generatum arc commonly on the lanse tree; i)ut fomctimcs a tree will have only male flowers. It would be right for ua to jpron igate tl.cfc trees, as it might be done with the grcatcll eale. We may do it by tlieir 1-jcds, or fcy layers, cuttinfjs or Hips. If %vt arc not difpofcd to make ufo of them for the tecding ol filk worms, t '!'( pay {or lUc trouble «• them, by ilieii iriiit and tiicii iuui;?r. 1 hry fuit N A V aft our climalc, anrl grow rapMJIy, at leail in Cpnnc^lic ut, and in t^c we Hern parts of .VlafTachufctts. Pollibly the lime may come whc.i we may be gl.ul lo mak,e filk lor our own ule in this coun- try. If this (hould happen, it will be regretted if there be no trees in the country from which the woims ean be ted. They v,-illgiow well in a deep dry foil which is moderately rich. MULCH, ruhbith of decayed vegetables. Litter is a word qf the fame import. N, NAVE, tlie middle part of a wheel, through which the axle pa.Tcs. Sec U'lieels. NAVEL GALL, " adiforder on the top of the fpinc, oppofite to the navel, whence the name. It is molt commonly caufed by an ill formed faddle, or want of good pa»k, and being ncgleiled turns to a foul lungous excref- cence ; and fomctimes, alter long continuance, to a fillulous ulcer. While there is moillureand fen- fibility in the part, an ointment may be applied ot (luickfilvcr and turpentine ; an ounce ot the former to two ounces of the latter, rubbed in a niortdi till they be well incorporated ; and then fprcad upon tow. On each fide of the fpinc, over the fwelling, may be laid fmooih dry plcdgiis, or bol Hers, which niiy he girt round with a fiiifingle. But if the io\c be deul ami lilelefs, a good Ihaip knilo mud be ufedlo cut it to the quick ; then let it be drefled according to the dircdions for the ctire o\ wound«. " ,/ ' dsfroma iaddii -r of the .iccidc.jis iMinc. \i is dry . y be cured by cuu.muit ii r.ili will* 4mI tf«0 N £ W oil of bays, until it turns foft ; | then by drefiing it with quick- j filver and turi)entine. as above | direfted. This will make a ' cure, efpeeially if the hard horny j fubftance be gently icahfied in iome places." Gih foil's. Farriery. NECTARINE, Aimgdalus,^ fpecies ot the peach, with a fmooth rind, and a firm pulp. The name is derived from nec- tar, the poetical drink of the Gods. NEW HUSBANDRY, drill hnjhandry, or horfe hoeing hxif- handry. It chiefly differs from the old hulhandr}-, in this, that the foil is tilled while the plants to be nourifhed are growing in It. This mode ot culture was introduced into England, by the ingenious JethroTull, Efq. who wrote largely and repeatedly on the fubjeti. His volume in fo- Jio, entitled, Kt^' horfe hoeing Hujbandry, was publilhed in the year 1731. An EfTay on tJie fame fubjePr, in the year 173.3. A Supplement to the EfTay, in 173 J. Addenda, and Conciu- fion, in i''38, and 1739. ^^^^ gentleman expended as it v.-ere his whole life, in zealous and be- nevolent exertions to con/ince mankind of the great utility of his new fyflem, and directing them in the prattice of it. But he haa the mortification of find- ing, that only here and there an enterprifing genius adopted it in pra6fice. And though more than fixty years have noH' elapfed, fince he made it public-k, it is fo far from having become the gen- eral praclice of farmers in that country, that there is no reafon to fuppofe that it ever will : Al- though it has been recommend- ed, and further explained and improved, by writers of note in fevcral nations. The author of this hufbandry pieant to apply it chiefly to ^N E W wheat, as being the moll impor- tant kind of corn. The new hufbandry differs from the old in the manner of preparing the ground for a crop, and in the manner of fowing the feeds. The ground is ploughed into ridges, or beds, five or fix feet wide, aird fmoothed with har- rows. Inflead of Towing at ran- dom with the hand, or broad caff, as it is called, the feed is dropped by a drill, in ifraight lines, in little furrows about two inches deep. Either two or three fuch rows are on one bed, eight or nine inches apart ; and the feeds are elofely covered in the furrows, by a injali barrow annexed to the drill, Mr.Tull invented a drill, or drill plough, on a new conitruftion. It is not only efTeniially differ- ent from the fembrador, or fower, invented by Don Jofeph de Lu- catello ; but an improvement up- on thedriil which was invented by Mr.Worlidge. ^\'!ththisma- chine one may fow fuch a quan- tity of feeds, and as many rows as may be thought neceffary. lay the feeds at a convenient depth, and cover them nicely, only by drawing the machine once along the ridges. As foon as the plants are a few inches high, the horfe hoe is introduced, which differs but lit- tle from a horfe plough, except- ing in the manner of connecting it to the horfe that draws it. With this plough, palling it with- in three or four inches oi the rows, the earth is turned from the rows into the intervals or alleys, fo that die furrows meet each other, and form a fbarp ridge. This is the firfl hoeing, and is performed late in autumn, juft before winter. It lays the young plants i"o dry, that it is thought tkey are in no danger N E W »i«MCT/.v of being killcfl by ihe sinter. But lomc im- i this fyftv'ni h 'vc n-. c^d omitting or i.iuv'>..% or it both bf p ^,..- •, to turn back, one ol them to- wards the row before the liard t^.,•lr^ of winter ; left the rirlgcs ^' m1(1 be too much In danger of "r f\w^ wafhed away by rains, and j; plants removed. 1 his 0 a real improvement Tiill s method. 1 the following fpring {v.:^y iiy in M.uch, but it mult be April in this country] the earth is turned toward the rows; thi'n in M^y, from them ; and lallly, in June, it is turned back to the rows, and partly againll the ftcins, when the grain is jull out ot blolibm ; which lail pltMighing is tho'ight to do more lervice than any other, as it Ifreatly helps to fill out tlic grain ; and muft not, therefore, ou any account, lie otnitted. Each of the ploughings mull be very deep, fo as to keep the ground very loofe and open. IJut care muft be alfo taken to tuirovcr plants that chance to be biujcd by the plough ; to weed th.c ;^rain once or twice in the rows, and to llir the earth be- tween thf rows, with a pn>ng hoe or [land iioe, as often as the in- tefv^Is are ploughed, or horfc h.K.l. The advantages of this method •-"f culture are laid to hi" fliele : 'l':.r r; !•'!>'■:■: !..-! will pro- '^i;. .: ' ' . ; . ..h would p ■ >: ;: • .i.ig in the ■•' •■ ! -1 ' i crop of : ' . : "ach ye.^r ! ; "v ; :' ■ •■ "t ground, ^vithotu impu\ cnllnng the foil, as the uiterv.ils arc always tal- lowed ; tliat there is no need of manuring the land at all, as the excraordioary tillage will anfwcr NEW 221 the fame end as manure, and a^ lefs cxpcnfc ; that there w^ill be no crop miflied or prevented by a year of fallow, whicli mull take place every fecond year in the old way of cultivating wheat, to prevent exhaufting the foil ; that the crops will be larger, bet- ter and luller grain by far, and entirely free from the feeds of weeds. The editors of the laft edition of Mr. 7tt//'s har/t: kbcing Huf- bandry, by a computation of the expcnfe and profit of the old huf- bandry and the new, and com- paring thcaccoimts,makc the clear profit of the latter appear to be more than double to that of the former. This may be fcen at large in the Comhlrtt Yin mer, im- der the article tlujhandry. Oth- er ingenious writers iti Great Britain, fince have written in confirmation of this opinion. See E/icyc/opcJiafZrtidc AgricuU lure. I do not at all fcruple the falr- nefs ol the computations ; nor the accounts of writers in other countries to the Time purpofe. But there is no arguing with any certainty from the advantage of the new hulbandry in England, or other parts oi Europe, to the advantage of it in this country. Becaulc, in the firft place, labour is more than twice as dear in this country ; and that there is a greater quantity of labour requir- ed in the new hufbrjidry than in the old, is very obvioufly true. There are ar lc;;ft two or three pK) :inary to a cro' , d, and hand hoeing ; and wccders will not accept of the weeds they pull as iuHicient pay for pulling them, as pr woniv-n fotnctimcs do in the old corruiics. Another realon lor ruf|)C^iing that the new huibandr)* may not aulwcr 222 N E W ahfwdr fo much better than the old in this country, when appli- ed to wheat and rye, is.thatthefe grains are here very fubjeft to blading ; and the later they rip- en, the more they are in danger of this diftemper. Hoeing of grain will caufe it to ripen later, as may be (cen m the border ot a field that is contiguous to hoed ground. The plants that ftand neareft to ^he hoed ground retain ■their greennefsmuch longer than the reft of the grain, becaufe they are more plentifully fed. Hence there appears to be fome reafon to doubt of the advantage of hoeing wheat and rye in this country. But if there were no \veight in this, nor in the foregoing ar- gument, yet the difference of climate mufl be taken into con- fideration. Our lands are hov- €n and mellowed by the froft of every winter, to a greater depth than the hoe plough can ever ftir them, by which the roots of win- ter grain are often ho ven out of the foil ; but in England, the ground feldom freezes to half the depth that a plough goes. Therefore, the moft forcible argument in favour of the new hufbandry, which is ufed by its advocates, ■will not fo well apply in this country ; which is, that the ground fettles and becomes very compact, during the long contin- uance of a crop of grain upon it. i fee no reafon to doubt but that our extraordinary degree of frofl fiiay, on the whole, have nearly as much effeft towards loo fen ing and breaking the foil in tillage ground, as one ploughing has. But this by the bye. Not only is the fuccefs of the new hufodndry in this country for the above reafons uncertain ;, but there are leveral difadvan- tages and inconveni^ces, at- N E W tending this hufbandry, whiclr are common to all countries. One of thefe difadvantages is the coft of the drill plough. This is every where a material objeftion to the new hulbandry m the minds of common farmers. And the curious and complicated flrufturc of this machine, which renders it liable to get out of or- der, is no fmall inconvenience ; for common labourers arc not expefted to have (kill enough to reftify, or repair it. Befides, the accuracy of the work of drill fowing requires forauch thought and attention, that the ignorant and carelefs,whoare apt todefpife new inventions, will not perform it in the befl manner. So that a gentleman rauft always do his own fowing himfeif, it he wifhes to have it done well. And not every gentleman who has a farm will be difpofed to fubmit to this employment. Neither does the drill plough perform well on fid- ling fituations and declivities. To which it may be added, that there are many kinds of feed which it is next to impolTible to fow well with this machine. Such are all the hooked, winged, flat, long (haped, and extremely light feeds ; fuch as thofe of car- rots, parfnips, lettuce, &c. It will not well deliver any but thofe which are ponderous, fmooth, and fo round, or regular fhaped, as to be eafily put in mo- tion. Thefe difficulties are complain- ed of in the old countries ; but there is a more material one to conQ'iti with in many parts of this. In many of our fields, ftumps of trees, roots, rocks and ftones, are fo frequently met with, that the drill plough could not be ufed. It is neceffary that the ground fhould be perteftly clear of every thing that can ob- iiiua NEW fluct or lunder the going of the dn!!. Th ai.- not i ;i!n oi tl' And K-. t «inll nsay ufed. ^'''' 'Lies, Icotitels, ; but in pro- ■ !. !iM) be rcniovcd. ut.ire generations ilie be more convciiicutly • not m< " ;h any vie coa:;-: ; ;:ic.m t' .^ to applv rlK- :iL'>'. . .ire to • in. 1 here is nothing ; -^c* Hnccrely ^vilh, than i«.) Ice ceing fpring -. ... ii.ngland, 1 have ktion-n it tncd by fcveral perfons to their moitification and lois, in this country. The crops were lo en- tirely blafted as to be fcarccly worth reaping. Thi.*; has been the cafe, when tlie culture has been conducted by fome oi the mod judicious perfons, with great attention, and with the proper 3' The true reaion ot t: irriage I lake to be this, t later I , Uter 1 ^;ani, it could not I :;e on»e in Auguft, v,\wA loinc ut the nights are ii) cold as to blafl the grain, by ilop- ping the aicciit ot tlie iap. But let the new husbandry be t- r wheat, lo^n in ; tember, on a warm 1 a ioutliern cxpolurc, .1 'e there .'.re no Hones, : and let )tii lome Miles .. ivan- , and in '<'? crop 1, It ivj uiakc ni)r any other the Iced be bii ,., place at ieall a b III .1 ; lii\';n A T ■ ^^■■ " ol wheat canmn h vjII notbe worth \m. NEW 22J any further trials. But it/houlJ be tried on rye alfo ; tor as th.it is known tu be a hardier grain th i ' --• it is poili'ujc it may ai; rr in this hulbandry. \\ c need not be a*. ' of procuring drill !• horfe hocN, to n; ' iu> of thele kinds md is • " i and well ba: ;jels may be cxpcditiuuily made two inches deep with the head ol a commoa rake, and the leed may be Icat- teredin them by hand, ar>d cov- ered with the rake. The horfc hoeinz may be well enough pc '..'ith a common hortc pi ^_, ,^ ^ ing it twice in a fur- row, 1 1 it be lound necelFai y, tliat the ground may be llirrcd to a fuHicient depth. If. after a tair trial or two, the ne>v culture of winter wheat and rye fhould prove unfuccefstul, it need not oifcourage any Irom fowing their grain with a drill plough. In land that is fit tor it, the tbwitig may be performed with great expedition. If the leed were to be drilled in rows about nine inclics apart, leaving; no wider intervals, it would be attended with leveral advantages- Half the feed may befaved by it, which is a matter i»t iome im- portance, efpccially in a time of ic.^rnty of gram. ! d be good, it will un- d< I ill come up well and proiprr : iiecaufe it will all be buried at the moll luitable depth in the loil. But in the common way ot fowing, fome ot the feeds are buried at fiich a depiii, that they fcdiccly come up at all. Some are lo near tjiciur face, that the leaft d.-vui'' of the foil pre- ventstheir\ ;,oralternatc moifture anv. ... ..v^is turn them to mait. And fome will be un- covered, which will be taken a- way 3824 NEW way by birds. Many ftinted plants will appear ; the crop will be uneven, foine part ot it being better,. and ripening fdoner, than the reft. Another advantage of drilling will be, that vveedersmay pafs through afield to weed it, it there fhouid be occafion for it, without any danger of hurting the plants. And all fields oi wheat that produce weeds, ought to be carefully weeded. Sowed in this way the ground might aU fo be ftirred in he narrow inter- vals with a fmall hoe, which would encourage the growth of the plant, and keep it cleaner from weeds. Inftead of the drill hufbandry, Dr. Hunter recommends a new Ichcme oi his own, which par- takes partly of the new, and part- ly of the old hullbandry. He calls it alternate hufbandry. The Icheme is as follows : He ploughs his ground in flat ridges, or in lands, nine feet wide. When feed time arrives, he fows one land in the broad call way, and leaves the next, fowing the third, and fo on alternately through the field. The lands which are not fown he fallows, allowing them three or four ploughiiigs in the fallow year ; fows them the next year, and fallows the other. He finds this to be a good mode of culture for land that is weak, and wliich lies remote from ma- nure. A mean foil will thus bear pretty good crops without dref- ?ings, or with very fmnll ones. The grain has greater advantage of a free air than in the old huf- bandry. No new iniplements are needed, nor any greater ac- curacy in the culture required, than any ploughman is capable of. Perhaps a row or two ot potatoes, or carrots, in the mid- dle of the fallow ridges, might not be amifs in this hufbandry ; but rather an improverucnt. NEW But, ta -retifrn to my fubjeB ' Every one mnft be eafily con- vinced, that plants in general re- ceive a greater degree of nourifh- mcnt, it the ground about their roots be frequently ftirred during their growth. We find the ben- efit of this tn our gardens. We fee that bare wi^eding does not anfwer fo well as hoeing, among the plants we cultivate in them. The great advantage of horfe hoeing hufbandry muft appear, if we only attend to our ordinary method of cultivating Indian corn, which differs but little from that hufhandry. If plough- ing and hoeing were to be total- ly neglefted, while the plants are growing, we fhouid have no good crops. On the contrary, the deeper we plough the inter vals, and the oftencr we ftir the mould with the hand hoe, the bet- ter is our crop. And why thonld not the advantage of the fame culture be equally great, when applied to moff of the plants which we cultivate ? The more the ground is opened by frequent ftirringSj the more vegetable nourilhment it will receive from the atmofpherc ; and the roots will find a freer palfage in ex- tending themfelves after their food. They will, therefore, re- ceive a greater quantity ; and their growth and perfetlion will be anfwerable. I have not the leaft fufpicion that barley and oats will fail of receiving great advantage, from this culture ; in both of which I have bad fome experience. Sev- eral years of late 1 fiave applied this culture to barley, in fingle rows or ridges three feet apart ; and have never once failed of gaining at the rate of 40 bufhels per acre. The grain has been perfectly clear from feeds of weeds, and more full and large tha« N U R than when cultivated In the com- mon way. After ploughing the ground, and harrowing it, I tomi the ridges with the cultivator. I fow the feeds with a mod lim- nlc drill of my own inventing. I'he weeds arc killed, and li.e plants earthed, hy pafling the culii^^ator between the rows, with the addition of but lialc hand hoeing. That it does w:!l f-r hemp, has been proved by trials in this country. None will Houh' the advantage of it in rai'ing po- tatoes, our common culture ot which IS fo limiljr to that of In- dian c:irn. iiut if they were fet in drills, inllead of hillocks, the produce w(nild be greater, in both corn Aud potatoes, as I have found by feveral triaK. The new liufbandty may as well be applied to all filiquofc plants, as peafc, beans, &c. and to all efculent roots, as parfnips, carrots, beets, and the like. The fame may be faid with regard to cabbages, afj^aragus, and moft kinds of pot herbs. The trials that have hitherto been made upon fuch plants, in this country, have been fo fuccef^ful. that I trufl the praftice will foon bc- conif general. See the Rev. Mr. Liirii's Ej/jyt, p. lit. 1 liefe Tinds of plants require fo much lefs labour in the drill way, than is ufually bellowed on I them in gardens, that when they are cultivated for the market, or for feeding of cattle, they fhould i by all means be lown in drills, and horfe hoed. The above writer from his own experience concluded, that five bulhtds of ( carrots iniglu bf as ralily railed, i as one hulhel in the common i method. My own experiments ' have fullv judiHed this opinion. ■ NURSLRY. a garden, or plantation of young trees, to be tranfplanted. In a nurfery for ' Dd N U R 22; fruit trees, the land fhould not be quite fo rich as that into which they are to be tranfplanted ; be- caufc it will be better for them to have their nounlhment in- crcalcfl than diminilhcd, as they increafe in age. Therefore, a niirfrry will need hut a little ma- nurr, unlefs the foil be uncom- monly poor. A nurf«■ S26 N U R i&ff all the very frnall fibrous roots ; and if a root tends dirctl- ly downward, it muft be Ihort- ened : Plant them in the trench twelve inches afunder. Then dig a trench and plant it in the next line, and fo on, till the buii- nefs is completed. The main branch for the top Ihould not be cut ofF, but care- fully preferved. Several of the .lateral branches fhould be taken olt, more or fewer in proportion as the root is more or lefs dimin- ifhed. In this lituation they are to grow till they are traniplant- ed into orchards, ccc. And they ^luft be carefully tended, or they will not. become good trees. Ev- ery fpring and fall the ground between the rows muft be well digged, and fo carefully as not to i^njurc or diftarb the roots ; or elfe the intervals muft be horfe hoed. If the latter be intended, the rows fhould be planted at lead three feet and a halt apart. But the plough muft not go fo near the rows as not to leave fome ground to be dug with the fpade, or ftirred with a dung- fork; and in ufing the plough, great care (hould be taken to avoid g-alling and injuring the trees. A nurfery fhould always be kept clear of weeds by frequent hoeing. No fuckers that fpring up from the roots fhould be fuf- fered to remain . They wi ! ! need a little pruning each year, to prevent their becoming mislhap- en ; and all buds Ihould be fpeedily rubbed off, which y/ould make branches too low ©n the ftems. A nurfery re- quires fo much attention, that it Miouiil be in a fituation where the owner cannot avoid feeing it often ; otherwife it will be in danger of fuflfering through neg- fea. N Ut The fruit trees fhould be al- lowed to grow to the height of five or fix feet, before they are budded or grafted. See thoj'c ar- ticles, MiocHlatioji, and Graft- 1 rees, to be tranfplanted mto forefts, may be cultivated in a nurfery in the fame manner as fruit trees. But, as Mr. Miller advifes, it would be beft to have- a nurfery of thefe in the place where the iorell is defigned to be planted ; where a fuflicient number of the trees may be left Ifanding, after the reft have been removed. li a nurfery be in fuch a fitu- ation that the young trees are in danger of being brol^en down by deep fnows ; either the fence on the windward fide fhould be made fo open, that the wind may have a free paflage through it, and drive away the fnow : Or elfe the trees may be defended by ftaking. A ftake a little tall- er than the tree, made of a flip of board, fhould be fet clofe on the ■windward fide, and the top of the tree fattened clofe to it with a foft ftring* Or two fuch ftakes may be fo fet, that the up- per ends may meet over the top of the tree. WJT TREE, or WALNUT TREE, Juglans, a well known tree, valuable for its fruit and tim- ber. There are fix forts, accord- ing to Mr. Ivliller, who makes the hickory, or white walnut of Virginia, to be diflin6l from our white walnut. There are but two forts that grow fpontaneoufly in this" coun- try ; the white walnut, and the fiiagbark, fo called. The firft of theie is a very hard and tough wood, which our farmers find ufeful for many purpofes. It will bend into almolf any form with- out breaking, efpecially the low- er NUT cr part of the body of a yourg tree. It is white and fmooth ; it is therefore much ufcd fur ox bows, goads, and axe h^'lves. But it foon decays when it i5cxporcd to^hc wcatiicr. Tije fmit of this tree has a thin fmooth (hell, and is of very little value. The inner hark is ufcful lor making a yel- Jo.v die. The iha(;bark tree is Co called, on account of the roaglinefsof its lialy bark, which hangs in flips on :'. • S I cs of old trees. This has ^ h nut,enclofedinavcry :h:. .. . .jji ; but it is not fo much <:ilc'cnicd for its limber as the of ii- cr iort, 1 he nuts naturally ad- here Rrongiy to the trees, but the ; firfl hard iroft caufes them to drop. I The black walnut tree is faid ', to grow naturally inViignia, and piiticularly on the batiks of the | i.)iii ». Though it be rather brit- ( tie, it receives a good poiilh ; is hard and ncavy, and is much priz- ed for its beautilid brown colour, and ufed iu all forts of cabinet work. We have another Iort, not in- digenous, but the only one that is much cuiiivaied in this coun- try. It goes by the name of the Kaglilh walnut. The fruit is iiiiic'i larger and better than that of Cither wf the other forts. In its tender ilate, it is ufed in pickles for f»uce. But the nuts are too folid for this ufe when they are conie to their full growth. A theb hut t n* foil fccms to be N Y M 217 ' they naturally nm deep. Though the tranfplanted trees arc bcft for fruit, they grow (hort and hufhy. and ate not fit lor timber. Tlicrcfore, he who wiihes tocul« lis ate a grove of thi-m for tim- , ber, Ihould plant the nurs in the places wl-.crc he wifhes the trees I to ren^ain. As there is a confiderable pitfe . in the limbs of walnut trees, they ' do not admit of much pruning. j The water is apt to enter at a. I wounded limb and caufc it to ; roL I NYMPHA. " the fiatc of winged infctfs, between their liv- ing m the form of a worm, aa^ their appearing in the ^vinged 6r nioft perfect Itate. The eggs of thefe mlecfs are firft hatched in- to worms, or mag<;ots ; which.' afterwards pafs into the nynipha' ftate, furro^nded with fhells, or cafes, of their own fkins : So that, in reality, thcfc nymphs are only the einbryo infecfs, wrap- ped up in this co\ criiig ; from whence t'jey at laft ^et loofe, though not without great diffi- culty. "During the nympha flatc, the creature lofes its motion. Swammcrdam calls it nympha au- rf/ia, or fimply aurclia ; and oth- ers give it the nauic of chryfalis, a term of the like import." Dzff, of Art i. It is in their winged ilnte on- ly, that lliey copulate, l^he fe- male lays c:T.,s ; and their off- fpnng go t!i!ough the fame changes. The flatc of thefe an- ij for walnut trcx-<; j ini^ls may feivc to remind man- uplan 1 dapted cries. y •••. ,it grow on aimoR any I iicy are not well a to be cultivated in iiurf They bear tranfpUntin^ but poorly, unlcfs when they aiv very young. 'The roots fh jul I not be wouude 1, but it is not eaiy ij avoui it in taLing them up, a. kind of the manner of their ex- Iftence, fir.1 in mortal bodies, tl'.en in a Hue of (ie.uh, after- wards poflfffid ol glorif'us bod- u"i. In then aurclian (fate, tlicfc animals have no \ :ul iirtinn, I'ui are to all a I. oj tliJt in I'.L "i . jx- iifencc. 228 OAK jftence, infers have as it were refurreftion bodies. O. OAK, Qmrcus, a well known tree, the timber of which is of great ufe and importance in Ihip building, and architefture, and is valuable for fewel and many other purpofes. The tim- ber is both ftrong and disable. Mr. Miller reckons eighteen fpecies of the quercus, or oak. I know of but five that grow in this country, unlefs the fwamp white oak, fo called on account of its growing in wet fwamps, may be a diftintl fpecies from that which grows on the upland. ^ The firft and bed is the white oak, Quercus alba, which bears a long ihaped, fmall and pleafant tailed acorn. The bark is of a very light afh colour. The tim- ber is more ftrong, and far more durable than the other kinds. Staves for calks, made of this tree, bear a higher price than any oth- er. As it does not foon decay, the farmers find it convenient to have their wheels, carts, ploughs, and fe\'eral other implements of hufbandry, made ot this timber. The but ends of the trees which have grown in paftures, are com- monly found to be extremely tough, and are moft fit for the naves and fpokes of cart wheels. The black oak, Ouercus nigra, has a very dark coloured, hard and rough outer bark. T!ie inner bark is of a bright yellow col- our, and may be ufed to advan- tage in dies. Little or none of this oak is found in the Dirtrift of Maine. Of all the kinds of oak produced in our country, this is efteemed the beft for few- el, as it will burn freely in its green ftate : But it is not fo much prized for timber as fome other forts. © A K The grey oak is next in quali- ty to the white forbuilding. The red, Qiurcus rubra, which is fo called from the colour of its wood, anfwers well for ftaves, efpecially for molalTes hoglheads. But as it is not a lafting timber, it is more proper for fewel ; and for the laft purpofe, it does not anfwer well in its green ftate. The acorns of the grey and red oak, are much larger than thofe of the white. The leaves are al- fo larger, and very deeply finu- ated. They are probably not different fpecies of the oak, but only varieties. The laft kind, and the meanefl of all, is the dwarf, or Ihrub oak, it being fit for neither fewel nor timber. It is always crooked and fraal], and feldom rifes to the height (A ten feet. It delights in a prrjr Pni, m*A overruns many of ourfandy and gravelly plains.^ It has a [Ironic root, which will continue to fend up new Ihoots, thougli they are cut off yearly ; fo that tlier : is no effectual way to fubdue them, but by grubbing them, or pailuring goats upon them. As all the kinds of oak bear fruit, the fhrub oak as plentifully as any, thefe trees are of fome advantage in feeding fwine and poultry. They are fondeft of the acorns that grow on the white oak, as the other kinds have a bitter tafte. Some perfons gath- er them, and lay them up for winter feeding ot fwine. It '\% faid that acorns were anciently ufed as the food ct man : I fup- pofe it muft have L>een only thofe of the white oak. But even thefe, as well as the other kinds, are of a very altringent quality, too much fo to be a very whole- fome food, unlels in compofition with fomething that has a contra- ry quality. The OAK The bark of oak is flill more aftringent, forae lay equally fo with the coriex peruvianus, and may anfwcr the lame mcilical jnirpofes. This bark is ol gre^t life in tanning hides, and a good ingredient in dies. The oak produces a fungous ball, or apple, of a loofe, fott con- texture, which foon dries and falls off. and is of no ufe. But befides, it has little round hard kind of excrcfcenccs, called Sails, which are of great ufe in ying and making the beft writ- ing ink. Though they grow as large as nutmegs in otfier coun- tries, thofe which 1 have found in this, have been much fmallcr. Perhaps trees mull fUnd fingle many years, before they will be apt to produce galls of a large fize. I have not found them but upon the white oak, and thofc not larger than peas. I beg leave here to give the reader the hiftory of galls, from the Diiltonary of Arts. *' An infcft of the fly kind is inffruH- ed by nature to take care of the lafcty of her young, by lodging her eggs in a woody fuhilance, where they willbcddencicd from all injuries. She, for this pnr- pofe, wounds the branches of a tree ; and the lacerated velfols, difcharging theW contents, foon form tumours about the holes thus made. 'Dk: hole in each of the tumours, ttuoU)?ii which the fly has made its way, may [or the mod pan be found ; and when it is not, the maggot inhabitant, or its remains, are fure to be found within, on breaking the !|all. However, it is to be ob- erved, that in thofe galls which contain ievcral cells, there may be infetts found in fome of them, though there be a hole by which the mhabiiant oi another cell has cfcapcd," OAK 229 It IS to be wilhed, thatperfons in the oldell parts of the country, when an oak is felled, would feanii for galls. If they are pro- ducrd here in plenty, it will not be right to perlift in fending our money for them to foreign coun- tries. As trees, both for timber and fcwel, are become fcarce in fomc parts of the country, it is high time to begin to make planta- tions of trees for thcfe purpofes. And I know of no kind tliat will anfwer, all things confidered, better than the oak. The trees are fo hardy as never to be dam- aged by the fevere coldnefs of our winters : Neither have they been known to fuffer much by any kind of infe61s. The red and grey kinds are very rapid in their growth, and will foon re- pay the coll and trouble of rear- ing them : And the white is of fo cfTential importance for tim- ber, that a fcarcity of it is to be dreaded. Someofourpafture lands, which are high and quite bare, would be much i::iprovcd, if every hundred feet fqiiare were fhaded by a lotty oak : Befides gaining a beautiful appearance, efpecially if ihcy were placed in regular or- der. Barren heights, in fomc paflures, are in great want of trees to fhadc thfm. Copfes, or clumps, in fuch places, woul>f have excellent elfeHs. There would be more gra(s, the appear- ance would he beautilul, and the profit confiderablc. But the queftion is, in what manner fhall oaks be propagated ? They may undoubtedly be raifed m nurferies, and tranfplanicd, as well as other trees. But this method is not univcrfdlly approved. Mr. Miller fays, oaks arc beft produced from the acorns in the plac«s waeiv l]ic trees are to re- niaiQ 230 OAK main ; becaufe thofe which are tranfplantecl, will not grow to fo large a (ize, nor remain found fo long. He advifes to planting the acorns as foon as they are ripe in Ocloher, which will come up in the following April ; becaufe if they are attempted to be kept, they will fprout, although fp read thin. He directs that the ground ■defigned for a plantation, Ihould have a good and durable fence ; that it be prepared by three or lour ploughings and harrowings ; that the acorns be taken from the largeft and moft thrifty trees 5 that they may be fowed in drills about four feet afunder, two inches deep, and two inches a- part ; that the ground fhould be ploughed and hoed among them, during the firft eight or ten years ; that after two years fome oi them fhould be drawn out where they are too clofe ; and fo from time to time as they grow larger, till they come to be eight feet diflance, each way, when they will want no further thinning for a long time. But after the trees come to be large, bethinks 25 or 30 feet apart will be the right diflarrce. Another writer direfts that the acorns be gathered as foon as they fall in autumn, and kept in a box or boxes of fand till the following fpring. Then open them, and carefully plant thofe of them which are fprouted, which he fays will not fail to come up. But no time fhould be allowed- for the fprouts to dry. I incline to prefer this method, ~efpeclaily fmce I have tried that which is recommended by Mr. Miller without fucccfs. Not one in a hundred ever came up. A rich deep foil fuits the oak beft, and in fuch land they will grow to a large fize. The tim- ber is apt to be tough andpliable : OAK But in a gravelly foil, or one that is dry and fandy, the wood is more hard and brittle. The oak, however, will grow in almoft any foil that is not too wet. Many are apt to object againfl attempting to raife timber trees, that they Thall notlive to receive any advantage from them. But do they think they were born for themfelvcs only ? Have they no great regard tor the welfare of their own children ? Do they not care how future generations fare after they are gone ? The more grov/ing trees they leave upon their farms, the better will their children be endowed ; and does this appear as a matter of indifference ? Or if they fhould providentially be under the ne- cefTity of felling tlieir farms while they live, will they not be prized higher, by any rational purchafer, for having a few hun- dreds of thrifty young trees growing upon them ? But it is pofTiblethat while they hold their farms, they may receive actual advantage from their trees them- felves. PofTibly trees may grow fafler than they apprehend. The Marquis of Lanfdown planted with trees a fwampy meadow, with a gravelly bottom, in the year 1765, and in the year 17S6, the dimenfions of the trees were as reprelented in the following table. Height ia Circumf. Feet. Tt. In. LombardypOplar 6otoyo 4 8 Arbeal '- - 50 70 4 6 Elm - - 40 60 3 6 Cheftnut - - 30 50 2 9 Weymouth pines 30 50 2 5 Scotch fir - - 30 .50 2 10 Spruce - - 30 50 2 2 Larch - - - 50 60 3 10 The meafures were taken five feet above the ground. It appears that if trees can be waited for 21 years OAT yean they will repay the coft, by bccomijjg fit for many imporunt lilts. And I am porfuadfci that lonie of the fp'.»cics of oak will grow as faft as nioft of the trees, in tlic loregoiiig table. One acre will bear 160 oaks, at the diflanco of 15 feet troni each othtr : If each tree will grow in 30 years to half a cord ot wood, worth 12s. per cord, the vhole produce will be 90 cords of wood, worth 160 dollars, which is four dollars and a third per acre per annum,* for the ufe ot the land, a greater profit than wc expeit from other acres in gen- eral. It ought to be confidered that intermediate trees taken out jwung may nay the coft ot plant- ing and culture ; and that the land may ferve mofl of the time lor tillage or pafture ; tor tillage wliile the trees are fmall, which will haften their growth. The imrcafing dearnefs of fcwel and of timber Ihould put the holder ot land.jn old fcttlements, upon thinking ot the cultivation of all trees that arc ufetul for either of thefe purpofcs. The day is at hand, if not already arrived, when this will he one ot the mod profitable, as well as im- portant, branches of hufbandry. O.A.TS, AvriiJ, a well known train, very pleafant and nourifh- ing to horfcs, and conducive to keep them in healtii. Though oth- er (o\\s of grain are too binding. oats have a contrary efTeH ; and even too much fo, unlefs they be /wcated in a mow before they be thralhed. The flour of this grain is 110 bad ingrctlient in table pro- vifions. It is highly approved for gruels and puddings : Aiul would be more ufed, were it not for the difhculty of divefling the ^rain of its hulk. There are varieties of this grain, (Uflinguilhcd by ihcir diffcrcni OAT 231 colours, the white, the black, the grey, and the brown oats ; but a» thefe difTcr only in colour, they are not confidered as jliilititk fpe- cies. The white oats which are moft commonly cultivated in this country, are generally preferred in other countries, as producini^ the belt crops. But I fufpetl that fufficient trials have not yet been made here, in the culture of the black oats. The produce of them from a few corns fowed in a garden, hasbeen aftoniUiing. But this might be owing to the ncwnels of the feed in our cli- mate, or to fome circumllance lets confiderable, orlefs obvious. There is alfo a Ipecics of the naked oats. This, one would think, mult have the advantage of other oats, as it \^ thrafhed clean out of tiie hufk, fit for grind- ing. But wiih this grain we are yet unacquainted. I have lately met with theTar- tary oats, which refemble our white oats, butdifTer in their man- ner of growing. I'hc^ bear very picntitully : But are rather apt to lodge. Oats cannot be fowed too early in the fpring, after the grotmd is thawed, and become dry enough for lowing. The Englilh farm- ers fow them fome time in Feb- ruary. But in a wet foiT they fometimcs anfwer very well, though fowed in June. 1 hree bulhels of feed is the ufual quantity fown on an acre. This quantity fay fome will be rather more than enough on a rich foil. If the foil be poor, the quantify ot feed Ihonldbethe greater, fay they, as the plants will be fmallcr, will not tiller ; and Jo may ftand the nearereach other without crowding. But this is a matter of rpinion only, and may be a miflake. Oats 232 OAT Oats have ftrong piercing roots, and are called hearty feed- ers, fo that they can find their nouridiment in flifF foils ; and lor the fame reafon they fome- times produce great crops when fown after one ploughing. But two ploughings are generally better for them than one. When they are cultivated ac- cording to the new hufbandry, they fhould be fowed in double rows, fifteen inches apart, on beds fix feet wide. For they will grow taller than wheat, and therefore require more room. One bufliel of feed will be fuffi- cient for an acre in this way. Some advife to brining and liming the feed ; but this may as well be omitted, unlefs when they are fowed late. It may ferve in this cafe to quicker^ their growth. Oats (hould be harvefled in a greener ftate than other grain, j'he ftraw (hould not be wholly turned yellow. It will be the better fodder, if it do not Hand till it be quite ripe and faplefs. Mr. Cook, an Englifli writer, re- commends cutting them about four or five days before the ftate of ripenefs ; and fays they will improve by lying on the ground. But if they be quite ripe when they are cut, they will be apt to (bed out by lying. Though they fhould be well •dried on the groujid alter cutting, they fhould not be raked, nor handled at all, when they are in the driefl ftate. It fhould rather be done in mornings and even- ings, when the ftraw is made limber and pliable by the moill- ure of the air. If they fhould be got in when they are fome- what damp, there will be no dan- ger, having been before thor- oughly dried ; for the ftraw and ckaiF are of a very dry nature. O L I Some choofe to reap them : But the ftrav/ is fo valuable a fodder, that it is better to cradle or mow them. And that the ground may be well prepared tor mowing and raking, a roller fliould be paffed over it after fowing and harrowing : But fome prefer rolling the ground after the grain is fome inches high ; it is faid to clofe the foil to the roots, and make the grain grow with frefh vigour- Oats are fo apt to rob land of its richnefs that they fhould not be fowed on the fame fpot twice in fucceffion, unlefs the foil be very plentifully manured. In a fucceftion of crops, oats may fometimes be fown to advantage the firft year after the breaking up, before the land can be made mellow enough for other grain : Or they may follow wheat or barley. In the latter cafe, the wheat or barley ftubble fhould be ploughed in as foon as the crop is off. OLIVE, oka, the famous tree which produces oil. A fpecies ot thefe trees grow wild in the woods and forefts of France. But thofe which they cultivate profper well, and are fo fruit- ful and profitable, that the oil is an article of their exportation, particularly in Provence and Languedoc. Even in England the trees have produced fruit in the open air fit for pickling, though their fummers be not warm enough to bring the fruit to maturity. I am perfuaded our fummers are hot enough for this tree, fo that we might ctiltivate it to advan- tage, if our winters do not prove to be too cold. It is faid to grow on any kind of foil, though largeft in a rich one : But to produce the beft oil in a poor lean foil. As Bofton and the fouthcrly ONI O \M 233 them after fowing, efpccially li the foil be not fandy. And it 1$ may be made tocul- j not amifs to roll the ground at ler fowing fouthcrly part of France are in the fa'ne hfitude, it is lobc wilh- edr ti\.. ircesin this country. \\'huc\ci atui::pfs it. ihould lit them be h 'c.-mcJ. either by build- ings, or hit;li fenres, irom ihecoM north\vartil. Bit when th;s cxpuf-s the trees to fea winds, a f;v."''weftcrn expo- lure mav be .' ' better, Ittlielancll.- . it fhould be broken up aaci tilled on yearhct'>re thr* trees are planted , and it it be dunged it will hr better ty: t^e Tecs. The rc rather too much crpvy'dcd. An orchard muft be conftant- ly well fenced, to keep out cattle. It Ihould be enclofed by itfelf. Hungry Ihcep would peel the trees while they are young ; and cattle will l^ite off all the limbs ot young and old trees that are \v'itliin their reach. But there is no danger in turning in a horfe occaficnally, when there is grafs and no apples ; and fwine may be confined in an orchard that is grown up, fo that the trees can- not be hurt by them, and when the truitis not in their way. Sheep fometiracs get into an ; orchard that is well fenced, by I means of high banks of fnow, ; when they are flitF or crufted. I j can think of no better way to I prevent this, than to make the ! tencc fo open,w:ith rov.nd poles, j or. pickets, that the fnow will pafs- j freely through it, and not rife in j high banks. The latter hind ot I fence niigiit be fo conllruLted as ! to keep out fuch creatures as arc I apt to lake fruit from the trees, 1 without leave of the proprietor. j After an orchard is planted, it ! is bcft to keep the land continn- t ally in tillage, till the trees have , nearly got their full growth ; at ' lead till they have begun to bear plentifully. O R C f ! •niifuUy. Ibc trees \v\\\ prnw | l:ilcr, and be more trimtiil. ; Hut great can* limit he taken tliat the roots be not Jillurbcd by ploughing, nor tlic bark on tluc Hems <>t the trees wounded. The ground near the trees, wliich the plough leaves, Jhould bebrokeuand made mellow with a Ipade, tor tw«> or three years, before the roots haye lar extend- ed.^ Severe prunings fliould gener- ally be avoided. Tiic limbs that interlere, and rub each other, mull be cut out ; but never Ihort- en the Ihoots, nor cut oflFany ot the bearing Ipurs. lake oli al) decayed and broken branches, clofc to the ftems tram whence they are produced ; and cutaway all tuckers, as loon as they ap- pear, whether Irom the roots, trunks, or any other partf. Piun- ing thould be done in Nov«'in- bcr, or in the beginning ot De- cember. In the depth ot winter it will br apt to be neglected, and towards tpring the lap will \>c in motion, and the buds (welled. But luckCTTilhould be taken away whenever they appear. This re- quires dole attention. In foine ot our new towns and plantations, woodpeckers attack apple trees. 1 hey girdle the trunks ot the trees with a row ot deep holes, and fometi.'nes with fcveral rows ; which renders the trees (ickly and untniittiil. 1 am intormed that tnicaring the part \\ ith cow dung where tliey have b'gun, caule* them to delill. A piece ol birch l)a:k. put round the part wlieie they vdually peck, might guard a tn-e againll thetn. It will liold itfclt on for a long time, wherever it is put, and not need renewin^^. Iliebiids fecni to be molf toiid ot pecking on the upper part ot tli- Hems, jiear to the loweil bianJit;*. O R K 237 ORE WKED. /e-a -werd, fca xoarr, ox fca zmak. Thefc names aie applied to all the vegetables which grow plciuilully in the tea, a;id on the muddy and rocky pai ts ot the fliore below high water mark. The torts are cliietly three ; the kali, or rock weed, which ftrongly adheres to rocks, and which is allowed to be of the greatcft value for manure. The alga, called eel grals, or grafs wreck, is of the next rank as to its richnefs. But there is anoth- er toit, conlj fling of a broad leaf with a long thank or ftem, of an inch diameter, by tome ignorant- ly called kelp ; this is faidbyJSir A. Purvcs to be of the Icall val- Me ol any ol the fea weoils. However, none ot them are un- important tor lertili/ing thecarth. All vegetables when putrefied arc a gi>o»l pabulum tor plants ; for they conlill wholly of it. But the value «if maiine vegetables is greater than that of any other ; tor, betides the virtutjp ot the otlier, they contain a large quan- tity of fait, w hich is a great tcr- tiluer. Mr. Dixon thinks th(rfc weeds which grow in the deepdl water are the bell. Perhaps they ct)ntain a greater proportion of fait than thofe which giow near the Ihoie, as they are (eldoni or never wetted with frelh water. A great advantage that thefe plants have above any other, is their fpcedy termemation and putrefaction. The tarmcrlias no need to wait loiig alter he has got them, bctore he .1;. plies them I to the foil. The rock weed may I be ploughctl into the toil, as loon I as it is taken tioin the lea. Th;s is prahifed in iliofe parts of Scot- land which lie nearcll to the Ihore ; by which they obtain ex- cellent crops ot barley, witliMit impoverilhiii;^ the lt>il. N«-itluT have they any uccafion lor taU lowing 238 ORE lowing to recruit it. In hills of potatoes, it anfwers nearly as well as barn dung. I have Icnown feme fpread it upon young flax ne^viy come up, who lay it increafes their crops fur- prifingly. The flax may grow {o fall, and get above this ma- nure and (hade it, fo foon, as to prevent evaporation by the fun and wind; fo that but a fmall part of it is lofl ; and flax is fo liardy a plant that it does not fut- fer Dy the violence of fait, like maiy other young plants. JBut I rather think it is befl to putrefy fea \yreeds before they are applied to the foil. This ma/ fpeedily beaccomplilhedby lay.ng them in heaps. But the heaos fhould not lie naked. Let then be covered with loofe earth or turf ; or elfe mixed in com- pofl dunghills, or laid in barn yaris with divers other fub- jlaaces. This fubftancewill foon diftolve itfelf, and what is mixed with it, changing to a fait oily flime, very proper to fertilize light foils, and not improper for aliiofl any other. As to the eel grafs. See. tJie bcft way is to cart it in autumn iLtobarn yards, filling the whole a'cas with it, two or three feet ceep. It may be either alone, or Kave a layer of flraw under, and another above it. When it has been trampled to pieces by the cattle, and mixed with their ftale and dung, it will be fitteft to be applied to the foil. It being a light and bibulous fubftance, it will abforb the urine, which is totally lofl by foaking into the earth, unlefs fome fuch trafli be laid under cattle to take it up, and retain it. Farmers who are fituated near to the fea fiiore have a vafl ad- vantage for manuring their lands. If they were once perfuaded to ORE make a fpirited improvement, they might enrich their farms to almofl any degree that they pleafe. They fhould vifit the fhores af- ter fpringtidesanS violent ftornis, >fnd with pitchforks take up the weeds, and lay them in heaps a little higher up upon the fnore ; which will at once prevent their growing weaker, and fecure them from being carried away by the next fpring tide. Many are fo fituated that they can drive their carts on a fandy, hard beach, at low water, to the rocks ; and fill then! with weeds. Can they be fo flupid as to ne- gle6l; doing it ? It is even worth while to go miles after this ma- nure with boats, when it cannot be obtained more eafily. It has often been obferved that manuring with fea weeds is an excellent antidote to infecls. It is fo, not only in the ground, but alfo upon trees. I have an orch- ard which has been for many years much annoyed by caterpil- lars. Lafl fpring, about the laft of May, I put a handful of rock weed into each tree, jufl where the limbs part from the trunk ; after which I think there was not another nefl formed in the v.-hole orchard. April is a better time to furnifh the trees with this an- tidote to infecls. And the month of March is perhaps better flill. Putrefied fea weeds fhould, I think, be ufed for crops of cabba- ges, and turnips, and for any oth- er crops which are muck expofed to be injured by infecrs. . Onediiadvantageattendingtlie bufinefs of farming in this coun- try, is, that our cold vvinters put an entire flop to the fermentation, and putrefaction of manures. This may be in fome mcafure ob- viated ijy the ufe of rock weed, which is fo full of fait that it is not eafily frozen : Or if frozen, it is foos o s r {i,an thavred. I have hctn im formed that fome have laid iiun. ' "i diinghills by the hdcs : in which fituativn it n ; but by it> fcr- liifTolved itfcif, and inuv,h oi Ll:: liunq that lay upon it. There iN'mdoubtedly agreat advamajjc in lucha practice. Ap' t!"^r J'^ jntagc ot this kind ■1 muft not be I it iloes noten- i;rowth o\ weeds fo 1 1 dung. It is cer- tain It has none ol the feeds of weeds to propagatc.as bam dung almoH always ha<. But fome fuppofe that its fait is deftruftive ID many ot ilie feeds ot the moft tender kmds of plants ; it it be k), it is only when it is applied frefh trom the fea, at the time of fowing. But even this is doubtful. Tliis manure is rcprefenied in the Complete Farmer to be twice as valiuble as dung, if cut from the rocks at low water mark ; that a drefTmg of it will laft three years ; and that fruit trees which nave been barren are rendered fruitful by laying this manure a- bout their roots. OSIER, Sa.'ix, Sallow, or ftces. According to Mr. ere are fourteen fpccies ; the i%»igs of fome of which are much uted by bafkct makers in Europe. A fortof greyorbrown willow grows naturally in this country. in low moifl places. But it is only a bufliy llirub, of flow growth J and has not tliat tough - nefs m its (hoots for which fome of the foreign willows are valued. Two fi>rt$ arc propagated in this country, whicfi were brought from Europe. The young flux ns pf the yellow fort have a golden colour ; but the trunks of the trees arealmoff black. The green ijix bids fau" to be i^oie uJcful O V E «3§ than the other. They will grow- in almofl any foil, and come to be large trees ; but a moift foil fuiis them bcfl. I have known the green fon to grow where the ground is fome part of the vear flowed with water, as in the bor- ders of rivers and ponds. - It might be advifable for the people in fome parts oi the cotintry to propagate them for the fake of the wood. I know of no other trees that increafc nearly fo fall as botii thefe kinds do. A prodigious quantity of wood might be obtained from- an acre planted with them. In leff than twenty years they would be large trees. I have known fets, or cuttings of the fmalleft fize, in ten yean, grow to the fize of thirty inches round, or ten inches diamater. The trees are cafily propagat- ed by cuttings, or fets, either in fpring or fall. If in fpnng, they (hould be planted early, as foon as the ground is thawed. Young fets fliould be three feet long, and two thirds of their length in the ground. Live hedges may be more cheaply and expeditioufly made of ofiers than of any other plants. Stakes or truncheons of feven or eight feet long may be fet in a fpungy or miry foil ; they will take root and grow, and form a hedge at once. This faves the cofl of fecuring a young hedge. It is with gicat pleafurc that I ob- fer^•e fome fences ot this kind arc begun in the country. It i» a very cheap and eafy method of fencing, which cannot be too much encouraged. The trim- mings of the hetiges will be of great value in towns where wood is become fcarcc. and may be had yearlv. See H'iUotl'. OVERFLOWING of the 0:%lA., a thfcafc in hgraed cat- 24© O X tie, known by a copious dif- charge cf water at ihcir eyes. To cure it, take a hen's egg, open the end, and pour oS the white, reserving the yoik ; then fill up the cavity with equal q amtuies of foot, fait and black pepper ; draw out the tongue of the ani- ma!. and \vith a (lender flick pufh the egg do%vn his throat. It Ihould be repeated two or three roomings. It feldom fails to cure. OUT HOUSES, flight build- ings that belong to a raanfion houfe, but fland at a little dif- tance from it. When it can con- veniently be fo ordered, the out houfes of a farmer oi?ght to be fo placed as to be all contig- uous to the farna yard. Then all the dung, filth and rubbifh they afford at any time, may be flung into the yard, without the trou- ble of carrying ; where they will be raixed and mellowed by the trampling of beafts, and contrib- ute to the increafe of manure. OX, a caflrated bull. Till tliey are four years old, they are ufually called ftecrs, afterwards rxen. Oxen that are white, black and white, or a very pale red, are felJom hardy, or good in the draught. Red and white oxen are often good ; but the darkeil coloured oxen are gener- ally beft. Brown, dark red and brindled are good colours. The figns of a good ox arethefe : Thick, foft, fmooth and ftiort hair ; a fhort and thick head ; glofTy, fmooth horns ; large and Ihaggy ears ; wide forehead ; full, black eyes; wide noflrils ; black lips ; a thick flefliy neck, and large fhoulders ; broad reins ; a large belly ; thick rump and thighs ; a flraight back ; a long tail, well covered with hair ; fhort and broad hoofs. Steers at the age of two years asd a half^ or earlier, may be O Y S 5'okedand trained for the draught. If it be longer delayed, they are apt to be reitiff and ungoverna- ble. T'ley (hould not be work- ed by tiiemfclves, but in a team with other cattle which have been nfed to labour. Their work fhould be very eafy at firft, and only at fhort intervals, as they are apt to fret and v.'orry thera- felves excefTively. A gentle u- fage of them is befi, and beating them fhould be avoided. If oxen are worked in the yoke in wet and rainy weather, which fometimes unavoidably happens, their necks are aot to become fore. To prevent this, a little tallow fhould be rubbed on the parts of the yoke which lie upon tl;eir necks, and alfo upon the bows. When fleers come to be four year.'! old, they have one circu- lar ring at the root of their horns,- at five two rings, and one ring is added each year ; fo that if you would know the age of an ox, count the rings on one of his horns, and add three, v.'hich a- mounts to the true number of his years. It is the fame in a bull, and a cow. In ver}' old cattle, thefe rings are fometimes rather indiflin^h When an ox has completed his eighth year he fhould be worked no longer, but be turned off to fatten. His flefh will not be fo good, if he be kept linger. A little blood mufl be taken from him. that hemav fatten thefafler. OYSTER, or OISTER, a bi- valve teflaceous fifh. The low- er valve is hollowed on the in- fide, and protuberant without : The upper fhell is flat or hol- low on the outfide. The fliells of ihefe fifli are an excellent manure, but being large they fhould be burnt to lime be- fore thev are applied to the foil. P A N P. PALE, a pointed ftakf, ufcd in makinj? cncK^iurc;, partition*. Sec. Gardeners oitciuiines have nccafion to make pale fences, to iecurc choice apartments from the entrance of tame fowls, vhich will not often fly ever a palcil or picketed fence : As Well as to prevent the intnifion ofidli^and mifchicvous people. PAN, a ftratuni of compact earth under the foil. In fomc places it is fo hard that it cannot DC dug through without pickaxes PAN 241 elly fod, there is a large propor- tion of gravel in the pan ; under a Tandy one it ufually is found tn conlift chiefly of fand ; and under a Ififf loam it iscomnionly clay : I think it is always found to be fo. But I fuppofe the operation oi' troll Ihouid f>e confidered^ as af- fifting in forming the pan. All the foil above it is ufually hovea by the froft in winter. At Icafl it is fo in this latitude. We fee rocks and ftones below the fur- face when the ground is frozen, which before were on a level with it : and in a folt foil they or crows. It the pan be low, the | do not rife quite up to their form- foil is faid to be deep and good ; but if near the furtace, the foil is thin and poor. The common depth in good land is from eigh- teen to twenty four inches. Ihc deeper ftrata, or layers in the bowels of the earth, are fuppofed to have been formed, by the diurnal rotation of the earth, before it had become er fituation, when the ground is thawed. The froft docs more than tillage, and perhaps more than rains, or fermentation, to- wards cauling the more ponder- ous parts of the foil (or ponder- ous bodies in the foil) to fubfide, or fink. The froft may have another in- fluence in increafing the com- compart and folid. But this I paffnefs of the under ftratum. Ifratum being moreconffant and rc;^ular, the forniition of it, if I milfake not, (hould be afcribed to other caufes. If we fuppofe that this and the foil above were intermixed, and of one confift- cnce after the creation, the pan muft have been formed long be- As the froft expands the foil^ the prelfure of it downward is in- creafed ; by which preflurc, the matter of which the pan confifts, is made mcft clofe and hard, like earth that has been violently ram- med. But this perhaps can take place, only when the frozen ftra- forc this time, by the fubfidiiig • tuni is held down by ftrong ob- of the more ponderous parts of the foil. For it has been often ob- fer\"cd, that clay, chalk, and lime, which have been laid on as ma- nures, after fome years, difap- pcar from the furtace, and are found a foot or more bencaili it. Rains, and fermentations in the foil, make way for the defccntof the heavicil particles contained in the foil. It ts in f.ivourof thishypotbe- fis, that the pin under the foil moll commonly bears an affinity to the foil it felt. Under a grav- * Ft jetts, which reach far below the froft and pan ; as the ftumps of large trees deeply rooted, large rocks, 8cc. But it will be objected, that fome foils appear to have no pan under them. Fo anfwer this, it may be faid, that perhaps fome foils were originally roadc up oi |)articlcs equally ponderous ; fo that one had iio more tendency to fuhfide than another. Or el(c the loofenels and openncf* of the under earth r.\ fuch places, w..-s fo great that it could not ftop the ponderous 242 PAN ponderous pj^rts of the foil in their defccnt ; fo that they have been difpcrfed among the locic earth, and part ot them gone to a very great depth. If I have given a jtift-account of the formation of the pan, will it not follow, that this under Itra- tum is lefs penetrable in cold than in ^^-arm latitudes,, when made of like materials ? So tar 2s my obfervation has extended, this appears to be the cafe. It ought alfo to be lower in the earth, and the foil deeper ; and future obfervdtians may convince us that this alfo is iati. Another corollary may be. That deeper plci-.ghing than ih iifually practii'ed in this country would be proper. For it feems that nature defigncd all the flra- ta above the pan to ferve forpaf- tiue of plants. And it is well known that the more it is llirnd and mixed, the fitter it is for this purpofe ; not only becaufe it lies the more Icofc and open, but be- caufe the more of the food of plants will be contained in it^ Such a ftratura, at a riglit dif- tance from tlie furface, is a great benefit to the foil. For, as no manures can eafily. penetrate it, they muft remain in a good fitu- ation to be taken up by the roots of vegetables. But where there is no compact under llratum.,un- lefs at a great depth, manures laid upon the foil are partly lolt. Hence appears the great propri- ety of claying and marling fuch foils. In a long courfe of til- fage, thefc drcllnigs will fubilde, and do fomething towards form- ing the llratum that is wanted. But to form a good under ftra- tum at once, where.it is wanted, let one hundred or more loads ot clay be fpread on an acre of fandy grafs land. After it has iain, fpread upon the furface one PAN ; winter, let it be made perfectff : fine and even by a bufh harrow, I and rolled. Afterwards turn if , under with a very deep plough- I ing. This will 'greatly afhfl a '. weak dry foil to retain moilture, and to hold tlie manures that fhall i be given it. It will be a lading I benefit. But this ploughing j fhould be done at a time, when I the clay is fo damp that it will [ turn over in whole flakes. I When a plot of ground intend- I ed for a garden wants an under i ftratum, it may be advi fable to I dig trenches four feet wide, and j place a regular bed of clay in the j bottom. The fecond trench may i be contiguous to the firll, and the ] fjrft be filled up with the earth I that is tsken but ot the fecond ; ; and fo on till the whole work is •completed. Some have put themfelves to I the expcnfcof this operation, on- j fy with a view to get rid of all I the ix;sd of weeds in a garden I which had long lain neglefted, placing the upper part of the foil at the bottom. ! PANAX, GINSENG, or NINSENG. As this plant is a native of our country, and is be- come a confiderable article of commerce, I think it isneceffary that every one fhould know how to diff inguilh it from all other plants when he meets with it. I defire therefore to entertain the reader with Mr. Miller's account of it. " It hath male and hermaphro- dite flowers on diflinct plants. The male have fimple globular umbels, compofed of feveral coloured rays, which are equal. The flower hath five narrow, ob- long, blunt petals, which are re- flexed, fitting on the empalement, and five oblong flender ftamina inferted in the empalement, ter- minated by fiagle fummits. The hermaphrodite PAN PAR 243 efllve U- r inind ; . ot the hermaphroditeiimbelsarefiinplc, nefs occafioi^ed by exdtfllve ta- .. .1.1 in. I .-iiid I. * • f'-..^ ■ 1 ■>. f »iif»v «-!ihi-r .\f li.iK <■![• n)in(i * which tali V 1 in ihc J!)- a»a, uuu II prui^n^iN lilc m old ■4 art age." iiiuj .aiu IccJ. , CJliicj jailcU ill t:iglj:id, cr *■ ire, 1. Pannx ' brought from America. None feeds V >w. He esthehr; :;tcpljnts ctiu, :nc oi the nialit '^. 1 3 near lijein, to ; or panax with tuicc ictuicr tiic Iced prolifick. ; for leave;. ; II the plants he laved feed ' iioti had only heramphrodite .illy in N , rs. .^eneraiiy ntiicvcd to be the PA.NIC, «;r PAN'NIC, a kind la:nc as ti:i' J.i;:.;iMM Gnit, rjc- rf srraiii tl; ,t rtfernh!es' millet, it has a : ;;ie lame ciihure. :njli •y a li are 1:1: 1 u::. Ih? ot »n !; k. i. r an -.;. f;,.ij_ " r.» . wl . » . X . ail ii ' r*i 11 ■i ii ' be large d beiicr t icf- md :>-rd in depends rauck upcm tiieir m that It IS a ii ihcv br ; lor all wealv- ti:cv will ; ■ 244 PAR fize.. I fow them in rows acrofs the beds, 15 inches apart, and al- low about fix inches trom plant to plant at the lall thinning, which may be early, as they are not often hurt by infefb. I have feldom known any tpbedeftroy- cd by them. The feeds fhould be fowed as early as in March, it the ground be thawed, and not too wet. Some fow them in the fall ; but that is not a good practice, be- caufe the ground will grow too clofe and ftiff, for want of llir- ring in the fpring ; which can- not well be performed in gar- dens, without danger of in- 5uring the roots. And weeds vill be more apt to abound a- mong them, it they be fown in autumn. The manure that is ufed for parineps fhould be very fine and rotten, and quite free from flraws and lumps ; otherwife it will caufe the roots to be forked, ■which is a great dainage to them. They require but little manure, as they draw much of their nour- ifhment from a great depth. What manure is given ihcm, ihould be fpread before digging the ground, thattlome of it at leaft may go deep. They do not iin- poverifh the foil. I have raifed them near thirty years in the fame fpot, on a foil not naturally rich, and with a very flight yearly drefhng. The crops are better than they were at firll : And the earth is become very black to a great depth. Parfheps will continue grow- ing fo late as till the tops are kill- ed by the froft, if not longer. Some let them remais in the ground through the winter, ex- posing that they will grow larger in that feafon. But it is not pof- fible they fhould grow at all, fo •long as they art enclofcd with PAR the frozen foil. Tbcy may pof- fibly grow a little in tLc fpring, before there is oppojtuiiiiy to take them up, if they efcape rot- ting. But their growing will be chiefly fprouting at the top, which hurts them for eating. As foon as they begin to fprout, which will be as foon as the ground is thawed, they will begin to grow tough, and to have a bitterifh tafte. The befl way is to dig them up about the lafl of November, or in the beginning ot December. Let them not be wounded, or fo much as touched with the fpade in do- ing it, it it can be avoided ; nei- ther fhould the tops be cut off very clofe to the roots, nor any of the lateral roots cut off. In either cafe the roots will rot, or become bitter. Many lofe their parfneps, or make them fprout, by putting them into a warm cellar. It is better to keep them in lome out houfe, or in a cellar that freezes ; for no degree of froft ever hurts them. But to prevent their dry- ing too much, it is befl -to cover them with dry fods, or clfe biuy them in fandthai has no nioifture in it, Beach fand is improper, becaufe the fait in it will make them vegetate. It is fdid by European writers, that parfneps are an excellent food for fuine, and ufeful tor feeding and fattening all forts ot cattle. If we would cultivate them tor thcfe purpofes, the horfc hoeing liufbandry mult be applied. Tiie ground mufl be trcncii ploughed in October, and all the ftones carefully ta'tv 11 out. Tbetiench ploughing mufl be repeated be- fore the end of No\ ember, the foil made fine by harrowing, laid in beds of trom three to four feet wide, and fown by a line in drills on the middle of the bedi. There PAS way be cither one or two rows on a bed. If there hr {wo, Vivy liiouldbetii!! twcl\c . aiui the intervals prt., wider. Autumnal fowing in t})e field culture is not amiis, as the ground is to be k"rt ^^^t 'v horif hoe- ing. In ;!X»UTul ihould ' ruc plough Ihouid go twice m a fur- row. At the lall ploughing, the furrows ihould be turned towards the rows. PASTURE, according to the langtuge oi tarnicrs in this coun- try, means land m grals, tor the iummcr feeding of cattle. To manage palhire land ad\-an- tageoufly, it Ihould b« well fenc- od in imail lots, of four, eight or twelve acres, according to the largencfs ol one's farm and flock. And thelc lots (hould be border- ' «-d at leafl with rows of trees. It ' is befl that trees of fon:c kind or ' other Ihould be growing fcatter- j cd in every point of a palf are, fo j that the cattle may never have j iar to go in a hot hour to obtain | a c;^mtortable Ihade. The grals wili ;: licr in lots that are ' thu«. . .. and they will bear I drcugii; ii,c better. But too I ^rejt a proportion of Ihade Ihould | us II will give a four- I be avoided, nefs to the grafi. Smill lot*, thus fhelterrd, are not left bare ut inow lo early in the fpnng as larger ones lying bare, as fences and trees cauie r'.<)re of rt to remain upon the Kroiind. The cold wir^ds in N! -ch and April l.'.iii ttu? gr^fs I ;. !i when the ground i^ bare. A . the winds in winter will not ' r fnow to lie deep on laua IS too open to the rake of V. .Jsand ffcnns. It is hurtful to pafturrs to turn in cattle too early :•■ • ' 'i^g : i And moft hurtful tf . .;rc» P A S f^ I in which the grafs Ipringi earli- rik as in very low .md wet pal- ' lT Inch land in the > s the fu ard, fi» that It Will produce the lefs auantity of grals. Neither mould cattle be let into anv paflure, until the grafs is (o much grown as to afford them a good bite, fo that they may fill them- fclves without rambling over the whole lot. I he aoth of May is early enough to turn cattle into I almoft any of our palfures. Out ; of fome they fhoufd be keut lai- ; er. The dried pallures mould I be ufcd firft, though in them the ; grafs is Ihortcft, that the potch- ' ing of the ground in the wettell may be prevented. j The biifhcs and fhrubs that rife in pallures, ihould be cut in • the moll likely times to deflroy ■ them. Thiftles, and other bail ' weeds, Ihould Ik; cut down be- ' fore their feeds have ripened ; j and ant hills Ihould be deflroy- j ed. Much may be done to- j wards fubduing a bufhy paffurc, I by keeping cattle hungry in it. A continual biowling keeps ' down the young Ihoots, and I totally kills many of the bulh- I es. Srcprs and lieifers may mend fuch a^ pallurc, and continue growing. But as to ciear^'d pallures, it is not right to turn in all forts of cat- tle promilcuouUy. Milch kine, working oxen, and fjttingbeafis, fhould have the hrft feeding of an cncloluie. .afterwards, Iheep and horlcs. When the firft lot IS thus fed ofi, it Ihould be liiut up, and the dung that has been bed. b«nic clung 246 PAS Sometliing confidera^le is fav- ed by letting all forts of grazing animals take-their turn in a paf- turc. By means of this, nearly all the herbage produced will be- eaten ; niuch of which would otherwife be loft. Korfes will eat the leavings of horned cattle; and Iheep will eat fome things that both the one and the other leave. . But if in acourfeof pafturing, by means of a fruittul year, or a fcanty i\ock. of cattle, fome grafs of a good kind fhould run up to feed, and not be eaten, it need not be regretted ; for a new fup- ply of feed wilTfiU the ground •with new- roots, which are better than old ones. And I know oi no grafs that never needs renew- ing from tlie iecd. A farnT^r needs not to be told, that if he turn fwine into a paf- tnre", th'ey Ihould have rings in their riofes, unlefs brakes and oiher weeds need to be rooted out. Swine may do feryice in this way. They fhould never have the firft of the feed ; for they will foul the grafs, and make it diilafteful to horfes and cattle. Let the flock of a farmer be greater or lefs, he, fhould haveat leafl four enclofures of palture land. One enclofure may be fed two weeks, and then ihut up to grow. Then another. Each one willrecruitwell infix weeks ; and each will have tiiis fpace of. time to recruit. But in the lat- ter part of Odober, the cattle may range through all the lots, unlefs fome one may have be- come too wet andfoft. In this cafe, it ought to be ffiut up, and keptfo till feedingtime the next year. But that farmers may notte troubled with low miry paflures, they fhould drain them, it it be PAS prafticable,or can be done confift- ently with their other bufmefs. If they fhould produce a fmalier quantity of grafs afterwards, it will be fwecter, and of more value. It is well known, that cattle fatted in a dry paflure, have better tafled flefh than thofe which are fatted in a wet one. Iii the old countries it will fetch a higher price. This is particu- larly the cafe as to mutton. Feeding paftures in rotation, is of greater advantage than fome are apt to imagine. One acre, managed according to the above directions, will turn to better ac- count, as fome fay who have prac- tifed it, than three acres in the common way. By the com»- mon way I would be underflood to mcfsn, having weak and tot- tering fences, that will drop ot themfelves in a few months, and never can refift the violence of diforderly cattle ; fuffering weeds. , and bufhes to overrun the laud j keeping all the pafture land in one -enclofure ; turning in all forts of ft ock together ; lulTering the fence to drop down in au- tumn, fo as to lay the pafture common to all the fwlne and cattle that pleafe to enter ; and not putting up the fence again till the firft of May, or later. Such management is too com- mon iriall the parts of this country with which I am moft acquainted. I would fiopc it is not univerfal. Land which is conflantly ufed. as pafture, will be enriched. Therefore it is advi fable to mow a pafture 'oi once in three or four years, if the fuvface be fo level as to admit of it. In the mean time, to make amends for the lofs of pafture, a mowing lot may be paftured. It will thus be improved : And if the grafs do not grow fo rank afterwards in the pafture lot, it . V'iU be more clear PAS *"lcar of weeds, and bear better ^rafx. Alternate pallurinc; and mowing has the advAiiiageof fjving a good deil of expenfc and trouble, in rjiiuiring the moivini^ gr(nitidy, that part of x in which the roots of pla:l:^ extend and receive their nourifhmcnt. This is pr«)pcrly their natural paflurc. liut more commonly thcfe exprcilions in- tend that depth of foil which is f*?rred, and rcndcrvd fo loofe by liat tlie roots of tender iosealily penetrate it, as ttie>' extend themfelves in qucft of nourifhrnetit. Within certain limits, the greater qtiantity of paflurc a plant has, the greater advantage It has to get nourilhment. But fome require a greater, and fome a lei's qiun'iv nf njfture, ac- cording t^ : • to which their roots a: ! to extend. Therefore, I fhould be placed at grca.. . ^ .uices than others. The farmer (hould be able todeierminethcfediftances, with refpcrt to every plant that he cultivates ; becaufe the large- nefs of his crops in fjrne in-jaf- urc ' 's on it. He (ho.il 1 the. ' nd to the conftrur- ture ot iiie roots of diffcrcr'.l {►lants ; and ohfervc to what engthtliclr '• •<; extend. But ns «!'. ■ )■ fibres of ■10 if lie lo i.uall, and fo im; , with- the colour ()t the lull, ai to becomo^Qvidblc PAS 147 near their extremities; the fol- lowing experiment is adapted to throw much more light on this lubject, than any examina- tion ot the roots by the eye. In a foil that is become hard and bound by lying, let a triangle be marked on the grouiui, forty yards ilie length of the f: ■ - 1 tour yards the Icttgthol Let the foil it includes uc wcil dug and pulvcrifed. Then draw a Ime fo as to bifc6l the bafc and the acute angle. Oa this line, at equal diftanccs, plant the (j feet on each (ifle, and from that dil"- tance drawn part of its nounfli- ment. Mr. Tull, in his experi- ment, made ufe of the feeds of turnip : But other feeds may ferve as well ; and it miglit be advantageous to make trial with many kinds of feed. I do not recommend that all plants, which extend their roots as much as two feet, lliould be placed four feet apart. Doubt- lefs the capillary roots may in- termix, to a certain length, with- out robbing eacii other to fuch a degree as to injure the crop ef- fentially : But the comparati^'C di {fanccs at which lifferent plants ought to grow, may in tliis way be afgertaine*! with exa^fncfs. Another thing which ought to he determined, is, what depth ot paflurc different plants require. For this purpofe, let one bed be dug nine inches tleep, another of equal dimenfions. and foil, twelve, and another fifteen. Let t!ic three haU be ftt with equal uumb«rs of the fame kinds oi feeds ; fi48 PAS feeds ; and let tlie pro luce be compared. If it be found that the excefs in the crop \v\\l not pay for extra tillage, the extra tillage fhould be avoided for the future. But the cxperinnent iliould be made t\v-ovearsin fuc- celDon,wiihout Ihifting the beds ; becaufe the dcepefl part of the foil will be in better order the lecond year than the firft, in larid which has not before been dug to that depth. The refult might be with the more fafeiy depend- ed on, if the trials were made three years in fuccefTion. And there will flil! he fome danger of drawing too haffy a conclufion, if another thing be not confidereil, which is, that pl'ants, which ffand fo near to- gether as to be (oiiiewhat crowd- ed, will alter the natural form of their roots, and point more i downward, when there is a plen- I ty of artificial paifure below theni. '■ So that deep tillage will render j it proper to fet plants proportion- j ably nearer together. The beds i Ihould therefore be dug the fourth year as before. If the firll in- I elude one hundred plants, let the j fecond include one hundred and | fifty, and the third two hundred, j I fuppofeail the beds to be equally j mamired, and equal in dinien- i fions.as well as equally pulverif- } ed, and to the faiiie depth as be- i lore, and equally tended after I fowing. Thenby comparingthe , produce, it may be determined i PAS fame depth. If the tillage difTer, the crops will differ in proportion. But I will next obferve, that there are three ways of increaf- ing theartificijl paifure of plants : One is tilling the land to a great- er depth, by means of which a greater quantity of foil, under a given furface, is employed in the bufinefsof vegetation : Another is A more perfect tillage, by which the number of little cavities in the foil are increaled, fo that the roots may come into contact with a greater quantity of vegeta- able food, more or lefs of which is contained in the lliffeft parts i of the foil : The third is apply- ' ing fuch manures as raife a fer- ! mentation in the foil, by which j its parts are well broken and di- ' vided, and kept in that flate till I the fermentation ends, and for ^ fome time after, till the foil has had time to fubfide. Tillage and manure are both requifite to pulverife the foil. ^Vithout the former, the manure cannot be properly mixed with the loil ; and tillage alone will not anfwer, not even in land con- fiderably ftored with the food of plants, unlefs it be often repeat- ed while the crop is growing : Becaufe the foil that is only till- ed, loon fettles, and becomes too compaibt ; unlefs manure be ap- plied, which will keep up a fer- mentation, fometimes for feveral months, l;efides increafing the vegetable food. Anv one mav whether making a deep paifure ! obferve, that dunged land feel;? for the roots be really advibcr ofone large one.maiiyfn: arc form- ed, of a fize m . Ic to facil- V.- -• : !.c" (Arc :i;.^i:i ol i oots. a w I kindot truii trees, of\. • is yet no great va- riety ui this country. Mr. Miller reckons no lefs than 31 forts, bc- fidcs a number oi lefs valae. We have room for making very great improvements, it feems, in the culture of this fruit. What yfc call the rareripe, is almoil the only fort 1 have feen, that is worth cultivating : And this kind, within thirty years pafl, feoms to have greatly degenerat- ed. I apprehend it is time that tliefe were renewed, by bringing the trees or iloiies from fonie other coimtry. Peach trees (houMbc cultivat- ed near to fir \n tlie borders o* ijuu inai cd on the tree, anu \ irujculaiinguj>onpluinsand Tins will undoubicd- t^,...,-, l,w \ roou (l diort, ai. at a goo^: drawmui.. irom a great U(. ;.'.h. the fap will be crudr, ' ^-xkI. a . . . . igcr lived, aretranfpljnt- t Ihoot ot the pruned very ' be left trees :: r.')ur;iiimeiii PEA 24^ of a warmer climate they ough** to have a fouthern expofure. They Ihould a Ho be fcreened fromthcdirett influence of north, and nortbcafteriy winds. llic foil that (uitsihem befl is a dry liglit loam ; and the fur- face Ibould be conftaniiy tilled; and moderately manured with old rotten dung. It too great a quantity of peaches appear on the trees, [o as to crowd each other, they fliould be fpeedily thinned, by- taking off the poorell : For if they be fufFercd all to remain on the tree, much ot the fruit will drop off unripe : What remains will not be fo perfect, and per- haps fewer in number. As the fruit grows not on fpursv but on the Ihoots made in the laft preceding year. Mr. Milbr dirc6b,that the new Ihoots Ihould be fliortencd, by cutting ilierai yearly in October, leaving them f rom five to eight inches in lencjtlj, according as they are weaker or lironger. I have prattifed this method of cutting in October tor fcveral years ; wliich lias caufed trees, ^v!lich were before barren, to bear feme tViiit. And ' ixcthatt' : [he lenot fo -. th lioilin winter. But the trees hav« now become fickly and barren. PEARTRLKS.P>77/j. Pcarg have a nearer aHiniiy to quinces than to apples : For a pear cion will grow and profper upon a quince flock, but not fo well upon an apple : And a quince cion will grow upon a pear flock. The vail variety of pears, which are cuhivated in the world, have been o! ' iuim the feeds, which, i of the apple. \\ ' c truit tices din<-io bulhel only on an acre, muft not expett, one time with another, to reap twelve. The only infe6l that common- ly injures our peafe, is a fmall brown bug, or fly, the egg o£ which is depofitcd in them when they are young, and the pods eafi- ly perforated. The inie6l does not come out of his nell, till he is furnifhed with fhort wing?. They diminifh the peafe in which they lodge to nearly one half, :!nd their leavings are fit only lor the food of (wine. The bugs, however, will be all gone out, if you keep them to the following autumn. But they who eat bug- gy peafe, the winter atier tht-y are raifod, mud run the venture o£ eating the infefcls. If fown in the new plantations, to which this bug has never been carried, peafe are tree trom bugs ; For the infcHs do not travel tar fr')m their native place. There- fore, care fhould be taken not to carry them, as fome are apt to do, in feed, from older lettle- ments. Even in apartot an oIJ farm, near to which pcafe have not for a hmg time, if ever, been fown, a crop ot pc.ifc are not buggy, if clean feed be fown. Therefore, in fuch places, one 7nay guard againif this infett, by fowing peaie which are certainly known to he clear ol them. But il the contrary be known, or even fufpe^ted, let the pcafe he Icald- cd a quarter of a minute, in boil- ing water ; tlicn fprcad about, cooled, and fcwn widioui delay. u 252 PEA If any of the bugs fliould be in | the peafe, this fcalding will def- i troy them : And the peafe, in- 1 ilead of being hurt, will come Up the fooner, and grow the iailer. j All peafe that are fown late, i fhould be fleeped,or fcalded,be- | lore fowing. Tiiey will be ior- warder. But peafe fhould always be fown as early as the ground ; can be got into a good tilth, with- out anv filly regard to the time of the moon ; by which I have known fome mifs the right time of fowing, and fuffer much in their crop. The real caufes of a crop not ripening equally, are bad feed, poor culture, and fowing too thin. If the ground be ploughed but once, it fliould be harrowed abundantly. But on green fward ground, I think it fhould be ploughed early in au- tumn, and crofs ploughed and harrowed in the fpring. In old ground, as it is called, it is no bad V4V to plough in the feed with - ^- ' furrow : It will be more covered, and beardrought i.'t:.;r ; and I Ihould think the «roo would ripen more equally, is no danger ot their being . too deep, in our common iiiern .>d of ploughing. The Eu- ropean farmers think fix inches is not too great a depth for peafe to be covered in mo ft foils, and four inches not too deep in clay. Changing the feed is a matter of v'^ry great importance ; for peafe are apt to degenerate more rapidly than almoll any other plants. Seeds fliould be brought from a mere northern clime ; for thole which ripen earliell are heft. I Would change them yearly, if it could be done without much trouble or coft. Once in two or three years is neceiTary. If weeds come up among field peafe, while they are young, they PEA fliould be weeded. But whei| they are grown up, they will hinder the growth of weeds by their fliade, unlets they are fow- ed too thin. Peafe fown thick form fo clofe a cover for the foil, that they caufe it to putrefy ; they are therefore called an im- proving crop : But they alfo draw a greater proportion of their nourifhment trom the air, than raoft other plants ; for it is ob- fervable that they continue their greennefs long after the lower parts of the fleins are dead to ap- pearance. Garden peafe are harvefled by- picking them off as they ripen ; but field peafe muil unavoidably be harvelted all at once. They fliould be carefully watched, and harvefled, belore any ok them are fo ripe as to begin to fhell out. Thofe among them which are unripe, will ripen, or at leaft be- come dry, alter they are cut or pulled up ; and fuch peafe, v;ell dried, are not commonly had for eating, though ill coloured. To dry them, they Ihould be laid on the ground in fnall heaps, as light and open as poflible, the greeneft ot the flraw and pods uppermoft. The heaps fhould never be turn- ed upfide down, though rain {hould fall, but they may be gent- ly lightened up, if they fettle' clofe to the ground. This will be fufficient. When thoroughly dried, they fhould be carefully removed to the barn, at a time when the air is not dry, and thraihed without delay. But if the thrafliing muft be delayed, it is better to keep them in a flack than in a barn. After v/innowing, peafe fhould lie on a floor, three or four inch- es thick, and air fliould be let into the apartment, that they may be dried ; which they will be in two er tkrec weeks, the weather. being PEA beincT j»enerally dry. Ahcr this they may be put into* alks to keep. Our conini.'ii ;: iliotl of pull- ing up pcalc '[•) ; !:i.!, is too la- borious. Thiv 111 Jiii'l be cut or pulled up with .! :,';.: p hnnk in the form ot a (i. to a long handle. . ' ; it cxpcditioully with a coriiniou fickle. But this is little, it m all, lefs laborious than doing it with the hand. When land is in fuitablc or- der, field peale may be cultivated according to the new hulbandry, with advantage. M. Lyma found his crops w crc half as large again in this way, as in the old hulbandry, befides faving half tlie feed. The intervals between the double rows ihould be near four feet wide, or tiiere will not be iufticient room tor horlc hoeing. And this iiiouid be none with, be- fore the plants begin to trail on the ground. PL.A.r, a kind of earth, or rath- er a foflil, tiled in fome countries for tewel. It is otten found in low, mi- ry, and boggy places, that lie between hills. 1 hat which is the moif folid IS tl.e molt valuable. Jt lies at diHercnt depths ; forac- times, very near the furface ; iemetimes eight or ten feet below it. The belt way to find it is by boring. 1 he llratum above it is moll commonly mud, ©r moi:rv earth. I fuppofe many places whrrr it is found toIia\L- Iicen originally ponds ; ' they have been, citlier , at the time .a Noah's lijuJ, oi gradually lince, filled up with wood, and other Vfgetaii flow }. changed imo i Call peat. VoT . trunks of trees, iiark, ii.e. are found among it. PEA 253 It is fometimcs found in inter- val lands, and near to the banks ot rivers. In thcfe places, the Ihittingot thebelsof rivers, caul- ed by the choking of the oM cur- rents, will aiFonl a probable ac- count ot Its formation. Peat is diltinguilhablc by its cutting very fmooth, like butter or lard, by its being tree from grit, and its burning treely, when tlioroughly dried. It will not dillolvc when expoCed to the air tor a long time, but become hard like cinder. A dry feafon is the bed oppor- tunity tor digging it, as the la- bourers arc but little incommoded by water. They who dig peat for iewel, thould have long angular fpades, the blades of which Ihoiild be Ihaped like a carpenter's bur, with which it may tie eafiiy cut out of the pits, in pieces four inches fquarc, and twenty inches in length. Thele Ihould be laid fingly on the furtacc to harden. When they are partly dry they are piled cpen, athwart each other : And in a few days of dry- ing weather, they will he fit to cart, and llore tor tewel. This fewel muftbeconllantly kept in a dry place. It has been found by trials that the afhcs ot peat is a very impor- tant manure, ot three times tlic value ot" wood alhcs. Filtcen '" Is are allowed to be a fuf- .11 top drilling tor an acre. 1 . is an excellent manure for cold grafs lands ; atul tor all luch crops in any toil as require much heat. 1 h^y (houhl be lowed Ly hand, as tiu-y can i!ius be more evenly fpread. It may be done in winter with the leaif dan- ^T of hurling plants by its It lown in lummer, it .! h It w . of 11: ■*ore rain, wlien 'tely deprived i.tV. The S54 PEA The method of burning peat to afhes, I will give from the Mu- Jeum Rujlicum, as I have had no experience in it myfelf. " As foon as it is dug, fome of it is mixed in a heap regular- ly difpofed v/ith faggot wood, or other ready burning fewel : Af- ter a layer or two of it is mixed in this manner, peat alone is pil- ed up to complete the heap. A heap will confifl of from ene hundred to a thoufand loads. " After fctting fire to it at a proper place, before on purpofe prepared,it is watched in the burn- ing : And the great art is to keep in as much of the fm.oke as pol- fible, provided that as much vent is left as will nourifli and feed the fire. " Whenever -a crack appears, out of which the fmoke efcapes, the labourer in that place lays on more peat ; and if the fire flack- €ns too much within, which may be known by the heat of the out- fide, the workman muft run a flrong pole into the heap, in as many places as is needful, to fup- ply it with a quantity of trefli air. When managed in this man- ner, the work goes on as itihould do. It is noticed, that when once the fire is well kindled, the heav- ieft rain does it no harm whilftit is burning." To preferve the afhes for ufe, this writer proceeds thus : " It is neceflary to defend the afhes from the too powerful in- fluence of the fun, air, dews, rain, &c. or great part of their virtue would be exhaled and exhaufted. If the quantity of aflies procured is not very great, they may be eafily put under cover in a barn, cart lodge, or hovel ; but large quantities muft neceffarily, to avoid expenfe, be kept abroad ; and when this is the cafe, they *iould be ordered as follows : PEA " A dry fpot of ground muS be chofen ; and on this theaflie* are to be laid in a large heap, as near as poflible in the iorm of a cone ftandingon its bafe, the top as (harp pointed as poflible : When this is done, let the whole be covered thinly over with a coat of foil, to defend the heap from the weather : The cir- cumjacent earth, provided it ie not too light and crumbly, " When thus guarded, the heap may ver>' fafely be left till January or February, when it is m general the feafon for fpread- ing it. Butbeiore itisufed, itis always befl to fift the afhes, &c.'* Mr. Eliot fuppofedit was nec- efTary to dry the peat before burning : But perhaps he never tried the above method. He fays, if it be flifled in burning, it will be coal inftead of afhes ; and that the red fort makes bet- ter charcoal than that made of wood. It is happy for mankind, that bountiful Providence has prepar- ed and preferved this precious ireafure, containing the efTence of vegetables, by which they may be fupplied ^vith fewel in their houfes, manure for their lands, and coal for fmiths' forges. But in vain itis provided, unlefs men will fearch for it, and make ufe of it. There is no reafon to doubt of its being as plenty in this country, as in any other. When Mr. Eliot fearched for it, he tells us he foon found it ia {t\en different places. The afhes are faid to have a better effe6l upon winter,than up- on fummer grain ; and to be not good for leguminous plants, as it makes their haulm too luxuriant. The good effefts of a dreffing are vifible for three years ; and they will not leave land in an impov- erilhed flate. PEN, PER PEN, a fmall cnclofurc, to confine animals in. PERKIN, or PURRE, a liq- uor made trom the murk, or grots matter, remaining alter perrv is prcfled out. It has the fame affini- ty to perry as cyilt-rkin has to cy- cer. i'o make this liquor,iheniurk is put in a large vat with a proper ouantiiy of boiled water.which has Kood till it is cold again. It may infufc 48 hours it the weather be cool, and then be prefTcd out. The liqour may be put into cafks and lightly Hopped, and will be fit to drink, in a tew days. It is •qiial tt) fmall beer : But if well boiled with hops, it will be fit for keeping till the following fummer. And it may be great- ly improved by bottling. PERRY, a liquor made from pears, in the fame manner as cy- der is from apples. The pears fliould, in general, be ripe bctore they are ground. They will not bear fo much fweating as apples. The mod crabbed and woril eat- ing fruit, is faid to make the bcft perry. After perry is made it fhould be managed in all refpefts like cyder. Boiling has a good effcft on perry, changing it from a white to a tlame coloured and fine fla^'oured liquor, which grows better by long keeping and bottling. PERSPIRATION of PL.\NTS, the palling off of the juices that are fuperfluous, through \ pores prepared by nature on \ their fupcrficics for that purpolc. The analogy which plants bear to animah, is in no inliancc more remarkable than in this c- vacuation. The parts of a plant which contain the excretory clu61s, are chiefly the leaves. For vefind, that if a tree be contin- ually deprived of its leaves for two or inrec years, it will fickcn uid die, as an aiunul docs when PER ^5S its pcrfpiration is flopped. \\u^ fmear tlie bark on the ftcmswittk any glutinous fubflancc (u(H. civnt to Hop any pores, and no great alteration will be obfervcd in the health of the tree, as has bcenproved by experiment. And as M. Bonnet has proved that leaves ccnerally imbibe the moif- tureof the atmofphercon their un- der furtace, is it notreafonablc tf> fuppofe that the pores for tranf- piration are placed on their ly)- per furlacc ? But that the llchis ot plants contain fome bibulous pores, feems evident from this, that when placed in the earth, they will fend out roots. But thefe pores in the flcms are fo few, that the flopping of them does not materially injure a plant. As animals have other ways of throwing off thofe parts of their food which are not fit to nourilh them, it is no wonder that plant* have been found to pcrfpire in- fenlibly a far greater quantity than animals. Plants cannot choofe their food as animals do, but mufl take in that which is prefenicd by the earth and atmof- phere, which tood in general is more watery, and lefs noiuilh- ing, than that ot animals ; and for ihefe realons, alfo, it might be jtiflly cxpecled, that the matter perfpired by a plant fhould be vaPily more thin that perfpired by an animal ot the fame bulk ; and this has been found to be the cafe. See the article Leaves. A practical inference or two from the copious pcrfpiration of plants may be. that the plants we cultivate fhould not be fet too clofe, that they may not be incommoded, or rendered fickly, by the unwholefome fleams of each other. They are as liable to be injured this way, for ought that appears to the touirary, 256 P L A contrary, as animals are. And the water that drips from trees upon finaller vegetables is known to be not healthy for thern ; the reafon is, becaufe this water con- tains fonie of the matter which perfpired from the trees. But if the perfpirable matter oi plants be injurious to plants, it does not follow that it is fo to animals. It is thought to be not fo in gen- eral, but the reverfe. Theelilu- vium of poifonous plants is an exception. PLANT, an organical body, dellitute of fenfation and fponta- neous motion, adhering to an- other body fo as to draw its nouriflinient from it, and propa- gating itfelf ^y feeds. This name comprehends ev^ery thing that exifls in the vegeta- ble kingdom of nature, from the lofty cedar of Lebanon to the minuteft mofs. Plants by their want of fenfi- bility, and their fixed pofition, are inferiour to, and diflinguifh- ed from the animal part oi cre- ation ; alfo, by their organiza- tion, and power of reproduc- tion, they are fuperiour to and dillinft from the kingdom oi foffils and minerals. They hold the middle rank in the vifible works of the Almighty Creator ; and are conftrutted with luch admirable wifdom, as to be lit to fliew forth his praife. The external and raofl; obvi- ous parts of plants are the root, ilem, branches, leaves and flow- ers. The root, by which a plant is connefted with the earth, con- tains a vaft multitude of abforb- ent pores, through which it un- doubtedly receives the greater part of its nouriihment. But the interna) llruftme ot plants, though perhaps iar more jmple than that of animals, feezns FLA net yet to have been thoroughly inveiligated Dr. f-Iill's fyflem of the anat- omy of plants, as reprefcnted by Dr. Hunter, in the Georgi- cal Elfays, I will lay before the reader, as concifely as poffible. " The conftituent parts of a plant are, iw The outer rind. 2." The inner rind. 3. The blea. 4. A vafcular feries. 5. A flelhy lubliance, or the wood in a tree or Ihrub, 6, Pyramidical velfels included in the flclh. And 7. The pith. " llie fmallefl fibre of the root,- and the fmallelf twig in the top, have all thefe parts ; and no part oi the tree has more. Even the flower is made of the extremi- ties of thefe parts. The outer bark ends in the cup of the flow- er ; the inner rind in the outer petals ; the blea in the inner pe- tals. The vafcular feries ends in the neftarium ; the pyramid- ical veiTels form the receptacle, and tlie pith furniflies the feeds. " The outer bark is made up of membranes with a feries of veffels between them, which velfels inofculate with thofe of the inner bark, to which they communicate part of their juices. " The inner bark is made of regular iflakes, each ot which confiils of two membranes, in- clofing a feries of veflels which connnunicate with thofe ot the blea. " The blea lies next to the in- ner bark, and is made up of hex- agonal cells ; and in angles torm- ed by thefe cells are the velfels of tlie blea, which pour their contents into the cells. Thefe cells feem to be refervoirs for the water imbibed by the plant." Out of the contents of thefe cells I fuppoie a new circle of flelh I or wood in perennial plants to I be annually fgnned, P L A **Next to the blea lies the vaf- Bular fcries, .a courle of vcflels lodged between two membranes. Thefc vcfFcls have a tree com- jnunication with the blea, mid the wood. " The wood, or flefhv part, is made up oJ llrong fibres, in which may be fecn the tracheae, filled will) clallick air. " The pyramidical vefTels are fpread through the fubllance of the flcfh, and as they advance up- wards their ramifications inofcu- FLA 157 fpccies of gypfums, dug near Mount Maitre, a village in the neighbourhood of Paris; whenco the name. ** The befl fort is hard, white, fhining and marbly ; known by the name of Plajitrjione^ or Pur- get of Mount Maitre. It ^will neither give fire with fteel, nor ferment with aquafortis, but very freely and readily calcines in the 1 fire into a very fine plafter ; the ufe ol which in building and ol which in building carting flatues is well known." Jate, io as to prevent obftru6tions ! Dicl. of Arts. of the fap in its courfc. The I When this fubflance is reduc- fides of thcfe velTels are always ed to powder, without burning, a in contacl with the tracheae ; and moderate degree of heat will they alfo communicate with the . make it boil like milk, and ap- pith ; \vhich is found in the ccn- j pear like a fluid. But it cannot ire of all plants, but not always regularly continued ; therefore it IS not thought to be abfoluiely necelFary to vegetation. It re- ceives a fluid from the pyramid- ical velFels, and is thought to be a refervoir of part of the fap. It is found in the ribsof leaves, and runs to the ovarium." Diubtlefs there are alfo vari- ous llrainers, by which di fcrent Le made to boil more than fif- teenor twenty minutes. Whence I conclude it contains a large quantity of fixed air, which is difcharged in boiling. After Handing a few days the fixed air wilhbe reftored,and it will boil in the fame manner as before. It was not till of late that it has been known as a manure. The Pennfvl vanians have im- juices are allimilated to the na- ported it from France, as I am ture of the plants ; and by wliiJi j informed, and find it a great ad- juices in the fame plant are p pared for feveral purpofcs ; for the leaves, the fruit and the feeds contain different juices. The ihorteft cion muft be fuppofed to contain fome of thefe ftrainers ; vantage to their crops. They re- duce it to a fine powder in mills for that purpofe, before they ap- ply it to the foil. Several fhip loads have been carried from Sov^fcotia to Philaddpkia ; but other\vife it would not produce ; this is not found to be fo good a its own proper fruit, but that of ; manure as the French gypfum. the (lock on which it is grafted. Five or fix bulhels are faid tt> Many fons of plants may be be a drefTing tor an acre ; I have made to vegetate in an inverted j netfcr heard of more than fix fiule ; 3 proof that the difTereni bulliek being laid on an acre^ It parti of a plant are nearly of the . is ufcd as a topdrelllng on grafs lame Ifrutiurc. It alfo (hews ; land ; but mixed with the foil ia that the leases arc adapted to take tillage, when the cropsarc hoed, in nourilhmentas well asthe roots, which is unavoidable. PLAS ItR of PARIS, Ol j When it is fowed upon wheat GYPSU.NL " The plafter of and other gr.iin, while it is grow- Paiu IS a preparaliuu of leveral . ing, it bu as good an effect as the Hk larSiiJi S58 V L O largeft drefnng of the befl; dung. It IhoUid be finely pulverifed af- ter being burnt in a moderate fire, and fowed in May, as evenly as pofnbJe. Cloudy or dull wea- ther is accounted befl: for doing it. The good effect of one dref- iSag, it is faid, will continue feven years. It is doubtlefs a great abforbent, and a8s like quicklime, or like powder of marble, in mending the foil. But in Novafcotia, where it is found, I am told it does not appear to have any great effect as a manure. This may be owing to the want of being fu9i- ciently pulverifed. Or it may do better in a hot than in a cold climate. PLAT, a fmall piece of ground. PLOUGH, a machine with which the ground is turned up and broken. It is the moft im- portant of sll the tools ufed in hufbandry : And much of the comfort of the 'abourer, as well as the profit of the farmer, de- pends upon the good flrufture of it. -The plough was fo early in- vented, that mention is made of it in fome of the moft ancient books, both facred and profane. Numbers of them, however, have been fo badly coaftruct*d as to be of little advantage. Omitting what has been faid of the various kinds of ploughs, I perfectly agree with the writer of the Nczi- Syjkm of Agricul- ture, that two ploughs are all that are requifiie in the com- mon culture of land, a firong one and a light one. The lirong plough is neceffary in foils that are ftrongly fwarded, or verj* ftiff ; or filled with ftrong roots, ftony, or rugged ; in all other foils the light plough, or that which is commonly called the lu3ife plough, will be fufficient. p L a The flrong plough, which Ihould always be made of the flrongeft of while oak, fliould not be heavier than is neceffary for flrength. One of the han- dles ihould be framed into the chip, and the beam into the han- dle ; the other handle muft be made faft to the ground w reft and mouldboard ; and the handles fhould be fo long, that the plough may be guided by them with- out much exertion of ilrength. Othei^'ife the ploughman will find his labour to be verj' fatiguing. The fhare fhould be made of rough iron, well fleeled and fharpened on the point and wing, and rightly tempered. The coulter fhould alfo be fleeled on the edge, and be fre- quently made Iharp by grinding, when ufed in fwarded groimd that is not ftony. This will render the draught the more eafy, efpe- cially where there are flrong roots in the foil, which muft be cut off by the coulter. The plough will not only be the more eaiily drawn and lefs apt to ch^ke with roots and rubbilh ; but ^■■::] cut the furrow more e^c- . Ti.e coulter fhould be iwe: he fhare fix inches, at.lec... :. _.:. the point, for land that has no impenetrable roots ; but where fuch roots abound, the point of the fhare fhould be in- ferted into the back of the coul- ter, very near to the bottom. The coulter fhould ah. ays lean backwards between the fhare and the beam ; and be bent im- der the beam, fo as to paf« through it at right angles. Every one knows that the chip and the groundwreft Ihould be plated with iron, on two of their fides. Otherwife they will foon wear a^s^ay. In fome parts of this country, ploughs are tolerably well con-. ilruaed ; P L O flruclctl ; in other parts, fobaJly, as to occafion the lofs ol much lime and labour. But for ihofc flrong ploughs, %.luch are ac- co^^ntcd the bell, 1 would fug- ged two or three improveincr.is. One is, that the fock, or fock- ct of the Iharc, Ihould be fo made as to receive a chip five inches thick, or deep, and that the chij) be anfwerably thick at the fore end, where it enters the fock, and the fock Ihould be large e- nough to receive it. By means of this conftru^tion the lurrow begins to cant as foon as it is cut through by the coulter. There- fore the niouldboard takes it al- ready turning, fo that it meets with but little refiftancc ; conle- quently it requires lefs ilrcnsth ot team, by half, as fome lay, to draw the plough. 'I, he la- bour ot the ploughman is alio dirainilhed, as the plough is more eafy in its going. The late Robert Pierbonit, Efq.of R-'xbu- rv, was poffcfled ot a plough of this make, the original ol which came not long hnco from Kn- gland. His tamily will doubt- lefs be ready to obligeiny perfon with a view of it. r,| * "*. That gentleman once told ice, that with his plough he had brok- en up the hardelt green fward ground, with only a yoke of Iteers tour years old to draw it. Another improvement that I would luggeft, IS, to have an iron plate rightly fhapcd, iullcad ot a mouldboard ; either riveted to the fhare, or a continuation of it. Every p!r.i:!T!unan knows, that the gr r i)t the trouble ot his W' irom the turring up and t. * the p'ough by the ear •> ing to it, and particularly to the mouldboard. And it is plain that tiiis not only hurts the regular going of a plough, but makes u hardtr to f L O «5> draw, and caufcs it to have tlie lefs effect in turning and pulver- ifmg the foil. But a plate of iron, in place ot the mouldboard, \s'ould always be (nlt)otl: and bright, and glide cafily through the foil in fward- ed ground ; and the plough would be tar morceaiily manag- ed. It is the opinion of the above mentioned writer, that with a plough of this kind, rightly con- itrutted, ttiere can never be need of more than one yoke of o.Kcn to plough in the hardclf foil. If two yoke would be lufficient tor our hardcfl land in this country, much ^vould be faved by fuch a plough. And of this I think ♦Jicre is little reafon to doubt. I will julf mention one thing more, which forae will allow to be a confiderable improvement. Inflead of wheels to a plough, which are now generally repro- bated, let a little roller be hxed to the fore end of the beam, in fuch a manner as to move upon the furface. It Ihould be four or five inches in diameter, andajt much in length, and be conneH- ed with the beam, by an iron rightly thaped for the purpofe, which can be eafily put on and off at pleafure. It is to be ufed only in ploughing grecit fward ground, and fuch as is pretty level, and clear of obfta- cles. It gauges the plough, fd as to prevent its going too deep ; and it compreires the furtace, fo that the coulter ciuc it more evenly. Befides, it i* manifeft that this will cafe the ploughman of part of his labour. But whether this be thought of importance enough to be at- tended to or not, the iron plate tor a mouldboard, I think, can admit ol no dot;bt coiiccrni. :>• its utility. The coft ot it v be the oul/ objv'tfion ; but ti..- 11 26o P L O is of no weight. The extra coft will certainly be faved in the work of a few days ; as the plough may be drawn with a weaker team ; turn over the foil more completely ; and perhaps {dve the hiring of a man to tend the plough and turn turfs. It fhould be remembered that a wooden mouldboard ought to be plated ; which, if well done, may coft half as much as an iron mouldboard ; and will much fooner come to need repairing, ' The bloomers who make what are called fhare moulds, fhould draw the plate about four feet Jong ; the hinder part, whicli is ^to be for the mouldboard, not more than one fourth or fifth of an inch thick ; the part that is for the ftigre, of the ufual thick- nefs. \Vith fuch a piece of iron any ingenious fmith can make the fhare and mouldboard in one piece. • The light plough may be made every way like the former, but fmaller ; but a roller to this plough is not requifite ; and a ■wooden mouldboard M-ill anfwer, if properly plated with iron. As the handles of ploughs Ihould be crooked, efpecialiy at the outer ends, a fmall fladle quartered, together with a part of the root, is the beft timber that I know of for this purpofe. While they are green they may be foaked in hot water and bent into the right fhape. If dried in this (hape, they will always re- tain it, though ever fo much af- terivards expofed to the weather. PLOUGHING, the operation of turning, breaking and loofen- ing the earth with a plough. Lands in -general that are ufed in tillage muft be ploughed, if there be not infuperable obftacles, or great difficulties in the way to grevent it. Breaking up ground P L O with the fpade, or the hoe, in tedious and expenfive, in com- parifon with ploughing ; fo that but fmall quantities of land could be employed in tillage, were it not for the important art o^ ploughing. One rule to be regarded in ploughing is, that no land, except- ing green fward, fhould be ploughed v/hen it is fo wet that it will not eafily crumble. For the principal defign of ploughing is to break the cohefion of the foil, and fet the particles of it at fuch a diftance from each other, that even the fmallell and tender- eft roots of plants may find their way between them in queft of their nourifhment. When, in ploHghing,of landin tillage, the furrow turns o\*er hke a dead mafs of mortar, ploughing can be of no advan- tage at all. The foil becomes rio lighter or loofer by it, but rat'ner heavier, and more compaft. On the contrary, land fhould not be ploughed when it is too dry ; be- caufe it requires the more ftrengih of team to perform it, nor cart the furrows be fo well turned over. The plough fhould be ufed much more than it is in this coun- try. When a crop of barley or wheat is defigned, the ground fhould, at leaft, be thrice plough- ed ; for a crop of Indian corn, twice is not too much. The ex- tra expenfe will be repaid by the increafed crops. The advantages of frequent ploughing have not been duly confidered. By often repeated ploughings, land may be brought to any degree of rich- nefs almoft that is defired. Fre- quent ploughings are deffruftivc to weeds,' and fave much labour in hand hoeing and weeding ; bcfides making a greater quanti- ty of pafture for plants, preparing P L O ihf vr|»ctable food t!ic better fo enter tlic roots of plants', and fiil- pofing the foil toiiiidibc tlic rich and fertilizing particles of the at- inofphere. As it is known that repeated pioughings iupply the place of nriniirc ; where manure is fcarcc, farmers liave need to plough the more frequently. Mr. lul! was ot opinion that it was a clie»per method toenrich land by plough- ing than by manuring. In fome fituations it undoubtedly is Co. But it is heft that land Ihould have enough ot both, when it is prac- ticable. And-the more to promote the fertilization ol the foil by plough- ing, let the farmer plongli as much of his ground as poflible while the dew is on it, bccaufc dew contains much nourilhrncnt for plants. The early rifer has the advantage of his lluggifh neisch- bntif.; not only in pbitighing, but alio in harrowing and hoeing, to greater advantigc. When land is to be ploughed that is full ol flumps of trees and other obftaclcs, as land that is newly cleared of wood, or that is rocky, tl>€ flrong plough Ihould be ufed ; and the llrength of the team mufl be proporti(mcd to the /Irength of the plough ; and tlic plough to the condition of the foil. It is fometimes advifable, to cut off dole to the bodies of ilumps.betore'plonghing.the hor- j/ontal roots which lie near the furlace ; efpecially it there l>c no {lones, nor gra^•el in tljc way, to hurt the edge of an axe. When this is done, the flrong plough will be apt to take out the mr)fl of the roots fo parted. And the frofts of a few winters will be i!io more likely to heave out t'le flumps, or lo to loofen them that tkey maj kc eafiiy renoved. I P I. o «*51 have conquered the flumps of white pine in this manner ; but flumps which rot very foon it it not ot fnch importance to man- age in this way. The plough mufl go deeper in breaking up new ground, than old. Otherwife the little hollows will go amploughed ; and there will not be mould enough raifcd in the iiillocks to level the fur- face, and leave fuflicient depth for the roots of plants to extend tliemfclveR. The laft of fummer.or the be- ginning ot autumn, is the right leafon for ploughing new ground. For it will be heft to harrow, and crofs plough it, before it is feed- ed, that the foil may be thorough- ly mixed and pulverifed. There- fore, the firft ploughing IhouldTjc performed fo long beforehand, tiiat before the focond, the turfs may ferment anrl become partly rotten. But this is not to be ex- pcftcd, it the ground be plough- ed late in the fall ; becaufc the fun, at that late fcafon, will not warm the ground enough to bring on any fermentation before the following fpring, when the ground is to be fowed. For falJ fowin^;, the ground fliould be broken up flill earlier ; either in fpring or fummer will do very well, if time can be fparcci for it. But it is beft that the mofl or all of our tillage land flionid be ploughed in aiuntnn, both in new and old grounrl. It faves time and laboiM- in the following (pring, the hurrying fcafon, when more work is to be done than we can well get time tor ; and when our teams are ufually much weaker than they are in the fall. But land ploughed in the fill mufl be a- gain ploughed in the fpring ; and a weaker team will perform it for its having been ploughed in aii- turmn. la very light old ground s6a ? L O a fingle liorfe may perforin it ; \ and two ploughings are better than one in mojl cafes. Green fward land may be ploughed at any feafon ot the year, if it be not too dry, nor too much frozen. In the former cafe the plough will go very hard ; in the Jatter ploughing is imprafticable, which is the cafe for four months together, com- monly, from the firft of Decem- ber to the laft of March. Farmers generally choofe to plough green fward ground when it is pretty wet, if it be not miry ; becaufe the labom- is more eafy ior man and beaft. The Englifh farmers praftife ploughmg green fward in Janu- ary, not only becaufe they have leifure, but becaufe it is h wet as to plough eafily. They call it ploughing in lays ; and it is laid to be well performed, when the fward is all completely turn- ed over, without lapping one fur- row on another. I'he depth that the plough fhould go is a matter that ought to be attended to. The depth fhould be gov- erned in fome meafure by the Haple of the foil. Where the foil is deep, deep ploughing is bell. See Pafture of Plants. But where the foil is very thin, fhoal ploughing is necellary ; for if the plough turn up much of the under flratum, and mix it xvith the foi 1, it wi 11 be rather hurt- ful, at leafl for fome years after. Land fhould always be plough- ed out of fward with a deeper furrow than will be necefTary af- terwards, through the whole courfe of tillage. All the after ploughings will be the more eafi- ly performed. Mr. Young, by attending par- ticularly to the depth of plough- ing in various towns in England, ibund that the average depth in PLC fandy foils was four Indies, iif loamy foils /our and three quar- ters, and in clayey foils three and an half. But in Ireland they plough much deeper; fometimes not lefs than nine or tea inches. Our fanners are fometimes led to plough too fliallow, to fave a little labour. And fome are too much afraid to turn up what they call dead earth. But they fhould know that all the foil a- bove the hard pan may be well employed in tillage, for fome crops or other ; and that if they turn up a red foil, it will in a year or tv/o become dark, and fit to nourifh plants, by being expof- ed to the fun and the weather^ and imbibing rich particles from the atmofphere. Trench, ploughing is fome- times praclifed to advantage ; and the culture of fome plants with tap roots reguires it. This is done by pafling a plough twice in a furrov/. Ground may be thus ploughed to the depth of twelve or fifteen inches. But, inffead of this double labour ot the plough, where labourers are plenty, the furrows may be deep- ened widi fhovcls, by a number of hands following the plough* In old countries, where lands have been tilled for a thoufand years, and have been frequently manured, the rich black foil has been growing deeper and deep- er. So that trench ploughing by this time may be very proper ia many of their fields ; and even necefTary to bring up the flrength of manures, which has fubfided to a greater depth than common ploughing reaches. But there is only a fmall pro- portion of our land in this coun^ try, to which trench ploughing is fuitable, or which will well pay the coft of it. In moft of o^or foils^ even where the kari P L O Jian! under ftratiim, or pan, Hfs deep, trench ploughing woulJ throw up fo mm U cold hungry earth, and bury the upper mould fo deep, as to render the land very barren at hrft. The places where it would anfwcr bcft, arc hollows, into which much vege- table mould has been waflicd down ironi the neighbouring heights, which hasablackraoory foil to a great depth ; and fuch fpots as have been uled as gar- dens, and have been ottcn dug with the fpadc. li labour of raen and teams were as cheap as it is in fome countries, it would he advifabic, fo give more ot ourdcepeft foils this culture than we do at pref- cnt. But wherever it is once begun, it fhould be continued, at leaft tlirough a coarfe of tilTage ; or elfe the firft ploughings will be worfc than lofl. The bell of the foil would be buried at fuch a depth as to become almoit ufe- lefs, unlefs it were alternately brought near the furfacc, by af- ter ploughings equally deep. Regard fhould be had to the fhape of the land in plougliing. They who plough a deep hill up and down injure their cattle, and raifs of ploughing their land to advantage. The furrow that is drawn up hill mud be cxceflivc- ly fhoal ; or the team much ftrongcr than common. For this rcafon a hill ftiould be ploughed horizontally ; with turrows as nearly parallel to thehafe as pof- liblc. This may be caUIy done when all the fides of a hill are to be ploughed at once. The rains will carry much ot the hncit ot the foil to the bottom of the hill. if the furrows are made up and down. But ploughed the other way, the heniings, or parting fur- rows, will be fufficicnt drains ; and the water will roovc fo ilow. ly in them, that none of the foil will be waOicdaway. But when a hill is very fleep, no turning of a furrow upwards thould be at- tempted. And if only one fide ot a fleep hill is to he ploughed, the turrows fhould be all cut the fame way, the team returning light after each furrow. The reader will perceive, that what is commonly called crofs ploughing on hills' fides is not approved. But crofs ploughing of land that is level, or gently Hoping, is oftentimes very prop- er. Land in general fhould be ploughed one way and the other alternately, that it may he the more thoroughly pnlverifed and mixed ; that is, when the fhape ot the groimd and the dimcn- fions of a lot admit of it. Green fward groune made quite through the turrows, whether dunged or not. As this crop requires the greatcft part of its nourifhment in the lat- ter part of fummcr, about that time 'i64 ^ L O time the turf comes to be in its beft ftate for yielding nourifh- ment to plants. For a crop of winter wheat the tillage ground fhould be plough- ed in the fpring, again in Ji^ne, and laflly iuft before fowing. Whatever manure be put on, it fhould be juft before the lafl ploughing, and ploughed in im- mediately. If the grain be ploughed ia with a flioal furrow, it will not be fo apt to be killed by the winter. The roots will lie deeper than thofe of harro^\'- ed grain ; and it will the better bear drought in the following fummer, if that fhould happen. For other feeding in genera!, or for whatever is planted or fown in the fpring, on what we call old ground, it fhould be ploughed near the time of feed- ing, although it were ploughed in the fall ; and the nearer to the time ot feeding the better. The feeds will be the better fupplied with moifture to make them veg- etate ; and the crop will ha\e the better chance or being able to outgrow and ftifle the weeds, and have the benefit of a loofer foil, during the whole of its growth. Thefe autumnal plough- ings, I laave found to be greatly advantageous, efpecidUy in clays, and in ftiff loams. Many, to fave labour, plough their land fo fhallow for fowing, as fcarcely to take up the roots of the weeds. Men of common underflanding, I Ihould fuppofe, need not be told that this is bad hufbandry : For it may rational- ly be expected that there will be a larger crop of weeds, than if it had not been ploughed at all ; and that the roots of the plants will not have fufficient room to extend themfelves. Ploughing the ground in autumn will have a tendency to prevent tliis moil P L O abfurd conduct ia the fpring, which m.anj^ go into that they may favour their teams in a fainS feafon. ■■ That l^Q^ may be fown as ear- ly as poflible, many are led to give the feed furrow before the ground is fuiiicie'ntly dry. If the crop fiiould be a little earlier, it will be the poorer. It will be flower in coming up ; more of the feeds will fail ; thebladewill be more flender ; nor v/ill it grow fo faff as if it were fowed later» when the gfound is warmer^ ' Sometimes it will not grow at all for a long time, but become fo' ftinted, that a crop mull be def- paired of. No practice can be worle than to give the feed fur- row in ftifffoils, before the ground is fufliciently dried. Land that is low, and flat, and therefore apt to be too wet and heavy, ought to be ploughed in ridges. The ridges may have two, three or four furrows on each fide, accordingas the ground is wetter or drier. The wetteft ground fhould have the narroweil ridges ; hot they fhould never be narrower than four furrows in a ridge. The rows will be between four and five feet apart, if one row of plants be fet on each ridge. But if there be fix or eight fur- rows in a ridg-e, it may admit of two rows, one on each fide of the veering. After lying in ridges through the winter, the ridges fhould be thrown into the hollows by an- other ploughing in the fpring ; vrhicli will bring it into good or- der for feeding. Or if it fhould be too miry to be ploughed in the fpring, either maize or potatoes may be planted 4> on the ridges ; and what is want- ing . ,.....^- . „.iw wv.ar- l\ >\c of the furface is «ii..., L ,,v n up or covered. Eji- xopeaa writers tliink land Qiould li P L U 26 n nd I noies, not to be ploughed immcdiat'»lv crop of maize, to | ftubs- from robbing t juices. Be this as pin- •«••"-• •• ■• I ■■" Oti when- (in'!g U.1N ■ it mixes it witfi mentior» the burying i>t lome of the ituLs lid 'eives of the corn, which is fd fume advantage to- wards enriching the foil. There is another way of ploughing called ribbing; which is making furrows unconnefted with each other, three feet or more afunder. It is but about a fourth part fo much work as ploughing plain. One very con- fiderable advantage of it is, in- creaftng the fuperficiesot the foil, by which it is more expolcd to the atlion of frofl, air, and dews, and abforbs the lurgefl quantity of niHriti\ic particles. In tillage land that is fteep, ribbing is a further benefit to the foil, as it prevents the walhing down of the vegetable mould, and the flrength ot manures. With this view the operation fhould be performed in autumn. And the plough mufl pafs hori- zonully, or nearly fo, not up and down the fleep. In paftiires or grazing land, de- clivities would pi orluce the more grafs, if they were ribbed ; as the benefit of fudden rains would not fo foon be over, by moans ot their quickly running down into the vallies. At the fame time, the vailies wouKl not fo often be overcharged with water. Furrows eight or ten feet ajartwouKl an- fwer, and the ribHing would not want to be rejx-uied tor a long lime. The furrows (hould Ik: a« nearly hori7' • • '^ « poffibic, a» well as in iii PLl'M 1 ii... -K. I unus, done fruit trcci.'A'Uich produce their « fruit f^6 P O L fruit upon fpurs, that fpring out ot all parts ot the limbs. The moft common plum in this country, is the damafcene plum, an excellent fruit ior pre- serving, which is faid to have been brought from Damafcus, whence the name. The black bullace, is a glob- ular, tart fruit, of the flze of grapes ; befideSjfome very crab- bed wild forts, which are oval fliaped, are found in fome parts ot this country. There is alfo a re- markable wild plum, peculiar to an illand near Newbury, of a fmall fize, and by fome much valued. Tl>e better forts which are cul- tivated, are the horfe plum, a very pleafant taRcd juicy fruit, ot a large fize : The peacli plum, red towards the fun, with an agreea- ble tartnefs : The pear plum, fo called from its ihape, wliich is fwect, and of an excellent tafte : The wheat plum, extremely fwect, oval, and furrov.'ed in the i-hiddle, not large : The green gage plum, which is generally preferred before all the reft. All the varieties ot plum trees jnay be propagated by budding, or grafting. Budding is preferable, as thefe trees are apt to difcharge a gum, where large wounds are made. The trees grow befl in a foil that is on a medium betwixt wet and dry. They fliould be iept clear of fuckers, and have but little other pruning ; and care fhould be taken not to di- minilh or wound the fpurs. POLL EVIL," an impofthume on the poll of a horfe. At firft it requires no other method ot cure than what is common to other boils, and inflamed tumours. But iomctimes it degenerates to a finu- ous ulcer, through ill manage- ment, or ncgletf. " There is a fmall finus under the noil bone, where the matter- i« P O !^ apt to lodge, unlefs careb<* takea' to keep the part firm with a band- age : But inflead of that the far- riers generally ufe to ihruft in a long teat, which raifes the flefh, and opens a way into the finus. And thus an ulcer is created' where there needs be none. All" therefore that is further neceffa- ry on this head is, to caution the practitioner againfl fuch ill meth- ods. And it the tumour has a • very large cavity, it is better to lay it open, than to thrult foreign fubftances into it. And if it ac- quires an ulcerous difpofition, if muft be treated as fueh." Gtb- fons Farriery. POND, a collcaion of Hill wa- ter. A mill pool is fo called, though it gradually receives wa-- ter in one part, and difcharges it in another : So that it is not per- fe6fly ftill water. The water is fo often fhitted,. that 'it is not'apt to putrefy-. Failures that are deftitute of water, fhould hare artificial ponds made in them, for water- ing places. *■' Obferve where rulhes, reeds, flags, and other a- quatick plants grow fpontane- oufly ; or where frogs are ob-- ferved to lie Iquatted down clofe to the ground, in order to re- ceive its moillure. Or obferve" where a vapour is frequently feeii to rife from the fame fpot. Some • fay, wherever little fwarms of flies are feen conflantly flying in the fame place, and near the ground, in the morning after funrife, there is water under- neath." " If a well is made in a floping ground, and the declivity^ is fufficient to give it a horizon- tal vent, it will be worth the huf- bandman's while to dig fuch a pafTagc, and by means of pipes, or any other conveyance, to car- ry the water- acrofs the light foil,, tliroligh which it might other- wife P O T< wifeHnk. Th- -:->^. ■'■!.... .--v i of water will '. necjuic uu'if will w<- 4 j i fircam. ' There i» no; •nc d durable ! W. Let a large hollosv D....;:i I'.' made in Inch earth, and it will prefcrve the wa- ter that tails in rain. Biu it is apt to be fhich snd dirty.il fome pains be nt it. The de- c cat- tle i, and j:ra a the Or It imgiit be better it T !e were paved. i here arc many b' i' ponds, which have oir. c part, and are fuppHcd by brooks or ri%*ers in otnr-r narts ; but a greater numl iler ponds which are pc, u .... — „'nant, un- Jcfs when tliey arc a^jit ucd by ■winds. Suchpondsas the laixer. in hot feafons, are apttolecomc putrid, and c — ^ — ite the air about them. vrafon they fhould, it pc.'.iiDic, rj drained. Aad when the water is not deep, and an outlet can be II. ' 'i- oui too much coft. t ■{ be drained toi the fahe or reclaim- ing the I'o.I. This will be ot great value, as it commonly is found 'T be extremely rich, he- wai .\: funk- en fpots, which are moil of the year covere ! u ::'; w.ct -, r-.'id pro- duce fo; >> and Aveeds, .s har- bours tor frogs : and .irc thcrc- f'.-o ,-.]'.} r,.,T ^-v" '.- i hey pr3C- ••le 1 POP 2^7 they would be worth when drain, cd. bccaule of the height ol tlic land on every fide. But in ihi* cafe, if the banks he not clay, they may be drained in the fol- 1 ).• !nj5 manner. 1 akc notice on winch fide l.tnd that is lower than ihe pond is neareft. On i' ' in the bank near the , _ a kind of ccllai, two or iU..:c !cci deep- , er than the furf.jcc of the pond i I do it in a dry feafon. If a hard j flraium appear, dig through it ; ! and leave digging where the bot- ( tom is looie gravel, or fand. 1 Then make an open or a covered ' drain from the pond to the cellar. 1 The vater will be difcharged I from the pond, and foak into the j esrth through the bottom of the ! cellar, till a fcurf is formed on { the bottom that will flop the wa- , xcr from foakir- '"'" ''^ • "'•-f^. , 1 his fcurf fho I time to time, aii'i ia^eiin» .i> v>,.ii a long handled hoe. Or, the j cellar may be f.llcd up with reJ- life ftones, which I think is pret- I crable to the other method. j If the pond Ihould not then I become f ' r dry, a fmall I ditch fho . 'wii round it, ! :■ " 'lie cellar. I J lined will he ncii muck, much of which mnv be carted away for manure ; >mmon earth, or fand, may e it, without detriment lu I the loil. i POPL.'\R. Popui'uf, a well known tree of quick growth ; but fiiort lived, and feUlom ar- rives to any great fi^c. The v^TJod decays very Toon >\rhen c\- poicd to tlie weather. But '-"tmi; a white, fweet, and light wood, it is d^d for trays, and various turned \ ' ^' The J.' ' plat begins to aa I li- 268 POT The trees grow moft rapidly, are ftraight, tall, and beautifully ta- periiig ; and are therefore covet- ed for groves, and to adorn yards and avenues. They fiourifh well in a moift foil, and everl in a heavy and clayey one. To what fize they will arrive, and how du- rable they will be in this country, time willdifcover. POTATO, Solanurn, a well known vegetable. This plant is defcribed by Mr. Houghton, to be a bacciferous herb, v»'ith efcu- lent roots, bearing winged leaves, and a belled ilower. The potato was not known in Europe, till carried thither from Virginia, by Sir Walter Raleigh, in the year 1623. He flopped at Ireland, where he gave away ma- ny oi the roots, which were plant- ed there, and multiplied fo laft, that in the wars that happened af- terwards, when ail tiie corn was deiiroyed, potatoes \\'ere the chief fupport of the people. It is more than half a century iince thii root found iis way into this country. And within thir- ty or forty years they have been much cultivated. They have been found by long experience, to be a 'v^ery wholefome food for man : For no people enjoy bet- ter health and fpirits than the common people of Ireland, who make them their principal food. So that their being clafFed by botanifls among poifonous plants, will not deter its from cultivat- ing them, and freely feeding up- on them. If they were eaten raw, perhaps they would be lound to be very unwholefome. Biit, kkc feveral other plants, the aiiion of lire renders them very wholefome, and nourifhing to man and beaft. The colour of tlie roots may be known by the flowers. The white have white, and the red POT reddifli flowers, fucceeded Ify aa apple, or berry, as big as a grape, containing a rauhitudc of fmall white feeds. Potatoes are ufually propagated by the roots : But it is eafy to propagate them feverr- al other ways. Cuttings from the top branches, fet in the ground, will produce a confider- able crop. The cuttings will even flrike root, if they are planted bottom upwards. The fprouts broken from potatoes which have been kept in cellars will produce roots. So will the apples, the bare eyes or buds, or even a piece out of the heart of a potato. There feems to be nothing about a potato but what is pro- lifick, like the polypus. The, parts of the plant, above and be- low the furface of the earth, feem to be the fame. The run- ning roots produce fruit, if con- fined under ground ; but if they chance to pierce through the furface, they bear leaves and ap- ples. So that potatoes may be confidered as a fruit growing un- der the furface of the ground. The forts or varieties, may be multiplied in infinitum. It is therefore ftrange that fo few forts have yet been known in this country. No longer ago than about the year 1740. we had but one fort, a fmall reddifh col- oured potato, of fo rank a taftc that it was fcarcely eatable. Soon after this, the white kid- ney potato appeared, as good table potatoes as any that I have known fince; ualcfs the brown rough coated potato be except- ed, which v/as introduced foon after. Since thefe we have had the Spanifh potato, ex- tremely prolifick, but fit only for cattle and fwine : Then the bunker potato : The fmall round potato, white and good tafled : A long POT T',' ; i"! n.!rt w:.;to. ' ■ ! the late ■y.-iT : .\ .i v:l V '.mcoftin t.: jx>r3t->. f: .oar: P C potat-^. no appjr-- />n ■ of ail, t. .^ w: lad IS a^ ( 'eaiant tatird as any that arc now culti\-atcd, and ex- ceeded by none, unleU it be the yellow roii^h coat. In th* ycaf i~Sj, I planted in JPV ■ '- "--v ' " •■ • ■-'■ ■>!• -^'^ ♦.^"> Ic V... . ^ T . .. ..i^ -...;. roujjh '.kinned p. From &.■ • ' ^- —■' ten varieties, r» ". anv I have fc:- t'..'. .rrung. !o •;i::inj'ir ^ Jrer.c- -,- t:ht beeafily guefled. As r i forts had erov«m mixed to- • ^l:;..:. I fuppofed thoir f^ein^ impregnated Mnih t!~ rttJ»:yaiij ot each oth calion thefe new vir.etie>. Sor?e f>f thcTt ap-^ctir r^ : c cx- Ci ' P- t\. x.y til. .'c IS no . I have fo - ot po- ti- no new tb ..I, >.;.. ;..^ . . Mrrr.ers. rhey hold it to be accelTary t j do !i once •- • - - - %-cars ; bee prjtatoes degci.orj. \ .; i i -i; lefs and lefs till they airy. >:* come to nothing, ' rough coats, anri w potatoes, have thus tailed :z. . counlrr ; and mhcr fort* h POT 2F5 " ' improved . from the I ::i c much reafon to think. renewed potatoes %rill prove ptT>J'!*iivc : For. in the three pecks of the i ir. 3 ?m".\ "v.'poor ^na hunared rooueach; . .' 3 greater number, by a third part, than I have ever found of other forts. This was the fccond year from the feed. As fomc perfons may be dif- pofcd to renew their potatoc* trom the top feec, I fliall here pive the method of doing it. Take t**- — ' - in the bejrin- ning ot ( 'eJore the troft ::tcr: : riang them up ot fta!ks in a dry clofet, v.".ers : ' : : Let them h? _ pnl : Then nialli tr.e j.-^.-^ij:. -.c feeds from the pulp. :>* n in a funny window, ijow iceds in a bed, about the firft of May. \\'hen the ;:• four or five irc':-^- *- plant them ir '.' ''C?. <^ic r: • .... -:: Tuii grown _,, -:, '-•': :nc roc:? w^ill be ■ if the fe, tumn, fomc • : :$ more cot- .1 jj.peariog in fiei..-. .^.,^.c p >:atoei have been raifcd ibe ^ are come to be of ,.-it piwJUw^;* syo POT produces the beft eatingpotatoes ; one that is rather moift will give the largell crops. But if ybii plant them in a clay foil, they •will be ill tafted, wormy, and fit only tor cattle. The land fhould be ploughed deep for this crop ; becaufe roots will commonly grow as low as the foil is Ilirred, and no deeper. And the more the ground is pulverifed before planting, the better will be the crop. Perhaps green fward ground ought to be mentioned here as an exception. I have had the largefl crops on fuch land, even •with one ploughing, and that 3ull before planting. I account ior it thus : Potatoes want air ; fuch land affords it from the hollows under the furrows, in no fmall quantity, both fixed and putrid, and in the greatefl abun- dance towards the end of fum- mer, when they require the greatefl quantity of nourifhment. No dung is found to be more fuitable tor potatoes than hogs' dung, mixed with a great deal of j[lraw, or other rubbifh. This dung is late in fermenting, and therefore affords the roots plenty or nourilhment, when they mofl need it. And as they want air and room, rubbilh, and even Clicks and chips, or any thing that makes the ground lie light and hollow, encourages their growth. But thofe roots are account- ed befl tor eating, which are raifed without dung. I once had a middling crop, by putting a handful of old weather beaten fak hay in each hill. New land, burnt, produces excellent roots, and a large crop, without any manure but what is made by the burning ; fometimes not lefs than a peck in a hill. The potato is fo hardy a plant, that it will grow in any P O T kind of foil, and even with the pooreft culture. It is a great im- prover of land ; not only by the rotting of its fucculcn't ftalks, which fhould be buried in th^ foil at, or immediately after dig- ging ; but the digging itlclt is a further improvement. A crop of potatoes is good to prepare land for other crops. It is not imcommon, on poor land, with very little cultivation and with- out manure, to obtain one hun- dred bufhels per acre. But iti Ireland, with deep ploughing, or digging, with manure, four times that quantity is common : And^vlr. Youngmentionsone in fiance of an acre in England, pro- ducing a thoufand bulhels. As they will grow almofl any how, we are tempted to negleft them ; but no crop that 1 know of will better pay for good cultivation. The firfl of May is perhaps the right feafon for planting pota- toes, in a dry warm foil : But they will fometimes produce well, though planted at the laft of June. An early crop w-ill be better ripened, and more dry and mealy. A late one is unfolid and watery, as the roots do not arrive to their full maturity. When the ground has been well prepared, by deep plough- ing, crofs ploughing, and har- rowing,let the fets be prepared by cutting. Pieces, as I apprehend, are better for fets than whole po- tatoes. Pieces confume quick in the earth, and pafs their fub- flance into the ne:w plants : But when potatoes are planted whole, they come out of the ground in autumn, almofl as hard and folid as when they were planted. And whole potatoes fill tlie ground with fuch a mul- titude of roots, that they wiij rob one another of their nom-- ifhment. I choofe potatoes of a middling i> O T Ihidfiling fizc to cut into firts. Such a one will make half a dozcfi, or more ^ood fets, with one or two buds in each ; three or tour of which fets are luffi- cieni for one hill, and they /bould be plaied fix or eight inches apart ; for the roots fhould never be much crowded. The lliooting parts exift in a potatoe, in the form of a tree, of which the llock is at t!je but, or root end. I therefore take care to cut athwart thcfc parts as little as polTible : For though they will grow any way, the greater length of fliooting Hem there is in a let, the more llrong and vigorous will be its growth at firft. If dunw be ufed, it may be fpread hetoic thefecond plough- ing, or elfe laid under the fets. The latter method will give a larger crop. Dung laid under the lets, will produce more than if laid above them ; as Mr. Wynn Baker proved by accurate exper- iments. The feeding roots fhould go into the dung, not di- retily into hungry earth below; and thefe roots ilrike downwards ; and therefbre need fomc loofe earth under the dung to extend themfclves into. The lafiiionable way of plant- ing potatoes in hills, may be as good as any in rough ground, or that which is not well fubdu- cd. But in a rich, mellow foil, well pulverifed, the drill method is to bepref erred. The fets may be either in fingle rows, three feet, or double, one foot apart, and from fevcn to nine inches afun- der in the n)ws. One ot my neighbours planted in his gar- den, drills and rows of hilli. al- ternately of equal length, and c- aually manured ; when he dug tnem he found the drill rows produced twice as much as the •tber. It u not mure labour to POT ^71 lay the dung in drills, than in hills ; and the labour of hoeing is not increafed. My tiials in the drill way, have produced only half as much again. But I did not put dung in the furrows, but always put dung in the hills. My method has been, in dry" ground, Hrft to plough in the dung ; then harrow ; raife the ridges, and dibble the feis in^ the ridges. The lazy bed method, or trenching, is mod prattifcd in Ireland. I have tried it feveral times, and am convinced, that 3 greater quantity on the lame ground maybe raifed in this way,, than in almoft any other. But the labour is fo great, as it niuft he performed with the fpade, that 1 dare not recommend it, unlefs- in particular eafes.or to thofe who have but little land. It is a good, and very cfTeflu- al method, to fubdue bad weeds* in theborderofafield.whichcan- not well be ploughed. But the foil fhould be deep, that the trench- es may not go into the under (Ira- tum of hard earth, nor too near to it. And in this way good crops may be got in Ipringy and miry places, which arc too wet for ether til- lage. But the work mud be be- gun in autumn. In Ofclobcr, mark out the beds, five feet wide, leaving two teet between each bed for the trench : Spread the dung upon the beds : Dig the trenches, and with their contents- cover the beds to the depth of a- bout five inches. In May follow- ing, dibble the fots into the beds, quite down to the dung, and fill the holes with earth. Behdes getting a good crop, the foil will be thus drained and fubducd, and fitted for ploughing, and tillage crops. An exjjeditious way of plant- ing potatoes ii as fullow(. Alter lh« 272 POT the ground is prepared, by ploU-gli- ing and harrowing, cut furrows ■with the horfe plough, fortv irtch- cs apart ; drop the fets in^ the furrows ; then pafs the plough along the back of each furrow, which will throw the earth of both furrows upoH the fets ; and after\'aids level the ground with the back ot a harrow, or with a harrow that has Ihort tines if you will ; but it is of no great confe- queace whether it be levelled at all. Another method of plant- ing is, to plough the ground plain, keeping the furrows llraight and regular, and drop fets in eve- ry third or fourth furrow. But before this is done, the ground ihoukl be ploughed and made level and fine with the harrow. But the method laft mernioned is fit only for a dry foil, v/here the feed needs to be laid deep. "Wl^re the foil is moid, a better way %vould be to furrow the ground, and lay the fets on the furiace, clofe to the backs of the furrows, and cover them by turn- ing another furrow towards each. If this fhould bury the fets too deep, the ridges may be eafily lov/ered, with a hoe or a rake ; but I do not apprehend it would be aecedary. The ridges may remain as the plough leaves them. As foon as rows oi potato plants are grown to thelieight ot four or five inches above the fur- face, or earlier if the ground be Aveedy, the cultivator, with two mouldboards, fhould be pafTed between them, as deep as One borfe can draw it. For want ot a cultivator, a common light plough fhould go and return in an mterval, turning the earth at the firfl ploughing from, and then at the fecond towards, the rows. After each ploughing the plants fliould be weeded, and a little of the treUi earth drawn clofe to POT their flems, uncovering thofc which chance to be covered by the cultivator, or plough. This operation fhould berepeated three times, taking care not to earth- the plants too much, as fome are" apt to do whei'e the ground is light and meflow : For potatoes will not grow well more than a- bout five inches under the fur- face, being too far removed from the influence of the fun. The ridges, or hills, fhould be rather broad than fleep ; flat on the top, that the Avater, which falls in rain, may notbe toomuch divert- ed from the roots. Tl:ie lail Iweing fhould be fin- ifhed before the plants are in blof- fom ; and befoi-e the branches be- gin to trail upon the ground. Otherwife a new fet of roots will be formed, too late to get their full grov/th, and which will rob the former fets of their nourifh- ment. But if killing weeds be I ecellary after bloflbming, it may be done with the hand hoe, ob- fer'v ing not to earth up the plants a-all. Cattle fhould be kept from a field of potatoes, till 'the roots have got their full growth, as carefully as from a field of corn. For potatoes will not grow after the tops are browfed. They doubtlefs receive as much of their nourifhment through thetops^ as almoft any plant. As foon as the tops are dead, either by ripenefs or by frofl, the roots may be taken up. It they lie in the ground till they are foaked by the heavy autumnal rains, they will be the worfe ; and the labour of digging will be increafed. Thofe that do not much adhere to the tops, may be thrown up by the cultivator, or by the horfe plough, which will facilitate the digging. But the tops fhould be pulled out, and the fruU POT fruit th.1t comes out with them ^•ithcred, before the plough ii pafTed under the rows. Some rrcommend a tour or five prong- Cil fork, as the bcii tnilrumemto tliff them wtth. There is no difficulty in keep- ing theiu through the winter, in a cellar lijat is Irce from froft. Caves, dug in a dry foil.preferve them very well. They Ihould be covered with two feet of earth over theni. If they are ill danger ot froft in a cool cel- lar, they Ihould be covered with a little fait hay. This any farm- er may cafily do, who bas a mar- itime (tiuation. . In cellars, they are more for- ward to iprout in the fpring, than in cavck. Thofc which are for fummer eating, fhould he attend- ed to in May. the (prouts rubbed off, and put into a coo! and dark part ol the cellar. They Will thus keep well till new pota- toes arc grown. Butif any light come to them, they will fend out long (hoots towards the place wlicre it enttrrs. Raw potatoes will keep fwinc -live through the winter : But they will not grow much with thi> food alone. Parboiled, iliey are an excellent food for Iwine, and will alinoft fatten them. The Englilh farmers parboil iheni, not only lor fwine, but for horn- ed cattle. I know of no food ^ that will more incrcafc thequan- i tity of milk in cows ; and they I give milk no ill lalle, whether ' Di)iL-d or ravr. In either way 1 CO ; them. For • h.' J boiled. I 1 Lou^li liic bpanifh prnatoes ■ be not fit for tlte table, ilicy are fo very produrtivc, that it would { be well to rdiic them by them- , fclvcs for caulc. And out of other (bfLs. the largcll and fmall- «fl, the irresulor Ihapcd and the i Kk POT »73 cut ones, fliould be put by for the cattle : For niKhlliHg roots are bell bt^.i tor eating and planting. Overgrown ones arc apt to be hollow and watery ; and wound- ed ones rot, ottener ilian. lounJ ones. As a further recommendatioit of this ufeful root, I may add, the farinaceous part of it makes an excellent ftarch, much fupe- riour, as fome fay, and not halt fo coflly, as that made of wheat. The method of making potatoc I ftarch, according to Mr. Wel- I ton, is as follows : '* Wafh and pare them, grate them upon large tin graters, and nil tubs about: halt full with the pulp : Thca fill them up with water : Stir it well once a day, foV three or four days, and take off all the fcum. About the jth day take out the pulp, and put it into fhalFow earth- en pans, fuch as are ufcd for milk, as rsuch as will cover the bottom an inch thick, and put water upon H. tvery morning pour off the water, break up the ftarch, and add frelh water. When it is thus become very white, leave it m the pans till it is quite dry, then put it into pa- per bags, and put it in a dry place to keep." This fort of ftarch has been made and ufed in my houfe, for twenty orihirty years part. The making of a quantity that will fer\e for a year is always begun and finilhed in a day or two. As foon as t!ie ftarch is fettled to ihc bottom, which it docs in twenty mini;tes. the water is re- newed ; and inftead ol its ftand- ing in tub>, and being fkinurcf. we flrain it iliiough a ci^ii.. Which of thefe methods is :o be picleried I do not dcter- iiiine. Some fuppofr this (larch is apt 10 rot the tli;ag$ wbicharc ftiffen- S74^ POT ed with it ; but this is a great miftake. In an ab61ra6l of the MJinoirs of the. Szuedifll Academy, the a- bove writer Found the tollowing account of one of their methods of ufing potatoes. " Mr. Charles Skytfe has propofed to diflil brandy from potatoes, in order to fave the corn, which is fo dear in Sweden ; and finds by expe- rience, that an acre of land fet with potatoes, will yield a much greater quantity of brandy, than when fown with barley." It is aderted that a gallon of good flrong fpirit may be taken from lix pecks of boiled potatoes, by diftillation. The account given by Dr. An- derfon of his fuccefs in extraft- ing potatoe Ipirits is this ; He boiled 72 pounds of potatoes,' they were then bruifed, and paff- ed through a riddle along with fome frefli water. The pulp was then mixed with cold water, till the whole amounted to about 20 gallons. This was allowed to cool, till it attained to fuch a temperature, as would be proper for mixing yeaft with wort, v/hcn fome yeaft was put to it. In ten or tv/elve hours the fer- mentation began, which contin- ed very brifkly tor as many hours. After waiting {bnie time, and in vain warming it a little, with a view to renew the fermentation, lie illrred it briikly, which renew- ed the fermentation. Stirring it daily, the' fermentation v/ent on for a fortnight, and then abated, and could not be renewed by ag- itation or otherwife. It was then diflil led with due caution, care having been taken to ffir it in the Hill, until it began to boil, before the head of the-ftill was applied ; and the fire was afterwards fo kept lip as to keep it boiling ]s>rifkly, till the whole was run I* o tr over. In confequence of theff precautions and due re£lification, he obtained an Englifh gallon of pure Ipirit, confiderably above proof, and about a quart more of a weaker kind, a good deal below" proof. I'he Dr. fays, it was in every refpeft the moll agreeable vinous, fpirit he ever faw ; and that in tafle it fomewhat rtffem- bled fine brandy. According to this account, one acre of potatoes might yield 300 gallons of good flrong fpirit, worth at leaft 90/. My new method of planting potatoes is this. After the dung is fpread and ploughed in, and the ground levelled with the har- row, I raife the ridges about three feet and a halt apart, with the cul- tivator ; and then dibble in the fets along the tops of the ridges, about feven or eight inches apart, laying each fet about as low as the furface was before the ridges v/ere made. I have had as good crops in this way, as in any other. The method of raifing potatoes under flraw, is very fimple and eafy. Lay the fets about eight inches apart each way, on any kind of foil that is not too rich : Cover them with flraw, or refufe hay, to the depth of about twelve inches. Nothing more is to be done to them till they are taken up. They will be very clean, and the crop confiderable. POULTRY, all kinds of tame birds, as hens, geefe, ducks, tur- keys, &c, Tfiefe may be confidered as part of a hufbandman's flock : But the keeping of great num- bers of dunghill fowls will not turn to his advantage ; as it is certain they will never indemni- fy him for the corn and grain that are requifite for their fup- port. Yet on a farm a few of them may be ufeful, to pick up what would otherwife be lofl. And QUA And in this view they fecm to he Mrofitable only part ol the year, it confined ihcy will not prof- per, though they liave a yard of iome extent; it not confined they will be inifchievous to ihc gar- den and field. PRONG IIOE, a hoc with pronps in Head ot a blade. It is cither a hidens, or a trident. It is eafily (buck into the ground ; and us the tines arc fix or feven i'li IRS l<>ng,it will flir the ground 1.) t!ir I. line depth that a plough docs. It is ufelul in taking up fliDiig rooted weeds, and open- ing ground that is crufted, or be- come too compaft. The eye and handle arc the fame as a common hand hoe. It is the befl inflrunient to flir the ground vith, clofc to the roots of plants. PROVENDER, dry food for bnates. as hcol fuch timber as lafls long in the weather, i'he rails m.iy be larch, or white cedar, and the crofs flic ks white oak. Such a one will endure the weather ma- ny years. RADICLE, that part of the plantulc in a feed, which, when It vegetates, becomes the root. Whatever be the pofition of a feed, the radicle will ihoot down- wards. Ihe radicle !hoots from the feed before th.' phimula, which is the blade ot a young plant. RADI.SM. Rih/ianuf, a plea- fjnt root, which lias an aitenu.ir- ing virtue, and is a good antifcir- bucick. RAG 277 I have had better fuccefs with thole lown as late ns June or July, than with tl.ofc Town in the fpring. The c.irucfl are apt to be dclFroyed, or greatly injur- ed, bv the white rruigpois ; to which fca water is an antidote ; but with refpetk to this root not quite effcHual. To have a conflant fucceflion of ladiflies at table, the feedt fhould befown once a fortnight, from April to Auguft. But in midliimmer they fooner grow fticky and ftrong, than in fpring or fall. They muft therefore be eaten while they are young. I have had better fuccefs with thofe fown in Auguft, than in any other month. In iiot houfes they may be raifed any month in the year. Or thofe raifed in autumn may be kept in dry land, ht for eating in the winter. As radilhes arc uncertain in their growth, the befl method is to j)ut in the feeds between rows ot other plants ; and they 3re fo loon pulled up, tliat they will not incommode the plants among which they grow. Radilhes tliat are for feed re- quire much room, as they grow to a large fi/e. Forihis purpofc fome ot the molt thrifty unes (hoiild be left Handing ; or elfe be tranfpianted to a place where each fhall have as much room as near a yard Iquare. The ripe- nefs ot the feed is known by the pods turning brown. Yor this purpofe the leeds muft be fown early in the fpring, becaule they ripen ilowly. RAGS, pieces of worn out cloth, a valuable manure. Wool- len rags arc an animal fubllancj, and therefore contain much foot3 cannot receive any nourifliment. Was it not for the falling of dews the want of rain would be much oftener deftruftive to plants than it is. Dews are often great in a dry feafon ; and from dews plants receive a confiderable part of their nourifhment. The due quantity of moifture might indeed be fupplied by wa- tering by hand, as long as wells, fprings and ri\'ers were not dri- ed up. But the labour of doing it would be worth more than all the crop. Neither would artifi- cial watering have fo good aa effeft as rain, on account of the inferiour quality of the water for this ufe, and the mode of apply- ing it. The gentleft rains are generally moft conducive to the growth of plants, and the fruit- f ulnefs of the foil, as all parts are more equally foaked ; and cloudy weather, which moft common- ly happens before rain, helps to predifpofe the earth, and its veg- etables, to receive the greater ad- vantage from the water that falls.' It is alfo believed the derrick fluid, which is conduced to the earth by rains, conduces much to the invigoration of plants. Rain not only gives fluidity and motion to the food ot plants contained in the foil, but contains in itfelf znore or lefs of the in- gredients of it. The atmofphere contams abundance of faline, earthy and oleaginous parti- cles ; fo that rain water cannot fail of being impregnated with them. It has been proved by a varie- ty of experiments, that a much greater quantity of rain falls at the furface of the ground, than at the top of a houfe, or other building ; which may be partly owing to the vapour contained in the lower part of the atmof- phere, RAT phere, which is joined to the drops in their dcfceiit. Pfrhaps the ariion ot the fun's heat is proporiion.ibly grt-atcr in Villies than on (uintnits oi hills; it (o, there is a happy balance between heat ami rain on all parts ot the furtace ot the earth. Though it is often regreticJ tkat Tow hollows are overcharged with water, it is commonl\ foon exhaiilledby the heat of the fun in funimer, which is much greater in vallies than on hills. It may be alked. would it not hdvc been better, if a greater pro- portion of rain had talien on hills than on vallies ' But they need k not fo much, becaufe of the greater coolnefs of the air on nills. More of the fine mould would have been wafhed down into the hollows, and deeper channels would have been made in the foil by the running ot wa- ter, which would have been con- fidcrable inconveniences. The quantity of water that falls in a year may be from twen- ty five to thirty inches. If the whole were to fall at once, dcf- truirtive deluges wotild be experi- enced, and droughts equally de- Urudive. It is the frequency of rains that renders theeanh Iruit- tul. To fome foils, as Uiff" clays and loofcfands, frequent rains are more needful than to others. The former imbibes the water too flowly ; the latter pans with it too fpcedily. Thefe two kinds of foil, therefore, need the raoft hequeni Ihowers^ 1". fjrr.c years the rains are fo r: •; :. as to make the feafans Kuit truilful. A r quaimty in each week tnc fununer will be apt to luppiy fb much m'vflur*'. and kp?p up r •\ in ' J to .iC prugrcii wi vcj^cuitOii. RID 27^ Farmers in this climate gen- erally wifli tor but little rain in April, and lor much in May and part of June ; then lefs in hay lime, and Englilh harveft. But as it is not left to us to order this matter, we fhould endeavour to accommodate ouricl\c'$ to the feafons ; and toalTjft nature when- ever we have opporuinity for doing it, draining land which is too wet, watering that which is too dry, and applying more manures to dry foils, which will make them more retentive ot water. RATS, amifchicvous kind of vermiiie too well known to the farmer. No wails that I kriowof have been found to be fufficieni barriers againlt them. The fame poifon which I pre- fcribed for mice, will well fer\'eto deflroy thefe animals. But thcbeft way is to catch them in a cage made of wire, in a cubical form, en- clofed in a wooden box. E^ch fide of the cage fliould be a plane ot about fifteen inches fquare. RKDWORM. See Jn/ecfs. REED, Arundo, "' the name of an aquatick plant, infefling low grounds. The befl method of deUroying them, is by drain- ing the land. Alhcs and foot will kill them. So will plough- ing the land, and laying it in high ridges. They always indi- cate a good foii.". Compleie RIDGLING, a male animal half caflratcd. A horfc of this kind is as troublcfome as a ftal- Ijon, or more {o ; but is not fit to be depended ou as one. A ridg- ling hog will never be fat, nor grow fo large as a harrow, till his caflraiion be i; as it may be by mak ning in the belly, whc; is the moft difficult. Th ll>e ci- ther killed yoimg, or ( v £8o R O L caftraied. The {lefli of a young ridgling pig is good ; but that of an old one brawnj' and difagree- able. RIFLING CART, a machine to pertorm the work of reaping. In a pamphlet publiflied atNe\%- york, in the year 1790. by F. C. H, B. PolUntz, a ripHng cart, as he calls it, is recommended tor the harvelting of wheat. In the operation the heads of the corn are taken off by feven combs, each four feet in length. The combs are Itrongly faflened, at equaldiflances, toarolier, which is turned by bands from the wheels of the cart, and which throws the heads into the cart, which is puHied forward by one horfe, harnellcd with his head to- wards the cart. Allowing that the horfe travels twenty miles per day, ten acres are reaped. A buy placed in the cart fills facks with the heads, as the cart is going, and throws them out at the head lands. After the heads aje thus col- le6ted, the threftiing of the wheat is reprefentcd as performed by a mill built on the principles of a common coffee mill, which is turned and fed by two fmall boys, who can do three bufhels in an hour. If thefe modes ot threfhing and reaping were brought into common ufe, it is iiilonifhing to think how much labour might be faved. But 1 fufpett there are difficulties at- tending the method oi reaping. ROD, tJie fame as a perch, or pole ; a nieafure of five yards andaha)}. A iqnare rod ot fuper- ficies is the i6ctlipartot an acre. ROLLER, a cylindrical in- ftrument to pafs over lands, to anfwer feveral good purpofes in hufnandry. Thofe rollers which are cut out af free iione, being heavier ihaa. R O L wooden ones, are beft to fn^oothj- and harden, the aUey sin gardens, walks, &.C. But wooden ones anfwer better in tillage, wheri they are fufficiently large. A roller for field huToandry Ihould be fise or fix feet long ; to that it may perform much in a fhort time, being drawn by a horfe or a: yoke of oxen, fur eitherof which it may beeafily harnefTed. Itlhould be made periettly round and fmooth,that it may be drawn the more eafily, and prefs the ground the more equally in all parts. And it Ihould be from eighteen to- twenty four inches diameter. Be- ing large, the preffure will be greater ; a!>d the furiace will be left the more level. A fpiky roller, er a roller fill- ed with fpikes, fix or feven inch- es long, fharp pointed at the out- er ends, is fometimes ufed in the old countries, to pulverife clod- dy land in tillage, or to brake and open the fward of grafs land when it is bound, and too com- pact. After grafs land is fo brok- en, a top dreffing will have the better effect. A roller is fome- times armed with circular knives, four or five inches broad, put on in the manner ot hoops, the edg- es at right angles with the axis of the roller, twenty inches from each other. They ufe thefe in- Uruments to cut the fward into llrips, in order to cut up the turfs with a Iharp inoned plough for burn beating. This manner ot doing the work, is far lefs ex- peniive than cutting up the turfs witli the beating axe. But the fward of land to which this in- ftrument is applied, ought to be cxtrcmeiy level, and free from Hones and Itrong roots. ROLLING, fraoothing and moderately hardening the fur- face of land, by drawing a roller over it. The R O L The rolling of land in ullage niould be done only in dry Weather ; ne\'er, when the foil is fo wet as to Hick to the roller. No foil will admit ot rolling that is very uneven, or much rocky or ilony. But ftnall round pebbles in a mellow foil, well pulvcrif- ed, need not prevent rollfng : For the roller will prefsthem all into the foil. Land that is apt to have aftiff cnift formed upon it, by lying only a few weeks, I think Ihould not be rolled ; bc- caufe it will caufc the crull to be the more hard and ftiff. But the advantaeesot rolling ina lightand rich foil are fo ^rcat, that it is pity that the prathce of it is fo gen- erally laid afide in this country. Rolling, after fowing and har- rowing, will caufe the mould to cnclofe the feeds ; much ot which, othcrwife, lying in cavi- ties tlut foon become dry, is apt to tail ot vegetating. Rolling al fo fills up ten thou- fand little cell«, which, when left open, are haunts and hirbours for flies ami other nox'ous infetts ; befides, it has the advantage of dettroying fomc kinds of infetts j in the operation. It is peculiarly beneficial on this account to a i crop ol turnip's. And lome rcc- I ommend patting the roller over ' turnip ground, not only when I the feed is newly fown, but after ' the pUnts arc up. ' When a clay foil is fown, roll- ing brc-iks many lumps, or hard ' cl" * 'i have cfcaped the j pi' he harrow. But an j ovfr light foil, which is apt to I dry too t J If, needs rolling more i than any other. It ferves to pre- vent r(i- rv ip'^rition of moillurc, porous. ! ropcan farmerv ' r the grain has _; .1 of four or hve But ot the utility of this Li R O O 281 by .s.. prcicr r riten to inches. we are not yet convinced by a fufficient number of trials. In all kinds of foil that are laid down to grafs, rolling is nccella- ry, to lay the lurtace fo fniootli and even as to facilitate mowing and raking. And thofe kinds of fowcd corn which are to be cut with the Icythe.and raked, fhould be rolled, that lofs may be pre- vented in harvelling. Without it, a crop ot barley cannot be well taken up clean with a rake, elpecially when the corn is (liort and fmall, as I have often found to my lofs. Some writers on hufbandry think a crop of barley, in particular, will be confidera- bly larger for rolling it, as it is a dry feed, that needs to be well enclofcd with mould, in order to its vegetating. Lands that arc ia grafs, may be kept even by a yearly rolling, which will prefs down mole hills and other un ot grain, and many grades. But ftill then- arc perhaps hut few plants which have only one ot thefc kinds of roots, th«)iigl> the form that is moft obvious deaoiDinau:» 282 R O O denominates a root. Carrots, and otiier tap rooted plants, fend out horizontal fibres to a confid- erable diftance. Trees in gener- al have both tap and fibrous roots. A turnip has the three kinds of roots, having a bulb, a tap, and many lateral fibres from^ the tap. Mr. Mills, on this fubjeft fays, the roots that proceed immedi- ately from the feed, are always of the carrot or tap kind. Tap roots ftrike down perpendicular- ly into the earth, till it becomes too hard to admit of their farther paffage ; but when the foil is deep, and eafily pierced, they penetrate fometimes to the depth of feveral yards, unlefs they are cut or broken ; in which cafe they alter their direftion. This is frequently obfervcd ; particu- larly in plants raifed in water only. The tap roots fhoot out branches which extend hori- zontally ; and tbefe branches are ftronger, in proportion as they are nearer to the furtace of that layer ot earth which is llu- red by the plough or fpade. Thefe are the roots which we call creeping or fibrous. They extend fometimes to a confider- ablc diftance from the plant that produced them ; but then they become io minute, that the nak- ed eye can no longer trace them ; efpecially when they have taken the tincture of the earth that fur- rounds them, as they generally do. A carrot, for an example, which feems to have only one great root, furniihed with fome fibres, pulhes its roots, according to Mr. Tull, to a confiderable diftance ; but they grow fo very {lender, that they cannot be dif- tinguilhed from the earth that covers them, without great at- tention. The cafe is the fame ^vith almoft all plants. R O O To convince the reader of this^ and at the fame time to ftiew how far the roots of plants can extend in ground that is well loofened, he recomm.ends the experiment which I have men- tioned under the article, Pajiure of Plants, which fee. The following inftances, fays, JVI. Duhamel, ftiew what effort trees will make, to find a proper foil for the extenfion of their roots. On examining thofeof a hedge, at the fide of which a, ditch had been dug, it appeared^ that after pafTing underneath the ditch, they reafcended, and Iprcad themfelves in the plough- ed earth on the other fide. He made the fame obfervation on a row of elms, which were very near being killed by the digging of a deep ditch pretty near them, in order to prevent their roots from damaging an adjacent piece of ground. The ehns Ihot out irelh roots in the loofe mould that dropped into the ditch ; thefe roots reafcend- ed on the other fide of the ditch, and fpread in the ploughed ground, and the elms foon recov- ered then- former vigour. He likewife obferved, that on digging a trench at a fmall dif- tance from a young elm, and fil- ling it with good mould, the roots of that elm took their di- rection towards the trench, and grew to a great length in it. Thefe obfervations prove that horizontal roots extend far, ef- pecially in loofe mould: And a& a plant thrives in proportion to the length of its roots, Mr, Tull jnftly infers the necefiity of keeping the earth in tillage in a light ftate, that the roots may ea- fily penetrate it. A root that has been cut or broken, never grows longer, but foon produces feveral new roots, aU n!iilt!;i!\ iiiij of the roots, and co]\* (.jticntTy thf greater nourilh- ROT all ot which j^atlicr (ho proper too'! of the plant. Its means of fuhfiflence arc t!urefi>re intieaf- cd, by the brcakiiij; ot its roots, in Higgipfj or phxii^hing, rather than ot!H•^^^i^e. In the liofic hoeing !n;'!\in(!ry nia'jy ol the fihrousio. iv o! thegrowingplants are iinciuuinedl^' tut oH by the plough. Bui It occafions the ly the li;; 1' <>t the plants. KOT, a difcafe in fhecp, fiini- lar to a puiniouaiy conlumption in men. A writer in the Scots Fanner thinks that if the difeafc have not proceeded tar, the an- imals may be cured by feeding on turnips. But this is rattier to bedoulDtcd. It is fdidtobecaufed by keeping them in a pafture tliat is to\) moilt, producing rank and watery grades. The raging ot this dillcmpcr in a flock, is (topped by removing them toa dry lituatioti : But tlie in- dividuals which are deeply fcized with it, arc feldom cured. Cough is a conflant fymptom. The lungs decay, and tlie whole body droops and languifhes, in the fame manner as pcrfons in a hec- tick. The fick of the flock ihould be removed liom the found fhecp, that tlic infection may fprcad no turilicr among the flock. ROTATION of CROPS, a courfe of different crops in fuc- cefhon, on the fame piece of ground. ^ This matter has not yet been »,^ fufliciently aitetuled to l)y Kcw- ) cngland Farmers. This appears / by their oltcn being neccflitated j to lay their tillage lands whHv for a confidcrablc number of years, that they may get recruited. The cxpenfc of recruiting worn ; out tana is fo great, that fucli a ; courfe of cropb uu^lit to be pre- ROT 283 loriT'i as the foil will bear with- out material injury, or wiiliont being too muchexhaufted. And, wlicn other things are equal, (tich a courfe Ihould l)e a- dopiod, as ►requires the lea ft la- bour, or coll of manures and cul- tivation. Whenacouiic is well cholcn, it may be repeated on the Ijimc fpot perpetually, with- out t^magc to the foil. it is :io» to be expetted, that the heft rules concerning this matter can be cftablilhed, but trom tlie experience of many years. For tliough it may be eafy to com- pare the refpe6tive advantage? of different courfes, in a few years, fo as to find which is more produttivc ; it will take a much longer time to determine which courfe will be bell on the whole. For the flate ot the foil, at the end ot a long courfe, is to be taken into the account. Audit is to be remembered ttiata courfe that is fuitabic for one toil, may not be fo for another. In countries whore a fpirlted attention to agriculture has lor a long time fubfiftcd, one would expecr, that people have moil probably adopted tlie bcft courfes. It is not amifs, there- fore, to obfervc what courfe.s they generally pretcr in Brit- ain and Ireland, taking care not to go into a ralh and iiiconfider- ate imitation of them, without making allowance for local dif- terciices, &c. A common courfe in Ireland is, turnips, l)arley, clover, wh?-*i : 0:-,poiJtoes,barley,clover,wheat. From the account that .Mr. Young gives of the courfes ia different places, whicli he paflcd through in his northern tf»ur, the following things are obfcr\able : Tliat white iluy do not tallow. Srccn and whue crops !• ' citli other alternately ; an V. ncav 284 ROT follows clover ofiener than any . other crop : That where fallow- ing is praftifed, wheat is next, and after it fometimes another I white crop ; btu not generally, i It ought to be never. j The courfes of crops in Ire- land, will furnifli nearly the iame obfervations. The judicious farmer knows, that forae regard mult be had to the nature of the foil in a courfe of crops. Thofe crops which require a light foil, fhould make no part of the courfe in a fliff Gne, and vice verfa. But fuppofing the European courfes to be the bell that can be, fome variation is furely to be made in this country ; what that variation is, experience mufl dif- cover. Not only our climates, but alfo our crops are different. ^Ve raife forae crops that they do not, and not all that they do raife. But a rule that is fit to be extended to all countries, is, that two impoverifhing crops fhould jeldom, or never, fucceed each other in a courfe. And it is certain, that white crops irj gen- ial, are apt to impoverifh the foil, as they continue to draw nounfhment from the earth, for fome time after the leaves are dead, and ceafe to receive nour- lihment from the air. And all plants that bear an oily feed, rob the foil of much of its vegetable food : Such are EdX and hemp, fuppofing them to continue on ihe ibil til! the feed is ripe. Reafoning from experience and obfervation, I am led to be- lieve, that th:; foliQwing are as good courfes, as may be expect- ed to be introduced in this coun- try. On light warm foils, the firft year, maize dunged, peafe, or potatoes : 2d 3'ear, rye, bar- ley, or buck wheat: The 3d, and 4th, clover ; The 5th, wheat : ROW The 6th, and 7th, clover. On cold and ftifF foils, iff, oats or potatoes: 2a, Potatoes well dung- ed : 3d, flax, or wheat : 4th, Grafs, and fo on till it needs to be broken up again. Though thefe may ferve for general rules, yet as there is a great variety in foils, and fome farmers can ob- tain manure in greater plenty than others, each farmer mufl en- deavour to accommodate his courfes to his foil and other cir- cumflances. ROWEL, a kind of iffue, or artificial wound, made in the fkin of a horfe, by drawing a fkain of filk, thread or hair, through the nape of the neck, or fome other part, anfwerijig to what furgeons call a feton. Horfes are roweled for inward flrains,efpecial]y about the fhoul- ders or hips, or for hard fwellings that are not eafily difTolved. The rowel may be made in almofl any part, and fhould always be not far from the difeafed part, and about a hand breadth beneath it. The two ends of the rowel Ihould be tied together, that it may not come out, and be fmeared with lard, or frefh butter, before it is put in. Afterwards, it fhould be daily fmeared again, and drawn backwards and forwards, that the putrid matter may dif- charge itfeif. What are called rowels by the Englifh Faniers are made as fol- ' lows : An incifion is made through the f}:in, about three eighths of an inch long. Then the fkin is feparated from the flefh with the finger, or with the end of a blunt horn, as far as the finger will eaCly reach. Into this a piece of leather made very thin, and round fhaped, is intro- duced, about the fize of a crown piece, having a large round hole m the middle of it. Previous to introducing RUN introducing the leather, it is co\'- cred with lint or tow, and dipped in fouiediKeftivc ointment. Al- fo a pledgit ol tow, dipped in the fame ointment, is put in the ori- fice, to keep out the cold air. Sec Clark's Farriery. RUNN'ET. or RKXNET, an acid juice, contained in the maw of a call that has fed on noth- ing but milk.. When the rennet is to be preferveJ for ufe, the calf fhoald be killed toon after he has fucked ; for then the curd is entire and undigefled. Dairy women ufually preferve the maw, and the curd contained in it, after faltiug them ; and then by flecping this bag and curd, make a rennet to turn their milk for making cheefc. But a method which feems to be more fimplc, and is equally good in every refpeft, is, to throw away tlie curd, and aticr fteeping it in very ftrong pickle, flrctch out the maw upon a flender bow in- fcrted into it, which will foon be very dry, and keep well lor a long time. Take an inch or two of the maw thus dried, and flcep it over night in a few fpooniuls of warm water ; which water rcr\cs fiill as well as if the curd had heen prefervcd, tor turning the milk. It is faid that one inch will fcrve for the milk of five cows. In the Bath papers, Mr. Haz- ?ard gives the following receipt for making rennet: *' \Vhcn the raw (kin is well prepared and fit tor the purpofc, three pints of fuft water, clean and fwcet, Ihould be mixed with fait, wherein fhould be put fwect brier, rofc leaves and flowers, cinnamon, mace, cloves, and almoli every fort ot fpice ; 1 it thefe are put into two . irts of water, thty muft boil gently, till the liquor is reduced to ihxcc pints, and care (hculd be RUN «S5 taken that this liquor is not fmok- e:ed and diffolvcd in com- port. In the latter method, I have found it to l)c a great fer- tiliser of land. But if fait be applied unmixed and undilfolvfd.i: will endanger J the exiftence ot tender plants. I Mr. Tull afferts, that common ' fait is poifon to all plants, ex- ; cept marine ones : He doubt- I lels means that it is fo, before i( is mixed, altered and adlmilated, j In June, 17S6, I failed one bed of my onions, one bed of , my carrots, and one bed of my i early turnips ; laying the lali un«jcr 2S8 SAL under the furface, in the centies of the intervals between the rows, at fome diftance, perhaps fix inch- es, from the plants, that the fait might have time to be diflolved, and altered, before the fibrous roots fhould reach it. The car- rots of the faked bed, evidentl}- | grew much larger and better j than the reft of the carrots ; but i I could not perceive that the fait | was at all beneficial to the onions, ! or to the turnips. j According toMr. Ford's ex- ( periment in faking flax ground, \ fait feems to be highly beneficial | to that crop. He fpreads the | fait over the ground, at the time j of fowing the feed ; and thinks | that the quantity of fait fliould | be double thatcf the feed. From three acres in flax faked, he had fifty bufliels of feed, and an ex- cellent crop of flax. It was thoughtthat the advantage of fall- j ing appeared more in the feed than in the harle. Mr. Eliot telis of five bufliels of fait being applied to one acre of flax, which is a much la4ger j proportion, and that it had an I extraordinary effect : And alfo j of a crop of wheat being increaf- j ed by fait. It is hoped that tu- i ture trials will more fully afcer- j tain the utility of this kind ot I manure, and to what crops it i may be moft advantageoufly ap- plied. SALTING of MEAT, the method ot preventing its cor- ruption for a long time, by the application of common ialt, &c. As farmers are moft commonly too fardiftant from market plac- es, to be fupplied from them with frelh meat, and as it is moft ccrtivenient for them to kill only at certain feafons, they ought to bew-ell acquainted with the beft methods ot keeping meat in good ©rder, by faking. & A L I The common method of pre- j ferving pork, referving the lean 1 parts for ufe in the cold feafon, I and applying a large quantity of fait to the fat, is perhaps as good' as any can be. But beef is great- ly injured, and rendered un- wholefome by a fevere faking. A good method of preferving beet, which I have known to be praftifed for feveral years paft, is as follows : For a barrel of beef of the common fize, reduce to powder in a mortar four quarts of common fait ; then eight ounces of fait petre, and five pounds of brown fugar. Let the fait be well rubbed into the pie- ces, pack them clofe in the bar- rel, and fprinkle the fait petre and fugar evenly over each -lay- er. No water at all is to be appli- ed. The juices ot the meat, if well packed, will form a fuffi- cient quantity of brine ; and the beef will keep fweet and good through the following fummer, fuppofing it killed and packed in the beginning of winter, or late in autumn ; and will not be too fait to be palatable. Draining off the brine and purifying it by boiling and fcumming, with the addition of a little fait in the be- ginning of fummer, and return- ing the brine upon the meat, wilt be a real improvement. Dr. Anderfon recommends a fimilar method for preferving but- ter. Takeoffugar onepart, of ni- treonep3rt,and of thebeft Span- ilh great fait two "parts. Beat tlie whole into a fine powder, mix them well together, and put them by for ufe. One ounce of this is to be thoroughly mixed with a pound of butter, as foon as it is freed from "the milk, and then immediately put into the veflel defigned to hold it After which It muff be prefTed fo clofe as to have no air holes ; and then fo cJ:ofelif S A N dofcly covered that no air can come to it. II all this is done, he thinks tiic butter may he kept {)iTtcttly lound .uid good ior induy years, lor he had fccn it at twoycJr^ old, in every rifpcti as iweetrtnd foiiMd as when oidy a month old. SAND, is dcfcribcd as a ge- nus of lofhls, found in minute SAN 289 glebe, or earth aIoi>e, receires no prowfh or increment at all, but is either Jlarved or fufibcat- cd : But mix the two, and the. mais becomes fertile. In effect, by means of fand, ihc earth is renfion, upon the leaft a]>proach of the warmth of the (un. But then, as they are hally, they are foon exhaled and loft. M m " The ■i-gcs: S' A N " The beft fand, for the farm- er's life, is that which is wafii- ed by rain from roads, or hills, or that taken from the beds of rivers. The common fand, that is dug in pits, never anfwers near- ly fo well. Sand mixed with dung, is much better than laid on alone : And a very fine manure is made, by covering the bottom of (heep folds with feveral loads of fand every week, which are to be taken away, and laid on cold ififf lands, impregnated as they are, with the dung and urine of fteep. •' Befides clay land, there is another fort of ground very im- proveable by fand. This is that iortof black foggy land, on which bufhes and ledge grow naturally, and which they cut into turf in fome places. Six hundred loads of fand, being laid on an acre of this land, meliorate it fo much, that it will yield good crop5 of oats, &c. though before, it would have produced fcarce any thing. If after this crop is taken off, the land be well dunged, and laid down forgrafs, it will yield a large crop of fweet hay./ " Sea fand, which is thrown up in creeks and other places, is by much the richcll of all fand for manuring the earth : Partly us faltnefs.and par'tly the fat and -anctuous filth that is mixed a- niongit, give it this great virtue. In the wellcrn parts of England, that lie upon the fea coalt, they make great advantage of it. The fiagmenis of fea fliells alfn, which always abound in this fand, add fo its virtues : And it is ahvays the more efleemed by the tarm- ers, the more of thefe fragments are among it. " Sea land is beft, which is taken up from under the water, or from fand banks which are covered by every tide. The S A N- fmalleft grained fand, is themoft- fudden in its operation, and is therefore beft tor the tenant, who- is only to take three or four crops • But the coarfe, or large grained fand, is much better for the landlord, as the good it does lafts many years." Complde Farmer. Sand entirely changes the na- ture of a clayey foil ; fo that it will fcarcely ever become fa compacf, as it was before fand- ing. Nor is any other manure fo good as fand, to loofen and foft- en it. No other will have fo lafting an effeft. From being- the leaft produftive, a foil of clay, by fanding, comes to be the- moft tiaiitful of any, when it is- fufficiently fanded ; for it has more of the food of plants in it- than any other foil, wanting on- ly to have its cohehon fufHcient- ly broken, to give a free parage to the roots of vegetables. For this purpofe, a yery fmalldrefTing of fand ^vill not fecm to produce any efFe6f. A layer of two and a half or three inches will not be too much for land in tillage, ii' it be a ftifFclay. The benefit of fanding does not appear fo much the firft year or two as afterwards : For the ofteiver tl^e land is tilled, the more thoroughly is the fand mix- ed with the cicty ; by which the vegetable jiafture is more and more increafed. , But fand laid upon clay land in- grafs, will have a great effeft, . without mixing it with the foil. I have known half an acre of clay land laid to grafs, Ni-hich be- came fo bound and ififl, as to produce only two or three cocks at a mowing, with a mixture o{ low mofs and other trafti. The owner.in October, 1783, with one yoke of oxen, carted on eighty loads of yellow fand from the road, SAN -oad, which was about equal to tony cart fulls ; levoilcd it with a harrow, and threw m lomc hay Iced. Tbc iol lowing year it pro- duced ten hundred weight of good hay : Lall year it produced twejity hundred ; and it is e.\- pc6icd, that about thirty hundred will be the weight of the crop in the preient year, 1786. 'Ihc fand not only added warmth to the foil, but prevented the clay from becoming fo dry and hard as to j>rcvent the roots of the grafs Irom extending themfclvcs in it. SANDY SOI L, a foil in which fand is the predominant ingredi- ent. It is fddom found unmixed with other ingredients. Wherev- er it is lo, it is extremely barren, and ot little or no value. It will fcarcely produce weeds. Some barren fands conhft oi very hnc panicles, and have no fward over them. The wind drives them before it, and makes what are called Junii JJoods, which bury the neighbouring lands and fences. The fences near them Jhould be tall hedges to abate tlie hirce of winds : And trees which rcquiie but lit- tle nourilhmcnt Irom the earth, Ihould be planted in thefc fands, :hata fward may be obtained up- on them. See Locujl Ir^e. VViien a fandy foil is ufcd in tillage, It fhould be for thofe crops which require the moil heat, and are lea ft apt to fuffcr by drought ; as mai/e, tobacco, rye, peafe, &.c. The beil manures for a fandy foil, are mlc*cc of flax was, in the month of Jone. very fljort and yellow on one (lie of the piece ; but of a good colour on the oilier, and nuiih i.jller : This indiiccd the owner to water the poor iide from the fea. In ten days it was equal in length and colour with that on i\r: oth- er lidc, though very little rain lell in the time. At pulling, the watered fidi; was evidently bet- ter grown than the oth^r. This was a lufficient denionliration ot the advantage ot fea water, when the land lies adjoining to thelealliorc ; fo that the labour of applying it is inconfiderable. The above experiments were nial? in a clayey foil. In a (jindy foil the fame year, watering the grotmd where French turnips werejuft fown, had an excellent eficd. Though it was a 'pot where the turnips had been dellroycd by infecls, fcveral years lucceflively, they generally efcapcd this year. Not more than one pailfuil was appli- ed to a drill row two rods in lengfli, wetting the ground over rlie feeds, foon attpr fowing. Salt water applied to tender plants, niofl connnonly proves too ftrong for them, it applied wlien the ground is dry. But it it be wet, the tlrcngth(»f the wa- ter is abated by niixing wi»h the iuices in the foil, before it is tak- en up by the roots, and thus u is rcndv'red innocent and laic, as i have found by experience. 1 he feeds bear the application ot the fea water, better than the young plants do. SKKDS ofVerjfablet. " their lull product, by whirh their Ipc- S K E 293 cics are projiagated ; being tie- qucntly all ilic ii;iit of a platit, but lometjnics only a part includ- ed in the Iruit. " Kvcry fej-d contains a plant in eip.bryo. The e!iibry<», which is the whole future plant in niini- .nture, 1^ called the geim or bud ; and is rooted in the cotyledon, or placenta, which make its involu- crum, or cover. 'I'iie cotyledon is always double ; and in the mid- dle, or common centre t)t the two, i^ a point or fpeck, viz. the einbryo plantule, which being a^tcd on oy the warmth ol the fun and of the earth, begins to protrude its radicle, or root, downwards, and rfK)n alter, its pluniula, or bud, upwards ; and as the requiliie heat continues, it draws nourdhmeiu by the root, and fo continues lo unlold itfelf and grow. " 1 he two cotyledons of a feed, are a cafe to the little embryo plant ; covering it up, and Iheltering it irom injuries, and tecding it from its own piop- er lublfaiue ; which the plan- tide receives and draws to itfelf by an iiiHnite number ol little iil- amcnts, which it fends into the body of the placenta. " '1 tie cotyledons for the moll part abound with a balfarn dill)«>led in proper cells ; and this feems to bcoil brought toits greateff perfection, while it re- mains tumid, and lodged intliefe repofitorics. One part ot the compoiition of this balfani is oily and tenacious, and leives to dc- lcn entangle and retain the fine, pare, volatile Ipini, which is the ultimate produ^iioti of the plant. This oil is never oblcrvcd to enter into the vellcU ol the embryo, which are too liue to jidmu fu thick u fluid. 'IliC ^94 SEE The fpirit,ho\vever,being quick- ened by an aftivepower,may pof- fibly breathe a vital principle into tlie juices that nourifli the em- bryo, and llamp upon it the charafter that diftinguifiics the family ; after which, every thing is changed into the proper na- ture ot that particular plant. " Now when the feed is com- mitted to the earth, the placen- ta flill adheres to the embryo for fome time, and guards it from the acccfs of noxious colds, &c. and even prepares and purifies the cruderjuice the young plant is to receive from the earth, by flrain- ing it through its own body. This it continues to do, til 1 the em- bryo plant being a little enured to its new element, and its root tol- erably fixed in the ground, and fit to abforb the juice thereof, it then perifhes, and the plant may be faid to be delivered ; fo that nature obferves the fame method in plants, as in animals in the mother's womb. " Many fortsof feeds will con- tinue good for feveral years, and retain their vegetative faculty ; whereas others will not grow after they are one year old : This breed, the ram mult be young, and his (kin of the fame colour with his wool ; for the lambs will be ol the fame colour with his fkin. Thoie ewes which have no horns, are iound to be the beft breeders." The farmers in Europe know how to diftinguifti the age ot Iheep by their teeth. When a Iheep is one (hear, as they ex- pre(s it, that is, has been (beared but once, or is in its fecond year, it has two broad teeth before i When it is two (hear, it will have four : When three, fix : Whcu four (hear, or in its fifth year, iL will have eight teeth before. Alter this, their inoiuhs begin to break. '* Ihe fat paftures breed ftraight tall Iheep, and the barren hills- fquare and (hort ones. But the beft Iheep of all, arc thofe bred upon new ploughed land, the reafon of which may be ealily guclfed, as- (uch land is common- ly the moft tree trom bad gra(res. " All wet and moift lands are bad for (heep, efpecially fuch a» are fubjcft to be overftowed, and. to have fand and dirt leit oq them. The fall marlhes arc an exception from this general rule : For their faltnefs makes amends for their nioifture ; any thuig fait, by reafon ot its drymg qual- ity, being of great advantage to (heep. The beft time lor (heep to yean, which- go twenty weeks with lamb, is in Apiil, uuli-.ii the owner has any forward grafs, or turnips. Ewes tbnt are big, Ihould be kept but bare ; tor in* dangerous for them to be tat at the time of their bringing torih their young. They may be well fed, iiuiccd, like cow5, a lo;u 296 SHE night beforehand, to put them in heart. ' . M.BufFon fdvs," 0ne ram will be fuf'icicnt tor twenty five or thirty e^v-es ; but that he ihould be remarkable tor ftrength and comelinefs : That thuie which have no horns are very indiffer- ent : That the hcTid of a ram fhould be large and thick, the forehead broad, the eyes large and blacl:, the nofe Ihort, the neck thick, the body long, the back and rump broad, the teiJi- cles large, and the tail long : That the beil are white, with a large quantity of wool on the belly, tail, head and ears, down to the eyes : That the heft (heep for propag.ition, are thofe which have moll wool, and that dole, long, filky and white ; efpeciaily if, at the fame time, they have a large body, a thick neck, and are light footed." He fays, " that ewes fatten very faff during tl^.eir pregnancy j that as they oitenhunthemfelves, and frequently mifcarry, lo they fometimes become barren ; and that it is not very extraordinary for them to bring forth monilrous prod'i6tions. But when proper- ly tended, they are capable of yeaning during the whole of their life, or to the age of ten or twelve year";. But moil com- monly when they come to be feven or eight years old, they be- gin to break, and become fickly; and that a ram is no longer fit for propagation after eight years, at which titne lie fhould be knit, and fattened with the old Iheep." According to the lame writer, *' fheep lliould in the fummcr bo turned out early in the morning to feed ; and in tour or five hours, after watering, be brought back to the fold, or to fome fhady place. At four o'clock, P. M. thev Ihould be turned to ti^acir S PI E pafture again, and continue *here till evening ; and were it not for the danger of wolves, they fhou'.d pafs the night in the open air, which would render them more vigo^ous,. clean, and healthy. As the too great heat cf the fun is hurtful to them, fliady pyflures arc bell for them ; or elfe tc» drive them to a place with a wcilern defcent in the morning, and the contrary towards even- ing." That their ^vool may be laved, they fhould not be paflured in bulhy places, or where th^re are briars. Sheep are often thus deprived of moll of their fleeces ; which be(i llrong, as that of white ones. Nor is the wool ever a perfectly" good black, and it is tound diffi- cult to give It any good durable colour by (lying. SHELLS, Ifony coverings, wh:ch nature prepares for cer- tain kinds of animals in the fe.), and by which they aie defended; which are therelore denominat- ed (hell (ifh. Thelo (hells arc much of the fame nature as lime ftone, and are one of the bed kinds ot ma- nure. No length of time de- prives thofelhellsof their virtue^ which are buried deep in the earth. Thofe which murt have been in that fituation, at leaft ever fince Noah's flood, arc un- altered. But fhclls which lie on the furface of the ground will gradually moulder, and become lime. This manirre is fo highly ef- teemcd in fome parts ot turope, that the farmers even carry it in bags upon horfes to the diilance ot feveral miles trom the fea. Shells may be applieil to the foil at one (ealen ot the year -is well as at another ; exceptmoj' that they (ho'ild not be carted on at atimewhen the,;;rouiid isfowet .IS to be poachy ; bccaufe poach- ing is hurtful to all foils. The farmer may generally do thi-s work at a time when he is moll at leilure. Even in winter thole may well be removed, which he i«)wer in the fea than high water mark. Mr. Weflon recommends that (hells be ground (inc before they are ufed as manure ; and lays, the finer they arc ground the pleafctheir h'jiith rcquiresit,aii(l I farther they will go. But it re they will pay well tor it to the ] i;iiire$ fo much labour to grind •wncr. N tlicro, that 1 doubt whether it be KCUh 293 S I L worth while to do it, unlefs it be for gardens. And in the long run, they will benefit the foil as much without grinding. Though the benefit of them, when appli- ed whole, do not appear much in thefirliandfecondycar,thetillage of every year will help to break and crumble them ; and in a courfe of years, by continual til- lage, they will be fufficiently dif- folved, and intimately mixed with the foil. It is chiefly the fmaller {hells that fhould be thus ufed, fuch as thofe of clams, mufcles, &;c. tor thefe will be fooner diffolved than larger ones. As ftnall fhells are moftly mixed with fand, or tenacious mud, they need not be feparated from thefe fubllances. Thofe that are mixed with fand ■will he a proper dreffmg for cold, (tiff and clayey foils ; and thofe which arc mixed with mud Jhould be laid upon foils that arc dry and light. For many of the fhells will lie with the concave fides upwards in the eartli, and will flop the water in its delcent, and fo afliU the foil in retaining moiflure. Mr. Eliot tried a fort of fhell fand, which he fays he- found to be equal to good dung. It it had as mucii effect as dung at firft, it mutt have been vaftly better than dung upon the whole : Becaufe fhells are a lafting advantage to the foil. SKRUB, a buPn or dwarSfh tree. Some apply the term to all phnts that are woody and do not arrive to the tize ot trees, though not fo drtrable as trees. The fmall oak bulhes on plains, the elder, whortleberry buih, thorn, fweet fern, &c. are rank- ed under this head. SILIOUOSE PLANTS, or leguaiinous plants, thofe whicU contain their feeds S L 1 in pods. The feeds adhere to the ftrongcr limbs of the two valves alternately, Ot this kind are peafe, beans, vetches, and many more. SITHE, a well known imlru- ment to cut grafs. This initru- ment ihould confifl of tough iron and the befl of fleel, well wrought together, and nicely tempered. It the temper of a fuhe thould prove to be too high, it may be lowered by laying it to the hot fun a tev/ days in midfummer. SLED, or SLEDGE, a car- riage without wheels, chiefly ufed to convey loads when the ground is covered with fnow. Plank fleds, and framed fleds, are both ufed. The latter for lightncfs are rather preferable. But plank fleds are more ufed for the hcav- iefl loads, as maflsand mill logs. The common length ot a fled is eight or nine feet; but longer ones are better for carrying boards, and long timber. SLIPS, twigs torn from a tree, or thrub, to propagate by plant- ing them in a moill foil. More than half, or even two thirds of their length, fhould be buried in the foil. They flrike root more eafily than cuttings. Early in the fpring is the right feafon to perform it. I h?ve the beflfuccefs when I doit as fooa as the ground is thawed in the fpring. The flips fiiould either be planted immediately after they are taken from the trees ; or the lower ends ihould'b'eenclofed in wet clay till they are fet in the ground. This lail: will be necef- fary when the flips muft be carri- ed to any confiderabie dilfance. And in this cafe, they fhould lie for a while in water before they are put into the ground. It is neceifary to place them in moift earth, rich, and finely pul- verifed | S 1. u .••rifril; n'i^ i1h\ Ihoiihi be fte- i]ucmiy i\ • a litlle wa. tcriiig, ui::~ lion be wet. Bin it is the (uiL'll nieihod to plant (lips ill p»>ts, cipccially o\ tbofc ki.iiis wliicli arc Joall apt to lliike rtH)t. In this cafe, it will not beai<4ll (li^Iiiitlttogive tlicin continually the right qvtantity ot moillurc. Sltpi from almoil any kinds oi trees and fliru'js may be thus made to grow ; but they will never make fo large trees as thofe wliich come from the feeds. 'I'hty will be the more fit, however, for the borders ol gardens. SLOUGH, a deep muddy fpot of earth. Soft and hollow places in roads, ■where piKllI. . of water ftatul af- ter rain, by i.i- .iiisof the frequent pafTmg of loH kd whei'l car- riages, ofijti I'liomc deep and troubl..' Miie floughs. The way to prevent their exigence, is to make a channel, or a covered drain, where the fliape of the ground admits of it, to lead away the fuperfliious water. For the ground will thus be permitted to *lry and har-len^ fa as to prevent the finking of wheels into it. To cure a (lough in a road, fink, pebbles, or any kind of flones into the bottom, and cover them with a thick coat of coarfe gravel, or with cinder from a Imith's forge, or with rubbifh from a brick kiln. But this fhould be «l<)ne in a dry feafon.' SLUICE, a frame of timber, ferving to i>h{lrutl and r^ifc the water of the fen, or of a river, and to let it pafs as there may be oc- cufiori for it. Si'.iiccs arc required for mills, and for locks to carry on inland navigation. Hut I (hall only confider thnfe lluiccs which tlie hulbandman may find ufctid in j flooding oflow U;«ds,or watering; ;: S L U 299 dry foil with the Perlian wheel, or in reclaiming of m.irlhcs. For the hrll and fecond of thefe purpofes, lluiees with gales 10 rjile and letdown are proper. But for the lad gates arc not needed wIkmi the llream is large. Ihe I'erlian wheel has floats made hollow, and of fuch a con- (IruHion, as to raile ihe watei from a lluicc, to the height ot two thirds the diamet( r of the wheel ; where the floats dilchaige the wa- ter into a trough ; whenci- it iseoii- veycd away in fuch a manner as to water the neighbouring lands. For a particular .»ccount of the machine, fee Mills\Duhamc!. For rcclaim.it'.g of marlhes, bo.\es with Ihutters are ufed, ef- pccially when but a fmall quan- tity of fiefli water will need to pafs out through the fluices. A box may be made of four pretty wide and rtrong planks.either nailed or pegged together. The length of the box mull be equal to the thicknefs of the bottom ©t tlic dyke ; and rather project a httle at each end, that the pallagcs may not be obdrudcd by dirt or fods falling from the dyke. Thefe boxes (liOidd be placed in the lowed hollows of the mar(h, or in the creeks, and the ground well hardened beneath them, and on their (ides. It is better to place two or three boxes (ide by fide, if needful, than go to t'ac expenfe ol buiidit'g a more colU ly kind of Huice. And each hollow or creek, through which a dyke palfes, and wherever there is liKely ever to be frelh xva- tcr to convey away, (hould ha\ e oncor moreof thi-le little (liiiets. Each box IhouM have a clap- per, or (butter. I he Ihutter is to be fal^cned to the mouth of the box, at the end towauls the fea, with hinges made of iron 01 wood. The nCng tide prcllcs tlir Uimier ■goo S M U ihutter clofe to the mouth of the box, fo that no water can enter ; and a,t ebb tide the frefti water, when there is any, opens it by its prefTare, and paffes out. When it is found neceffary to build larger kinds of lluices, Bel- ■zdors Architcdure Hydrauhque, and MulUr, Ihould be confulted. SMUT, a diftemper in grain, which diffolves the fubftance of the kernel, turns it toablackduft, and burRs the coats of the kernels, M. Duhamel diftinguifhes it by its entirely deltroying the germ and fubftance of the grain; by its affefting not only the ear, but the whole plant, and extend- ing itfelf?Bolt commonly to all the ears which arife from the fame root. He fays he has found it as early as in April, by opening a plant, and taking out a young ear, not more than the fixth ot an inch long ; that a uillemper- ed ear, when it comes out of its hofe, looks lank and meagre, and that the black powder may be fcen through the thin coat of the grain ; that the po.wdcr has a fe- tid fmcll, and no confiltcncy ; that it is eafily blown away by wind, or wafhed away by rain ; and that he has never found itto be contagious, like the powder of burnt grain. M. Tillet obferved that the upper part of the Italk of a fmutty plant is not commonly ftraight, from about half an inch below the ear ; and that in that part it is ftiff and hard, and is almoit en- tirely filled with pith, very dif- ferent from the flems of healthy plants ; whence he concludes, tiiat the afcent of the fap is ob- ilrutfed in the flems of fmutty plants. The real caufe of fmut has ^f- caped the refearches of many phi- lofophers. M. Duhamel juftly (sbferves, that it cannot be a S M U want ol fecundation, as it de- ffroys both the male and female organs, long before the time of fecundation. He confutes the conjeBuresdf its being caufed by wet upon the ears, or the violent heat of the fun, by obferving that the ears are fmutty before they ceafe to be covered by the blades. And if it were owing to the moiflure of the earth, he obferves, that there would be more fmutty plants in the low and wet, than in the high and dry parts of a field, which is not faft. He adds, that he never could make it appear that the diftem- per is caufed by infefts, though he had been of that opinion ; and that Dr. Hales has proved by ex- periment that it cannot proceed from the feeds being bruifed by the flail, by bruifmg a number of grains with a hammer, which grew well afterwards, and bore found ears. The fame expel lent reafoner refutes the opinion oi thofe, who impute fmut to dung of fheep or pigeons. M. Aimen, M. D. has very judicioufly obferved, " that the fmut of corn cannot derive its ori- gin from adefeH in the fap, as all the parts of the plant, except the ear, look healtliy, and there are plants whofe roots are perennial, which appear vigorous, though their feeds are fmutty every year. He is of opinion, that whatever weakens the plant, is apt to bring on the fmut, and in- flances, as a proof of this, that it is a frequent cuflom in his coun- try, to cut rye, as foon as it fpin- dles, for food for their cattle ; and that this rye generally pro- duces other ears, which feldom contain any but diftempered grain : To which he adds, that feed corn which has been prick- ed, or run through with a needle ; S M U or which is not t^-" — ' 'y npr, and that which i lateral or fccond ears, is mojcci to the fmut." He holds " that the diftemper proceeds from an ulcer which attacks firft the parts which ful- tain the Iccds, and afterwards Tpreads to the reil of the flower. But Ionic will lay, what is the pri- mary caiilf of that nicer ? In or- der todifcovcr it, M. Aimen ex- amined Icveral grains of barley with a raicrolcopc : Some of them were bigger than others : Some were very hard ; and oth- ers yielded to the prellure ot his nail : Some were of a deeper, and others of a lighter colour ; fome longer and others roiindcr, than they ought to have been : Their rind was fomewhat wrink- led in feveral places, whereas in its natural ilaie it is fmooth : And laftly, he perceived upon fome of them black fpots, which, when examined with a magni- iying glafs, appeared to be cov- ered with mould. Thefe grains were feparatcd caretulK-, accord- ing to their feveral conditions, and fown apart, though in the fame ground. All th/' mouldy grains producfd fmutty ears ; the (hrivclcd and parched, and thofe that were attacked by infcfts, either did nt)t grow at ail, or did not produce any fmut. " He then finglcd out a par- cel of found grains, fowed them, and fome time alter took them up, in order to examine thcni aeain with a magniiying glafs. He found fomeof them mouldy, replanted them all, and obfer\'ed that the mouldy grains produced fmutty ears. '* M. Aimen, without pre- tending that this is the only caufe of the finut of corn, con- ciudes, from tbc^jp experiments, S M U 301 rliat mouldinefs is a cauib of this dillemper." I hat this philofopher has hit upon the true cauie of fmut, fecnis rather probable, when it is confidered that mould is a kind of minute mofs, and th^t the things which mf)ll eflvHually kill mols upon land, fuch as lime, &c. have hitherto proved the beA antidotes to this dillem- per. '1 he metliods of preventing it, recommended by diflercnt writ- ers, are various. The lafl mentioned writer thinks, " that the beft and ripefl corn fhoidd be chofcn for feed, threlhed as foon as pofTible, and limed immediately alter ; as well to keep it tioni growing mouldy, as to deflroy the mould already formed, if there be any : Adding, that every method he has tried to make corn fo pre- pared grow mouldy, has been inefFe£rual, and that lie has nev- er known it produce fmutty ears." " As weak plants arc found to be moft fubjcci to frnut, he alfo recommends good tillage, as a fure meani of giving them llrength and vigour. And he ob- lerves, that the lies made ufe of, prcferve tlu: plants from mouldi- nefs, and of all of them lime feetns to him to be the moft ef- teZ-iual.- i hough liming at the time of fowing, as is the practice in this country, dtes not always pre- vent fmut, I would recommend it to farmers, to do it in t^ie methcki that M. Aimen mentions as fuccefiful. The lime will probably have a greater effett, when ufed foearly.than when the mouldinefs on the kernels is be- come older and more deeply looted. The fubjett lamupon, u ot fo great conicqucnce to the tuiiDLr, 302 S M U farmer, and to thepublick, that I Ihall make noapology tothcread- cr, for proceeding to lay before him the opinions oi other writ- ers ; ahliough 1 Ihall run out this- article to what fome readers piay call a tedious length. M. de Lignerolle fays, "That the fureif means of avoiding fmut, and that which he has prac- tifed with fuccefs ever fince the year 1739, on upwards of three hundred acres of land, is, to change the feed every year, to be very careiul that the feed corn be well dried, and thor^ oughly ripe, and that it be not fmutty, nor have any fmutty powder fticklng to it. He then pours boiling water on qulcli lime, in a large tub ; and after the ebullition is over, as much cold water as there v/as hot, and llirs it all flrongly together, in order to diffolve and thoroughly mix the lime. The quantity ot wheat intended to be fowed, is fprinkled with this lie. and then well ftirred with a fhovel. and laid in as high aheap as poiTible. It is heft to keep the grain tor a week after this preparation, turning it every day ; forother- "wife it would heat fo as to deilroy ■the germ. By thefe means he has not had any fmut, when the iields around him have been in- fected with that dillemper." " M. Donat, near Rochelle, thinking the ingredients com- monly employed in the fleeps too dear for the ufe of farmers, fludied for fome years to find out fomething cheaper, eafy to be had every where, and there- fore better calculated to be of general ufe. I hav^e had the good fortune, fays he, in a letter toM. Duhamel, to accomplifli what I wilhed ; fori now ufe only pig- eons' dung, quick lime, alhes, and fea fait, where this laft caa S M U be conveniently had. I have fometimes made with thefe in- gredients, fteeped in water, fo ftrong a liquor, that it has evert deflroyed the germ of the grain. But there will be no danger of that, if care is taken to obferye the following direftions, which are the refult of feven years' fuc- cefsful experience, even at times when farmers who have negleft- ed to follow my example, have had fuch wretched crops, as have not paid the charge ot reaping. " Take quick lime and pig- eons" dung, of each twenty five pounds, forty pounds of wood alhes, and twenty five pounds of fea fait, or fait petre. Put all thefe into a tub, large enough to hold half a hogfhead of common water added to them. Stir them ail well with a flick, till the lime is quite diffolved. This lie will keep fome time without fpoiling. Tl muft be ftirred again jufl be- fore the corn is fteeped in it. The grain is then put into a baf- ket, and plunged in the lie, where it remains till it has thor- oughly imbibed it ; alter which it is taken out, and laid in aheap, till it is quite drained of all its moifture : Or, which is a ftill better way, take a mafhing tub, fill it with grain to within four inches of the brim, and thca pour in the lie well ftirred be- forehand. When the tub is full, let the lie run out at the bottom, into fome other veffel, in order to ufe it again tor more corn. Let the grain be then taken out, and laid in a heap to drain ; and continue in this manner to flecp all your feed corn. The wheat thus prepared, may be fowed the next day, and muff not be kept above five or fix days, for fear of its heating. This I fay from experience. The quaaiity of lie above pre- fcribed, S M U fcribed, will fcrvc t-) orepare more than twenty buincis of wheat." Mr. Tull obferves. " that brin- ing and chansin^ the feed arr the general remedies for fmiit. The tonner of thefc he hid heard, vcred about fcv- enty \\ iie wrote,by fow- ing foni? wluMt which had been funk in the (oa, and which pro- duced clean corn, w'.-rn it was a remarkable year for fmut all over England : But he alter- wards doubts whether this might not happen by its being torcign feed, and therefore a proper change for our foil. He tells us, that tWT farmers, whofc lands lay intermixed, ufcd feed ol the fame growth, from a good change of land, and that the one who brined hisfeedhad iioiariy fmut, j whild the other, who nogloctcd that precau;ion, had a very l:nut- ty crop. But again he doubts whether this feed might not have been changed the year before, and fo might not be greatly in- fcclcd : Or at leaft not more tlian the brine and lime might cure. He adds, that fmutty feed wlicat, though brined, will pro- duce a fmutty crop, unlefs the year prove very lavourable ; tor that favourable years will cure fmut. as unkind oms will caufc it : Hut, above all. he affuics us that tlie drill hiiib-indry is the inoft effe^lual cure ' A writer in the Mufium Ruf- tirum, fays, " having ohlerved a- rtiongft wheat while green,; though (hot up into i^pindle. fev- eral black, blighted ears, I ex- amined them, and found theie wcreears in which, by feme ac- cident, the intention oi nature WM pre^'cnted. I fuppofc, by being detained too l'""j •" 'he hofc, and by tiie nan li- ly of the plaiit, a tc..iiv....a.iua S M U 303 was promoted in its ear, deftroy- ing the fmall vc-ncls thruiii^h which the corii<; wore to receive nourilhment ; hv wlii'.h means their contents hec.iinc black. di\\ and dully. 1 heir ears growing up w.ih the others, imbibe moifture fufficient to cuife the dully particles in thf ^nins in them to expand, fine (kin which i'. Being thus fet at liucriy, the .;!i, it it happen to be a dry icaic u, dries them again ; by which means they become light enouch to float therein, when fepai 1 A from the fkin wliich held tlicni. If this happens when the wheat is in the blofTom, which it often does, part of the dull enters the lUgma of healthy corns, and thereby infefts them : The pulp in thole becoming black, a ler- mcntation is raifcd therein, which dcftroys the life of the grain thus impregnated. Hence thcdifagrecable fmellis acquired peculiar to this difeafc (the fmell in a grain of fmut being the fame as in a black blighted ear.") By the black blight, this au- thor feems to mean the fame ai burnt grain, burnt ear, or uftila- go. in which diflcmper the ker- nels do not buril. but are con- verted to a dr\' black powder. If his h> - jaft, as it i& certainly. . it. will follow, that there is no more ditferencc between fmutty an ! H -.rnt c^min, tha!il)etwccnaclo; :i kernel ot wheal : . y are in fafcl tla^ very fame dillcm- per, as indcctl map.v wriicri have confidcred them, : > dif- tindion. The an r the one, are certainly r the othe.. Forrx-'-'' :iown in many inil.. pro- vents the one ^ ;> > ..v> t.iv •' The remedy this writei fcribcs, appcaas to be a ptui.' . .c »,':ie 304 S M U one. " When the corn is (hot into fpindle, and the ears be- gin to appear, let fomc perfons go along each furro^A' in the field, and carefully break off all ears of the black kind ; and when broke oft", put them into a bag, and car- ry them away. As it is poflible there may be fome of thefe dif- cafed ears which are not bnrften, and therefore may efcape being gathered, thefe may be known by the ftalk at the neck being crooked backward and forward five or fix bends, and the hofe nearer to the head ot fuch, than in the ears which are good." Another writer in the Mufe- um Rufticum, fays, " I have for many years paft efcaped having fmutty crops, by a proper care of the feed wheat before it is put in- to the ground ; and the method I purfue, though efficacious, is in itfelffimple and cheap. I take four bufliels of pigeons' dung, which I put into a large tub : On this I pour a fufficient quantity of boiling water, and mixing them well together, let them fland fix hours, until a kind of a ftrong lie is made, which, at the end of that time, the grofier parts l>eing fubfided, I caufe to be carefully drained off, and put in- to a large keevc, or tub, for ufe. This quantity rs fufficient for eighty bulhels of feed wheat." " My next care is to fhoot in- to this fteep a managtrable quan- tity of my feed, which is imme- diately to be violently agitated, ■with either birchen brooms, or the rudders that are made ule of in ftirring the malt in the malh tub, in a brewing office. As the light grains rife, they muff be diligently fkimmedoff ; and af- ter the feed has been agitated in this manner, for the fpace of per- haps half an hour, it may be tak- en out of the flecp, and fow.n out of hand with great fafety : Atirf I can venture to fay, that if the land is in good heart, and has been properly tilled, if will not, when fown with thefe precau- tions, produce a fmutty crop." Another gentleman, who figns himfelf A Norfolk Farmer, "de- clares, he has obferved, that it the feed was only well wafhed, it never failed : That he waffied fome feed ^hich he knew to be fmutty, in a large tab, filled with plain, fimple water, ftirring it violently with birchen brooms, taking care from time to time to fkim off the light. This anfwer- cd very well, and he has ever fincc continued the praftice." The fame praffice of wafhing the feed, is recommended by Monf. de Gonfreville, of Normandy, in the Foreign EJJ'ays on Agriculture. It appears very probable, that wafhing the feed very clean in feveral waters, may be the bell method of preventing both fmut- ty and burnt ears. The burlling of fmutty ears in a field at the time of bloffoming, may infecl the grains in the found ears ; which, may produce a mouldinefs, which, if not taken off, may caufe the next crop to be diminifhed and corrupted by one or bdth ot thefe black diftcmpcrs. But a Mr. Powell, in England, writes to the compilers of the Complete Farmer^ that, in addi- tion to the ufual brining and lim- ing of feed wheat, if one pound and a halt of red lead were fitt- ed through a cullender upon one bufhel, ftirring the corn with a fliovel, fo that every grain may have a fpot or two of the lead adhering to it, it will effe£fually prevent fmut : And that fowls will not lie upon it. He is con- fident, that even fmutty feed, {o prepared, w^ill produce a found crop. A S N O A Mr. Marfhall, a lite Brltlfh Ml iter on agriculture;, fays he was informed by a Yoi klliire f.trmcr, that he had miilc ulcot a fi)hiiion ofarfenickasa prcvc-niivcotfrnut, and For twenty years it had prov- Cil effectual, i'he preparatiDii is AiaiJe hy pounding the arfenick very fine, boiling it in water, and drenching the lee*! with the de- cottion. The mcthml is to boi) one ounce in a gallon ot water, IroMi one to two hours. Then add as much water or urine as will increafe the liquor to two gallons. This will anfwer tor two bulhels ot wheat. It may be fowed without drying, or coating with lime. It this will prove aii elFettuil antidote a^ainit Imut ; it may be Further faid in recoin- i niendaiion ot it, that it will equal- ly lecurc the feed againll birds, and againR every kindot infetls. Nor need any one be apprehcn- fi'c that a poifonou'; taint will be immunicated to the crop. SNE.\D, or SNATHE, the Itdfi", or hanille ot a lithe. The right timber for fncads, is white alh that grows on upland, it be- ing light and ilifT, which are two very necell iry qualities : For it A fncad be heavy, it will help to tire the mower ; and if it be lim- ber and eify to bend, it will caule the fithe to tremble, which will hinder, in fome degree, its cut- tiag ; and render the labour of the mower n;orc dilUcult and fa- tiguing. It mull be naturally of the nght cri»ok, .irul not cut a- I crofs the grain ot the wood. { SNC>W. a congealed vapmir , nt falls in little tk'cces to tlie cartli. Snow lies upon the ground ' commonly, in this country, iiitlie winter months, and in March. Snows fomctimes fall in No\em- bcr and in April ; but they foon ! melt, aad do uut rcmaia on the \ SOI 26$ ground unlcfs it be in the thick woods. In fome parts of thcf wildernefs, it is not all thawed till July ; as on tlic northern fides of high mountains, where the trees torm a deep Hiade. Snow isbencticialtothcground in winter, as it prevents its freez- ing fo folid, orto fo great a depth as it othcrwife would. It guards the winter grain and other vege- tables, in a coiifiderable degree, from the violence of fuddcn frofts^ and trom piercing and drying winds. The later fnow lies ort the; ground in fpring, the more ad- vantage do gralfes and other plants receive from it. Where a bank of Inow has lain very late, the grafs will fprout, and look green earlier, than in parts ot the fame field which were (ooner bare- A fmall Anrw, that falls level, pretty late in thcfpring, is better tor the foil than rain. As it thaws gradually, it does not run oft, but iodks diretlly into the ground, moittcning every part e- qually, foltcring the roots of grafs, and other vcgetatilcs. And till it is thawed, ilie growing plants are guarded againft the attacks of froUs and winds. If a fnow happeir to tall alter fpring grain is fown, it does not injure it at all ; but rather anilts its vegetating. In the northern parts of New- england, the ground in fome years is covered with fnow for lour months, c'"cn in the culti- vated fields. This is not regret- ted by the inhabitants, as they find it is a great advantage tor drawing malts, logs, lumber, and wood, upon fleds, wiiich is much cafter than carting them. The roads are alfo tar better, when the rirts and Houghs are filled, and every part paved with ice, or condenfcd fnow. The win- ters, tedious as iliey are,fccni too ihoic fo6 '■SOI fliort for 'he teamfters to finifh their winter bufmefs. Meat that is killed in Decem- ber, may be kept m perfe6iion, if buried in fnow, until fpring. This is an excellent method ot preferving frefh and good thecar- calles of turkies and other fowls. Set an open cafk in a cold place ; put fnow and pieces of meat alternately : Let not the pieces touch each o*her, nor the fides of the cafk. The meat will reither freeze, grow dry, nor be difcoloured ; but be as good in all refpefts at the lafl of March, as when it was firft put in. The furfaces of the pieces fhould be a little frozen, before they are put into the fnow, that the juice of the meat may not diflblve the fnow. The caik fhould be placed in the coldefl part of the houfe ; or in an out houfe. SOIL, that part of the earth which lies upon the hard under ilratum, over which there is com- monly a cover of rich mould, •vvhich forms the furface, unlefs deflroyed by fevere burning, or waflied off by violent rains, or blown away by, driving winds. The original or unmixed foils, in this country, are but few. Clay, loam, fand, gravel, and till, or moor earth, are perhaps all that ought to be reckoned as iitfor cultivation. But they are commonly more or lefs blended together. In places where they are unmixed, it would be a piece of excellent hufbandry to mix them, efpccially whci'e they are contiguous, applying gravel to moor eaith, and moor earth to gravel ; fand to^ clay, and clay to fand. And land upon loam would be an improvement. . A chalky foil is but feldom found in this country. A-Iarle is u- fually at too great a depth to come ender the denomination of foil, SOI and the fame may be faid of pest^ This lafl cannot eafily be reduc- ed to a condition fit for tillage. It is beff to deftroy it, by digging It wholly out for ufe, or by drain- ing the land, and burning the peat on the ground. A chalky- foil fhould have fand and hot ma- nures applied to it. I do not confider a ffony foil as diftinft from the refl, as re- moving the ftones would bring it under fome other denomina- tion. And this ought to be done, when land is to be ufed in til- lage, that its operations may be facilitated. Soils are commonly diflin- guiflied into fhallow and deep, the latter of which is preferred, as the under ffratum comes not fo near to the furface, but that the ground may be ffirred to a great depth ; and as it is fitted for the grovv-ing of long tap root- ed plants, trees, &c. Bin the mofl common diflinc- tion of foils is into rich and poor. This difference, which is certainly very great, is not per- haps natural. Richnefs, I imag- ine, is rather to be confidered as fuperinduced. All foils have, fince the creation, received large quantities of fertilizing fubflances which were adapted to improve them ; and by which, in mod places, they have been greatly mended. Not only vegetable fubflances, fallen upon the fur- face, and changed by putrefac- tion, have blended their faks and oils in the foil : But the foil has been drinking in vegetable food by the dews and rains, and from the air itfelf, which is loaded with fertilizing particles. But fome fpots have retained the add- ed richnefs better than others. As to land which has beea long tilled, and often pleqtifully manured, it is not eafy always to diilinguiiil S O I '^ifllngulfh what was its origliul ii)il ; nor how rich (»r poor it was m its natuul fl.itc. It Hoes not tollow, that all un- cultivated (oils ou£»ht to be equal- ly rich, hy means ol the general advantage!; mentioned ahove ; becaufc lonie (oils are better cal- culated than others to retain the food of vegetables. Some arc diditnte ol a compact imdcr (Ira- tum ; and it is no matter ol w«)n- der that fuch Ihould appear hun- gry and barren ; lor whatever richnefs they receive, is walhed by rains into the bowels ol the earth. Some foils are too coarfe, or loo porous, to l>o a proper matrix lor terti!i/.ing fubftanccs. Some are too ftcep to retain them, fo that they are wafli^d in- to the hollows below. Some are fo wet as to four and corrupt them ; and in f ome, there are cither mineral waters, or fleams of thofe kinds, which are unU- vourable to vegetation. In tillage, t'ae (nrlace mould and the foil beneath arc nuxed, and the more foihe better, as the furface mould is mado up as it were ol the elFcnres of vegeuiMt-.;. SOILING, or ASSOILING, feeding animals with new mown gra{s,or gra(s not dried, in racks, or otherwife. This is commonly praHifed in fomc coflntries, where they put it in racks, cither under ci he fo kept, when thov a-c deliRned to be tranfp ■>-: • i ♦ i-Jlant countries. feed whea: m the Iheaf to the ti me ot fowinp. And, that none but the l>eft ot the grain may be fown, in Head of threlljing, it is advifa- ble to ftrike a handiul at a time gently againll a poll, and colle/-l what falls out ; becaufe the heavieft and beil grain is always the mod eafily detached from the car. , Being fumifhed with good feeds, ' the time tor committing them to the earth mull in great inea- , fure be determined by the judg- | ment of the experienced hulband- | man ; bocaufe, trom various cir- I cii:n dances, it comes to pafs, | tJiat the true time admits ot fome I latitude. The time tor fpring fowing will vary according t<^» the variation ot the forward nefs ! of the feafoi ; which may be i bod determint-d by the relpec- j tive forwardnefs ot tlfees and ; Ihrubs. See the article KaUn- dar. But there are other circum- fLmces to hi taken into the ac- count, whicli m.«y further vary } above the furtace in vegetat the fcafon for fpring fowing. A ] -I. or if they come up, it is flowly, fo that the plants become dint- ed in their growth, and neverar- rive to a full fize. If the right feafon for fowing ftiould clapfe, the hud)andman, being convinced of it, mar ac- celerate vcgatation by deeping the feeds in a he ot wckkI alhc!, or any other proper mendruum, {o that they may overtake in their growth thofe which were fown in the right feafon. The depth at which, different feeds (houKi be buried in the foil is various, according to the difference ol feeds and foils. M. Duhamel found by experiment, that but few {^ftA^ will come up at all, when buried deeper than nine inches ; that fome ' rife very well from the dep fix inches; and that other lecd>«lo not rife at all when they arc more than two inches under the furfaee. And in general thole feed^, the body of wtiich is thrown f warm foil may receive the - earlier than one that is ii. 'i;; and moid. The former Will arrive to the right ilegree of dry nefs fooner than the latter, and is earlier fit for the opera- tions of tillage. And this is certain, that feeds that require the ' ^, mud not be fo\% ing. fhould have the Icfs quantity of foil above them, that ttiey itmv not meet with too much refin- ance in rifing ; fuch as kidney beans and many other forts. Al- fo the fame fee lsmay,an«loug;ii to be buried deeper in a hglit tnd dry, than in a heavy and moid fo'l. When the ground is rolled after fowing. the feeds, eirth r:»n b^ I will vegetate the nearer to the ; and therefore tlicy nccd to be fowcd f»j deep, 310 S O W deep, as when the rolling is omit- ted. ' To determine what is the right depth, in a doubtful cafe, Air. Tull has fuggefted an ex- cellentmethod. " Take a dozen of flicks for gauges ; mark the firft at half an inch trom the end ; the next at an inch ; and fo on, increafing half an inch to each. Then, in the fort of ground you intend to fow, make a row of twenty holes, with the half inch gauge ; put in twenty good leeds and cover them, and liick tip the guage at the end of the row. Then do the Hke with the relt of the flicks. Obferve how the feeds profper in the different rows, and you will dilcover at what depth that kind of feed Jhould be buried." Ho\»xver ufeful this experi- 3Tient may be, it can be of little or no ufe in the old field huf- bandry .; for, in the broad cafl way of /owing, the feeds will be differently covered. But fow- ing fields with the drill, in equi- diflant rows, when horfe hoeing is not intended, cannot be too much commended. It is worth while to do it it it were only on account of the feed that may be faved by it. Much feed is wafled in the common way of fowing ; for Jome of the feeds, will be fo deeply covered, that they will not vegetate : Some will be left on the furface, which is a prey for birds, and perhaps leads them to fcratch up fome of the reft : Some will lie fo near the furface as to be deftroyed by va- riation of weather, being alter- nately wetted and fcorched. And of thofe feeds that grow, fome rife earlier, and fome later, fo that the crop does not ripen equally. The feeds will fall from the hand of the fower, too thick in fome fpots, and too s o ^V thin in others.by means of the urt^ evennefs of the furface ; and the harrowing perhaps will in- creafe the inequality ; fo that ma- ny will be fo crowded as to be un- fruitful, while the reft have more room than is necelfary. But when the feeds are put in with the drill, they will all rife nearly together ; not fo much as one feed will be wafted, or loft, fuppofmg them fown at the right diftance ; each one may have fo much room as is moft condu- cive to its growth ; no ftarved heads will appear, and the v.'hole will ripen together. Haifa bufhel of wheat, or even a lefs quantity, in this way, will feed an acre fufliciently. How great muft be this advantage at a time oi great fcarcity of feed ! It is.^difficult to determine the quantity of feed, that is heft to be fown in the broad caft way. Doubtlefs it fhould vary accord- ing to circum fiances. When feed is very large, and full grown, two bufhels may not be more than equal to one that is fmall and pinched, fuppofing the feeds equally difpofed to veg- etate, which is often the cafe. For the true quantity ftould be ef- timated, rather by the number of grains, than by meafure or weight. Not that I would re- commend the fowing of pinched grain, excepting in cafe of ne- ceffity. For it is to be expefted, in general, that the moft per- feft feeds will produce the bell plants. Rich land will afford nourifh- ment to a greater number of plants than that v,'hich is poor. It has been held by many farm- ers that the poorer the land is, thegreater quantity of feed fhould be fown in it. But Mr. Miller fays, " This is one of the greatefl fallacies that can be imagined ; for sow tor to Tuppofe that poor land can iiotirifli more than twice the number of roots in the fame fpace, as rich land, isfuch an ab- furdiiy as one couM hardly liip- pofc any pcrfon ot common iin- derftandiiijT Ruilty ot. Wiierc the roots llaiui ciofe they will deprive each other of noiirilh- mcnt, winch any pcrfon may at firrt fi<;ht ohferve, in any part ol the Hflds where the corn hap- pens to fcaiter when they arc lowing it ; or in places where, by harrowinjT, the feed is drawn in heaps,thofe patches will llarve, and never grow to a third part of the fi'/e as the other parts of the fame field ; and yet, com- mon as this is, it is litile noticed by farmers ; otherwife, they furely would not continue their old ciiflom oi lowing." The pratlice of tarmers has been various, as to the quantity otfccd. InFnglandthey low from two or three to lourorfivebufhels of wheat on an acre ; fix bulhcls of oats, and tour of barley. But the above quoted author is very pofitive that a third part of the ufual quantities would be better. The ufual quantities in this country are not greater than five or fix pecks of wheat or rye, three bulhelsof oats, and two of barl<*y. for an acre. And from thclcquantitics.in (bmc inlbnces, large crops have been produced. Though, in old countries, the crops arc ufually larger than ours, I apprehend it is not owing to higher feeding, hut to deeper and more perfect tillage, better manuring, and frequent chaiig- infj of feed, with a judicious ro- tation ol crops. The fowing of winter grain is perhaps a more difficult m.uter to manage rightly, than vernal feeding. Fanneis certainly mif- ukc their intcrcft, when tlicy pcr- S O W 371 fift in fowing winter grain at a certain time of the year, let the weather be ever fo hot, and t!u: ground ever (o dry. By heat and drynefs, the feeds will fonie« times he fo fcorched in the foil, that inn a fourth part of them will ever come up. Therefore, if a drought happen at the ufual fowing fcalon, it will he needful to deter lowing till fome rain has fallen, and the foil has got a due degree of inoillure. Howr long it may be bcfl to wait for* fuch a favourable opportunity, I will leave to the judgment of the experienced farmer. Alio, a fpot that has been new- ly cleared by burning, may be fowed later in autumn than oth- er land. It ought to be fowed later, it the growth before win- ter be wilhcd to be only equally forward ; for the afhes will fo quicken the vegetation, that if it: be feeded early, it will attain to too large a growth before winter, and ke the more in danger of being killed by frolt. Pliny points out the falling of the leaves of deciduous trees in autumn, as an index ot the right feafon for lowing. Hcob- ferves, that " this circumftance will indicate the temperature ot the air in every climate, and fhew whether the feafon he ear- ly or late : That it ronllitutes a univerfal rule lor the world ; be- caufc trees ihcd their leaves in every countiy, according to the difference of the Icalons. TI;i<; gives a general lignal for fowing ; nature declaring, that Ihc has then covered the earth again ft the inclemency of the winter, and cnriclie^c, more pi Sl'i:Ll",a fpccK femblir.g wlic^i:. b.r, ..v.-\.Wi, zwA darkc" colourtJ, ! ea:ded, with only two row son an car. Itisufed in Germany tor bread, and will make malt. 0\ this grain the ancients are faid to have made their frum.enty, of which they were very fond. It may be fowcd in autumn or fpring, and dtlijjhts in a drv foil, SPIKY ROLLER, a wood- en roller, armed with fpikes, of important ufe in hufoandry. This inflrament was formerly juft menti'~incd by Mr. Ellis ; but has been ol late brought into tifc by the ingenious Mr. Randall, ot York, m England : Who rc- coTiTiends, that the roller be a cyiii.ler of the ' : uak, iev- en tec: lor.c. a ^-n int'.i- ci di.. . ::ii a Un>ng hand of ir. U end. Tftn <>r t :i, leven :: three in wu«^, ai^i foujr iDcuc« ap vin the fpring. But befides tillage and feeding, which are enough to iemploy the whole time, there are other mat- ters to be attended to at this fea- fon. The fences are always to be examined, and repaired : For though they were in good or- der in the fall preceding, high' winds, violent llorms, and deep fnows,may overfet,break or fettle them, not to mention the gradu- al decay and rotting ot v/ooden fences.. Or the violence of frofl , may heave and diforder them. Compoft dunghills it will otten be needful to make at this feafon,.,. efpecially if the materials were not all obtainable in the preced-- ing autumn. But preparing and feeding the ground mull not be neglefted, nor nightly performed : For as- a man foweth, fo ihall he reap. Sluggiflinefs at the beginning, will be followed with want at the * end of the year. SPRINGS, ftreams, or fourcc; of v;ater, rifing out oi the ground. The water with which fprings / are fupplied, is probably all im- bibed by mountains, and high lands, from rains, >dews and va- pouirs. For tlie more_ uneven a country is, the more it abounds with fprings. A fpringy country is .raoft convenient ior hufbandmen, on account of the need of water for their S P R their ftocks, and for other im- port.mt piirpoffs. Some fpr-iq^; rniinft o\ the mort ! fun pic waters. Othci iprc^natcd with mine:. r :nattcrs in the canh, , which the waters pafi. Hcncclomc Iprings arc me- tallic k ; Ibme iulphurcoiis, limy, marly, or ialine. Some ot thefe ha\ 0 heromc famous lor their nci'iiri .! virtues. S:it Ip iiigs arc found in the Ohi > country, and in other places rcTiotc from the fca. The'e io'licate the benevolence •ol the Creator to man and other animals. '1 hey arc of clfential importance to the inland farmer, as his ftock always needs fait to keep them in hcjith, and as the waters may he ufed to great ad- vantnjTc Irt manuring the land. Some arc alfo ufetul for the making of fait. Hot fprings have been coniid- «rcd as aflonifliing phenomena. But if fulphur and iron, in large quantities, arc blended in a mountain, the ferirjentation caufed by thefe fuhftanccs cannot fail of hcjting the waters that pafs through them. So"vj ipots of ground arc nat- ural, \ too fpringy for iarming, as u here the water oozes out io picntitully as to keq^the foil in a miry, cold ftate. Drains in fuch places are neccffiry, to car- ry off the fuperfluous water. If they r.^nn'n be thus made fit to b«- ' in tillvqc, they D^ erwiMI in grafs. Sec :!.c aititlc D' uttinr. SPRING GRAlX that which Spring. ran:; think ihey cannot low tli ir wheat and lyc too early. But their hallo m.iv r>o{ribIy bctoo great. It certain- y is, if thfiy fow before the ground it I'uibcicaiijr dry to S P U 3ii crumble, and become light and fine by plouj^hing and harrowing. Tor \ ■ ' . ' ' Some ' have i. ->. V ''..:cis think : into an un- natural poll;:. J, .;> he is ufvd to take hi5 f.)od lrv)in the ground. It a rack he ulcd. it IhouKl be perpen l-cv! »r, not leaning to- wards t . nor placed too high : manger before it fiiivili be two ieet wide, or more. 1'Ijc hinder part of tlic rack fhould be made (helving, that as the hiy fettles it may natural- ly prefs towards ihc iiorfe. A box tor provender may be fixed at one end ol the manger, in each ftall ; or the manger may be made as tight as a box, to pre- vent lofsot grain Butthefurcll wayto prevent wafting, is togivea horfe his corn in a pjil. with a flrap vi leather to flip over his head, which will prevent the lofs of fo much as a finale grain. It may be put on or oif in an in- flant. See the article Horfe. STACK, a 1 ir:;c quantity of hav, erain, or ihaw, }»iled up, pointed at the top. and ufually covered with long ftiaw, or thatch, to keep out the weather. Square and oblong ftacks are not gootl. Round ones have a Icfs quantity o\ ('111^.; '•vies in proportion 10 tents ; and theref<»rc v. .ve Icfs damage from the weather. When (heaves of corn are flacked, 4lie heads (hould be all turned carcfullv inward, liut if defigned to ftand long, it (h.>uld be on a floor nK ' blocks, capped with fl.r : > pre- vent t!ie entrance 01 Fann^fN (hrml-l n fe the ftacking i>t . , ;ii a country iik'" "n titnbcr fi)r bui! cheap. Ii^t M always i^ii^d by lue S T A 317 I weather, that they may foon lof* ( in this way, than the cod ham. J ■ ' ■ "lit liay in m.i: ,!, c)n ac- cou!.: ul il.j Jiili^.»d;y of remov- ing it l)efote winter. Thefe flacks mufl be mounted on wlut is callcfl a (bulie, coiifillin^ ot piles driven into the giound, of fuch a height, that the b.ighelk tides may not reach the bottoms of the Hacks. STAGGhRS, a diforder to which both hoifcsand neat cattle are liable. If the daggering and tailing of a horfe be owing to hard riding in hot weather, Gib- fon directs to take without delay a pint of blood from his neck, j and then a quart Irom fome vein I in his hinder pirts, that fo an ef- feciiial revuKion may be made : I And that he fhould alterwards be ; kept on a moderate and cleaDfing I diet. 1 When the difeafe arifes from I an apoplv-ctic diforder, he mufl : not only be bled, as in the for- mer cafe, but lie exercifed every day w itli chewing df.»ianida and favin, and the moll noifome things that can be got. which will put l:im upon conflant ac- tion, and forward the circulation in the final 1 velFcls. Aftcrw.irds recourfe mull be had to clyflers and ftrong purgatives, rubbing an! exercife. \\'hen the diforder arifes from vertigo, or fwirnmingot the head, the animal reels, turns round and falls. In this cafe, take an ounce of fenna boiled in five pints ol water, with four ounces of corn- run trcjle, with the ufual quan- tity of oils, or lard, to throw in as a cl viler. And repeat it (or two or thrive davs. Aftrr which rue, rolcuitiry, tiowcxs oi i will need the lefs turning an J mixing after- wards. ^ Ii may be ver>' convenient for the farmer to build a ftcrcorary adjoining to the fule of his barn, where the cattle are houfed, cov- ering it with a continuation of the roof. In this cafe, the dung may be thrown directly through the windowsinto the heap; from whence, through doors, it will not be difficult to Ihovel it into catrts. But, inftead of this method, (bme gentlemen farmers in this country have begun to fet the ex- ample of making cellars under i their barns, into apartments of which, the dung is eafily pafled through fcuttles in the floors. Other lubllanccs may be eafily mixed with dung from time to time, as there may he occafion. Or it may be kept to improve by itfelf. A cart way mull be pre- pared to go through the cellar, or one entrance at leaff, not fo lleep but that a common team may draw out a cart full. The floor ihould l)e well paved, and the wall made tight with monar, to prevent the efcapinj? of the fluid pans of the manure. But the floor overhead needs not to be very tight ; bccaufe the flalc will not be loft, if it Ihould pafs ihroiiifh the fcams. Thii method, in our cold coun- try, may be allowed to be prefer- able to building any other ifer- corary ; cf; " " i of the cellar may . i Cor- ing roots, c^L. cattle. For it is no fma ^g«^» to ha»e the dung »; during the winter, in a ^ ere no 5 T E 519. flop Is put to its fermentation bf trolf. Bclides, it is to be re- nicM)' ' that the freezing can! Jul evaporation ot the Uicngtn of the manure, which in this way is presented. It would be well to di\ide the parts of the cellar under the fcuttles into pens, that the heaps mav lie the more compatf, and be Icfs liable to too much dry- ing. And as the heaps will need mixing with the Ihovel, it will be convenient to fhovel the ma- nure from pen to pen. But in Head of making fterco- raries, or dunghills, in the ufual modes, the Sociefy of Improvers^ in Scotland, prefer miildcns, or middings as they arc there call- ed, as It faves labour and ex- penle in the management of ma- nures. " Take, fay they, in the field intended to be manured, a^ head ridge that is conveniently lituated. Plough it two or three times, as deep as can be in the cleaving way, if the ridge be high gathered, and harrow it well : Then lay thereon your fiimy clay, about a foot thick, a part of the earth uncovered. Next lay a thin layer of dung, another of clay, and after that a layer of unllacked lime, at ieafl a foot thick : Then throw up the earth left uncovered on each fide. Alter this repeat another hyerot clay, then lime and f:nilh with clay or fea wreck, covered with earth. The more ot the (liniy clay the better ; for though it may be cold, yet it will not be the worfe for a fandy hot ground. It you examine the clay, wc duubt not but you will find it a very fat fubllance ; being, as wc conjedture, nioftly niulile and other fhells mixed with eaith, brciight by the tide and the river. '* After th: weeks or iwe. 3«o 5 T E rating and fermenting, turn and mix it. Yoke your p'oiigh, en- ter upon your Aercorary with a cleaving furrow, and continue repeating the plor.ghings the fame way, until the very bottom be ripped up ; tken harrow it ; it is impofiible to overdo it. If it is very cloddy, it (hou'd be harrowed between the plough- rfngs. Begin then in the middle, and plough again and again in the gathering way, until it be brought into as narrow bounds, and be raifed as high as poflible. Let all that the plough has left be thrown up with ihovelson the top. Every fuch turning and heaping occafions a new ferment, and improves the manure. If the firft heat fhould go off be- fore it is reduced to a fine iat mould, it may be turned over again, and will take a new heat. About fifty or fixty cart loads of this compofi. are ufed upon an acre of ground." Any farmer may eafily follow this example, and fuit his com- port to his foil. It will fave much carting, efpecially when the land to be manured with it lies at feme diflance trom the farm yard. At the fame time, it will reduce thofe difagreeable ridges that gather in the borders of lots that are long tilled, which are always a richer foil than the reft of the field, and more fit for this ufe. An operation fimilar to the above, was experienced by Mr. Eliot. He built a cow yard very long and narrow, at the fide ota road, and once m three or lour days, he removed the fences from the ends, and gave it a deep ploughing. The confequence ^vas, that all the earth which was ftirred with the plough be- came, in his opinion, ot equal Talue as a manure, with good S T O barn dung. The advantage of this method of increafing ma- nure is unfpeakably great. The manure of a yard may thus be increafed to ten fold. STOCK, a term ufed by En- gliQi farmers, to exprefs the quantity of money or wealth a farmer (hould have to enable him to hire and cultivate a farm to advantage. The larger farm a man hires, the greater fiock he fhould have in hand. Writers onhufbandry reckon the needful ftock is equal to the firft year's rent, and feed ; expenfe of horfe keeping, clothes and pocket money ; the coft of cattle to be kept, and farming utenfils of every kind ; befides the labour thatmuftbe hired, in- cluding fencing and draining. It would not be amifs, it thofe who hire farms in our country, would carefully calculate thefe expenfes, before they take farms, and confiuer their ability. For want ot this needful precaution, they often find, when it is too late, that they are unable to car- ry on the culture to advantage, and are unable to pay their rent. The confequences are unfpeaka- bly bad and diftreffing. Both the landlord and tenant are fuf- ferers. But the word Jrock, in this country, is commonly ufed by farmers to exprefs orIv liveftock, or the beafts that are kept upon a farm. Thefe Ihould not be all of one kind, but fach an afTort- ment as is beft adapted to the convenience and profit oi the farmer. The ftock fhould be adapted to the nature and cir- curaftances of the farm. Young ftcck, in general, is better than old. The rp.ore there are in a gro^\•i^g ftate, the great- er is the profit. And very old cattle, when turned off to fat, do KOl sow ; H anfwer fo well as thofe which .ire but little part their prime, or ttili vigour. It eoiU more to fatten them, and the lueai is not fo valiMble. It is bed to begin withaconfid- erable variety oi anim-ils ; that the fanner, by ohfcrviiijjj the profit he gets frcm each kinf!, nuy afterwards vary, as he finds to be beft. For this cannot be determinrd, but by fotne experi- ence : Becuilc fomc animals f)rorpcr bcft on one tami, and brrw on another ; fome bell un- der one nunager, and fome un- der another. A variety indeed, for other rea- fon>, is always bell : One is, be- caufe ahnofte/ery t.irni produces a variety ot food, fome ot which will ai»fwer beft for one animal, and r>mf for another. Kvcn in thtr fame pallure, th»i which one fppcios oJ animals leave, another \.mII ieed unoti. Alio, the ft.>ck. Ihould vary, in fome proportion ns the lands ol u farm do. .-\s fome larms contain a la! go proportion ot high and dry ptUiue grounds, the tjreater qM.i!itity of lhe<;p lliould be kept- where lov/ mc idow ihound-s, the kinH of ft.ick lln)uld be increaf- cd, which will do bell on coarle wuer graJfcb ; which is well kru)wn to be neji cattle, that are young and growing. But it a farm yield a plenty ol good Iwoct ^rafs. It is the more fuiiable tor a dairy larm, and the greater pro- pi>rtion ol cowi i>u^ht to be kept. lint >'>n nof.irm fh.»u!il horfes be i;iiiiii|>lied, beyond the num- ber wii.cii .>re needed, or whul* can be employed to advantage. F.V they are threat caters, and re- piire tile b^ll ot the fodder and ^fture. A fm Ul farmer can fcarcely afford tofckeep one, un- ' .I'i he puu biuicj the dra'.i;;iit. S T O 321 \ Let a farm be what it will, it Ihould never be overftocked This is an eriour that too many farmers in this country arc guil- ty of. Doubtlefs it arifes from a covetous diipofition ; but they fadly niifs their aim. Inllcid of gaining, they lofe by it. A half ifarvcd ftock can never be prof- itable. A farm may be faid with trutli to be overIt(»cked, when a great* er number of animals arc kept, than can be well fed with its pro- duce, durinj]j the whole year. For it is a ruinating practice, to rufTerabe.ifttopineaway.andlofe, in one part of the year, the flelh he gains in another. And when the farmer is conOraincd topurchafe food for his ilock, he too oftJrn at- lonls them but a fcanty allowance. Sometimes, it is not in his power to obtain it, 1 he ftarvation of cattle, or keeping them too fhort of food, not only prevents their being p^ihtable to t!ie owner, but teach- es them to be difordcrly, and to brcik through, or leap over fences ; aiiil many times to be- come af)loIutely ungovTrnablc ; To that they niull eitlier bekilled, or fiddoi'f at a low price ; in either of which cafes, there is oficn much inconvenience and lols. It is far better that fomc of the flock ot fodvler ihould be left in the f;ring, i!i m that it fhould fall Ihort. It is a good rcfcrvc agaiull a feafon of fcarcity : An! fujh feafons otieti h.ippeti in thu country by drought. S I OXhS, well known hard and brittle b.Klies, which abound in fome lands. Thofe ot the lla- tv kind, or which are flat or (quarc cornered, are fit for build- ing wall fences, and Ihould be ap- plied toth.it ufe. And many of the pebble kind may go into walls among oihcro of a better ftia; c ; erj'Cvially 3*2 S T G efpeciaily it the wall is built ) double, as it always fhould be ] where flones are plenty. Where there are more ftones than are needed, the walls may be made thicker and higher than is need- ful on other accounts ; and lots ihould be made the fmaller ; for there are certain conveniences in having fmall fized lots, though they may not be thought necefla- TV, in any other view than for diipoling of the ftones. Pebbles are a greater annoy- ance on a farm, as they need re- moving, but are not very, good for any kind of building. But picking them off very minute- ly, tor common field tillage, IS not needful. But the larg- eft pebbles fliould be taken a- way. Stones that are very large, and which cannot with eafe be re- moved whole, may be blown to pieces with gunpovvder. They will be not only more handy lor removing, but far better to put into walls. For the blow ing ot round ftones will make fome fquare and regular faces. They will often come cheaper in this way than it they vieredug out of quarries. As the foil that is oc- cupied by a large flone is better than the reft of the field, it is purchafed at an eafy rate by re- moving the {tone. But another method of break- ing rocks, which ought to be gen- erally known, and \\'hich lome- times turns oiu cheaper, is this : Drill two holes in a ftone, rang- ing with the grain, when that cm be difcovcrea by the eye. Then filling each hole with two femi cylindrical pieces of iron, drive a long fteel wedge between them. The Hone will thus be fplit open. And, commonly, very regular fhaped pieces for building may bs thus obt^ned. S T O Another method is, to burn an inflammable piece of dry wood^ laid on the part where you with a flat rock to open. Thus the rock is heated in a ftraight line,, and may be made to open in that part, by a fmart blow of a maul. This method often anfwers well v/hen the ftones are flat Ihaped, and not too thick. That ftones which are fo large as to obftruft the operations of hufbandry, ought to be removed- from land in tillage, all will a- gree. Biit it has been long a dif- puted point, whether the fmall- er ftones Ihould be taken away. Some have contended that they add fertility to the foil. That the moifture of the foil is a? much greater, as the propor- tion ot room the ftones take up in the foil is undeniable ; unlefs- the ftones occafion lome evapo- ration» But many fields need not any increafe of moifture, but would rather be improved, by being made as much drier as they can be, by removing the ftones from the furface. M. Duhamelisof opinion, that no ftones increafe fruitfuinefs,un- lefs they be lime ftones, marie, or thofe that are of a calcarious nature. Thefe. by rubbing againft each other, &c. in the operations of tillage, do probably yield a duft that increafes the ricl^nefs of land. But all ftones in tillage land ar£ fo troublefome, and fo much increafe the labour of tillage, that, when they are not calcari- ous, they fliouid be taken away, or at lea ft fo much thinned, that ploughing and hoeiHg may be comfortably performed, and without much injury to thetooli ufed by the farmer. Fixed ftones under the furface fliould be removed, or fo funk by dig- ging under them as to put ther^ S T O ont of the plough's way, that ploughing may be pertormed without oanger oi tlcflroying the plough. , , „ I o know whether floncs are calcarioiis or not, they fliould be tried with aqua lortis.or fpiritol fca fait. For ftoncs on which the fpirit does not cfrervefce, can beol no advantage to the foil. By the way, I donotexpc^^ that calcarious ftones will be louiid in many fields in this country. Ground thu is laid down tor mowing mud have even the fmall Hones taken out of the way of the fithe. But, infteaJ of picking them up, forae recom- mend driving them down into the foil, when the ground is fo Toft in the fpring that it can be cafily done. In this cafe a field will not be disfigured with the heaps, nor any of the furface loft. STONE WALL. See the articles Frncf and Slonts. STOOKL\G, or SHOCK- ING, fctting'fhcaves intofhocks to guard corn Irofn wet. Farmers have various methods of doing this. But I would pro- pofe for their conlideration, a method inferted in the Alufeum Rujluum, Vol. IL page 250. " Ten (heaves are difpofed in two rows, each row leaning a- jrainft the other ; then two meaves are laid on th« top, fo as to meet at the centre with their tails, and to flopc downwards." The writer thinks, and with good rcjfon, that this method is very iavourable to drying the corn, if it needs it, as well as to dcfendmg it from rains. Thick- er built (hocks, if they chance to Set wetted, will need opening to ry the (heaves. In general, it is better for the corn to ftand in (hocks a few «!ays in the field, than to carry S T R 3t3 it fooner to the ftack or mow. There will be Ids danger of its taking damage by heating. STOVKR, fodder for cattle. See Fodder. STRALM, vulgarly called Sprain, a violent cxtenfion, or ftretching of the (inews, or ten- dons, by which the fibres are foinetimcs broken. All forts of animals, and partic- ularly horfes, arc liable to lame> iiels by (trains. My defigneJ brevity will not permit me to treat fully on this fubjeB. But let it be noted, that when a horfe is lamed by draining, he fhould be permit- ted to rell,and be lecuredfrom wet and cold. Red alone will (ome- times recover the tone of the fi- bres, and complete the cure. But bad (irains (hould have fome fuitablc applications to the parts affe6ted. Oily medicines are in general to be avoided, on account ot their relaxing quality : But oil of turpentine may be ad- mitted. A part that is lamed by drain- ing (hould be bathed thrice a day, with hot verjuice or vinegar, in which a fmall piece of foap may be diffolved. Plarly in the difeafe, if the part be fwclled, a poultice (hould be applied after bathing. It (hould be made of oatmeal, rye meal or bran, boiled in vinegar, ftronz beer, or red wine lees, with lara enough to prevent its growing diff. After the fwelllng is down, bathe with camplioratcd fpirits of wine, mixed with halt as nuicli oil of turpentine. Or, inftead of the oil, lake liiarp vinegar, and (pirit of vitriol, in equal quanti- ties. Keep on a linen bandage, drawn pretty tight, if the part alK-fle'l will admit of it. But iojig ZH S T R long refting from labour, will in fome cafes be needful. For Inr- ther direftion, the reader may ice Bart/ei's Farriery. STRANGLES, " a fwclling under the throat of a horfe, be- tween the two jaw bones, which feems not to differ very much from that whicii in a human body is called the qianfy. Its feat is not fo much upon the glands as on the mufcles ; and therefore it comes the more readily to an impofthumation. *' If the fwellinghas a tenden- cy forwards between the jaws, fo that the pafl'ages of the throat are not in danger of being chok- ed up by It, the fafeft way is to ripen, and bring it to a fuppura- tion ; and for that end anoint the part with ointment of marlh mal- lows,covering them up warm. Or take oil of bays and frelh butter, of each a like quantity, ointment of marfh mallows the weight ot both : Or the poultice recom- mended for the glanders may be applied warm twice a day. After the fwellings are ripe, and that you perceive matter in them, but that they do not break, %vhich perhaps may be hindered by the thicknefs of the ftcin, you may open tiiem with a fincet ; but if they do not ripen as you could wilh, you had better make life of a hot iron, and fear the outfule pretty deep. But wheth- er you open them by incTion,or by the iron, you muft be (ure to make your operation in the low- ermofi dependent part, that the matter may more eafily run off. While you obferve this mcihod your incifion need be but fmall. " As foon as the matter is nearly difcharged, yoamay prefs out what remains with your thumb. Then make a doftil of fine flax, dip it in warm bafili- ccn, and introduce it into the or- S T R ifice, but not too far, nor muft it be continued above tlij-ee of four days in any common cafe -• For keeping the orifice too long open will derive too great a quantity of matter upon the parts, caufing them to ulcerate, (^r to turn fiflulous. Thereiore when the running abates, only apply fmooth flat pledgets of lint, arm- ed wilh the fame ointment, and above them thick comprelfes of foft canvafs, in feveral doubles, to fill up the vacant fpace be- tween the jaws, that the divided parts may again be imited. If hard lumps remain after the fores are healed up, they may be re- moved by the following plafler. Take diacalon and red lead plaf- tcr, of each four ounces, pitch two ounces ; diflblve them with a fufficient quantity of oil or lard. Then take bole in fine powder an ounce and an half, and flir into this mixture, and make it to the confiflency ot a plafter. This muff be fpread on leather, or thin dowlas, and after the hair has been clipped off very clofo, it may be notched and applied all under his chops, where it is to lie as long as it will flick on : And by the help of this all the lit- tle hardnelfcs will be difi'olved. " Sometimes this dillemper is ca ft off chiefly by the nofe ; and fometimes the difcharge is in- y.'ard.aboiitlhe roots of the tongue. Jn this cafe moil of the matt( r ilTues alfo from the nofe. In either cafe, the hovfe lliould be moderately ridden. Bin it will be very proper to waih his mouth fometiiuts v.uh honey of roles ; for that will keep it clean, and prevent ulcers. But if fores are like to continue, diifolve a quarter of an ounce ot crude fal ammoniac in a pint of water, and wafh his moiuhvvith it once or twice a day. "If S T R "If the cure (ccms iirprifcr), and the hoile dues not ilmve upon it, rccourfi* in.iy l>c liad to purging ; lor wliK.h puri)olt* 1 chiefly rccomniciul the prt-para- liuus of alois ; ht. taulc tlu-i'c are the moH ffltrinal to woi k upon the blooil, &.C. " Cihfon\ lur- tury. vSTRAW. the flemson which Coinnrows. Sec loilJrr. SIR A W J ^K 11 KY. I'rcignna, a well known iiuit which isinucli cflrrmed, Mr. Millrr reckons four forts ; the wood ftrawberry, the Virgin- ia, or fcarlet Ui.iwhcrry.tlie haut- boy flrawbcrry, and the Ihaw- berry of Chili. It is the fcarlet flrawhcrry that i$ moft common, and pcili.ips moft wortliy of cuhivation. Our grafs ficl often prodiue thefc itrawhcrri. in plonty. Uutitis better to h.. ea fp(U ol jrroiind de- voted to the ctihure ot tliein ; as they will be much I irger and better ila\ oured ; and as the trampling of the grals in the mowing gioinids may be thus in fome mcafure pr<,ventcd. A light loatny foil is befl for them : And but lutle dung fhould be applied to the ft/il, as a large quantity will caufe them to run much, and to betels tiuit- ful. I'he time to remove thcfe plants, is faid by the above men- tioned author to be SeptembeY, r»r the beginning of U toher. liut they are known to do well m this country when reniov«Ml early in the fpring, and watered a lew times after it. But they Will bear little fruit that year. lie dn e/ts, " That the gr;^und fliould b;- rleaned Irom the r )iits oi all ba ! that there will be but three rows ! in eadi bed. j " 1 he plants fhonld never be I taken trom old ix-glcfted beds, I where the plants have been fuf- j tered to run into a multitude of fuckers, or from any plants j which are not fruittid ; and thofe ; offsets which (land ncarell to the old pl.«-fs thoidd alwciys be pre- I ferred to th"Iie which are produc- I ed from tlie nailing ilalks at a I greater difiance. I " During the fummer, the j plants lliould be conflanily kept clean from weeds, and all the I runners Ihould be pulled oft as I fad as they are produced. If this is conflanily pra^tlled, the [ plants will become very fuong. Where proper care is taken of 1 the plants the fiill fummer, there I is generally a plciititul crop the fecond fpring ; whereas, when this is negleded, the cnip will be thin and tlic tiuit fmall. "^^ 'ihe olil pi. mis are thofe which projhue ilf truit ; lc»r the fuckers never pioduce any till 4hcy have grown a lull year ; ihcrefoic it appears how necef- fary it is to dived the old plants of them ; for where. er they arc fuffered to remain, they rof> ihe fruitful plants of their nourifh- mcnt, in pioportion to their number ; for each of thefe fuck- ers fends out a quantity of roots, which interfere, and are foclofe- ly matfeil together, as to draw a- way the gieated pail of ihcnour- ilhiuciii from the old roots, whereby 3*6 S T R ■whereby they are weakened. And the fuckers alfo render each other very weak, hence the caufe of barrennefs. For 1 have known, where the old plants have been conflantly kept clear from fuckers, they have contin- ued very fruitful three years, without being tranfplanted. " In autumn diveft the plants of any firings or runners which may have been produced, and oi all the decayed leaves, and clear the beds of weeds. Then the paths fhould be dug up, and the weeds buried which were taken from the beds, and fome earth laid over the furface of the beds, between the plants. This will ftrengthen and prepare them for the follow- ing fpring. And if after this, there is fome old tanners' bark laid over the furface, between the plants, it will be of great fervice to them. In the fpring, after the danger of hard froft is over, the beds fhould be forked, to loofen the ground and break the clods. And in this operation the tan which w^as laid over the furface will be buried, which will be a good dreffmgto theflrawberries. Then if the furface is covered with mofs, it will keep the ground moift, and fecure a good crop of fruit ; and the mofs will preferve the fruit clean. When heavy rains fall, after the fruit is full grown, there v.'ill be no dirt waChed over them, which fre- quently happens where this is not praftifed." Miller. STRING HALT, a kind of lamenefs peculiar to the hind quarters of a horfe, which occa- fions a fudden jerking of the legs upwards in his going. When it Jeizes the outfide mufcles the horfe ftraddles and throws his legs outwards. But when the infide mufcles are afFefted, his legs are twitched up to his bcHy. S T U j Sometimes it is only in one leg, fometimes in both. The cure is difficult, and rarely accomplifh- ed. Rubbing and fomentations are recommended, with daily moderate exercife : By which the blood and fpirits may be equal- ly derived into the difordered mufcle and its correfponding one. See Gibjbn and Clark. STUBBLE, the Humps of reaped grain, or the parts of the items left {landing in the field. When the land is light and fandy, the Hubble of wheat and rye fhould be ploughed into the foil to enrich it. For this will have as good an effeft as a mod- erate manuring with dung ; ef- pecially if it be ploughed foon after the crop is taken off; for then the flubble is in its heft flate. But after it has been ex- pofed for fome time to the fun and wind, it has much lefs virtue in it to enrich the foil. If this operation be performed in fea- fon, the flubble, together with what weeds are growing among it, will be equal to the befl green drefTing. But with ploughs of the com- mon conflru£lion, the ploughing of flubble ground is dilagreeable work; neither can it be well per- formed. The plough is fo apt to choak up, that it is more than one man can well do to keep it clear. Ploughs for this work fhould be much deeper built than the common ones. And this work might be greatly facilitated, if a heavy roller were paffed over the flubble, to lay it flat to the ground before ploughing. When this is doing, great care fhould be taken to pafs the roller tlie fame way that the plough is to go. By TPRtdiQS of this, the coulter will but feldom be clogged with the flubble. If this rolling be ne- glefted, 3 imall roller annexed to the S T U the fore end of the p!ought)eam, Ml the place of a foot, or even a foot itlelf, will greatly help to clear the way tor the coulter. When ftubhie is on a foil that is (liff, it is not acc«untcd fo ad- vifable to plough it in. For fuch land is not apt to cover the fiubble fo clofely as to caufe it fpeedily to putrefy. It will of- ten lie in a found unaltered Hate for a long time, and be very troublcfome ai the next plough- ing. But if the ground fhould be fcedcd after one ploughing, it might be expeftcd the fiubble would render the ground fo hol- low and cavernous as to flarve many of the plants that grow up- on the furface. At the fame time thefe hollows would be re- ceptacles for noxious infers and vermine. But in a liglu fandy foil, the fiubble is foon reduced to a condition to nourilh vege- tables. The better way, therefore, to difpofe ot the fiubble on flifF lands, is, to mow it, colletl it, and carry it into the farm yard ; where, by the trampling of the cattle, and mixing it with their excrements, it will be converted, before the following fpring, into a rich and valuable manure. And it is 3lni«ft incredible how much a farm maybe, in this way, improved .ind fertilized. xVhile in the oUl countries they are UHflcr the ncccffity of makjng ufe of part of their fiub- ble, in thatching the roofs of their buildings, and of part of it for fcwel, the farmers in this country hav'e the privilege of converting the whole of theiri to manure. And perhaps it may be as well to do fo, on whatever foil it is, as to turn it in with the plough ; for it is not eafy to bury u completely by ploughing ; S T U 387 and the part which is not cover- ed is of little or no advantage to the ground. SrUMP, the part of a tree which remains fall in the ground after felling. Stumps arc very troubleforac for fome years after trees are remov- ed, unlefs they be taken out. But doing this is commonly thought to be too much labour, efpecially when they arc ol any confiderable bignefs. Mr. Evelyn's engine for pull- ing up large roots, may be thought ufeful by thofe who are in hafte to have their land thoroughly cleared, and do not grudge the expenfe of doing it. See Com- pUte Farmer, under the article Stump. M. de Turbilly advifes to the blowing up ftumps with gun powder. But I think, my coun- trymen will hardly go into this method, unlefs it be in particular cafes. Moft of the flumps of hard wood trees will be fo decayed ia their roots in fix or feven years, that thej" may be eafily taken a- way. So will foine of the foft woods. But the flumps ol white pine trees, that are large, will laft more than half a century. How- ever, when they arc well dried, and have fomewhat decayed, they may be conquered by fire, where there is plenty of wooil to pil© on them. But before this is at- tempted, the earth lliould be re- moved from their fides, and it pratticable f rom underneath them, allowing them a few days to dry. A good method of deflroying the flumps of white pine trees is, to dig up the fmaller ones, and pile them round the larger ; and when they have become dry, fct fire to them. The flumps of trees arc fuch bindraDces to the operations oi: tillage. ?.28 S U M tillage, as greatly ditniiiifh the profit of tarming. Where land abounds wiih them, they are e- j uual to a heavy tax. This fliouid be confidered by thole who have | the power ol taxing new fettle- i merits. It is horrid opprefiion, i to tax lands that are fnll of ftunips ! ot trees, equally with the oldelt and moft improved. STY, a fmall houfe, orhut, in which hogs are kept, or lodged. Hogs that are not confined fhould always have a fty, or eot, to lodge in, placed in a conve- nient fituation, and eafy ot ac- cefs. It Ihoiild be very tight, warm and dry, ot whatever ina- teri.ds it may be built, and kept well littered ; For it iwine have nut a warsn lodging, or are much pinched with the cold, they will be injured iti their growth. That a ft V may be the warmer, the door ot it Ihi'uld be no larger th.in is needlul for the fwme to pals through. And a doorthould be hung in this pafTai^e by the top, that it may be pullied up by their nofes, either inwardsor out- wards, as there (hall be occafion. Th'? Iwi/ie will no fail to open it, and it will Ihut of itfelf. Sec S U R woik can hardly be, and feldorn is finilb.ed, before the gral's on the high lands calls for mowing. And beiore the mowing feafon is ended,_reaping, and all the toil of the iormer haiveft, come on. The fummer bufinefs is the more toillome, on account of the inte.nle heat of a confiderable part of that feafon. To lighten the labours of the field, the farm- er and his men fhould beat their work early and late, and reft themfeU'cs in the hottefl hours. Thus they may perlorm as much as they ought to do, without fa- tiguing or overheating them- felves, and without exciting fuch ati immoderate thirft as will tempt (hem to ruin their conlli- tutions with cold drinks. S U X F LO W£R, Heliantk us, one ot the largcft of annual piants; fo well known as to need no defcription. The fuatlower is a native of A^mc-rica ; but has been carried into F.ngland, where it flourifhes. It bears very large difcous flow- ers, and produces a large quan- tity of black feeds, which are of uff* tor feeding poultry. The feeds fliould be fowed early. Th-^y will grow in al- SUCKER, a young twig, or [ moft any foil. The young plants (hoot, from the flock, roots, or limbs, of a plant or tree may be tranfplanted at any time, ' before thev are fix or feven inch- SUMMFR, the warmed '7U3r-^ es high, only obferving to take ter ot the year, including ];jne, July and Auguft. In this feafon, as well as in the fpriiig, the farmer has plenty ot work. Ci ops that are to be hoed, up a ball ot earth about their roots. They fhould be placed in the northern borders ot gar- dens,ifing.trdens at all, where they i will do the Icail harm to other are firft to be at;en;led to, and j plants by their fhadow ; and they ihould ftand not lefs than two feet a.funder. They will rife to the height of a dozen or fourteen feet. SURFEIT, a difcafe to which cattle, and horfes efpecially, are liable. It is produced by various cauf- es ; it comes from inteafe labour, from mult by no means be negleftecl There is often much ot this work to do in a little time, efpecially on firms where much Indian corn is raifed. And the more fruitful the feafon is, the more frequent hoeingswill be needful, to keep the weeds under. I'iiis S U R 3«9 S U R fr-«m overheating;, anJ iVom liif- t'dles not well cureil. *' A horfc is (aiA lo be furfeit- e !, wlicn his coat flares, ami Ji>.>k« rufty atiil 'dirty, though proper nicins have not been wanting to keep hinj clean. I he (kin is lull ol Icales and darulcr, that lie thiik and mealy among the h.iir, and is cotillantly lup- plicil with a frelli fuccellion of the lame lor want of due tranfpi- ration. Some horfes have hur- dles ol various lizes like peas or tares : Some have dry fixcil fcabs all over their limbs or bodies ; others a moilhite attended wich heat atitl inli.unniation ; the hu- mours being lo Iharpand violent- ly itching, that the horfes rub fo } be proper to keep the horfe dry, iiiceHantiy.as tomakethcmfelves and to give him warm water, raw. Some h ive no eruptions I This ointment properly rubbed ar all, but an unwholefome look, i into the blood, with the afTiflance and arc dull, Ihiggifh, and lazy ; ; ol purging phyfick, has frequently fome appear only lean and hide- '. cured thefe kind of furfeits, with- boutid ; others have Hying pains i out any other affiftance. and lamenefs, refemblinga rheu- | " The wet furfeit, which is no ed, half a pound ; crude anti" mony in fine powder four ounc" es ; gum guaicum alfo in pow- tier lour ounces ; malu; into fivtcen dofes lor eight days. " riiis medicine inufl be re- peated till the horfc coats well, and all the fymptoms of the fur- leit difappear. If the horfe is of Imall value, two or three com- mon purges fliould be given, and half an ounce of antimony, with the fame quantity of ful- phur, twice a day, or the altera- tive balls with camphire and nitre. " If the little fcabs on the fkin do not peal off, anoint them with the mercurial ointment ; during the time of ufing which, it will matifm ; fo that in the lurfeitsol horfes, we have almofl all the diUcrent fpccies of the fcurv)", and other chronical diflempers. *' The following method is ufually attended with iuccefs in tlie dry fpecics. b irlf, take away about three or four pounds of blood ; and then give the follow- ing nnid purge, which will work a^ d% alterative, and (hould be re- peated once a week or ten days, /or fome time more than a moift running fcur- vy, appears on different parts of the body of a horfe, attended I fometimes with great heat and inflammation : The neck often- , times fweilsfo in one night's time, , that greatquantities of a hot brinr humour ifluc forth, which, if I not allayed, will be apt to coilett on the poll or withers, and pro- duce the poll evil or fiflula. Thi» difeafe alio frequently attacks I the limbs, where it proves obfti- Take luccotrine aloes G.K drams, i nate, and hard to cure; and ifi or one ounce ; gum guaicum half anounce ; diaphoretickan- imiouy, and powder of myrih, ol each two drams ; make into aball with fyrupot buckthorn. " la the intermediate days, an ounce of ilie following powder ihouid be given moraing and k.*riing in hu teois. fome horfes Ihcws itfelf fpring and fall. " In this cafe bleed plentiful- ly, avoid externally all repellers, and give cooling phyfick twice ai week ; as, four ounces of lenitive electuary, with the fame quanti- ty of cream of tartar, with lour ounces of glauber falts, quicken- 1 akc native cinnabar, or cinna- ed,.if thought proper, with two barufiiniitnoiiy Hnely powder- or three dr^asof powder of jalap. as© s w A cKflblved in water gruel, and giv- en in a morning fading. " After three or four of thefe purges, two ounces oi nitre made into a ball with honey, may be given every morning for a fort- night ; and if attended T»Mth fuc- cefs, repeated for a fortnight long- er. " The powders above men- tioned may alfo be given with the horfe's corn ; or a flrong de- coclion oi guaicum fhavings, or logwood, may be given alone, to the quantity of two quarts a day. Thefe, and indeed all alterative medicines, muft be continued for a long time, where the difordsr prov^es obftinate. " The diet fhouid be cool and opening ; and if the horfe is hidehound,an ounce of fenugreek feeds fiiould be gV\'en in his feeds for a month or longer. And as this diforder often proceeds from v/orms, give the mercurial phyf- ick too, and afterwards the cin- nabar powder, as above diretted ; but as in general it is not an orig- inal difeafe,but a fymptomonly of many, in the cure, regard mull be had to the firil caufe ; thus as it is an attendant on fevers, worms, &c. the removal of this complaint muft be varioufly ef- fected."' Complete Farmer. SWAMP, wet funkcn land. See the article Bog. SWARD, the furface of grafs ground- The fward is formed of a web of the roots of grafs, mixed with the befl mould. The common Engliih grafs, or poa, forms a very firm and tough fvvard, which may be cut up and ufed as turf. Herdfgrafi has a weaker fward ; and clover, being tap rooted, forms a very weak and crumbly fward. The firft kind bears the tread of cattle, and the preffure •f wheels far better than the others, SWA The fward is wifely coutrivecF by the Author of Nature, for the recruiting and enriching of land. At the fame time that it prevents the defcending of the food of vegetables too deep into the foil, it is continual lycoilefting it from the atmofphere. So that for a long courfe of years, fome grafs lands will afford good crops of hay with little or no manuring. The fward always contains the rrcheff part of the foil. Accord- ingly it is always found, that land nev.'Iy ploughed out of fward is more fruitful than that which has been longer in tillage. Some- times it will bear as good a crop v/ithout dung, as it will in fuc- ceeding years, well dunged. Other things being equal, a fward that is always fed very clofe does not gather richnefs fo fall as one that has more fogge.. In the one cafe, the vegetable food in the atmofphere is blown • away ; in the other, it is entan- gled in the fogge, retained by it, and carried into thefoil by rainSj and melting fnows. A- fward on which ■ cattle lie- much, or where fwine frequent- ly run, as in the borders of many of our roads, becomes very rich. So that if the furface be pared off, to ti>e thicknefs of two or three inches, and laid in heaps to fer- ment, with the graffy fides in- ward, it will foon become an ex- cellent manure. A dreffing of this will furprifingly renew the fertility of an old worn out field. But a mixture of dung with this manure will be no fmall advan- tage. By the fides of fences, a fward gathers richnefs fafter than in the . other parts of a field. The veg- etable food which floats in the ' air, the earthy parts efpecial- ly, may be fuppofed to fall, for the fame reafan that fnow does, and SWA «Titi remain, under the lee of fences. And the banking up of fnovs- in thefe fituations is anoth- er caufe of cnrichiiii; the furface of the ground. By lying tor fome tinie atior the ground is bare, beinj; peculiarly adapted to catch and retain the lood ct plants, it conveys the more of it into tlie (ward. High and dole fences produce ihcfc effects more obfervaKly than low and open ones. But this is to be under- ftood with limitation ; tor it is obferved that a clofe lence feven or eight feet high has often a much (mailer bank ot fnow un- der its Ice than a fence of but four i or five feel. I When the fward of mowing i ground binds too much, it Ihould , be broken up and tilled. But to ' Prevent bindmg, it (hould not I e ted very dole alter mowing ; \ andcfpcciallyafprinklingot well { rotted comport, applied in au- | tumn, will not f)nly prevent | binding, but increafe the next , crop, to luch a degree, that j manure cannot be better appli- I cd. I SWARM, a large number of, bees. vSce the article ^('c'. SWARTH, or SWATH, a line or row ol grafs, or corn, &c. cut down by the mower. The double fwarthiswhercthc grafs of two fwarths is thrown together in mowing. It (aves a little labour in raking to make the double fv\'3rth the centre of a windrow. But when the crop is thin, this is an object unwoi thy of attention. SWATH RAKE, a rake a- 'no'it f.vo yards long, wiili iron i a bearer in the mid d!.- ; . i a man fixes hi:n(.-lt A 1 a belt; and wlien he has ;; riifrcd as much as his rake will hold, he raifes it and begins a- gain. Compute Farmer, SWl sji I SWINE, the name of a fpecie* I ol tame quadruped animals, well I known in all countries. I Sowen is the old tnglith plural oi fori', whence the namefwiuc, j which cultom has applied to the whole (pecies of hogs- I TIk' J.eepinj; of (vine is of ef- 1 fcntial advantage to the hulband- I man ; hccaulc they reed much upon things, which would other- I v/ifc be of no confiderablc fcrA'ice j to him. The roads, and com- mons, in the farming towns ot ;• this country, afford fwine, except- ing in winter, the greated part of their fcanty living, lor they I feed heartily, not only oi: grafs, but many ioris of weeds, the tops and roots of tern, the roots of leveral kinds ol aquatick plants, &c. They pick up grain and feeds that are ncccflarily fcaiter- ed about the bam and out houfes, befides eating worms and many vkinds of inlefls. Befides, the farmer's houfe af- fords many things which contrib- ute to their fupport, which would, otherwilc be loft, fuch as whey, four fkimmcd milk and butter milk, the walhing of tubs and dilhes ; animal and vegetable food that luis accidentally got corrupted, decayed and rotten fruit, the offal of bcafts, fowls and fifh, and the grounds oi cyder, beer, and oilier liviuors. As this anim.i! is much.lifpof- cd and adap'cd, to do inilchict, thofe that are i)ermiticd to go at lirge, (hould he well yoked, that they may not break through fences. And whether they goat large or in paftures, they Ihould always be ringed in the nofc, to prevent their tearing up the ground too much, in fearch of roots. When kept in pens, they need ringing alio, that they may live the mure quietly log-.thtr, t ,iiiJ iK't tfj/ ini wuiiUu each Other. Thfx 83^ S W I Their running at large is, per- haps, not advifable, unleis it be in wide roads, or in places where there is a lar§e outlet tor them ; or where grals, brakes, acorns, or ntits ot beech, cheflnut, or hick- ory, are not to be found in plen- ty. For they are expofed to the more accidents; and in fonie oi our fettlements, which border on the wilderneis, the bears are apt to catch them. And the moflof our publick roads are fo much frequented by other hungry bealhs, that the fwine can have but little advantage from thegrafs. But in cafe of necellity, when the farmer happens to have no fuitable paflure for his fwine, let the wafh from the houfe be reg- ularly given them, morning and evening, to prevent their wan- dering away too far from home. This will induce them always to lodge at home, efpecially it they Jiave a good fty to receive them in inclement weather ; by means of w'hich they will be the lefs in danger of being loft, or of ftray- ing too far trom home. I am fenfible that the method of management, I here recom- jnend, is liable to one confidera- ble objeftion ; which is, that if they be ted at all at home, they ■will be apt to haunt about the lioufe all the time, crying lor more, and never go away tar in queft of food. Inftead of attempting to an- fwer this objeftion, 1 wifh I could make it appear a fuHicient argument to convince farmers of the great advantage, or the ne- cefhty, ot ha^■ing good enclofed paftures for their fwine. They •will be fafer, and fare better ; and the coft of it is not great. The hog pafture fhould be fo near to the dwelling houfe, that it may not be troublefome to car- ry the wafli to the fwine : And S W I yet fo far off that the people in the houfe may not be ftunned with their nolfe. And a warm cot mull be made in Tome con- venient part ot their pailure, for them to lodge in. To prepare a pafture for them, let the ground be broken up, tilled and manured, and then laid down with clover. For fwine are more fond ot thisgrafs than ot any other which our country produces. Let the quantity of land be.fo proportion- ed to the number of fwine, that they may keep the grals from running up to leed. For this will prevent wafte ; and the fhorter the grafs is, the fweeter it will be, and the fuore tender and a- greeable to their palates, I fuppofe that one acre of rich land in clover, will lupport twen- ty or more iv.ine, large and fmail together, through the fummer ; and bring them well forward in their growth. But thcv Ihould have rings in their nofes to pre- vent their rooting out the clover. It has been proved, by many trials, that hogs, in fuch a pafture, may be kept in good plight, with- out any other lood. Some lay they may be halt tattened. Arthur Young, Ffq. ot Great Britain, in the lumrner of the year 1766, paftured fixty four fwine of various fizes, on two acresof clover ground. And al- lowing two pence halt penny per week, one with another, their feeding am.ounted tt) fevenr teen pounds fixteen ihillings fterling. Their keeping was fet at a low rate, fix months feeding for one fwine being 5/5, and the profit of the clover put to this ufe is aftonilhing, He af- fures the publick that all theie fwine grew very iiii. And ia his opinion, this uie ot clover h greatly preferable to making it S W I "nto h.\y. I think tlus is not to 1 '■ floulitfd, though the crop ot !iiy were fuppolcd to be ihc gir.itrfl that is ever ol»tai(u-(l. It Ihoiiltl be reineriihered, th;U the p.irtunnR witii Iwuie \\\\\ cii- riili land more thdra pHlhirinsf with (dlicr Iiealls, and hereby i!ie profit o{ the Farmer will be in- < re. lied. And iT a common clo- • or l.iy will producer good crop ol wlieai, much more may be ex- pelled of the fame kiad ol Tiound, after pafturing fwine np- ri it ; as their dung adds much to the teitility ol the foil. Hogs may ho turned into their paflure about the fir (I ol May, and kept in it till the laR of Oc- tober. And if, in M.iy and Oc- tober, the grafs fhouli not be <|uite fnfficient tor their fuppoit, lome potatoes orothcr roots may be thrown to them. The fence abotit the paRure 'lould he fo fipht and ffrotig •::at tlic fwine will not need to bo yoked : Becaiife yokes do much towards preventing their growth, as I have found, by let- ting yoked and unyoked ones of the fame litter run together in a pallnre. It will be a great ad''anfage to a hog padiire, to have plenty «of water in it through the furnmer. Running water is bell, as it will afford them the moll wholclxjme drink, and at the fame time, ferve. as well an any other for iliem to wallow in ; and it will kerp tiiem dean, which is no f .lall advantage. iVi' the moil dirty puddle wa- : than none, as they I Miilclvcs in it in hot wcdiijcr, winch is grcativ rc- firlhmg to iliem, and conducive ' ' keep them in health. I he bell way of managing fwme is, to keep ihcm always in Hiiiilmg plight : S, , '1 fummer no hog is wholly ccnht'.e I to potatoes ; for he gets at leaft fome grafs, and weeiU. S W I 335 I know not whether it has ever yet been determined, at what age it is bcfl, or moft for the owner's intercfl. that fwine Ihould be fatted and killed. That it is in no uart of the firfl year, excepting the China breed, I fup- pofe will be generally granted, ror as they have not near attain- ed to their full growth, it cannot be expetfed that t!>ey ihould be fo Quickly, or fo eafily fatted br feeding. But as the young pork is more palatable, fome will pre- fer it on the whole, though it fhould be more dearly obtamed. The more common prafclice is, to kill them at about the age of a year and a half. But I fufpe6c the profit would be greater, if they were kept one year longer. For it is well known, that they bear the cold of the lecond win- ter much better than that of the firfl. As their growth is nearly or quite completed, they are the more eafily fattened ; and I nev- er could perceive but that the pork was equally good and pala> table, as thofe killed at eightceit ! months old. j According to the opinion oF I the Rev, Mr. Eliot, the bcfl time- [ in the year to fliut up hogs to fat- ten them, is the month of Augufl. I I rather prefer the nionth of Sep- tember, when it may be depend- ed on,lhat th^y will not fufTer af all by the heat in their confine- ment : And there will be time enough to make them fat. before the weather comes to be extreme- ly cold. He that attempts to fatten his hogs in winter wilf be a lofer : For it ha> been found by long expcricnc*, that they do not gain in their flelh near fo fafl in a frof- ty. ns in a temperate feafon. I therefore take care to get them fit for the knife by the beginning or middle of Deccrabcr. And I ihould 336 S W I fhoulJ choofe to kill them flill earlier, weie it not lor the ad- vantage ot keeping the lean part of tlie poik tor lome time with- out faking ; as it moll; common- ly may be clone by expofing it to froft, in the coolefl part of a houfe. But a very important queftion is, what food and management is befl in fattening fwine ? Peafe anfwcr well, when the price of them is low. But I amconftrain- ed to give the preference to In- dian corn. Let them be fed in September v/ith green cars from the field. There is nothing they will devour more greedily than this corn, and even the cobs with it. In Indian harveff, the unripe ears Ihould be picked out, and given to the hogs that are fatting, without delay : Or as fait as they can eat them : For it will do them four times as much good in this ftate, as it will after it is dri- ed, it being ditiicult to dry it without its turning mouldy, or rotten ; fo that they will fcarce- ly eat any ot it in this Hate, un- lefs they be kept Oiorter of food tlian tatting hogs Ihould be. After the unripe corn is ufed, that which is ripened mull be given them. If it be thought mod conve- nient, to teed them with corn ot the preceding year, it ihould not be given them without foak- ing, or boiling, or grinfliiig it in- to meal. For they will not per- feftly digcit much of tiie hard kernels ; it being often too hard for their teeth. It has been thought by good judges, that the corn will be at leaft a tixth part more advantage to the fwine, tor Joaking it in water. But ther6 is, if I millake not, ftill more ad- va'ntage in grinding it. What new corn is given them, may be s w r in ears, as it is not hardenec! enough for grinding. I know of nothing that will fatten hogs taft- er than a dough of meal and wa- ter. But as this is an expenfive food, the dough may be inxed with boiled potatoes, or boiled carrots. They eat thefe mix- tures as well as dough by itfelf ; and it appears to make no materi- al difference in their fattening. In this mixture, barley meal will aniwerinftead of Indian: Which fhould be attended to in our more northern parts, where two bufh- els of barley may be as eafily raif- ed, as one of Indian corn. Botti kinds of meal I have found to be a good mixture with boiled po- tatoes : But it Ihould by all ineans be a little faked, to give it a good relifh. While hogs are fatting, littfe or none of the wafli from the kitchen fhould be given them. Their drink fhould be fair water, which they relifli better than any other drink, and of which they will drink a good deal, when they arc fed only on corn, or ftilF dough. To prevent meafles, and other diforders in hogs, while they are tatting, and to increa.fe their health and appetite, a dofe or two ot brimttone, or antimony, given them in their dough, is uietul, and thould not be negleftcd. Some change of food may be advifable, in every flage of their exiilence, as it always feems to increafe their appetite. But while they are fatting, laxative, food in general Ihould be avoid- ed, as thefe animals are feldom known to fuffer by coflivenefs, efpecially when they are tuU fed, but often from the contrary dif- order. If they c fiance to be cof- tive, a little rye will help them. In feeding, fteady care fliould be taken that not one njeal Ihould be S W I he mincil, nor miftimcJ, and •ficrir water fhoij'.d never be lor- t-ottcn. They ihould always have as much food as they will cat up clr-;n ; Inn never more tlian that qM.i.):::v, left ihcy de- iile it. ar.i it be wailed. A little at a I :::.:, and olicn, is a good rule. If their fkins be fcurfy, or in- cliriiiijij to manginefs, a little oil poured upon their backs, will caule it to come off. And fomc fay, a fmall mefs of rye nort- and then, as a change in their food, is good againft tiieft and other dif- orders. IfthcifTufs in (heir fore legs fhould chance to get ftoppeil, every attempt to fatten them will be in vain. Thefe therefore fhould be watched ; and if found '. to be flopped, they Ihould be ' rubbed open with a corn cob. I Rubbing and currying their ' hide-; very frequently, is of ad- j v.irrage to keep up perfpiration. I It IS grateful to the animals, as well as conducive to their health 3v.<\ gvcwih. A proper fcrubbing > J 1^ m the middle of their pen 1 will nJt be amifs. And during j tlie whole time of their fatting, they Ihould have plenty ol litter. ! 1 hey will fie the more dry and { w-r"i, and it will be more than I pdi i tor, by the incrcale of good j roan ire. I When hogs arc killed, a fingle ' one Ihould not be left to live a- lonr in a pen. He will be apt ' to piiKT too much jftcr his form- ' cr c >n!nanions : And in cold i ■ : MriJI faffer for want ol i 1 ) warm as he has been ; I to do. : part of pork fhould be I pl.ntituilr failed with the bcfl | , , . a ^. •-,, > '— , fait. It Willi tor a barrel. Ill 11 1 L»e keptconiM- I » .r p.ckle ; f»r if it be 1 3» S Y C 337 expofcd ever fo little to the air, it will become n:ilv aid unpala> table. Sqc II -/! J. SYCAMORh./:.^?, Acer, the maple tree. Tlu-iii^h Mr. Mil- ler leckons ninediffinft kinds of maple, I know of but two that are ufually to be found in thi» country. One of thefe kinds is vult^arly called white maple, Acf: do. It is a very quick ; tree, and therefore ouglu to be encouraged in foreffs, cfpecially where a quick profit is defired* But the wood is foft and white, not inclined to burn well till it is dried. As limber, it is valued chiefly by turners, by farmers for o.\ yokes, and for cabinet work. The other fort, called rock ma- ple, Acer fdccharinumy is much harder andf heavier, and an excel- lent wood for fewel, being in- fiammable in its green flate, ani dunible in the fire. Both forts will quickly decay, when expof- cd to the weather ; the latter is lefs durable than the former. The fap of the white maple is drawn by many for fugar. But it yields little in comparifon with the other. It is of the fap of the rock ma- ple that an excellent fugar is made, which is of no fmall ad- vantage to planters in thewilder- nefs, where the trees arc plenty, and the wounding and injuring ihcm is not conlidcred as any Icjfs. But a farmer that wifhes his trees to live and grow Ihould not tap them for their fap ; bc- caufe it flints them in their growth, and often caiilesthem to decay and rot. Thcbeft method of tapping has been lately found to be by boring the trees : So that thedifchargeof the fap may be flopped at pleafurc with a p<«, as there may be occafion. " When a plcaty of fap is col- lect sd. S38 S Y C iefted, you fnould have three kettles of different fizes. Fill the largell kettle with lap. To fix gallons of fap put in one heap- ed table fpoonful of flacked lime, which will caufe the fugan to granulate. Boil the fap in the large kettle, taking off the fcum as it rifes, till the quantity is fo dirainiflied that the fecond ket- tle will hold it. Shift it into the fecond kettle, and fill the large kettle with frefli fap. Let both boil till the third or fmalleil ket- tle will hold the fap contained in the fecond kettle. Shitt it in- to that, and the fap in the firft in- to the fecond, and fill the firft '\s'ith frefh fap. Boil the fap m the fmallefl kettle, till it becomes ropy, v.'hich you will know by taking out a little with a flick, and trying it between your thumb and finger. Put it into the cool- er, and keep it flining till the next parcel is done, and niit that into the cooler, and continue the ftirring. When the third parcel is ready, put that alio into the cooler, with the other, and ftir the whole fmarily till it granu- lates. Put it into moulds. Earth- en ones are beff. Wooden ones are made by nailing or pinning four boards together, fo fhaped as to make the mould one inch di- ameter at the bottom, and ten or twelve inches at the top. The length may be two feet, or two and a half. The moulds mull be flopped at the fmall ends. The fugar muft then be put into the moulds. Next morning, the floppers muft be taken out, and the moulds put on troughs to drain their molaffes. In the Evening the loaves muft be pierc- ed at the fmall ends, to make them run their firup freely. This may be done by driving in a wooden pin, fliapcd like a marl- ing fpike, three or four inches up TEA the loaf : After which they muft be left to drain their molafles, which will be done in a fliorter or longer time, accorduig as the fugar has been boiled." Amer- ican Muftum. It is praftifed in England, to plant a large fort of maple on the margins ofplautations againft the fea, as they thrive well in fuch fituations,and ferve to fcreen the plantations of other kinds. Mr. Miller fays, " All forts of maple may be propagated by cut- tings. Aiid that if they be cut from the trees before the buds begin to fwell, and before the ground be fit to receive them, they may be wrapped in mofs, and put in a cool place, where they may be kept amonth or five weeks without injury." The trees may alfo be propagated by lowing the feeds, commonly call- ed keys. TAIL SICKNESS, a diflem- per attended with weaknefs and fluggifhnels, to which horned cattle are liable in the fpring. The end of the tail becomes hol- low and relaxed, but not, as fome have afferted, dellitute of feeling. A cure is ean.ly effected, by the amputation of a fmall piece of the tail, which will be attended with a difcharge of f«me blood. But when the tail is but little af- fe6fed, and near to the end, a flit of one inch, or an inch and a half, in the end of the tail, is pref- erable to amputation. TEAM, the beafls that are ufed together in the draughft The right ordering and man- agement of a team is a matter of no little confequence to the farm- er, not only m ploughing and harrowing, but in carting and fledding. la. TEA In fome counirics, teams con - fiR oiily of horfcs. But in anf country, where roads arc* !' and the ground full of ob'.' this will not anlwcr. A team travels \o much quicker than oxen, that where there are many o' '•- !cs no harncfs will hold ihi. .1 ; and violiMit jerks would i::i;iro and dilcourage, if not ruin t!ie horfes. But in fields that are pcrkctly cleared, plo:; * with lioil^-s may be per ^ith much greater di(| .ui,:i .ir.d advantage. An at;c >:-id a half is but a mod- crate days vorl: for a team ol horfes, whereas an o\ team fcl- dom does m^vc t!ian an acre. And there is a ;iropoMionablc ad- vantage ia tc iniing en a good road with horios. But when it isconfi Icred how mfich more c\pcnlive the fup- port of horles is, than that ol ox- en, and tlut an ox, when pall labouring, is valuable for beef, the general ufe of hoifes in the draught is not to be accounted eligible, in any cauntry. Mr. Marlhall computes that a m^ion Herling annually is loll in Brit- ain, by the ufing of horrcs for draught iuftead of oxen : And that a hundred tlioufand pcrfons :r.:glit be fiipplied with a pound ot animal food per day, without confuming one additional blade ot .-;rafs, if oxen were uled in g.:,,:,I. 1 lie lownefs of oxen is partlv nit.i. il, ,' • 1 partly acquired. I liic ilownefs may be i, care (hould he f .'-icrj TEA 339 -vcr: :ad 1. When y be , r of cm ; and liieir coniract- ')} i.M\ !:ig llowly may .^ . ... :, that old oxen vc always apt tg be Qower than be tl. It: Toimg ones. It is not a:K ir..lile, !ore, to continue to wv or fevcn ; oars old, at \v!iich ago thcj will be better beci thanoldcr cat- tle. Perhaps a team con fi fling part- ly ot oxen and partly of horfes, may be found to be. tipon the whole, of the grcTtell advantage, efpecially among finall f-trmer^ Tor they find it needful to krrp one horfe or more, which \ 'JL be idle moftofthe time, unlofs they work him in the team with the oxen. I'he methods of harnefTmg a team, arc fb well known to farm- ers by their experience, that they would perhaps fcorn to be in- itruc^edin it. But I would recom- mend it to them to take it into con- fideration, whether improvements might not be made %n this arti- cle of rural economy. Particu- larly, whether the hard and heavy wooden yokes with which oxen are worked, fhould not give place to a mode of harnelT- ing iimilar to that ot horfes. Collars, to open and Ihut at the top, with haims and traces, for oxen, arc ufed in England, and have been recommended by fome of its ingenious writers. But if this advice fhould be generally followed in tliis country, the ule of two wheeled carts mull be laid afide, the ' ' yokes being jicccirarih i with them. See the irt:. i TKA^KL.C rSFUL- I.' . or i .:.. ■ s Tinjlle^ J 1 fpecics of tliillle, the li .ich areot ufe toraife tl. o!i woollen cloth. They arc utter to woik on fine than on coarfe cloths. This 15 a pl.ji;t which onglit to be cultivated in this cournry, ia crdcr iv iacilitate and improve 340 T E T ihemanufaflure of woollen. And from feme trials that have been made it appears that it may be done without difficulty. Mr. Aliller fays, " This plant is propagated by fowing the feeds in March, upon a foil that has been well prepared." Any time in April will anfwer in this coun- try. "About one peck of feed will fow an acre ; for the plants fhould have room to grov.% otherwife the heads will not be lo large, nor in fo great quantity. When the plants are come up, they muftbe jioed in the fame manner as is pra6tifed tor turnips, cutting out all the weeds, and fingling out the plants to about eight inches diftance. And as the plants ad- vance, and the weeds begin to grow again, they mufl be hoed a fecond time, cutting out the plants to a ,wider dillance ; for they Ihould be, at laft, left a foot afunder, and iTiould be kept clear from weeds, efpecially the firit fummer : For when the plants have fpread fo as to cover the ground, the weeds will not fo readily grow betweea ihem. The fecond year alter fowing, the plants will fhoot up heads, which will be fit to cut about the begin- ning of Aiigufi: ; at which t;me they fhould be cut, and tied up in bunches, fetting them in the fun, if the weather be iair ; but it not, they mull be fet in rooms to dry them. The common produce is about a hundred and fixty bundles, or ftaves^upon an acre, which they fell tor one fliilling a flave." Thofe who would fee a more particular account of this ufeful plant, may confult the Complete Farmer. TETHER, or TEDDER, a rope with which a horfe is tied in the field. He may be fattened \iy phe neck, or the foot, or head, T H I fhifting his fituation as often aC needful. Where grafs grows in part ofa lot, with a tillage crop growmg on part of it. it is often convenient to feed off the grafs in this wav. THATCH, ftraw laid on the lop ot a building, or ftacks, to keep out the weather. In this country itisufedonly for flacks, fheds and hovels. THILL HORSE, thehinder- moft horfe in a team, which goes between the thills or Ihafts. THISTLE, Cizr^e/z/j, a prick- ly weed found in tillage and paf- ture lands. It indicates a rich foil ; but it is a very trouble- fome weed, as it exhaulls much ot the ttrength of the foil, and eafily propagates itfelf far and wide, by its downy feeds, which are wafted by the wind to con- fiderable diftances. An effectual way to fubdue thiflles is, to pull them up by hand while they are fmall, or be- fore the ufual time of cutting them. It may be eafily done after a confiderabie rain, when the ground is foftby being moift- ened. But the operator muft have his hands well defended by gloves of flout leather. They may be taken out at any time with a Itrong fpade. Or thiflles may be cut up in autumn, about the beginning ot September, and burnt before they have fcattered their feed. A thorough tillage of the land, or a good fummer tallowing, %viM fubdue them. But it fignifies little for one farmer to deftroy the thiftles in his ground, fo long as they are fuffered to flourifli in contigu- ous fields ; becaufe the feeds are wafted in the air from field to field, to a confiderabie dilfance, For this reafon it is, that in France, a man may fuehis neighbour for neglecting to ihutle his ground TA T H R in the proper leal<"n ; or may employ people to do it at hisex- ycnie. N'>t onlv thr ficH«;. but tlx ihrni, ; . >^. or a tiiinpic f.r Cwiivjiic'li. over ihcm will m\or be obiairred. And this is the moft difiicuit part ot the work. THRASHING, beating out corn, Iccds, &c. This is coinmonly done with a flail. But it is greatly fufpctted (hat many feeds arc fo bruifed by t!iis inflrumeni, Uiat they will not vegetate. That which is to be fowed, Ihould theretore be extricated from the heads in fomc better method. Striking the grain by handlulis, againll a beam or port, is recommended. Some forts oi feeds (hould be beat- en out with a llaff, ora Ilcnder rod. Turning a heavy wooden wheel upon grain, by a horfc, migiu be the means ot faving a good deal of labour. This is the common method of getting out the feeds of clover : And it might anfwer equally well for any other kind of finooth and Ihppcry feeds. The wheel holds the chaff in its place and drives t>.e iccds before it. An engine was once made by a gentleman in the Hate ot Xew- l.j::.,^lhire, conljltmg ot a broad fraiiicd wheei, filled wiiii heavy fliers, wiiich, as the wheel turn- ed, fell out forwards upon the grain, with a conliJer^blc forte, 1 her. ' s two kinds ot force ; at o: ..J to the gram, the. I prei' ire ot liie wKcel, ajid the' flrokcN of the fliers. | The ancient practice of tread- ; ing out corn with oxen and j borfes mull ha\e been exceed- i ini;ly intonvt :uent. It is no I won icr that it has tHren longdif- \ Vjled m uioll places. 1 T I K 341 When the work is performed, with a flail or otherwife, tho \^\'ikman flioiilJ cither be bare loofcJ, or lid\ L fott fhoes, or I:: !ian maukafins on his feet, tli.it he nuy not cruth tbe comt by treading on them. Wheat, when It is new, is particularly li- able to be crufhed. Mr. Mortimer thinks it a day's work for a man v.ith a flail to thrafli four bulhels of wheat, or rye ; fix of barley, or five ol oats, beans, or peafe. But Mr. Lifle fays, a good thraflier alFured him, that twelve bulhels ot oats or barley, are reckoned a good day's thralhing, and five or fix bulhels of wheat. But no cer- tain rule can he given, by rea- fon of the difference in grain. Every one knows that large plump grain is ^ more eafily liirafhed, than that which is poor and blighted. This work (hould be perform- ed when the weather is dry, both on, account of the eafe of the la- bourer, and the grain itfelt, whicli will keep the better afterward'^. T!;c beards ot barley come off the more eafily in thralhing, when the fwaths of this cora have taken the dew before it is houfed. It often requires much thraUiing after it is extricated Irom the llraw. It will keep well in a mow uuthralhed, tor a year, or longer. Beans and peafe always thrafh bed after Iwe^ting in the mow, which they arci:pt ta do. Alter kiln drying, or drying in the iun, they will keep a long time in the gr.tnary, though laid ever [o thick. TIKE, a moll difagrecable infect, bred in the woods, and found on lliecp, dogs, cattle, ccc. By drawing nc';rifhTirr.t from animals, the) fvs 'csu^) to a large h^c. . *■ i iLLAGE, 34« T I L TILLAGE,the workorbufinefs oi tilling, or working the ground, irtcluding ploughing, hoeing and harrowing. See thofe articles. The fame field fliould not be kept in tillage perpetually. It anfwers a better purpofe to lay a field fometimes to grafs. No rotation of tillage crops can be fo good, as to have fonie years of grafs taken into the courfe. It makes the variety greater, and it checks the increafe of certain in- fecfs, as well as deflroys fome kinds of weeds. High lands are ufually felefted for tillage. But low and moifl lands, well drained, ridged, and water furrowed, are often more productive ; and there is lefs danger of exhaulliug them, and reducing them to a barren flate. A correfpondent of the editors of the Mufeum Rujiicinn, fays, " The inhabitants of Market Vveighton have five fields, two of a fandy foil, and three of a ftrong clayey foil : The two form- er deftine'dto rye, and the others to wheat. Their fandy lands are difpofed in ridges,lands,or bedsto four fwaths breadth : And finding by experience, that confiderable parts of each land, towards each furrow^ are ftarved by the cold- nefs of the water dripping from the higher parts of the lands, they have for many years alter- ed their former method : And only ploughed the half of each land, viz. the two middle fwaths : So that they have now excellent rye growing on the higher and drier half of e^-ery land, and ex- cellent meadow on the lower and wetter half,Avhich being jufl two fwaths, is mowed with great eafe and exaftnefs. " It will perhaps be thought by fome, that by making narrov/- er lands, they might have more dVy land, and confequemly T I M more corn. But I apprehend that thefe induflrious hufbandmen find by experience, that when they make their lands narrower, and confequently with lefs de- fcent, the water ffagnates in the higher parts, and confequently fpoils their whole crop. Nor could they, I fuppofe, fow more ' corn on their lands, in their pref- ent difpofition, with convenience, as their prefent method allows them jufl one fwath on each fide. " They have rye and meadow in one of their two fandy fields every other year, and a fallow the next ^ear. The faving half of the field in grafs affords good grafs for their flieep, &c. in that year ; and allows them to keep a good flock thereon ; and this flock, in return, manures the ground confiderably, both the fallow and the fwath. One of their fields affords them plenty of fpring corn ; and thus they aie fupplied with wheat, rye, fpring corn, meadow and fum- mer grafs, from their five fields, which in any other management they could fcarcely be." Mufe- um Rujlicum, Vol. VI. page 83. To TILLER, to fpread, or multiply fhoots. Griiin that is fown thin, in a good foil, will produce a confid- erable number of flalks and ears from one root. Winter grain will tiller more than that which is fown in the fpring ; for which reafon fpring grain fhould be fown thicker. TILTH, the flate in which grcund is after tilling. Witen it rs well pulverifed, and made light to a fufficient depth, it is faid to be in good tilth. TIMBER, wood for building, mechanifm, &c. All kinds of limber fhould be felled in the right feafon, when the vefTels of the wogd are mofl deflitute T I M tleiliiutc of fap. In this clininte, December and Jamiary are the t>e(l months tor this purpofe. limber tellcd in other months is more fubjeft to 1^* eaten by worms. i'he relinous woods ure leaft injured by felling in the wrong (eafon ; but it ought generally to be avoided. When ncceility calls for fell- ing trees when the fap is up, ileeping the timber for a contid- cidbje time in water will be proper. Salt water is far better tor this purpofe than Irelh. But when the bark of timber trees is wanted for ulc, the bark may be llripped off from the ;iunks in i\Iay or June, while ♦lie trees are ilanding, and the trees fclie :;c then, that the bark may he l.ivcl tor the advantage of tanning leather. The ancients chiefly regarded the age of the moon in felling their timber. Their rul« was to T O B 84f fell it in the wane, or four day» alter the new moon, or fome- times in the lall quarter. But this is ot little confequencc. For the fap will be down when the weather continues day and night to be trofty, be the moon's place as it may. Timber fhould be cut at the right age. For if the trees be too young, or too old, the limbef will be lefs durable. It is faid that oak trees Ihould not be cut under fixty years old, nor above two hundred. Trees fhould however be cut in their prime, when alniofl fully grown, and before they begin to decay ; and this will be fooncr 01* later ac- cording to the quality of the foil, or the nature of the climate. While timber is feaibning it fhould not be much cxpofed to the weather, or the heat of the fun, that it may not dry too rapidly, and fpring, warp, or crack. Neither fhould pieces be piled too clofe on each other, but kept apart by fhort flicks acrofs, ta prevent mouldinefs and decay, by permitting the air to pafs through the pile. The fame ob- fervations will apply to all kind» tit valuable boards. TIMOTHY GRASS, or bul^ bus cat's tad grafs, Fhlcum pra^ tenfd, a coarfe giafs, but very agreeable to all forts ol cattle. It grows bell on low annd degree ol lat- itude. Iti c«ild ct>untrics, the le.ivesare apt to be very thin, and fo weak that they will Icarce- ly hold t,);;eluer in the curing ; ,111 lit .s 1,11 l.'om being fo well as that which comes ; fouthcrii Uates ; Irum ^v;.t•ncc I wiih it may be always wutJoricd. i:\jt I fuppolc wc T t TOP 345 ought in general to cultivate onlf thofc vegetables, to which our climate is moll hiitable. TOP DRE.SSING, dimg or other manures, fpread over the fur- face ot the ground, for the nour- tlhing ot plants that are growing in it. Thefe manures (liould b« well pulverifed, that they may be fpread evenly. 'lop drefhngs arc ufed with advantage tor grain, grafs, flax. Sec. The timing them jiiditiouflf is a matter of no fniall impor- tince. They (hould not be too freely given to winter grain in auiiunn, left they imfeafonably produce a luxuriant growth, at a time when it expofes the tender plants to be the more injured by troft. The right time to give this culture to grain, is juft at the feafon when it is earing ; for then is the time when it fecmsta require the greateft fupply oE noiuiniment. As to grafs lands, the fpring would be a very proper fealon to give them their top drcfTing, were it not for the injury they would receive from the wheels^ and the feet ot the cattle,in carting it, when the ground is wet and folf. Let it therefore be applieeat alhes and wootl alhcs, foot, fowls' dung, atid all the rich manures, which are to be applied in final I quantities, miy, and ought to be, applied in the fpring. And this may be conveniently done, as thefe ma- nuies may be fowed, or fcatter- ed by hand, from a balket. It the application of top drefT. ings to mowing grounds were generally pratliled in this coun- try, and yearly repeated as it ought to be, inllead of the pref- cni general, or rather, univerfal ■cglc(A' 346 T R A iieglecc of it, it would put a new fece upon things. A valt plenty of hay, double crops, two cuttings in a year, and much uicreafe of wealth t-o farmers, an;! the coun- try in general, would foon appear to be tiie happy confcquences. The materials ufed for top dreffings are numerous, and va- rious. See the article Manure. TRANSPLx'\NTING,remov- ing plants from their feed bed, and fetting them in other places, where they will have better room to perfett their growth. Some vegetables indeed, need to be tranlplanted tv/ice, elpe- cially fome kinds' of trees, nrll from the feed bed into the nurfe- j'y, afterwards from the nuriery •into orchards, groves, iorefls, &c.^ The firft thing in the latter tranlplanting of trees is, to have the ground prepared before the -trees are taken up, that fo they may remain out of the earth as Ihort a time as pofTible ; the next is, to take up the trees. In doing this, carefully dig away the earth round the roots, fo as to come at their feveral parts to cut them off: for if they are torn out ot the ground without care, the roots will be broken and bruifed, to the great injury ot the trees. When you have taken them up, prepare them for planting, by pruning the roots and* heads. All the fuiall fibres are to be cut off, as near to the place from whence they are produced as^may i)e, excepting perhaps when they are to be replanted immediately alter they arc taken up. But it w-ill require great care to plant them in fuch a rnanner as not to diflort, or entangle the fibrous roots, which, if done, will be worfe for the plant than if they .■w«re cut off. Then prune off all T R A the bruifed or broken roots, all- fuch as are irregular, and crofs each other, and all downright roots, cfpecially in fruit trees. Shorten the lateral roots in pro- portion to the age, the ftrength, and nature ot the trees ; obferv- ing that the walnut, mulberry, and fome other tender rooted kinds, Ihould not be pruned fo clofe as the more hardy forts of fruit and forell trees. In young fruit trees, fuch as pears, apples, plums, peaches, &:c. that are one year old from the time of their budding or grafting, the roots may be left only about eight or nine inches long : But in oli;\er trees, they mufl be left of a mi k greater length. But this is only to be uziderltood of the larger roots. "' The next thing is the prun- ing of: their heads, which nuift be differently performed in dif- ferent trees ;. and the defign of the trees muft be confidered : Thus, if they are defjgncd for walls or efpaliers, it is beft to plant them with the greatefl part* of the heads, which Ihould re- main on till they begin to fhoot in the fpring, when they mult be cut down to five or fix eyes, at the fame time taking care not to diflurb the roots. But if the trees are defigned for flandards, you fliould prune offall the fmali branches clofe to the place where they arc produced, as alfo irreg- ular ones, which crofs each oth- er ; and after having difphced thefe branches, you fhould alfo cut of ail fuch parts of branches as liave by any means been brok- en or wounded ; but by no means cut off the main leading (hoots, which are neceffary to attraft the fap frcra the root, and thereby promote tlie growth of the tree, " Having thus prepared the trees for planting, you muft now proceed to place them in the earth ► T R A rarth : Bat firft. if the trees have been long out ot the grourul, (o (hat the fibres of the roots are liried, place them eight or ten hours in water, bchirc they arc planted, with their heads erefci, and the roots only iminerfcd therein, which will fwell thv- dri- ed veljcls of the roots, and pre- pare them to imbibe nourilh- ment from the earth. In plant- ing them, great regard (hould be had to the nature ot the foil ; for it that be cold and moill, the trees ihould be planted vcr}' (hallow ; and if it be a hard rock or gravel, it will be better to raifea hill of earth where each tree is to be planted, than to dig into thcrock or gravel, and fill it up with caith, as is too often praftifed ; by which means the trees are planted, as it were in a tub, and liave but little room to extend their roots. '* The next thing to be ob- fcrved is, to place the trees in the hole, in fuch a manner tiiat the roots may be about tlie fame depth in the ground, as before they were txken up : Then break the earth fine with ^ fpade, and fcatter it into the hole, fo tliat it may tall in between every root, that there may be no hollownefs in the earth. Then having fill- ed up the hole, gently tread down the earth with your feet, but do not make it too hard ; which is a great tault, efpecially if the ground he ftrong and v.-ct. " Having thus planted the trees, they Ihould be faftened to Hakes driven into the ground, to pre- vent their being aifplaced by the wind, and fome mulch laid on the fur face of the ground a- i>out their roots. As to fuch as .ML' ;.' ' 'fl walls, their 1 "V ccd about five or h\ inLii;.^ t; jm the wall, to Vkhicb their heads (hould be n ul- T R E 147 i cd, to prcvcnr their being blown I up by the wind." JJui. of Arti. The fmaller fpecics of vegeta- bles,and particularly annuals, are renjoved Imt once, if at di!. A rajiiy or damp Icalon. if fuch a one happens, (hould bechofcnfor tliis operation, as the plants wiii need the lefs watering by han'i, or iheltering from the heat ot ihe fun. But when it is found necefTary to do it in dry weather, the even- ing (hould always be prelerred to the morning, as the coi)inef« and dampnefs ot the night will do much to prevent the witiicr- ing of the plants. Plants which are only to be carried a few Heps (hould be re- moved with a gardener's trowel, for when a good ball of earth is taken up, and put into the hole with a plant, the roots are but little diiturbed, or altered, and the pbiu not at all aiTecfcdby its removal. liut when the plants arc carri- ed to a ccnfidcrabic diftance, .ind the roots are neccirariiy made { bare of e.u th, make the holes with .1 dil>hle or (fake, and f;!! I tiiem q ure full of water ; dw\ if j it foaks uA. y luiJenly, hll them j again. Piunge the root in, while the waier itandv in the l:o|;-, hold the pbiit with one hand, and fprinkle in dry f: ic mould with the other, till the hole is full. Thus the fioalled roots will be likely to remain in tiictr natural pofitions. AUcr this the plants will need but little watering, or fhelter; often none at all. The di (lances at which diRcjcnt plants arc to be let is to be tound under particulararricles. Sec A'urJuld be changed for camphorated fpirit of wine, to tour ounces ol which may be added one ol fpirit ot fal ammoniac ; or it may he bathed with a mixture ot tw(» otmces of crude fal ammoniac, boiled in a quart of chanjbcr lie, twice a day, and rags dipped in the fame may be rolled on. " l'\)aientations made by boil- ing wormwood, bay leaves, and rofernary, and adding a proper quantity ol fpirits, are olten ot great fervice to thin ti.e juices, and fit them tor tranlpiration ; cfpecially it the injury has afiect- ed the joints, ** But in bruifes, where theex- travafated blood will not by thei'e means be difperfect, tiie Ihurtell way is to open the Ikin, and let out the grumes. " If the fwclling fixes under the jaws, behind the ears, on the poll, withers, or in the groins and flicath, &c. it fhoiiid be en- couraged and torward'td by rip- ening poulttces, whert-ver they Can be applied. Oatmeal boiled I>»ft in iTiilk, to wh'.ch a proper quantity ot oil and lard is added, may anfwcr this purpole, applied twice a day, till the matter is perceived to fluctuate under the iingers, when it ouglit t«» be l-t '>'.K. For which purpn tli?:n. R. \\'cih)n. Efq. recommends :uiig turkeys with walnuts, 1 them whole. See his i '..•''. v'ze 190. ;iP, a white efculent loot. 'I'he forts, according to Mr. "^ r, are tliree ; the tL:. or ; i fliapcd turnip, the long jooifd, aiici thf French turnip. 0[ the firll loit lonie are green ; d. Others red purple lop- , , the yellow ; and the early Dutch turnip, which are not ot f > much value. The laft fort is fo.vn early in the f} ring, to fup- ,>!y the markets in the beginning • >f fiimincr. The green toppetl p is prefine I 10 ihc rell, as >.vi to a larger fizc. •••— ; love a lii^ht fandy or . iil, or a fandy inaiii. It i:i.>ui,i O'^ made foft and fine, but !i.»i ttx> rich, left the turnips be Tiiik and ill tafted. Ground that has been newly !s the lir?:eft and .;■% ; and 0:1 fuch a !;c:c u the lead danger from ts. Xt-xt^-* new land, fwarrli'd gr.">und .N to bechofenfor a crop o; :',:rnips ; and the way to pre- ]-'.:: : it IS t') p!TU;zh it prcfy Aumber of nights. For there is T U R 35i fcarcely any of our fields fuffi- cieniiy rich to produce tuniips^ without matuiring : And folding hitlieito appeal s ro be the belt method of enrjching the ground for this purpofc. li Ihould be weil harrowed a^ i.fitii as once a week, while the • .rontin- ued, to mix thee; ::sof the cattle with tiie foil. The ground ihould be crofs ploughed as foon as the foil is lufficiently rotten, and reduced by harrowing to a fine tilth, be- fore it is fowed. Where a good flock is kept, as much as an acre may be tulhcienily folded. See Folding. The time for fowing the feed is about the middle of July. Do- ing it on a let day is ridiculous : Yox a time fhould be chofen when the ground has the right degree of moiflure to mnke thi- feed veg- etate ; and if this fhould happen a week cirlier, or a fortnight lat- er than the ufual time, it need noc be regreted ; but the opportuni- ty ought to be embraced. I have fown thcni in drills the firft week in Augull, and had a gt>od crop. One great advan- tage ot fowing fo lale is, that the turnips will efcapc infects. And if the crop (hou)d not happen to be quite fo large as if the fowing had been earlier, tfie rooLs will not fail of being better for the table. One pound of fed is the com- mon allowance for an acre of land. But to -^ . ' mil the fly, the quant i;\ .1 little increafed. An I it is recom- mended by iudiciouswriters, that, it be a mixture of equal parts of new and old feeH. tl-at the plants coming up :it times, the one fort or may ch.incc to efcape t ' his view, Mr. ;:is turnip drill to lodge ibc ie^ fe who have made no fpiriled trials, will hardly conceive how much the hoeings will increafe their crops, liven without hoeing, where the weeds are fufFered al- mofl: to fliflethem, a crop of tur- nips fometimes turns out to be profitable : How much more profitable may it be expected, if they had fuKicient room, and were not robbed of their nourifli- ment by ftanding too near to- gether ? In England, tbe drill hufband- ry has been applied to turnips, and the produce has exceeded thofe fown broad caft, which have been hand hoed. The late Lord Vifcount Townfend made a fair trial, and found that tbe crop of an acre of drilled turnips weighed a ton and a half mere than that of an acre in the old hufl^andry, though the latter were well hand hoed. For two years paft, I have fown turnips in the drill way, in the pooreft part ot my garden, where a crop ot peafe had grown the fame funimer, and never had better turnips. They were fufficiently large for the fable, thoiigh they grew fo near together in the rows that the roots crowded each oth- er, arid were not fown earlier than about the tenth o: Auguft. The earth was hoed fc.o ridges three feet apart, ana a fingle channel feeded on each of the ridges. This is the more ob- fervable, as I have often fown turnips in the broad caft way, on th* T U R the fame fpot.Snd at the iifual time ot fo\vin;j tall turnips, and never before raifcd any iliat were tit to eat. I have al( -tor rcvcral years fjifcil turnips :•! tlic field in the drill way. 1 he ridges \fcie raifed in Miy with the cultiva- tor, about ;Iirce lect apart. They weje kept clear from weeds (ill al>out the IjII of Jidy, by the cultivator and the hand hoc, and then fown in fingle drills. Noth- ing more was necelfary after- wards, except thinning and once hoeing. 1 he cr.ips were fo much l»etter than I have obtain- ed from broad caft fowing, tlwt I am induced to pcrfjfl in, and rec- ommend this method. A crop of turnips in the old hulbandry prepares the ground excellently lor a crop of wheat, or flax, the ioUowinj; year. But it would he in much better or- dcr,i{ t!ie turnips were horfe hoed. In other countries, they Iced the turnips off of the ground with fhecp ; or draw them up ft»r neat c.iltle, through the winter, as fall as thev are want- ed ; and c\en let them Hand until fpring. when it is conve- nient. But in this country, they mufl be harveftcd in autumn, about the end of Oftober, or even ear- litT in fome places ; and then flored in cellars, out t»f the way of the fro (I ; which muR needs be a drawback, on the profit ol this crop. Thofe that are defigned for the tabic in winter, (houid be bu- ried in, or covered with, dry pit fan 1, to prevent iljcir becoming corky. Ific mofl cxrcllent mutton is fatied on turnips, and they are a Bcuxi t.M)d tor horned cattle. But milch cows ihould not be led very plentifully on turnips, as there IS fomc danger of their giving thf tnilk an ill taftc. U « T U R 553 I To produce good turnip feeds, ^ fome of the be ft roots, of the middling fi/e, which have begun to fprout, fhould be planted early in tlie Ipring.in a good fpot, free from fhade. Thi-y Ihould be ia rows, eighteen inches afuudcr, and the ground mull be kept clear of weeds till the feed is ripe. Stakes and laths may be needful round the outfide, to keep the branches from falling to the ground beforethe feed is fully ripe. Theright culture of the French turnip is much the fauie as the above, excepting that they Ihould be allowed more room, and that the ground Ihould be tilled to a greater depth than is necelTary for the other fort, and fowed at the end of Jime. 1 he common praffice of tranf- plantuig them is not good, i'hey get dinted in their growth, of which the infetfs take the ad- vantage, as they are wont to da ot other vegeufiles, in the fame languid ftaie. But wliilc a plane grows rapidly it is feldom annoy- ed by infects, or much hurt hy them. They fhould not be fown in the fpring ; for this will makt; them hard and flicky ; nor more than about a month earlier thar* other fall turnips. I have knowr* it anlwer well to fow both kinds mixed together, where the foil has been mellow and deep. But I rather prefer lowing each kind by itfelf; becaufe the one re- quires to be earlier fowed than the other. As there arc foiic other in- fects winch prey upon turnips, bcfides the fly, while they are feed leaf or afterwards, it ha* led fomc to fct plants of tobacco, perhaps fix or eight feet apart, among their turnips, which is thought t J bavc an excellent cf- fca TURNIP 3'54 T U R TURNIP CABBAGE, " a fpecies oi cabbage, fo called, be- caufe the ftalk, at fome di fiance from the ground, after rifing of the ufuai thicknefs, and in the manner of thofe of other cab- bages, enlarges fuddenly to fuch 3 degree, that it forms a knob of a very large turnip, ot which likevvife it has fometimes the figure, though it is in general more oblong. " By this peculiar formation of the ftalk, or produftion of the turnip like knob, together with its being perennial, this fpecies of cabbage is diilinguifhed irom all others. From the top of this tur- nip rife a number of leaves, of a greenilh red, or fometimes greenifli purple colour ; which anfwer to the radical leaves in other plants. They do not, though this plant is truly of the cabbage kind,. ever clafe togeth- er, and form a compact globular, or oblong mafs, as in the com- mon fpecies ; but keep their e- re£l grov/th, or turn outwards. " From among thefe leaves fpring a number of other ftalks, of which thofe that are nearer the exrremity, branch, and fend out flower ftalks, fpreading hori- zontally ; and thofe that are more in the centre grow ereft, and without branches. On thefe ftalks are leaves, fpringing out alternately, and of the fame col- our with the others. The flow- ers are fmall and yellow, and fucceeded by long cods, full of feed, Oi the fizeofthatofmuftard, and a lighter brown colour." Complete Farmer. It grows v/ild near Dover, in England ; but it is doubted ■whether it be indigenous. When it is cultivated in gardens, it is rather as a curious than as an ef- culcnt plant : Yet it is eatable, and is recommended by Mr. W. T U R Baker, for the ufe of fieamen : And he thinks it of importance as winter food for cattle. I have not yet known trials enough of it in this country, to be able to af- certain its value. But its bidding defiance to all inclemencies of weather, after it is once firmly rooted, is a circumftance that ought to incline us to make trial of it "The turnip cabbage," fays a- Mr. North, " is one of the hardi- e ft roots that grow ; and I dare affirm, might be propagated to great advantage, for feeding Iheep, &c. For in the moft fe- vere winter that I can remem- ber, when cabbages, turnips, &c, have all been demolifhed by the extremity of the weather, the turnip cabbages have not been hurt. They are a very folid and juicy root, and do not grow fpongy when they are old, as turnips do. The tops may be cut off, and given to fheep in the fpring, and the root laid by in an out houfe, to feed them in April and May, when no other roots can be had. Sheep are fo fond of thefe roots, that they will leave the beft turnips for them. They will eat them tops andbottomsas they are growing in the fields." Mr. North is not very accurate, in calling the turnip part of this cabbage a root, as it is only an enlargement of the upper part of the ftem, and feveral inches above the ground. In the Bath Society Papers is the following account of Sir Thomas Reevor's method of cul- tivating this root. " In the firft or fecond week of June, I fow the fame quantity of feed, hoe the plants at the fame fize, leave them at the fame diftances from each other, and treat them in all refpefts like the common turnip. In thi« method I have always ob- tain eil- T U R tained a plentiful crop of thfm. Onthe23dofAprilla(l,liavinj:»two acres left ot my crop, I divicicd them by huriUfs into three equal pans. Into the Hrft part I put twen- ty four fmall bullocks and thirty middle fi^cd wethers, which, at the end ot the firft week — 1 ftiifted into the fecond divifion, and then put fcvcnty lean Iheej) into what was hit of the firft : Thcfe fed ofl the remainder of the turnips left by the fat ftock : And fo they were Ihilted through the three divifious, the lean flock following the iat, till the whole was conlumed. The twenty four bullocks and the thirty fat wethers were fed four weeks, end the fcvciny lean flieep as long. So that the two acres kept twenty lour bullocks and one hundred Iheep four weeks. The value, at the rate of keeping at that feafon, cannot be Icfs than ^d. a week for each fheep, and is. 6d. a week for each bullock, which amount together to £ 14 10 8, for the two acres. Thus you fee that in pro- viding a moll incomparable food for cattle, in that feafon of the year in which the krmer is rnoft (liftrclfed, and his cattle almoft ftarved, a conliderable profit may be likewife obtained. " The lan incrcafc by addition ^nd cxte'ifi'm, thrrc fcerns to be a j;rrr. aMj!'>»Ty be- tween the anim^i and vc;''--tal'le Xingiams. 1 he imprrgnaced ovum of every animal, attcr it has pafTed down the fallopian tube, and fixed itfelf to the bot- tom of the uterus, is toand to contai:- ' two m. amnion. i:j t::is lituaiio:! :r.c em- bryo could not long fabfill, with- oata fupply of nijurHhrneiit. Na- ture has therefore beftowed upon it a placenta and umbilical chord, through which the hhxxi and juices of its mother are tranfmit- ted, lor its prcfervaiion and ia- creafr. *• Seeds are difpofed by Prov- idence, nearly in the fame man- ner. Tl:ey have two coverings, anfwenng to the chorion atid amnion, and two lobes which perform the office of the placen- ta. Thefe lobes conftiaue the body of the feed, and in tlic far- inaceous kind^ they are the flour ofthegrain. innumerable fmall velTels run throjgh thef.ibflance oi the lobes, whicli, ui;iting as they approach the feminal plant, form a (mall chord to be infert- ed into the body ol the gryo plant. *■ In order that I m-iy be clear- ly unrtcrllood, it will be nccella- ry to obfcrvc, that thtr i"bes ot faiinaceous graiTu aie hxrd in the earth. They are tln-relore not properly termed frminal ]eavc>. b<-ing rather the placcn'a, or cotyIcdv)!»s of ibe plant. On the contrary, vegetables, tiiat hjve an oily feed, as rape, hemp, Wnr, and turnip carry fhrir lubes upward, anrl Ipread tho;n upou the fuxface, in the torm V E R 357 of broad leaver. Thefe, though they perform the ohiceof a pla- centa, arc properly ft-rruipl leaves, SiC." Ciorr^uai Ejjuys, V'^VTILATOR, a machine by wnich the noxious air oiany clofe place, as an '. iaii, Uiip. chamber, gr.; . :nay rd for trclli a:r. , crnicious efft tts of bad au ti.-.vf'ieen long known, though not fufficientjy attended t<\ or guarded againlt. But (in very ingenious and indciat: Dr. Hales has fei the evils cnl- ir'g from this ]>ell in a true liijhf, and the antidote he has pro^^dl-ri in his ventilators has been ii;ade known, it is hi>ped liiat mankind will foattendtotheir own -.velfare, as to make ufe of io valuable a difcovery. Ventilating has been applied by M. Duhainel, to grain in gran- aries, and was found to have ex- cellent effects. See the Complete Farn:er,2iTUc\<. I'fntiUior. An ealier method, and which may anfwer very well lor venti- lating grain in facks or cafK^s, is as follows : Prepare a tube of fuf?icient Ifngtii.of wood, tin.cr any luldlonce : Let the lower end be Hopped, and a good num- ber ot fmall holes, fniallcr than the grains, be made near to the lower end : Thriift it into the grain, io as to touch the bcitom of the calk : Infert the ncfe of a boafehtdd bellows into the other end of the tube, with foinethir-;^ wiappcd r'ji;nd it, to h!l i: cavity, that no air njay e; In a few minutes a fufhcient quantity uf pure air may be ilirown in to c<".'l the grain, and allay any termentation that i^ be- gun in it. VtRJL'ICE,aliquorexpre{r. M from cr.iblH-d, unripe grapes, or apple), ivo ucid lor viinc or cy- der. S5« V I N der. It is generally made In £ngland from the juice of the crab, or 'A'ilrl apple. VERMIN^E, -a general name applied to all kinds of noxious or troublefome animals. \'ETCH, Tzaa, a plant which is otherwife called tare^ fitch, Jetch, and tlietch, much cultix'at- ed in England, and of ^s■hich there are fe^'eral fpecies ; viz. the white, the black, the Siberian vetch, and die fmall black fum- mer vetch. Vetches are a kind of pulfe, ■w'wh a round ifh feed, contained in pods like peafe, but fmalier ; and they are cultivated in the fame manner as peafe. They are confidered as an im- proving crop, and will grow in all kinds of foil. They are com- monly {own in autumn ; but fometimes in the fpring. The ufes to which they are moft commonly put, are, either for green fodder for cattle, early in the fpring, before any grafs is grown ; or to make into hay ; or to plough them into the foil, as a green drelTmg, to prepare land for a crop ot wheat. A fmall black vetch is found among the weeds, in fome of our tillage lands, which proba- bly may have been imported from Europe among wheat. And there is one kind of vetch that grows wild, on fome of the un- cultivated iflands in Cafco Bay. Vetches are one of the crops, of which I fuppofe trials ought to be made in this country. They are faid to produce two crops a ^"ear in warm climates. VINE, viiis, an important plant of the creeping kind, fa- mous for its fruit, the grape, and the generous liquor it affords for the ufe of mankind. There is net the leaft reafon to doubt of lie practicability of cultivating V I N the vine to advantage in the North American ftates. Some kinds or other may agree very well with each latitude. The Newengland Hates are not to be excepted ; For this plant is cul- tivated on a large fcale, in moft parts of the great Republic of France, and is fo fruitful, in all parts, up to the 47th degree of latitude, that wine is a lucrative article of exportation, as well as in common ufe amongeven the low- eflof its inhabitants ; the latitude of which country is much the fame as that of the Newengland liatts. The raoftfoutherly part is in the latitude of Bofton. And even in England and Germany, high- er latitudes, which are not fa- voured with fo much of the ge- nial warmth of the fun, the gar- deners find that vines are capa- ble of being cultivated with fuch fuccefs, as to produce large quantities of grapes, ripened to fuch a degree, as to afford a good vinous juice. In the neighbourhood ol Bof- ton, in Newengland, vines are feen fpringing up fpentaneoufly, in fome fituations, in great plenty ; and many of them are loaded with fruit. And fome vines are found in the forty fourth degree of lat- itude. Who can doubt whether the appearance of thefe indige- nous vines indicate, that nature has defigned fuch a country tor vineyards ? I have known a ver>' good and pleafant wine made of the juice of our wild purple grapes. But we need not be confined to thofc which are the natural growth of the countrv', for it is well known that feveral kinds of foreign grapes have been raifed plenti- fully here in gardens, without a- ny extraordinary culture. Thofe who would cultivate vines in gardens, fhouJd procure ihofe V r N thbfe forts which have been found lo profpcr well in cold countries : Pdrticularly thofe winch ripen their fruit well in Great Britain, Gerniany, or the northerly parts i>t France, The white fweet water, the ChafTclas blanc, the white mufcadine, and other white grapes, may be bcil to cultivate in gardens, as they are in general more palatable for eating. My account of the culture o[ vines, fhall be an abridtjment ot what Mr. Miller has written on tins fubje^t, in his Gardiner's Did 10 nary. " All forts ol prapes are prop- agated either from layers or cut- tings : The latter is preferred ; becaufe the roots, being flender, are apt to get dried, and die by tranfplar.ting. " M-ike choice of fuch fhoots as arc ilronp. and of the laft year's growth. Cut them from the old vine, jufl below where they were produced, taking a knob, or piece of the two years wood, to each, which Ihould be pruned finooth. Then cut off the upper part of the (hoots, fo as to leave the cut- ting about fixteen inches long. When the piece ot old wood is cut at both ends, near the young fhoot. the cuttings will refemble a little mallet. In making the cuttings after this manner, there can be but one taken trom each Ihooi ; whereas moil perfons cut them into lengths of about a foot, and plant them all, which is very wrong ; tor they will not be fo fruitful. " Cuttings, thus prepared, if not then planted, Oiould be placed with their lower part in the grouHil, in a dry foil, with lit- ter over their upper pans to pre- vent their drying. They may thus remain till the beginning of Apnl /^May inthi« country] then V r N 359 take theiT) out, and wa(h them from the filth they have contracted, and if you find them very dry, let them fland with the lower parts in water fix or eight hours, which will diftend their veflcls, and dif- pofc them to take root. " 1 hen, the ground being pre- pared, the cuttings Ihould be planted. Open the holes about fix feet dillancefrom each other, putting one good ftrong cutting into each hole, which Ihould be laid a little doping, that their top* may incline to the wall : It muft be put in fo deep, that the upper- moft eye may be level with the furhce of the ground. " Having placed the cutting in the ground, fill up the hole gen- tly, prcfTing down the earth with your foot clofe about it, and raife a little hill jud upon the top of the cutting, to cover the upper eye quite over, which will prevent its drying. Nothing more is necefTary, but to keep the ground clear from weeds till the cuttings begin to Ihoot; at which time look o^er them care- fidly, to rub off any fmall Ihoots, it fuch arc produced. You muft continue to look over them once in three weeks during the fum- mcr fcafon, and rub off all lateral fhoots that are produced, and keep theground clear from weeds. '* The Michaelmas following, if your cuttings have produced flrong Ihoots, prune them down to two eyes. Being cut thu* early in autumn, the wounds will heal before the bad weather comes on, and the roots will be flrengthened. *' In the foMowing fpring, gen- tly dig the borders, to loofen the earth, but be careful not to injure the roots of your vines. Alfo raife the earth up to the flems of the plants, fo as to cover the old wood, but not fo deep as to cov- er 360 V I N er either of the eye? of the laft year's wood. After this they will require no turther care tiil they begin to fhoot, when you fhould look them over carefully, to rub ofF all weak dangling fhcots, leaving no moie than the two fhoots which are produced from the two eyes of the laft year's wood, which fhould be faftened to the wall. And till the vines have done fliooting, look them over in three or four ■weeks, torubofFall lateral fhoots as they are produced, and to fall- en the main Ihoots to the wall as they are extended in length, ■which mufl be Ihortened betore the middle or end of July, when it will he proper to nip off their tops, which will {Irengthen the lower eyes. And during the fummer keep the ground clear from weeds ; and permit no plant to gro\7 near the vines, which would not only rob them of their nourifliment, but fhade tiie lower parts ot their rnoots,and prevent their ripening : Which will not only caufe their wood to be fpongy and luxuriant, but render itlefs fruitful. " As foon as the leaves begin to drop in autumn, prune thefe young vines again, leaving three buds to each ot the fhoots, pro- vided they are Itrong : Other- wife (horten ihem down to two eyes : for it is a very wrong prac- tice to leave much wood upon young vines, or to leave their fhoots too long, as it weakens their roots. Then you Hiould fallen them to the wall, fpreading them tmt horizontally each way, that there may be room to train the new Ihoots the following fum- mer. And in the fpring the bor- ders muft be digged as before. " The- thiid leafon, you muft go over the vines again, as foon as they being tg fhgot, to rub off V 1 N all danglers as before, and tiarrt the flrong fhoots in their proper places, which njay be fuppofed to be two from each Ihoot of laft year's wood. But if they attempt to produce two (hoots from each eye, the weakelt of them muft be rubbed off. If any of them produce fruit, asm^any times they will the third year, you fhould not flop them fo foon as is gen- erally praclifed upon the bearing Ihoots ol old vines ; but permit them to (hoot forv/ard till a month after inidfummer, at which time you Hiay pinch off the tops ot the fhoots : For if this were done too foon, it would fpoil-the buds for the next year's wood, which in young vines muft be more carefully preferved than on older plants. " During the fummer, you muft conftantly go over your vines, and difplace all weak lat- eral Ihoots as they are produced, and carefully keep the ground clear from weeds, that the Ihoots may ripen well." Alter three years, the vrnes are conhdered as grown up ; and concerning the management of grown up vines, the fame writer lays ; " Vines rarely produce any bearing fhoots from wood that is more than one year old ; therefore groat care Ihould be taken to have fuch wood in every part ot the trees ; for the fruit is always produced upon tfve fhoots of the fnnie year, which come out of the buds of the Idlt year's wood. " The heft method is to ffiorten the bearing Oioots to about four eyes in length, bccaufe the lower- moit feldom is good, and three buds are lufficient ; for each ot theie will produce alhoot, which gen- erally has two or three bunches of grapes : So that from each of thofe Ihoots may be espefted fix or V I N •r eight bunches, which «re a fufhcient Quantity. Thefe flioots mail be laid about ciglitcen inches afunder, for if they are clofer, when the fide Ihoots are produc- ed, there wil! not be roi>m enough to train them againd the wall. " At the winter pruning of your vines, you (hould always obferve to make the cut juft a- bovc* the eye. Hoping it backward from it, that if it Ihould blee, as alfo when two Ihoots arc produced from the fame bud, the weikell of them (hould be dif- p!.ired, which will caufe the otiiers to be flrongcr ; and the foo-icr thi$ is done the better for V I N 361 \ I'll Uh. go over I • all the, • ; at the { jame tmu- tailcn up all the ftrong j branches, that they may not hang ; from the \vall. Towards the middle of June, (lop the bearing 1 branches, which will llrcngth( n i \V w the fruit, provided you leave three eyes abin-e the bunches : For if you (lop them too foon ic will injure the fruit, by taking a- way that part of the branch which is nccelfary to attract the nourilh- ment to the fruit, as alfo to per- fpirenfFthe crudities ot the (ap. " But though I recommend the (lopping thofe (hoots which ha^e fruit at this fca(on, it is not to be pratnfcd upon thofe (hootg which are intended for bearing the next year ; for thefe rr.ull not be (lopped before the middle of July, K.il you caufe the eyes to (hoot out (Irong lateral branches. " During fummer rub off dang- ling branches, and train the (hoots to the wall as before, which will accelerate the growth of the fruit, and admit the air to them, which is needf uT to ripen, and give thcni a rich flavour. But you muft never dived the branches of their leaves." The fame dire£lions fhould be followed, when the vines are trained to efpallers, or to wooden fences ; and the pruning, (lop- ing, &c. in vineyards, are the fame as in gardens, or green houfes. The vines in vineyards inu(t be fupported by flakes ; by two fhort ones tiie firflyear, by long- er ones the next, and fo on as there Ihall be sccafion. But as to thofe things which are mod pec;>liar to vineyards, the above author directs that tfie (oil whicU is to be chofcii tor the purpofc, is that the fur face of which is a li^ht fandv loam, not more than a toot and a half or two feet deep, with a gravelly or chalky hoiiotn ; but it the foil have a bottom of firong clay or loam, it is not fit for this purpofe. Astd tire fituation of the place, it Ihould incline to the fouth, with a gradual dcfcent, that the water may drain ciT; but a ftecp (lope U 302. V I X is not good, as it will not fo well hold the manure. To prepare the foil for plant- ing, he fays, " In the Tpring, it the ground is green fu-ard, it fhould be plou-ghed as deep as the furface will permit ; then \vell harrowed to break the clods, and cleanfe it irom the roots oi noxious weeds. Atter thi^, it mufl: be frequently ploughed and harrowed for one year, to render the furface light. The following ipring the ground fhould be ploughed again, and after making the furface even, the rows Ihould be marked out from foutheafl to jiorthweft, at the di fiance of ten feet from each other ; and thefe rows fhould be croffcd a- gain at five or fix- feet diHance, which will mark out the places where the plants fhould be plac- ed." But as we are favoured with a drier atmofphere, I fiiould think the rows may as well he planted nearer together, as it will be a faving of ground and la- bour. He adds, " The proper kinds of grapes fhould be chofen. The \'ignerons abroad always obferve that the grapes v.'hich are good fxjr eating never make good wine ; and therefore make choice of thofe, whofe juice, after fer- menting, affords a noble rich liquor. Thefe grapes are always auffere, and not fo palatable." He fuppofes the fort moft proper for vineyards in England, is the Auvernat, or true Burgundy grape ; and thinks it belt that a vineyard fhould produce only one kind oi grapes ; becaafethe mixing or the juice of feveral to- gether, will caufe the wine to ferment at different times. ' Aher the cuttings are planted, be recommends keeping them clean from v,eeds ; and as the rowsarje at a.great distance from \' I A' each other, he allows thafthfc?- fpaces between may be fown, or planted with any kinds of efcu- lent roots, which do not grovr- tall, provided there is proper dif- tance left from the vines, and' care taken that the vines be not? injured by the crops, or in gath- ering, or carrying them off the ground. And this hufbandry may be continued till the vines come to bearing ; atter which there fhould be no fort of crop put between them, becaufe the cleanei- the ground is kept, the more heat will be reflected to the grapes. "The ground fhould be yearly well dug or ploughed, and always kept free from weeds ; becaufe the roots of the vines will other- wife be robbed of their nourifh- ment. " When a vineyard is arrived to a bearing flate, it fhould be fo pruned, that there fhould be nev- er too many branches left on a root, nor chofe too long; for though there may be a greater quantity of fruit produced, yet the juice will not be fo good as when there is a moderate quanti- ty ; and the roots will be weak- ened, which is found to be of bad confequcnce. The number ok branches which the Italians leave upon a flrong vine are four ; two ot the flrongefl have four eyes ; and the two weaker are fhortened down to two eyes each. Shoots that have borne fruit, are either cut quite away, or reduced to two eyes. " The ground of a vineyard fhould not only be conltantly well tilled, but a dreffing of fome good manure applied to it every third year, in the fpring, and well mixed with the foil. " When a vineyard is care- fully drcffed, it will be as pleaf- ing a fight, as any plantation- \' I X of tree? or fhrubs nluicver. If the roA's be regular, and the ilakescxartly placed, and ihe up- fjgljt ihoots flopped to an equal height, there is nothing in nature wiiich will make a more beauti- ful aj>pearance. And during the feafoii tijat thevinesare in flower th«'v emit a moil, grjtctul fccnt, cfpcialiy in tlie morning and evening. And when the grapes btgin to nipcn there will be trelh plcjfure in viewing them." A vineyard thai is well manag- ed will bear fruit the third year tro:Ti ihe planiing ; the crops will be growing larger till the feventh or eighth year ; and re- main fnutfiil lill about the titticth year ; alter which it will begin to decline, and die away. But inftead of the cutting cul- ture of the vine fome have re- commended that a plantation of trees ot low growth be made, .placed at proper diftances, wiilia vine planted at the root of each, which will climb up the trees, and bear fruit without cutting. The ground between the rows fhould be contmuaily well tilled and manured. Much labour might be faved by this mode «>! culture ; and that It might anfwer, tlie fruitlul- nefs wc often obfervc in wild f rapes may lead us to conclude, t fecms to be tollowing nature; but the truit miiR be waited tor, a conlidcrahlc number ol years after pi *n:in;;. And after all, it never wjll yield fo good a wine, as vines itui are Lept 1 )w by cut- ting ; tor the low vineyards in. Ijancc a{T4>rdamuch nclierwine than the high o-ies. thougti Icls in quaiuitx . Mcrarcbiit three or fi>u; ,. •■ the latter [even or ei^lit, and both culti- vated bv ( uciii-^. VlN*KG.\i<. lour wine. B.ii !;e nir> ■A la JMV V I N 363 acid penetrating liquor, prepared trom wine, cyder, beer, ike. Theprocelsot turning vegeta- ble matters to vinegar, is thus de- livered by Dr. Shaw : ** Take the fl;ins ol railins, after they have been iifed in making wine ; and pour three or four times their own <]uanfiiy of boiling water upon them, fo as to make a thia aqueous nii.\iurc. Then fet the containing caOc, loofely covered, in a warmer place than is ufcd tor vinous fermentation ; and the liquor, in a tew weeks time, will become a clear and found \nnc- gar ; which being drawn ofTfrom its fediment, and preferved in an- other cafl;, well flopped down, will continue pcrfett, and fit for ufe." All fuch things as have under- gone, or are fit for, a vinous ter- menution, will afford vinegar. Our common lummer truits, fap of maple trees, and other vegeta- bles, and even the pomace from which cyder has been prefTed, will make vinegar, by means ot only the ;»ddiLion at water, and expofing it to the open air, and warmth. But fome fpirit IhouKl be added towcak vinegar, to give it a body, and fit it for keeping. ** Liquor to be changed into vinegar, being kept warmer than in vinous {crmeniaiion, it bcgin.lution ot lapis inedicanientolus in lime water, with a fifth pjrt of honey and tiiKture of myrrh, may be firil tried, injectmg three or tour ounces twice a day, or fome rofm melted down with oil ot tur- pentine may be uled tor this purpufe. It thcfc thould not fucceed, the following, which is ot a Iharp and caullick nature, is recommended on Mr. Giblon's experience. lake of Roman vitriol half an ounce, dillolve a pint of wa- ter, then decant and pour off gently into a lirgc er hall ol the wall fhould be laid in good lime mor- tar. This will render banking to keep out troll unnecellary. And banking Ihould be avoided, as it caules the fills of houfes to decay. It requires yearly atten- tion and labour, and gives to a houfe an ill appearance. When brick walls are to be built for houfes, Sec, particular care Ihould be taken in laying the bricks. In lummer they Ihould be laid as wet, and in win- ter as dry aspolTible.toniakethem bind the better with the mortar. In fiimmer, they Ihould be cov- ered up as fall as they are laid, to prevent the wall from drying too fafl. In winter, they Ihould be well covered to protefl them from fiiow, rain, and Iroll, which are all hurtful to the cement. But in the coldell part of w inter malon work can hardly be per- formed at all in this country. Walls laid in this fcafon are not cxpeflcd to be durable. WANE, decreafe, it common- ly fignities the third and fourth quarters of the moon. WAKBLKS. fmall hard tu- mours on the faddlc part of a horfc's back, occalioncd by the h'-at t>f the fadtlle in travel- ling. They arc ulually called A hot greafy dilh clout fre- quently applied will fometiines cure them. When this tails, raniphorated fpirit of wine will kc fuund jnorc ed'cdual ; efpc- W A T 357 cially if a little of the fpirit o€ fal ammoniac be added. WATER, a fimple, tranfpa-^ rent fluid, which becomes folicf with a ceitain degree of cold. A general divifion of this fluid is into fall and freth. But accord- ing to Dr. Shaw, it fecms divili- ble intoasinany ditTcrcnt fpecics, as the earth is into flrata or beds. Thus there are mineral waters, of: various kinds, according to the niineral fubflances through which they pafs, and by which they arc by any means impregnated. Wa- ter may therefore be as compound- eda body as earth ; and perhaps neither of them can any where be found pcrfc^liy pure or unmixed. Water is of infinite ule in all the works both of nature and art ; as without it there could be no generation, nutrition, or growtli in any animal, vegetable, or min- eral bodies. The blood could not flow in the veins, the fap in the veflels of vegetables, nor the parti- cles of minerals concrete or grow together, without water. Neither could there be any corruption, fer- mentation,or diirolution perform- ed without it. But I mull not at- tempt to fpcak of all its ufes, being, limited by my general fubjecl. Thole however have grofsljr miftaken the matter, who have fuppofed water to be the fole food by which vegetables arc nourilhed ; tliougU it mull be allowed to be ablolutely ncccfla- ry to their nourilhment and growth. It is an important a- gent in mi\iag and dillolving the other ingicdien's ot the food of plants ; gives them the ferment- ation that is nccelfary, and is are elFential part of the nutritive fleam that enters the roots and other parts of vegetables. And the purelf water contains in it- felf many earthy particles, asap- pcar-by llic ciuits that adhcra tOk. 368 \V A T to thCjiniides of velTels in which water is often boiled. Nor is water wholly deftitute of fcilts and oils. It is no won- der, therefore, that a .plant will live, and grow for fome time, with its roots thrufl into a vefTel of water. For e^-en in this (ituation, it partakes of every necefiary in- gredient of its natural food, though not in the right proportions. Water not only ferves thus as a vehicle to the food of plants, but carries with it where it runs inflreams many particles ot veg- etable mould, &.C. which enrich the foil. After heavy rains, it is found tha^t water depofits a fer- tilizing fediment, which changes the furiace of the foil to a dark colour. Watering the ground alfo pro- motes the putrefaction of every fubffance, whether animal or veg- etable, contained in the fuil, or lying on the furface. Where a good head of v.-ater can be made without too great an expenfe ; or where a brook, or part of a river, can be fo diverted from its courfe, as to be made to ipreai its waters over the neigh- bouring grafs grounds, it Ihould be attended to, as a matter of no fmall importance. But the wa- ter fhould be perfectly under command ; otherwife it may prove rather hurtful than bene- jicisl. Too much of it w^ould be as great an evil as too little. Particular care fhould be taken that the water which is led over grafs grounds, be only fuch as is fit to nouriHi plants, which cha- lybeate waters, or fprings impreg- nated with a mineral acid, cer- tainly are not. Such water is rather poifonous to plants, and prevents their growth. The quantity of v;atpr thrown over the land fhould be rightly proportioned ; a light fandy foil \V A t will bear more, a flifFfoil a lefg quantity, without overcharging the veil'els of the plants, or cool- ing them too much. The channels fhould be (o made that the water may be com- municated to every part, except- ing where there are little hollows which are naturally wet. The main chaniiel Ihould be broad, and its defcent but juft enough to caufe the water to run ; and from the main channel, a great number of very narrow ones (hould be cut, that the water may- be well fpread through every part of the furface. Watering the ground in this manner fhould be avoided when the air is extremely hot ; becaufe heat draws the water too haftily into the plants, which renders them weak. The night time fhould be preferred to the day tor letting out the water, or a day that is cool and cloudy may be chofen, rather than one that is hot aird dry. No water fhould be admitted in the fpring, till after the ground which has been hoven by the frcfi is well fettled. But after- wards, and in a dry fpring, wa- tering may be plentifully ufed, til! the grafs begins to fpring up. Alter the fhooting of the grafs, the water Ihould be adrainiffered more Iparingly, or not at all if the weather proves rainy. And when the grafs comes to be tall, no water fhould be applied, but in cafe of neceflity, as when a drought prevails, which would otherwife Ihorten the crop ; for ii it were applied at this time in a large quantity, the grafs would be lodged ; or if the water be not clean, it will foul the grafs, and give the hay an ill tafle. After the Iccond crop of hay is taken off, water may be thrown over the ground in plenty ; for the- W A T Uie jjrounji ti ihen very flry. and the wcitlicr fo cool, that vegeta- bles will not he injured by pleii- Ctiul watering:;. Giuntid that is thus watered ivill pr«>dure plenty of grafs, un- Jefs it liumld happen to be too much chilled by watering ; to prevent which it (hould have a fpriiikling ol iome warm com- p.>H, loot, or other hot drclling, each year, in autumn. Carelhould be always taken to lea\ 0 oIT tliis watering before the month ol December, when llrong lrollsareexpe<^ted ; becaufe troll dellroysall vegetables nuich more when they arc lull of fap, and where the foil is very wet. When you willi to water land which is above the level of an adjacent flrcam, an engine may be ufcd to raile it to the proper height. Ihey who are willing to be at this expenfc may find defcriptions of Atchinudes' ztui- trr lki\:-u\ thr Perjian wheel, M. Br/itt'or's wkerl, and an engine inu^fitci by M. dr la Biye, in the Coinhl-t,- Fanner, article Wafer. WAFER FURROWING, dmwing furrows in the lowcll parts of a field of wheat, or other winter grain, as ioan as it is har- »owed in, in order t* draw oH the liipcill'ious water, that none may (land on the furtace during the winter. 'I'his piece of good hufbandry t( confidered, in the old coun- tries, as indifpenfably nccellary ; unlcfs when a field is on fuch a declivity that the water cannot il.ind on it. For if wnter llaiul long upon orn, in a Irolly foa- fon, t)r almnft any fcafon, it will either be killed, or io iltnted in its growth, thai it wdl piuduce nothing. If tliii practice were adopted by my countrymen, the lafiour •I doing w|i'. \ iv I.y: rf "rinc. I W E A 369 am pCrfuaded they would find fo great an advantage in it, that they would not afterwards incline to lay it afide. It is probable it might prevent the winter kil- ling of much grain, an evil that is greatly complained of. WAT liRIN'G, applying wa- ter to plants to nourilh ihcm. V^egetibles that are newly tranfplanied, as -they liavc their roots more or lefs diminilhed, or othcrwifc injured, often need watering till they have taken new root. But this llioiild be done with caution. If a dry feafon follow the iranfplanting, let them be watered if they ap- pear to droop, only on evenings, and in cloudy weather, and witK water that has been e\poled,one day at lealf, to thefhining of the fun ; not with water directly from a well, or a cold fpring, a» it will give a chill to the plants. Only a fraall quantity Ihould be applied at once, that it may have an effett limilar to that of a rc- frelhingrain. For water, applied too pleiuifiilly, fonieiiinos walh- es away the hncil of the moulcj from the roots ; or m^kes little cavities about them, which admit to») much air. In a dry feafon, whole gar- dens lometinus nceil watering ; and in doing it the above pre- cautions are to l>c regaided, 1 hey are happy who have a piece of flantling water in their garden, or a rivulet near at hand, Ironi whence the garflen may be watered wiilioiit much labour. WKA'FHl'lR, the If ate or cotidiiion of the atnu)lpherc with le'^ard to beat, cold, wind, rain. Iroll, fnow, ivc. Innumerable advantages would arifc to the hufbandman from a foreknowledge of the changes of the weather ; -^nA even from sl lurcknuwkJgc of the general vl:aii:ticrs ^p W E A chara£lcrs of the approaching leafons. In the former cafe, he would be able to order his bufi- nefs from day to day in the bell manner, and fo as to prevent much hurry, perplexity and lofs ; efpeciafly in the feafons of hay making and harvefting ; in the latter, he would be happily di- refled in his choice of crops, and the bcflmethods ot cultivat- ing them. And as this knowl- edge is not to be obtained, the ability to Hiake very probable conje6lures is nextly to be cov- eted, as it will be found to an- fwer very valuable purpofes. Virgil, and other early writers •n hufbandry, pointed out many rules of prognoflicating the changes of weather in their own countries. But thefe will not univerfally, and perhaps not generally, apply in' other re- gions. Perfons ought therefore to be careful that they do not lay too much ftrefs upon them. Journals of the weather, winds, and {late of the atmofphere, fhould be made and kept in every climate in this country ; from the comparing of which for a courfe of years, it is probable that fome valuable prognofticks might be formed, which have not yet been thought of. The obfervations made in one climate, will not perfeftly an- fwer for another, even in the fame country. In fome parts of the (fate of MafTachufetts, forin- ftance, a fouth wind in a fum- mer morning forebodes a hot day, and in other parts a cool one ; and the changes of weather are not jufl the fame in the maritime as in the inland parts. The lat- ter are hotter in fummer and colder in winter than the mari- times. That our farmers may enable tfeemfelves to form judicious W E A prognofti cations, fome parts 6*f knowledge, falfely fo called, ought to be unlearned, or ex- ploded ; as weeds muft be ex- tirpated, that ufeful plants may be nourifhed. Thofe who draw their prog- nofticks from the motions and afpefts of the celeftial bodies arc certainly lefs apt to attend to more fure obje6ls in the earth and atmofphere. If any celeftial influence is to be much regarded in this cafe, one would think it ought to be only that of the earth's fatellite, the moon, becaufe of its nearnefs.- That fhe influences the tides is well knov/n ; and thefe may have a fmall influence on the winds and weather. And proba- bly vapours may be more copi- oufly raifed when fhe is neareft to the earth, which affords a greater probability of approach- ing rain or fnow. But what reafon can there be affigned, for fuppofing that her place in the Heavens at the mo- ment of her full, change, or quartering, can have any influ- ence on our atmofphere ? Or that the weather in the latter quarters, ihould be governed by that in' her former quarters ? Thefe things, though believed by many, have never been confirmed by any fet of accurate obfervations. The few that I have made have rather tended to refute them. Barometrical obfervations may beof fome real ufe. " In gener- al, it may be expefted,- that when the mercury rifes high, a few days of fair weather will fol- low ; if it falls, rain may be ex- pefted." Birds of paffage have always beea fuppofed to indicate the nearnefs ot approaching feafons, by their removing to different climates. W E A It is well known that ilic y/eathcr is much governed by winds. Rain is very often pre- ceded, and aixonipanied by a /outhcaft wind, and Ihow by a wind from the northeall, or north northeafl : And an cafl wind, continued twelve hours, fcldoni laiis to bring rain ; and yet fome rain oftemimes comes fronu'very other quarter. W.ien the winds blow from any pomt betwixt north and weft tlje wcaili- CT is expeOed to continue lair and dry. The weather is oftcncr unfct- tled about the times ol the equi- noxes, than at other feafons : And high winds and ftonns are more to be cxpefled. Falling weather oftener^hap- f>ens a httle before or after the ull and change of the moon than at other times, efpecially it (he happen to be near to her perigee, at the time of thcfc changes. For the attraction ol vapouis from the furfaccof the earth is then greateft. The rednefs of the fky at the rifing of the fun, has ever been confidcred as a fign of loul wcatherapproaching ; butitislir jrom being infallible. The falling of heavy dews is a ijgn of the continuance of fair weather. The fctting of the fun behind a black, watery cloud, betokens ap- proaching rain. The wading of the fun, as it is called, is a pretty Aire (igii that foul w 'Aiher is very near. Whenihedifcof the lun.ciiher at rifing or fetting, appears very broad and dim, the atmofphereis charged with plenty of vapour, which will foon condcnfe and fall upon the earth. The con- trary happens when the fun ap- pears brilliant, frnall and dazzling, ml rifing and letting, as thcfc ap- W E E 37* pcaranccs indicate a dry ft ate ol the air. 1 he copious evapora- tion of boiling water is a pretty fine fign of lallinj; weather. For I fuppofe this ariics from the fame caufe, (whatever it he) as the increaled ufceni ot vapour.s in general. i he wind commonly blowi from the point from whence me- teors are fecn to Ihoot in the night preceding. when Iwiuc are bufy in col- Iccling fticks and ftraws, foul weather is approaching. Many more figns ol changes in the weather might have been mentioned : But 1 iludy brevity. WEDGE, one of the me- chanical powers, the force oi which is extremely great. The wedge is a triangular prifra, whcfe bales arc acute an- gled triangles. 1 he wedge is a needful imple- ment among farmers, for the cleaving of their wood and tim- ber. It ftiould be made ol a fofr kind of iron, that it may not hi broken near the point, by driv- ing it in frofty weather, or forc- ing itinto hard knots, Thchcad (hould be about two inches thick, and the length of the wedge from eight to nine inches. WEEDING, the operation of deftjroying weeds among uftlul plants, or of freeing from weeds. j There are feveral methods ol* doing it. ^^'^here plants in beds, whetner fown broad caft or v.x rovvs, arc young and fiTiall, and arc infeftofl with weeds, the weeds mull be pulled up with the thumb and finger ; or clfe cut out with the weeding hook. When weeding is done by hand, care fhould be taken that thr roots be not left in the gronnci. Therefore the fingers ol the weed- cr fhould go into the foil nioicoi Icfs, according to the ftrcngth o'. the 372 W. E E the roots. The weeds may be faved in bafkcts, and thrown to the fwine. Where the plants are larger, the weeds may be tilled by a hoe with a (harp edge, which fiiouM be wider or nar- rower, according to the difiance at which the plants ought to ftand from each other after hoeing. But it is necelFary' that the hoe- ing be perlorined in dry weath- er ; otherwife many of the weeds Will revive, and grow : And the forenoon is better than the after- noon lor this work, becaufe a dewy night coming on before they are withered, fume of them will get rooted before the next morning. Weeders fhoiild be careful that they tread upon weeds that they hoe or pull up, as little as polLble ; becaufe do- ing this will clofe the earth about them, and prevent their dying. When fmall plants fl;jnd in rows according to the drill huf- bandry, the plants in the rows muft be once weeded, and thin- ned as in gardens; but the weeds in the intervals are to be more cxpeditioully deftroyed with the ■plough, horle hoe, or cultivator. V/ilEDS, ufelefs or noxious plants, or vegetables not to be cultivated. Weeds infeft all kinds of land jnore or lefs, and occafion abun- dance of labour for the farmer, and the gardener, fo much that we feldom find it perfectly ac- complifhed. Weeds are feveral ways hurt- ful to the crops that are cultivat- ed. 1. They rob other plants of the food that fhouid nourilh them. For they require as much nour- ifhment from the earth as better flants do ; and in general tiicy are fed with the fame kind ot juices : For it has been proved, tliat the food of all plants is near- W E E ly the fame. So that wherever weeds are fuETered to ffand dnd grow among plants, the crop will receive proporti')nably the lefs quantity ot nouriPnment from the earth. It will aifo receive the lefs nourifhraent from the air, unlefs the v.-eeds are of a much lower Hature than the plants that were meant to be cultivated, and nearly covered by the plants. 2. Weeds alfo lelTen the quan- tity of pafture for plants in the (oil. For their roots occupy and fill many of thofc interftices in the foil, which would have been occupied by the roots of the cul- tivated plants. And many kinds of weeds have fuch a multitude of flrong and binding roots, that they render the foil fliff and hard ; and fo compact that the roots of tender plants cannot ex- tend theipfelves in it. This bad quality is poilelTcd, in a remark- able degree, by the quitch grafs, and by forne other \veeds. 3. Weeds prevent plants from tillering, or branching out horn their roots, as many kinds, and particularly the farinaceous, which are the raofl valuable, are inclined to do, when they have room. But the growing of a multitude of weeds among them reduces them to a crowded fitua- tion ; the confequence is, that they ib.oot iip only fingle ftalks, by which means the crop is great- ly dimlnijhed. 4. Weeds deprive plants cd that free circulation of air about them, which is necelTary^^i their being in a healthy and Mgorous Hate. For want of this they run up wci:k, remain of a loofe and fpongy contexture, and bend doM'n and lodge by their own v.'eight, unleis the weeds happen to be fo ftrong as to hold them up. 5. Weeds, befidcs the gener- al evil of taking away the food of WEE •f plants rob ilie foil, p-irti'iilarly of Its rnoilliirc, an i 1,. r.l !\ re- duce it to fuch a dry it itc tlut ntiihcr wceHs nor other ) l.»nts can receive from it any vegeta- ble food, for want of that pro- portion of inoinurc which is nec- <»T a^ipejfancc oi droui;I;t. L^iftly, fome weeds u\ the creeping kind twine about the plants in fuch a manner as to prevent their growth, and the circnlation ot their f.ip. Dihers overtop them, ar.d ihut out the direct influence ot the fun, and further opprcfs them with tiieir unwholcloine dripping on tliem. And there are llill others, the dodder in particular, which draw their nouriihmcnt directly out ol the hcvlies of plants, by fHikinj; their fibres inio them, and caufe rhom to lan);uilh. So thai, on the whole, the mif- • hiels done by weeds are fo great and many, tliat when they are fuf- fered to grow unmolcllcd among ideful plants, whate^■er culture has been given to the foil to pre- pare it for a crop is thrown a- way ; and the feeds ihit are fown are entirely wafted and loft. Weeds r:iay be divided as plants in general arc, into annuals mJ pere iuijIs ; or, as Mr. Dix- jo:i his .i.)nc it, intothofc which it :iiedl)y the feed, ai\i\ r : a.'c propagated Vy the root. But I (hall purfuc a meth- n different frotn both, and which better fuifs my pref- e'lt liiclination : An.l only toii- fi'lcr 'h'[c wer.ls in .: i, rncnil way, wl:.ch clj.tUy iault c;ur ^ laads that are in tillage, and ' thofc that prevail in our grafs [ land ; and how to frccit t!ie exiflence, or puvalcuLe •1 chcfc kinds ; and the bell W E E 373 methods ot preventing, fubdu- ing and dellroymg them. 1. As to thole which infeil larul thitis employed in tillage, iiid whith are very numerous, there 3ie leveral ways to prevent their cxiftenccin fields ; hi leall, to prevent their arifiiig in fucK plenty as to be very trouhlefonie or detrimental to the cr<»ps. The Hrft thing that I would in- fift upon is, that no leeds of weeds (hould, by any means, be carried into the fields. And that this e' il may be avoided, rw> dunt; ncr cotnpoft, lliould be laid upon the (oil, until it has under- g(mc fuch tcrmentations in heaps, as to allow oppoi tunity to deftroy the vegetative quality ot all the feeds that are contained in it. Therefore all dungliills intended for the manuring; ot (owed fie'ds, Ihould be Ihovelcd over two or three times in a liimmer; by means of which, mod or all of the feeds contained in the heaps will vegetate, and be dcftroyeil. But when land is laid down for grafs, this precaution is not ne- celfary : Bccaulc tillage weed* will not ilourilh in gra.'s lands ; at lead not io much as to do any great damage. But when there is a necefliiy ot ufing new duntr, which a- bounds with the feeds ot weeds, on land to be continued in til- lage, let it, it pollihle, be applied only to a h'jed crop, in the til- ling of which, the weeds will be deftroyed a<: taft as they rife, dur- ing the iunimer. Or, if low ground hay has been ufed by itfelt, in teeding the young part of the llock Jas indeed it ought always to bej let (he dung that is made ot that be liid un the dried parts ot the Irtim. There will be no danger in living it on wl.ilc it is new ; 'cr it uic feids Ipijut and come 374 W E E up, they will not profper, as the foil does not fuit their nature, being raoftly aquaticks. As to or- er manures, fuch as jnarJe, mud, aflies, lime, foot, fea ^\'eeds, &c. thefe having no feeds in them that will grow up- on land, there is no danger of their caufing the ground to be- come weedy. If they do this, in any meafure, it muft be only by vivify mg latent feeds in the foil. Another thing which is indif- penfably necelfary to prevent the abounding ot weeds, is, to fuffer no Vv'eeds, neither in gardens nor in tillage lands, to ripen their feeds in autumn, and fcatter them oui upon the ground. The prac- tice oi fluggards muft be laid a- fide : For as a man foweth, fc Jliall he alfo reap. If weeds are thusfovvnon every part of afield, it is no wonder if the ground be filled with them in the enfuing year ; Nothing fliort of a mira- cle, unlefs it be want of ftrength in the foil to nourifh them, can prevent it. The prudent huf- bandman, therefore, before the feeds of the weeds are ripened, ■will go over his grounds, and deftroy all the weeds that, appear. If there fhould happen to be a plenty of them, let them be piled in heaps in the borders of the fields, and a little earth thrown on them ; in which fituation they will ferment and putrefy, and become good heaps of ma- nure, in the fucceeding year. If any Ihould objett to the la- bour of doing this, let them con- fider whether it wiJl not fave them ten times as much labour in future, in fubduing the weeds, after the ground is filled with them, befides procuring them the advantage of having much better crops. Another good preventive of the increafe of weeds, is burning WEE the ftubble as it ftands after reap- ing. On land that is defigned to be lowed the next year, this is a good piece of hufbandry ; tor it will deftroy fo many of the feeds of v/eeds,?^ to prevent the enfu- ing crop from being ro very weedy as it otherwife would be ; at the fame time, it will deftroy many infefts, clean the ground, and render it fitter for the ope- rations ot tillage ; not to mention how much the ground will be fertilized by the afhcs of the ftub- ble. But, to prevent the increafe of weeds, as well as toanfwer other good purpofes, it is beft that two broad caft, fowed crops, when it can be otherv/ife ordered, fhould not fucceedeach other. Where a hoed crop is well tilled every other year, the weeds are not wont to increafe, in -fuch a degree as to be very trouble- fome. Another precaution, and which has not been fufficiently attend- ed to, is taking care to avoid fowing the feeds of weeds with grain and other crops. A thorough cleaning of the feed is of great importance. This may be accomplifhed by winnowing, fifting, fv/imming and repeated walhings. But the feeds of weeds are often fowed, after they haye been feparated irom grain by winnowing. This will be the cafe v/hen the chaff and rubbl'^t at the tail of the fheet is thrown upon a dunghill, which is to be removed and applied to the foil, before the feeds contained there- in have had opportunity to veg etate and get deftroycd. If a farmer begins on a farm that is not much infeftcd with weeds, and will carefully obferve the direftions given above, I think he will be always favoured with clean crops, and that weeds WEE will never prevail much in his tillage land. It is true, that fomc feeds may be waited by the winds from oth- er fields into his <:nclofurcs. The befl preventive of this is having dole fences. But ihofe feeds to which a light down ad- herts, are often mounted high in the air ; fo that there is no pof- fibility of fencing againft them. Of this kind are the feeds of thiflles, &c. However, they feldom tarry in the places where they firft fall, but are driven to the borders of fields. But when, by means of a neg- ligent or flovcniy culture, lands in tillage are become weedy, the farmer fllould perfcdly know, and fpirltedly pra6Hfe, the mod cffe^^ual methods oi fubduinj; the weeds, which arc his moll formidable enemies. For they di- minifh the hufbandman's crops, more than moflpeople arc a\yare ol. The mofteneftual way ot def- troying them is, by a good fum- merfaHowing.altcrnately plough- ing and harrowing the ground in dry weather, as olten as the weeds appear in plenty on the furface At each ot thcfc ftirrings a large quantity ot weeds is defiroyed, and converted into manure ; and th« feeds ol another crop fo ex- pofcd to the air, that they will fpring up, and at the next ftir- ring of t!ie foil be dcftroyed. And il tliefe operations are con- tinued until no more weeds arife, it may be concluded that the ground is in excellent order tor a crop. It is not only cleaned from weeds, but greatly enriched : And it ".vill not be liable to be infefleJ with weeds, to any great degree, for feverai years atier. Next to (allowing, which may be thought rather expcnfivc, the 'left way to get the better ol "ceds, is to employ the land i:; WEE 375 hoed crops, for two or three years in (ucccflion, not omitting autumnal hand weeding. Or a crop of peale, fowed thick, or any crop that forms a clofe cov- er to the furface, may do much towards fubduing the weeds. The tew weeds that vegetate un- der fuch a cover arc fo cramped and kept under, as to be prevent- ed trom going to feed ; or at leaft from bringing their feeds to maturity. Extraordinary deep plough- ing, or treitch ploughing, has been recommended as efieilual. But in this pratlice, care fhould be taken to avoid turning in too many of the feeds of weeds. The autumn, therefore, is not the right lime for this, but ratlier the fpring or fummer. For if many feeds are thus buried, the next deep ploughing that there may be occafion for, will bring them again up to the air, and caufe not a few of them to vegetate, though it fhould happen to be not till many years alter. As deep ploughing defiroy* weeds, or ratlier puts them out of the way, fo,onthe other hand, nothing can more encourage, their growth than the fhallow plough- ing, which is commonly given tor fowed crops in this country. But it all other methods were to prove incffetlual for the def- truciion ot annual weeds, laying tillage land down to grafs, and fowing it with cleaned grafs feeds, will not tail to fubdue thefc weeds ; the moft ot which de- pend upon tillage to promote their growth ; and the reft will be overtopped and lit fled by a good crop of grafs. And a flrong fward will foon be tormeJ, through wliich the tender kmds ot annual weeds will not penc- j tratc, of which fort the moft arc, . thatarc found in land that is tilled. l^VCD 3/6 AV E E Ev'en the qnitch grafs, f»ne of the molt vexatiousot ali weeds, is thus either deftroyed or rendered harmlefs : For when it tlourifli- es in grafs ground, it makes an excellent hay. 2. The weeds that appear in grafs lands in this country, may e divided into upland weeds and aquaticks, lome tew of which arc annuals, but a greater num- ber, efpeciaily of thofe that are moil noticed, are perennials. Of the upland weeds thofe which have proved to be the moll troublefomeare the upright crow foot, Ranunculus, commonly known by the name yellow weed ; ragweed, ragwort, or Roman •wormwood, Senecio; the greater daify, ox eye, or pifs abed, Chryi- anthemum ; yarrow, dandelion, dock, thirties, iorrel ^nd John's wort. Some of thefe, particularly the two laft, and the daify and ra§- \keed, are conquered by a plenti- ful manuring of the ground ; tor where the land is rich they are not found toflourii'h. Paituritig the la.'id with (hcep is laid to be fa- tal to the daify, and the crow foot. But the moft effectual way to dellroythefis weeds, is to break up the land, and employ it in tillage. When it is not lound conve- nient to take this method, the weeds may either be dug out or elfe pulled up by hand, which, when tfie ground is moiftened by rain, may beeafily done. It is to be remembered, that this Ihould be done at. crbelore midfummer, that none of their ripened feeds, or any that may })OjnbIy vege- tate, may be Icattered on the groimd. The aquatick weeds, fuch as flags, rulhes, and the like, are not eafily fubdued by any of the above methods, fome of which Xave often been tried in vain. \\ E E Draining the land. which deprives them of that degree of wetnef* which i'^ fuitable to their nature, is an infallible method, and^ per- haps, the only eflfeftujl one. of deilroying them. But lim- ing the ground at the fame time, renders the operation more fud- den and efTe^tual. Or if lime cannot be had, alhes and foot are good fubllitutes. But the molt fpeedy method of getting rid of thefe weeds is, digging out the roots, or ufing the land in tillage. \VEE\TL,an infe6> of the bee- tle kind, rcfembling the Maybug, with a long fliarp pointed head, to the hinder part of which are fix- ed two antennae. It is black, and therefore eafily diflinguilhed in ariy corn ; but its principal and tavoritc food is wheat, of which, either old or new, it devours greai quantities, without howev- er comn.unicating any badfmell to it. Uponthrufting one's hand into a heap of corn, one may eafily perceive by its heat, whether it contains many of thefe infefts, which generally lie pretty much Collected ; and the particular places where they are moft nu- merous, feel much warmer than the reft. This obfervation led M. Du- hainel to think, that a confidera- ble heat is probably neceftary tor the hatching of their eggs ; and that in this cafe, even if tliey ibould live, they will not be able to breed in his ventilating grana- ries. To prove this he made repeat- ed experiments, the refults of which made it evident that this infecl cannot multiply in corn that retains a proper degree of coolnefs, which it may be made to do by frequent ventilating. When tojii is fifted in a fievc line \\ H K I'lrr f") njucJi fmalier than tl>c Mt tMoll of thcni drop Bmulallf ^.sM. Du- liaroel tncil, I. .hv>piofer- fcd was, to dry tiicturnona Uove, or aver,, heatcJ to eighty or tunc- > of M. de Reaumur's •■.cter. W'HKAT, Tnticum, the moa ufchil (4 all farinaceous pfants. the feeds of v.'hich are the bell grain tor bread. The different fpecics of wheat, ->.-d:n;? to Mr. Miller, are, the •r wheat, without a\%*ns, or iKaiiU; the funimer, or fp'ing whea: ; grey ^xillard, or duck hill wheat, with long beards ; the c^ le w!ie.»t, fo named for the i: ;pe of the cars, u liich refemble a - le ; and the polontan whjat. Other kin h he fuppofes to be oily varieties occafioncd by Cul- ture and foil. T!ie Smyrna wheat is very dif- tL'r.:-.: fi'in) all other, jModucing ...... 1....:- central ear. and fevrr- laieial ones from the * t'ac I'lrge one. This l.iits a rich and ilron;; foil, as t'lcio is no dinger of its being I. h fcems to be better • ■-■ ' i^'^n any other fpccies of wi It to the horic hoeing htil- ban iry. The only fpecies or varieties »'•" ^rc cuhiva:c i in this coun- .c, ih* winter arid (prinj^ • " • '•;'! and bearded, the an I f!je Siberian •* .1, w..i«.;» In bA-1, or wiihout " Ar :• ^ 'V.c! and a half of feed .nt qiur.iity for an arre. ^.^i'".; i.<'s it i ' large crops tiam a \V H E 3f7 ^ > ■luircd ; thefmallcr, tlie Icf 'ty : Tor the number o ;;;ji;;s is to be rej^Jidcd inortf iluu the meafurc, i»r weight. (.'hanging the feed yearly, or at leall every otli'-rycar, is proper, or even ncccHdiy : For it has al- ways been cxptrienced, that the (d'Mc fec(f, fown fevcraf years iti fuccefUon, degenerates ; fo that the crops conn :iually grow worfc. But feed Ihould not only be Ihitied from one place to anoth- er, but alfo fown on a foil that is different from that on which it jrew. It Ihould be taken from a fliff foil for a light one, and from a light for a ftifFone. As feed wheat cannot always be procured from diftant coun- tries in feafon, farmers at a few miles di fiance Ihould at \eatt change wirheach other. But in the iio'therly parts of this coim- try, bringing feed from the fouih- ward win not do wcU, as it rip- ens the later. A foil of good loam, well' warmed, and ftirred, is proper for wheat. BiU other UnU. well prepared, fometimcs anfwer well enouj{h. Wli.^at fucceeds upoa the lirongeff lands well tilled, when they have been drained^ and hid dry. The way of prepnring the foil fi»r a crop of wheat l mean that which has been moll practiled in tlie old countries and has fuc- cceded well in this) is, by a good fummcr tallowing. Three or ♦•>ur pJoughings, and as many harrowings, at proper intervals, will bring al.nolt any foil, that is not veiy flubborn, into a good tilth. And it it be thought need- ful to a^ply any manure to tlic foil brfore lowing, let it be old u ; and let it not 't before the laft :i^, u: lecd furrow, as it i ; fo that ihc corn may have 378 W H E have the greateR poflTible benefit of the fleam produced by the manure in the roil. Where fummer wheat is in- tended to be fown, the ground being previoufly clear ot weeds, by means of a hoed crop preced- ing, one good ploughing in au- tumn, and two in thefpring, may be fufficient. But another good method of preparing ttre land for a wlieat crop, is fowing it with clover. After it has borne two crops ot clover, it will be in excellent or- der for wheat. Give only one ploughing, fow the feed and Tiarrow it in. But whether you fow winter or fpring wheat, let the feed be always well waflied before fow- ing. I need not here repeat what has been faid on the affair offteeping the feed. See the ar- ticle Sf?iut. The time of fowing winter wheat admits of fome latitude. Some time about the latter part of Augufl, or beginning of Sep- tember, is to be chofen. It may be a little later or earher, pro- vided the ground have the right degree of moifture tor tilipge, and for promoting vegetation. The latter Ihould be carefully at- tended to, and the feeds Ihould never be fowed iw ground when it is very dry. Rather than do this, rain Ihould be waited for as much as two or three weeks. Wheat that is fowed in au- tumn, a clover lay excepted, ihould, inflead of harrowing, be covered with a (hallow furrow, and the furface left rough. It will be Icfs in danger of being killed by the frofl in winter, and lefs injured by drying winds in the following fpring. The fur- rows fhould be left without har- rowing ; for, the more uneven ihe ground is, the more the foil W H E will be pulverifed and mellowed by the frofl. But it w^ill often be of advantage to pal's a roller over the ground intlie following fpring, to clofe the eanh about the roots, and prevent the earth from being dried by the fpring winds, to too great a depth. Wheat fown in the fpring fhould be only covered with the harrow, as it has no time to lofe, and ought to be up early. For the fame reafon it fhould be fow- ed as early as the ground can be got into the right order to re- ceive it. It weeds arife in plenty among the wheat, they fhould be deft toy- ed in the fpring ; otherwife the crop will be much robbed of its nouriihment. This matter has not yet been fufRciently attend- ed to in this country ; though in other countries, particularly m Scotland, the people make as much account of weeding their fields ot grain, as their gardens. This fliould by all means be per- forme«l before the time when the plants begin to fend out their ears ; becaufe, after this, they will be the more in danger ot be- ing hurt by people's pafTing a- mong them. Efpecially the wheat ought not to be touched while it is in bloffom. As it is in the critical feafon of feecunda- tion, it may be very detrimental to the crop, x^nd if the weeds be not taken out before the grain is become Ijrgeand tall, many of them will be covered and hidden under the plants ; fo that only the largell weeds will be pulled out, while the refl are fuffered to ffand and perfect their feeds. For thefe reafons, Mr. Milleir re- commends to farmers a praftice among kitchen gardeners, which he fays has been found to be of great benefit to crops, and has al- io been a great faving to them in the' \w H r thcoper«itionof(lcnii>yi:ig\vccci"!, which is, makin:^ iile ot a Jtuall kind ol h«>es lor cleaning the whrat early in the fpring, octoic- the ground is covered witli the blades oi ihc corn. By this in- flrnrnent, all the weeds, iinall and great, will be cut up ; and if it be done in dry weather, \vill die. He reconinicnds a lecond hoeing about tlirce ^vccks alter the lirft, which will fubduc thofc weeds which happen to retnam a- live. And at the time ol hocint»,he recommends thinning the plants, w here they happen to flan thick, which he thinks will do much to i)revent the lodging ot the corn, and retider it lei's lia- ble tobefmutty. Whether thefe hoeinr;s will giejtly iticreaic the crop 1 think there can be no rea- fon to doubt, luilefs tlK-y Ihould caufe it to ripen lo mu. h Liter as to expofc it to blight. Rut I flionlfl not expect it from fuch a fupcrhcial hoei'ig. Some fjrmcrs arc apt to think there h no inconvenience in fut- iering fhcep to ieed on the young plants of winter wheat, in ati- tiimn, or winter, or even early in the fpring. But who can ra- tionally fuppofe, that the blatlcs with which nature has furnilhed thcic plants, arc not of ulc, to »lraw in nouridiment from the air and desvs, for the increafe of the flalkand the ear ? In order to be fatisfied of this, the above mentioned writer cut ofT fome rilants of wheat aliernatcly, ear- y in the fpring, and always foimd the ilalks of thefe plattts nuich fmallerand Ihortcr, and the f^rain poorer, than thofe of the imer- mediaie plants whofe blades were not cut. There certainly is luit one cafe in which it can be right that win- ter grain, whether wheal or rye, {h'juld be ted in autumn ; and W H E 379 that is, when, by bciiig foued very early, it is in danger of ear- ing before winter; for this fljould ; !)y ail means be prevented. But ; in no cafe Ihould a bead be fullered to feed on it in the NV^hcat is ripe for cutting when the llraw is turned yellow, its ears hang, no greennefs ap- pears in the middle of them, and the grain is hard when bitten." Ihc farmers in England cut their wheat greener than they did formerly, becaufc they find it makes a rather whiter flour, which fells at a higher price. Otieot their fkillul farmers, who cuts his wheat early, fays, that he lound upon trial, his wheat early reaped was heavier bv the biiihcl, tliati the fame wheat when it Hood till it was thoroughly ripe. This iri>-ht be owing to its greater fmoothncfs, by means of which it lay clofer in the bulh- el ; for »t is hardly credible titat the whole crop will be heTvicr lor cutting it green. But as lofs by (haltering out the corn is thus l>revcntcd, it may be a balance to its (hrinklng the more, as I think it certainly docs. The prudent farmer mufl; life his own judgment in this mattci. j Wheat and other grain that is ' lodged, may, and ought to be, cm the earlier : For after the draw is broken vr corrupted, it conveys no noiuilhmcnt ic the grain, or as bad as none. The ancients reaped their corn, as Pliny fuvs, before it was fully ripe. And it is certain that great inconvcnicnrcs arif.f'ioni letting fome forts of grain Hand till tbty come to their utmoft maturity. The chaff and flraw are the worle fodder. .\nd ilTuch corn chance to take wet in harvellin;*, it fuf- fers the more tor being very ripe. Bui corn cut in a greener Hate 3-So Yi H E itatewill bear a good deal oi wet without damage. When corn is blighted, Tt fhouM be cnt the fooner, or even betbreit is halt ripe. For though it ceafes to receive nounfh'.ncnt through the llraw, it is fdid it •will improve by lying in the ear, and that it threlhes out the more eafily, _ One acre of grain is a large day's work for the reaper. The iifua! price ot reaping an acre in this country, has been a bulhel of tlie grain. From three to fo:ir quarters, that is, from twenty four to thir- ty two bufhels of wheat on an acre, is reckoned in England to be a good crop. To prevent lofs by fliedding, the corn which is laid in grips, is to be bound up in Ihcavcs, either in the cool ol tl>e evenings or before the de-A- is quite gone off in the morning. And it Ihould Tiever be removed either into the li^ock, the barn, or the ftack, in the middle of a funny day, but rather at a time when the flight dew isjuflfufficicnt to prevent its ihedding. Scethearticle //arcry?. As to (owing wheat in drills, fee New HulLandry. But fetting of wheat is reck- oned by fome of the Englifh as a great improvement in hulband- ry. A Norfolk farmer one yejr fet filty feven acres. The fuperi- ority of his crop, both in quantity and quality, was fo great that it induced him the following year to fet three hundred acres, and he has continyed in the practice ot fetting ever fince. This no- ble experiment was the means of introducing the pra6lice in the vicinity, and to a confiderable ■extent. Though the fet crops appear very thin during autumn ?nd winter, the plants tiller and ^readprodigioufly in the fprin^. W H E ; The cars and the grain are iarff } er, and fpcci.fically heavier per ! bufhel than other wheat, i The lands on which this meth- od is moll profpcrous ore, either j aiter clover Ikibb'e, or on which j tretoil and gjafs feed were fowri j the fpring before lait. Thefe ; grounds, ajter the ufual manur- { ing, are once turned over by the j plough in an extend:;d flag or. ; turf, ten inches wide ; along \ which a man, who is called a ; dibbler, with two fetting irons, fomewhat bigger than ramrods, but confiderably bigger at th-a lower end, and pointed at the extremity, fleps backward along the turf, and makes the holes, about four inches afundcr each way, and an inch deep. Into thefe holes the droppers drop two grains* which is quite fufn- cient. Thus three pecks of grain is enough tor an acre. The regularity of its rifing gives opportunity for weeding or hantj hoeing. This method is advantageous when feed corn is dear. Sir Thomas Bevor found the pro- duce to be two bulhcls per acre more than from fown wheat, having much lef'? fmall corn mix- ed wuh it ; and it fetches a high- er price three pence per bulhel. 'Fhc cxpenfe ot dibbhng an acre is los. Another new method of culti- vation is, propagating wheat by dividing and tranfplanting its roots. " On the fccond ot June 1766, Mr. C. M:lh:r lowed lom^ grains of the common red wheat ; and on the eighth of Augult a (ingle plant was taken up and feparated into eighteen pans, and each part planted feparateiy. Thefe plants having pulhed out feveral fide (hoots, by about the middle ot September, (bme ot them were taken up and divided^. W H T. W II E 3«« •hit >n:l liiviiuiti , r the w!!*tfr, .ion of lUem, bctv.'cea the middle of h and th<* irnldlc lA April, ice.l five hundred plants. wi re divid.-d QO further. biK p^rirmtcd to remain. Tlie plants vscie ill gener.tl ftronger than any wheat in the fields. Some o| them prodiicetl upwards of one ]r.;a-!red ears from a (ingle roof. Mjtv of the ears msafiircd feven inches in length, and contained lijtwcen fixty and feventy grains. ihe whole number ol cars, which, by this prt^c-fs, were pro- dui '.'J from one grain of wheat, v\a^ 111,109; ^^'hich yielded three iwk.s ^nd three quarters of clear ctirn, the weight of which was 47 H joz : An.d from a calcula- tK»n in.ide by counting the num- hor ct grains in an ounce, the V. r, L- :. ■•■.•^^CT of grains was a- :)'!■'. 57'>,.v;o.'' Ericycfop:ed:.i. Though tins mi-th<>d is curi- ''i';. it is attended with fo muoh '. few or none wilt be , .. io follow Mr. Millei's example. WHEEL, a fimple machine, con filling ol a round piece oH matter, revolving on an axis* It is one ol ike principal mechan- ic k. powers. As the fanner has ratich occa- r^in tor ufing wheel carriages, n^ihing ought to be faid of \^ !;cr!s ill a work, of this kind. A id perhaps the following oI>- Icrvaiums rii.r to ihofc who ■ . iit'jcc ol inloriiiaiiu.i. I. The wheels of carriages mil be exactly round. For if f!: ' mve were out ot the centre, 1 in turning woiild be in liic fame tuauner up- on plain groM'id, as '- :1s arc whcr;" the groun . n; and the difficulty of the draught is in the fame manner increafed. For this rcufon, wocs when the axis i.s too final! to fill the hole, or Ixjxes, in the nis'c. This is as really detrimental to the going of wheels as their being out of round. The fpokes, in this cafe, will not be all eq:ially inclined t<^ the nave, and the wheel will h:i\e the Icfs flr^ngth, and will be more liable to be broken in moving upon an uneven place. 3, The fpokes milf be fo fet in the nave is to incline outwards. This would be needlefs and wrong, if wheels were always to be moved on a perfVit plane ; for they would bear the load perpen- dicularly. IJut as witeels mufl often go upon uneven places, and '^all into lioles and ruts, aqd as the wheel that is lowefl bears a greater parr ot t!»e load than the other, and fomeiimcs alinijft tlie wh »l<' of it ; it is neceflary that thv- wb.ecl Ihould become- perpen licjljr at the moment of Its linkin:; in tlie part un'.ltr the nave. Dilhing wheels are alio Icfs !' !i'r' ?-> hr o "-T-* th:-:i j-rr- ihc 382 W H E 4. The axletree mufl be at rl^ht angles with the fhaft, or tongue, ot a cart or waggon. Otherwife it will not move i^raight forwards in the track, or directly after the team, but fide- ways. But the axle fhould be fo fet in the naves, that the wheels may be gathering forward, as it is called, that is, that the fore parts of the rims may be a little nearer together than the hinder parts. Otherwife the wheels ■will notfoeafily keep in the ruts, as will appear evidently to any one thai takes notice of their go- ing. And the axle is ufually fo inferted into the naves, that the wheels gather at the bottom. This evidently gives an advan- tage to the axle ; as the wood, in ; fitting itto the holes of the naves, is not cut acrofs the grain on the under fide, it is not fo liable to be broken by the weight of the load. Whether there be any other advantage in it, I do not determine. But it is certain that, in this cafe, the fpokes in the Jower part of the wheel, which have the whole prefTure of the load, will be the nearer to a per- pendicular fituation, while on level ground, which feerns to be fome advantage. But the lower fpokes ought in no part of a fid- Jing road, to lean outwards. For this will put both the axle and the wheel to a great ftrain. 5. H'gh wheels are more eafi- ly drawn than low ones. They ha'/e lefs refinance from friftion, fuppofing the axle to he ot the fame fize as in low wheels, which ought to be fuppofed. the foad be- ing the fame. For a wheel that has double the circum.fcrence ot another, will make but one turn Avhile the other makes two ; con- fequently the firft will have but Lalf fo much friftion to over- come as the fecond. High W H E wheels have alfo the advantage of low ones in furmounting ob- ftacles, as every fpoke a6ts as a lever, in moving the wheel for- ward, and as a longer Ipoke re- moves the power to a greater dif- tance from the weight. And high wheels eafily pafs over holes into which fmall ones would fink ; and the impreffion they make upon foft ground is not to deep as that which is made by fmall ones, as a greater portion ot their rim is always in conta6l with the foil. It is objected, that a cart with high wheels is more apt to over- turn. This inconvenience might be eafily removed, by taflening the lower timbers of the cart to the under fide of the axle, as in fome parts of this country has been praftifed for a long time, particularly in coal carts. Another objetiion to high wheels is, that they make the cattle draw too high. This may receive the fame anfwer as the former. Or they may be made to draw low, by fixing the traces to arms made for the puroofe, reaching as far below ttilQfetle as any one pleafes. ^''' 6. The fore and hinder wheels of a waggon fhould be ot equal height, in order to render the draught as eafy as potlible, as Dr. Defaguliers proved by ex- periments. 7. All perfons who ufe the fame roads fhould place their wheels at the fame diflances f'om each other. For he who does not obferve this caution, but makes them go two or three inches wider or narrower, will find that he rauft carry a lefs load than others do, in propor- , tion to the flrength of his team. Laffly, broader nms than thofe which are in common ufe, would be more conducive to the goodaefs W H E jroo>4ucfs of the roads, if all who •Irivc teams in the lame roads wuul I agree to lu* confined to the lame brcaflth. For the broad- ci the rim, the lefs the wheels will fink into the foil ; but the nar- rower the rim. the deeper ruts will be mi I . Se.' the article Cart. WHEEZING, or PUR- SIVENESS. a diftempcr m hoffes, otherwife called Broken frmJ, in which the horfe makes a hiding or whiftling lound in his throat in breathing, and has a greater heaving in the Qanks than in common colds. This diforder is commonly caiifed by furfeiting, violent ex- ercifc when the belly is full, or by being rid or driven into the water when he iihot and f\veaty, or from an obflinate cold not well cured. For the cure of this diforder. Dr. Braken advifcs, " that the horfc Ihould have good nourifli- ment, much corn and little hay, and that every day the water given him be impregnated with Inli an ounce ol (alt petrc, and two drams of fal ammoniac." the hay mide ot white cure this diftemper. [ELP, the young ol a dog, fox. lion, or any wild beaft. WHEY, the fero.is part of milk, or tliat which remains fluid when the curd is taken lor checfe. Whey is an important liquor for Iwinc. They arc extremely fond of it, and it conduces much to their growth and fattening. It is particularly proper for fows that Tickle pigs, as it greatly ■ their milk. But care ! • T.iken not to overfeed »r ; tor it . that after y of it, efpc- • .1 . _ _ I wc^'-licr- tlicy fweli up and die. [WO aram Soo^fiy { weflfvill WHEL W H I 38a WHITE SCOUR, a dif- eafe wifh which Iheep are of- ten aHefcied, and is fatal to them in otiier countries, tliough I have not known 11 to be fo in this. " The following medicine has been often given with fuccefs, fjrovided the ll.cep are at the ame time removed into a dry piifture. Take a pint of old verjuice, half a pound of common or bay fait, dried well before the fire, pounded, and fifted through a fieve. Then mix the ver- juice with the fait by dej^rees ; and add half a pint ot com- mon gin, and bottle it up for ufe. \Vhenariy ot your Ihcep are feized with this difor- der. feparate them from the flock, and give each ol them three large tabic fpoonfuls of the mixture tor a dofc, repeat- ing it two days after, if they are not better." Complete Fat" mer. WHITE WEED, or PISS- ABED, a hated weed in our mowing lands and paitures, which anfwers to thedefcription of the Greater D.itfy, or Ox Eye, mentioned by BritiOi writers, and called by fome Maudlin, icort. See IVeedi. It has a five cornered ftalk. The leaves are ja:;v;cd. and em- brace the ftalk. 1 he fliiwers are difcous, large an-l radiate*.!. TUtj ray is white, and the diflt yel- low ; the feeds have no down. It flowers in June, and i& pe- rennial in the roots. When this weed has got pof- fefllon of the ground, no good graCes grow w.th it ; becaufe, perhaps, the roots hind the foil in fuch a manner as ro cramp other roots. Or, I >ng feeder, it tleons ci l ^ oi their tood W'UCM 384 W I L When i I is in its green date, neither neat cattle ni^- liorfes will cat it. But if it be cut while in hlofFoni, and well dried for hay, the cattle will eat it free- ly in winter, and live well on it. The crop howex'eris always thin and light. If it is mowed late, or not well cured and prelcrved, the hay will be of very little value. Dunging the grcrund is cm en- emy to this weed ; and it is laid that pafturing wlth'lheep kills it. But to conquer it elfeCtually, there can be no better way than to ufe the land in tillage, for hoed crops, fevcral years in fuc- cefhon. WILLOW, Sidix, called al- io fallow and ofccr, a well known tree, ot which there are many fpecies. Some willows may be propa- gated to great advantage for lire woofl, as they are very rapid in their grov.th. Other kinds have twigs that are long and tough, and are uie- ful for hoops, bafltet work, &c. Thefe are commonly kept low by cutting ; when this is ne- glefted they grow into large trees. A wild fbrubby willow, natur- al to-this couuLry, is common in our wet lands. This is called white willow, S^hx alba, and in rrtedicine is a good iubflitutc for the Cor it X peyui'ianiis. The Jail X vnninalu, the tough- eft kind of willow, has not, that I know, been yet propagated in this country. The weeping willow, fo called, has been im- ported irom Europe : But Vi-hether it profpcrs 1 atn unable to fay. No more than two forts of for- eign willow have been ;nuch propagated in this country, a yel- low and agrecn fort. The former \V I L grows well, even in a foil that 13 pretty dry. The Intter llourifiies hnelv in a \\'<:i firuation. Mr. Miller fays, " All forts of willows may be eafily propagated by cuttings or fets, either in the fpring or autumn, which readily take roo^. Thofe forts which grow to be large trees, are culti-. vated ior their timber, fo arc generally planted from fets which are about feven or eight leet long ; thefe are fliarpened at their larger end, and ilirull in- to tire ground by the fides of ditches and banks, where The ground is moifl ; in which places they make a confiderable prog- iefs, and are a great improve- ment to fuchellates, becaufe their •fOps will be lit to lop every fifth or fixth year. This is the ufual method now praftifed in moft parts of England, where the trees are cuUis'ated, as they are generally intended for prefent profit. But if they are dehgned lor large trees, or are cultivated' tor their wood, they fhould be- ]ilanted in a different manner ; ior thofe which are planted from fets of feven or i'^^^t feet long, always fend W^ ^' number ol branches toward the top, winch fpread, and torm large heads fit tor lopping : But their principal Hem never ad- vances in height ; therefore, where regard is paid to that they ihould be propagated by Ihort young brandies, which thould be put alniolt their whole Iji'gth in the ground, leaving only two, or at molt but three buds out of the ground. And when thefe have made one year's Ihoot they niould be all cut off, except one ot the flrongefl and bell fituated, %v'hich mult be trained up to a Item, and treated in the fame way as timber trees. Jt thefe arc planted with fuch a defign, the w I U thfr rows fliould be fix fret afun- der, and fcts four tect diflance in the row* : By planting them fo clofc they will naturally draw each other upward ; and when they arc grown fo large as to cover the ground and meet, they fhould be gradually thinned, fo as at the lalt to leave every other row, and the plants in the rows, about eight feet afunder. If they are fo treated, the trees will grow to a large fize, and rife with upright rtenis to the height of fony feet or more. *' When thefe cuttings are planted, it is ufual to Ihacpen thofe ends to a point, which are put into the ground, for the bet- ter thruftingof them in ; but the beft way is to cut them horizon- tally, juft below the bud or eye, and to make holes with an iron in the ground where each cut- ting is to be planted, and when they are put in, the ground Ihould be prelfed clofe about the cuttings with the heel, to fettle it, and prevent the air from penetrat- ing to the cuttings. " The after care rauft be to icijM| hern clear from weeds the r*m' ft feafons, by which time they will have acquired fo much ftrength, as to overpower and keep down the weeds : They will alfo require fome trimming in winter, to take off any lateral ihoots, which, it fuflered to grow, would retard their upright prog- Tcfs." WIND GALL, " a flatulent fwelluig, which yields to the prcfTure ot the finger, and recov- ers its fhape ow the removal thereof. The tumour is vifibleto the eye, and often feated on both fides of the back iinex%i, above the f ■ ' - he fore Irgs ; but : y on the hind legs ; II: are met with ia varic . of ibc bcKlv, Z 2 WIN 38f5 wherever membranes can be fo fepjiated, that a qu.mtity of air and ferofities may be included within their duplicaturer. ** When thev appear near the joints and tendons, they are gen- craly caufcd by (trains, or bruifes on the finews, or the (heath that covers them ; which, by being o^ erftretched, have fome of their fibres ruptured ; whence proba- bJy im^y ooze out th*t fluid whi^ is commonly found with the included air ; though where thefe fwellings fhew themfelves in the interfhces of large* niuf- cles. which appearblown up like bladders, air alone is the chief fluid ; and thefe may fafely be opened, and treated as a commoa wound. " On the firfl appearance of wind galls, their cure (hould bo attempted by reftringents and bandage, for which purpofe let the fwelling be bathed twice a day with vinegar, or verjuice alone, or let the part be foment- ed with a deco8ion of oak bark^ pomegranate, and alum boiled in verjuice, binding over it, with a roller, a woollen cloth foaked in the fame. Some for this pur- pofe ufe red vrh\s lee^, others curriers* (havings wetted with' the fame, bracing the part up with a firm bandage. " If tkis method, after a prop- er trial, (hould not be found to fucceed, authors have adviled that the fwelling be pierced with an awl, or opened with a Itnife ; but mild bliflcr- ing is in general preferred to thefe methods ; the included fluids being thereby drawn off, the impacted air difperfcd, and the tumour gradually dimmifh- ed. A little of the bliftering ointment (hould be laid oh every other day for a week, which brings on a plentiful difcharge, but ^26 w r K^ but generally in a lew days is dried up, when the hoi le may be t3ut to his ulnal work, and the bh'ftering oiiltmeni. ienev;e(l in that manner once a month or oftener, as the horfe can be ipared from bnfiaers, till the cure is conipleted. This is the only method to prevent, fears, which firing of courfe leaves behind, and unlefs fkilfully exe- cuted, too often likewife a ful- nefs of the joint, with ftiffiiefs. The mild blrileiing ointment, where the fublimate is left out, is the propereft for this purpofe." Bartlet's Farrttry, page 276. WINE, a general name given to any brifk and cordial liquor drawn from vegetable bodies, and fermented ; but it is the more appropriate name of the juice of the grape. My general defign wilt per- mit me only to give an abftraft of the making and management of vvines, as praftifcd in Trance. The wine prelfes that are ufed in that country arefimilar to the fcrew prefTes that we ufe in mak- ing cider, but ot more nitc and exquifite workraanihip. " In orderto make good wines, the grapes of the fame vine mult be gathered at difTereat dmes. The firll gathering (hould be the ripell clullers, cut clofe to the fruit, to avoid the fhafpnefs ; and aufterity of the flalk, and all rotteir and green grapes Ihould 1 be taken away irom the branch- ' cs. i " The fecond gathering is fome time alter the firft, when : al^that are ripened arc taken, j The third and laft gathering will ; confift of the retufe of the two former ; but no rotten grapes ihould be admitted in either. ; " A method of making wine ; in the greateft perfection is, to &rip the giapes from the Items, \ before they go into the v^i^ Wine thus made is the mellow- cfl, bell coloured, foundeft, and 'itieft for keeping. "The wine of black grapes^ may be made of almoft any col- our ; and the French make alf their wines, both white and redj from black grapes. " They who make white wine go into the vineyard in a damp niiliy or dewy morning, with a lufficient number of hands to gather a whole prefiing of grapes in a few hours, beginning very early that they may not be be- lated. They cut off the beft bunches, lay them gently in hand baflcets, in which they car- ry them to the panniers, and in the panniers pn gentle beads to the prels, taking care not to tum- ble nor bruife them. The dew increafes the quantity of the wine, but renders it weaker. When the heat is not great, the vintagers continue their work lUl eleven o'clock, otherwife they leave off at nine becaufe of a hot fun. " As foon as the grapes arrive they are thrown into the piif^'^ and file firlf prefling is giveil without delay. The wine that runs from this prefling is th^ moll delicate of any, but not the lirongeft. " After this firfl preffing, which is gentle lor fear of dif- colouring the liquor, the prefs is raifed, the fcattering grapes are laid up upon the cake, and the' fecond prefhng is given. The prefs is fcrewed down with greater lorce than before ; and this fecond running is but little' inferiour to thefirit, in flavour or colour. It has the advantage in this, that it has a ftronger body,. and will keep a longer time. Sometimes they mix the wine of the- firll and fecond preffings. " After -W I N ** After the two flill preflings, the fHtrs ol thecdk«" ot giaprsare cui ' ■ri<<*n(iiciilarly, with a fl . i > far as they ex. ccf I uif !-';:!th ot the upper P^rt of tl.r puis, which is ict down iij HI the cake. 1 he gnpea u:.n .irc cut off arc laid on tne top lA tfjc cake, and the thin! nrellinjf, commonly called the firit CTittin^, is given. The juices of this liilf cutting are ex- cellent " A fourth prrfHo^. a fifth, &c. which arc callrd a lecond and third cuttinp, 5cc. arc afterwards given, the fules ol rite cike be- ing cut do\va and laid up each time, till the grapei ceafc to yield any mf)re juice. *' The liquor of the cuttings becomes gr-idually more red, be- caufe the prcfs becomes more iorcibic on the fkin f)f the giapes, particles from which render the •wine red. " The wines of thefe different •CDttings fas the latter prelhngs are called,] are collected fepa- rately, and afterwards mixed ac- cordijig as they contain m<>re or I Icij^^thc quality that is wjnscd. ^iPie prt-ilings for while wine fhould be performed as quick as pollihic one after unoth- cr, that t!ie grapes may not have time to h.-jt, nor tlie liauor re- main long up-^n the murk. Par- ticular attention is paid to this for the two firft runninjjs, bc- caufe they are tlx" firicfl wine. ** Ot the fame bl.ick gr.ipcs, the black m')riilon5, the pineaus.and the auvernats, of which white wme IS made in Ci)an)pa:g», red wine IS made in Burgundy. " As much as the heat of the j fun is avoided by the vintaf^ers who make white wine, io niuch it is fougijt after and cholen hv thofe %irho make red wmc. TK<*(e father their grjpcs wheu the idn W I X 38f Thines hotteft ; becaafc its artiori on the outhde of the berries has more effect than fcveral days* flceping in the vat, as the gra^s then ferment very fpeedily. The otiicr cautions in gathering grapes for white wine arc obfcrv- ed here. " Souve cxprcfs the juice of thefe grapes in the open air, in the vineyard, or near it, by throwing the bunches into large tubs, and there raalhing and bruifing them to pieces with flicks, or putting children into the tubs, to tread out the juice. Others carry them home, ob- fcrving not to bruife them by the way, and put thetn in a vat, in which they arc trodden and maflied. This is repealed, in ei- tiier cafe, till the veiiel is lull ; after which the broken grapes lie m the liquor more or icfs time, according to the heat of the weather, the flavour of the mulf, and the degree of colour intend- ed to be given to the wine. During this time, the whole is frequently fi'nred together, the better to raife a fermentation, and tinge the liquor with a due degree of red. " Some fay the grapes flioidd lie in the liquor foity eight hours, while orhcrs talk of let- ting 'them infufe [even or eight days, or longer. Buitheautljors of the Maijon Rujcqur fay that the duration of the infuiion of the hulks Ihould be pro])ortioneti to the heat of the weather, tiie qual- ity of the gfapes, and the intend- ed colour of the wine. For the Coula;ige wine four hours only are allowed. The wine is apt to contra£l a rough uefs from the ilalks, if it remains too long on them ; and ux> nnich fermenting ot the mull renders the w\r\c liarfli and coarfe, depriving it oi iu voM volatile parts. Others make 388 W I N make it a rule not to draw off their mud till its head begins to fall ; but this is evidently wrong, becaufe a great part of the moll aftive fpirits of the liquor is thus evaporated, " Indeed, for thicker, heavier and coarfer wines than thofe of Burgundy and Orleans, which are chiefly intended above ; fuch, for example, as the Bourdeaux claret, a whole day is frequeritly allowed for iteeping of the hufks, and fometimes more, before the prefs is recurred to, " When the mult has ferment- ed upon the hufks in the tubs or. vars, as long as is thought proper, it is poured or drawn off, ilrain- ed, and put into cafks. After- wards the murk, that is, the re- mainder of the grapes at the bot- tom of the tub or vat, is colleded together, and put into the prefs, and preffed three or four times, ] till it is perfetlly dry, the fides being cut down each time, as in making white wine. The liquor thus obtained, efpecially if the prefs be fcrewed fo tight as to crack the feeds of the grapes, has a ftronger body than the former running, but not any part of its fine, high and delicate flavour. Some, however, mix a little of it with their other wines; to ilrengthen them, and make them keep the better. " Others, from a fpirit of econ- omy, pour as much water as they think proper upon the murk in the vat, immediately a«er the m-ufl has been drawn off. They do it without delay, left the murk fhould turn four, as it is apt to do. Then they ifir it a- bout, and leave it upon the murk, a longer or fhorter time, according to the heat of the weather, till they find it pretty high coloured, and judge that it his ijicorporated all the remain- W I N ing particles and fpirit of the wine. Th-ey then draw this wa- ter off into another veffel, and carry the remaining murk to the prefs, where they fqueeze it till no moifture remains in it. The liquor thus expreffed is mixed witfi that which was drawn off be- fore, and is then barrelled. This is chiefly intended for common ufe, or rather for fervants ; but it will keep no longer than dur- ing the following winter, though it is brifk and pleafant enough while it keeps good. " Another ufe the French make of the murk, is, to mend fuch of their wines, v/hetherold or new, as are deficient in colour or flrength. They turn them out of the cafks into the vat immediately after the muft has been drawn off, llir the murk up fo as to mix it thoroughly with the wine, and let it fland twenty four hours if It be new wine, and tweh'e hours if it be old. -When they find it has taken a fuflicient degree of colour, and that it is not fweet to the tafle, but agreeable to drink ; they draw it off; bar- rel it up feparately, that they may know it again, and put the remaining murk to the preis. " The white unripened grapes, that were rejected at the former gatherings, are to hang on the vines till the latter end of Ofto- ber, or beginning of November, that they may be a little bitten by the froft. They are then gathered, and a wine is made of them, which is fold quite warm from the vat, and does wejl enough to mix with a coarfered wine. " When the murk has under- gone the utmoft dint of preffing, it will be as bard as a flone ; but even then it will yield, when di- luted with water, fermented and difliiled, a fpirit for medical and domeftick ufes. ♦'In W I M *• In leveral parts of Germany, ■where the grapes kldom come to lull maturity, the makers of vine have iron Uoves in xUcxt •\vine cellars, •. conftant fire m them .: time ot their fermcniaiuti. i'hi*, by heightening the fermentation, rij>ens and meliorates the wines, and renders them more p bated, which is known by the froth's ceafinj; to arife fo taft as before, the bung may be clofed. down.after filling up ihecaik with liquor to within f.vo in"! of the top.andaventholetJ:. n- ed and left, to carry t er ! may be thrown up by any lubfe- 1 qucnt fermentation. This filling I up ot the cafk fhould be regularly performed, every two days, for a- bout twelve days ; for the fer- mentation will continue a confid- erable time in lt)me degree : And if the cafks be not kept fo full as that the loulnefs thrown up b>'* the fermentation may be car- ried off at the vent hole, it will tall back again into the wine and prevent its becoming clear. Af- i terwards it mull benlled to with- in an inch ot the bung, every* fifth or fixth day for a month r After this, once a fortnight for three months. " 1 hough the fermentation will be over in a (}iorter time, yet the cafks rauft be filled uj> once a month, fo long as they re- main in the cellar. For as the wine will inlenlil)Iy wade in them, it will grow fiat and heavy, if it be not conifantiy kept filled up. They Ihoulii be filled up with a wine of the fame kind, kept in forne fmali vefTel, or ia bottles, tor this purpofe ; and the vent holes muff lie ftop{)cd when tfie fermentation is (^vcr. " The firll dr.-- -'^ '-m the lees is done-. le of Dcccrrbcr. . i Hand without t'l! )T •j.acr 590 WIN ^iflurbance, till the middle of February, when it will be right to dra'A' the liquor off again into other cafks. If the quantity of lees is then found to be To con- iiierable as to endanger their contracting a putrid taint, by re- maining too long mixed with the wine, it may be advifable to draw it off again, after a proper interval ot time : Or fometimes it may be neceffary to repeat the Tacking many times. But in racking, though care fliould be taken to keep the cafks full, Avines of difTjmilar qualities fhould not be mixed. " The lees of feveral cafks that have been racked off may be col- lected together, and when the thicker part has fubfided, a fpirii may be drawn from the thinner. " When wine is to be tranf- ported, and thereby neceflTarily expofcd to a warmer air, brandy is often added, to check the propenfity to a new fermenta- tion. It is alfo fometimes done to give flrength to the wine ; but the practice is not to be recom- mended, unlefs applied before the fermentation is completed. *' It is neceiTary for the prefer- vation of fome wines, which are apt to be on the fret, to iumigate the cafks with burning briinitone. This refifts fennentation. But the colour of red wines is faid to be deftroyed by it. The colour of wine is frequently artificial. A deep yellow is made by burnt fugar : A deep red, which is not natural to any wine, is almoft al- ways made by red woods, elder berries, bilberries, &c. " Turbid wines are fined by a mixture of the whites and (hells of eggs, powdered alabaffer, and ifingiafs. The fhells and alabaf- ter may corrett a fraall degree of acidity. Ifingiafs alone wiii iine it in a few days. W I N " If wine is grown very four, the befl way of corre6}ing it, fo as to preferve the fpirit and fla- vour, is, adding a quantity of fak of tartar, fufhcient to neutralize the acid, juft before the wine is ufed. " If it be intended that wine fliould not froth, the befl time for dra^ving it off, whether into bottles or cafks, is when the weather is extremely fair and clear, the barometer high, and the wind northerly ; becaufe the air is then cooltff, and the wine 4eaft apt to be upon the fret." Raifin Wine is a wine made from raifins ffeeped in water. " Take thirty gallons of foft water, either rain or river water, in as clear a ffate as pofTible. Put it into a vefTel at leait one third bigger than will contain that quantity ; and then add to it one hundred weight of Malaga raifins picked from the ftalks. Mix the whole well together, that the raifins may not remain in clotted lumps : And then cover it partly, but not entirely, with a linen cloth; and let it ftand in a v.-ann place, if the feafon be not hot. It will foon ferment, and mufl be well ftirred about, twice in four and twenr\- hoars, for twelve or fourteen days. It mufl: then be ex- amined by the tafle, to try it the fweetnefs be nearly gone off ; and if that be found fo, and the fermentation be greatly abated, which will be perceived by the raifins lying quietly at the bot- tom, the fluid muil be 'ftraincd off, and preffed out of the raifins, firft by hand, and afterwards by a prefs, if it can be eafily procur- ed. But, inftead of a prefs, two boards may be ufed, with the af- fiftance cf a large weight, or oth- er flrong force, which rauft be continued as long as any flmd can be made to drop from the mafs. W I K *mafs. The fluid In-ing thus ftp- aijtcil lioni the Ikins ut the mi- iins, mull he put iiuo a good found wine cMk, well dried and waituod, t(»^tth«T with eight pounds of Lilbon fugar. and a lit- tle yeafl. But fbme paitol tl:e liq- uor mull bekeptuut, to be added from time to time, as tlie abate- ment ot the fermentation, that "Will come on again, may admit, Avithout the wine riling out of the caik. In this itate it mull continue tor a month, with the bung hole open : And then, the wiiok ot the liquor kept out hav- ing been now put into the velRd, it niuft be clofcly flopped up, fo that no air may enter : And in this ftate it mulH be kept a year, or longer : then bottK-d off". ** The wine may be drunk, anr- tion of (ligar aiKi raifins, and a proportion of clean malt Ipirit added, when the bung of the calk is doled up. ** Any other kind of large rai- fins may bo ufed, inflcad of tfie Malagi. The thinner the fkins arc, and the fweeter the pulp, the Oroncer the wme will be." WINNOW I. \G. clearing corn from its tftall by wind. Sec the article I'un. W I T ^f WINTKR, one of the four quarters of tlic year. According to fome, winter be- gins at tlie time when {he fun's di (lance from the zenith of the place is greatoff, and ends at the, vernal equinox. But it is more uliully cikiilidiTod a$ including December, |.muary, and Februa- ry. Notwifhlt.inding the cold of winter, it is proved by aftron- omers, that the fun is nearer to the earth in winter than in fum- mer. The reafon of the cold is the incrcaled obliquity of the rays of the fun, together with tlie increafcd length of the nights. Winter is the feafon when the days are fliorieU : Hut tfic Ihort- 1 ncfs of the days is little regretted i by our farmcrs,as they have tlien j tlie moff leifure, or are leaft hur- ried in their bulinefs. l*'or, in this country, the ground is fo- ; continually frozen in winter^. I that none of the operations ok* j tillage can be performed. TIte I good hufbandman, however, is ; not idle ; his trees in the begin- j niiig of winter are to be pruned. I and his flock inuft be daily ami ' carefully tended : Stones which i Irave been piled may in the eafi- 1 ell manner be removed on lleds I to the places where they arc I wanted, for fencing or other ufes. ; Such of the produce of his farm as he can fpire may be carried to I market, wliith may be more ea-^ fily done than at any other feafon, I See the article Enf^loynicnt. WINIKK (JRAIN. fee the articles ITkeat and Rye. \ WIIHK, a twig or (hoot oF I tough \^■^>^^d, tiled inftead of a rope, to tie things together, &c. Younfr Ihoots of walnut wood . arc proper for withes ; thofe oF birch, and of fome kinds of wil- ! low,anlwer well enough. Withes I in fences will laf) only twt)>ears 1 at the loiigcll ; and fome of them we, '392 \V O L are apt to fail fooner. Thofe which are cut in autumn, after the leaves are fallen, will laft con- fiderably longer than thofe which are cut in the fpring or fummer. If they lie for a day or two ex- pofed to the fun, after they are cut, they grow tougher, and are more eafily twifted. Steeping them in fait water v/ill render them more durable. WOAD, called by botanifts Jfatis Jhtiva , vel Intifolia. The Jeaves of this plant are cut off in their full fap, fweated in heaps, and ground to a pafte, made up into balls and dried, to be ufed in dving blue. WOLF, a wild beaf^ of the dog kind. This animal is very fierce, e- qual in fize to a large maftiff, and has much the fame appearance. . Wolves are gregarious, go in droves, and furprife the nightly traveller with their hideous yell- ing. No beaft of prey in this country is more formidable ; they fometiraes attack men. Newengland, even from its firft fettlement, has been much infefted v;ith wolves. And,not- withftanding the bounties that have been given by government for deflroying them, the fettle- ments bordering on the wilder- nefs are ftill fubject to their mifchievous incurfions ; fo that there is little fafety tor (heep in thefe fituations. Almofl whole flocks in a night are fometimes deftroyed by them. This expo- fure to wolves IS equal to a heavy tax upon our frontier planta- tions. To fecure the flieep from this enemy, it is necelTary that they be paftured in the open fields by * leagues, which they march in lefs than forty days. As foon as April comes, the fheep exprefs, by va- rious uneafy motions, a ftrong deiire to return to their fummer habitations. The fheep of Eflre- niadura, which never travel, have coarfe, long, hairy wool, i he itinerant fheep have fhort, filky, white wool; the finenefs of which is owing to the animal's pafTing its life in the open air, of equal temperature ; for it is not colder in Andalulia or Eftremadura in winter, than it is in Montana oc Molina in fummer." The flieep, by thefe judicious removal*, arc grazing both in fummer and win- ter, and are never expofed to ex- trerar heats or colds. Nexttothi* management infufar fitiutions ia temperate climates are the befl places for the ronflant feeding of ftcep, wU*re Uic extremes ot heat '^4 W O R and cold are not fo great as on a continent in the fame latitude. WORMS, a wel! known fprciesot infects. Fields and gardens arc often intelled by worms. The beft an- tidotes are, dre flings of fea ma- nures, wetting the ground with fea water. Soot, hine, and afhes fprinkicd on the ground, oppofe their ravages. The rcfufe brine of faltcd meat, or water in which walnut leaves have been fteeped ior two or three weeks, Iprin- kled on gardens, will fubdue the worms. The water of fait fprings may be ufed with great advan- tage by thofewhoare near them. Thofe who are remote from them, and from the fea, may ufe fait and water, and fuch other antidotes as they can molt eafily procure. When worms breed in horfes, it arifes from weak digeltion, or a vitiated appetite. To cure a horfe ct bots : " Take quickfilver two drams ; Venice turpentine half an ounce ; rsib the quickfilver till no giiftening appears ; then take an ounce of aloes, a dram ot grated ginger, thirty drops of oil ot favin, and fyrup of buckthorn enough to make the whole into a ball. " One of thefe balls may be 'given every fix days, v/ith the ulual precautions with regard to mercurial phyfick : And the fol- !n-.ving powders intermediately. 1 ake powdered tin and yEthiops mineral, ot each an ounce ; and give it every night in a niaili, or in his corn. " Theie medicines, or any ot liie various preparacions of anti- n:ony and mercury, fhould be continued feveral weeks togeth- er, in order to free the animal entirely from thefe vermine." B-firtiei's farriery. 'W 6 V WOUND, a hurt given hj violence. "In all freth wounds made by cutting inftruments, there is nothing more required than bringing the lips of the wound into contact by future or bandage, provided the part will allow of it ; for on wounds of the hips, or other prominent parts, andacrofs fome of the large mufcles, the ititches are apt to burll on the horfe's lying down and rifing up in the Itall. In fuch cafes, the lips fhould not be brought clofe together. One flitch is fufficient tor a wound two inches long.; but in large wounds may be at an inch or more diffance ; and if the wound is deep in the mufcles, care fhoul-d be taken to pafs tjie needles proportionably deep, otherwife the wound will notu- nite properly at the bottom. " Should the wound bleed much from an artery divided, the firll ftep fhould be to fecure it, by pafTing a crooked needle un- derneath, and tying it up with a waxed thread. It theartery can- not be got at this way, apply a button of lint or tow to the mouth of the bleeding vefTel, dipped in a flrong folution ot blue vitriol, ftyptic water, oil of vitriol, or hot oil ot turpentine, powdered vitriol, or colcother, &c. and re- member always fo apply it clofe to the mouth of the bleeding vef- feis, and take care that it is kept there by proper compiefs and bandage, till an efchar is formed ; otherwife it will elude your ex- pectations, and frequently alarm you with frefh bleedings. " In a healthy and found con- flitution, nature furnifhes the befl balfam, and performs herfelf the cure, which is fcj often attrib- uted to medicine. When it is oth- erwife, and the blood is deprived of its balfiraick Hate, as will ap- peal \ t A r of hcal- year n vound. . Jng. ' ' ;>- cr : .« .j:i tcr I. > extern: tMDS. '* The lips of the wound being brr- iher by the needle or I t needs only to be covered wiiii rags dipped in brandy, or a pledget of tow fpread with the wound ointment, and the Wfvjndcd part kept as much as poilible from motion. ** Remeoibcr to drcfs all the wounds of the joints, tendons and membranous parts, with ter- ebinthinate medicines: To which may be added honey and tinc- ture of myrrh ; and avoid all frcafy applications whatever, omentations and poultices are alfo generally here of great ufe ; the former thin and attenuate the impai-ted fluids, greatly promote a tree perfpiration of the limb, and tacilitate the unloading the furchargeof the veUcIs, by quick- ening the motion ot the fluids ; while the latter, by relaxing the veffcls, .'. 'V lenfion, and relieve ;. ..trion by pro- rooting digcliiuu. BartUi's ri r:rry. ^ar. X, j> Dr. Johnfoii obfcr\ c>, Wgins no word in the Englilh JincT.M-r,'. How then can it be f . to begin any article in V 1:: 1. 395 1 i.LLO \V W KED. meadow crow icot, Riviun: uluj. This wcrd IS known in I-t-S- land bv il»c n.iinci, king coh. m '.low 1 .;'w ;i^'..cis. \\.ii June, and are ot a colour, give oi:r :: and paltures a vcr ance. It is of a \cjy hoi .i.iJ acrid nature, and i? eaten in its green ftate bv neither neat cattle nor horfes. Therefore, the opin- ^ ion of its increafing the ycllow- ncli ol butter in fu-.tr.cr i» groundlefs. Sec the ar.icle ! li'fcds. This weed, when dried, j is fo gotnl fodder, that hungry j cattle (e'ldom leave any pan of it. YELLOWS, a difeafe inci- dent to horfes and neat cattle, more properly called the jauo- dice. 1 he vulg.u- name ol this difeafe in neat cattle is, theOvfr- fioiLing cjthe Gail. See that ar- ticle. *' Horfes arc frequently fuhjccl to this dillemper. which is known by a dufky yellownefs ol the eyes : The infide of the mouth and lips, the tongue and bars of the roof ol the mouth looking alfo yellow. The creature i«i dull, and refufcs all niiumer ol rood ; the fever is IU)W, yel bo:h t hit and the yellownefs incrciU- together. Tue dunz is otteii hitid and dry, ol a pale yellow, or light pale green. His unne is commonly ot a tlark duty brown colour ; and when it has lettlcd fonie time on the ?. •< i-- msnt. it looks red lii. He lblc5 with io"- ...» difficulty, and il tl. r is ^ \ .'■\i\ '• . .1 inraT'irr''.! . 1. . liu lOi .. .. catt! i .c in :i- and d «l t-C-:Jk-, 396 Y E L ticable, and ends fatally with a waflingdiarrhcEa : Butwherithe ' (trong and (lifT when feafoned, fuch as hickory or white oak, and be well tilted to their necks. And a bow ihould be large, about an inch and a half in diameter tor large oxen, not only for (Irength, but becaufe U ••^iU be eaficr to tiie ox. The principal ufe of the ring is, to receive the end ot the tongue ot a cart or Qed. This gives the ojfcn command of the carriage. ZAPETINO, the Italian hoe. This inftrumcnt is a finall hoe at one end, and lias two pn r;^-s at the other. It is fomctimcs made with an eye for the infer- tion ot the handle ; fomctimes with a (hank to drive into the handle. With one end ot this inrtruinent, weeds are cut up in gardens ; with the other, roots are drawn out, and the ground loofened to the depth of five or fix inches. ZEA, a name given to Turkey com, or maize. See the ariiclo Indian corn. ZEBRA, the -wild afs. This animal is faid to be ex- tremely beautitul. It ii^in fi/e about equal to the common afs, but ot a much more elegant fig- ure. The whole animal is party coloured, or l>eautifully ftripcd in a tranfverfe direction, with long and broad (Ireaks, alternate- ly ot a deep, glofTy and fhining brown and white, with fome black. It is a native of many parts of the eaft. ZEPHYR, the weR wind. ZEST, an apartment in a bam, where corn to be thrafbed is laid up. THE END. > M^ y