l^S i 20A]£D OP '■■^ MEW-ENGLAND^iiSIS-JiTlieE, | FARMERS' AND xMECHANICS^ JOURNAL. CONDUCTjED BY E. HOLMES, M. D. ^-ROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, NATURAL HISTORY, AND AGRICUtTURE, IN GARDINER LYCEUM. •' If the hand of industry is not directed by the head of science, it becomes in a great degree paralyzed and powerless."— Tt.ss%ifSEix, VOL. I. GART>INER, ME, PUBLISHED BY P. SHELDON Printed at tlie Intelligencer Office. H 4*4-4-5 v.. \ ZNDEX. Adhesion of plane surfaces, . _ _ 135, 174 Agricultural Queries, - . - - 66, 93, 134 Agriculture, pleasures of, - - . . 186 Atrricultural Society of Hancock, _ - - 20 Alabaster, etching and cleaning of, - _ - 177 Answer to query relating to green wood for pannels, - 36 Antidote for lead poisons, - - - - 120 Animal charcoal, _ - - - 130 Animals of either sex, how to procure, . - - 188 Apples, pine, - - - - - 392 " preserving of, - - - - - 213 " Pomace, uses of, - - - - 235 Arts, mechanical, dignity of, - - - - 2 Architecture, naval, remarks on, . _ - 26 Artificial mahogany, - - - - - 59 B. Bacon, mode of preparing, _ , ^ 261 " mode of preserving, ----- 263 Barber's mode of planting scions, . _ _ 115 Beef, mode of pickling, - - _ - 215 Bees, management of, - - - - 118 *' destruction of, by the miller, prevented, - - 196 " honey, care and rearage of, - - - 235 Black dye and ink preparation, - - - - 22 Blaeking Ball for shoes, - - - - . 23 Blacking and polishing Leather, composition for, - - 179 Black's Sensible Balance, - - - - 196 Bliss' Moveable Hay Press, - - - - 1 Blood, erroneous judgment respecting the stains of, - 191 Bone Glue, - - - - - - 10 Box Machine, Pearson & Howe's, - - - 120, 1 every branch of science ; monopoly in intellect may now be said to be vanishing ; and empiricism is obliged to seek dark corners, to escape the light which is penetrating into regions from which it had but very lately been excluded. The administration, too, encourages advance of knowledge ; yet notwithstanding these fa- vorable circumstances, there still exists, in some minds, an inapti- tude of scientific perception, which induces unwillingness to ac- knowledge the advantage that results from the application of the exact sciences to the useful arts. This neglect of scientific principles is nowhere more manifest than in the affairs of Naval Architecture, and it is not confined to the Royal Navy, but extends also to our mercantile shipping ; and hence it is that our commercial marine is in some respects behind foreign nations, especially the Americans, in the formation of its ships ; our merchantmen are, almost without exception, the most unsafe and slowest ships in the world. The ship-owners, there- fore, would do well to consider this circumstance, and endeavor to devise means of introducing science into the merchant yards. — The establishment of ihe new University in the metropolis, affords an opportunity of doing it at a comparatively small expense, by the foundation of Lectures on the theory of Naval Architecture ; and the support even of a separate institution in the vicinity of the mer- chant yards of this great port, for the education of ship surveyors, would soon be repaid by the improved character of our merchant shipping. If the science of Naval Architecture depends on certain physico- mathematical laws, as no doubt it does, it is monstrous to imagine for a moment, that such laws can be developed by a flight of fancy, or that a man is born with an intuitive optical perception of the lines of least resistance, (Stc, or, in the jargon of the craniologists, that he has a naval-architectural bump on his skull ; yet one would think that such was the case, when we see men, we cannot say philosophers, start up and loudly assert that they are in possession of the secret of construction : and they are believed, because their hypotheses are never submitted to the examination of those who are capable of detecting their fallacy. The Exj^erimental S()uadrons have, with a multitude of perplex- ing results, elicited, it must be confessed, at least an interesting fact, viz : that there has been an establishment seventeen years in this country, in Portsmouth dock-yard, for the scientific education of naval architects, for the Royal Navy. From the plan of educa- tion, as laid down by the Commissioners of Naval Revision in 1810, it appears that, to a requisite knowledge of the practice of their profession, the gentlemen composing this body of naval con- structors, unite a sound and competent one of its theory. It can only he from such a source that we can look for the im- provement of our men of war, and it is to be regretted that every NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 29 means should not be taken to avail ourselves of it : but unhappily such is the force of prejudice that, unless some alteration should be adopted in this institution, it will be in vain to expect advan- tage from it. The obiection urged against this establishment, namely, that the scie^ititic education it gives to its members, prechides them from the aftainnicnt cf a due knowledge of the practical construction of our ships, is so absurd, that none but weak or jealous minds could ever have brought it forward. Shall it be laid down, in the pre- sent age, as an axiom, that a profound ignorance of the principles of his art is the one thing essential to the foiination of what is gerierally meant by the term " practical man ■" We contend that, having made, in vain, a long and most indulgent trial of a system without science, if we may use such an expression, we must extend to one in alliance with it, a like patronage, before we can be allow- ed to pronounce a fair and legitimate judgment upon its efficiency. 7$ 7^ yf- yf- yf "ft "^ But, to return to the Exj)erimental Squadron : it is with regret that we must conclude, upon a careful consideration, that, although the experiments are carried on with so much vigor and interest, they are evidently founded on imaginative views, and that there cannot exist any thing like legitimate data where so many failures and anomalous results obtain. Who can read the account of the first Experimental Squadron, without immediately perceiving that the constructors of the contending vessels, liowever sanguine each might have been of the success of his paiticular fancy, met with nothing but the most perplexing results ? We see sometimes one and sometimes the other vessel claim the palm of excellence, and finally leaving the subject as much in the dark as ever. This is the natural consequence of the non-application of inductive phi- losophy to the question before us, and the most important cosicju- sion that can be gathered from the exj:!eriment is, that we have be- gun at the wrong end, and that it is high time to employ analysis instead of synthesis to eflect the desired objects : for in the [)resent state of the theory of naval construction in this country, there are yet no data existing to effect witli precision and confidence, the synthetical composition of a ship. ******* After so many years of trial with the present nearly invariable set of principal dimensions, during which period it may be said, that every possible contour of hull has been experimented on with them, we are inclined to think that almost all has been done that could be done under such restrictions, and that some great step must be made in one or other of the principal dimensions them- selves, with correspondent alterations in the masting, before we can expect to see a decided and great improvement in the sailing of our ships. 'J he depth is an element whicii has arrived at its limit from very apparent external causes ; but tiie length and breadth remain to the skilful constructor without any such clogf (o his endeavors ; and he has oniy to accommodate their relation to 30 farmers' and mechanics' journal. each other in the manner most conducive to velocity, whicli in our opinion is the very capital object of naval construction, both in ships of war and of commerce. That it is so in the former, no one will, we apprehend, on due reflection deny ; but there will be many who will assert that it cannot be obtained, in the latter, with- out a sacrifice of capacity, which will defeat the object of carrying large cargoes : to this we may reply, thai if a vessel with an ex- pense of one quarter the capacity can make three voyages instead of /zoo, will not the merchant be still a considerable gainer in ca- pacity, and still more so by a ready return of his capital ?* All observations on well-conducted experiments concur in prov- ing that velocity is gained by increasing the length, to a much greater degree in relation to the breadth, than has ever yet been done in ships ; and that the increase of the same element contri- butes to their weathering powers, is too obvious to need insisting upon : it is also generally advantageous, when not carried to an extent whicli would seriously retard the manoeuvring of the ship. This limit has not yet by any means been determined ; for it must \w. recollected, that, although the additional length increases the resistance to rotation about a vertical axis, yet the power of the sails to give rotation about the same is also increased, although not in so high a ratio. The power of the rudder to produce rotation is also greater in a long ship than in a short one, not only on ac- count of the greater distance it is from the axis of rotation, but also on account of the greater velocity, and the more direct im- pulse of the water on it. ******* We repeat that the very capital object of the science of Naval Construction is velocity, and we are decidedly of opinion that it is attainable in a much higher degree than at present, without com- promising other necessary qualities, for which we have the concur- rence of facts as far as they go. The Americans, in the last war, took every possible advan- tage suggested by views similar to those we have been advert- ing to, in the construction of their large frigates. They had, it may be said, to create a martial navy, and they had to oppose it against tearful odds ; but. free from the prejudices and errors so blindly cherished by their opponents, and which constantly oppose reform by always declaring the present practice to be the best, they did not retread the old path, but began at its last step, and boldly advanced on this principle into all the branches of the art. They built vessels upon the most enlarged dimensions, and of a su- perior weight of metal, and gave an increased ratio of length to the breadth. The result of such a procedure, justified the confidence of the American naval architects in only one maxim, founded upon the scientific observation of facts, and may give us a faint idea of what might be etTected by a still more enlarged and mathematical * Foreign nations, and more particularly the American?, find tlieir ad- vantage in having swift niercliant ships, and therefore our assertion i? warranted by facts. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 31 analysis. Our frigates were so inferior to theirs in every way, that they brought nothing but disasters upon us, excepting in the action between the Shannon and Chesapeake, and one or two others, where, assured by their previous successes, our gallant opponents threw away the advantages possessed by their ships, by coming to close quarters at once, and deciding the contest liand to hand. — Our ships of the line could never bring these frigates to action, and owing alone to their extraordinary sailing, did they evade and mock a large British fleet. We were iinally obliged to build 60-gun fri- gates after their method, but when it was too late for the exigency of the period ; and thus it has ever been our fate, for want of sci- ence in the constructors of our navy, to follow the steps of our ene- mies at a humble distance, and to be only then driven oat of the old track by a terrible experience of its inefficiency. Nor have the Americans stopped here : — Mr. Huskisson plainly tells us, that " America is, year after year, augmenting its military marine, by building ships of v/ar of the largest class." According to Capt. Brenton, they have built a tirst-rate of '245 feet length on the gun deck, and 56 feet broad,* to carry 42-pounders on the lower deck, and 3r2-ponnders on the other decks. Our small class of 74-gun ships lately converted into frigates, carrying y?/"l!?/ 32-pounder guns, we are fearful can only produce disappointment if ever brought against the American frigates, (not by conversion, but by construction^) which carry sixty-two guns of the small calibre, and arc 180 feet long ori the gun deck. 7^ tP ^ 7p flp 7f 7? From what has been said, and the actual experiments now pend- ing, it is apparent that the theoretic construction of ships is at a very low ebb in this country ; yet a fine opportunity now presents itself, if we choose to avail ourselves of it, for rescuing the nation from this generally acknowledged odiism. I^et a projjer use be made of the corps of Naval Architects we have, somehow or other, at last got, and let their exertions, under a degree of encouragcn)ent equal to that bestowed on the old ship-builders in vain for so long a period, be directed towards the improvement of their art. li they fail, they cannot claim the excuse of having their endeavors repressed ; if they succeed, as no doubt they will, in advancing their profession to something beyond mere carpentry, we shall be enabled to bid adieu to the old and ruinous nielhod of blunderinij, under the reign of which nothing but disappointment can ever be reasonably expected. We have seen and do still see the immense advantages derived by our country, from the encouragement of those branches of sci- ence connected with its manufactures and agriculture ; and if we wish to keep our present superiority, we must follow up vigorously this principle in all its universality. To the cavils of ignorance and bigotry against such a mode of proceeding, we would answer. in the words of one of the most enlightened members of the pre- * These dimensions carry the ratio of tho lengtli to breadtli abovf 41-2 to 1. 32 farmers' and mechanics' journal. sent administration, " This country cannot stand still, whilst others are advancing in science, in industry, in every thing which contri- butes to increase the power of empires, and to multiply the means of comfort and enjoyment to civilized man." JONES, ON JAPANNING AND VARNISHING....N0. 2. In treating upon this subject, the spirit varnishes will claim our first attention, as they are used for a greater number of purposes, than either of the other species. it is intended in these papers to preserve, in general, a syste- matic arrangement, but as it will sometiines happen that a recipe may present itself, or a process become known, after we have passed that point which it would have occupied in a perfect sys- tem, we shall not, on this account, refuse a place to any thing which is deemed useful. Oil Alcohol. — The various kinds of spiiituous liquors, derive their strength, their combustibility, and their intoxicating property, from the presence of one ingredient, which is common to them all, this ingredient is denominated alcohol. Proof spirit, whether known under the name of whiskey, gin, rum, or brandy, consists of about equal parts of alcohol, and of water ; the peculiar flavor and odour of each being derived from the accidental presence of some portion of the article from which it has been distilled, and from which it may completely, although not easily, be separated by rec- tification. The liquid usually sold under the name of spirits of zvine, is in general a highly rectified spirit, intermediate between proof spirit and alcohol ; but not sutticiently concentrated for the purpose of making varnish. The name however will not serve as a guide, as the two are frequently used without discrimination, and the purchaser fails in his attempt to dissolve the resins, in sufficient quantity to make varnish, in consequence of the weakness of the liquid employed. The goodness of the alcohol should first be ascertained, and if it contains any notable quantity of water, it must be re:;ected, or the water must be separated from it, which may be readily done by a method to be presently described. The most common way of testing the strength of the spirit, is to put a small quantity of gun- powder into a cup, and to pour a small portion of the spirit u[)on it, so as to moisten it ; the spirit is then inflamed, and if when burnt out, it fires the powder, the spirit is accounted good ; this however is a very imperfect test, as a weak spirit may fire the powder, if but a small portion is dropped on it, the quantity of water which it contains, not being sutHcient to wet the powder throughout, whilst a stronger spirit, if applied in large quantity, may leave a sufficient portion of water to prevent the combustion. The readiest practical method of determining whether alcohol will answer the purpose, is to (ill a large vial with it. and then to JONES, ON JAPANNIN6 AND VARNISHING. 33 drop into it a small lump of potash, or pearlash, which hr.s been hesited very hot over the fire, to expel its moisture, and which has not afterwards been sutfered to become cold ; the vial is then to be well shaken, and if the lump remains dry, or nearly so. the alcohol is good, but if any considerable portion of it is dissolved, it is unfit for use. Should the alcohol not prove good, it may be rectified, by put- ting into the bottle in which it is contained, a considerable portion of potash, prepared, and warm as before directed ; if there is much water present, the potash ought to be equal in weight to one-third of the alcohol ; on shaking the bottle, the water will dissolve the potash, and this solution will fall to the bottom of the vessel, form- ing two distinct liquids, as separate from each other as oil and wa- ter ; after this has stood for some time, the alcohol must be care- fully poured otF, and the same operation may be repeated. The watery solution, and the lumps of potash, may be put into an iron pot, and again dessiccated, when it will answer the same purpose,, as well as at first. The above process, will leave the alcohol of a reddish color, of which it may be deprived by distillation ; but this color is of no consequence whatever in the making of ordinary varnishes, as it will not give a sensible tinge, excepting to the lightest kinds. When it is desired to deprive the alcohol of this color, and the means of distilling it are not at hand, it may be accomplished by putting into the spirit a small portion of calcined (or burnt) alum, the acid of which will combinti with the potash, which will then fall to the bottom. Should the alcohol still retain any coloring matter, it may be rendered perfectly colorless, by filtration through fresh burnt, pulverized charcoal. The method of doing this, and also a simple apparatus, by which any one may accomplish its distillation, will hereafter be described, for the sake of those who live at dis- tance from large towns, and are unable to purchase it in a state of purity. There is another mode of trying the strength of alcohol, and that is by its spedjic graviti/^ or the weight of a certain bulk of it, com- pared with the same bulk of water ; the greater its purity, the less it weighs, and when perfectly pure, its weight is but little more than four-fifths of that of water ; suppose, therefore, you have a vial, which, when filled to a mark made on its neck, holds exactly live ounces of water, the same vial, filled with alcohol, to the same mark, ought (o coiilain but a small fraction more than four ounces. The philosopher may require greater precision, but for the practi- cal man the foregoing method is sufficiently coirect, atid may readi- ly be employed. It is evident, that the size of the bottle is unim- portant, provided the weight of the alcohol, which it will contain, IS but little above four-fifths of the weight of its contents of water. On Lac, or Lacca. — Lac is a resinous substance, imported Irom the East Indies, where it is found on several species of trees ; be- ing deposited on the twigs by an insect, the coccus lacca. Lac is brought to us in three states, known nndpr the denominations of .5 Vol.. L 34 farmers' and mechanics' journal. stick-lac, seed-lac. and shell-lac. The former consists of the resin attached to the twigs, the seed-lac is the substance separated fronn the wood, the shell-lac is in the form of thin lamina, or plates. Lac in its native state, contains a considerable quantity of coloring matter, of which it is nearly deprived, before it is exported, as it is employed in India, for giving a beautiful red, and some other tints, to cotton, and other goods. In the application of Lac to the purpose of varnishing, we shall confine our observations to seed-lac, and shell-lac ; and as the lat- ter is the kind most extensively employed, we shall consider it first. The books inform us, that shell-lac consists of the seed-lac puri- fied, fused, and run into thin plates. 'J here is, however, sufficient reason to doubt the correctness of this statement, as the shell-lac is much cheaper than the seed-lac, is more fusible, much more easily dissolved in alcohol and forms a softer varnish ; it is highly proi)al)le. therefore, that shell-lac contains a considerable portion o^ some cheaper resin, with which the lac is fused, at the time of its formation. ShcU-lac Varnish. — In making spirit varnishes, it will be found that the resin to be dissolved, may be from one-third to one-fourth of the weight of the alcohol employed ; a complete solution of a larger quantity cannot be eirecled ; and some of the resins used are much less soluble than this. The best shell-lac, is that which is most transparent, and which has the greatest brilliancy of surface. Its hardness is also a good test ; of two portions, that which is least easily scratched with the point of a knife, may be considered as the best. To every pint of alcohol, from three to four ounces of shell- lac may be added ; glass bottles are generally employed for contain- ing the mixture, but vessels made of tin are much to be preferred, for very obvious reasons. The shell-lac ought not to be pulveriz- ed, but may be put into the spirits, in pieces as large as the vessel will admit. In warm weather it is not necessary to place it near a fire, as it will, if frequently shaken, dissolve in the course of a day. Frequent shaking is of importance in making this, and many other varnishes, as the resin will otherwise agglutinate into one mass, and will be afterwards dissolved with difficulty. In cold weather the bottle may be placed near a fire, so as to keep it slightly warm ; if much heated, there will be a considerable loss of alcohol, by evapo- ration ; there should be a small notch cut the whole length of the cork, to allow the escape of vapor, when placed near the fire, other- wise the cork may be blown out, and if too close to the fire, com- bustion may be produced. Those who make spirit varnish in the large way, use a barrel churn, into which the materials are put, and they are agitated until the whole of the resin is dissolved. This is an excellent mode, as there is no loss from evaporation, and the resin is prevented from agglutinating. Shell-lac varnish is never perfectly clear, as the resin contains some matters not soluble in alcohol ; when the lac is dissolved without heat, the greater part of this remains at the bottom, but if made pretty warm, it is diifus- ed in clouds through the whole mass, nor can it be separated by JONES, ON JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 35 filtration ; this, however, does not interfere with the goodness of the varnish, and may, probably, add to its toughness. Should the solution prove too thick, more alcohol may be added ; this is best done in small quantities, as the varnish is used. Where hardness is not a point of importance, a small lump of common rosin is add- ed to the shell-lac, as this substance increases the brilliancy of most of the varnishes ; it ought, however, to be used with a sparing hand, as it renders every species brittle. Shell-lac is of a yellowish brown color, and will not, therefore, answer for those articles which would be injured by this tint ; it is otherwise the best of the common spirit varnishes, whilst it at the same time, is the cheapest. It answers well upon mahogany, and upon most colored articles ; but when used upon those which are black, it must be made of that color, in a way to be hereafter de- scribed, or it will give an evident shade of brown. When wood, or other porous materials, are to be varnished, they ought to be coated with some substance which will cause it to bear out ; the pores may thus be completely filled, and much time and varnish saved. For mahogany, and some other woods, boiled lin- seed oil may be used, particularly if il is desirable to heighten the color. Thin size, made from common glue, that from isinglass, the glare of eggs, gum-water, or gum tragacanth, are occasionally em- ployed ; the object in view, being to prevent the absorption of the varnish by a coating of some substance not soluble in alcohol. When linseed oil is used, it ought to be rubbed on sparingly, then wiped carefully off, and a day or two should be allowed for it to harden, before the varnish is put on. For ordinary work, the varnishing brush may be a sash-tool of a suitable size, as the varnish, if not too thick, will flow and spread itself evenly, although the hairs of the brush may not be fine. — When the varnish is used thin, and the articles to be varnished are of the finer kind, or the surface great, the flat, camel's hair brushes, are to be preferred. In general, three or four coats will be found necessary, and when wood is very porous, or the varnish is to be rubbed down, and polished, double the number may be required. In dry weather, the spirit evaporates so rapidly, that the coats may follow each other, at an interval of a few minutes only ; but great care should be taken that the last be perfectly dry, before another is laid on. It frequently happens, that the varnish assumes an opaque white appearance, as it is laid on, losing all its brilliancy. This is occasioned by the moisture in the atmosphere, and indicates that a close room, and a fire, are necessary ; and without these it will be useless to persevere. The transparency will, however, be restored by the next coat of varnish, if laid on in a place that is warm and dry. This frequently occurs, when, judging by appear- ance, we should think the day most suitable for varnishing. It will be perceived, that many of the preceding remarks apply to spirit varnishes, in general, as they all possess certain propnties in common, and require, therefore, a similar mode of ticatment. The mode of polishing, and some other particulars, which will be 36 farmers' and mechanics' journal, treated in the next number, will partake of the same character, and will not need to be treated, when other varnishes are considered. The following is Dr. Hare's method of bileaching Shell-lac : It has been a great desideratum among artists, to rendei shell-lac colorless, as. with the exception of its dark brown hue, it possesses all the properties essential to a good spirit varnish, in a higher de- gree than either of the other resins. A premium of a gold medal, or thirty guineas, " For a varnish made from shell, or seed-lac, ecpially hard, and as fit for use in the arts, as that at present pre- pared from the above substances, but deprived of its coloring mat- ter," has long been, and is still offered, by the Society, in London, for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. These ends are perfectly attained, by the process given by Dr. Hare, which leaves nothing to desire, excepting on the score of economy. Were the oxymuriate of potash, to be manufactured in the large way, the two processes, that of making the salt, and of bleaching the resin, might be very advantageously combined. Method of bleaching Shell, or Seed-lac. By R. Hare, M. D. Dissolve, in an iron kettle, one part of pearlash, in about eight paits of water, add one part of shell, or seed-lac, and heat the whole to ebullition. When the lac is dissolved, cool the solution, and impregnate it with chlorine, till the lac is all precipitated. The precipitate is white, but its color deepens by washing and consolidation ; dissolved in alcohol, lac, bleached by the process above-mentioned, yields a varnish, which is as free from color, as any copal varnish. R. H. Chlorine, or oxymuriatic acid, may be formed, by mixing, inti- mately, eight parts of common salt, and three of the black oxide of manganese, in powder. This mixture is to be put into a retort ; four parts of sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal weight of water, and afterwards allowed to cool, is to be poured upon the salt and manganese, when the gas will immediately be liberated, and the operation must be quickened, by a moderate heat. If the mixture be made, without the sulphuric acid, and this be added, in small portions, the heat generated by this means, will be sufhcient to dis- engage the gas, without the aid of a lamp. A tube leading from the mouth of the retort, must be passed into ihe resinous solution, when the gas will be absorbed, and the lac precipitated. For the Farmers' and Mechanics' Journal. Mr. Editor, Sir, — In answer to " A Joiner," in your first number, T will state an experiment which 1 made one year since. 1 had about eighty Pannels, which were as green as they were when sawed from the log. I put them into a large kettle,' and boiled them about two hours, and then stuck them over a fire in the shop where they were HORSES. 37 a good deal exposed to heat for sotre time. 1 did not use the pan- nels so soon as 1 expected to, but, 1 think it would have answer- ed to use them in three or four weeks. It is my opinion that pan- nels boiled three hours and then exposed to the wind, may be used with safety, in ten or fifteen days. Another advantage in boihng is, it takes out the gum or pitch and prevents the pannel from checking at the ends ; and puts them in better order for painting, than when they are seasoned the usual w!iy. It also changes the color of the sapwood, and brings it near- er to that of the heart wood. A Brother Chip. Gardiner. Feb. 27, 1828. AaHICULTURE. HORSES. We were preparing an article upon the varieties of this useful animal, (the Horse,) which now exist in the different parts of the world, — when the following from the Nexv-England Farmer, came to hand. The writer seems to understand his topic, and we shall publish what he says, in preference to our own remarks. The Horse is a favorite animal with us, and we shall often introduce him to the notice of our readers, with the hope of turning attention to breeding, not only more, but better Horses, than are bred at the present day. The northern parts of New-England are well calculated for graz- ing ; and there is, perhaps, no stock, which remunerates the farmer better, for the trouble attendant upon the first three or four years of their lives. It certainly is not much more trouble to raise a horse, than it is a yoke of oxen. He will not eat so much in the same time, and if he be what a horse ought, he will frequently sell for double the price that the oxen will. Vermont has heretofore been celebrated for her horses, but we have not heard so much respecting them of late years, as formerly. The same remark will apply to New-Hampshire. Old Massachusetts has roused up and furnished herself with genuine Sires from the purest blood of England. We refer to the Cleve- land Bay — Sir Isaac, to Col. Jaques' Norfolk Trotter, Bellfounder and Mr. Williams' celebrated Roman.* These will soon turn the tables upon the other States, unless corresponding exertion is made, to keep up in the march. Connecticut can claim her share of credit, and Maine can well afford room for a better breed. Not that we would indiscriminately condemn all the horses in the State, *To these may he added the Dray Horse, Columbus, 38 farmers' and mechanics' journal. There is many a generous steed to be found in Maine, which would furnish good material to improve upon. On the other hand, there are too many worthless dobbins among us, whose carcases ought to be enriching instead of cumbering the soil. Their num- ber, we believe, is increasing, instead of diminishing. This arises, undoubtedly, from too little care in selecting the best stock to breed from. VVe doubt if there can be found a first-rate full blood or thorough-bred horse in the State. By thorough-bred, we mean, one that has descended from Sires and Dams of pure English blood ; whose pedigree can be traced for many generations back, through Sires, &;c. ; whose excellence has been tested by the severest trials, and whose performances stand on record, for all to examine. We do not wish our farmers to breed race horses particularly. But we do wish them to adopt some system, in the thing ; — to raise ani- mals which shall have some fixed and definite character. How is it that the Arabians have preserved for so many ages, the beauty, symmetry, speed and other excellencies of their Horses ? By the most cautious and systematic mode of breeding. By contin- ually selecting the best for the purpose. " The care taken by the Arabs,"— says Loudon,--" is most remarkable. ^None, but stallions of the finest form, and purest blood, are allowed access to their mares, which is never permitted but in presence of a professional witness or public officer, who attests the fact, records the name, and signs the pedigree of each." How have the English estabhshed the fame of their different breeds of Horses ? By first selecting such as would be suitable for the purposes which they desire, and then, keeping up their charac- ter by judicious crossings, with such as would improve, rather than degenerate. In this way, Virginia has preserved the purity of the blood of her turf-horse, and rivalled old England herself in speed. Had the farmers of Maine taken more pains in selection, and avoided the injurious practice of breeding in and in, as it is termed, or putting those of the same family and nearest kin together, we should see a much more elegant and spirited breed of this noble animal than what we now do. There are a vast many colts raised in the State, but we know of but very few farmers who pursue what has been considered by those of other States, and countries, to be the most judicious method. There are a few who do ; and they will event- ually reap the reward of their care and labor, by the superior price which their stock will command. — We shall pursue this subject HORSES. 39 hereafter. It is a subject of much importance to the Agriculturist, and we hope to excite more of the right kind of attention to it than we imagine has yet been paid to it. Nature originally formed to herself, there is reason to suppose two separate models of horse-flesh ; though the ditferent breeds of horses derived from accidental varieties and mixtures may be in- finite. One she meant for daily drudgery in a northern climate ; the other for speed, for violent occasional exertion, to gratify the pride and form one of the relaxations of luxury, and to live in the tropics. The two horses are still to be found distinct ; but most horse-flesh is made up of their mixture. The first is indigenous in the North of Europe. The basis of his color is almost invariably black ; though in some few of his va- rieties, he is either roan, or gray with most of his dark hairs red. He is seen in Massachusetts perfectly pure in the Canadian ; who has his fringe of hair starting directly from the knee ; his shortness of breath ; his willingness to draw ; his sensibility to heat ; and all the other attributes of the unadulterated cart-horse. The gray horse, sent here by Gen. Cofiin, is a specimen of his English va- riety ; but not of the largest size. The true Canadian is a valua- ble horse, has a foot endowed with very little sensibility, is very much inclined to carry flesh, and exceedingly well suited to a changeable climate ; but he is unfit for fast work ; and 1 question the fact from what I have seen, of his outworking the common Massachusetts horse at slow. A remarkable degree of misinformation exists here as to the se- cond ; and, it may be well to give a very short description of him : In the countries where he has always been found, at least since the first dawn of history, he is about fourteen hands and an inch high, but pretty compact ; the basis of his color scarcely ever black ; but generally even if he is gray, some kind of red. He has a re- markably expressive eye. and very transparent ; his nose nearly straight, and the nostril disengaged from the head ; a most capa- cious chest ; a wide and elevated loin ; carries the dock of his tail pointed straight to the end when he is in action ; and has a round, high, and hard hoof. His purity has always been most sedulously preserved by the Asiatic Arabs. His bones are of a much denser texture than that of the cart horse ; his skeleton is heavier in pro- portion to his apparent size ; and he can stand under a heavier weiiiht. His most distinguishing eharacleristic, however, is the natural clearness of his wind ; and breeds of horses vary in this particular, according to the proportion they possess of his blood : or, as it is technically called, of" blood." This with his muscular power, arises from the perfection of his organization ; and he is often abused from the idea that he possesses a peculiar insensibili- ty to fatigue, which none can thoroughly explain. His essence is speed. He is more inclined to save himself by flight from any thing he does not thoroughly understand ; and is more irritable and variable in constitution. As he is probably indigenous in the 40 farmers' and mechanics' journal. sands of Arabia only, there appears no reason why his foot should have been made able to endure the concussion of a hard surface ; and in some of his varieties, though the liorn of it is generally ex- cessively hard, the internal foot possesses extreme sensibility. He does not appear, under favorable circumstances, upon being trans- ])oited to the climate of the cart-horse, to experience any diminu- tion of his superiority to him, through any number of generations ; though he is useless as he approaches that of the Arabian. His most valuable variety, and that with which we are best ac- quainted, is the English thorough-bred horse ; by which term is in- tended a horse, all of whose blood is to be traced to acknowledged racers, or to a very few celebrated individual horses, supposed to have been chiefly of Arabian blood, whose stock has in general proved so m England. Some of the pedigrees of this Anglo-Ara- bian have been regularly kept from the reign of James 1. ; but a very large part of him is derived from two individuals ; one car- ried there about ninety years since, whose previous history is ut- terly unknown ; the other, about one hundred and thirty years since, who was brought from the Desert of Palmyra. The blood of these two horses runs in the veins of the multitude of thorough- bred horses annually foaled in England, on the Continent, and in the United States ; and, exce])ting the genuine cart-horse, there is scarcely a horse in England or the States entirely free from it. The peculiar advantages and disadvantages of the thorough-bred horse, who is most corruptly called in Virginia, the blooded horse, for blood horse, are exceedingly necessary to be known to every breeder ; as, though he is not so well adapted himself to any pur- pose but horse-racing, as a horse bred between him and one not thorough-bred, he is proved by the experience of a century in England, to be the only foundation of any reasonable expectation of breeding superior horse-flesh ; allowed to be, and sought after from that cause by the Russians, the Germans and the French, who are all becoming great horse-breeders, and in most parts of the States, excepting in New-England. As a proof of this last tact, I can mention, that Henry earned between two and three thousand dollars to his owners, in the vicinity of the city of JNew-York, the last summer, as a breeder ; and that he will probably this summer, earn much more. He (the thorough-bred horse) is subject to infinite variety ; but he is generally accompanied by the following peculiarities : In wind, in muscular power, and particularly in being able to perform feats, he far surpasses any other horse ; even the Arabian in his unimproved state. A case in point has occurred in which two Cossack horses, picked from their immense studs, were beaten in a 30 mile race, over a hard road near St. Petersburg, by a broken down English race-horss, and he also heats the best horses that can be bought in Arabia, in their own climate at Calcutta. All his work is performed in much less time, when the pace appears to the eye to be the same ; he can be used at an early age — he pos- sesses greater longevity — he suffers less from the heat, than a low- HORSES. 41 bred horse, but there hiij advantages close. His ancestor was foiined merely for galbping — leaving all nneaner business to (he donkey and the mnle ; which, in his ancestor's clinnate, are noble aniiniils — and from this cause, as well as fronn the peculiar manner in which he has himself been bred an^i treated, he is attended by two great disadvantages. He has. in the (irst place, been bred from a succession of horses selected for their superior galloping from a race of gallopers. Excellence in this pace, which is, however, nearly an accurate criterion of wind and mu>cular strength, is generally accompanied by a formation of the animal, inimical to excellence in any other ; and a remarkable disinclination for exerting himself on any other than extraordinary occasions. To assist him in economising his powers, aud to render them entirely subservient to the rapidity of his progression, he is fbrmtnl, fi-equenUy, to move his feet so short a distance above the earth, that, particularly in a slow walk, he is continually liable to have it meet with some obstruction, when it is bent backwards from the fetlock joint, and he is about to throw his weight upon it ; the muscles of the bewded limb not being un- der his command, he must occasionally lose his balance ; and if it is his fore foot, fall forwards ; and, if it is his hind foot, catch back- wards ; and, in conlirmation of the last observation, many superior gallopers appear actually unable to use their muscles properly, when not in a state of violent exertion ; have a slipping, thought- less manner of going at all other times ; and will not brace their muscles. In the second place, he has been in general confined in the stable, and shod previously to his being two years old ; which gives to his hoof a totally ditfer-ent shape, in growing, by prevent- ing its lateral extension ; takes away much of the means of resist- ing concussion which nature intended it to have, by preventing the expansion of the back part of it, when his weight is thrown upon it ; and crowds the circulation of the sensible foot, by preventing the increase of size of the vascular parts after the excessive con- cussion to which the horse is daily subjected from that early age. Being also fed with the largest allowance of corn from before he is weaned, and the hoof deprived, through most of his life, of the dampness of the earth, his foot is exposed to all the evils, increas- ed by happening together, arising from a plethoric habit, from con- traction of the horn, and from mechanical violence ; and, an Ara- bian foot not being originally intended to meet with very severe concussion, a degree of pre-disposition to disease in the foot is pro- pagated to each generation, particularly to caries of the bones ; — which (as the human teeth) are remarkably ready to discover an hereditary mis-organization. The thorough-bred horse has been long naturalized in the States ; forms, at least, half of the Massa- chusetts mongrel, and is found as common, and in as hiyh perfec- tion as in England, in the low country of Virginia. But the best horse, of any fixed breed, not thorough-bred, is the English Cleveland Bay ; — of which the horse and mare sent here by Sir Isaac ColHu, were intended as a sample. The true Cleve- 6 Vofc. I. 42 farmers' and mechanics' journal. land Bay, who is probably a lineal descendant of the horse used for tournaments in the Middle Ages, is extremely scarce in Eng- land, and confined to the county of York. Though a much finer horse, and not over lar'^e, he bears a general resemblance to the German horse of the Middle States ; particularly, in his full crest, his Roman nose, and his deep bay color. He is in the very high- est request, both in England and on the Continent ; and stands at the head of all breeds between the blood horse and the carl-horse. He hag formed no part of the Massachusetts horse ; but there is still remaining in England, some remnant of a very celebrated draught horse, who unquestionably has; many of our ancestors having come from his country, and his peculiarities are often to be traced in our horse. He was supposed to have been carried from Norway, and was called the SulFolk Sorrel. He forms part of the modern trotting-horse of the bordering counties of Norfolk and Lincoln, of whom that most excellent horse Bellfounder is a gen- uine specimen. The most valuable horse in himself, however, but who forms no breed, bred by the F^ngiish, is their gentleman's hunter. He is often supposed here to be the oilspring of a direct cross between the blood-horse and the cart-horse. This has, in some instances, been the case ; but he is usually, now, either the thorough-bred horse himself, or got by him out of a well-bred mare ; and it would be difficult to find one, of whom less than 3 parts in 4 could not be claimed by the Arabian. Some horses, not thorough-bred, or as they are called in England, cock-tails, are kept expressly as hunt- ing stallions, but this is not common ; the thorough-bred horse having the advantage of atTording the greatest room for selection, and of having the [)eculiarities of his family so well known, as to give some grounds for a calculation concerning the fate of his stock. However, as he is sometimes kept entire, and as a tried good hunt- er must have shown himself able to perform the severest labor of which a horse is capable, and to possess, both, legs and constitu- tion. 1 rather wonder none has ever been imported to this coun- try as a stallion. — In my next, 1 will make some observations upon- the BreediniT of Horses. PEACH TREES. The following is from the pen of an able and successful Horti- culturist on Long Island, N. York. Any thing, which will enable us to ward otf the many evils to which this fine fruit is liable, must be valuable. It has been a common opinion here, that Peaches could not be raised in this State. The same opinion formerly pre- vailed respecting the Apple, but experience has proved its fallacy. From what we saw last summer, we are convinced, that peach trees can be made to flourish and bear well in this country. That their flavor will be so rich, and luscious, as those of more southern PEACH TREES. 43 latitudes is not pretended. The Hon. B. Vaughan, of Hallowell^ had several bushels ripen in his garden, the summer past — and we also saw i load, which were said lo have been grown in the town of Jay, nearly fifty miles more northerly. The worst evil which we have to contend with, is the effect of frosts, early in the spring. Soon as the weather begins to grow warm and the snow thaws from around the roots, the sap starts, — during the night, it fjrcczes and kills the branches. The best preventive of this, is, to keep the snow as long as possible about the roots and body of the tree. Diseases to zohich Peach Trees are subject. By A. Parmentier, Proprietor of the Horticultural Botanic Garden, Brooklijn, L. I. JS''ezo-York. In this country the Peach Tree is attacked principally by worms that feed upon the roots, near the surface of the ground. Few re- medies have been employed with success. It appears, however, as I have been informed by a firmer of New-Jersey, that the ap- plication of fish placed about the foot of the tree, drives away the worms. Last year I removed many worms from a peach tree to make the wounds which they had made to appear. I employed with great success, bruised sorrel applied as a plaster, tied upon the wounds. 1 have used bruised sorrel in Europe with equal suc- cess upon gummed parts of the plum tree and apricot. It was this use of it which first gave me the idea of applying it to the peach tree. It is very advantageous to make in the summer, small heaps of earth about five or six inches high, around the foot of the trees. The insect goes upon them and deposits its eggs a little way under the ground in the tree. In the fall, on removing the earth, the eggs are left uncovered and perish by the frost. After the worms, the yellows is the malady which causes the premature death of peach trees, 1 believe that the cause depends in a great measure, on a defect in setting out the trees ; and it is this upon which I found my reasoning. I have observed in this country, that, for the most part in setting out trees, the earth is very rarely dug up more than two spades deep, 'i'he tree is put in, the roots are covered, and it is abandoned. If the tvcc is vigo- rous, the roots soon extend in the loose soil, until they reach the hard and impenetrable earth. On vegetating in the spring, the roots are forced towards the surface of the ground, where they be- come victims of insects. Finally, the tree deteriorates in its na- ture, and a premature death follows. A hole of three feet deep and four broad, is not too large. Sods of about three inches in thickness, cut fine with the spade, shotild be put in the hole to the depth of two feet, and covered with about one inch of good earth. Then put in the tree and cover Ihc roofs with loose mellow earth or vegetable mould. Precaution should be taken against the sinking of tlie earth, which ouglit to he calcu- 44 farmers' and mechanics' journal. lated at one inch for one foot. If the tree is planted too deep, it will vegetate poorly, and must perish at length, without producing but poor fruit. I shall never sell peach trees without giving these directions to those persons who have confidence in nie. As to the cloque, it is produced by the interruption of the sap in the cold nights of spring. It often appears that but one part of the plantation is attacked, and only those trees which are in a current of air. This disease is not very dangerous. It more frequently kills the fruit ; and it is prudent to take them off, because the trt e, suffering by the loss of a great part of the leaves, is under the ne- cessity to recruit its strength. I have employed with success, the remedy which I make use of to kill the ants and other small in- sects, that take the substance from the leaves of the trees. If the trees are thus taken care of, they will be thrifty the following year. [.;V. F. Farmer. FOOT ROT IN SHEEP. This is a disease affecting (as its name denotes) the feet of Sheep. It appears to be endemical or atFecting all, or nearly the whole of the flock at once. It consists in an extensive ulceration of the foot, beginning generally, between the claws of the hoof and extending into the sensible laminae ; which becoming canons — discharges an acrid and highly foetid matter. Fungus flesh also appears in the latter stages of the disease. Various causes have been assigned for it, but none that are altogether satisfactory. By some, it is thought to be caused, or brought on, by feeding in low and damp situations. The animal pines away and seems to die of debility, but never loses its appetite. It will often continue to scramble upon its knees for food to the last. This formidable disease was comparatively little known in this country before the introduction of the Saxony Sheep, and its rava- ges have since been principally confined to them. Various re- medies have been proposed for it, and we have been politely fa- vored with one, which seems to be as efticacious as any. It has appeared before in the New-England Farmer, and we are happy in being able to bring forward so respectable testimony in regard to its utility. For the Farmers' and Mechanics' Journal. Mr. Editor, S^r, — I enclose you a Recipe for making a wash for the cure of the Foot Rot in Sheep. I have made use of it in the flock of Sheep that 1 have, which have been very much diseased with that FOOT ROT IN SHEEP. 45 complaint, and am strongly impressed with the behef that I shall eliect a radical cure— after having tried almost every thing else but to little etFect. If you should think it worth communi- cating to the public in your useful Journal, you are requested so to do. From your humble servant, Rufus Gav. Pillston, Feb. 6, 1820. FOOT ROT I\ SHEEP. hi thp Report of the Merino flock of the Earl of Lismore, by the Rev. Thomas Kadclitf. it is remaiked, that the flock is almost wholly i'vec from lametiess, and that ihis is principally owing to fre(jU(ntUi paring the. hoofs. 'J'he drying wash used by the Shep- herds, when needful, is thus composed : '' Take blue vitriol, white vitriol, rock or roche alum, and verdigris, of each three ounces ; rub them together in a mortar, and add one quart of scalding vine- gar ; stir it well and cover it down to cool ; then add half a pint of spirits of turpentine and half a pint of s[)irits of wine or new rum, and cork it up in a clear stone bottle. It is a good wash for pinch- es and recent bruises and all incipient inilammations." [JVew Monthly Magazine, for 1820. Note. As the disease is chiefly under the hoof, it is of the first consecjuence to cut that away so as to expose the ulcers ; and when washed clean, the liquid preparation should be applied. The feet of the sheep should be often examined, and the knife and liquid freely applied, until the disease is eradicated. P. S. Sheep that are very lame should be kept by themselves in a dry place in the barn or shed, and well dressed every day for four or five days, — the others should be carefully dressed every second or third day until they are well, — paring away the hoofs as high as the feet are atfected is absolutely necessary. In cases where the hoof is nearly or quite all cut otf, they should be cover- ed with strong rags, or boots made of strong cloth or tarred sheep- skins, to tie above the hoof. 2d P S. The litter where the Sheep stand to feed at the rack, should be removed every second or third day, as^^lbecomes im- pregnated with the infectious matter and impedes the cure of those that are lame, and communicates the distemper to others. H. D. The above precaution I received from Mr. Jehvis, of Vermont, who has had much experience in Sheep, and has a flock of Saxony Sheep purchased at the time I purchased mine. His remedy for the hoof distemper is, paring the hoof and washing in soap suds and then blue vitriol dissolved in spirits of turpentine and rum. N. B. After all, the cutting away of the hoofs so as to lay the whole of the infected parts open to the dressing, is most essential. 46 farmers' and mechanics' journal. ZVEISC'Z:-' liANEOUS. NEW PROCESS FOR MAKING STEEL. BY CHARLES MACKINTOSH, ESQ. GLASGOW. J There are few individuals of the present age who have done so much for the advancement of the useful arts, and for the promo- tion of the manufactures of his country, as the eminent individual whose new process we are about to describe. In the patent by which he has secured the privilege of this invention, he claims, as the principle of his process, the impregnation of iron at a high tem- perature with carbon in a gaseous form. The gas which he em- ploys as the most economical and convenient for this purpose is, that evolved from coal under distillation. The iron is enclosed in a crucible, or melting pot, of the usual materials, and placed in the furnace, and when it is raised to a very high degree of temperature, a jet, or current of the gas, is thrown into the crucible through a suitable aperture and tube provided for this purpose. In the cover of the crucible, there is made another aperture to permit the es- cape of that part of the gas which is not absorbed by the iron. [^Edinburgh Journal of Science. METHOD OF IMPROVING SOAP. BY MR. WILLIAM POPE. This process, for which a patent has been obtained, is as follows : A hundred weight of good soap is sliced into thin pieces, and mixed with seven pounds of marl of the purest kind, two ounces of pot- ash, and a sufficient quantity of water to reduce the whole into a fluid state. The soap being thoroughly dissolved, the materials are stirred together, and when of the consistency of cream they are boiled, and then poured out into suitable moulds for making it into cakes. This process greatly improves the soap, by destroying the effects of the caustic alkali upon the skin, and it also renders it soft and smooth. \_JSfewton''s Journal of the Arts. ON A FRENCH LUTING USED IN PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES, ^ ' BY GRAFTING THEM. The best luting wherewithal to cover the newly grafted scions, is composed of equal quantities of train oil and rosin, prepared in the following- manner : — First, melt the rosin in an earthern vessel, and then pour in the oil ; mix them well ; to be applied when cold, with a painter's brush. The composition is used in the north-west part of France (Bretagne) with general success, it has this advantage, that it never cracks, nor admits rain or wind to the grafts, which is the usual cause of their failing. It is more.ex- peditiously put on thaii ihe common clay covering, and looks much neater; but what renders it more useful is, that the grafts covered with the composition seldom fail. Scions laid under earth, or steeped in water for a few days, grow better than those taken fresh from the parent tree. [New MontJdy Magazine. MISCELLANEOUS. 47 PERCUSSION POWDER, A powder inflammable bv percussion has been used for some years past, especially in fowling-pieces. The following formulae have been given for the preparation of this powder, the principal ingredient of which is chlorate of potash. 1 .) 1 00 parts of chlorate of potash, (fulminating salt,) 1 2 parts of sulphur, and 10 parts of charcoal, are closely mixed. The grains are prodiic(>d by forcing the soft paste through a sieve. 2.) 100 parts of chlorate of potash, 42 parts of saltpetre, 36 parts of sulphur, and 14 parts of lycopodium. [Schweigger^s Journal, Band xi. p. 66. RAT CATCHING. For premises infested with Rats, prepare from six to ten wooden traps, such as are commonly used for taking muskrats and rabbits in the country, place them where the rats run most frequently. Get a phial of oil of caraway, do. of oil of annisecd, and a very small quantity of the oil of rhodium — the latter is costly, and but little of it needed. Perfume the sides and top of the boxes with the caraway and anniseed, and with the end of your finger touched to the rhodium make a few dots on the bottom. Take stale bread and grate it, mix it up with some drops of the caraway, evenly, and place a single handful of it on the middle of the lower box- board, under the place where the pan or trap-platform is to be set — keep the boxes thus baited, fastened open for two nights — the two succeeding nights set the traps so they will not spring, and put the like baits on the pans. On the fifth night set the traps thus baited, prepared for springing. Sit with a dark lantern in the room or place where your traps are, and as soon as you hear a lid fall, take up the trap, cover its mouth with a bag, and empty the rat or rats into it — kill them by dashing the bag against a post or the floor ; re-set the trap and continue until the " custom" ceases — Be careful not to suffer a rat that has been caught, to escape ; if you do, you will get no more that night. By this process 300 rats were caught in Londo i, in one house, and in one night, by two persons, during the revolutionary war. This is the old secret of the London and Liverpool rat-catchers, and is published for the benefit of those who prefer a little trouble, to a great annoyance. \Am. Farmer, QUERY. Mr. Editor, — I have frequently heard, that a dye, similar to that used in dyeing English Flannel, yellow, may be obtained from onion skins. If any of your readers will send you the mode of preparing the dye from the onions and how it should be used, they will much oblige A. Housekeeper. 48 farmers' and mechanics' journal. UOTZCES. NEW EDITION OF CLEAVELAND'S MINERALOGY. Prof. Cleaveland. of Bowdoin College, is preparing a third edition of his valuable work on Mineralogy and Geology. This indicates a steady progress in the interesting science of which the book treats. The miiieral riches of a country are of vast intipor- tance to its prosperity. To be of the greatest use, however, tliey must be thoroughly known ; this can be etfected but by a strict at- tention to the science which describes them, and a proper consid- eration of the particular items which serve to make up the whole. Prof. C. is desirous of obtaining all the localities not described in his last edition. A letter from him, says — " 1 wish to connect with the account of the Locality some brief Geological notice, viz : whether the mineral occurs in veins, or in beds, or is disseminated — the associated minerals — and the rock, •which contains them. In most cases, the form, structure, and pre- vailing color of the mineral may be mentioned. '' I also wish to obtain as accurate information, as possible, in regard to all minerals explored for tiseful or ornamental purposes, such as Nitre, Common Salt, Marble, Marl, Gypsum, Precious Stone s, Steatite, Roof Slate, Clays, Pigments, Anthracite, Graphite, Coal, Ores of the metals. Porphyry, i^c, and also certain articles manufactured from minerals, such as Alum, Copperas, Chromate of Lead, &cC. The quantity of the aforementioned substances an- nually obtained or manufactured, the quality, including the per cent, of metal yielded by ores, and the price are particularly re- quested. " I am desirous, that the localities should be so described, that they may be found without difticulty. In addition to the name of the town, a few words, referring the locality to some point or ob- ject, zucll knozon in that vicinity, will be sufficient." NEW WORK ON HORTICULTURE, AGRICULTURE, &c. It gives us pleasure to understand, that a new work on Garden- ing, Agriculture, &c., is nearly ready for the press, by T. G. Fes- SENDEN, Esq., the able editor of the New-England Farmer. Mr. Fessenden has abundance of materials for such a work, and he re- ceives the assistance and advice of some of the most able Horti- culturists of the age. It will, no doubt, be an interesting and valu- able manual, not only to the practical gardener, but to all, who have the least taste for those useful, delightful, and sinless employ- ments. MACOMBERS MACHINE FOR PLANKING HATS. .n /,>,:;', ,.v (M THE NEW-ENGLAND FARMERS' AND xMECHANICS'^ JOURNAL. Vol. I. GARDINER, MARCH, 1828. N... 3. IVCECHANICS. MACOMBER'S HAT PLANKING MACHINE. We have often thought, that the common method of planking Hats was a tedious and laborious operation. It is with pleasure, therefore, that we insert a drawing and description of a machine, invented by Mr. L. L. Macomber, of this town ; whereby the hat- ter is enabled to perform this business, not only with more ease and despatch, but also, to make better felt than by the ordinary method. It consists (Plate III.) of a fluted cylinder, A, which is moved by a crank, or band-pulley, D, and which turns within a hollow cylinder somewhat larger, in order to give room for the felt to roll round between them. The exterior cylinder has an opening in the side, as shown at E, for putting in the hats, or felt, and taking them out. This cylinder is hung on a frame over a kettle, B, such as is commonly used by hatters. F, C, represents the inclined plane ; G, the place for the fire which heats the water ; the smoke of which passes ofT by means of a flue or funnel. The following Certificates of Flat Manufacturers in the City of Boston and vicinity, will show the superior quality of Macomber's Patent Machine Hat Bodies. We, the undersigned, having seen in operation Macomber's Machine for Planking Wool Hat Bodies, are of opinion, that the bodies are closed better, are smoother, will hold their stitTening, and finish better than those planked in the usual manner. JESSE BROWN, PresH. Boston Hat Manf ELTSHA VOSE, Treas. Boston Hut Manf SAMUEL BARRY, Watcrtojvn. C. L. EMERSON, Miobimjport. .TAMES KENT, West SpringMd. MARTIN BATES, Boston. TrEORGE BASS. do. 7 Vol. I. 50 farmers' and mechanics' journal. We, the undersigned, having exannined the Hat Bodies made by the above Machine, are of opinion, that they are better made than those manufactured in the common wav. BRADFORD LINCOLN, Director of Boston Hat Manf. JOHN LONGLEY, HENRY CLARK, Finishing Agent of Boston Hat Manf We, the undersigned, having made use of Macomber's Machine for Planking Wool Hat Bodies, do hereby certify, that the bodies so planked, are smoother, and cloi^ed better than they can be in the usual manner. The lalmrious part of the work is done by the Machine. HIRAM MORTON, Foreman of R. Bacon''s Hat Factory^ Mcdford. JOHN WHITE, Mdhum. HIRAM MERRILL, Salem, JY. H. JONES, 0\ JAPANNING AND VARNISHING....N0. 3. To rub doion, or prepare (he varnished surface, for polishing. For ordinary purposes, shell-lac varnish does not require to be rublied down and polished, but vviiere it is wished to have the sur- face very even, these processes are necessary. For rubbing down, pumice-stone, in tine powder, is used. Four or five coats of var- nish, at least, must be laid on, and allowed to become perfectly hard ; a piece of woollen rag may then be made wet, and a portion of the powder put upon it ; this is to be rubbed carefully, and equally over every part of the varnished surface, until it appears perfectly even. Great care is requisite to avoid rubbing through at some f)arts, before others are rendered smooth, particularly if there are sharp edges, or projecting mouldings. When this takes place, the whole process of varnishing must be repeated ; a little, practice, however, will enable any one to avoid this, provided the article varnished, has an even surface, and the number of coats have been suflicient to give the requisite thickness of resin. When the surface, to be polished, is flat, the cloth may, when used, be wrapped round a piece of cork or wood ; and the same method may be adopted in rubbing down mouldings. To polish the varnish. When the surface is well prepared by the pumice-stone, it is very easily polished. This is etfected by fine rotten-stone, used exactly in the same way with the pumice-stone, excepting that sweet oil is employed, instead of water. The oil may be removed from the surface by a fine rag, and some dry rotten-stone ; and if a little is then rubbed on by the palm of the hand, this will give the highest possible polish to the surface. To prepare the rotten-stone. Rotten-stone is sotnetimes harsh and gritty ; the best way of try- ing it, is to take a little between the teeth, when the least portion JONES, ON JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 51 •f grit may be discovered. Careful workmen always wash it be- fore they venture to use it. This is etiected by stirring the fnie powder in a considerable quantity of water, then allowing it to re- main at rest for a few seconds, and pouring the water into a glazed earthern vessel ; the powder which then precipitates, will he per- fectly tine and smooth ; by washing the remainder, the whole of the finer parts may be separated from the grit. The gloss upon shell-lac which has been polished, is less brilliant than that of the unpolished varnish; but this gloss may be given by a single coat of sced-lac varnish, which will abstract but little from the perfect surface given by polishing. Black shell-lac varnish. Shell-lac varnish may be rendered black, by mixing with it, either ivory, or lamp-black. The editor has frequently used, and always preferred, the latter. It should not be used as sold in the shops, being then greasy, as the workmen call it, and will neither mix or dry, well. Sometimes the lamp-black contains particles of planter, from the walls of the chambers in which it is made ; this, of course, should be rejected. To prepare lamp-black for use. Press a portion of it, into any earthern or metallic vessel, which may be made red hot in the tire ; for small quantities, a tobacco pipe, a piece of a gun barrel, or any otiser metallic tube, will an- swer the purpose perfectly well. It is not necessary to close the vessel, but the powder should be well rammed in ; place the whole in an open lire until it is red hot throughout ; this may be known by the lamp-black ceasing to flame at the exposed parts ; take it from the lire, and allow it to become quite cool before you remove it from the vessel, otherwise it will burn into ashes. Lamp-black, thus prepared, will mix readily with water, will dry well in paint or varnish, and will be improved in color. To mix the color with the varnish. Rub the lamp-black up with a little alcohol, spirits of turpen- tine, or weak varnish, taking care to make it perfectly smooth be- fore putting it into the cup with the vaniiah. To give a good black color, the quantity of lamp-black must be considerable ; this, it is true, will lessen the brilliancy of the varnish in some degree, but a thin coat of seed-lac. will diminish this fault. When only a small quantity of black varnish is wanted, it may be made by dis- solving black sealing wax in alcohol. Sealing wax being compos- ed principally of shell-lac. But little heat should be employed, or the black color will be precipitated. Shell-lac varnish of various colors, May be made by mixing strong body colors, in fine powder, with the varnish, levigating them in the same manner as recommended with the lamp black. None but full, deep colors will answer, as the color of the varnish will deteriorate all (hose which possess any transparency, or which are of a light shade. 62 farmers' a»;d mechanics' journal. Red shell-lac varnish, Is best made from good Dutch sealing wax. This is the kind used to varnish glass, and wood, for electrical purposes. Three or four coats will make a perfect covering. Of the brushes used in varnishing. It has been already remarked that the painters' sash-tool, makes a very good varnish brush for common purposes ; for large articles, however, the flat camel's hair brushes, made for the purpose, are to be preferred ; they are to be obtained from half an inch, to four inches in width, at most of the drug stores ; for smaller sizes, round brushes, with tin tubes, are to be preferred. It is a common practice, when the same brush is always used with the same kind of varnish, to allow it to dry with the varnish on, after scraping the brush on the edge of the cup ; in this case it must be allowed to stand in the varnish for a few minutes to soften before using. It is a much better practice, however, to wash the brushes clean in spirits of turpentine, or in alcohol. When wash- ed in the latter, the alcohol need not be wasted, but may be poured into the varnish bottle. For colored varnishes, kept in small quan- tities, the brush may be left in the bottle ; but in this case, the cork should be perforated so as to fit the handle, and the points of the hairs should dip into the varnish ; it is then always ready for use. A common mustard bottle will, in general, answer the in- tended purpose. Of the French polish, hy means of shell-lac varnish. There is a mode of using shell-lac varnish, which is sometimes denominated the French, and sometimes the German mode. To whomsoever it is due, it merits to be generally known, as the pro- cess is easy and economical, and the effect beautiful. It has been much employed by cabinet and musical instrument makers, but is yet not so extensively practised as it merits to be. The varnish is to be prepared in the way already directed, and is used of a moderate thickness. The article to be polished must have a smooth even surface, such as is left by fine glass paper, usually called sand paper. Mode of applying the varnish. The varnish is applied by means of what is called a rubber; this is frequently made by rolling up a strip of thick woollen cloth, which has been torn off, so as to form a soft elastic edge ; thick, wide list will answer perfectly well, although a gieater width is more convenient to hold. This coil may be from one to three inches in diameter, according to the size of the work. [From Gill's Technical Repository.] " On the manner of applying the varnish. " The varnish, put into a narrow-mouthed bottle, is to be appli- ed to the middle of the flat face of the rubber, by laying the rubber upon the mouth of the bottle, and quickly shaking the varnish up JONES, ON JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. S3 once ; as the rubber will thus imbibe just a suflicient quantity to varnish a considerable extent of surface. The rubber must then be enclosed in a soft linen cloth, doubled ; the remainder of the cloth being gathered together at the back of the rubber, to form a handle to hold it by ; and the face of the linen cloth must be moistened with a little raw linseed oil, (which may either be color- ed with alkanet-root. or not.) applied with the finger to the middle of it. The work to be varnished, should be placed opposite to the light, in order that the effect of the polishing may be better seen ; and a surface of from one to eight feet square may be varnished at once. " The rubber must be quickly and lightly rubbed on the surface of the article to be varnished, and the rubljing continued until the varnish becomes nearly dry ; the coil of woollen cloth must be then again wetted with the varnish, but no more oil need be appli- ed to the surface of the linen cloth, and the rubbing again continue till the varnish becomes nearly dry, as before; and again, a third coat jnust be applied in the same manner ; then one with a little oil ; which must be followed, as before, with two others without oil ; — and thus proceed until the varnish has acquired some thick- ness, which will be after a few repetitions of the series ; when a little alcohol may be applied to the inside of th3 linen cloth, before wetting the coil with the varnish ; and then rub very quickly, light- ly, and uniformly, over every part of the varnished surface, which will tend to make it even, and very much conduce to its polish* The linen cloth must next be wetted with a little alcohol and oil, without varnish ; and the varnished surface being rubbed over, with the precautions last mentioned, until it is nearly dry, the etfect of the operation will be seen ; and, if it be foufid that it is not complete, the process must be continued, with the introduction of alcohol in its turn, as directed above, until the surface be- comes uniformly smooth and beautifully polished. " On varnishing hollow and round works. " In this case, the woollen cloth is not to be used with its flat end, but on its sides ; to which the varnish must be applied, as be- fore directed, and be covered with two folds of the linen cloth, oiled or not, as before mentioned. " On varnishing recesses or carved work. " When this occurs in cabinet work, &c., and where the surfaces are not liable to wear, or are diflicult to reach with the rubber, a spirit varnish, made with, or without lac, of the usual gum resins, and considerably thicker than that used in the above process, may be applied to those parts with a brush, or hair pencil, as is com- monly done in other modes of varnishing. " On varnishing works in the lathe. " This process is exceedingly easy ; and does not require much more skill than the mere application of a little oil to the surface of a soft linen cloth, and putting the lac-spirit-varnish upon it ; then 54 farmers' and mechanics' journal, both together to be held upon the surface of the work, whilst turn- ed round in the lathe, and rubbed along it, backwards and for- wards, till the effect is produced." The editor has frequently tried the French polish, but he has al- ways used a kind of rubber differing from that above mentioned. It is made as follows : — a piece of thick woollen cloth, six or eight inches in diameter, is taken ; upon one side of this a few tea- spoonsfuU of the varnish is poured ; the edges are then collected together, so as to enclose the varnish in the cloth, and form a handle by which to hold it ; this is then covered with a piece of oiled linen cloth, and the rubber is ready for use. When requisite, more varnish may be added. It will be found necessary, occa- sionally, to pour a little alcohol into the cloth, when the varnish becomes too thick to ooze through. Some difficulties may at first be experienced in performing this process ; but a very little practice will enable any handy person to surmount them, and to produce a beautiful polish without using successive coats of varnish, which require considerable time to dry, and which mode is otherwise attended with much more trouble than the plan here described. \Jlm. Meek. Mag. REMARKS ON DYEING. The Art of Dyeing depends wholly on chemical principles, and the Dyer, as far as the manipulation of his trade is concerned, is, in fact, so far a practical Chemist. " It consists," says Fyfe, " in fixing colors on cloths of different kinds, so that they shall not be destroyed by exposure to air, or by washirig. The articles of which cloth is composed, have an attraction for coloring matter, but it varies in different instances. In some it is so powerful, that the color may be applied without any preparation, except merely scouring the cloth to free it from impurities, which is usually done with a weak solution of potassa. After this, it is soaked in the in- fusion of the dye-stuff, which adheres to it, imparting its color, and which cannot be removed by washing. In other cases, on the con- trary, the attraction is so weak, that though the color car> be im- parted to the cloth, it is not fixed ; it is easily destroyed by wash- ing, or by exposure to air or sunshine ; but when this is the case, it may be fixed by the use of a third substance, which has an at- traction for both. Thus, if a piece of cloth be dyed by madder, it acquires a reddish color ; but this is not fixed — it may in a great measure be removed by washing ; but if it be previously soaked in a solution of alum, then dried, and afterwards put into the madder- vat, it is dyed, and the color is fixed. This is owing to the at- traction of the earth of alum for the cloth, and also for the d\e, by which they combine, and are thus kept in union with the cloth. This constitutes a difference in the process of dyeing, and has given rise to the division of dye-stutfs into two classes, the siihstan- tive and adjective ; attaching to these words, the same meaning as REMARKS ON DYEING. 55 in common lan2;uage. A substantive color is therefore one that will act of itself ; an adjective color requires the addition of some other body. Those substances used along with adjective dyes have been called mort/an/s, from the idea that they 6//e in the color; they are chiefly alum, and some of the metallic salts, particularly those of tin, occasionally also those of mercury, lead, and iron. But these, besides fixing the dye, also change its color, and hence their tise in procuring different colors from the same dye-stutf, as the remarks on the properties of coloring matters show, these be- ing changed by the addition of the ditferent agents mentioned. " From what has now been said, it is evident that there are two modes of dyeing, either by substantive or adjective colors. When the attraction between the cloth and the color is strong, all that is necessary is, to soak it in the infusion of the dye-stutf, by v.'hich the color is imparted, and tixed. But when the attraction is weak, it must be tirst saturated with a mord.rit, and then with the color- ing matter. Of course the mordant must vary according to the nature of the dye. " There is still another method altogether different from those mentioned ; it is not by using the dye already prepared, but by combining the cloth with substances which act on each other, and strike the color required ; and in this way also the coloring matter becomes tixed. Thus, a piece of cloth can be dyed black, by soak- ing it in a mixture of infusion of nutgails and green vitriol, the substances used in making ink, and which form a black color ; but in this case, the color is not tixed. If, however, the cloth be pre- viously imjiiersed in the infusion, and after being dried, be put into the solution of green vitriol, the same black is produced, the chemical action taking place on the cloth, as when the solutions themselves were mixed, and the color is thus rendered fixed. In this way a great variety of colors may be produced. xMany of these have been already described, when treating of the properties of the metals. In dyeing the compound colors, as green, this is generally done by giving to the cloth a blue color, and afterwards soaking it in a yellow infusion. Thus, by dyeing it with indigo, it beco.nes blue, and by putting it into an alum bath, and then into quercitron, the yellow of the latter and the blue together, form green. " As mordants are used to fix color on cloth, it is evident, that if, instead of being applied to the whole, certain parts only are covered with it, the color, though communicated to the whole, will be fixed only on those parts saturated with the mordant , and that this is the case is easily shewn, by making some traces with the infusion of nutgails on cloth, and allowing it to dry, and then put- ting it into a solution of green vitriol ; the color, on the traces only, will be durable. Hence the mode of applying a pattern on a white or colored ground, and which is called calico printings from its being usually done on calico. " Two mordants are in general use by the calico printers, alu- mina and iron in union with acetic acid, or acid of vinegar. The 56 farmers' and mechanics' journal. attraction between acetic acid and alumina is so weak, that they cannot be made to combine directly ; but they may be united, and the mordant formed, by decomposition, which is done by mixing sugar of lead, or the acetate, with alum, the acetic acid of the former combining with the alumina of the latter to form the acetate of alumina, while the lead is precipitated in union with the sul- phuric acid of the alum ; the mordant is therefore left in solution, so that, by filtration, it is obtained pure. The iron liquor is pro- cured by putting iron filings into vinegar, or rather pyroligneous acid, by which it is slowly dissolved. The solutions thus formed, are made of the requisite consistence with starch, to which in gene- ral a little Brazil wood is added, to give it color, that the traces may be seen when applied to the cloth. The instrument by which this is done, is a block of wood, on which the pattern is cut. In some places, it is interlaid with the felt of hat, which takes up a great deal of the mordant when necessary ; and for some of the nicer patterns, copper is sometimes used, by which the impression is more delicate. The block being covered with the mordant, is applied to the cloth, and struck with a mallet, or forced down by machinery, to cause it to leave on as much as possible, and by ap- plying it repeatedly, the whole web is properly covered with it. It is then dried in a stove room, to fix it, and after being washed to remove the superiluous part, is put into the dye-vat, by which the color is imparted to the whole of it ; but by boiling it in bran and water, and exposing it on the ground, only those parts previously covered with the mordant are colored, so that the pattern is dyed on it. " By applying different mordants to the same piece of cloth, dif- ferent colored patterns may be produced. Thus, if part of a piece of calico be covered with the aluminous mordant, another with the iron, a third with a mixture of these, and the rest left untouched, and afterwards put into a madder-vat ; the first will become red, the second black, the third purple violet, chocolate, or lilac, ac- cording to the proportions, and that part uncovered will be red- dish, but which, on keeping it in bran a little fermented, and then exposing it on the field, disappears, leaving the ground white. " That different colors can be given in this way, is easily shewn by a simple experiment : Cover one part of a piece of cloth with a solution of prussiate of potassa, and another with infusion of log- wood, and leave the rest uncovered. When dry, put it into a so- lution of green vitriol ; the first will become blue, the second black, and the ground will be left white. " Connected with the art of dyeing is that by which bandannas are made. For this purpose, a web is dyed Turkey red, and after being laid up in folds, is placed between metallic plates, in which are cut patterns, similar to that to be given to the cloth. Through the holes thus cut in the plates, a solution of the bleaching com- pound is allowed to flow, by which the color of that part of the cloth is discharged, and a white pattern is left on the red ground." REMARKS ON DYEING. 57 The bleaching compound, alluded to above, is made " by pass- ing; the gas through slaked lime kept in vessels, in which it is con- stantly agitated by machinery. After it ceases to be absorbed, the product is removed, put into vessels, and kept as much as possible excluded from air." [^Fyfe's Chemistry, As the art in question, depends upon the ditferent attractions, which the substances acted upon, have for each other, it is evi- dent, that the Dyer cannot be too cautious in procuring the best materials. It is, undoubtedly, often the case, that he fails to pro- cure a good color, on account of the adulteration of some of the ingredients. It is, therefore, highly necessary, that he be sufficient- ly acquainted with Chemistry, to detect any impurities, and also know how to purify what he tinds to be impure; for instance, alum, a substance which the Dyer catuiot do without, is often con- taminaied with iron. The following method of detecting it, when present, will, therefore, be worth remembering : Since the new Tarilf has been established, alum has been made in this country. As some lots tVom each manufactory have been pure and good, whilst other lots, fiom the same factories, have been impure, and calculated to injure the dyer, I have considei'ed it may be advantageous to (he manufacturer, as well as to the dyer, to point out its occasiotial defects, and the mode of testing it, so as to ascertain its injurious impurity. Alum is a mordant more generally used than any other, it being necessary to the production of every fine color excepting scarlet. It is a necessary condition to the production of fine colors, that alum should be free from every material which have a tendency to sadden the dye. Iron will do this to a greater degree than any other metallic substance, yet many lots of alum in this market aie suliiciently impregnated with iron to desti-oy every fine color in which it may be used, and this has no doubt been the cause why many of our red flannel dyers have so frequently produced a dull brick color, from the same process, which at other times have ob- tained them brilliant reds. In dying of dark colors, such as greens, browns, dark drabs, olives, clarets, modenas, &c. i:c., the presence of a small portion of iron will not be felt, but in all the finer colors the eiTect is highly destructive. According to Vauquelin's analysis, alum should contain 30.52 sulphuric acid, 10.50 alumina, 10.40 potash, and 48.50 water of crystallization. Alum is inade either from aluminous schistus, con- taining sullicient sulj>hur to acidiiy, by roasting or exposure, the alumina of the schistus, or from sulphuric acid and clay. When the schistus, or clay, contains iron, a portion of it will be found in the alum when crystallized. The manufacturer to get rid of the iron, should test the liquor before crystallizing, and precipitate it previous to submitting the alum liquor to that process. This j)r(- cautionary measure would elfectually prevent the existence of iron « Vor.. I. 58 farmers' and mechanics' journal. in alum, whether it existed previously in the clay, potash, urine, or vitriol, used in the manufacture. Our dyers may discover when alum contains iron, by dissolving a small portion of it, and dropping in a few drops of a solution of pure prussiale of potash, which, when iron is present, will cause a blue precipitate, pale, when slightly impregnated, and denser as the iron is more abimdant. As the prussiale of potash of com- merce may contain iron, it will be necessary that our dyers should have a pure solution, which they can obtain by applying to Mi". William Partridge, 34, ClitF-street, New-York. Hopson. [JV. Y. Statesman. ON THE STAINING OF WOOD. Dem- Sir, — When I closed the letter which accompanies this, I forgot to mention a stain, as cabinet-makers would call it, for some sorts of wood used in the making of cabinet furniture. This stain consists simply of a decoction of walnut or hickory bark, with a sm.aH quantity of alum dissolved in it, in order to give permanency to the color. Wood, of a white color, receives from the applica- tion of this liquor, a beautiful yellow tinge, very little liable to fade. Indeed, so far as I have ascertained the fact by several experi- ments, the color does not appear to fade at all ^ and I have good reason to think, that it will abide until it is worn off. So far -es 1 have tried the experiment, the color retains its proper state, when not defended at all from the action of the light and the air; when protected by varnish, it will, of course, be still less liable to change. 1 have in my house, an article of furniture stt'ined in this manner, which has stood exposed to the near light of a window fifteen months, and the color appears at this time, \i any change has taken place, even brighter than at tirst. This stain is particularly adapted to several kinds of furniture which are commonly made oi maple. It gives a beautiful and deli- cate tinge to the high posts of bedsteads, when made of that kind of maple which is called curly or curled. But to that kind of ma- ple which is called binVs-eije, it gives the finest appearance of any. This species of wood is commonly prepared, by cabinet-makers, by scorching its surface over a quick fire, which does not, at the same time, smoke. The wood, after being thus scorched, is made smooth in the usual way, and varnished. The scorching produces a great variety of dark shades and specks on the surface ; these have generally been considered to possess considerable beauty, and the wood, so prepared, has come into pretty extensive use in the making of particular sorts of cabinet furniture. When bird's-eye maple is thus prepared, except the varnishing, if it is then stained with the walnut dye, it receives much additional beauty. In the common mode of preparing that wood, the colors are black, of va- rious shade? and degrees of intenseness ; and that kind of white, though somewhat tarnished, which is natural to maple. These colors are destitute of any other lustre than what the varnish mere- HORSES. 61 AGHICUT^TUaE. HORSES. We now publish the second part of the renfiarks on Horses, that were promised in the last number of the Journal. The writer " calculalcfP'' them for Massachusetts, hut they will apply (general- ly s|)eaking) *■' to any of the adjoining States.''^ He describes the foim of the Mare, which should be employed for breeding. Some may feel disposed to differ with him, in this respect ; indeed, there are scarcely two that think alike, respecting the form and "points" of a good Horse. Almost every one has some 7vhim or caprice which biases his judgment, more or less ; and very few, — compara- tively speaking, look on him with that knowledge of the mechanism of his frame, that ought to guide one in choosing. The fact is, that a Horse is as " wonderfully," if not as *■' fearfully" wrought, as a man. Perhaps there is no other animal, in which the principles of many of the mechanical powers can be more easily and more strikingly demonstrated. None, in which the advantages and dis- advantages, arising from slight variations, or alterations in length, position, or correspondence of the various parts, can be more clear- ly and forcibly illustrated. He is a compound of levers and pul- leys, and he makes scarcely a movement, that is not in accordance with the (ixed and unerring laws of mechanical science. We would ask for no better object in nature, to prove the de- sign— the wisdom, or even the very existence of a Supreme Intelli- gence. Without stopping, however, to moralize on this subject, we vs^ill pursue that with which we commenced. The writer very justly observes, that, " breeding from many of our Mares is a cer- tain loss." There can be no vcvy good reason assigned, why al- most as much attention should not be given to the selection of a Mare for breeding, as well as to the selection of a Sire. " Every one," an eminent writer observes, " exercises some de- gree of judgment, in regard to the stallion j but there are few breeders, comparatively, who hesitate to employ very ill-formed and worthless Mares, and often solely, because they are unfit for any thing else." A little reflection will convince any one of the absurdity of this plan. " The price of the leap, the keep of the Mare, and the care and kce[) of her progeny from the iiinc they drop, to the time of sale, are the same," whether Ihey be sold for more or less. 62 farmers' a^d mechanics' journal. In England, they consider what kind of a Horse they wish to rear, and then employ such a breed as they wish the colt to be of. They have long since, laid aside the custom of putting one horse to every kind of work. They have distinct breeds for distinct pur- poses, and their character is so well fixed, that they can calculate, with tolerable certainty, the qualities of the future colt. Perhaps it would not be profitable for us to follow them in all of the several breeds ; but, we do think it advisable to have two, or three, whose character shall be fixed, or which shall be, in the language of the English breeders, " rocll brcd^'''' rather than to follow on in the old course, — hap hazard^ trusting altogether to luck and chance, re- specting the qualities of the Horse about to be reared. Sir, — In my last communication, for " relaxations of luxury," read " emulations," he, a very different thing ; in the eighth para- graph, as it is printed, for "• last observation," read " last observa- tion in the last sentence ;" for " ditferent," read " unnatural ;" for " caries of the bones ; — which are," read " caries of the bones of the foot ; which appear to be ;" there should have been no dashes : from " The peculiar" to '' Country of Virginia," should be an integral paragraph ; read " question of foot lameness" for '* the management ;" for " brought from the Desert," read " bought ;" for the Suffolk sorrel's " country," read " County ;" and at the commencement of that paragraph there should be no " But." I will now give you a few observations upon Breeding a Horse in Massachusetts, and will endeavor to express myself in the distinct- est manner possible. Where hay and pasture are so dear, a farmer can afford to breed from nothing but the right mare ; or the horse will eat, three times in four, more money than he will ever be worth, before he sheds a tooth. In England, a mare is covered, with a design that she shall produce a particular horse ; and it is not common for any horse but the thorough-bred one to be used for any purpose but that for which he is bred. He, if not gifted with superior speed, is hunted ; ridden on tlie road ; or galloped till his strength is consumed, in a stage coach. Breeding from many of our mares is a < ertain loss. The right one is a thick little mare, fourteen hands three inches high, with as much speed as is compatible with an adaptation for moderately heavy draught. Two things are indispensable. She must be perfectly sound in her feet ; or unsound distinctly from accident, very improper treatment, or external disease, and she must have a wide chest. She may, comparatively, be spavined ; ring-boned ; or even blind ; but 1 am so convinced of a predisposi- tion to the disease which is the common cause of foot-lameness be^ ing frequently hereditary, that, if the cause of it were not evident- ly as above-mentioned, I would not take as a gift the finest colt, bred from a mare suffering from foot-lameness. What sort of foot is the most likely to remain uninjured by the severe concussion HORSES. 63 to which it is here necessarily exposed, it is difficult to say ; but a flat, vulgar-looking one is decidedly my own preference. It gene- rally possesses less sensibility and susceptibility of inflamniation, and the horn is weaker and less able to contract than that of a foot of a more beautiful and original formation. There are many rea- sons why she should have a wide chest. If she has not, slit will neither have a good belly for the young horse to grow in, constitu- tion to nourish him before his foaling, nor milk enough for him after he is foaled ; and she will be in danger of transmitting to him a figure, which he is more apt to take from his dam than his sire, and which it is very important in this climate he should not have. Many narrow-chested horses make it up in depth, and possess ex- traordinary powers in every way ; but they are generally light in the flank, and high on the leg; hectic in their constitutions, and variable in their spirits : very superior walkers and trotlers ; but they will bear neither east winds nor daily labor. The mare's color is of little consequence : excepting that it should be recol- lected, that chesnuts, or, as we call them, sorrels, particularly light ones, who have always a good deal of white, are far more liable than other horses to the sympathetic diseases of the lungs and skin. The number of broken-winded chesnuts in Massachusetts, is four times that of any other one color. As 1 am acquainted with but three horses in Massachusetts fit to breed from, there is not much to be said about the sire. A vevy celebrated English horse is ex- pected here in the spring; and I believe in Vermont there are two covering, of unexceptionable pedigrees. Cock of the Rock, is a good little bay horse — got by Eclipse's sire, Duroc ; dam, own sister (called here full sister) to Eclipse's dam, by Messenger; grandam, bred by Lord Grosvenor, by PotSo's, out of a Gimcrack mare. Trouble is also by Duroc ; dam, by Hickory, out of Eclipse's dam. — A horse, here, is said to be got out of, for by, another horse ; a most ridiculous corruption. The next thing is to have the mare's gestation proceed under fa- vorable circumstances, and to have her foal at the right time of the year. On this there is little to be said : a mare is perfectly fit for ordinary labor during most of her gestation, and is all the better for it ; and the proper time for foaling, in this climate, is the first of June. Even in England, where the forwardness of a thorough- bred horse is a matter of extreme pecuniary importance ; he being often matched, to run at two, before he is foaled, and all foaled in the same year carry the same weights ; their most distinguished breeders, who have examined and scrutinized the subject, are of opiiiion, that a January colt will not be much forwarder than a June one ; that the first will lose more by the exposure soon after his foaling, than he will have gained by having had more time to grow. The third, and by far the most important thing of all, is the horse's treatment from the time he is foaled till he is full grown. One of the most celebrated sportsmen of modern times, has de- clared his opinion, that it is in the power of art to make a superior 64 farmers' and mechanics' journal. horse of" any colt that nature has not deformed, and whoever is aware of the eifects of diii'erent methods of rearing;; children, will not be disinclined to agree with him. 'I'he grand enemies of young animals, are moisture and bad food ; and the younger, the more scruj)ulously should they be preserved from both. A horse should be fed better, and ke[)t v\arm and dry more the first year of his life, than any other ; and it has an advantage he will never lose. Many of our farmers have an idea that thoiigh insufficient nourishment will check the growth, the horse will still be a good one, though of small size ; in England they assert, that his height will be the same, bat that he will be weak and leggy. I have the opinion of one of the oldest Merino sheep breeders, that it is indispensable that the lambs should be kept warm and thriving, or they will not pay. A long coat is both the cause and eil'cct of not thriving. \( any one will examine loiig-coated and short-coated horses exposed to the same rain, he will find one saturated with water under the belly chest and throat ; and not dry for some hours after it is done : that the water runs in streaks from the back of the other ; that his bel- ly, chest and throat are dry ; and that he dries all over as soon as the rain is done. Ihe dillcrent elFect upon the insensible perspi- ration and the lungs are evident enough ; and, if a colt wears a long coat, he should not be exposed to continued wet weather. The thorough-bred horse is always allowed, in England, a full allowance of corn at all periods of his life, if well. All danger of his being injiired by over-feeding is pievented by the attentive and experienced hands in which he is placed. He is carefully groomed at the earliest age ; the advantage of this and clothing, no one is ever convinced of by anj thing but experience, though he knows the benefit he himself derives from flannel and flesh brushes. No- thing of this, however, is necessary here, excepting that the horse should have a little corn, (oats in preference to any other kind of corn,) the first year. He must not, however, more than at any other age, be fed high on any kind of cold, or he is in danger of some local inflanmiation. He may have that of the lungs and die ; or get well with his wind touched or his feet spoiled for life. The thickness of wind arising from thickening of the wind-pipe, is attri- buted in England, to improper treatment of the distemper. Man has various temperaments : the horse none but the sanguineous. All his diseases, that do not arise from contagion, assume an in- flammatory form. If he has been allowed to suffer from severe colds, when young, he will be preternaturally liable to them through life. This can be explained on anatomical principles : it is an analogous fact, that the native of a warm climate has his health less affected by the first northern winter he is exposed to, than by any other ; and that in Napoleon's Russian Campaign, the Italians and Spaniards suffered less than the Germans and the Poles. The colt requires nothing hut grass and hay after the first year. He should be perfectly broken in the winter before he is three years old ; but must not be taken upon a frozen road. He is less HORSES. G5 in danger of being injured by being brought into work at tliat age, from the gentleness with which he will probably be used, than he often is from being presumed after tive, to be tit for common labor without time being given him to be accustomed gradually to it. A horse taken from grass or the cow-yard, should eat no kind of corn till he has been a long time in work. He will pufl" in the lioughs and heat in the feet, after walking five miles on the road ; and if tlie fever attending his fnst attempts at labor, particu- larly if he is very young, is increased by full feed at the time, it will throw itself into his feet already lieated by tlie unusual con- cussion, and do him permanent injury. He is especially in danger of this, if tirst used on the frozen roads in the beginning of the win- ter, when they are perfectly unelastic, and he is excited by the state of tlie atmosphere. Spavins and ring-bones are sometimes thrown out by a colt ; and their nature is not understood by our farmers generally. At the lower part of the front of the hough there are a number of joints, o(-cupying together but a small space, and possessing but little motion. Upon any considerable inflammation, they are lia- ble to seciete bony matter, which (ills up their interstices; and generally projects in front or on the inside of the hough, and is evident to the eye. It appears suddenly, and soon hardens. As the separ-ate bones then form one solid mass, it is obviously incura- ble. It is very common in oxen ; butchers being frequently oblig- ed to cut through with an axe, what was once a number of bones joined together. When it is soft it is absorbed by a blister. It may arise froro the inflammation occasioned by a violent blow upon some part of the leg ; and I have a colt spavined in both legs from a severe kicking. It is apt to keep a horse out of condition from its pain ; but many of our tirst-rate work-hoi'ses ai'e spavined. When I speak of spavin, 1, of course, mean bone-spavin ; bog and blood-spavins, as well as thorough-pins being nothing but wind- galls of the hough, A ring-bone is of the same nature as a spavin ; and generally pr'oceeds tVom inilammation of the pastern-joint. It has been ascribed, in some inslances, to stamping off the tlies ; and 1 have had one arise apparently from that cause. So simjile a reason, however, it would be ditlicult to make a Arrmer believe. It is not nn invariable cause of lameness. Like a spavin it is in- curable, excepting in particular states ; not exactly corresponding, however. Curbs aie common in thorough-bred colts ; but are. comparatively, of trifling consequence, and always to be cured. Any one, that does not acknowledge ilic assistance which natine may I'eceive from art in a youn.5 animal, must have shut his eye;* upon the vegetable world. Every domestic animal was intended to reap the advantages of civilization in his food and shelter as much as man ; nor can he be in his highest perfection without them. For the very fullest development of a horse's powei-s, he must be kept continually in a liigli temi)eratui-c. It is very well to laugh at the extent to which this a|)[)ears to be carried : but the fact is not to be disputed. [,V. E. Farmer. 9 Vor.. I. 6o farmers' and mechanics' journal, AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. We liave received a Circular Letter from Prof. Cleaveland, of Bowdoin College, relative to the Agricultural interest of this State, followed by a long list of Queries, intended to elicit information on this interesting topic. This is beginning at the root. It is in vain to attempt a change in any thing, or endeavor to remedy difficulties of any kind, until the actual state of the business is fully and clearly understood. We think that we cannot be justly accused of saying what is un- true, when we say, that the spiiit of Agricultural improvement is at rather a low ebb in Maine. But why should it be ? Why should our farmers be so far in the rear, of those of other States — follow- ing at a slow and humble pace, the improvements made by those, who, individually considered, are no better than themselves ? Why is it, that there is such a lack of intercourse among them ? No societies* — No cattle shows — No premiums ! Has Heaven been more kind or beneficent to other States than to Maine ? Are not her yeomanry as hardy, — as industrious, — and as intelligent, as those of other States ? Are not her hills and her valleys as fertile ? We believe — indeed, we know they are. Why then is there so much listlessness and apathy on the subject of her farming interests ? Our brethren of Massachusetts set us better examples. They have their Annual Cattle Shows. They meet, and congratulate each other with cordial and heartfelt greetings. They cultivate an ac- quaintance with each other, and bestow mutual improvement by a kindly exchange of experience and observation. Each one hails the annual return of their " festival of Ceres," as a day of joyous satisfaction, and they hasten together, to compare their fatlings and best fruits, — to tell of the labors of the past year — to give and re- ceive more knowledge, and to otfer up to Deity, the mo^t accepta- ble of all offerings, the effusions of grateful and contented hearts. Plow is it in Maine ? Our farmers, comparatively, are strangers to each other. No day of social meeting is found upon their calen- dar. No Societies (as we have before observed) for mutual in- formation, or for the encouragement of improvements. No friend- ly contention, of who shall do best. No honorable competition to stimulate, — to increase, or keep up their energy and vigor. They *Tbe Hancock Affricultural Society, we believe, is the only one that is spirited enough to have Cattle Shows, and give premiums. Long life to them. AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. 67 plod on the same dull pace, and follow the same dull routine — year after year — year after year, without one holiday, — without one meeting of general festivity and thanksgiving. No wonder things are at so low an ebb. No wonder that those children of our farmers, who have sprightliness and ambition, should be anx- ious to leave this monotonous employment, and engage in business which presents a better theatre lor enterprise and activity. But we hope and trust, that this will not always be. We are aware, that there are those among us, of high and honorable standing, who assert, that " these societies and cattle fairs are of no use, that they present more shozo than substance.'''' But, with all due deference, we as stoutly and decidedly assert, that we know better. There was once a State Agricultural Society in Maine. They had one Cattle Show, and although several years have elapsed since, the good effects of it are visible to this day. Why it was suffered to decline, or go down, we know not ; but, we hope, that another, and a stronger, will, ere long, rise in its stead. Correct answers, to Prof. C's. questions, will give us a just view of the present state of Agriculture among us, show where the weakest points are, and in what things improvement is the most needed. — The pages of the Journal are open to receive answers, and remarks, should it be more convenient to insert them there, than to send them to Prof. G. himself? " Sir, — The Agricultural interests of Maine are peculiarly im- portant to its citizens. The great capital of our State is land, which must be made productive by the skill and industry of the Farmer. Independent of the importance of our crops, the in- crease and quality of the most useful domestic animals greatly de- pend on the vegetiible food, which the soil can be made to yield. " The true principles of Agriculture can be established only by numerous experiments, carefully conducted and accuniteiy ob- served. It must therefore be important to collect and compare the experiments and observations, which have been made by dif- ferent individuals. " Some of the improvements, recently made in Agriculture, have arisen from a judicious application of the principles of Chcniistiy ; and a further increase of Agricultural knowledge will undoubtedly result from the application of similar principles by the practical Fai'mer. " One important step preparatorv to further improvement, is to ascertain the present slate of Agriculture in all Us branches, in Maine. " With this view the following questions are proposed. Most of theai relate to such land, as has been for some considerable 68 farmers' and mechanics' journal. time under cultivation, and is sometimes called old land. A few Queries, in regard to the mode of changing wild into cultivated land, will be found among the Miscellaneous Questions at the end. Some repetitions of ideas may occur, in consequence of presenting the same subject under dilferent points of vievr. The questions have been rendered minute, with the belief that the labor of an- swering them would thus be diminished. " Permit me respectfully to request your answers^ and those of your agricultural friends, to these Queries, or at least, to such of them, as have been the subject of your experiments and observa- tions. Any important facts and observations, connected with Ag- riculture, although not direct answers to any of the following Que- ries, are also solicited. — It would perhaps be more useful and plea- sant, if two or more individuals, resident in the same town, should unite in furnishing a joint answer. " It is requested, that your answer? may be communicated as early as December, IS'28, or as soon after as may be convenient ; and to avoid unnecessary expense, it is also requested, that they may be sent to the subscriber by private conveyance, or. if more convenient, to the care of Josiah VV. Seaver, South Bencick, Judah Dana, Fryeburg, Wm. C. Whitney, Hebron, William Ladd. Minot, Stephen Longfellow, Portland, Eleazar Coburn, Bloomfield, Tho- mas Eastman, Palermo, Jedidiah Herrick, Hampden, Wm. Abbot, Castine, or Rufus K. Porter, West Machias. " Yours respectfully, Parker Cleaveland. ''Bowdoin College, Dec. 5, 1827." QUERIES, ADDRESSED TO THE FARMERS OF MAINE. 1. How many acres of cleared land do Farms in your town or vicinity generally contain ; and what is the usual reserve of wood- land for fuel, and to furnish timber for occasional purposes ? 2. What proportions of the cleared land, in farms under good cultivation, are devoted to pasturage, mowing, and tillage, respec- tively ? 3. Rotation of Crops. W^hat is the usual rotation or succession of crops on the same piece of ground ? What order or succession of crops is found beneficial to the soil ? What crops, or succession of crops, are found peculiarly exhaust- ing, or injurious to the soil ? What crops, if any, can be raised with advantage, for several years in succession, from the same piece of land, and under what circum- stances ? Has the subject of rotation of crops received much attention ? 4. Would not the same quantity of labor and manure, usually employed on tillage land, be more productive, if expended on a number of acres somewhat less ? 5. Soil. What varieties of soil in your vicinity, in regard to sand, clay, loam, dryness, and moisture ? What is the most common variety, and its average depth ? AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. 69 Is the face of the country hilly or level ? Are stones scattered loosjly in the soil, or do ledges of rocks ap- pear ? Are the ledges numerous ? Is any Limestone or marl known to exist near you ? Have you any soil apparently good, but which does not yield good crops ? 6. Ploughing. What observations or experiments have you made on deep and shallow ploughing ? What depth do 3 ou plough in soils of middling quality ? Is summer ploughing ever employed to break up and turn in the sod, in order to prepare manure, and produce a fallow ? Does fail ploughing succeed well in all soils ? What are the etferls of deep ploughing and hoeing on corn, pota- toes, and other articles in rows, during a long continued drovght, even when the killing of weeds or earthing of crops is out of the question ? What kinds of ploughs are most in use ? 7. M'.inures. What observations and experiments have you made on the comparative effects of new and old dung on diti'erent crops, and in diiferent soils ? What experiments on ploughing in green crops for manure ? What are the comparative advantages of ploughing in manure, and of putting it in hills or rows, in reference to ditferent kinds of crops ? Are top dressings often employed, and with what success ? Do you apply them in autumn or spring ? How much manure, estimating half a cord as a load, is collected from the barn-yard of a farm, specifying the number and kind of cattle kept, and what portion of time they are conrii»ed to the barn or yard ? Are manure heaps often protected by design from the rain and suii. unless in barn cellars ? Is much compost manure made, and how ? What experiments and results on lime, marl, leached ashes, and salt, as manures ? To w^hat crops, and in what quantity, are ashes and lime applied ? To what soils and crops have you found Gypswn (or Plaster of Paris) best htted ? How are its ellects, according as it is ploughed or hoed in, or used as a top dressing ? What are the comparative effects of gypsum on soils, according as they have, or have not, been recently manured with dung ? What circumstances of the weather are most favorable for apply- ing gypsum ? In what cases do you apply it to the seeds them- selves rather than to the soil ? How^ are the effects of gypsum on clayey or rich soils ? [to be coktinukd in our next.] 70 farmers' and mechanics' journal. IVIISUELI.AM'EOUS. A mode of preparing Paper which shall resist Moisture, BT M. ENGEL. This process consists in plunging unsized paper once or twice into a clear solution of mastic in oil of turpentine, and drying it afterwards by a gentle heat. The paper thus prepared, without beconiing transparent, has all the properties of writing paper, and may be used for that purpose. It is particularly recommended for passports, for the books of porters, and other laborers, and indeed is desirable for a great variety of purposes for which paper that is capable of absorbing damp, is very inconvenient. When laid by, it is perfectly secure from being injured by mouldiness or mildew, and is not likely to be destroyed by mice or insects. The inventor states, that a solution of caoutchouc, would pro- duce a still better effect, but he does not say in what way that elastic gum is to be dissolved or diluted for use, or dried afterwards. This mastic paper has been used by printers, who have discovered in it the above mentioned qualities. By adding a little verdigris to the solution, the paper may be made to assume a greenish tint, similar to the paper known in Paris under the name of" Papier de Cassaboji.''^ \_Bulletin des Sciences, ^c. J^ew invented Apparatus for Expeditiously Drying Mildewed Grain, This apparatus consists of two long concentric metal pipes, or tubes, winding in a spiral direction. The smaller pipe which is in the centre of the large pipe, forms a passage for the heated air, and the larger pipe receives the corn for drying, by means of a hopper attached to its upper end. The spiral shape of the larger, or conducting pipe, converts it into a long, inclined plane, in de- scending which, the grain is sufficiently heated to render it per- fectly dry before it is discharged at bottom. [Annul mens de VIndustrie. For the Farmers' and Mechanics' Journal. Mr. Editor, — Please to insert the following, for the considera- tion of your readers. Perhaps some of them can answer the Queries. 1. Is there any cheap and simple method of softening a grind- stone or whetstone, when it is harder than desirable ? 2. What are the most obvious indications of Fossil Coal ? Theory vs. Theory. The received theory is, that apple seeds seldom or never produce trees, which will bear exactly the same kind of apples as those from which the seeds planted, were taken. I take the liberty to advance another theory, which is new to me, viz : that apple seeds will produce trees, which will invaria- NOTICES. 71 bly bear fruit of the same kind, as that from which the seeds were taken, provided the trees stand out of the reach of the farina or impregnating dust of other apple trees. Are there any well authenticated facts that will illustrate or prove aught respecting this subject ? I should be glad if some one who is conveniently situated for the purpose, would institute a course of experiments to confirm or confute the latter theory. Union, Me. S. Hill. NOTICES. WARRIOR. Two new Stallions have been brought into this vicinity within a short time. One of them by Mr, Johnson, of liallowell, which we have not seen, and another, called the Warrior, belonging to G. Williamson, Esq. of Pittston. This Horse, we have had the pleasure of examining, and consider him, (the opinion of some others to the contrary notwithstanding,) a very fair horse. By a fair horse, we mean one that is well proportioned ; one, whose conformation, when considered as a whole, indicates strength, speed, and bottom, or, in other words, capability of enduring hard labor and fatigue. We have seen prettier horses than he is, and we know of some that would better please the eye of those who judge of a Horse as they would of a Hog, by the quantity of flesh and fat that he carries. " Every one to his liking." We should prefer to examine a horse that was somewhat poor, as it regards fat, rather than one loaded with blubber, if an opinion were re- quired. Warrior is a beautiful dapple grey, sixteen hands high, lofty carriage, and we are much mistaken, if he does not make, when he has arrived at maturity, a horse of powerful bone and muscle. So much as it regards himself: What he will do as it re- gards his posterity, can be belter told tive years hence. We understand that a young Horse is to stand in Augusta this season, called " Young Bellfounder." Of him we know nothing except the name, and that we protest against. If he is not a son of Col. Jaques' Bellfounder, he has no business with it. If he is, it will lead to confusion. A good assortment of Stallions were never more needed in any county than in this. There has been too much mixing up of one blood, — poor enough at the best. The acquisition of these " new comers" is, therefore, a good step in the cause of improvement ; and we earnestly hope that it will begin a march, that will not soon 72 farmers' A^iD mechanics' journal. end. Our farmers will now have an opportunity of some choice and chance for selection, and we hope they will exercise their judgment in such a manner, as to remedy the imperfections of the present breed, (if breed it may be called, which is no breed.) Too much care and patience cannot be bestowed upon this sub- ject, for it must be remembered, that " excellence is of slow growth," and that it requires a slow and gradual, but powerful and unceasing exertion, to do away or remove the evils, which a few years of carelessness or negligence may have caused. GARDEN AND OTIFER SEEDS. We would refer those who purchase their Garden Seeds, to the Advertisement of J. B. Russell &l Co., under this head. The proprietors arf deserving much credit, as well as patronage, for their enterprise and energy. Such an establishment was much needed in New-England. It is now pretty certain, that it is, oc- casionally, best to obtain seeds from a distance, and, if possible, from those who make it a business to raise them, and use due pre- caution to prevent their degenerating, or becoming hybrids, which they will do by an intermixture of the pollen, with ditferent va- rieties, or species, of the same genus. We would also refer those who raise Seeds, to the same Adver- tisement, believing that they would there find an opportunity to dispose of their surplus stock, provided, it can be warranted genu- ine. The ingenious Farmer, who may chance to visit the Me- tropolis, cannot spend an hour more profitably, or agreeably, than by also visiting Mr. Newell's collection of Agricultural imple- ments. If he does not go away wiser than he went in, we will agree to pay him for the time spent. MINERALS. We have received from S. Hill, Esq. a good specimen of Soap- stone, picked up in Union, Me. Should a quantity of it be found there, it might prove valuable. We have also received, from the same place and source, speci- mens of Chlorite Slate. Sj>ecimens of other Minerals have been received from the same gentleman, which we have not had time to examine. piji: ! -i/. hndUl: " LlXjl THE NEW-ENGLAND FARIVIERS' AND MECHANICS' JOURNAL. Vol I. GAROINi^R, APRIL, 1S2',. N«. 4. MSCHAiriCS. HOWE'S BRICK PRESS. Plate IV. Fig. 1. A, is the top of the frame work, which moves the case or mould H, in which the Brick is contained while pressing. The case is attached to this, by means of two iron rods, which slide up and down in the frame of the machine, as repre- sented m the drawing. On one side of A, is attached a semi-circle with cogs, which match into those of the pinion I. B, is a large piece of timber, or piston, which slides up and down, through holes in the cross-pieces, which are made to fit it and sulTer it to pass through easily, and accurately; at the lower end is a fiiction roller. F, represents the lever, to which the power is applied, which raises B, by means of a kam-wheel. X, is the rod by which the pinion I, is raised. W, a weight attached to I, to assist its move- ment. The method of pressing is this : — The piston B, is suffered to sink as low as the kam-wheel will permit it. By pushing up the rod X, the mould H, is slipped upward upon C, and leaves a space between B and C, sufficiently large to admit the brick. After the brick is placed, the rod X, is pulled down, which brings the mould H, over the brick. The foot is then placed upon F, which brings up the piston B, and thus presses the brick. This machine is simple and cheap in its construction. The only objection that we see to it, is, the liability of the piston B, to press against the sides of the pieces, through which it slides, and thus cause too much friction. This will, however, perhaps be entirely obviated, by extreme care in placing the point of pressure exactly 10 Vqu. I. 74 farmers' A^D mechanics' journal. in the centre of the piston. The power is sufficien+lv ereat and can be augnieiited at pleasure. As it regards the number of bricks that can be pressed with it per day, we have not been informed. For this, the cost of the machine, and other particulars, we refer those who wish to inquire, to the Inventor, Mr. John Howe, of AIna, Me. PITCH SYRINGE. Plate IV. Fig. 2. is a representation of Flint^s Syringe, for paying or filling the seams of ships, or other vessels, with pitch, — a very simple, but very useful invention. It is made like a com- mon syringe, excepting one extremity is curved, in such a manner, that the orifice A, is at right angles with the main body, or tube. B, represents the handle. The Syringe is made of brass, or com- position, and sufficiently laige to hold a quart. It is filled with pitch in the same manner as any syringe would be, by placing the orifice A, into it, and a vacuum made by drawing up the handle B. The end at A, is about two inches long and one-fourth of an inch thick ; but it may be removed, and others of different sizes put on, should a larger or smaller one be necessary. When filled, the end is placed in the seam to be pitched ; pressure is applied to the handle , and at the same time, it is passed along the seam, until all the pitch is forced out. As the pitch is used hot, to pre- vent burning the hand, an exterior tube is fitted on, somewhat larger than the Syringe. For further particulars, apply to Daniel Flint, Nobleboro"', Lincoln Co. Me. JONES, ON JAPANNING AND VARNISIIING....N0. 4. Improved mode f>f applying the varnish in the French polish. To the information given in our last number, on the subject of the French polish, we add the following improvement, made by Mr. Samuel Nock, and published in the Technical Repository : " This im[»rovement consists in the substitution of a sponge, with a smooth surface, in place of the coil of list of woollen cloth, or drugs!;et, commonly used. " Mr. Nock finds the sponge to be far more convenient, for ap- plying the varnish to the surfaces of gun-stocks, than the list, or drugget ; as it has no loose hairs, like the latter articles, which are continually protruding through the linen cloth?, in which they are enclosed, to the great injury of the process. He also finds, that he can fill the sponge at once 'with a considerable quantity of the JONES, OV JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 75 varnish ; and can bring it to the surface of the linen cloth, when required at any time, by squeezing the sponge ; and he is thus enaliled to continue the operation for a much longer time, without renewing the varnish. •' When the sponge becomes clogged with varnish, he moistens it with alcohol ; and, putting a coarse linen cloth over it, employs it to prepare tne gun-stocks for receiving; the varnish ; as, also, to remove any former varnish, oil, &c. He, however, always em- ploys a fine linen cloth, in finishing his varnishins;. •' He adds, that a Frenchman of his acquaintaiice, has informed him, that in France, they find the introduction of camphor to im- prove the varnish." On Lacker for Brass, <^'C. Although, as we have elsewhere observed, the term lackering, is applied to every kind of varnishing performed with lac, yet it is more commonly employed to indicate that process in varnishing, by which tlie co'or of brass is heightened, so as to appear more like gold, or by which a similar color is given to tin, or leaf silver. In our nsxt number, we will describe the methods by which brass is cleaned, poHshed, and preoared for lackering ; at present, our attention will be given to the mode of preparing and applying the lacker. To make Gold Lacker, Take sced-lac, and carefully pick out the impurities from the clear grains, and, if thought necessary, wash these in clear water, and afterwards dry it perfectly. About three ounces may then be put into a pint of well rectified alcohol ; this mixture should be kept in a warm room, and fre juently shaken, during two or three days. The whole of the iac will not dissolve, but a sufficient quantity will combine with the alcohol, for the purpose intended. It is best not to strain it through a cloth, but to allow it to star»d until the impurities have subsided, and the varnish becomes trans- parent, when it should be carefully decanted into another bottle. This clearing will require three or four days, and sometinies more, according to the thickness of the varnisli. When it is wished to preserve the brass nearly of its natural color, and merely to prevent its tarnishing, the lacker is used without any additional color ; this, however, is rarely the case, coloring materials being usually added. Various pigments have been used to tinge the lacker ; they are all such as are soluble in alcohol, and the only colors employed, are yellow and red. Yellows are produced by gamboge, or turmeric root, in powder ; reds, by arnotta, or by dragon's blood, {sanguis draconis,) sallron is also sometimes used for the same purpose. A drachm of either of these, m^y be put into a i ordinary vial, and a couple of ounces of alcohol poured on; this will dissolve a portion of the coloring matter, which when clear, may be mixed with the varnish. We have tried all the materials, and prefer the turmeric, and dragon's blood 5 a few drops of each of these niay be put into the lacker •, 76 farmers' and mechanics' journal. using a larger portion of the turmeric, if a yellow color be preferred, and of the dragon's blood, if the red is to predominate. It is best not to color the varnish very highly at first, as it may then be al- tered according to the nature of the w^ork. Lacker for tin, or silver leaf. The only difference in this lacker, and that intended for brass, is that it is more highly colored, as it is intended to give a gold color to a white metal. Many articles, commonly supposed to he gilt, are covered with silver leaf, and afterwards lackered, and when well done, the deception is perfect. When, what was called gilt leather, was in fashion, it was generally covered in this way. Directions for using the Lacker. The lacker properly colored, is to be poured into a tin or earth- en cup ; a common tea-cup. fixed on a block of wood, to cause it to stand firmly, will answer the purpose. It is convenient to have a wire fixed across the cup, just below the rim, in order to scrape the superfluous lacker from the brush. The brushes should be of the flat kind, excepting for small work ; they are made of camel'a hair, enclosed in tin, with cedar handles, and may be purchased at most of the druggists. The brass to be lackered, must be perfect- ly bright and clean ; the room must be free from dust ; a clean piece of linen rag must be at hand, to wipe the work before it is varnished ; the sooner it is lackered after it is finished, the bright- er it will be, as polished brass, exposed for an hour or two, will be sensibly tarnished. When it is not convenient to lacker soon after polishing, it is the practice of some workmen to pass the lacker- brush once over the article, cold, which prevents the contact of the air ; the dull appearance which this produces, is removed in the subsequent operation. The brass to be lackered, must be heated upon a stove, or in any other convenient way ; the degree of heat must not be so great as to render it difl[icult to hold the work in the hand, nor should it be far below this. The brush is to be dipped in the varnish, and then scraped upon the wire, or upon the edge of the cup, to re- move a considerable portion of its contents, otherwise it cannot be laid on evenly. The size of the brush may vary with the work, but one of more than an inch and a half will rarely be found con- venient to use. in laying on the varnish, the brush should always be passed completely from one end of the work to the other, and never backwards and forwards, as in paintmg, otherwise the lack- ering will be irregular, and in streaks ; nor must it be passed a second time over the same part, until the previous coat is dry ; a few seconds, however, suftice for this, when the brass is properly heated. Two or three coats will answer for most work, nor are more than four or five ever requisite. Work that is thick, will retain heat enough to be finished at one operation ; that which is thin, must be heated between every coat. If the varnish is too thick, it will always dry in streaks ; a little alcohol is an evident remedy. TANNINE. 77 Work that is turned and polished in the lathe, may be so heated by the tViction. as to be nnuch more conveniently lackered, than when heated in any other way. The forei^ointi directions apply only to smooth work, such as is either polished or burnished. Chased, or wrought work, snch as leating, &c. cannot be lackered with (he kind of brush before de- scribed ; one wilh tine, stilf hairs, called titch-hair, is used, and this, instead of being passed over the article, is dabbed on, until the surface is regularly covered. The most careful workmen do not return the lacker from the cup. into the bottle, but pour it into another, where it is allowed to accumulate, and to settle, when it will be as good as at first. When the lackering is finished, the brush may be scraped upon the wire, and afterwards wij)ed by pressure between paper, 'i'his will be found bcter than washnig it in alcohol, as by allowing it to dry with a little varnish in it, the hairs get a set, which preveiats them from straggling, a point of uiuch importance. A few minutes soaking in the lacker, will render it fit for use. We have repeatedly performed the jjrocesses above described, and have now by us. articles which liave been lackered nearly eighteen years, which have preserved their color, and apj)ear equal to any similar work we have ever seen. [^Am, Mcch. Mag. TANNING. Tanning is one of those arts which depend on chemical princi* pies, and may be considered as Chemico-mechanical. The basis of the whole art, rests upon the combination of astringent matter, with gelatinous, and changing it, from a substance, which is easily dissolved or so!iibie in water, to one that is insoluble. Tanning is an ancient art. It has received many improvements of late years, — is still undergoing improvement, and yet it may be considered to be but little more than in its infancy. It presents a fine field for scientific ingenuity and research, and we hope, that, all engaged in the business, will strive to acquire theoretical, as well as practical knowledge, and occasionally venture an experiment, with a view of discovering some new principles, as well as to eluci- date those that are old. We extract the following from Fyfe's Chanislry^ with the hope of its being useful to some of the craft ; who, although good tanners, may not perfectly understand tlie ra- iionale of what they practise daily. When part of an animal substance, particularly sicin or cartilage, is boiled in water, after having been previously well wa-^lied, a tluid is obtained, which, when evapornted, and allowed to cool, con- geals, forming a substance called Gelatin or Jellt/, If this he H*^^' 78 farmers' and mechanics' journal. ed it becomes liquid, the water is driven off, and it is thus procured in a state of purity. When gelatin is put into cold water, it softens and swells, but is not dissolved ; it is not necessary to heat it, by which a solution \s formed, differing in consistence according to its strength. By far the most important action of gelatin, is with the astringent matter of vegetables. When an infusion of nutgalls, oak bark, or willow bark, is added to the solution of gelatin, a powder is precipitated, or if the solution be strong, a tough matter is formed, which is a compound of the vegetable and animal principles, and which be- comes hard on being kept, (^^n this depends the art o[ tanning, or the making of leather, which is merely the union of the astringent matter m vegetables, with the gelatinous principle existing in the skins, by which they are gradually converted to a substance inso- luble in water, and not liable to undergo decay. The previous steps, in preparing skins for converting them into leather, consist in removing the hair, fat, and other impurities, after which they are subjected to different processes, according to their nature, and the kind of leather required, as tanning, or caus- ing them to unite with astringent vegetable matter, tawing, or making them imi)ibe alum and olher salts, with some animal sub- stance, and currying, or soaking them in oil to make the leather soft, and impervious to water. These processes are often perform- ed on the same skin, by which the leather is fitted for more pur- poses. The thick hides of which the soles of shoes are made, are merely tanned, while the white kid glove leather is tawed. That for the upper leather of boots and shoes, is both tanned and curried, and the fine Turkey leather is first tawed, and afterwards tanned. AVhen the skin is to be tanned, it is allowed to lie in water for a day or two, to remove any dirt, and to wash out the blood, after which it is laid on a round piece of stone or wood, called a beam, and deprived of the fat and flesh. It is then put into a pit with lime- water, and allowed to remain there for some days, by which the hair is loosened, and is easily removed, by placing it on the beam, and scraping it with a blunt knife. As the lime employed in this part of the process hardens the skin, it is necessary again to soften it. For this purpose, it is put in what is called the mastering pit, which contains water and dung, chiefly of pigeons or fowls, where it continues for some days, the time depending on the thickness of the hide. Great care must, however, be taken, not to allow it to remain too long, otherwise, owing to putrefaction, its texture is completely destroyed, so that it is torn by the slightest effort. After this, it is again cleaned on the beam. When the skins are very thick, they are sometimes submitted to another process. After being deprived of the dirt and blood by washing, a number of them are heaped together in a warm place, so as to c\ e a slight putrefaction, after which the hair is remov- ed, in general without immersing them in the lime pit, as this would harden them too much, and render the leather liable to tANNINft. 79 erack. They are then put into a vat, containing a sour fluid, generally prepared by allowing rye or barley to ferment in it, by which they are softened, and their pores are opened, so tliat they can more easily imbibe the tan-liquor in which (hey are afterwards to be immersed. This part of the process is called raising, as the hides are considerably swollen by it, and also requires particular attention, for if too long continued, the skin is destroyed by under- going putrefaction. Instead of tiiis part of the operation, which is sometimes difticult to accomplish, owing to the state of the weather, the hides are plunged into a fluid composed of sulphuric acid and water, in the j)ro|)ortion of about a wine-pint of the former to fifty gallons of the latter, and allowed to remain there till sufficiently softened and thickened. The next stage of the process is the tanning, which consists merely in soaking the hide in a solution of an astriiigetit vegetable, and making this unite with the gelatin, by which it is rendered no longer liable to undergo putrefaction, insoluble in water, and in a great measure impervious to it. The astringent substance usually employed, is oak bark, procured from the trees which are cut in the spring, when the sap has risen into them. After being reduced to coarse powder, it is put into pits with water, by which a solu- tion of the astringent matter is procured, called an ooze. In this the hides are immersed for several weeks, being frequently turned, to expose the wiiole of them to the infusion, and allow it to pene- trate them. From this pit they are put into others, the liquor be- ing successively stronger, till it is completely saturated. Should the hides be very thick, the last into which they are put contains some of the powder of the bark in alternate layers with them, by which, as the infusion becomes weaker by the substance combin- ing with the gelatin, inore of it is taken up, and it is thus always kept of proper strength. In this way the skins are allowed to re- main, till the whole are converted into leather, which is known by cutting a small piece from them, and observing its appearance. If the process be completed, the cut edge is of a brownish color, but if the tan has not penetrated it thoroughly, there is a white streak in the centre ; of course they must be left in it, till the whole as- sume the brown tinge. The time required for accomplishing this, depends on the thickness of the hide. Calves-skins take from two to four months, and the thick sole-leather hides, from tifteen to twenty. When this process is completed, the hides are removed, and laid again across the beam, where they are smoothed, and well heat, to make them more solid, and also more flexible, after which the) are hung up on beams in the drying-house, a buildmg into which the air is freely admitted, where they remain till dry. A French Chemist of the name of Seguin, proposed what seem- ed to him an improvement in the mode of preparing leather, btit which has not been adopted in this country. It consists in making quickly, solutions of the oak bark of diiferent strengths, and pass- ing the hides through them, beginning with the weakest, aiid end- 80 farmers' and mechanics' journal, ing \vi(h the strongest, by which the process is considerably short- ened. It is said, however, that the leather thus prepared, is more liaoie to crack, than that manufactured in the usual method. It may be here remarked, that oak bark contains a number of other substances, besides the astringent matter, and that, therefore, the quality of the leather depends in a great measure on the mode in which th*^ infusions are made. One of the substances in the bark, is what is called extract, and which is soluble, but not so much so as the astringent matter. Skin has the power of absorb- ing this, by which the leather probably acquires its color and flexi- bility ; if, therefore, the tan-liquor be so made, that it contains little of the extract, the leather prepared may absorb a great deal of the astringent matter, and thus become brittle, and more liable to crack. Hence {)robahly the cause of that manufactured in the French way not being so durable as the other, for. by the method of forming the tanning iluid, much of the astringent, and little of the extractive matter is dissolved. Besides, when the process is carried on quickly, the outer part of the skin only is converted into leather, because, this being speedily tanned, prevents the fluid from penetrating any farther. The great objects to be attended to, then, in tanning, are, to pro- cure from the bark as much of the soluble matter as possible, and, could some means be devised by which the skins could be made to imbibe this quickly, a great deal of labor, time, and money, would be saved. On this is founded the patent process of Spilsbury, of forcing in the tan-liquor by pressure. For this purpose the skins, after being cleaned, are stretched on frames, which apply closely to each other, but so as to leave a little space between the hides. Pipes are connected with these, and the fluid allowed to flow into the compartments from a cistern placed above them, by which, owing to the pressure, it is forced into the hides. It is said, that in this way, skins which require a year according to the old mode, may be tanned in six weeks, and that some may be finished in a few days ; it is doubtful, however, if the leather prepared is so du- rable, for, from the forcing in of the fluid, the skin does not appear to take it in uniformly, so as to tan completely the whole of it. The tawing of skins, by which they are also converted into leather, is more speedily accomplished than tanning. The skins subieeted to this process, are those of goats, sheep, lambs, and other thin hides, by which glove leather, and that usually called morocco, are prepared. When the leather is to be white, it is merely sub- jected to tawing, but when intended to be dyed, it also receives a slight tanning. The process followed for preparing the skins, is nearly the same as that described. They are first freed of the dirt and blood by washing, and hung in a room heated by stoves, till they begin to putrefy, which is known by their emitting the odour of ammonia or hartshorn. During this a slimy matter collects on the surface, which is removed by placing them on a cylindrical piece of wood, and scraping them with a knife, and the hair is at the same time TANNlNe. «» pulled off. They arc next put into a pit of lime-water, and kept there for some weeks, acconhng to their size, by which the putre- faction is stoi)()ed, and they become much thicker and harder ; and after beini>; deprived of the superfluous matter, by scraping them on the beam, they are placed in a mixture of bran and water, in which they remain for some weeks being occasionally scraped. By these processes, the whole of the lime and slimy matter is re- moved, and the skin is fit for tawing, in which state it is called a pelt. Tawing consists mi soaking the !)eUs in a warm solution of alum and common salt, by which they become thick and tough. They are then, after being washed, put into a vat with bran and water, asid allowed to ferment for a short time, so as to remove a great deal of the alum and salt, after which they are stretched on frames, and kept in a heated room to dry. By these means, a thin white leather is procured, which is nriade smooth and glossy, by soaking it in water, containing the white of eggs. It is then dried in a heated room, and the gloss given to it by smoothing it with a hot iron. In the process of tawing, it is supposed that the skin imbibes something from the saline matter probably aliimine, by which it is converted into leather ; this combining with the substance of the skin, in the same way as tlie astringent matter does in tanning. When the leather is to be dyed, as in preparing black morocco, after being tawed, it is soaked in a solution o^ sumach. It is then rubbed over with a solution of green vitriol, by which it becomes black, the same action taking place, as in the preparation of ink ; and after this, it is polished by glazing it with a glass ball, or, if re- quired to have the ribbed appearance of morocco, by using one of boxwood, round which a number of small grooves are cut, and by which the roughness is communicated to the leather. Currxjiiig consists in soaking leather in some oily substance, by which it is made more impervious to water. F'or this purpose, the hides, after being tanned, are soaked in water, and then thinned by scraping them with a knife, after which they are rubbed with a polished stone, and well besmeared with oil, or oil and tallow. They are next hung in a rcom to allow the moisture to escape, and the oil to penetrate them thorougiily, being afterwards dried, eithei' in sunshine or by exposures to he;>t. Sharaoij leather is merely sheep or doc's skin, prepared as al- ready described, that is, tanned, and then subjected to the process of currying. It is of the utmost consequence for tanners, and others using astringent matter, to be able to judge of the quantity of tannin in any article exposed for sale, particularly as it varies so much in ditFerent samples of the same.stdjstance. owing partly to the age of the vegetable, and to adulteration. Diifeient methods have been recommended, but by far the best, is just that followed by tanners, but conducted in such a way as to be quickly finished. It is well known that skins will continue to imbibe the astringent principle 82 farmers' and mechanics' journal. for many months ; but on a small scale, the whole tan may be re- moved from an ooze in a few hours. For this purpose, the astrin- gent matter beiug ground to powder, 1000 grains are to be infused in water at about 100*, and after the whole of the tan seems dis- solved, the fluid must be strained, and the insoluble matter, wash- ed, till the water passes through tasteless. A certain quantity of this, say one-tenth, is to be placed in a bottle, along with some pieces of skin, previously washed with warm water, to dissolve the lime, employed in taking oif the hair, and to remove the loose gela- tin ; the skin being dried by exposure to air, and weighed before being put into the bottle. Leaving them there for a few hours, turning them frequently, the whole of the tari will unite with the gelatin, and thus convert the skin into leather, so that, by drying it, and weighing, we find the quantity of tan that existed in the in- fusion, of course of 100 grains of the astringent matter. The best skins for this purpose, are the fresh curriers' shavings from the strong hides, intended for harness, or ox-hides split very thin. They must, after being treated as above mentioned, and weighed, be put into tepid water, and handled for a few minutes, to open the pores, and allow them to imbibe the tan." There are a great variety of vegetables, which abound in tan- nin ; probably many, which have never been used for the purpose of tanning skins. An artificial tannin has been made by Mr. Hatchett, " by the action of heated diluted nitric acid on charcoal, and evaporation of the mixture to dryness. From 100 grains of charcoal, Mr. Hatchett obtained 120 grains of artificial tannin which like natural tannin, possessed the property of rendering skin insoluble in water. " Both natural and artificial tannin form compounds with the alkalies and the alkaline earths ; and these compounds are not de- composable by skin. The attempts that have been made to ren- der oak bark more efficient as a tanning material by infusion in lime-water, are consequently founded on erroneous principles. Lime forms with tannin, a compound not • luble in water." The quantity of tannin varies, in the same substance or bark, according to the time of vear in which it is cut, and also according to the temperature in different seasons. " When the spring has teen cold," says Davy, " the quantity is smallest. On an a crage, 4 or 5 lbs. of good oak bark are required to form 1 lb. of leather. The inner cortical layers in all barks, contain the largest quantity of tannin. Barks contain the greatest proportion of tannin at the time the buds begin to open — the smallest quantity in winter." Some very good remarks upon tanning different kinds of leather, have appeared in the Technical Repository/, which we shall copy in PLANTING. 83 AGRICUTTURE. PLANTING. The time is now near at hand, when the provident and indus- trious farmer must commit the seed to the earth, in order to obtain a crop for future consumption. Many have a set time for this business ; — some particular day of the month ; — the particular phase of the moon ; — the blossoming of some shrub, or the first ap- pearance of some bird in Spring, is generally the monitor to warn the husbandman that seed time has come, and, if he would reap an abundant harvest, he must prepare for it now. I'he general ap- pearance of the natural objects around us — vegetable, as well as animal, are pretty sure indications of the advance of the seasons. As it regards the changes of the moon, we are not yet Lunatic enough to observe, or be influenced by them, in our movements. We have made some experiments upon the subject of planting various kinds of seeds, with the view of ascertaining how early it will do to plant them in this climate ; and also, how late in the season it will do. In the latter case, we have subjected ourselves to not a little ridicule by the " lookers on," and . We have here, a mind to digress a little, and say a few words on Agricultural experiments. We have been guilty of trying a few. Have dared, in more than one instance, to step out of the beaten track of those around us, and stray a little for amusement, — not for proft. No small share of the amusement consisted in listening to the sage re- marks that have been made upon us, and the fun that the imtty and the wise have had at our expense. We have been honored with the title of Book farmer — Fine farmer — Simphlon — nay, one old man, (whose grey locks we should have felt disposed to resjiect, had no! his tongue betrayed the vacuwn which they covered.) openly, and loudly proclaimed us a Fool I ! and all, forsooth, be- cause we planted a few potatoes late in the summer,* in order to ascertain how large they would grow, between then and frost ; ap.d * They were planted on the 25lh and 26th of June, were tlie Chenango Potato, a sort somewliat earlier than the common Orange. Had it not been for a drought, whicii s( t in ahout tlie time tlie tubers were ih\nung, they would have done well. As it was, they grew to a middling size, and cost, including expense of breaking up tiie ground, &c. 35 cents j)er bush- el. The breaking up of the sod is considered by Political Economists, as fixed capital. The expense of that should, therefore, be deducted, whieli will bring the cost of the crop somewhat less. We have known potatoes — planted (in IMaine) on tlie 4lh of July, and yield a good crop. The suc- cess must depend, however, upon the seasoii. 84 farmers' a?jd mechanics' journal. also, to ascertain whether, in unfavorable seasons, or under par- ticular circumstances, late planting would not ansv/er nearlj, or quite as well, as standing in Grog-sho[)s and at corners, berating Providprice. and prophesying no crops ! no crops ! We would here take the liberty of informing our captious breth- ren, that, as •' one swallow makes no summer," so one experiment in Agriculture, does not always elucidate or establish one fact. Hence we intend to commit more breaches upon the common rou- tine ; and be guilty of further folly, in vexing the soil, in our own way. and tin)e. We keep a log-book, wherein we carefully record our proceedings, and the various results of our labors, and we hope so to do, for sixty years to come. We would recommend the plan to all farmers. Our first knowledge of practical farming we obtained by imitat- ing others. That is, by doing as those did, who were placed over us and required to get as much labor out of the boijs as they could, (not much at the most.) It was probably the same routine of ope- ration practised by the veteran Pilgrims of the Mayflower, and which has been handed down from father to son and from genera- tion to generation, even unto the present day. We are as well acquainted with it as we wish to be, for we had it fixed in our memories by — what was then tedious — experience. We say te- dious^ for we remember well the long and sultry days — and the many anxious looks at the distance between the sun and his "hid- ing place," verily believing that he stood still, as he did in the days of Joshua. We like the business far better now ; and for this reason, — we can see some meaning to it. Then it was a task. — A business for the hands in which the head could discover neither " Rhyme or Reason." Our corn must be planted nearly at such a time. Why ? Because the planting bush was out.* The rows miist be just the distance of the hoe-handle apart. Why ? Be- cause it was just four feet. There must be just four kernels in a place, and a pumkin (pompion) seed, in every-olher hill of every- other row, — whether the soil was barren or fertile. Tlje soil in some places, must be manured. Why ? Because it makes it richer. How ? Because it does. We ascribe no blame to any one for this want of explanation. We were kindly told all that they knew about it. It has been our * Pyriis Arhutifdlia of VV'illflenovv — Choke berry— Swamp pear — Plant- injj hush, so calh-H. I)ecatise the Iiu'ians considered it an imlication that the season had so far advanced tliat there was no danger from frost. PLANTING. 85 good fortune since, to get a little more insight into the theory, and to receive more satisfactory explanations of what was before, a mystery to us. Although many things are yet behind the veil, many, whicli have baffled the skill of Philosophy and Science, yet what is known, is sullicient to reward every inquiring mit)d for the research, and to change the practical labor and fatigue of farm- ing, into a rational and delightful employment. We will now pro- ceed to our Planting, and tirst of Indian Corn. We would recom- mend to put this in as early as possible, after the eaith is in a suit- able situation to receive it, or as soon as there is no danger of the frosts killing the roots. It will bear more cold jicrhaps than most people think it will. Heai' wliat John Lorain saith : " It should, however, be remembered, (hat wliere the seasons are short, [jlantiiig and sowing as early as Iro^^t will pernnt, is of the utmost coiise juence. Fhe contrary practii:-if< cu on a slick. The strength of the ley will be greatly increased by putting some quick-lime into it. Alter the removal of the lacker, the operations to be performed, will depend upon the nature of the work, and the degree in which the surface has been scratcbed, or corroded. The directions to be given for new work, will apply equally well to old. Wrought work, that is, such as is not tinished with the file, or turned, but consists of foliage and other ornaments, will, if much soiled, re- quire to be annealed, that is. heated to redness in the fire, and otherwise managed as new work. On Finishing, Burnishing, or Polishing, Brass Tcork. Articles which are filed up, or turned, are in general either polished, or burnished, preparatory to their being lackered. Work which is well turned, requires but little polishing. For preparing and polishing brass, dilferent articles are recommended and em- ployed by dilTerent workmen ; we have found that fine glass-paper covered with sweet oil, will give a perfectly smooth surface ; which may then be polished with oil and rotten-stone, upon a woollen rag, and cleaned off with fine dry whiting, upon a piece of cotton or linen. The use of glass-paper and oil, was adopted. by us many years since, and we believe was then new ; it is adapted both to coarse and fine work, and has the advantage of producing the de- sired effect, with greater rapidity than any other method, with which we are acquainted. Glass-paper is fi'equently called sand- paper, and is often sold under that name ; sand-paper was former- ly much used, but is now almost unknown, the glass-paper being much superior to it, for all purposes. Emery-paper is sometimes used ; for iron it is a very good article, but for brass, is not better than glass-paper, which is much cheajier ; if not sufficiently fine, the glass-paper may be made so, by rubbing it with the pane of a hammer. Work which is filed, may also be finished in the way above de- scribed. For flat w^ork, the glass-paper is wrapped round a suiia- We piece of wood, and after being oiled, is used in tbe manner of a file. It may then be polished with oil and rotten-stone, upon a •woollen or leather bulf. The finest kind of work, after being gmooth-filed, is rubbed with a piece of pumice-stone, afterwards with blue-stone, and then with charcoal ; this leaves it with a per- fectly fine surface, well prepared to receive a polish from oil and rotten-stone, with but little labor. There are several species of stone, in difierent parts of the Union, which may be substituted, both for the pumice-stone and the blue-stone. Instead of the lat- ter, the Scotch stone, called roater of .^■Jyr. is often used : this exists in abundance, in the State of North Carolina. The best charcoal is that made fiom willow, but good j)ieces may generally be picked out from a heap ; they, however, can be judged of, by trial oiily. The rubbing wiih charcoal is a slow business, and may, in general, bo dispensed with. 102 farmers' and mechanics' journal. When a bright polish is not desired, but the work is to appear with a fine surface, the grain may he laid with the glass-paper and oil ; with oil and fine powdered pumice-stone, or with the finest washed emery and oil, upon a buff. Burnishing on brass, is performed only on inferior kinds of work, or upon such parts as do not admit of being polished. A burnish- ed surface is the most brilliant, but has much less truth than one which is well polished. For brass, steel burnishers are always used. (The general directions in the article on burnishing, ex- tracted from the Dictionnaire Technologique, and published in our present number, may be referred to, upon this subject.) In bur- nishing small articles, the burnisher may be moistened by touching it with the tongue : weak beer is frequently used for larger work, instead of the soap-suds, used with silver, as mentioned in the pa- per just referred to. After burnishing, the articles are washed clean, and wiped perfectly dry, when they are fit for lackering. On Finishing Wrought work. Wrought work, after having the parts which are intended to be burnished, either scraped or filed, is to be annealed in a charcoal fire ; a pickle is then made, by pouring aqua fortis {nitrous acid) into water, until it is inteiisely sour ; into this pickle the articles are put, and suffered to remain until all the black scale is removed and the whole surface exhibits one clear, uniform red ; they are then to be taken out, washed and dried, when they are ready for dipping, or taking ojf. Some clear aqua fortis is poured into a cup, and the article, if small, is dipped into it, and immediately remov- ed ; otherwise it is washed over by means of a piece of rag, tied on .v5 the end of a stick ; the acid immediately boils up, when it must be washed ofT, by being passed successively into two or three vessels containing water, as the smallest portion of acid will cause the surface to tarnish. A little practice will enable the operator to judge of the instant when the acid should be washed ofT, by the color which it assumes. The surface will now exhibit a clear and beautiful gold yellow, provided the brass and the acid are both of a proper quality. The parts which are to be burnished, undergo that operation, either by hand or in the lathe, according to the na- ture of the articles. The usual mode is to put them into small beer, from which fhe pieces are successively taken and burnished, when they are thrown into clean water, and dried in the saw-du«t of some wood which is not resinous. Sometimes the work is scratch-brushed, before burnishing ; this, however, removes that beautiful dead appearance, which is in general preferred, and leaves a general brightness upon the uiiburnished parts. The scratch-brush is made of small brass wire, formed into bunch- es, which for large work are fixed around a chuck, and made to re- volve in the lathe ; beer is used in this operation, as in burnishing, [Am. Mcch. Mag. ON BVRNISHIN«. IQo ON BURNISHING. To burnish an article, is to polish it, by removing the small emi- lences or roughnesses, upon its surface ; and the instrument by which it is performed, is denominated a Burnisher, This mode of polishing is the most expeditious, and gives the greatest lustre to a polished body. It is made use of by gold and silversmiths, cutlers, locksmiths, and most of the workmen in gold, silver, copper, iron, or steel. It removes the marks left by the emery, putty of tin, or other polishing materials ; and gives to the burnished articles, a black lustre, resembling that of looking-glass. The burnisher is an instrument, the form and construction of which is extremely varia- ble, according to the respective trades ; and, it must be even adapted to the various kinds of work, in the same art. We shall point out the principal ones. In general, as this tool is only in- tended to efface inequalities, whatever the burnisher is made of, is of little consequence to the article burnished, provided only, that it be of a harder substance than that article. We shall first describe the art of burnishing silver articles, and afterwards point out the variety of modes in which the burnisher is used, in other arts. When silver articles have received their last fashion from the silversmith's hands, that is to say, when they have been worked, soldered, repaired, or adjusted, they are sent to the burnisher, who has the care of finishing them. He must begin by cleaning off any kind of dirt which their surfaces had contracted whilst makinpr, as that would entirely spoil me perfection of the burnishing. For this purpose, the workman takes pumice-stone powder, and, with a brush, made very wet in strong soap-suds, he rubs, rather hard, the various parts of his work, even those parts which are to remain dull 5 and which, nevertheless, receive a beautiful white appear- ance. He then wipes it with an old linen cloth, and proceeds to the burniihing. The burnishers used for this purpose, are of two kinds ; some of steel, others of hard stone. Steel burnishers are either curved or straight ; rounded or pointed ; and made so as to suit the project- ing parts or the hollows of the piece. Stone burnishers are made of blood-stone {hcematitc) cut, and either rounded with tiie grindstone, or rubbed, so that they present at the bottom, a very blunt edge, or sometimes a rounded surface. These are polished with emery, like steel burnishers, and aie finish- ed by being rubbed upon a leather, covered with crocus martis. The stone is mounted in a wooden handle, and firmly fixed by means of a copper ferrule, which encircles both the stone and the wood. The best blood-stones are those which contain the most iron, and which, when polished, present a steel color. The operation of burnishing is very simple : it is only requisite to take hold of the tool very near to the ferrule or the stone, and lean very hard with it on those parts which are to be burnished^ causing it to glide by a backward and forward movement, without faking it off the piece. When it is requisite that the hand should 104 farmers' akd mechanics' journal. pass over a large surface at once, without losing its point of sup- port 0(1 the work-bench, the workman, in taking hold of the bur- nisher, must be careful to place it just underneath his little finger. By this means, the work is done quicker, and the tool is more solidly fixed in the hand. During the whole process, the tool must be continually moisten- ed with black soap-suds. The water with which it is frequently wetted, causes it to glide more easily over the work, prevents it from heating, and facilitates its action. The black soap, containing more alkali than the common soap, acts with greater strength in cleansing otT any greasiness, which might still remain on the sur- face ; it also more readily detaches the spots, which would spoil the beauty of the burnishing. In consequence of the friction, the burnisher so6n loses its bite, and slips over the surface of the article as if it were oily. In order to restore its action, it must be rubbed from time to time, on the leather. The leather is fixed on a piece of hard wood, with shal- low furrows along it. There are generally two leathers — one made of sole-leather, and the other of bulf-leather. The first is impreg- nated with a little oil and crocus marlis, and is particularly used for the blood-stone burnishers ; the other has a little putty of tin, scat- tered in the furrows, and is intended exclusively for rubbing steel burnishers, as they are not so hard as the blood-stones. Blood-stone being very hard, the workman uses it whenever he can, in preference to the steel burnisher. It is therefore only in small articles, and in difiicult places, that the steel burnishers are used ; as they, by their variety of form, are adapted to all kind? of work. But in general, the blood-stone greatly reduces the labor. When the articles, on account of their minuteness, or from any other cause, cannot be conveniently held in the hand, they are fixed in a convenient frame on the bench : but under all circum- stances, the workman must be very careful to manage the burnish- er, so as to leave untouched those parts of the work which are in- tended to remain dull. When, in burnishing any article which is plated or lined with silver, he perceives any place where the layer of precious metal is removed, he restores it, by silvering these places with a composition supplied by the silverer, which he ap- plies with a brush, rubbing the part well, and wiping it afterwards with an old linen cloth. The burnishing being finished, it only remains to remove the soap-suds, which still adheres to the surface of the work : this is effected by rubbing it with a piece of old linen cloth, which pre- serves to it all its polish, and gives so great a lustre that the eye can scarcely bear to look upon it. But, when the workman has a great number of small pieces to finish, he prefers throwing them into soap-suds, and drying them afterwards with saw-dust, which is more exj)edifious. The burnishers of articles which are not silver, follow nearly the same process as that above described. We shall briefly notice the variations to be observed in each case. *iN BBRNlSHlJra. ]05 The burnishing of leaf-gold or silver, on wood, is performed with burnishers made of wolves' or dogs' teeth, or agates, mounted in iron or wooden handles. When they burnish gold, applied on other metals, they dip the blood-stone burnisher into vinegar ; this kind being exclusively used for that purpose. But when they burnish leaf-gold, on prepared surfaces of wood, they are very careful to keep the stone, or tooth, perfectly dry. 'J'he burnisher used by leather-gilders, is a hard polished stone, mounted in a wooden handle ; this is used to sleek or smooth the leather. The ordinary engravei's burnisher, is a blade of steel, made thin at one end. to fit into a small handle, which serves to hold it by. The part in the middle of the blade, is rounded on the convex side, and is also a little curved. The rounded part must be well polish- ed, and the tool very hard. They use this burnisher to give the last polish to copper-plates, rubbing them well with it, and being very careful to use oil con- tinually, to lubricate it. Other burnishers are nearly of the same form as those used by the gilders and silverers. In clock-making, they burnish those pieces or parts, which, on account of their size or form, cannot be conveniently polished. The burnishers are of various forms and sizes ; they are all made of cast-steel, very hard, and well polished : some are formed like the sage-leaf files ; others, like common files : the first are used to burnish screws and pieces of brass ; the others are used for flat pieces. The clock-makers have also very small ones of this kind, to burnish their pivots ; they are Cd]\ed pivot-burnishers. The burnishing of pewter articles, is done after the work has been turned, or finished otf with a scraper : the burnishers are of different kinds, for burnishing articles either by hand or in the lathe ; they are all of steel, and while in use are rubbed with putty- powder on leather, and moistened with soap-suds. The burnishing of cutlery, is executed by means of hand or vice- burnishers ; they are all made of fine steel, hardened, and well polished. The first kind have nothing particular in their construc- tion ; but the vice-burnishers are formed and mounted in a very ditferent manner. On a long piece of wood, placed horizontally in the vice, is fixed another piece, as long, but bent in the form of a bow, the concavity of which is turned downwards. These two pieces are united at one of their extremities by a pin and a hook, which allows the upper piece to move freely around this point, as a centre. The burnisher is fixed in the middle of this bent piece, and it is made more or less projecting, by the greater or lesser length which is given to its base. The moveable piece of wood, at the extremity opposite to the hook, is furnished with a handle, which serves the workman as a lever. This position allows the burnisher to rest with greater force against the article to be bur- nished, which is placed on the fixed piece of wood. They give to the burnisher either the form of the fiice of a round-headed ham- mer, well polished, to burni.*h those pieces which are plain or con- vpx ; or the form of two cones, opposed at their summits, with 14 Vol, I. 106 farmers' AAiD MKCHANICS' JOURNAL. their bases rounded, to burnish those pieces which are concave or rinsi-shaped. The burnishing of the edges of books, is performed with a wolf's or dog's tooth, or a steel burnisher : for this purpose, they place the !)ooks in a screw-press, with boards on each side of them, and other boards distributed between each volume •, they first rub the edges well with the tooth, to give them a lustre. After sprinkling or staining, and when the edges are become dry. they first burnish tliC tVont ; then turning the press, they burnish the edges ai the top and bottom of the volume. They burnish the gilt edges in the same manner, after having applied the gold ; but observe, in gilding, to lay the gold first upon the front, and allow it to dry ; and, on no account, to commence burnishing till it is quite dry. [Diet. Technologique. ON DYING WITH PRUSSIAN BLUE. A NEW method of dying with Prussian Blue has been discovered by Prof. Raymond, of Lyons. By this process it is said, " that a brilliant and permanent color is produced ; more bright, and equal- ly deep, with those obtained from indigo, whilst it will also furnish a sky-blue, not attainable from that substance, which is likewise more costly. To dye silk of a Raymond blue, it is to be cleansed in a large quantity of water, after the usual boiling with soap ; it is then to be immersed in a solution of persulphate of iron, (that is, of that kind of copperas, which is of a dark green color,) the oxide of which will combine with the silk ; the greater or less intensity of the shade of yellow which the silk acquires, will furnish the means of judging when a proper quantity of the ferruginous solution has been absorbed ; after which it is to be rinsed with great care, to remove all the free acid ; the silk is then to be immersed in a bath of prus- siate of potash, acidulated by sulphuric acid. In a few minutes the dying will be completed ; when this is effected, it must be rins- ed in clear water, and brightened with purified urine, diluted with a largo portion of water, into which is occasionally thrown a small portion of acetic acid, to guard against a too powerful action of the alkali. The only difficulty which has yet been experienced in dying with Prussian blue, has been to obtain, at will, a regular gradation of shades, between the most intense blue and a perfect white. M. Raymond, Jun., has sent to the Society for the encouragement of Arts, [in France,] patterns of every shade obtainable from indigo; but it has not yet been proved that the process is applicable in the large way. M. Chevreul has recently read to the Institute, a memoir upon a process remarkable for its simplicity, by which he has lately ob- tained a perfect gradation in the shades of color dyed by Prussian blue, which are at the same time, more permanent and more beau- PRUSSIAN BLUE. PERPETUAL MOTION. 107 tiful, than those from indigo. This chemist, after repeating the fruitless attempts of his predecessors, is convinced, that from in- digo alone, it is impossihle to obtain the various shades of pure blue, the materials employed with the indigo changing the color, so as to incline it, more or less, to a purplish or greenish hue. The following is the method pursued by M. Chevreul, in gradu- ating the shades from Prussian blue : He impregnates each of the different parcels of silk to be dyed, with ditferent proportions of the oxide of iron, by immersing them in solutions, the strength of which has been previously regulated. For the deeper tones of color, he employs the acetate, and for the others, the muriate or sulphate ; after having properly rinsed each of the parcels, they are dipped into distinct vessels, or baths of the prussiate of potash, the proportion of which has been made to correspond with the quantity of oxide of iron previously united to each portion of silk. By these precautions he obtains all the desired shades ; those, how- ever, which are light, are apt to have a greenish hue ; but M. Chevruel found, that on washing them sufhciently in river water, the blue shade was obtained in perfect purity. When the washing did not completely produce this effect, a very weak solution of muriatic acid was found to remove the yellow matter which de- teriorated the blue, and produced the tinge of green." yim. Mech. Mag. PERPETUAL MOTION— DISCOVERED ONCE MORE. Dr. Giraud, of Baltimore, announces that he has invented a Perpetual Motion Machine. The following is his description of it : To Scientijic Mechanics, and olhrrs. The dead point is gained, and perpetual motion is discovered by J. J. Giraud, Physician, of the city of Baltimore. It cannot be denied. The thing itself is simple, and a tritiiiig expense will con- vince the most incredulous. Description of the Perpetual Machine. — A sunk spur-wheel of a certain diameter, with a round hole at its huh, is placed upon a short round tube, which acts as a journal and shaft, and does not pass the hub of the wheel. One end o{ this tube must be fixed solidly on a plummer-block, and the other part supports the sunk Spur-wheel. A shaft of a certain length, passes through this tube by one of its sides, which is round ; and the part which fills ti)e space of the tube, of tiie thickness of the hub, must be smaller, for the purpose of leaving a certain space between the said shaft and the inside of the tube, so that they may not touch each other. That part of the shaft which is outside and near the opening of the hub and the wheel is square, and receives a large pinion of a certain diameter. Between the large pinion and the sunk spur- wheel, there is a very small pinion which works with the two wheels. It is placed upon a long axle-tree, which is siij)ported by JOS farmers' and mechanics' journal. the plummer-block, where the shaft of the sunk spur-wheel ter- minates, and the said plummer-block supports the other extremity of the axle of the pinion. On that axle a flj-wheel is placed. Another wheel of a very simple construction is placed on the shaft behind the sunk spur-wheel. Oil the border of each of these wheels are placed two equal weights of a certain weight — the one opposite the other, and so fixed as to balance each other exactly. The parts of the machine properly calculated and made accord- ing to the above direction, the action and re-action of the two wheels lend an equal power to both ; and the fly-wheel, acting as an excitative of both the powers, propels the machine alone. If, in the place of the wheel which is placed behind the sunk spur-wheel, we substitute a pedal water-wheel with weights proper to both, for the purpose of opposing a resistance to the column of water which the pedal embraces, it will require but a small power to turn it — and in the same way, mutatis mutandis, it may be ap- plied to all mechanical operations. AGRIOUJ^TURE. HORSES. [Continued from page 65.] Sir, — I will now make a few remarks upon the treatment of a Horse kept for his work. 1. As to whether he should ever be turned out. It was once the received opinion of English sportsmen, that he should be pe- riodically brought back to what some people considered his natu- ral state, turned out to grass, deprived of his corn and his shelter from the weather. Hunters consequently, excepting those of a few sagacious individuals, were regularly turned to grass to shift for themsfilves in the summer. This system has been, of late years, attacked by a very powerful and classical writer, who as- serts, that to perform the work of an English hunter, the horse's strength must be vastly increased upon nature by a long uninter- rupted course of high keep in the stable, to turn him out, is not only to expose him to ruin from taking cold, but to throw away all his acquired strength. The continued summer-rest of a hunter, which a horse not exposed to the same exertions does not require, he says, can be taken in a small enclosure at home, the dampness of the earth can be supplied by standing in wet clay, some hours every day, and the grass, if he must have it, can be put into his crib. The ultra-stabulist has completely triumphed, and convinc- ed the English nation, that where a horse is kept ten months of the 3'ear in a heated atmosphere, to sleep upon the damp ground, in a variable climate, the remaining two can do him no good whatever. In our cities, when a horse gets weak or lame, who is used to a hot, dry stable, perhaps to being clothed, with a plethoric system beg- ging for diseases of the lungs and throat, incalculably less accus- tomed to the night air than the generality of men, he is sent intq HORSES. 109 the country to be turned out ; particularly in the autumn, when ihe weather first changes to cold, and he is changing his coat ! If any person will go into a large livery stable in Boston, in May. be- fore the windows are taken out for the summer, when the doors are opened at daybreak, he will find, that though he cannot remain an instant in it himself, the horses have been quietly sleeping, sometimes two in a stall, their own breath and effluvia chiedy con- fined to their contracted stalls, their nostrils the farthest possible from the air, that they are most of them in good health, and some in high condition. After the efiorts nature must have made to bear this, will she instantly retrace her steps ? That she will, is defended and acted upon by persons who think they understand horse-flesh. To such persons, 1 would quote, if I had the book, the words of Vegetius. who wrote in the reign of Valentinian. when the world was interested in horse-flesh, and who calls turning horses out at all seasons a Hunnish practice. He wrote for the climate of Syria and Spain. The benefit to a horse of regular work and nourishing food increases his powers for years in succes- sion. He appears to grow thicker. A particular kind of horse, who, to use such an expression, carries his work in his leg? and his carcass, and not in any original goodness of his own, a stage- coach proprietor must frequently notice this fact in ; and he is the most valuable horse he can get. I mean a horse, naturally of moderate powers of performance for a single day, but who has a deep carcass, with an insensible foot, and consequently has open to him a chance of receiving the highest degree of improvement to be derived from a succession of years of strong focd and strong ex- ercise, 2. As to how he should be confined in the stable. The univer- sal practice in Massachusetts, as in most other places, is to tie him in a narrow stall with his fore feet higher Uian his hind ones, in so lie stables the declivity is ver_y cor.siderahle. It is my opiiiion, that if there must be a declivity, it should I)e forwards. A horse worked every day on a fast trot over a hard road, as a coach-horse, suffers enough in his fore feet when he is sound. One of the first signs of incipient disease in them, or rather of the crowded state whi( h precedes disease, is his throwing his weight as much as he can on his hind legs. I am inriined to doubt the fact of his pre- ferring to stand up hill under such circumstances. One reason for such an opinion is, the manner in which his weight is thrown on his toes when he stands up hill, even if his heels are raised. An- other gieat disadvantage of his standing so is, that he throws the whole weight of his forehand upon the same muscles and tendons he uses most in draught. It is cei'tainly of importance, that if he must have an unnatural strain any where when he is not at work, it should not be where the strain must be when he is. ft is a vast comfort to a horse to be kept in a box. He should be able to choose his own position, at least to sleep in, and relieve what muscles he wishes to. In a stall he must sleep, through life, with Isis head h(;ld in the air, and his legs under his body. His getting no farmers' and mechanics' journal. cast in a box is not a common occurrence. Ten feet square will do well ; if he cannot have a larger one. In a box he is freed from the torment of hearing walking and talking behind him. 3. As to how he should be fed. 1 have never yet met wit so excessive during the night where the sun has not shone during the day ; but even allowing the reverse, still I think as the degrees of cold are less variable, the north side of a house or wall is the preferable situation during the winter. Nor should the bees be removed into the sun until the trees have so far shot forth their buds that they may find a sufficient repast. I think those hints may be useful to those who would wish to be- come practical apiarists. My knowledge of the matter is theoreti- cal ; but I have friends who follow the practice. 1 am, Sir, your obedient servant, R. H. [London Mech. Mag. For the Farmers' and Mechanics' Journal. Mr. Editor, — As Bacon is an article of domestic manufacture, and when good is generally esteemed, and as most persons have a rule of their own. or I should rather say, none at all ; for the bene- fit of all, I send you one that I have followed several years with en- tire satisfaction, and only request brother Farmers to give it a fair trial. — For eight Hams, take 2 pounds of Salt and 5 ounces of Salt Petre, both finely powdered ; mix the Salts with a pint of Molas- ses ; with this composition rub them thoroughly ; pack ihem close- ly in a tub five or six days ; then take them up ; rub on the re- mainder of the composition, if any be left ; sprinkle them over with fine salt. In repacking, take care to turn them ; — let them lie five or six days ; then cover them with a brine that will bear an egg. Let them lie thus covered a month, and they are fit for STEATITE, OR SOAP-STONE. 119 smoking. It is thought by some, that corn-cobs for burning, give them the best flavor. If the Smoke-house is good, and v roper at- tention paid to them, they will smoke abundantly in a few days, and need not be smoked from three to six months, as it is said Westphalia Hams are. Rumford. IVEISCEI.I.AN'ISOUS. Kotice regarding Steatite, or Soap-stone, and its principal uses. Steatite is, as is well known, a variety of the talc genus. Its color is white, green, or gray ; it is also sometimes, though rarely, red and yellow. Its specific gravity varies from 2.60, to 2.66. It is a compound of silica, alumina, magnesia, oxide of iron, and water, which vary according to the locality. It is very common in Corn- wall and Germany. As it is fusible only at an exceedingly liigh temperature, and is easily wrought, excellent crucibles rt.ay be made of it, which are further hardened by fire, and which are only with great difficulty penetrated by litharge. It is also employed in making moulds for casting metals. In Eiigland it is used in the manufacture of porcelain. M. Vilcof, an artist of Liege, made several trials of it, with the view of finding out whether it might not be susceptible of being employed by the lapidaries. He pre- pared cameos of this substance, the color of which he brightened in the fire, and which he rendered so hard, by the elevation of the temperature, as to give sparks with steel. They were then color- ed, yellow, gray, or milk-white, by different solutions. He polish- ed them upon the stone, and ended with making them assume all the lustre of agate. Some pieces even resembled onyx, in color ; but a serious inconvenience was, that the markings were easily al- tered by the fire, and could no longer be restored. Steatite has a great affinity for glass ; it is also employed in the manner of paste, reduced to a fine powder, and mixed with coloring matters, for painting upon this substance. It also serves as a sympathetic crayon for writing upon glass ; the traces seem elFaced, when a piece of woollen is passed over them, but they re-aj)pear immediately, when moistened by the breath, and again disappear when the glass becomes dry. Steatite is not so easily eTaced as chalk, and does not, like that substance, change its colors. 'J'ailors and embroiderers also, prefer it to chalk, for marking silk. It j)ossesses the property of uniting with oils and fat bodies, and enters into the composition of the greater number of balls which are employed for cleaning silks and woollen cloths ; it also forms the basis of some prej)aralions of paint. It is employed also for giving lustre to marble, serpentine and gypseous stones. Mixed vvilli oil, it is used to polish mirrors of metal and crystal. When leather, recently prepared, is sprinkled with stea- tite, to give it color, and aftenvards when the whole is dry. it is rubbed several times with a piece of horn, the leather assumes a very beautiful polish. Steatite is also used m the preparation of glazed paper: it is reduced to a very fine powder, and spread out J '20 farmers' and mechanics' journal. upon the paper ; or, it is better to mix it previously with the color- ing matter. The glaze is then given to the paper with a hard brush. It facilitates the action of screws, and from its unctuosity, may be employed with much advantage, for diminishing the friction of the parts of machines which are made of metal. [Rdin. Joiirn, Use of Sugar as an antidote to Lead in cases of Poisoning. The following fact has been stated by M. Revnard, to the So- ciete des Sciences of Lisle : During the campaign of Russia, seve- ral loaves of sugar had been enclosed in a chest containing some flasks of extract of lead. One of these flasks having been broken, the liquid escaped, and the sugar become impregnated with it. During the distresses of the campaign it was necessary to have re- course to this sugar ; but far from producing the fatal results which were expected, the sugar formed a salutary article of nourishment to those who made use of it, and gave them a degree of vigor and activity which was of the greatest service in enabling them to sup- port the fatigues of marching. Hence M. Reynard thinks that sugar might be adopted for preventing the effects of subacctate of lead, instead of the sulphates of soda and of magnesia, which are not always at hand. {^Lond. Mech. Mag. HOTICES. NEW INVENTIONS. Messrs. Pearson & HowE,of Alna, Me. have taken out a patent for a newly invented Machine for making Sugar Boxes. The boards are cut, edged, and halved by machinery. It would also serve for making any kind of boxes or chests and trunks. They have one in successful operation in Alna. Reaping and Thrashing Machine. We have examined a Machine for reaping and thrashing grain by horse power ; recently invented by Mr. Samuel Lane, of Hal- lowell, Me. It is simple in its construction, and promises to be y valuable acquisition to the class of labor-saving machinery. It might also be used for mowing as well as reaping where the ground is sufficiently smooth and level. — Drawings and descriptions of the above Machines will be given hereafter. W-L '^fl Fi^.l. ILLS TRUSS Fjy. WINCS' patent ¥SCE ^,^ THE NEW-EIVGLAND FARMERS' AND MECHANICS' JOURNAL. Vol. I. GARDINER, JUNE, 1828. No. 6. mECHAMICS^ HILLS' TRUSS. Fig. 1, Plate 6, — is a representation of Hills' newly invented Truss, for those afflicted with Hernia. 1, is a Plate of tinned iron. 2, 3, 4, are Buttons to which is attached the strap. 5, is a steel Spring fastened to the Plate 1, by means of two small Screws at the lower end. 6, is a round Plate of thin tinned iron, which is attached to the spring 5, by means of a screw, and which also passes into and holds the Pad 8. This pad is made of stuifed leather, or ivory, or hard wood, turned smooth ; the two latter materials are, on the whole, preferable. The Strap is so made, that it may be shifted, and the Truss removed from side to side, and put into various positions. This Truss is simple and cheap in its construction, and we have no doubt will stand a fair competition with many other inventions for a similar purpose. The inventor is Mr. Samuel Hills, of Union, Me., who will supply those who may wish to procure them and who will cheerfully answer any queries respecting them which may be proposed. WING'S PATENT VICE. Plate 6, Fig. 2, — is a view of a Vice, invented by Mr. Ca).vin Wing, of Gardiner, Me. A, A, are the two sides, or check pieces, of the Vice. B, an iron Clamp which surrounds them. 1^ Vol. I. >^ ,^.\ 122 C!^ farmers' and mechanics' journal. C, a Spring. D, D, a Knuckle Joint, or Perpetual Lever. E, a strong Spiral Spring. F, a Lever. G, a Rack. The mode of using it is as follows : When any substance is to be held in the Vice, it is placed as usual between the Joint A, A» The foot is then placed upon F, and the pressure, acting upon the jointed lever, brings the side A, B, up to the other. A small plate of iron is attached to the side of the lever F, which catches in the rack G, and thus holds the Vice together as long as is necessary. As the lever hangs loosely upon its pivot, a side-motion disengages it from the rack. The spring E, raises the joint D, D, and the spring C, throws open the jaws. The strength of the gripe is regulated by having the side A, B, made circular and notches cut in, which admits the end of the lever D, and which may be so moved as to make it longer or shorter, and the power be thus changed to a greater or smaller ac- cordingly. This Vice is cheaply and easily made ; is powerful, and is supe- rior to the other kind, in the ease and quickness by which any thing is fastened in it, or liberated from it — a slight movement of the foot being sufficient for that purpose. They are made whole- sale and retail by the inventor. JONES, ON JAPANNING AND VARNISIIING....N0. 6. On the. preparation and use of a Mastic Varnish, particularly suita' hie for Paintings in Oil. TO THE editor. Sir, — Amateurs and collectors of paintings, are frequently at a loss for a varnish properly prepared, and suited, for the purpose of restoring and preserving the colors, in works of art. 1 submit the following observations on the preparation of a very good one, and the beat mode of appl}'ing it to the surface of pictures painted in oil : Experience has shown, that for this purpose, mastic varnish is. in general, preferaWe to any other, especially in the hands of in- experienced persons, and, with but few exceptions, even in those of the adept. This varnish is generally prepared by dissolving the mastic in spirits of turpentine, over a sand heat, in a well-glazed earthern, or in a copper vessel, occasionally shaking or stirring it about, until entirely dissolved, which will take place before it ar- rives at a boiling heat •, after which, it is strained through a piece JONES, ON JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 123 of calico, in preference to linen, as it is less apt to give off lint, which is very troublesome when it gels into the varnish : it is then put into a bottle, well corked, and placed for two or three weeks where the light of the sun can strike it, which will cause a large precipitation of mucilaginous matter, and render it as trans- parent as water. It is now to be decanted off into a clean bottle, and put hy for use. This is the mode of preparing that commonly sold in the shops ; but to insure a varnish that can be depended upon, the following observations must be attended to. Let all the mastic be bruised by a muUer on a painter's grinding-stone, which will immediately detect the soft, or oily tears, which must be re- jected ; as when dissolved in the mass, they prevent the varnish from drying hard, leaving a greasy or tacky surface. The next point of importance, is to procure, if possible, turpentine which has been distilled a second time ; but, where this is not to be had, the best kind sold in the shops must be taken ; but it must be per- fectly clear and colorless, otherwise, good varnish cannot be ob- tained ; it must not be furnished through an oily measure, (which is but too commonly the practice.) but poured out of the carboy without shaking or disturbing it. If any doubts are entertained as to its purity, put about two spoonfuls into a com;non white saucer, and let it evaporate in the sun, which will be effected in two or three hours ; and if it leave a greasy residuum, or a soft sticky mucus, it must be rejected ; that only is good which entirely dis- appears. Thus prepared with good spirits of turpentine, and with mastic bruised and picked, the two ingredients may be put into a clean bottle, when the resin may be dissolved without heat, by half an hour's shaking in the hand ; it must then be strained, and after- wards treated as before recommended. The French sometimes prepare this gum in spirits of wine, (pure alcohol,) but it is subject to chill on the picture, and produces in time, a kind of white scale over it. which injures its lustre. When it is prepared after the manner recommended, six ounces of pounded gum are mixed with fourteen ounces of pure spirit of turpentine, which may, if found too thick, be diluted with more turpentine. It should be laid on with a soft, flat, camel's liair brush, as it is called, but which however, is made of the hair ob- tained from the squirrel's tail. The varnish should always be laid on with as much despatch as possible, keeping it alive, as the ar- tists term it, and floating after the brush. It may be proper to ob- serve, that no kind of varnish should he applied to any painting, without first cleaning it ; nor to a newly painted picture until it is perfectly hard, to effect which, requires five or six months. Be- fore varnishing, be careful to remove all grease from the surface, by a coat of whiting (not lime) dissolved in water, and laid on so that it covers and entirely obscures the picture ; this should be al- lowed to dry and to remain on for one or two hours, wlie)i it must be entirely removed by a sponge and some clean rain water ; (hon perform the operation of varnishing in a still room, fftc from Inif "^nd dust. 124 farmers' and mechanics' journal. It will sometimes happen, that a picture, wheie the surface is smooth, will look too bright and glaring, which is both disagreea- ble to the eye, and injurious to the effect of the picture : to reme- dy this defect, after the varnish is quite dry, say in ten or fifteen days, sponge the picture all over with pure rain water, for about one or two minutes ; and having squeezed the sponge, and made the picture as dry as the sponge will leave it, pass, lightly, a clean silk handkerchief over it with great rapidity, until it become per- fectly dry ; when a clear, steady, lucid, appearance, will pervade the whole picture. Breathing occasionally on the picture to damp it, will assist the operation, while chafing it with the handkerchief. Yours, very respectfully, Joshua Shaw. Philadelphia, July 12n unlaying the rope and drawing the yarns, it was found, after trying 20 yarns of each separately, that those of the dew-rotted hemp, prepared with pyroligneous acid, suspended, upon an average, only sixteen pounds, while those of the unrotted hemp sustained only eighteen pounds, although, when new, the yarns of either would have suspended at least 125 lbs. From these facts, the conclusion appears irresistible, that Ameri- can hemp requires only the same process of preparation practised in Russia, to render American cordage fully as good, for every species of service, as cordage made of Russia hemp. For the pro- cess practised in Russia, in the preparation of their hemp for mar- ket, the Commissioners would respectfully refer to the report whicli they had the honor to make on the 1 7th November, 1 824. I have the honor to be. With great respect, sir. Your obedient servant, JOHN ROGERS. Hon. Sam'l L. Southard, Sec. of the Kavy, [To be continued.] CULTURE OF MELONS ON CLAYEY SOIL, It has been found that if a hole be dug in a clayey soil, well- manured, and then filled up with fine sand, melons may be raised with comparatively less labor and care, and of better flavor than on the clay alone. The cause is probably owing to the sand's re- taining the heat of the sun longer than the clay. With a view of as- certaining the fact, some sand was carted upon a stitFcold clay soil, and distributed as above. After it had been there a few days, the comparative heat of the two soils, was tested by a delicate ther- mometer. The experiment was tried at a quarter before 7 o'clock A. M. The thermometer stood in the shade at 58°. It was then buried one inch beneath the sand, in which the melons were plant- ed, and suffered to remain two minutes. When taken out it was found to be 4° higher than when it was put in. It was buried the same depth, in the clay soil, about a foot from the sand, and suffer- ed to remain the same length of time. On taking it out the mercu- ry had sunk 4°. The thermometer was then laid, with its tube upon the surface of the sand, and suffered to remain the same time, as before. On taking it up, it was found to have risen 6°. \i was then laid in a similar manner and for the same length of time, upon the surface of the clay, and on taking it up, it was found to have lost 5" of temperature. It may be well to state that there was a bright sun, shining at the time. The same experiments were tried at noon, and the difference of temperature was found to be 8°. 144 farmers' ajjd mechanics' journal. For the Farmers' and Mechanics' Journal. TRANSMUTATION OF WHEAT. Mr. Editor, — It is a well known fact, that if a farnner sows wheat and rye together, the rye will gain on the wheat. The cause, according to the opinion of most people, is this, viz : that rye is a more fruitful grain than wheat. The writer has long been of the opinion, that it is not simply this, and of late has been con- vinced of the contrary by experiment. In the year of 1825, he had some wheat, and not knowing whether it were winter or sum- mer wheat, in order to make it certain he took a few kernels of it and sowed it in his garden in the month of Jnly. It proved to be winter wheat, and lived through the winter ; but one half of it was rye. He then examined his wheat field, and fouud some of it that appeared to approach the form of rye in a small degree, having some appearance of very short barbs, though the wheat was bald. He then rubbed out the grain of one ear which resembled perfect wheat, and sowed it in his garden, which, strange to tell, was, next harvest, every spear rye ! This was undoubtedly caused by the fecundation of the wheat by the rye pollen. Rye, being earlier and taller than wheat, has a greater opportunity of changing wheat than wheat has of changing rye, it being later and shorter. However visionary this may seem to some, the results of the above experiment are facts. It is hoped that this will induce some of your scientific readers to put the thing beyond a doubt by a series of experiments on the subject. Should this be done, and the theory which I have advanced be established, farmers would find it for their interest to set apart a sufficient quantity of their wheats field, for seed, and be careful to pull out every spear of rye before it blossomed that it might not scatter its pollen on the wheat, and we should then be able to buy a bushel of wheat, without its be- ing at the same time half rye. Yours, &;c* S. Chandler. Minot, June 6, 1828. XTOTICE. We have received a new Grammar of the English language, by Wm. Pidgin, A.M. teacher of a Grammar School in Buckfield, Me. " The parts of speech in the English language," says he, " are three ; the Noun, the Verb, and the Conjunction." What change, this system, together with Xelandz Jiii Orthogra- fe, may eflfect in Philology, we leave to those of a hundred years hence to tell. JPI.-YII. Viell. \A THE NEW-ENGLAND t^ARMERS'AND MECHANICS' JOURNAL, ..", ■ ", ■ ^ Vol. I. GARDINER, JULY, 1828; No, T. > ■ ' '• ■ ■ niECKANIOS. CASWELL'S PRESS. Among the many contrivances, for obtaining great pressure, we find a very simple one, invented by Lebbeus Caswell, of Harri- son, Maine. — It is a combination of the screw, wheel and axis, and the lever ; and is exhibited in Plate 7. • A, is the endless screw, turned by a crank* B, a large cog-wheel, which is turned by the screw. C, a smaller cog-wheel on the same axis with B. This plays into the cogs which are on the semi-circle D, and which is attached to the lever E. F, is the fulcrum of the lever. G, a platform which may be moved to different parts of the lever. This Press is powerful, but its scope is not very extensive. The nearer the fulcrum, the less distance does the lever move. Still if may be modified so as to regulate this, and it will undoubtedly be very useful for many purposes, — such as pressing cheese, cider, &c. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENT. Expeditious mode of conveying Kews, proposed. The anxiety which mankind feel, to hear whatever is new, es pecially when any important event is about to take place, has kui them to adopt various plans for conveying information or news ex- peditiously from place to place. Couriers, Stages, Telegraphs, &( . are among the contrivances in most general use for despatchirif^ information. In turning over the leaves of a little work, calleri " Philosophy in Sporty'''' we were reminded of a method of convc; 19 Vol. I. 14G farmers' and mechanics' journal. ing intelligence, which occurred to us years ago, when we used t© amuse ourselves by whispering to our schoolnmates, through the long wooden tubes, in a Pump-maker-s yard. It then appeared possible to convey distinct words to a great distance through tubes of wood or metal, laid in the ground like an aqueduct* No chance ever occurred for trying the experiment. We once proposed it to gi person who was repairing an aqueduct, but was heartily laughed at for a silly boy, and thus it ended. We are pleased to find, how- ever, that the scheme is not altogether so visionary and puerile as it at first seems to be. A Mr. Dick, of England, has tried some experiments upon this subject, and found that the human voice might be made intelligible twenty-five or thirty miles. The Revue Encyclopedique, on the strength of those experiments, recommends the manner to be put into general practice. Father Kircher re- lates in some of his works, that the laborers employed in the sub- terranean aqueducts of Rome, heard each other at the distance of several miles. Some interesting experiments of Biot, on the transmission of sound through a metallic tube, in some degree prove the feasibility of the plan. It was tried in order to ascertain the comparative capacity of air and solid bodies in transmitting sound. " At the extremity of a cylindrical tube, upwards of 3000 (eet in length, (over a half of a mile,) a ring of metal was placed of the same diameter as the aperture of the tube ; and in the centre of this ring, in the mouth of the tube, was suspended a clock bell, and hammer. The hammer was made to strike the ring and the bell at the same instant, so that the sound of the ring would be trans- mitted to the remote end of the tube through the conducting power of the matter of the tube itself, while the sound of the bell would be conducted through the medium of the air enclosed within the tube. The air being transmitted by the metal of the tube, was first distinctly, and after a short interval had elapsed, the sound of the bell transmitted by the air in the tube, was heard. The result of several experiments was, that the metal of the tube conducted the sound with about ten and a half times the velocity with which it was conducted by the air ; viz. 1 1,865 feet per second, and that the air conducted it 1142 feet in a second." To put this project into practical operation, why could not tubes be placed under ground, out of harm's way, continuing any re- quired distance, and opening into a small tight room ? In this room should be placed some of those anxious mortals, who delight to listen to, and tell the news first — if they can. This person could hear what was said to him from the other extremity of the tube, and if another tube commenced at the other side of the room.. FELLING TIMBER. 147 he could apply his mouth to this and forward his communication with all the velocity of sound, viz: 1142 feet per second. We should thus have a grand national speaking-trumpet, and the ex- ecutive could whisper in a trice to the most remote corner of the country, and give and receive intelligence to and from all their ser- vants in almost as short a time, and as easily as if they were at their elbows. FELLING TIMBER. Since the publication of our last number, the following has come to hand from the New-England Farmer: Mr. Fessenden, — In vol. 2d of the New-England Farmer, were published a few facts respecting the most proper time for felling timber, that we intend to have the most durable, and yet have it exposed to the weather. A\ the time of writing those statements, I had one experiment going on, which had not come to a result. In September 10, 1822, I bought a maple log, and felled it for tim- her to work into a mill. After working what I wanted at that time, the remainder was left exposed to the weather. In June, 1823, I had another fallen, and left part of it exposed to the weather by the side of the other. In October, 1823, I examined both pieces, and found the one that was felled in June, was affected with white rot, all through the timber ; but on examining that which was cut in September, I found the outside colored in about one-fourt|i of an inch ; the remainder white, and as good for timber as it ever had been. In 1827, in August, 1 was making an engine to a paper-mill, and had timber to work, which was felled in June, about the 10th. The bark was left on until we worked it, when to our surprise, the white sap-wood, in some places, had been rotten. This was the Quercus alba, (white oak.) From a consideration of the approach- ing scarcity of tirjiber, in this part of the country, 1 have been led to communicate these remarks, not with a view of contradicting any person, for I think that a few degrees of latitude may make some considerable difference in the time when trees cease to extend their branches, and form their leaf and fruit buds for the next year, which is an indication that the sap is undergoing a change, and ceases to descend ; a doctrine, which I shall attempt to demonstrate by some experiments 1 havp made, which are conclusive to my mind. But this I must omit till another opportunity. In this latitude, and to 1 deg, north — and nearly 1 to the south — the leaf and fruit buds arc mostly formed in August, with here and there an exception ; we find some formed in July, and some not until September. These last are not timber trees ; and I think that in the latitude of Philadelphia, timber trees standing on a southern declivity, may be as mature in the last of June, as here in September ; and what Mr. Cooper ha'; s-iid, [see JNew-England 148 farmers' and mechanics* journal. Farmer, vol. vi. p. SQQ.] may be as correct there for June as what we have said for September here. But the fact that timber trees do cease to extend their branches in June, and form their buds on the banks of the Delaware, would be gratifying for me to learn. One other fact would be useful to ascertain — that is, whether there is the same acid in timber trees in June that there is in September. In this latitude, timber that is felled in September, will not sutTer from red-rot ; nor will the powder-post worm ever touch it. Take a young walnut, say one large enough for barrel-hoops, and give it any exposure you please (not placing it in the fire) and it will not lose its force in two years ; nor will the powder-post be found upon it, whereas take it in June, and it will perish the first season. I have subjoined a table, showing the comparative value of tim- ber felled at the two seasons of the year above mentioned, in which I am correct, or nearly so : Oak, Sept. 10.0 June 4.5 Maple, Sept. 10.0 June 2.4 Walnut, Sept. 10.0 June 2.5 Elm, Sept. 10.0 June 1.6 Ash, Sept. 10.0 June 3.2 But by comparing the four last with white oak, provided they lyere all felled in September, they will stand nearly thus : Oak, 10.0 Maple, 5.5 Walnut, 6.2 Elm, 4.5 Andover, June 29, J 828. Ash, 5.6 Phineas Stevens. On the Causes of Dry Rot in Public and Private Ships, and its Re- medy. By J as. Barron, Esq., of the United Stales Kavy. A Pamphlet under the above title has just been published iq Norfolk, by Commodore Barron, The subject has been repeat- edly noticed in this Journal, \_Frankliyi Journal, edited by Thomas P. Jones, M. D.,] and from the great increase and extent of the, evil proposed to be remedied, demands the utmost attention. We shall make a brief abstract of the former, and give to pur readers the whole of the latter part of the pamphlet. The dry rot is attributed to the influence of foul air extricated from the bilge water ; and the remedy proposed is the free supply of wholesome air, by constructing the vessels in such a way that it may have free access to the timbers. The deleterious effect of foul air upon vegetable bodies, is viewed as analogous to its action upon animals. " The most positive proofs (says the Commodore) of the destruc- tion occasioned to timber by a foul atmosphere, are to be seen in " every ship that is found in a decayed state ; the best timber con- nected with the interior, being more oi less injured, while that, -6ven of an inferior quality, situated on the exterjor, will be foi^nd BARRON, ON THE DRY UOTv 149 to be comparatively sound.* A particular illustration of this truth is seen also in the excellent preservation in which the cabin furni- ture and joiners' work of ships, such as birth boarL. L 162 farmers' and mechanics' journal. As it regards the method laid down for preventing the curculio m plums, &c. we do not think it a very good one ; for this reason— unless the plums which are buried, decompose or putrefy very quickly, the curculio will hatch, or rather undergo a metamorpho- sis, and come out ready for another attack. We have raised thenij by putting the plums into some dry sand in a box. It is true, that many of the plums, buried in the way recommended, would soon decay ; but if two or three in a hundred did not^ those insects that escaped, would soon re-people the trees with a new race. — A bet- ter mode of preventing the curculio in plums and apples,i s, to gather those that fall, boil them, and give them to the hogs. PRESERVATION OF PEACH TREES. Dayton, Ohio, June 24, 1828. Mr. SKiNNER,-^ln yours of Jane 6th, I observe one or two short paragraphs upon the subject of the preservation of peach trees. If yoit esteem this luscious, and during its season incomparable fruit, as 1 do, you will not hesitate in rendering every aid towards its successful cultivation. In addition to my orchard, 1 have about one hundred peach trees of different kinds, (and some one or two which are natives of our village, and of but few years, are equal to any,) not one which is at all injured by the worm, while many of my neighbors' are entirely destroyed. I can assure every one, that from my experience, no difficulty exists, and the produce amply remunerates for every trouble. One of your correspondents recommends lamp or fish oil, and then boiling water. Both are right, although I should say that boiling water was a very doubtful remedy, and would require to be often rcjpeated. Not long since I saw a very fine peach tree in a perfect state of preservation. Although it had been several years bearing, (it was in a small garden, the reason of there being no more,) yet the worm had not injured it. Always anxious to learn every thing connected with agriculture, I inquired particu- larly with regard to its treatment, and was informed that the lady of the family had directed the suds of soap after washing, without regard to their being cold or boiling, to be thrown about the tree — and it had the desired effect. The season is approaching when the insect commences its de- predations. The season of its depredations may be fixed as com- mencing early in July, and ending in September. Its greatest ra- vages are during the month of August. It penetrates the surface, and commences its depredation by boring the tree and depositing its egg about one to three inches below the surface. I have read in works upon the subject, that the bark is there more tender, which I presume is an error, and that all bark of the root is equal- ly soft, and that it is only the natural instinct which causes the in- sect to commence at that place. The egg, thus lodged in the wood of the tree, is there hatched and becomes a worm, which feeds upon the tender wood and bark, and effectually destroys the tree. PEACH AND PLUM TREES. 163 My method of prevention is this : Early in the month of July, with a hoe I clean away the earth from about my trees, in size and in shape like a common wash-bowl. The excavation being about three inches deep next the tree, and six or eight in diameter. I then fill up the hollow with common wood ashes, and raise an em- bankment about the tree, also about the size of a common wash- basin inverted ; and have never yet known the insect to penetrate this embankment of ashes to the injury of my trees. I have never discovered any injury to result from the caustic nature of the ashes, and always take the precaution in the fall, say October, to remove the ashes and mix them with the surrounding earth, drawing up fresh earth to the tree to supply the place of the ashes. If any of your correspondents to whom this process is unknown, should be induced to try this experiment and should succeed, if they are as fond of a basket of fine Oldmixtons as I am, they will be obliged to me ; if unsuccessful, I shall not have given them much trouble. I have heard and read of various remedies for preventing the in- jury spoken of, but do not believe any of them will prove effica- cious, except the application of some substance to the tree just ber low the surface, which will prevent the approach of the fly or in- sect. I have often thought, that lime in its powdered state, would be more efficacious than ashes ; but as the ashes have never failed me I have never tried the experiment. I have known it recom- mended to remove the earth from the tree, so that the frosts might have full effect. This, however, will do no good, as the injury, or rather the seeds of it, are lodged in it before the frost commences, and are not injured or destroyed by it. I have known the earth removed, and tobacco, stems and other offal from the tobacconists appled with success. Ashes, however, are less trouble and more certain. In the summer I give my trees a thick coat of wash — a mixture of cow-dung, urine, soap-suds, ashes and lime. I do not know that it is of service in preventing the injury I speak of. but have (jften thought it did, preventing by its disagreeable nature the approach of the Qy to any part of the tree. It ia of essential ser- vice to the general health of the tree by destroying worms and in- sects, which are prevented from depositing their eggs in the bark. If you think the above worthy a place in your columns, it is at your service, H. B, PLUMS. Dayton, Ohio, June 24, 1828. Mr. Skinner, — Our plums in this country are so entirely de- stroyed, year after year, that we have at last become indifferent about preserving our trees ; and in case any of your correspond- ents are able to make known any efficient remedy, he cannot per- form a more charitable and beneficent act. I have often seen my trees, to the number of twenty or thirty, loaded with fruit, promis- ing a most abundant supply, and which were almost entirely de- stroyed. Just as our plums have their growth, they are perforated by the insect — the curculio, who is a sly depredator, and hardly ever seen, and almost inamediately bejjiu to fall ofi', I beheve the \64 farmers' and mechanics' journal, finer stone more liable to injury than others, as the deposite is niore easily and effectually made — but ours are entirely destroyed. I have heard and read of many preventives, but none has ever succeeded with me. Some have recommended to hang up slips of paper on shingles, covered with a solution of sonrre drug, such as camphor, or corrosive sublimate ; but I have never found any ef- fectual. The only remedy I ever found of any service, had but a partial effect. As it was of some service, 1 will communicate it. I dug a hole in the ground, away from the trees, three or four feet deep, and at stated times every day, had the plums as they fell care-^ fully picked up and buried in the hole, if all would do this, I be- lieve Ihey would become scarce. This year I carefully removed the earth from about the trees, according to directions I somewhere read, and supplied its place with other earth from a distance. I am fearful, however, the insect will find me out, Hf B. ON THE CULTURE OF HOPS, It is probably not known to every one, that the Hop is a native of Maine, and that it grows spontaneously in our forests. On the borders of small streams, that wind about the bases of the mountains in the North-west part, and on the fertile intervales in almost all sections, it is found, twining its luxuriant folds about the shrubs and small trees within its reach. It is cultivated a little, in some parts, but not to that extent that it might be with profit. It would undoubtedly yield a good profit, if it were raised for exportation, as the diseases and other enemies which assail it in Europe, would probably be less numerous in this region. Its consumption, or rather the consumption of the beer which it enters into, is increase ing in New-England, and there will be a more steady demand for it as this beverage becomes more fashionable. " When the hop," says Loudon, " was first used for preserving beer, or cultivated for that purpose, is unknown ; but its culture was introduced into this country, (England,) from Flanders, in the reign of Henry VIII. Walter Blith, in his English Improver Im- proved, 1649, has a chapter upon hops. He observes, that ' Hops were then grown to be a national commodity ; but that it was not many years since the famous city of London petitioned the Parlia° ment of England against two anusancies, and these were Newcastle coals, in regard to their stench, &c. and hops, in regard they would spoyle the taste of drink, and endanger the people ; and had the Parliament been no wiser than they, we had in a measure pined, and in a great measure starved, which is just answerable to the principles of those men who cry down all devices or ingenious dis- coveries, as projects, and thereby stifle and choak improvements.' " ON THE CULTURE OF HOPS, 165 [From the Transactions of the Agricuhural Society of New-York.] A rich, deep soil, rather inclining to moisture, is, on the whole, the best adapted to the cultivation of hops ; but it h observable, that any soil (still" clay only excepted) will suit the growing of hops when properly [)repHred ; and in many parts of Great Britain they use the bog-ground, which is lit for little else. The ground on which hops are to be planted, should be made rich with that kind of manure best suited to the soil, and rendered fine and mellow by bei:ig ploughed deep and harrowed several timi^s. The hills should be at the distance of six or eight foot from each olher. according to the richness of the ground. On ground that is rich, the vines will run the most, the hills must therefore be farthest apart. At the first opening of the spring, when the frosts are over, and vegetation begins, sets, or small [ueces of (he roots of hops, must be obtained from hops that are esteemed (he best,* cut oil" from the main stalk or root, six or eight inches in length. Branches, or suckers, most healthy, and of the last year's growth, must be sought for. They may easily be known by their looking whi(e. Two or three joints or buds should be left on each set. 'J'he sets should be put into the ground as soon as taken up. if possible ; if not, they should be wrapped in a cloth, kept in a moist place, excluded from the air. A hole should then be made large aid deep, and filled with rich mellow earth. The sprouts should be set in this earth, with the bud upwards, and the ground pressed close roimd them. If the buds have begun to open, the uppermost must be left just out of the ground ; otherwise, cover it with th.c earth an inch. Two or three sets to a pole will be suilicient, and tliree poles to a hill will be found most productive. Pla^e one of the poles to- wards the north, the other two -at equal distances, about two feet apart. The sets are to be placed in the same manner as the poles, that they may the easier climb. The length of the poles may be from fourteen to eighteen feet, according as the soil is for richness. The poles should be placed inclining towards each other so as to meet at the top, where they may be tied. This is contrary to the European method, but will be found best in America. In this way they will strengthen and support each other, and form so great a defence against the violent gusts of wind to which our climate is frequently subject in the months of July and August, as to prevent their being blown down. They will likewise form a three-sided pyramid, which will have the greatest possible advantage from the sun. It is suggested by experience, that hops which grow near the ground are the best. Too long poles are not good, and care must be taken that the vines do not run beyond the poles ; twist- ing off their tops will prevent it. The best kind of wood for poles * Of the different kinds of hops, the long white is most esteemed. It yields the greatest quantity and is most beautiful. The heauty of hops consists in their heing of a pale bright green color. Care n)ust be taken to obtain all of one sort ; but if different Kortsj are used, they must be kept separate in the field ; for there is in different kinds of hrips, a matcririj dif- ference in their time of ripening ; and if intermixed, will occasion extra •'rouble in gathering- 166 FARMERS^ ARD MECHANICS* JOURNAL* are the alder, ash, birch, elm, chesnut and cedar. Their durable- ness is directly the reverse of the order in which they stand, and burning the end put into the ground, will be of service to preserve them. Hops should not be poled till the spring of the second year, and then not till they have been dressed. All that is necessary for the first year, is, to keep the hops free from weeds, and the ground light and mellow, by hoeing often, and ploughing, if the yard is large enough to require it. The vines when run to the length of four or five feet, should be twisted together to prevent their bear- ing the first year, for that would injure them. In the months of March or April of the second year, the hills must be opened, and all the sprouts, or suckers, cut off within an inch of the old root, but that must be left entire with the roots that run down ;* then cover the hills with fine earth and manure. The hops must be kept free from weeds, and the ground mellow, by hoeing often through the season, and hills of earth gradually raised around the vines during the summer. The vines must be assisted in running on the poles with woollen yarn, suffering them to run with the sun. By the last of August or first of September, the hop& will ripen and be fit to gather. This may easily be known by their color changing, and having a fragrant smell ; their seed grows brown and hard. As soon as ripe they must be gathered without delay, for a storm or frosts will injure them materially. The most expedient method of picking hops is to cut the vines three feet from the ground, pull up the poles, and lay them on crutches horizontally at a height that may be conveniently reached. Put under them a bin of equal length, and four may stand on each side to pick at a time. Fair weather must be taken to gather hops in if possible ; and hops ought not to be gathered when the dew is on them, for dew is apt to make them mould. They should be dried as soon as possible after they are gathered ; if not immediately, they must be spread on a lloor to prevent their changing color. The best mode of drying them, is with a fire of charcoal, on a kiln covered with hair cloth, in the manner of a malt kiln. The fire must be kept steady and equal, and the hops stirred gently. Great attention is necessary in this part of the business, that the hops be uniformly and sufficiently dried : if too much dried, they will look brown as if they were burnt, and if too little dried, they will lose their color and flavor. They should be laid on the haircloth about six inches thick, after it had been moderately warmed ; then a steady fire kept up till the hops are nearly dry, lest the moisture or sweat, that the fire has raised, should fall back and change their color. After the hops have been in this situation about seven, eight or nine hours, and have got through sweating ; and when struck with a * Hops must be dressed every year as soon as the frost will permit. On this being well done, depends in a great measure the success of the crop. It is thought by many to be the best method to manure the hop-yard in the fall, and cover the hills entirely with manure; asserting, with other advantages, that this prevents the frosts during the winter, from injuring tJie hop. The truth of this may be determined by experiments in our climate and country. aiSCELLAN'EOUa. 167 stick, will leap up, then throw them into a heap ; mix them well and spread them again, and let them remain till they are all equal- ly dry. While they are in the sweat, it will be best not to move them for fear of burning them. Slacken the fire when the hops are to be turned, and increase it afterwards. — Hops are fully dried when their inner stalks break short, and their leaves crisp and fall off easily. They will crackle a little when the seeds are bursting, and then they must be taken from the kiln. Hops that are dried in the sun lose their rich flavor, ajid if under cover, they are apt to ferment and change with the weather, and lose their strength. Fire preserves the color and flavor of hops, by evaporating the wa- ter and retaining the oil of the hops. — After the hops are taken from the kiln, they should be laid in a heap to acquire a little mois- ture to fit (hem for bagging. It would be well to exclude them from the air by covering them with blankets. Three or four days will be sulficient for them to lie in that state. When the hops are so moist that they may be pressed together without breaking, they are fit for bagging. Bags made of coarse linen cloth, eleven feet in length, and seven in circumference, which hold two hundred pounds weight, are most common in Eu- rope ; but any size that best suits may be made use of. To bag hops, a hole is made through a floor large enough for a man to pass with ease ; the bag must be fastened to a hoop larger than the hole, that the floor may serve to support the bag, and for the convenience of handling the bags, some hops should be tied in each corner to serve as handles. The hops should be gradually thrown into the bag and trod down continually till the bag is filled. The mouth of the bag must then be sewed, and the hops are fit for market. The harder hops are packed, the longer and belter they will keep ; but they must be kept dry. In most parts of Great Britain where hops are cultivated, they estimate the charges of cultivating an acre of hops at forty-two dollars, for manuring and tilling, exclusive of poles and rent of land. Poles they estimate at sixteen dollars per year, but in this country they would not amount to half that sum. An acre is computed to require about three thousand poles, which will last from six to twelve years, according to the kind of wood used. [JV. E. Farmer. ]Vi:iSCI!I.I.AITi:0U3. Effects of Galvanism m Oases of Drozvning, M. Leroy d'EtioIes has addressed a letter to the Academic de Medecine, in reply to an assertion made by M. Thillaye, respecting the inutility of galvanism in cases of asphyxia. The former says, that when a short and fine needle is inserted in the sides of the body between the eighth and ninth ribs, so as to come into contact with the attachment of the diaphragm, and then the current of electricity from 25 or 30 pair of inch plates passed through them, that the diaphragm immediately contracts, and an inspiration is ef- fected. Upon breaking the communication, and again completing it, a second inspiration is occasioned, and by continuing these 168 farmers' and mechanics' journal. means, a regular respiration may ultimately be occasioned. This power thus applied, has always succeeded with him in experiments on drowned animals. — Bull. Univ., C. xi. 213. Method of increasing the Odour of Roses. For this purpose, according to the author of the method, a large onion is to be planted by the side of the rose-tree in such a manner that it shall touch the foot of the latter. The roses which will be produced will have an odour much stronger and more agreeable than such as have not been thus treated, and the water distilled from these roses is equally superior to that prepared by means of ordinary rose leaves. — CEkonom. J\''euigk. ; — Bull. Univ. Caramanian, or Camblet Woolled Sheep. A half-blood Buck of the Caramanian, or Camblet Woolled Sheep, has been received by the Editor, from New-Jersey. The sire of this was brooght from Caramania, in Asia Minor. This breed of sheep are of a large size, their wool long and coarse, re- gembling the fleece of the Angora Goat, (exceping its color,) from which the best of the Camblets are manufactured. It may appear to some of our readers, that we have taken up too much of our Mechanical department with the subject of timber, and Com. Barron's remarks upon Naval constructions. In all con- structions or buildings, of any size or expense, it is of the utmost importance that the best materials and the best method should be adopted. We do not build for ourselves only, but for posterity also ; or at least we ought to. This sentiment applies particularly to our Navy ; and every person who pays a tax, is directly interest- ed in it, as it is his money in part, which is expended. A 74 costs too much of the hard earnings of our mechanics and farmers, to be slightly put together. It should be so constructed, and of such ma- terials, that it may not only be a wall of defence to us, but to our children and our childrens' children. Too much attention cannot be given to the subject. For the Farmers' and Mechanics' Journal. QUERIES. What causes the slavering or salivation in Horses, and what wili cure them ? What is the best method of destroying Canada Thistles ? Union, Me. S. H. X \ THE NEW-ENGLAND FARMERS' AND MECHANICS' JOURNAL. Vol. I. GARDINER, AUGUST, 1828. No. 8. MHOHAXriCS. HOWE & PEARSON'S BOX MACHINE. TLATE VIII. FIG. 1. This machine consists of a large frame, in which are placed four Circular Saws, which are moved by water-steam, or any other power, usually employed for moving machinery. The first saw, near B, is employed for cutting the boards the particular length required. The frame of this saw is so construct- ed, as to move backward and forward, on a horizontal carriage. This is effected by means of a rope, attached to the carriage, and passing around an upright cylinder, which is turned by hand, by means of the crank B. When the saw is wanted to slide forward, the rope is uncoiled, by turning the crank — a lever with a pulley at the end, (shown at H,) sometimes called a jack-pulley — presses upon the hand which turns the saw, and keeps it upon the stretch. By turning the crank the other way, the rope is coiled upon the cylinder, and the saw is brought back to its original place ; the jack-pulley rising at the same time by the drawing of the band upon it. Stops, or rests, are placed at such distance from the saw, as you wish to have the length of the board. These may be put in and out of place by means of a lever, attached to them, and extending across the ma- chine to the side, where the person who turns the crank, stands. This lever is shown at N. The second saw at a, is employed for edging or splitting the boards. There is nothing in this different from the common cir- cular saw, excepting the gage carriage, into which the board is pnt. !?2 V**r,. T, j 170 farmers' and mechanics' journal, •when to be split or edged. This consists of a straight piece of wood or board, which is made to shde parallel to the saw ; (th6 place for this to slide in, is shown in the Plate, by a piece framed on to the side.) On this piece of board, and at right angles with it, are fixed two other pieces of board, and at the same distance from each other, as the length of the board to be edged or split. These two pieces are graduated into feet and inches, by which the exact width of the board is obtained. The third and fourth saws, (placed near M,) are used for halving the boards, in order to match them together ; one of these is placed vertically, and the other horizontally. The horizontal saw pro- jects a little by the other, and is nearly in contact with it. They thus cut at right angles to each other ; and when a board is held edgewise to them, a square piece is cut out, equal in thickness, or diameter, to one-half of the thickness of the board to be cut. In order that the board, or stuff, to be halved, should be cut in the middle, the following apparatus has been invented ; viz. a lever is framed into the side of the machine, parallel to the vertical saw, having its fulcrum (which is a pin, upon which it turns,) exactly in the middle. At one end of this, and at right angles with it, is affix- ed another plate of wood, or iron, which is moved back and forth, by moving the lever. On this last mentioned slide, and at right angles to it, is fixed a flat piece of wood, or iron, placed on its edge, and may be called a guide. When at rest, it is immediately over the vertical saw ; but when the slide is pushed back bv the lever, it recedes a little from the saw. Immediately over the lever is placed a similar guide, which is attached to one end of it by a pin. These two guides meet each other directly over the vertical saw. When a board is placed between them, it pushes the guide attached to the lever, to the left ; this moving the lever, pushes the slide, and the guide attached to it, just as far to the right ; and thus places the centre of the edge of the board, directly upon the vertical saw, and it is cut or halved in the middle. The halving is sometimes performed by means of a circular plate, to which is attached chisels of the required width ; but the saws are preferable. Fig. 1. — A, is the drum, or main cylinder. B, the crank which moves the cutting saw. C, the carriage, by which the saw is moved backward and forward. EFFECTS OP PLY-WHEELS. 17i D, the rod, upon which one end of the lever in which the pulley H, is placed, turns. M, the guides. N, the arm, or lever, which guides the rest, against which the board to be cut, is placed. Fig. 2. — The guides, separated from the machine. The guide M, is raised up from the lever, showing a small pin on the right end of it, which, when the guide is pressed down, shuts into the hole below and moves the lever by being pushed either way. For further particulars reference is made to John Howe and Paul Pearson, the Inventors, Alna, Me, EFFECTS OF FLY-WHEELS. Sir, — Having, in the course of an extensive intercourse with operative mechanics, frequent occasion to observe that very incor- rect notions are entertained with respect to the operation of Fly- wheels, I have thought that an explanation of the manrter of their operation might profitably occupy a space in your pages ; and I have, therefore, (in the hope that you will agree with me in think- ing it worthy of insertion,) abstracted from an excellent article on the subject, by Dr. Brewster, in his " Appendix to Fergusoii's Lectures,'''^ as much as seems to me necessary to place the whole subject in a simple and clear light before your readers. B. D. " A Fly, in mechanics, is a heavy wheel or cylinder, which moves rapidly upon its axis, and is applied to machines for the purpose of rendering uniform a desultory or reciprocating motion, arising cither from the nature of the machinery, from an inequality in the resistance to be overcome, or from an irregular application of the impelling power. When the first mover is inanimate, as wind, water, and steam, an inequality of force obviously arises from a variation in the velocity of wind, from an increase of water occa- sioned by sudden rains, or from an augmentation or diminution of the steam in the boiler, produced by a variation in the heat of the furnace ; and, accordingly, various methods have been adopted for regulating the action of these variable powers. The same in-v equality of force obtains when machines are moved by horses or men. Every animal exerts its greatest strength when first set to work. After pulling for some time, its strength will be impaired 5 and when the resistance is great, it will take frequent, though short relaxation, and then commence its labor with renovated vigor. These intervals of rest and vigorous exertion, must always produce a variation in the velocity of the machine, which ought particular- ly to be avoided, as being detrimental to the communicating parts as well as the performance of the machine, and injurious to the ani- mal which is employed to drive it. But if a fly, consisting either i72 farmers' and mechanics' journal. of cross-bars, or a massy circular rim, be connected with the ma^ chinery, all these inconveniences will be removed. As every Ayr wheel must revolve with great rapidity, the momentum of its cir- cumference must be very considerable, and will consequently re- sist every attempt either to accelerate or retard its motion. When the machine, therefore, has been put in motion, the fly-wheel will be whirling with an uniform celerity, and with a force capable of continuing that celerity when there is any relaxation in the impel- ling power. After a short rest, the animal renews his efforts, but the machine is now moving with its former velocity, and these fresh efforts will have a tendency to increase the velocity ; the fly, however, now acts as a resisting power, receives the greatest part of the superfluous motion, and causes the machinery to preserve its original celerity. In this way the fly secures to the engine an uniform motion, whether the animal takes occasional relaxation, or exerts his force with redoubled ardor. " In machines built upon a large scale, there is no necessity for the interposition of a fly, as the inerlia of the machinery supplies its place, and resists every change of motion that may be generated by an unequal admission of the corn. " A variation in the velocity of engines arises also from the na- ture of the machinery. Let us suppose that the weight of 1000 pounds is to be raised from the bottom of a well fifty ieai deep, by means of a bucket attached to an iron chain which winds round ^ barrel or cylinder ; and that every foot in length of this chajn weighs two pounds : it is evident that the resistance to be over- come in the first moment, is 1000 pounds, added to 50 pounds, the weight of the chain ; and that this resistance diminishes gradually, as the chain coils round the cylinder, till it becomes only 1000 pounds, when the chain is completely wound up. The resistance, therefore, decreases from 1050 to 1000 pounds ; and if the impeU ling power is inanimate, the velocity of the bucket will gradually increase ; but if an animal is employed, it wjll generally propor- tion its action to the resisting load, and must therefore pull with a greater or less force, according as the bucket is near the bottom or top of the well. In this case, however, the assistance of a fly may be dispensed with, because the resistance diminishes uniformly, and may be rendered constant, by making the barrel conical, so that the chain may wind upon the part nearest the vertex at the commencement of the motion, the diameter of the barrel gradually increasing as the weight diminishes. In this way the variable re- sistance will be equalized much better than by the application of a fly-wheel ; for the fly, having no power of its own, must necessa- rily waste the impelling power. " When machinery is driven by a single stroke steam-engine, there is such an inequality in the impelling power, that, for two or three seconds, it does not act at all. During this interval of inac- tivity, the machinery would necessarily stop, were it not impelled by a massy fly-wheel of a great diameter, revolving with rapidity, till the moving power again resumes its energy. EFrECTS OP PLY-WHEELS. 175 " If the moving power is a man acting with a handle or winch, it is subject to great inequahties. The greatest force is exerted when the man pulls the handle upwards from the height of his knee, and he acts with the least force when the handle, being in a verti- cal position, is thrust from him in a horizonal direction. The force is again increased when the handle is pushed downwards by the man's weight, and it is diminished when the handle, being at its low3st point, is pulled towards him horizontally. But when a fly is properly connected with the machinery, these irregular ex- ertions are equalized, the velocity becomt^s uniform, and the load is raised with an equable and steady motion. " In many cases, where the impelling force is alternately aug- mented or diminished, the performance of the machine may be in- creased by rendering the resistance unequal, and accommodating it to the inequalities of the moving power. Dr. i^obison observes, that ' there are some beautiful specimens of this kind of adjustment in the mechanism of animal bodies.' " Besides the utility of liy-wheels as regulators of machinery, they have been employed for accumulating or collecting power, if motion is communicated to a tiy-whcel by means of a small force, and if this force is continued till the wheel has acquired a great velocity, such a quantity of motion will be accumulated in its cir- cumference as to overcome resistances, and produce effects which could never have been accomplished by tlie original force. Sq great is this accumulation of power, that a force equivalent to 20 pounds, applied for the space of 37 seconds to the circumference of a cylinder, 20 feet diameter, which weighs 4713 pounds, would, at the distance of one foot from the centre, give an impulse to a musket-ball equal to what it receives from a full charge of gun- powder. In the space of six minutes and ten seconds, the same effect would be produced, if the cylinder was driven by a man who constantly exerted a force of 20 pounds at a winch one foot long. "This accumulation of power is finely exemplified in the sling. When the thong which contains the stone is swung round the head of the slinger, the force of the hand is continually accumulating in the revolving stone, till it is discharged with a degree of rapidity which it could never have received fiom the force of the hand alone. When a stone is projected from the hand itself, there is even then a certain degree of force accumulated, though the stone only moves through the arch of a circle. If we fix the stone in an opening at the extremity of a piece of wood two feet long, and dis* charge it in the usual way, there will be more force accumulated than with the hand alone, for the stone describes a larger arch in the same time, and must therefore be projected with greater force. " When coins or medals are struck, a very considerable accumu- lation of power is necessary, and this is effected by means of a fly. The force is first accumulated in weights fixed in the end of the fly : this force is communicated to two levers, by which it is farther condensed ; and from these levers it is transmitted to a screw, by which it suffers a second condensation. The stamp is then im- 174 farmers' and mechanics' journal. pressed on the coin or medal by means of this force, which was first accumulated by the fly, and afterwards augmented by the in- tervention of two mechanical powers. " Notwithstanding the great advantages of fly-wheels, both as regulators of machines and collectors of power, their utility wholly depends upon the position which is assigned them, relative to the impelled and working points of the engine. For this purpose, no particular rules can be laid down, as their position depends alto- gether on the nature of the machinery. We may observe, how- ever, in general, that when fly-wheels are employed to regulate machinery, they should be near the impelling power ; and whea used to accumulate force in the working point, they should not be far distant from it. In hand-mills for grinding corn, the fly is, for the most part, very injudiciously fixed on the axis to which the winch is attached ; whereas it should always be fastened to the upper millstone, so as to revolve with the same rapidity. In the first position, indeed, it must equalize the varying efforts of the power which moves the winch ; but when it is attached to the turning millstone, it not only does this, but contributes very eflfect- ually to the grinding of the corn. " Dr. Desaguliers mentions an instance of a blundering engineer, who applied a fly-wheel to the slowest mover of the machine, in- stead of the swiftest. The machine was driven by four men, and when the fly was taken away, one man was sufficiently able to work it. The error of the workman arose from his conceiving, like many others, that the fly added power to the machine ; but we presume that Dr. Desaguliers himself has been accessory to this general misconception of its nature, by denominating it a mechani- cal power. By the interposition of a fly, however, as the Doctor well knew, we gain no mechanical force ; the impelling power, on the contrary, is wasted, and the fly itself even loses some of the force which it receives by the resistance of the air." \^London Mcch. Mag. On the difficult^/ of separating flat Disks by a current of air, or of steam, when their surfaces are in contact, or nearly so. By Asa Spencer, Mechanician. Sir, — Agreeably to my promise, 1 offer for inseition in your Journal, my theory respecting the adhesion of disks, which 1 shall be pleased to see published, should it meet your views. Yours, &c. Asa Spencer. Tn the Journal of the Franklin Institute of last year, was pub- lished a communication by M. Clement of the following purport : A flat valve being placed over an orifice in a steam chest, and covered a considerable space around the orifice, when the steam was let on, the valve, instead of rising, as was expected, kepi its place, and required a considerable additional force to lift it. To this phenomenon I offered the following explanation to some of my scientific friends, who thought it satisfactory : ADHESION OP DISKS. 175 The extent of the valve, we will suppose to equal four square inches, its surface flat, and placed on the steam chest, where the surface is also flat. We will also suppose a space between the sur- faces, sufticient to admit the atmosphere, it is evident that the top and bottom of the valve will be then equally pressed by it, and ia that state the valve may be lifted with a force only sufticient to overcome its gravity. Suppose an opening to be now made in the chest, under the centre of the valve, equal to one square inch, or one-fourth the size of the valve, the steam being then let into the chest with a power of 30 pounds to the inch, this rushes against, and communi- cates the same power to the one inch of the valve immediately over the aperture, which being only about half the force of the at- mosphere on the whole four inches on the top of the valve, it can- not rise with any thing like the velocity with which the steam would move ; its current, therefore, must necessarily be checked. Now currents of fluids on meeting immoveable obstacles, are not reflected back, like solids, but take a direction parallel to the sur- face against which they strike : currents of fluids also, whether elastic or nonelastic, exert no force, but in the direction in which they move ; the latter is fully proved by forcing air, or water, through a cylindrical tube, if holes be made in the sides of the tube none of the fluid will escape. It follows, then, that the steam on striking against the valve, as above mentioned, and thus arrested in its course, which was per- pendicular to the valve, takes one parallel to it, and rushes out in all directions, in radii from the centre ; of course, the atmosphere between the disks is driven out, leaving nothing between but steam, and that exerting no force on the valve except on the one inch in the centre, its course over the remaining surface is parallel to it, and its force is exerted only in that drection. The state of the valve would then be as follows : pressed up- wards by steam of 30 pounds to the inch, acting on the one inch only at the bottom, and pressed downward by the weight of the at- mosphere of 15 pounds to the inch, acting on the whole four inches at top ; making the downward, double that of the upward pressure. The above will appear pretty evident, by the following experi- ment: take two thin flat plates of metal, tin-plate for example, about three inches diameter, in the centre of one insert a tube several inches long, and about l-8th of an inch in diameter per- pendicular to ith planes ; let both plates be pierced full of holes except near their centres ; let these plates be placed with their surfaces parallel to each other, and about 1-1 6th of an inch apart, and attach the tube to a cock under a considerable head of water •, when the water is let on it passes by the tube through the first plate, and on being checked by the second plate, passes out be- tween them in a thin and even sheet, while none escapes through the holes. This happens when the force of water is at least equal to two atmospheres. This experiment has been repeatedly tried; and varied in diflerent wavs. with the same uniform result. 176 farmers' and mechanics^ journal. The preceding, and the problem of the cardsj I consider as case^i precisely similar ; the same effect produced by the same causes. I, therefore, in a concise form, gave a similar explanation, which was published in the United States Gazette some weeks since. 1 have since seen a solution of the latter problem by Prof. Hare, who attributes the etfect to a different cause. He supposes that the blast coming out in various currents from the common centre of the tube and disks, causes an afflux of the surrounding air to- wards them, and as Mr. Perkins expresses it, (who explained the problem of the valve in the same wa.y that Dr. Hare has that of the cards,) "impinges" on the whole outer surface of the disk, and counteracts the power of the blast, which acts only on a small part of the inner surface. To satisfy myself of the fallacy of this, I used means which I thought effectual to cut off all afflux of air towards the disk, which could have a tendency to keep them together, when I found the effect as prompt as before ; which made me conclude, they were not kept together by any flow of air, but by the constant and steady pressure of the atmosphere which rested on them at the time the blast commenced, and continues unabated, while that on the inner surfaces is lessened by being met and opposed by the force of the blast, running out between the two inner surfaces of the cards. 1 attempted to illustrate this by a tube six inches in length, and about the diameter of a large quill, at the end of which I fixed two strips of paper 3-4ths of an inch wide, and extending about three inches from the end of the tube ; on blowing with force through the tube, the strips of paper were brought together by a very prompt and rapid movement. 1 observed the same effect, when this tube, with the strips of paper, was placed within another lube of 1 1-2 inch diameter and 10 or 12 inches long. l^I'Vanklin Journal. Specification of the Patent granted to Charles Bagenall FleeT- wooD, of Parliament-street, Dublin, Gent, for a Liquid, and Com- position, for making Leather, and other articles, Water-proof, — Dated February 28, 1824. My new invented liquid and composition for making leather, and ather articles, water-proof, consists of a certain compound of resin- ous, oleaginous, and elastic matters, the proportions of which, and the mode of mixing, I am about to describe. My process is as fol- lows : I dissolve 10 lbs. of caoutchouc, or Indian Rubber, in 20 gallons of pure spirits of turpentine, by putting them both into a tin vessel capable of holding at least 35 gallons ; 40 perhaps would be as well ; — the caoutchouc should be cut into pieces, or slices, of about 1-1 6th part of an ounce weight, to hasten the solution. I then immerse the ves'-el into a boiler, previously filled with cold water, and app'y the nre so as to produce the boiling of the water, occasionally supplying the waste, caused by evaporation. In this situation it remains until a perfect solution of the caoutchouc, in the spirits of turpentine, is effected ; I then dissolve 150 lbs. weight £TCHIN'G AND CLEANINO ALABASTER. 177 Oi pure bee's-wax in 100 gallons of pure spirits of turpentine, add- ing thereto 20 lbs. of Burgundy-pitch, and 10 lbs. of gum-frankin- cense. The solution of these articles, I obtain by the same means as described for dissolving the caoutchouc. To these two matters (Jr solutions, when mixed together, I add, after they are quite cold, 10 gallons of the best copal varnish. The whole of these mate- rials are then to be put togiether in a large reservoir, where the compound may be diluted by adding 100 gallons of lime-water, pouring in five gallons at a time, and stirring it continually for six or eight hours ; which agitation must be repeated whenever any of the composition is taken out of the reservoir, either to be bottled or casked. In order to color this composition, when it is required to be rendered black, 20 lbs. weight of the best lamp-black should be mixed up with 20 gallons of the purest turpentine spirits, (which 20 gallons should, under these circumstances, have been deducted from the previous mixture ;) this, when properly blended, is to be added to the composition, but that should be done previous to the introduction of the lime-water. The composition, when thus pre- pared, is to be laid upon the leather by means of a painting-brush, and nibbed into the surface, which will render the leather, after the composition has become dry. impervious to water, and at the same time peifectly soft and pliable. Though I have thus minute- ly described the comparative proportions of each material, yet I do not mean to confine myself precisely to those respective quanti- ties, nor to the precise mode adopted in mixing and preparing them, but have stated such proportions and such process as the best that I am acquainted with, and which I am, from considerable experience, induced to adopt, and recommend. [Repert. Pat. Invent. ETCHING AND CLEANING ALABASTER. Bi/ Henry Moore, of Green Hill, near Derby. Taking advantage of the v/ell-known fact that gypsum, or ala- baster, or sulphate of lime, (for these are only tliree names for the same thing,) is perfectly soluble in 500 parts of cold water, Mr. Moore has adopted the following process : He covers the ornament, and all those parts that are not to be corroded, with a composition that will resist water. Wax, dissolv- ed in spirits of turpentine, and mixed with white lead, maybe used with a camel-hair pencil; or turpentine varnish, with a little ani- mal oil and white lead, and will be found to work more freely than the wax. Spirits of turpentine must be used in pencilling with these compositions. The use of animal oil is to prevent the var- nish from becoming very hard, which would render its removal, after corrosion, extremely difficult. The ornament, and other parts which are intended to be preserved, being completely cover- ed with the composition, it is suffered to remain a few hours to dry. The article is then put into a vessel of rain water, in which it must remain forty-eitiht hours, or longer, according as the orna- 2.1 ' VeL. I. J7S farmers' and mechanics' journal. ment may be required to have more or less relief. When the coF' rosion is completed, the varnish or wax must be removed with spirits of turpentine, which may be applied with a bit of sponge, and then be wiped off with soft rags. The article, being made quite clean, is now rubbed over with a soft brush, dipped into finely-powdered plaster of Paris, and is ap- plied in the dry state. This powder fills the pores of the corrod- ed parts, giving a certain degree of opacity, similar to that which is left from the tools of the sculptor. It forms a good ground that contrasts well with the ornament, and makes it appear with great- er advantage than if left merely in the corroded state. The alabaster of which the vase is made, was procured from a quarry at Chellaston, about four miles from Derby. To clean Alabaster Sculptures. Spots of grease are first to be removed with spirits of turpen- tine ; the article is then immersed in water, where it is suffered to remain about ten minutes, or, perhaps, a little longer, if the thing be very dirty ; it is then rubbed over with a painter's brush, suf- fered to dry, and then treated with plaster of Paris as above, when the article will be found perfectly clean, as if just from the hands of the sculptor. A piece of sculpture that would take several days to clean by the usual way, vvith fish-skin and Dutch rushes, is, by this process, completed in half an hour. \Journ. of Arts , ire. MOULD FOR MAKING CORES USED IN CASTINGS. Sir, — In making some kinds of castings, it is highly important to secure apertures of uniform calibre through them ; but this object is seldom obtained, owing to the difficulty of forming accurate cores. The above diagram represents a mould proposed by Mr. Isaiah LuKENS, of Philadelphia, by which this difficulty may be effectual- ly obviated. Should you think its publication likely to subserve the interests of the highly useful class of our citizens, who are en- gaged in the iron and brass foundry business, you will please give it a place in your Magazine. ON BLACKINC AND POLISHING LEATHER. 179 A, represents the transverse section of a cylinder of wood whose calibre is accurately formed. B, a longitudinal incision, quite through the cylinder. The principle by which this mould is worked, depends on the elasticity of the wood. Previously to forming the core, the in- cision at B, is closed by pressure, and the mould is secured with twine ; it is next filled with loam or sand, and then the twine be- ing cut, it springs open, and may be readily removed without dis- turbing the core. Core Box, Philadelphia, April 29th. [Am. Mech. Mag, On various Compositions for Blacking and Polishing Leather, Various compositions are used to give a sort of polish or v?.inish to leather, by being brushed over it. The blacking that has been most generally used for some years past, in France, was composed of the whites of eggs, beaten up with water ; to which were added a little lamp-black, to color it 5 and some sugar, or gum, to render it shining. It was sufficient to spread this mixture over the leather with a brush, and allow it to dry. This blacking is very beautiful, and easy to be made and used ; but has its inconveniences : it is not very solid ; heat causes it to scale off; and it is dissolved by the least quantity of water that touches it. Humidity alone is sufficient to cause it to come off, on the least friction. It is now but little used in large towns, as the following superior composition is substituted for it ; viz : Ivory Black - . - 350O grammes,* Melasses .... 350O Sulphuric Acid - - - 450 Hydrochloric or Muriatic Acid - 450 Weak Acetic Acid - - 1700 Gum Arabic - - - 200 I^inseed or Olive Oil - - 200 10,200 The sulphuric acid is diluted with six times its weight of water, which must be mixed with some precaution, adding it by degrees, that the temperature may not be too rapidly raised, or there is great risk of breaking the vessel. A mixture is then made of this diluted acid, with the dydrochloric acid and melasses, in a large earthern vessel. The ivory-black, previously mixed with a suffi- cient quantity of water, to make it of a moderately thick consist- ence, is then added by degrees to the acidulous liquid, stirring it all the while, not only for the purpose of disengaging the gas which is generated, but also to prevent the mixture from forming into a mass, or coagulating. When the mixture is well blended together, it is diluted with weak acetic acid, or common vinegar ; and the gum, previously dissolved in four or five times its weight of water, is then added, with the oil. The whole is then again well stirred * The gramme is nearly equal to 15 1-2 English grains. 180 farmers' and mechanics' journal. together; and, finally, a sufficient quantity of water is added, to in- crease its volume to 17 1-2 litres,* which will produce 70 bottles of blacking, of a quarter of a litre each. This blacking is some- times scented with an essential oil, such as that of rosemary, &c. The mixture must be constantly agitated, while putting into the bottles, in order that the heavier or lighter parts may not separate from each other. This blacking, when it is sent to any great dis- tance, or remains long in the shops, is susceptible of entering into fermentation ; and the great quantity of carbonic acid formed, dur- ing the conversion of the saccharine matter (the melasses) into alcohol, exerts a pressure in the bottles, and renders them liable to burst ; or, when the cork is drawn, to occasion the effervescing liquid to fly out ; to prevent which, it is sufficient to cause the corked bottles to be boiled in water for half an hour, in M. Appert's mode ; but it is probable that the same end may be accomplished by mixing a small quantity of the sulphurous acid with the black- ing. Whenever the blacking is to be used, it must also be shaken or stirred up, in order to mix those parts again, which are apt to separate on standing. This composition is effected by the re-actions of the sulphurous and hydrochloric acids upon the ivory-black ^ also, by the hydro- chlorate, the sulphate and the phosphate of lime formed, the car- bon, and the other ingredients employed in its preparation ; which sustain very little alteration from their mixture. This composi- tion being spread upon the leather, and rubbed over, while it is wet, with a rather hard brush, makes it acquire a beautiful, bril- liant, and black polish ; it adheres closely to the leather, and is not removed by any slight friction, not even in damp weather. The hydrochloric or muriatic acid, which ia employed in an equal quan- tity, or is about a third-part of all acids used in the composition, forms with the lime a soluble deliquescent salt, which enters and gives a softness to the leather, and does not produce that dull ap- pearance which results from an excess of the sulphate of lime. This article forms a very important branch of commerce in Eng- land ; considerable quantities of it being exported ; and, in the large manufactories, steam-engines are employed in its preparation. Some years since, I pointed out a more economical mode of making a blacking, which is yet equally beautiful with the above : it consists in substituting for the melasses and gum, either the fecula of potatoes, or the potatoes themselves, saccharized by the action of the sulphuric acid ; and for the ivory-black, animal or bone char- coal, ground in water. It is made in the following manner : sup- posing all the ingredients, except those substituted, to be used in exactly the same proportions as we have above given : Either the fecula, or the potatoes, after being boiled and crush- ed, so as to be reduced to a gelatinous state, are to be mixed with tepid water (at about 45° ;) and sulphuric acid, previously diluted with ten times its weight of water, is then poured on it by degrees, and the whole brought to a boiling heat in a leaden vessel ; being * The litre is nearly equal to 5J 1-2 wine pints. ( IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE. 181 careful to keep the acid mixture and the fecula, or potatoes, well stirred together, and to make the additions in such small quanti- ties, as to interrupt the ehullition as little as possible. Two or three minutes aftci- the last addition has been made, the starch is completely saccharized ; the vessel must then be taken oti'the fire ; without which piecaution the saccharine matter would very soon become scorched. The mixture is then allowed to cool gently, and during this time the hydrochloric acid is poured upon the ani- mal charcoal by small portions at a time, and stirred with a wooden spatula ; and this part of the process is finished, by mixing this charcoal in the saccharine liquid and acid, when the sulphuric acid acts with as much energy as in the former process. This mixture is then boiled to a rather thick consistence, and is passed through a color-mill. The mill is previously washed, by throwing into the hopper the remainder of the acid liquid or vine- gar, and then pure water ; and these washings are put into the blacking ; finally, the other ingredients are added, together with a sufficient quantity of water, to increase its volume to 17 litres and a half, as in the former process. The blacking thus obtained is absolutely the same as the other : the fineness of the black, which enters into the composition, is even more equal. We also find, in commerce, many other kinds of blacking, form- ed of resins, gum-lac, spirit of wine, (alcohol,) lamp-black, ivory- black, and other substances, in great number, and in various pro- portion ; but they are very little used. P. [Diction7iaire Technologique. IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE. Notwithstanding the very great improvements made in the pro- cess of generating and applying steam power to boats and other machinery, yet perfection in these j)rinciple3 appears not to have been attained, inasmuch as every year shows some advance in pre- vious inventions and discoveries. From a communication in the New Orleans Argus, it appears that Mr. Lainhart, now of that city, formerly of Baltimore, has after four years of assiduous labor, succeeded in offering to the public a steam engine, which is thus described : It consists of a generator placed over a grate, which receives four ounces of hot water from the boiler at each revolution of the paddles ; this water is immediately converted into steam, passes into the cylinder, from thence into the condenser, and from thence again into the boiler. As the generator does not contain at most but six gallons of steam at once, and as it has a safety-valve, and is more than three inches thick, it is almost impossible that n could burst, and in case it should, no damage would result fiom it, on account of the small quantity of steam it contains, and as to the water in the boiler, it is only heated to !212 degrees of Farenheit, 182 farmers' and mechanics' journal. or 80 of Reaumur, which is that of boiling, besides it has a safety- valve. The economy of this machine is very great ; it can propel a boat of 25 tons, twelve hours with four bushels of charcoal. As to its speed it is astonishing ; the wheels which act directly on the axle of the spar-wheels, make 190 revolutions in a minute! But what is more surprising is, that the machine, comprising fire-place, boilers, generator, in short, every thing, occupies the space only of six feet by 27 inches ! By way of encouragement, the Legislature of Louisiana passed a law, authorizing Mr. L. to raise a sum of money by lottery, for the purpose of fully testing his improvements, reserving to the State, the right of making use of engines on the principle for which he had a patent. [Southern paper, • - ' ■ , ■ mstc: ACRICULTlTRi:. HEMP. [Concluded from page 161.] We insert a few more remarks relative to the culture and man- agement of Hemp, hoping that another year will find our industri- ous farmers actually engaged in the business of cultivating, and preparing this article for commerce. The profit, which cannot but arise from the article in question, will of itself be a sufficient stimu- lus to engage them in the undertaking; but as an additional incen- tive, we would refer them to the very liberal premium offered by the Trustees of the Lyceum, for the largest and best crop of hemp, raised and cured within the State, during the year 1829. You will find it noticed on the last page of the present number. Extract of a letter from a manifacturer of Canvass, at Paterson^ New Jersey, dated 9th August, 1824, to the Hon, Secretary of the Mivy. " I should have before replied to the letter which you did me the honor to address to me, under date of the 31st ultimo, but, be- ing in a great measure unacquainted with the subject on which you required information, I have been since engaged in procuring as much as opportunity aflforded me, and I have now the honor to communicate the result of my inquiries. I would here, however, observe, that, previous to the receipt of your letter, I had the honor to receive one from the President of the Board of Navy Commissioners, on the subject of the growth and manufacture of flax, which having answered, if it were necessary to your purposCj I could, and would, with pleasure, furnish a copy. " It appears, from all I can learn, that hemp may be produced in any soil ; in Russia, it is indigenous, found in all the south and middle parts, and even on the Uralian mountains, though the gene- ral opinion seenis to be, that the greater crops are produced from ON THE CULTURE OF HEMP* 183 that which is a deep black mould, formed from the decomposition of vegetable matter ; until the texture is apparent, its situation should be low, with some small degree of moisture. This descrip- tion of soil will produce hemp in greater abundance than any other, and every State in the Union possesses more or less thereof: this State, in particular, has a full share, together with the convenience of market for the sale, and a plentifuiness of that description of manure which would best answer to restore the land to its former state. '' The land is prepared, by some, with three, by others with four ploughings, after it is manured ; immediately after one crop is re- moved, 'tis usual in England to plough and harrow : the same thing is again gone through with early in the Spring, and, afterwards, just before the seed is sown ; this makes its condition perfectly Hiellow, and renders it free from all kinds of weeds ; in our coun- try, if the ground be broken twice with the plough, and once har- rowed, it seems to be considered sufficient ; and in Russia, less pains still is taken, beside being more imperfectly done. " The seed for hemp, as for flax, should be weighty, and of a bright color ; good soils will admit of three bushels to the acre ; not less than two should be used where one and a half bushels are now put in, as the hemp, the thicker it is sown, provided it is not overdone, will be finer in its fibre, and, consequently, spins a finer yarn, and lays much closer, besides that the twist will be more easily accomplished by the working hand or the machine, and it will be a much stronger yarn made from fine hemp than coarse, both being of the same diameter. The seed is sown in the broad- cast manner, as early as the climate will admit, and covered in with the harrow. Drilling is sometimes resorted to in England, under the impression that the early growth of the plant is promot- ed ; but the broad-cast is preferred. The seed may be put in in April, the frosts being over even earlier, as the plants are more vigorous, and less affected by the different subsequent operations they have to undergo. " There are few soils in this country that could not produce, or be made to produce, hemp, and repeated crops may be obtained, as advantageously to the ground, from the same piece of land, with proper attention, and as little exhaustion as almost any other vege- table production. It is asserted, that, in Suffolk, in England, it has been grown for 70 years in succession, on the same spot of ground, and, by continually manuring, the ground would be restored, and it may be grown forever. " After it is sown, the management of the crop is attended with very little trouble ; when it is properly ripe, it is pulled up by the roots, the mould well shaken off, and laid up in what are called bails. If the hemp be intended for a seed crop, it should be perfectly ripe ; but if for manufacturers' use, it should be pulled earlier, as the coloring matter is then more easily extracted, and the hemp has less tow ; besides, that it is generally believed the ftbre is stronger. The next process which the plants undergo, is 184 farmers' aJjd mechanics' journal. termed rotting — one method is denominated dew, the other waler- rottinpj ; and it is admitted on all sides, that the latter is to be great-" Iv preferred. It affords much the finest, strongest, and longest staple hetnp. The former process, however, is practised in our country almost universally : in fact, except on Connecticut river, I have heard of no other place where the other method is pursued ; and there, water-rotting is but imperfectly managed, both as to economy and usefulness. To dew-rot the hemp, the stalks imme- diately after they are pulled, are spread on the ground, as thinly as possible, where they are left three or four weeks, occasionally turned ; and, in this situation, they are subject to all the variable- ness of our climate, which is so fluctuating and uncertain, that hemp is materially injured before the farmer is aware of it, or could con- veniently prevent it ; the fibre is then generally weakened by being burnt up with the sun, or from too long exposure and excessive wet. Even in England, where the climate is much more favorable for this process, the greatest care and attention will scarcely pre- vent injury, and is never resorted to when the hemp is the object, as it is not uncommon to find, on examination, that the hemp is deteriorated in quality from too long exposure ; in addition, also, the risk of damage. This is the most troublesome and longest process : for, in water-rotting, the hemp is more handled, after it is put into the water, until the process is completed ; it is then taken out, tied into rather small bundles, placed upright between two ropes, extended parallel to each other, across a lot, and from this position it is protected from the eifects of the rain, as also it is ex- posed to dry much sooner. The hemp, after it is pulled, is carried to a deep pond, or wooden tank of standing water ; it is placed thereon, bundle upon bundle, cross-wise, and when the pond is filled, the whole should be completely immersed in the water bj loading it with heavy pieces of timber ; in four or five days, the process being finished, it is taken out and dried as soon as possible, in the manner explained before. Another method of rotting has been suggested in France, and practised successfully : — the water is heated to a temperature of 12 to 75 degrees of Reaumur, dissolving in it a quantity of green soap, in the proportion of one to forty-eight of hemp ; the quantity of water composed with the hemp should be as one to forty : the hemp is thrown in, and the vessel covered over, and in two or three hours, it appears, the hemp is fully steeped. If this process should be found to answer, it is by far the most convenient of any yet known, unless the application of steam prove as effectual, or more so, without the addition of soap. " After the hemp is rotted, it is to be broken. A coarse and fine brake is sometime? used in England, but the rollers of the lint- mill are preferred, because of its being more expeditiously per- formed. In our country they use what is called a hemp-mill : which is a large heavy stone, formed like a sugar-loaf, with the small end cut off — such a form as is generally used for grinding white lead ; a shaft is run through it, and it is made to revolve in a ON THE CULTURE OF IIEMr. 185 circle ; when passing on a plane, the hemp becomes crushed, and broken by the stone, and is subsequently swingled : the rollers of the lint-mill are, however, thought to be better, and my own opi- nion is, that Mr. S. Swartwout's machine for breaking flax would answer better than any other mode which is now practised. " The average crop, per acre, in America, England, and Russia, has been estimated as follows : America, 400 lbs. ; England, 650 lbs. ; Russia, 500 lbs. The present price of American dew-rotted, is $115 per ton, that of Russia $170 per ton. " The cultivation of this plant would, no doubt, be of great na- tional benefit, not, perhaps, arising immediately from the production of hemp, but the absolute necessity, almost, of being independent of this article from foreign countries in time of war, and the great value it is susceptible of attaining from the manufacture in our coun- try. There is, perhaps, except in England, a greater quantity of hemp consumed in this than in any other country, in the manufac- ture of cordage, sail-cloth, cotton bagging, and in numerous qualities of ordinary cloths. The certainty of a market would, no doubt, very much tend to increase the cultivation ; and a demand might be created by protecting the manufacturer to such an extent as to ad- mit of his paying the farmer such a price for the raw material as would bring the gain and demand for the article to a par with any advantage he might obtain from any other article of vegetable pro- duction. The hemp manufactured into cordage is generally brought from abroad, i have written to a manufacturer on the subject, and when I obtain the information I have solicited and ex- pect, it will be transmitted to you. In my mill I have spun, for cloth only, about two tons. Not having been properly prepared, 1 discontinued the use of it ; hov»'ever, the machinery I possess will spin hemp as well as flax, and hereafter i may be induced to turn my attention to it again. As far as 1 can leurn, I am the only per- son in the United States, that will attempt to spin by machinery — I mean fine threads, capable of making duck. " To prepare the hernp for spinning, it is hackled on three tools, to reduce it to the same fineness with flax, which is reduced on two tools, and in the process, we make use of oil to supply that elasticity which naturally it does not possess. All subsequent pro- cesses are the same as flax, the machinery being only altered in the draft from roller to roller, to conform to the length of the staple ; it is also susceptible of being altered, that it may be made to spin the shortest tow, and longest hemp. " 1 would, as it regards my own interest, prefer to miike use of the American hemp, where it is as good as the foreign, or could I substitute it for the same purpose ; but, as (he reputation of a manufacturer depends on the quality of his goods, it is absolutely necessary the raw material should lie of the best quality ; and it is a fact, that neither tlie flax nor hemp of this country are of such a quality as to Ju'^tiiy thoir geiK^c'il use for manufacturing pur- poses." 24 Vnr. T. 186 farmers' ajjd mechanics' journal. THE PLEASURES OF AGRICULTURE, In free countries, are more, and in enslaved, fewer, than the pleasures of most other employments. The reason of it is, that agriculture both from its nature, and also as being generally the employment of a great portion of a nation, cannot be united with power, considered as an exclusive interest. It must of course be enslaved, wherever despotism exists, and its masters will enjoy more pleasures in that case, than it can ever reach. On the con- trary, where power is not an exclusive, but a general interest, agri- culture can employ its own energies for the attainment of its own happiness. Under a free government it has before it, the inexhaustible sources of human pleasure, of fitting ideas to substances, and sub- stances to ideas; and of a constant rotation of hope and fruition. The novelty, frequency and exactness of accommodations be- tween our ideas and operations, constitutes the most exquisite source of mental pleasure. Agriculture feeds it with endless sup- plies in the natures of soils, plants, climates, manures, instruments of culture and domestic animals. Their combinations are inex- haustible, the novelty of results is endless, discrimination and adaptation are never idle, and an unsatiated interest receives grati- fications in quick succession. Benevolence is so closely associated with this interest, that its exertion in numberless instances, is necessary to foster it. Libe- rality in supplying its laborers with the comforts of life, is the best sponsor for the prosperity of agriculture, and the practice of almost every moral virtue is amply remunerated in this world, whilst it is also the best surety for attaining the blessings of the next. Poetry, in allowing more virtue to agriculture, than to any other profession, has abandoned her privilege of fiction, and yielded to the natural moral effect of the absence of temptation. The same fact is com- memorated by religion, upon an occasion of the most solemn, with- in the scope of the human imagination. At the awful day of judg- ment, the discrimination of the good from the wicked, is not made by the criterion of sects or of dogmas, but by one which consti- tutes the daily employment and the great end of agriculture. The iudge upon this occasion, has by anticipation pronounced, that to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, and give drink to the thirsty, are ihe passports to future happiness ; and the divine intelligence which selected an agricultural slate as a paradise for its first favorites, has here again prescribed the agricultural virtues as the means for the admission of their posterity into heaven. With the pleasures of religion, agriculture unites those of patri- otism, and among the worthy competitors for pre-eminence in the practice of this cardinal virtue, a profound author assigns a high station to him who has made two blades of grass grow instead of one ; an idea capable of a signal amplification, by a comparison between a system of agriculture which doubles the fertility of a country, and a successful war which doubles its territory. By the first, the territory itself is also substantially doubled, without wast- THE* PLEASURES OF AGRICULTURE. 187 ing the lives, the wealth, or the liberty of the nation, which has thus subdued sterility, and drawn prosperity from a willing source. By the second, the blood pretended to be enriched, is spilt ; the wealth pretended to be increased, is wasted ; the liberty said to be secured, is immolated to the patriotism of a victorious army ; and desolation in every form is made to stalk in the glittering garb of false glory, throughout some neighboring country. Moral law de- cides the preference with undeviating consistency, in assigning to the nation, which elects true patriotism, the recompense of truth, and to the electors of the false, the expiation of error. To the re- spective agents, the same law assigns the remorses of a conqueror, and the quiet conscience of the agriculturist. The capacity of agriculture for atfording luxuries to the body, is not less conspicuous than its capacity for affording luxuries to the mind ; it being a science singularly possessing the double qualities of feeding with unbounded liberality, both the moral appetites of the one, and the physical wants of the other. It can even feed a morbid love for money, whilst it is habituating us to the practice of virtue ; and whilst it provides foi the wants of the philosopher, it affords him ample room for the most curious and yet useful re- searches. In short, by the exercise it gives both to the body and to the mind, it secures health and vigor to both ; and by combin- ing a thorough knowledge of the real affairs of life, with a necessity for investigating the arcana of nature, and the strongest invitations to the practice of morality, it becomes the best architect of a com- plete man. If this eulogy should succeed in awakening the attention of men of science to a skilful practice of agriculture, they will become models for individuals, and guardians for national happiness. The discoveries of the learned will be practised by the ignorant ; and a system which sheds happiness, plenty and vi/tue, all around, will be gradually substituted for one, which fosters vice, breeds want, and begets misery. Politician?, (who ought to know the most, and generally know the least, of a science in which the United States arc more Hee|)ly interested than in any other,) will appear, of n^ore practical know- ledge, or at least of better theoretical instruction ; and the hope- less habit of confiding our greatest interest to people most ignorant of it, will be abandoned. The errors of politicians ignorant of agriculture, or their pro- jects designed to oppress it, can only rob it of its pleasures, and consign it to contempt and misery. This revolution of its natural state, is invariably effected by war, armies, heavy taxes, or exclu- sive privileges. In two cases alone, have nations ever gained any thing by war. Those of repelling invasion and emigrating into a more fruitful territory. In every other case, the industrious of all professions, suffer by war, the effects of which, in its modern form^ are precisely the same to the victorious and the vanquished nation. The least evil to be apprehended from victorious armies, is a per- manent system of heavy taxation, than which, nothing can mor^. 183 farmers' and mechanics' JOiJRNAL. vitally wound or kill the pleasures of agriculture. Of the same stamp, are exclusive privileges in every form ; and to pillage or steal under the sanction of the statute books, is no less fatal to the happiness of agriculture, than the hierarchial tyranny over the soul, under the pretended sanction of God, or the feudal tyranny over the body, under the equally fraudulent pretence of defending the nation. In a climate and soil, where good culture never fails to beget plenty, where bad cannot produce famine, begirt by na- ture against the risk of invasion, and favored by accident with the power of self-government, agriculture can only lose its happiness by the folly or fraud of statesrnen, or by its own ignorance. [Taylor^ s Araior. HOW TO PROCURE ANIMALS OF EITHER SEX. " M. Garou de Buzareingues published, in 18*33, some expe- riments relative to the reproduction of various domestic animals, more particularly of Sheep. In a late number o( Magcndi€''s Jour- nal, he has resumed this subject, and has related the result of some experiments made with two separate flocks of sheep. In addition to these, there are many observations on the same subject applied to mares and cows ; but the most important relate to sheep. "A flock of sheep was divided into two equal portions, and a small- er or greater number of male or female lambs were to be produced, at the will of the proprietor, in each of these. The plan adopted in order to insure this result, was to employ very young rams in that division of the flock from which it was desired to obtain fe- males ; and strong and vigorous rams, of four or five years of age, in that from which males were to be procured. The first division was also recommended to have a more abundant supply of food, and more repose than usual, during the period of impregnation. The following table will show the eifect of the first experiment ; iSex of the Lambs. Age of the Mothers. 2 years, 3 years, 4 years, 5 years and upwards, Males. 14 - 16 5 18 Females 26 29 21 8 Total, At another farm : — 2 years, 3 years, 4 years, 5 years and upwards, 53 7 15 - 38 25 84 3 14 14 24 Total, - 80 55 " Another experiment is thus related: — A flock of 106 sheep was divided into two sections of 42 each ; one containing the strongest ewes, of four or five years of age ; the second, consisting of the weakest, either less than four or more than five years old : the first section was intended to produce a greater number of fe- TO PREVENT THE DESTRUCTION OF BEES. 189 males than the second ; and after having been marked, and placed in a good pasturage, four rams, of about ten months old, were turn- ed into them. The other section received two strong rams, each aged more than three years. The remainder of the flock, making up the number of 106, belonged to the shepherds ; they are gene- rally stronger and better nourished than the rest, and these, form- ing a third section, were placed under circumstances similar to the second. The result of the lambiiig was thus : — Males. Females. First section, - - 15 25 Second section, - - - 26 14 Tliird section, - - 10 J2 There were four double hirtlis; two of wliich, in the fii-st section, proiluced, - 4 The two otiiers, heionijinir to the second and third sections, produced, - - 3 1 " It is to be remarked, that the lambs proceeding from the sec- tion in which the young rams were employed, were in all respects as fine as those begotten by the older and stronger rams. "■ In connexion with this part of the subject, we iiad, in another part of the communication, a remark of some importance. In I o25, twenty ewes, which had not borne for two years, receive^ the rams clandestinely, in the beginning of winter; they were al- most all of them remarkably fat ; they produced sixteen females and four males. Among the number of these ewes, were two old ones, which had been put up to fatten in 1824, but could not be. sold because they were not in sufHciently good condition : these, gave one male and one female. " M. Garou next carries his inquiries to the reproductive power in the mare and cow. Respecting the first of these, he observes, that, wishing to obtain more female than male colts, he fed his brood mares on fresh food ; that he chose for propagation only such as had not been foaled or even nourished by the mother the preceding year ; and he did not give them the stallion imtil they gave evideiit signs of being in heat. Five mares, so chosen, pro- duced five female colts ; and, by following the same method, out of thirteen colts foaled that year, eleven were females ; and one of the two males was the product of an old mare. He remarks, that some mares of a remarkably vigorous appetite, always bring forth females ; whilst those of delicate health have constantly produced males. The same remarks apply to the cow." [London Med. and Phys. Journ. TO PREVENT THE DESTRUCTION OF BEES, BY THE BEE-MILLER Devanh Ferry, Bertie Co., N, C. July 8, 1828. John S. Skinner, Esq. Sir, — Understanding that you are the publisher of a paper ex- clusively devoted to domestic industry and intelligence, and through which every subject upon domestic economy can be, and is readily communicated to the public ; 1 take the liberty* through the advice 190 FARMERS'* AND MECHANICS^ JOURNAL. of a friend, of making known to you, for publication, (should you think proper to publish the same,) my method of preventing the destruction of that useful insect, the Bee, by what is usually called the Bee-miller, or Bee-worm. I have, sir, for many years, been the raiser of bees, and was at one time much troubled with the bee-worm ; but, upon examina- tion, I found, they always bred between the bench upon which the hive gat, and the bottom edges of the hive. I first adopted the method of having the bottom edges at the hive, brought to so small a point or edge, as to afford them no shelter ; but now, during the warm season, I raise the hive by placing small sticks around under the hive, so as to raise it, say about half an inch from the bench, which I take out during winter or the cold months. And I can say, sir, that for many years I have seen nothing of the bee-worm, and that my stock of bees have increased as fast as I can or could wish. Yours, &c. Miley Hamilton. [American Farmer. IVEISCXSZiLANEOUS. We insert the following Queries from the American Farmer. Many of our subscribers are well acquainted with the business of manufacturing Pot and Pearl ashes ; and we should be much obliged to any of them for communications on the subject. A Southern Planter, utterly ignorant of the process for manufac- turing Potash, will be grateful for any information relative to it. He possesses beach wood in abundance, which he is instructed pro- duces a greater quantity of alkali than most forest trees. Not be- ing acquainted with the requisites that would warrant an engage- ment in the business, however simple they may be when under- stood, he is induced to solicit the necessary information for the ac- complishment of the object in view ; and, however apprehensive he may be, that the minute inquiries will require more courtesy than he ought to expect, yet as they may benefit others as well as him- self, he will, without further preliminaries, proceed to state them-: What season ought the wood to be cut ? What length, when split, and what size ? Is it most productive burnt green or dry ? Is there any particular form for stacking or piling it ? What is the best manner of collecting and securing the ashes ? and what the means employed ? What the number, size and form of the kettles and other neces- saries required, for a definite number of laborers — say ten ? If the kettles be set in furnaces, what the proper arrangement for them ? Give the whole process of boiling, setting, &c. The requisite buildings, &c. Lastly — Can the manufacture of potash from the beach wood, be profitably and unremitcdly pursued, where there is no want of the materials within a square mile ? C. E, MISCELLANEOUS. 191 An Erroneous Judgment respecting Apparent Stains of Blood, A murder having been committed in France, and a rusty sabre and knife found in the possession of a person accused of the mur- der, they were pronounced by a medical man, to be actually spot- ted with blood, and certainly used in the commission of the mur- der, notwithstanding the spots resembled rust rather than blood. Mr. Vauquelin was therefore desired to examine these spots chemically, to determine their nature. For this purpose he scrap- ed oif from the sabre some of the red matter, and put it into a small glass tube closed at one end, and stopped the other with a strip of litmus paper, which had been previously turned red by an acid. The tube and red powder were then heated by a lamp, a yellow steam was produced, which restored the reddened paper to its original blue. The same experiment was made with the powder scraped from the knife, and the same elFects were produced. As this alteration of the color showed the presence of volatile alkali in the red spots, and this alkali is well known to be present in all animal matters, the suspicion? previously raised, were considerably strengthened ; but Mr. Vauquelin was not thoroughly satisfied. The experiment was therefore made with rust scraped from a piece of iron found by accident in the Judge's closet, which gave the same result as the other rust ; and thus destroyed the suspicions that the unguarded assertion of the medical man had occasioned. These experiments prove that when rust is formed in houses, it is capable of absorbing and even retaining the volatile alkaline va- pors usually floating in the air in inhabited rooms. Rust also ap- pears to absorb animal vapors, for in the experiments some traces of a brown oil were observed on the surface of the glass tube. Mr, Laugier has examined some rust found in his own laborato- ry, and not only confirmed the observations of Mr. Vauquelin, but also detected the presence of sulphuric acid in the rust. [Lond. Mech. Joiirn. Recoveri/ from DroToning, M. Bourgeois had occasion accidentally to give assistance in a «:ase, where, after a person had been 20 minutes under water, he was taken out, and by a very common but serious mistake, carried with his head downwards. The usual means were tried unremit- tingly, but unsuccessfully, for a whole hour, but at the end of that time, a little blood flowed from a vein that had been opened, and a ligature being placed on the arm, ten ounces of blood were with- drawn : the circulation and respiration were then gradually re- established, horrible convulsions, and a frightful state of tetanus coming on at the same lime ; copious bleeding was again effected, after which a propensity to sleep came on ; a third bleeding the following morning was followed by the recovery of the patient. Mence M. Bourgeois concludes that the means of recovering a drowned person, should never be al)andoned, until the decomposi- tion of the bodv has commenced. {Bull. Univ., C xt. 213. 192 farmers' and mechanics' journal. Mode of preserving wooden buildings from the ejfccis of Firii, invented by Dr. Fuchs, Prof, of Mineralogy^ in Munich. The following is the process: 10 parts of potash or soda ; 15 parts of quartz (sand,) and one part charcoal, are melted together. This 'pass, dissolved in water, and either alone or nnixed with earthy matters, applied to wood, completely preserves it from the action of fire. \^F^d. Phil. Journ. Pine Apples. A great improvement may be made in keeping pine apples by twisting off their crowns, which are generally suffered to remain and Kve upon the fruit till they have sacked out all the goodness. It will be very easy for fruiterers to keep a few crowns by them in water, which can be pegged or stuck on with dough, for show, when the fruit is served up, or artificial ones may be made. A pine apple will keep for a long time when its crown is removed, and will also be greatly improved in flavor, for the more aqueous parts of the fruit gradually evaporate, and leave it much more saccharine and vinous in its flavor ; which natural process is totally destroyed by the vege- tation of the crown, just upon the same principle that an onion or carrot loses its flavor when it begins to sprout in the spring. Extract of a letter to M. de Ferussac, Berlin, Feb. 27, 1827. There is here at the present time, a mule, from a stag and a mare. The authorities have attested the phenomena, and the struc- ture of the beast is singular enough ; the fore part is a horse and the hinder part a deer, but all the feet are those of the horse. The same stag has covered a second mare, and the result is in anticipa- tion. The King has purchased the mule for the Island of Pfanenin- sel, where there is a menagerie. [Bull. Univ., March^ 1827. XrOTICES. PARKER'S BRICK PRESS. Another Press, for pressing bricks, has been recently invented and put into operation by Dr. James Parker, of this town. It combines in a remarkable manner, the three essentials to every machine — strength, simplicity, and cheapness ; and will be a valua- ble acquisition to the Brick-maker, notwithstanding the many Brick Presses now in operation. PREMIUM FOR HEMP. We are authorized to state, that the Trustees of the Gardiner Lyceum are about offering a premium of Fifty Dollars, for the largest, and best crop of water-rotted Hemp, to be raised and pre- pared in this State, during the next year. We have not receive'- their offer in time to insert in this nuniber. Yal.l FL.IX. CIDJEIL MIILIL say^ IPIRIE § S. THE NEW-ENGLAND FARMERS' AND MEC H AxMCS' JOURNAI., Vol. I. GARDINER, SEPTEMBER, 1828. No. 9. IVCECHATflCS. CHURCHTLL'S CIDER MILL AND PRESS, Plate IX, — is a representation of an improved Cider Press, in- vented by Mr. J. Churchill, of Buckfield, Me. The apples are put into a hopper and ground by horse power in the usual way. After they are grouhd, the pomace falls down into a vat below and is suflTered to lie as long as necessary. The Nuts are carried or moved by means of a large Cog-wheel lying horizontally, and hav- ing cogs on its upper and under surface. The cogs on the upper side, play into one of the nuts which moves them while grinding the fruit. After this is accomplished, a key is removed from un- der the large wheel, which causes it to drop down a few inches, leaving the nuts, and fitting the under cogs into the head of a couple of screws, which lie beneath in a horizontal position. A piston, or follovver, is attached to these screws, and when the cog- wheel is put in motion, it is brought home, carrying the pomace before it and pressing the juice from it. The whole Machine sits in a large Vat which retains the liquor until drawn off. The ad- vantages of this improvement are, lessening of the labor in press- ing and managing the pomace. In the first place, it falls exactly where it is wanted, after leaving the nuts, and it is not necessary to shovel it into another reservoir. Second, no straw need be add- ed, which sometimes by being musty or dirty, injures the cider very much, — and third, the labor of turning the screws by hand i.i dispensed with, as they may be turned either way, by horse power. A slight examination will convince any one that a vast saving is also obtained with regard to time, as much more can be perform- ed in the same number of hours than by the old process. 25 Vol. I. 194 farmers' and mechanics' journal. References, Fig. 1, — A, the Hopper. B, the Sweep, to which the horse is attached. C, the Spur, or Cog-wheel. D, the Nuts, or Mashes. E, the Key, which keeps the cog-wheel when grind- ing, and which is removed when the pomace is to be pressed. F, the Spur-wheel, attached to the screws, and i« moved by the larger one. G, the Screws. H, the Follower, or Piston. I, II, III, Side-pieces to the vats. K, the end of the Vat. Fig. 2, — is a representation of the Cog-wheel and Screws. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIRE-PLACES. BY N. ARNOTT, M. D. During my attendance lately in some cases of pulmonary dis- ease, while considering how best to attain the important objects of uniformity of temperature, and the prevention of draughts or cur- rents of air in the apartments to which the patients chiedy confined themselves, a simple means occurred to me, which, on trial, per- fectly succeeded. It is an addition easily made to any fire-place ; and as its uses are important to the health and comfort of all the inhabitants of cold climates, I am happy to suggest it to the public. It is simply a glazed metal frame-work, or window, placed be- fore the fire, and coming in contact with the chitnney-piece and hearth all round, so as perfectly to cut ofT communication between the room and the fire-place ; and the fire is fed with air brought by a tube from without. Completely to understand the eflfect of it, it may be remarked, that of the heat produced by the combustion of fuel in a common fire-place, a part radiates into the room as the light does, and the remainder ascends the chimney with the smoke. That which fiuds its way into the room, contrary to common apprehension, is pro- "bably not more than a fourth part of the whole heat produced ; but even less than this would be sufficient to preserve in the room the desired temperature, could it be all retained. The great cur- rent of air, however, in the chimney, carries this heat again quickly with it, (for it is the warm air of the room passing away,) and a chimney of the ordinary proportion, and with the ordinary velocity of the smoke, will allow the whole air of the apartment to pass out by it in less than half an hour. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIRE-PLACES. 195 The glazed frame then, described above, will prevent, it is evi- dent, the heat when once received into the room, from again escaping from it, as it now docs, with the air ascending in the chimney ; and although the glass is some obstacle to the radiation of the heat from the fire in the first instance, the disadvantage is much more than compensated by its retaining agency afterwards. One of our rooms, as now constructed and heated, may be com- pared to a vessel of water of similar shape, with a hole near its bottom, through which the water is constant!} running off, while an attem|)t is making, at the same time, to warm its contents by heat radiating inwards, from the hole and around it. l^he hottest water would always get out first, being nearest the opening from whence the heat came ; and to keep the vessel full, this would be replaced by fresh cold water, entering by one or more openings in the circumf(!renf e. It would require a powerful heat indeed, to raise much the temperature of such a vessel ; and it is evident, that Jio degree of heat so admitted, could warm the contents uni- formly. It may be supposed that I have under-rated the proportion of caloric which radiates from a fire into the room, compared with that which ascends the chimney, in calling the former only a fourth part of the whole produced ; but the following considerations, without new experiment, may probably be accounted decisive of the question : — Mr. Leslie, in his experiments on heat, found that a metallic vessel of water, of medium temperature, suspended in the air, lost about half its caloric by radiation, and half by contact with the air. At a higher temperature, however, on account of the increased velocity of the air, caused by its greater expansion, or in an artificial current of air, without higher temperature, it lost much more by contact than by radiation. Now, in a fire are found the two circumstances of extreme heat and great velocity, and to these is added a third, of much greater importance than either, viz: the surface of contact being exceedingly increased bj" the air passing between the pieces of coal, while the surface of radiation, viz: the external surface, remains the same. It is a thing not suiliciently adverted to in the management of our fires, that the heat given into the room, is propoitioned rather to the extent of burning surface presented towards the room, than to the depth of the fire, the intensity of the heat backwards, and the quantity of the fuel consumed. I have been trying experi- ments, with a view to ascertain the proportions exactly ; of which, however, I have not as yet had time to prepare an account for publication ; but as the general result, I may state, that a tile, or sheet of iron, laid on the back part of the fire, so as to cover it closely, and to prevent combustion, except in front, rather in- creases than diminishes the radiation of heat towards the apart- ment, and much less fuel is consumed. In constructing the glass frame proposed, a part must be made t© open, to allow the putting on of coal, and stirring of the fire. The ^ir, tp feed the fire^ may come from an opening in the external wall, 196 farmers' A^D mechanics' journal. by a tube concealed behind the wainscot. In the case where it was first tried, a useless chimney happened to pass by the side of the tire-place, and a brick taken from between them, gave admit- tance to the air. In whatever way the object be accomphshed, we should have it in our power to admit more or less air, so as to regulate the combustion at will, as in the common furnace. The room may be ventilated by a small opening near the ceiling, either into the chimney or into the stair-case, to be made to open and close too, to the degree required. The heated air tubes now com- monly connected with fire-places, are peculiarly adapted to this plan, and with it, produce the greatest possible saving of fuel ; and the method of supplying coal to the fire from below it, or in any other way that secures the combustion of the inflammable gases contained in the coal, which I hope may soon become general, has the sam*^ utility here as in other cast-s. The advantages of the plan may be shortly enumerated as fol- lows : — 1. The nearly perfect uniformity of temperature in the air throujihout the roonfi, rendering it a matter of inditference in what part the company sits. 2. 7'hp total prevention of draughts or currents of air, which are inevitable in our rooms, as now warmed, because the fire must be sunplied with air from the doors or windows. It is almost needless to mention, that a great proportion of the winter diseases of this climate are occasioned by these currents, acting partially on our heated bodies. 3. The saving of fuel. Less than half ihe usual quantity will generally be found to keep ihe apartment in the most comfortable state. 4. The raisinjr the temnerature of the air of the house general- Iv. For were all the chimnies thus closed with respect to the apartments, althoush fires were lighted but in a few, any degree of heat once generated in the house, would be long retained. 5. It cnmnletelv prevents smoke or dust ; a circumstance which alone renders it extremely valuable in many cases ; and with it there is no danger of fire. In these parfirulars are comprehended all the advantages of the close stoves of Continental Europe, so superior to ours in econo- mv, and in the desree and uniformity of the temperature produced, with what manv will call a very great additional one, that of see- in:' the fire ; and it avoids their disadvantage, of giving a burnt or sulphurv odour to the air of the apartment. It should not be for- gotten, that at a very moderate expense, the change described may be made on all common fire-places. [Journal of Science and the ^rts. DR. BLACK'S SENSIBLE BALANCE. The following de-:5rrintion of a verv delicate, and, to many it may be, very useful Balance, is taken from a letter written by Dr, DR. BLACK S SENSIBLE BALANCE. igf? Black, to James Smithson, Esq., and inserted in the Annals of Phi' losrphy, N. S. X. 52. '' J lie apparatus I use for weighing small globules of metals, or the hke, is as follows : A thin jficre of fir-wood, not thicker than a shilliiii^, and a foot long, 3-lOths of an inch broad at the middle, and I l-'i tenths at each end, is divided by transverse lines into 20 part>:. i. e. \en parts on each side of the middle. These are the principal divisions, and each of them is subdivided into halves and quarters. Across the middle is tixed one of the smallest needles I could procure, to serve as an axis, and it is fixed in its place by means of a little sealing-wax. The numerations of the divisions is tVom the middle to each ernX of the beam. The fulcrum is a bit of plate-brass, the niiddie of which lies Hat on my tai)le when I nse the balance, and the two ends are bent up to a right angle, so as to stand upright. These two ends are ground at the same tiine on a flat hone, that the extreme surfaces of them may i>c in the same plane ; and their distance is such that the needle, when laid across them, rests on them at a small distance from the sides of the beam. I'hey rise above the surface of the tal)le only one and a half or two-tenths of an inch, so that the beam is very 'united in its ji'ay. " The weights I use are one globule of gold, which weighs one grain, and two or three others which weigh one-tentli of a grain ea-^-h : and also a number of small rings of fine t)iass wire, made in the manner first mentioned by Mr. Lewis, by appending a weight to the wire, and coiling it with the tension of that weight round a thicker brass wire in a close spiral, after whieh the extremity of the spiral being tied hard with waxed thread, I put the covered wire in a vice, and applying a sharp knife, which is struck with a hammer, 1 cut through a great number of the coils at one stroke, and find them as exactly equal to one another as can be desired. Those T use happen to be the one-thirtieth part of a grriiii each, or 300 of them wei«;h ten grains ; but 1 have others much ligliter. "You will perceive that by menus of these weights, plac(>d on different parts of the beam, I can learn the vveight of any little mass, from one grain, or a little more, to the l-l'SOOth of a grain. For if the thin^ to be wei'i galls. 32 frails, of viiie<;ar, 12 lbs. of lithar-e* 12 Ihs. white oopperas,f 12 galls, of liiispcd-oil, 2 galls, of spirit of turpentine. The vitreous o.\i(lc of lead. f Sulphatg of zinc. «N MAKING CHEAP OIL PAINTS. IfS To prepare the Vinegar for the Oil, Into a cask which will contain about forty gallons, put 32 gallons of good common vinegar; add to this 12 pounds of litharge, and 12 pounds of white copperas in powder ; bung up the vessel, and shake and roll it well twice a day for a week, when it will be fit to put into a ton of whale, cod, or seal oil ; (but the Southern whale oil is to be preferred, on account of its good color, and having little or no smell :) shake and mix all together, when it may settle until the next day ; then pour oti" the clear, which will be about seven- eighths of the whole. To this clear part add twelve gallons of linseed-oil, and two gallons of spirit of turpentine ; shake them well together, and after the whole has settled two or three days, it will be tit to grind white-lead and all fine colors in ; and when ground, they cannot be distingtiished from those ground in linseed- oil, unless by the superiority of their colors. If the oil is wanted only for coarse purposes, the linseed-oil and spirit of turpentine may be added at the same time that the pre- pared vinegar is put in ; and after being well shaken up, it is fit for immediate use, without being suffered to settle. The vinegar is used to dissolve the litharge, and the copperas accelerates the solution and increases the drying quality. The residue, or bottom, when settled, by the addition of half its quantity of fresh lime-water, forms an excellent oil for mixing with all the coarse paints for preserving outside work. Note. — All colors, ground in the above oil, and used for inside work, must be thinned with linseed-oil and spirit of turpentine. 0:^- The oil mixed with Ume-water, I call incorporated oil. The method of preparing various Impenetrable Paints. First — Sxihdiied Green. Fresh lime-water, 6 jralls. I Wpt blue, 20 lbs. Ilnail-diist. finely sifted, 112 lbs. | Residue of the oil. 3 jralls. \Vliitinir, 112 lbs. I Yellovv-oclire, in powder, 24 lbs. r.hie-blac-k, 30 lbs. | This composition will weigh 368 pounds, which is scarcely one penny per pound. To render the above paint fit for use, to every eisiht pounds add one quart of the incorporated oil. and one quart of linseed-oil ; and it will be found to be a paint with every requi- site quality of beauty, durability, and cheapness ; and, in this st^te of jueparation, docs not exceed two-pence half-penny per pound : whereas the coal-tar paint of the same color, is six-pence per pound. The mi'thod of mixing the Ingredie7ii3 for the Subdued Green. First, pour six gallons of lime-water into a large tub, then throw- in 112 pounds of whiting ; stir it round well with a stirrer ; let it settle for about an hour, and stir it again. Now you may put in the 112 pounds of road-dust, mix it well ; then add the blue-black, after which, the yellow-ochrs ; and when all is tolerably blended, fake il out of the, tub, and put it on a large board or platform, anH Roatl-dust, 56 lb?. Lime-water, 5 palls. Residue of the oil, 2 1-2 galls* 203 farmers' and mechanics' journal. with a laborer's shovel, mix and work it about as they do mortar. Now add the wet blue, which must be previously 'j;round in the in- corporated oil, (as it will not grind or mix with any other oil,) When this is added to the mass,\ou may begin to thin* it with the incorporated oil, in the proportion of one quart to every ei'^ht pounds; and then with the linseed-oil, in the same proportion; and it is ready to be put into casks for use. Lead Color, Whiting, 112 lbs. Blue black, 5 lbs. Lead, ground in oi', 28 lbs. Weight 25G lbs. To the above add two gallons of the incorporated oil, and two gallons of hnseed-oil to thin it for use, and it will not exceed the price of 1 3-4r?. per pound. Note.— The lime-water, whiting, road-dust, and blue-black, must be first mixed together ; then add the jjround lead, first blend- ing It with two gallons and a half of the prepared fish-oi! : after which thin the whole, with the two sjaljons of linseed-oil, and two gallons of incorporated oil, and it will be fit for use. For garden- doors, and other work liable to be in constant use, a little spirit of turpentine may be added to the paint whilst laying on, which will have the desired effect. Bright Green. 112 lbs. yellow-ochre, in powder, I G sallons lime-water, 1(18 do. road-dust, | 4 do. fish-oil. prepared, 112 do. wet blue 712 do. incorporated oil, 10 do. bine-black, j 7 1-2 do. linseed-oil. Weight 592 ll)s. This excellent bright-green paint does not exceed three-pence farthing per pound, ready to lay on ; and the inventor challen-^es any color-man or painter to produce a green, equal to it, for Cighteen-pence per pound. After painting, the color left in the pot may be covered with water, to prevent it from skinning; and th- brushes, as usual should be cleaned with a painter's knife, and be kept underwater.' A brighter green may be formed by omittin^j the blue-black ; and A lighter green may be made by the addition of ten pounds of ground white-lead. A variety of greens may be obtained by varying the proportions ®f the blue and yellow. Observe, that the wet blue must be ground with the incorpo- rated oil, preparatory to its being mixed with the mass. Stone Color. Lime-water, 4 galls. Whiting, 112 lbs. White-lead, sronnd, 28 lbs. Road-dust, 56 lbs. Weight 293 lbs. Prepared fish-oil, 2 gallons. Incorporated oil, 31-2 do. Linseed-oil, 3 1-2 do. The above stone color, fit for use, is not two-pence per pound. »N MAKING CHEAP OIL PAINtS. 201 F'liir gallons of fisli-oil, Four ,\. -20^ FARMERS' AND MECHANICS^ JOURNAL. ON THE PREPARATION OF CATGUT, FOR VARIOUS USES. [Perhaps every one does not know that the very useful article known and sold by the name of Catgut, is generally manufactured from the intestines of Sheep. Some kinds are made from the in- testines of horses and other animals, but those of sheep are mostly used for the common kinds.] Catgut for Rackets or Battledoors. The intestines of sheep, after they have been steeped in alkaline lye, are cut slantwise, if they are in short lengths, and sewed to- gether ; carefully placing the slants in a direction contrary to each other, that the seams may not render the cords of an unequal size. This being done, and the intestines formed into one piece, it must be soaked in ox-blood, to give it the proper color, and then be stretched on a proper frame ; after which, one, two, three, or four of the intestines, according to the required size of the cord, are fixed to a piece of tape, and the other ends are turned twice round a peg. This done, the workman takes the tape, applies it to a hook on a spindle, and gives a few turns of the handle. As the cord shortens by twisting, it must be well stretched ; and when this is effected, the workman squeezes the cord between his finger and thumb throughout its whole length, to remove all its humidi- ty, and produce an equal thickness in every part of it. (Jne or two hours after, he twists it again, and rubs it wiih a horse-hair cord, wetted. Thinner cords are made of only one intestine. Catgut for Whip-handles. Sheep's intestines, prepared with potash, are used for this pur- pose. The workman cuts them slantwise, and sews them together, observing always to keep them of an equal size. They aie then stretched, and twisted at each end : it is very rare that this sort of cord is made of two intestines. They are then bleached, by the fumes of burning sulphur, once or twice ; and sometimes colored ; as they readily receive any dye. Common ink is used for a black color; and red ink for a rose color, which is sometimes rendered lighter by a little sulphuric acid. A green color is given by a composition sold for that purpose, by color-men, to the manufac- turers of catgut. Catgut for Hatters'' Bozos. These are made of sheep's intestines, of the longest and largest kind, after being prepared with potash, by twisting together from four to twelve of them, according to the size required. They are usually made from 15 to 25 feet long. During the twisting, the cord is placed in a long box, from 18 to 20 inches in breadth, and a few inches high, in order to keep it clean, and prevent it from trailing on the ground. The box is called the refresher. This kind of cord must be void of seams and knots ; to accom- plish which, the workman attaches the intestines to a piece of tape. SOLDERS FOR COPPER AND BRASS. 203 hangs them on a peg, and draws the whole of them straight, to fit their other ends to another peg : in doing which, if he finds the in- testines too short, he makes a hole in their ends, and threads into them short pieces, till the whole is long enough to reach the other peg, placed at a given distance from the tirst. These ends are then affixed to a piece of tape, and fastened to the peg. This done, he applies them to the twisting-wheel, rubbing the cord well between his finger and thumb throughout its whole length, at every turn of the wheel, in order to make it of an equal size. When about half-dry, they are exposed twice to the fumes of sulphur ; after each time, the cord must be well stretched and moistened with plenty of the solution of potash, at the same rubbing with the hair-rubber. It is then left to dry, and afterward cut, and coiled up for sale. Catgut for Clock-makers, This kind must be very fine ; and of course requires the smallest intestines, well prepared with potash. Sometimes they are made by cutting, with a particular kind of knife, the intestine into two strips. The knife, which is fixed to a table, has two edges, in op- posite directions; and above them, a ball of lead, which is intro- duced into one end of the intestine ; and by drawing the latter con- tinually over the ball, the projecting blades cut it into two strips, which the workman holds, one in each hand ; drawing them regu- larly, till it be cut quite through. Watch and Clock-makers also use catgut of various sizes, con- sisting of more than one intestine, and made like the musical-in- strument cords ; which we shall next describe. [To be concluded hi our next.] HARD AND SOFT SOLDERS FOR COPPER AND BRASS. Solders for Copper. — There are two kinds of these solders 5 the one for hard, the other for soft soldering. The hard solder is made with eiglit parts of copper and one of zinc, the copper be- ing tirst melted in a crucible, during which operation, the zinc is also heated. When the copper is melted, the zinc is thrown hot into it : the crucible is then covered, and the whole well shaken together. In about two minutes, the metal is poured out, through the twigs of a birch-broom placed over a proper vessel filled with water. The metal is, by this process, divided into small grains ; after which, it is well washed, and kept for use. This solder is very fusible, and at the same time malleable. An alloy, composed of three parts of copper and one of zinc, also makes a good solder. In general, the solder is harder or softer, in proportion to the quantity of copper employed. The more copper is used, the hard- er is the solder, but less fusible. The highest degree of hardness is produced when ton parts of copper are united with one part zinc ; but this is also the least fusible. Solders of difTerent de- grees of fusibility are often required, particularly in cases wher» 204 farmers' and mechanics' journal. several pieces are to be soldered one to the other. The least fusi- ble solder is employed in the first place ; and the other degrees in proportion to the nunf)ber of pieces to be soldered. By adopting this precaution, the first soldered pieces are not affected by the degree of heat necessary for ioinins; the other pieces. Soft solder is a mixture of two parts of tin and one of lead, poured into ingot-moulds. It is used with a hot iron, as the plumbers and tinmen use it. Solders for Brass. — Two kinds of these solders are also em- ployed ; the harrl and the soft. The hard is made in the same manner as that for cooper, but of brass and zinc ; and the propor- tions may be varied from 16 parts of brass and one of zinc, to two parts of brass and one of zinc. The soft solder is made of six parts of brass, one of zinc, and one of tin. The brass is first melted ; the tin is then added ; and, lastly, the zinc ; which last metal should be first well heated. The wbole is then agitated, and divided into grains, by the process above explained. I' is always necessary, before soldorin?, to clean the surfaces well, which are to be soldered, either wifh a file, a srraper. &c. [Diciionnaire Technulogiquc. To make a Silveriiig Poiiider^ to put a coat of Silver on Copper^ when zoom off, Ta^ce of the drv muriate of silver, such as is procured when you clear nitric acid from the muriatic acid ; or make it by dissolving any small piece of common silver coin, such as a cjuarter dollar, in nitric acid, and then adding to the solution common salt. By so doing, the common salt is decomposed, the acid thereof unites to the si'ver. and the alkali thereof to the nitric acid. Of this mu- riate of s'lver dried in the shade, take by measure one part ; of cream of tartar, three parts : of common salt, three parts ; of com- mon wbiti'^iT. three parts. Mix all together, and when you want to i-pnew the silver on copper, in places where it is worn off, rub a little of this mixture by means of a moist rag on the abraded place ; the silver wHl take the nlace of the Conner ; and it can be washed and <^leaned. But it will not bear murb rubbing or scrubbing. It is, howpver, a very convenient and useful receipt, particularly for articles of plated ware, which can have the silvering renewed at a verv trifling evnense. The rationale of this proeess is very complicated ; the super- tartrite of potash, or the cream of tartar, and the muriate of silver decompose each other : a ta'-fpite of lime is formed ; the excess of acid is neutralized by the wbitins: forming a tartrite of lime, which with the common salt, serves to clean the surface of the copper : the tartrite of silver at the moment of its formation is decomposed bv the conpcr or brass, and the silver is precipitated in a metallic state on the copoer : it will admit of beinnr polished with the palm of the hand, but is too thin to bear burnishing. ARTIFICIAL SLATES. 205 Another Method. — Wash well the surface of the copper or brass, with water acidulated with muriatic acid, and liaving a little com- mon salt and cream of tartar dissolved in it. Then wash it with pure water, and rub the surface briiiht with leather. Dissolve some silver in aquafortis ; dilute it whCn dissolved with an equal quantity of pure water : add to it a small plate or rod of copper, which will precipitate the silver in a metallic state and in a fine powder. Pour otf the solution of copper : wash the pre- cipitate with water. Take of the washed precipitate 20 grains 5 grind it with two drachms of cream tartar, two drachms of common salt, and half a drachm of alum. With a clean ra^, rub the sur- face of i!ie polished copper or brass with this moistened mixtuie, and when the white color appears, wash it, and polish it with the fleshy part of the thumb. This process is analogous to ti.e method of whitening brass-wire to make brass pins ; the wire is boiled in a solution of tartar with a little common salt, in which solution you put tiiin^iis of pure tin. All these methods of silvering may be protected by varnish of mastic or sandarach. Another Way. — Clean the surface of your copper or brass with crocus martis, tin putty, or finely silled rotten-stone. Heat the metal (juickly, and while hot. cover the surface with silver-leaf; press it hard to the surface of the copper or brass, and when cold enough, burnish it. You may repeat this. To Plate Cupper zoilh Silver, Upon one side of a flat polished ingot of copper, sift thinly some finely powdered glass of borax through line muslin. Place on it a plate of silver of nearly equal surface ; bind it down tight with iron wire : hammer it so that the surfaces shall be in Contact. Expose it to a low red heat which will melt tbe borax. Then pass the plated ingot while warm, through a roller. It will now be joined to the copper, and can be rolled out with it. Good plating should have a twentieth of its weight of silver on it. [Cooper'' s Chemical .Amusement. ARTIFICIAL SLATES. A species of artificial slates have been used in Russia, which are said to be very valuable, as being lighter than common slates, im- pervious to water, incombustible, and made of any required form or size. They have been analyzed by M. Giorgi, who finds lliem to consist of bolar earth, chalk, or carbonate of lime, strong glue, paper pulp, and linseed-oil. 'J'he earthy materials are to be pounded and sifted, and the glue dissolved in water; the paper is the common paper pulp, which, after being steeped in water, has been pressed, or it may be bookbinders' or stationers' shavings boiled in water and pressed. The linseed-oil is to be raw. The paper pulp is to be mixed in a mortar, with the dissolving glue, the earthy materials then added and beaten up, and the oil added duv- 206 farmers' a*jd mechanics' journal. ing the beating, as fast as it is absorbed. The mixture is then spread with a trowel on a plank, on which a sheet of paper has been laid, and surrounded by a ledge, to deternnine the thickness of the layer, and is then turned out on a plank strewed with sand, to dry. When dry, they are passed through a rolling-naill, then press-^ ed, and finally finished by a coat of drying oil. The following are some of the various proportions recommend- ed :— 2 parts paper pulp, 1 glue, 1 chalk, 2 bole earth, 1 hnseed-oil; this forms a thin, hard, and very smooth sheet. 3 parts paper pulp, 4 glue, 4 white bole earth, and 4 chalk ; produce an uniform sheet, as hard as iron. 1 part paper pulp, 1 glue, 3 white bole earth, 1 linseed-oil ; a beautiful elastic sheet. When these plates or slates were steeped in water for four months, they were found not to alter at all in weight ; and when exposed to a violent heat for five minutes, they were hardly altered in form, and were converted into black and very hard plates. [ Lond. Mech, Mag. AGRICULTURE. CIDER. " Any body can make cider," said a man, who calls himself a farmer, to us one day. That is true, if by cider is meant the juice that can be squeezed out of any apples, in any manner. Any body can make cider, as the person alluded to makes it. We will give you the process in full. Build your Press and Mill, wholly ex- posed on every side, except a shed at the top, merely to keep otf the direct rays of the sun, and rain, or, if wholly covered, be sure and convert it into a hen-roost, and lying-in hospital, for sick sheep atjd cows, excepting during the season when you are actually at work there. Pick up every thing that has fallen from the trees, since last May, — green, rotten, withered, and worm-eaten ; let no- thing be lost. The hogs wont eat them — but they can be ground up, and made into cider! After you have done this, clear out the tenants of the cider-house, brush off a (ew of the cobwebs, — splash over the press, (Sic. a few pailsfuU of water, sufficient to loosen the dirt and let it trickle into the crevices, and there remain. " Every little makes a mickle" in cider, as well as in every thing else. Then shovel in your materials, whip up Dobbin, grind, press and bung it up into musty barrels, that have never had a refreshing drop of water, inside, sincp they were made. It may be all done in half a day, — and that's cider, — if the rotle7i jii'icc of rotten apples may be ■called cider. We were once cheated with a barrel of such stuff; ON THE MANAGEMENT OP CIDER. S07 and we kept it on hand to treat the vender with ; but he never troubled our Hberahty much on that score. It was a " villainous compound," possessing various and curious properties. It was bitter, emetic and cathartic withal ; and would have probably made a good substitute for Chambers' medicine. We are happy, how- ever, in the belief, that there are but few, hereabouts, who manage their cider as the good man who thought any body and every body could make it. It is an art which every body does not understand. It requires a vast deal of care, caution and experience. It is an art which, besides requiring skill in the manipulation, involves many important laws of Chemical Philosophy, which ought to be known by those who would understand the whole matter. We copy the following, by J. Buel, Esq. from the Kew-England Farmer. Those who have never seen it, will acquire much in- formation from it — those who have, will be reminded of some valuable facts. We would first remark, however, that one very important thing is too frequently disregarded, even by the best manufacturers of cider, vi.-?: proper attention to the Cask. We believe that casks, which have once become musty, can hardly be purified by any soaking, scalding or rinsing. The best way to manage them would be to take out one end, and scjape and charr, if it can be conve- niently done, the whole inside. We have known this done with manifest advantage. ON THE MANUFACTURE OF CIDER. The quality of Cider depends on several contingencies ; among which I will enumerate — 1. The species of fruit employed. 2. Soil and aspect of the orchard. 3. Condition of the fruit when ground. 4. The process of grinding, &;c. 5. Management of the vinous fermentation \ and G. The precautions which are taken to prevent the acetous fer- mentation. I intend to offer remarks upon each of these divisions. And, 1. The Fruit. Apples difTer not only in their flavor, color, and time of ripening, but in the proportions of their constituent parts. The most material of these constituent parts are acid, sugar, astrin- geiicy, vegetable extract and water. The properties of good dessert and cider apples, are seldom united, though they are not incompati- ble with each other. Table apples are esteemed on account of their bland and aromatic flavor, crisp and juicy pulp, and for the pro- perty of keeping long, or ripening late. The characteristics of a ^ood cider apple are, a red skin ; yellow and often tough and. 208 PAnWERs' AND MECHANICS' JOURNAL. fibrous pulp, as! riiigcncy, dryness, and ripeness at the cidcr-makirig season. " When the rind aid pulp are o;reen, the cider will al- wavs be thin, weak, and colorless ; and when these are deeply tinned with yellow, it will, however mannfac'iired, or in whkt> ver soil it may have f:;rown, almost alwavs possess color, with either strength or richness." — {Knight.) The apple, like the grape, nmist attain a state of perfection, or perfect maturity, before its juices develope all their excellence ; and as many of our best eating ap- ples do not acquire this maturity until winter or spring;, this affords a satisfactory reason why winter fruit is seldom or never s;ood cider fruit. In a dry apple, the essential elements of cider are cfenerally more concentrated, or are accompanied with a less pronortion of water, than in a juicy oiie ; of course the liquor of the former is stronger than that of the latter. Of our be^t rider apples, ten or twelve bushels of fruit are required for a barrel of juice ; while of the ordinary juicy kinds, eight bushels generally suffice. The only artificial criterion employed to ascertai-i the quality of an apple for cider, is the specific gravity of its mn^f. or unferment- ed juice ; or, its weight, compared with that of water. This, says Knight, indicates, with very considerable accuracy, the strength of the future cider. Its weight, and consequent value, is supposed to be increased in the ratio of the increase of the saccharine matter. In making wine of domestic fruit, say of the currant or gooseberry, for example, we use sugar till the unfermented liquor attains a cer- tain specific gravity ; or until the saccharine matter of the fruit, and thai artificially supplied, bears a certain proportion to the wa- ter. This insures to the liquor strength, or body, as the sugar is converted into spirit by the fermentive process. Very little has been done to acquire a correct knowledge of the relative value of our native apples for cider. Coxe has described and figured one hundred varieties of this fruit, of which about thirty are recommended for cider. Of these thirty kinds. I selected the following for my nursery, as not only being best for cider, but as generally combining the desired qualities of table fruit also ; viz : the Hagloe and Virginia Crabs ; Harrison, Campfield. Stire, yellow Newton, and Newark Pippins ; Priestley, Graniwinkle, Winesap, Carthouse and Cooper's Russetting. We have, undoubtedly, among our indigenous fruit, many kinds of excellent cider apples hitherto unnoticed ; and it is very desirable that their properties should be tested, and the result of the investigation made public. In Great Britain, more attention has been given to this subject. The specific gravity of the juice of old cider varieties, has not only been ascertained by scientific men, and their relative value fixed, but new varieties have been obtained by artificial crossing, sur- passing, in richness of juice, any before cultivated. Loudon has given a table of 38 cider apples, in his Encyclopedia of Agricul- ture. Of these, the following are only known to be in our nurse- ries, viz : *Hedstreak, Wine, Stire, Hagloe Crab ; ^Maiden's Blush, *Count Pendu, *Downton and Grange Pippins ; Foxley, Siberian Harvey, yellow Siberian and *Minshul's Crab. Those with an t>N THE MANAGEMENT OF CIDER. 905 asteiisk are also excellent dessert apples. The seven last named, five of which are new varieties by Knight, I have oblaiued from Europe, and propagated in my nursery. None of the old Enghsh cider varieties exceed, in the specific gravity of their Juice, 1.079, water being 1,000. Six of Knight's new varieties are over 1,079, and one is 1,091. Knight is of opinion, that with proper varieties of fruit, the defects of almost every soil and aspect might be cor- rected, and that tine ciders might be made in any part of England. In France and Italy, small berried grapes of a harsh flavor, are preferred for wine making, (Loudon,) and it will be found that the cider apples recommended by Loudon and Coxe are under a mc- diam size, and several of them austere and harsh. 2. Soil and Aspect. The ap|)le, like the grape, is known to take much of its character from the soil on which it grows. The best cider orchards in England are on a stratum of red marie which stretches across the island. The soil of Herefordshire, highly re- puted for its ciders, is an argillaceous, or clay marie ; and Knight says, the strongest and most highly flavored cider which has been obtained from the apple, was produced from fruit growing on a shallow loam, on limestone basis. All the writers npon the sub- ject seem to agree, that calcareous earth should form a component part of the soil of a cider orchard. It appears to have the effect of mitigating the harshness of rough and austere fruits, and of neu- tralizing the juices of those which are too acid. Coxe says, the soil which grows good wheat and clover, is best for a cider orchard. My own observation would induce me also to prefer a dry and somewhat loose soil, in which the roots, destined to furnish food for the tree and fruit, may penetrate freely, and range extensively, in search of nutriment. The Juices of plants and fruits are always more concentrated when growing on a dry, than on a wet soil. Mint, or otLer aromatic herbs, is much stronger in the specific vir- tues of the plant, when grown on a dry soil, and greater in volume, when grown on a wet one. The maple yields the sweetest sap, though less in quantitv, on a dry soil. Apples may grow large on a moist alluvion ; but the fruit will neither be so abundant, nor so rich, as on a dry soil. The thriftiest trees produce the most wood buds ; those less thrifty, the most fruit buds. The best aspect for an orchard, is one somewhat elevated or undulating, protected from prevailing cold winds, and facing the south, south-east or east. Ciders brought to the Albany market, from the hilly towns of Co- lumbia and Saratoga, on tlie transition formation, possess the most spirit, best flavor, and resist longest the acetous fermentation. 3. Condition of the Fruit, F^'uit should be used when it has at- tained its perfect state of maturity, and before it begins to decay, because it then yields the greatest p!0|.>ortion of saccharine matter. The most certain indicntion of ripeness, says Crocker, is the fra- grance of the smell and the spontaneous dropping from the ti-ecs. Each kind of ihe apple should he rnimufactured separately, or those kinds only mixed which ripen at one time, and which experience shall show, are not prrjudicial to each other. Who would evrrr 27 VoT,. 1. 210 FAIIMERS' AND MECHANICS' JOURNAL. think of making a superior wine from an indiscriminate mixture of a dozen kinds of e;rapes ? And jet we seem to expect good cider from an indiscriminate mixture of a dozen kinds of apples. It may be urged, that the evil is irremediahle, because our orchards, con- taining these dozen varieties, have been furnished to our hands ; and that neither the quantity nor quality of any one kind of fruit renders it an object to manufacture it separately. Is it not time, then, to set about correcting the evil, by selecting only the best kinds for new plantations ? A farmer should make cider to sell, and it is material to him whether he obtains two or ten dollars the barrel. Our manufactories, our towns and cities, and the demand for exportation, will always ensure a market and price for good ciders. Mr. VVynkoop, of Lancaster, Pa., has 400 trees, of the Virginia crab, on less than five acres of ground ; and when his orchard was twenty-two years old, he stated to the Piosident of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Society, that it produced him every other year forty hogsheads of cider, of 1 12 gallons each ; which he sold at 2s. 6(/. the gallon, or about ^1500 in the gross. And yet this apple is not a tirst-rate cider apple. It is deficient in sugar, but abounds in astringcncy, rather a keeping than an enriching quality. What farmer can apply his land to better profit ? Wines differ as much in their quality and price as ciders. Fruit, soil and skill make the dilTerence in both ; and upon the proper selection and expense of those, depend the qufiHty of the liquor, and the consequent profits of the cultivator. Upon this branch of the sub- ject I will only add, that the apples should ripen upon the tree, be gathered when dry, in a cleanly manner, spread in an airy, conve- nient situation, if practicable, for a time, to induce an evaporation of aqueous matter, which will increase the strength and flavor of the liquor, and be separated fiom rotten fruit and every kind of filth, before they are ground. 4. Grinding, ^-c. The apples should be reduced, by the mill, as nearly as possible to an uniform mass, iii which the rinds and seeds are scarcely discoverable ; and the pomace should be ex- posed to the air from twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the temperature, before it is pressed. The Juices of the rind of fruit, as may be instanced in the orange and lemon, are highly concen- trated ; and those of the rind of the apple have a material influ- ence, with the aromatic bitter of the seeds, upon the flavor and strength of the liquor. On partially macerating the pulp of an api)le, and subjecting it . to immediate pressure, the juice which escapes will be found to be thin, nearly colorless, and devoid of flavor. If the maceration is perfect, so as to crush the seeds and break down the rind, the strength, color and flavor of the must will be improved : and if the macerated pulp is exposed for a few hours to the atmosphere, and then subjected to pressure, the^'^e desirable properties in the li iu or will be found to be still further augmented. " Bv the chemical action of the roiier," says Knight, •* the various fluids whirh occu- pv the different vessels and cells of the fruit, are mingled with the INFLUENCE OF THE M06N. 1 I 1 juices of the rinds and seeds, and with the macerated substance of the vessels and cells themselves. In such a mixture it seems pro- bable that new elective attractions vpill be exerted, and compounds formed, which did not exist previously to the fruit being placed under the roller ; and hence the most correct analysis of the ex- pressed juices will convey but a very imperfect degree of know- ledge of the component parts of the different fluids, as they existed in their state of separation, within the fruit." " I have often ex- tracted," he continues, " by means of a small hand press, the juice of a single apple, without having previously bruised it to pieces ; and I have always found the juice thus obtained, to be pale and thin, and extremely defective in richness, though the apple possess- ed great merit as a cider fruit. I have then returned the expressed juice to the pulp, which I have exposed, during a few hours, to the air and light ; and the juice has then become deeply tinged and very rich. In the former state it apparently contained but a very small portion of sugar; in the latter it certainly contained a great quantity ; much of which f believe to have been generated subse- quently to the juice having been subjected to the action of the press ; though it may be difKcult to explain satisfactorily the means by which it could have been produced." Knight ascertained, by a subsequent experiment, that by exposing the reduced pulp to the operation of the atmosphere, for a few hours, the specific gravity of the juice increased from 1,064 to 1,073 ; and from the experi- ment being repeated in a closed vessel with atmospheric air, he ascertained the accession to be oxygen, which, according to La- voisier, constitutes G4 per cent, of sugar. For fine cider, he re- commends, that the fruit be ground and pressed imperfectly, and that the pulp be then exposed twenty-four hours to the air, being spread, and once or twice turned, to facilitate the absorption of oxygen ; that it be then ground again, and th^ expressed juice be added to it before repressing. In straining the must, too much care cannot be taken to exclude the pulp, as the presence is apt to render the fermentation too violent, and drive it into the acetous stage. A hair sieve, filled partly with straw, answers the purpose well. The mill which most effectually reduces the pul[), is to be preferred. It has been remarked with much force, that cider mills should, like school houses, be limited to one in a district. In this way it would be an object with the owner to render his imple- ments complete, and to conduct the process with care and skill. And as the value of the cider depends so much upon its being well made, it is believed the owners of fruit, as well as the purchasers of the cider, would be benefitted by such an arrangement. [To be concluded in our next.] INFLUENCE OF THE MOON. That the different phases of the moon have some connexion with changes in the atmosphere, is an opinion so universal and popular, as to be, on that account alone, entitled to attention. No observa- 212 farmers' and mechanics' journal. tion is more general ; and on no occasion, perhaps, is the almanack so frequently consulted, as in forming conjectures upon the state of the weather. The common remark, however, goes no further than that changes from wet to dry, and from dry to wet, generally happen at the changes of the moon. When to this result of uni- versal experience we add the philosophical reasons for the exist- ence of tides in the serial ocean, we cannot doubt that such a con- nexion exists. The subject, however, is involved in much obscu- rity. Mr. Howard is the only one who has treated it with the con- sideration which it deserves. In his book may be found much in- formation upon it, the result of laborious investigation. It would be foreign to my purpose to enter at large upon this interesting ground, but the previous investigation suggests one particular view of it. which it may be useful shortly to state. The action of the moon upon the srial columns over which it passes, mav be regarded as diminishing the force of gravity. This action must be greater in proportion as the moon approaclies the earth ; in proportion as it coincides with the analogous action of the sun ; and in proportion as its passage over the meridian comes near to the perpendicular direction. The result of this diminu- tion of sjravity must be a general decrease of density ; and its effect upon the lateral currents, an acceleration of the incoming, and a decrease of the outgoing streams. The loss of wei;2;hf will thus be compensated, and the excess of elasticity hence derived, will lengthen the column. The final adjustment v. ill. therefore, be as- similated to that which arises from an equal expansion by heat. Now the effect of the atmospheric tide has hitherto been sought for. and mea^sured upon the surface of the earth, at the base of the column ; and much conjecture and disappointment have ensued from not finding the effect as great, or as regular, as had been an- ti<'inated. But. if this view of the subject be correct, the total weifrht of the perpendicular column would not be affected so much as that of its horizontal sections ; and the amount of the lunar in- ■Qupnce should be sought in the variations of the differences of den- sity between some high elevation and the level of the sea. The mean of a series of experiments carefully conducted with this view, when the moon is upon the meridian and at the horizon, would possibly exhibit the amount of the dailv tides ; their weekly in- crease and diminution ; the influence of the moon's apogee and perigee ; and that of its north and south declination. It has, how- ever, T think, been proved that the influence is still felt at the sur- face of the earth ; and the barometer, upon an average, stands lower at new and full moon, than at the quarters. This also would naturallv be expected, when it is considered that the attraction of the moon is an action upon the power of gravity, and acts instanta- neously in the perpendicular direction ; while the compensating effects upon the lateral currents is gradual. Ts if not possible that some of the remaining discrepencies of barometrical mensurations mrty be traced to this influence ? [DanieWs Meteorological Essays and Observatiovs: CATTLE SCENTING RAIN. 213. PRESERVATION OF APPLES. Some kinds of Apples are so very mellow and juicy naturally, that it is very diflicult to keep them sound any length of time. The cause of their rotting, is owing to the spontaneous decompo- sition of their juices. This is accelerated by warmth or heat, — indeed, heat and moisture, are the two principal agents in the de- composition of all substances. Hence dry apples, or those that are naturally not very juicy, keep sound the longest. Darwin re- commends llie keeping of fruit in ice-houses — by freezing them down, and when wanted for use, thawed gradually by immersion in cold water. We should think this method might be used with success, with some of the more delicate and tender pears v/hich are very liable to decay. Some recommend laying them on shelves in a dry airy place ; but it would take a very large place to pre- serve any considerable quantity of fruit in this way, Others, re- commend packing them away in dry straw ; and others, with much more success, deposite them in bins or barrels, of oats, wheat or other grain. Others, again, put them into very dry sand. We should think, however, that saw-dust or pulverised charcoal would be preferable. The fruit ought to be picked carefully from the tree, and not shook with violence enough to bruise and break the texture. It should be wiped as dry as possible, and if saw-dust is used, it should be kiln-dried and the fruit should be laid carefully into it in such a maimer that each apple should be completely sur- rounded or enveloped in it, and care should also be taken, that too much should not be put into one vessel, lest the pressure injure those at the bottom. Perhaps charcoal, being an antiseptic, would do better. We have known Grapes preserved a kng time, how- ever, in the dried saw-dust. (j:^ As it is now the season for digging and securing Potatoes, we would refer our readers to an article on the mode of preserving them, in our first number. ivEisci:i.i.A]sr:sous. CATTLE SCENTING RAIV. Liable to long and parching droughts, the author of " Letters from Buenos Jlyres, Chill,'''' &c., notices the well-known instinct of cattle in scenting v/ater at a wonderful distance, where it was dis- played on the approach of a rain, Jn a similar manner as if a river or spring had been found : 214 farmers' and mechanics' journal. " The negroes were sent in different directions to see how far the scorched grass extended, and were at a considerable distance when the Father Provincial cried out, " Look at the oxen, they smell water ;" we all eagerly turned to the poor panting animals, and saw them stretch out their necks and raise their heads towards the west, and snuff the air in a manner as if they would be certain of obtaining drink could they but raise themselves in the air. At that moment not a cloud nor a single breath of air was to be seen or felt ; but in a few moments, the cattle began to move about as if mad, or possessed by some invisible spirit, snuffing the air with most violent eagerness, and gathering closer and closer to each other; and before we could form any rational conjecture as to what could occasion their simultaneous motion, the most tremen- dous storm came on of thunder, and lighting, and rain, I ever wit- nessed in my life. The rain fell in perpendicular streams as if all the fountains of heaven were suddenly broke loose ; so that in the space of very few moments, torrents of water rolled around us, and the cattle easily drank their fill at the spot on which they stood." On a Method of Cleaning Silk, Woollen, and Cotton Goods. BY MRS. ANNE MORRIS. Take raw potatoes, in the state they are taken out of the earth ; wash thtm well ; then rub them on a grater, over a vessel of clean water, to a tine pulp ; pass the liquid through a coarse sieve, into another tub of clear water ; let the mixture stand, till the fine white particles of the potatoes (ihe fcecula) are precipitated : then pour the mucilaginous potato-liquor from the faecula, and preserve this liquor for use. The article to be cleaned, should be laid upon a linen cloth, on a table ; and, having provided a clean sponge, dip it into the pota- to-liquor, and apply the sponge thus wel, upon the article to be cleaned, and rub it well upon it, repeatedly, with fresh portions of the potato-liquor, till the dirt is perfectly loosened : then wash the article in clean water several times, to remove the loose dirt : it may afterwards be smoothed and dried. Two middle-sized potatoes will be sufficient for a pint of water. The white fascula, which separates in making the mucilaginous liquor, will answer the purpose of tapioca ; will make a useful nourishing food, with soup or milk ; or serve to make starch and hair-powder. The coarse pulp, which does not pass the sieve, is of great use in cleaning worsted or woollen curtains, tapesfry, carpets, or other coarse goods. The mucilaginous liquor of the potatoes, will clean all sorts of silk, cotton, or woollen goods, without hurting the texture of (he articles, or spoiling their colors. It is also useful in cleaning oil-paintings, or furniture that is soiled. MISCELLANEOUS. — NOTICES. 5l5 Dirty painted wainscots may be cleaned, by wetting a sponge in the liquor, then dipping it into a little tine clean sand, and after- wards rubbing the wainscot therewith. [Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts ^ %-c. RECIPE FOR PICKLING BEEF, which from experience we can recommend. Soak the beef 24 hours in fresh water ; 1-2 lb. Saltpetre ; 1 lb. Brown Sugar ; 1 qt. W. 1. Molasses ; 8 galls, water; Salt enough to make the brine bear an egg lightly ; Skim the brine. [Am. Farmer. For the Farmers' and Mechanics' Journal. REMEDY FOR RHEUMATISM, &c. Mr. Editor, — T have, for many years, been in the constant practice of applying a plaster of common Shoemaker's Wax, for the Sciatica, or Hip Gout. Rheumatic lameness, &c., and in all strains, whether old or new, I have never in one instance failed of finding relief, and elFecting a cure in a much shorter time than could reasonably be expected. A neighbor of mine, from Nova Scotia, I found had adopted the same plan, and with equal success. RUMFORD. NOTICES. A NEW VARIETY OF BARN-DOOR FOWL; THE SINGING COCK. It has been our good luck, (says the Editor of the American Farmer,) through the agency of naval officers, our consuls abroad, and merchants and other liberal citizens at home, to have been in- strumental in introducing a great variety of vegetables, grains, fruits, fowls and animals, which had never before been reared in America. Another is added to the list of dung-hill fowls by the kind attention of our consul at Rio, W. H. D. C. Wright, Esq., who has been for fourteen months discharging the duties of Charge d'Atlaiis at that place, during a somewhat critical state of our re- lation with that government. The fowl which has been sent us by Mr. Wright, may be regarded, we suppose, rather as a curiosity^ than as an useful addition to our stock of poultry. It is called in Brazils, the "• Canta Galla," or singing-cock, from its crow being spun out, as in the new style of singing, until you begin to fear the fuie lady will spin out all the breath she has in her body, leaving not enough to recover upon. Mr. Rebello, the liberal distributer of the " Rebello Premiums," at our Cattle Shows, was the first to mention to us tiie existence of the " Canta Galla." " Rio de Janeiro, July lAth, 18 28. " Dear Sir, — 1 could not obtain any of the musical cocks hero ; }» sent to a friend at St. Paul's aad he sent onlv cocks. I send two: ,216 farmers' and mechanics' journal, the black is a fine crower. I have sent for others, male and female, which 1 will send you when I receive them. The (wo now sent, Capt. Williams of the Margaretta, will deliver. " W. H. D. C. Wright." AN IMPORTED COW. The ship Alexander has just brought for Col. Powell, of Phila- delphia, an extraordinary improved Durham short-horned Cow, which produced in England, as appears by certificate, thirty quarts of milk per day in June last, and affords from the milk of seven days, 19 1-2 lbs. averdupois, of Butter, and had continued to give milk until the birth of her calf. Col. Powell has done more for the improvement of Neat Stock in the United States, than any man living. If we had a few more such men in different parts of the Union, we should soon rival (Jld England in the good qualities of our cattle. LITHOGRAPHY. There are now, two establishments of this beautiful art in Bos- ton, viz: that of Pendleton's, and the Sennefelder Press, owned by Messrs. Annin & Smith, the well known Engravers. Speci- mens from both Presses, may be found among our Plates. Three years ago, and it would have been almost an impossibility, to get a Plate executed in Lithography, this side of the Atlantic. Much credit is due the proprietors of these Presses, for their enterprise, in introducing such an able handmaid to ths Arts among us. The ease and facility with which plates, or drawings, are struck ©ff, illustrating ideas in the different departments of knowledge, which cannot be conveyed by words, renders this one of the most useful of the Arts ; for, by multiplying the avenues to Science, and making the steps less difficult, we increase the number of her votaries, and diffuse more generally and equailv, the good resulting from a knowledge of her principles. To the Farmer and the Natu- ralist, this Art is particularly useful, as plants, animals, tS:c. can be represented nearly as well, and vastly more cheap, than by en- graving,— We hope to give you a specimen of the Art, as it regards animals, in some of our future numbers. A fine specimen from the Sennefelder Press, designed by Swett, may be seen at our Publishers. THE NEW-E1\GLAND FARMERS^ AND MECHANICS' JOURNAL. Vol. I. flARDINER, OCTOBFR, 1828. N... 10. MECHANICS. PARKER'S BRICK PRESS. Plate X, — is a representation of Pauker's Brick Press, no- ticed in our eighth number. As bricks are more and more used as materials for building in this country, an increased attention to the art of making them is excited. Much has already been done in this art, but much still remains to be done. At first, bricks were fared by a slow and tedious operation. The idea of pressing them then occurred, and the ingenuity of matiy individuals, was, and still continues to be at work, in improving the modes or ma- chinery for doing this. The pressing of bricks, is, perhaps one of the greatest improvements that has been made lately in the art. They are much more strong, durable, compact, and handsome, than those made in the old way ; and when the machinery for moulding and pressing them, comes into more general use, they will probably be as cheap and in greater demand than the common. It is now thought that pressed bricks are not needed, except for the fronts of buildings. The extra expense of them, is an objection to using them in all situations ; but that does not prove that they are not as useful in other parts of a building as well as in those which are exposed to view. Wherever strength is wanted, (and in all buildings of any magnitude it is of the first importance,) pressed bricks are preferable, because they contain more clay in the same space, and are consequently more dense, or solid and strong. The improvement represented in the Plate, consists in a Bench A. A. of strong hard-wood plank ; a Mould for the brick B. made of cast-iron and cast in one or two pieces ; a Piston, of iron, C. which is attached to the Rack E. which is moved by the Pinion Lever F. G. ; a Knncklc-joint. tr perpetual lever H. which is 2R Vor., I. 2'I8 farmers' A^D mkohamcs' journal. put in motion by the Lever I. ; a Slide L. which is elevated or depressed by the Lever M. In order to press a biick, the piston is drawn back, as is represented in Fig. 1. The brick is put into the space at S. The piston is brought forward by bringing down the pinion lever G. — this permits the end of the [perpetual lever, which before rested on the end of the rack, to fall into the socket at K. The foot is then placed upon the lever 1. which, together with the power applied to G. gives an itnmense pressure. vVnen the foot is removed the weight of the Ball at N. brings up the lever, which, also, by an apparatus described below, elevates the end of the knuckle-joint. The foot is imniedialcly placed upon the lever M. which raises the slide L. and the brick is pushed forward !.;. bringing the lever G. still further down, and the brick is left on a boarn at P. The foot is then removed from M. The slide L. falls by its own weight — the piston is brought back by means of the pinion lever F. G. and the machine is ready for another brick. Fig. 2, represents the apparatus for raising the knuckle-joint. N. is the Ball, at the end of the lever I. O. a tlat Chain, passing over a Pulley R. which is fastened to a Wire T. which is also fastened to one end of the angular lever U. When the ball frills, it pulls the end of the lever U. towards it, and the other extremity moves the contrary way, and by striking against the arm of the perpetual lever H. raises it in such a manner, that it slides over the end of the rack E. and vice versa. The particular Improvements which are claimed, aside from the general combination of powers, are, 1. The mould is made to flair, or, in other words, it is some- what wider at the mouth, where the piston stanVis in the drawing, than at the place where the brick is, when the pressure is given. 2. The detatching or lifting the lever, or knuckle-joint H. and the apparatus tlierefor. 3. The mode of moving the brick from the mould, after being pressed. 4. A greater length, both of perpetual lever and the finger lever, which passes over the knuckle — it being extended any required length. eaiCK MAKINU*. 1 J 9 BRICK MAKING. The following article is from the Edinburgh Enci/clopedia. It contains some facts which are not generally known by brick- makers, and some historical information interesting to every one. The art of brick making consists chiefly in the preparing and tempering of the clay, and in the burning of the bricks ; and as the quality of the ware depends very much upon the right performance of these operations, we shall present our readers with a short sketch of the general process of this manufacture. The earth proper for making bricks is of ax^layey loam, neither abounding too much in argillaceous matter, which causes it to shrink in the drying, nor in sand, which renders the ware heavy and brittle. As the earth, be- fore it is wrought, is generally brittle and full of extraneous matter, it should be dug two or three years before it is used, that, by being exposed to the action of tlie atmosphere, it may be suOiciently mel- lo^wed and pulverised, and thus facilitate the operation of temper- ing. At any rate, it should always have one winter's frost ; but the longer it lies exposed, and tlie more it is turned over and wrought with the spade, the better will be the bricks. The tempering of the clay is performed by the treading of men or oxen, and in some places by means of a clay-mill. If the ope- ration be performed by treading, which is the common way, the earth is thrown into shallow pits, where it is wrought and incorpo- rated together until it is formed into a homogeneous paste, which is facilitated by adding now and then small quantities of water ; but the less water that is used, the substance of the clay will be more tough and gluey, and consequently the bricks will be smooth- er and more solid. This operation is the most laborious part of the process ; but it is of essential importance, and therefore ought to be done well ; for it is to the negligence of (he manufacturers in this respect, tiiat we are to attiibute the bad quality of our modern bricks, which are often light and spongy, and full of cracks. Whereas, if the clay be properly tempered, they are hard, ponde- rous, and durable ; much stronger and better lilted for every kind of building, than those made in the common way. This will ap- pear very evident from the following experiment of M. Gallon, Having taken a quantity of brick-earth tempered in the usual way, he let it remain exposed to the air for seven hours, and then caused it to be moistened and beaten for the space of half an hour: the next morning the operation was repeated ; and in the afternoon the clay was again beaten for fifteen minutes more ; making the whole additional labor an hour and a quarter. The bricks made of this earth, being dried in the air for thirteen days, and burned along with the rest without any particular precautions, were found to be not onlv heavier than common bricks, but also very dilferent in strength ; for on placing their centre on a sharp edge, and load- ing both the ends, Mr. Gallon found, that while it took a weight of G§ lb. at each end to break them, other bricks wore broken by 220 farmers'' and mechanics' journal. the weight of only 35 lb. The improvetnont in the quality of the article thus far exceeds the additional labor ; and non(! would hesi- tate to give an additional price, since both the value and the coin- fort of our dwellings depend so nnuch on the quality of the mate- rials of which they are constructed. The next part of the process is the moulding of the bricks. This is a very simple operation, and requires very little skill, unless it be to make the greatest number in the shortest time ; and the day's labor of a handy workman, emoloyed from five in the morning un- til eight at night, is calculated at about 5000. The clay is brought to the moulder's bench in lumps somewhat larger than will fit the mould. The moulder having dipt his mould info dry sand, works tl>e clay into it, and with a flat smooth stick strikes off the super- fluous earth. The bricks are then carried to the hack, and there ranged with great regularity one above the other, a little diagonal- ly, in order to give a free passage to the air. The hacks are usually made eight bricks high ; and wide enough for two bricks to be placed edgewise across, with a passage between Ihe heads of each brick. In fine weather, a few days are suflicient to make them dry enough to be shifted ; which is done by turning them, and resetting them more open ; and in six or eight days more they are ready for the fire. Mr. Goldham observes, that bricks will have double the strength if, after one burning, they be steeped in water and burned afresh. " The excellency of bricks," says Mr. Malcolm, in his Compendium of Mo dp rn Husbandry, " consists chiefly in the first and last opera- tions— in the tempering of the clay, and in the burning of the bricks ; and as every man who has occasion to use bricks, whether on his own estate, or on that of his landlord, cannot but be sensible of the great value of a perfectly dry house ; and as it is impossible a house can be dry if bricks are used which are insuffi- ciently burnt, he will do well to consider whether it will be more advantageous to him in the end, to make use of the very best hard sound bricks, be the color of them what they may, and be the cost of them what they will. Such bricks are easily known by their sound, and by their striking fire with steel." For a more minute account of the various processes of brick-making, we must refer our readers to that author, from whom much of the preceding in- formation has been extracted. Bricks are made in various forms ; but those which are made for sale, and are in common use for building, are required, by act of Parliament, to be not less than 8 1-2 inches long, 2 1-2 thick, and 4 inches wide. There are also square bricks, for pavement or facing walls ; and cutting bricks, which are used for arches over doors and windows, being rubbed to a centre, and guaged to a height. Various improvements, however, have of late been made in the moulding of bricks ; and as the use of this article is daily becoming more prevalent, they are now formed so as to suit almost every purpose in building. Among these improvements, the patent bricks of Mr. Cartwright deserve particular attention. These BRICK MAKING. 22t * bricks are formed with a s^roove clown the middle, a little more than half the width of the side of the brick, leavmj^ two shoulders, each of which will be nearly equal to one half of the groove. When these bricks are laid in courses, the shoulders of the first course tit into Ihe i^rooves of the second, and (he shoulders of the second fall into the f;rooves of the first, thus forming an indented line of nearly e'|ual divisions. The grooves, however, ought to be somewhat wider than the two adjoining shoulders, to allow for mortar, &c. The construction of these bricks is perfectly simple ; but the principle will be preserved, in whatever form of indenture they will be made to lock into, or cramp each other. Brick walls, consiructed upon this principle, require no bond timber ; one uni- versal bond connecting the whole building, which can neither craok nor l)ulge out without bieaking through the biicks themselves. This invention is also particularly useful in the constructioii of arches ; and when employed for this purpose, the shoulders of the bricks and the sides of the grooves should be radii of the circle, of wliich the intended arch is a segment. It is, however, recom- mended, that if the arch be particidarly flat, or aj)plied in situa- tions which do not admit of end walls, to have the shoulders dove- tailed, to prevent the arch from cracking across, or giving waj edgewise. In forming an arch, the bricks must be coursed across the centre, and a grooved side of the bricks must face the woi-k- men. The bricks may be either laid in mortar, or dry, and the interstices afterwards filled up by pouring in lime-putty, Paris plas- ter, or any other convenient material. The obvious advantages of arches constructed upon this principle, are, that the same centre, which, whatever be the breadth of the arch, may be in no case many feet wide, may be regularly shifted as the work proceeds ; and as they have no lateral pressure, they require no abutments to prevent their expanding at the foot, nor any weight upon the crown to prevent their springing up. They may be laid upon a common perpendicular wall, and if used in the construction of common buildings, they will not only prccliuie the necessity, and save the expense of timber, but will also allurd an absolute security against the possibility of fire. A new invention in the formation of bricks, by M. Legressier, has lately been announced in the Archives (Us Decouvcrfes et ties Inventions Nouvelles^ Pendant Pannee 1809. The principle, how- ever, is merely that of Mr. Cartwright's, followed out to a greater extent than has perhaps ever been done in this country. M. Le- gressier proposes, that the bricks should be formed in seven dif- ferent moulds, according as they are to be placed in the middle or on the exterior of the walls ; in the bottom or on the top ; in the arches or in the corners ; and by the proper disposition of (hese bricks in the building, every pressure, either longitudinally or laterally, is resisted, in proportion to the strength of the indentures by which they are locked together. Besides the place bricks, and grey and red stocks, which are ttised in common buildings, there are inarle facing bricks, cutting 222 yARMERs' AND MECHANICS' JOURKAL. bricks, fire bricks, and floatiiig'bricks. The first of these arc of a fine yellow color, hard and well burnt ; they are made in the neigh- borhood of London, and are used in the outside of buildings. The cutting bricks are made of the finest kind of marie ; and, as we have already observed, are employed in the construction of arches over windows and doors. Fire bricks, sometimes called Windsor bricks, because an excellent kind of them are made at Hedgesley, a village near Windsor. They contain a large proportion of sand, and will stand the utmost fury of fire, and are consequently used for coating furnaces, and lining the ovens of glass-houses. Clay for fire bricks is got at most great collieries, but particularly at Stourbridge, which produces the best clay for this purpose in Eng- land. Floating bricks are a very ancient invention: they are so light as to swim in water ; and Pliny tells us, that they were made at Marseilles, at Colento in Spain, and at Pitane in Asia. This in- vention, however, was completely lost, until M. Fabbroni publish- ed a discovery of a method to imitate the floating bricks of the an- cients. According to Posidonius, these bricks were made of a kind of argillaceous earth, which was employed to clean silver plate. But as it could not be our tripoli, which is too heavy to float in water, M. Fabbroni tried seveial experiments with mineral agaric, guhr, lac-lun(P, and fossil meal, which last was found to be the very substance of which he was in search. This earth is abundant in Tuscany, and is found near Casteldclpiano, in the territories of Sienna. According to the analysis of M. Fabbroni, it consists of 55 parts of siliceous earth, 15 of magnesia, 14 of water, 12 of argil, 3 of lime, and I of iron. It exhales an argillaceous odour, and when sprinkled with water, throws out a light whitish smoke. It is infusible in the fire, and though it loses about an eighth part of i(s v.eiglit, its bulk is scarcely diminished. Bricks composed of Ibis sul)statire, either baked or unbaked, float in water; and a twentieth part of argil may be added to their composition without taking away their property of swimming. These bricks resist wa- ter, unite perfectly with lime, are subject to no alteration from heat or cold, and the baked differ from the unbaked only in the sono- rous qualily which they have acquired from the fire. Their strength is little inferior to that of common bricks, but much great- er in proportion to their weight ; for M. Fabbroni found, that a floating brick, measuring 7 inches in length, 4 1-2 iti breadth, and one inch eight lines in thickness, weighed only 14 1-2 ounces; whereas, a common brick weighed 3 pounds 6 3-4 ounces. The use of these bricks may be very important in the construction of powder magazines and reverberating furnaces ; as they are such bad conductors of heat, that one end may be made red hot, while the other is held in the hand. They may also be employed for build- ings that require to be light ; such as cooking places in ships, and floating batteries, the parapets of which would be proof against red hot bullets. The turrets which were raised on the ships of the ancients, says M. Falihroni, were perhaps formed of these bricks ; and perhaps they wvre employed in (he celebrated ship, sciit by PREPARATION OF CATOUT. 223 Wiero to Ptolemy, wliioh carried so many building?, consisting of porticoes, baths, halls, &c., arranged in mosaic, and ornamented with agates and jasper. Bricks appear to be of the highest antitjuity ; and, as we lenrn from sacred lustory, the making of lliem was one of the oppressions to which the children of Israel were subjected during their servi- tude in Egypt. The bricks of the ancients, however, so far differ- ed from ours, liiat (hey were mixed with chopped straw in orddr t<» bind the clay togelher, and instead of being burned weic com- monly dried in the sun. V'itruvius recommeiidfid, that they should be exposed in the air for two years before tiiey were used, as they could not,be sufficiently dry in less time ; ami by tlie laws of Utica, no bricks were allowed to be used, unless they had lain to dry for five years. From Dr. Pocock's description of a pyramid in Egypt, constructed of unburnt bricks, it appears that the Egyptian bricks were nearly of the same shape as our common bricks, but rather larger. Some of those he measured were 13 1-2 inches long, 6 1-2 broad, and 4 inches thick ; and others 15 inches long, 7 broad, and 4 3-4 thick. The biicks used by the Romans were in general square ; and M. Quatremere de Quincy observes, that in his re- searches among the antique buildings of Rome, he found them of three different sizes. The least were 7 1-2 inches square, and 1-2 thick; others 16 1-2 inches square, and from 1 8 to 20 lines in thickness ; and the larger ones 22 inches square, by 21 or 22 lines thick. Among the celebrated buildings of antiquity, constructed of bricks, were the tower of Babel, and the famous walls of Baby- lon, reckoned by the Greeks among the wonders of the world ; the walls of Athens, the house of Croesus at Sardis, and the walls of the tomb of Mausolus. The paintings, which were brought from Lacedasmon to Rome, to ornament the Cotnitium in the edileship of Varro and Murena, were cut from walls of brick ; and the Tem- ple of Peace, the Pantheon, and all the Thermae, were composed of this material. The Babylonian bricks, which are in the posses- sion of the East India company, and upon which Dr. Hayes has lately favored the public with a dissertation, are inscribed with va- rious figures and characters, and are supposed by some to be a part of that brick work, upon which Pliny tells us that the Babylonians wrote the observations which they made of the stars for seven hundred and twenty years. OX THE PREPARATION OF CATGUT, FOR VARIOUS USrS. [Concluded from page 203.] Catgut for Musical Instruments. Of all the cords from intestines, this kind is the most difiicuit to make, and requires the greatest care and ability of the workmen. It is acknowledged that for many years they have been made as well in Friance as in Italy, with the exception of the treble-strings for violins, which eur maniifactilrers ha.ve. not beei) able to imitntc. 324 farmers' and mechanics' JOURNAli but on a very limited scale. This is cither owing to the diflerence in quality of the intestines, or Sonne other unknown cause. What- ever it be, we are still tributary to Naples for this article ; and every exertion ought to be made to free us from this necessity. Experiments, made with skill, will no doubt succeed ; and the So- ciety for the Kncourai^ement of National industry, by calling the attention of artists to titis subject, will have the glory of contribut- ing )o the perfection of an art, of which little is at present known. The cleaning and scraping of the intestines for this purpose, to free them from the fat, must be done with much more care than is requisite for other^ords ; and, when they have undergone that process, they must be steeped in an alkaline lye, prepared as fol- lows : — An earthern pan, holding six quails, is filled with water, and three pounds of potash are added to it ; \vliich uujst be well stirred, and sutfered to subside. In a similar vessel, full of water, placed by the side of it, are put five pounds of pearlash ; leaving that also to settle. If it be wished to make use of this solution within a short time, it will be necessary to add to it a httic alum-water, which will clarify it quickly. The scraped intestines are now put into earthen pans, so as about to half-fill them. The pans are then filled up with the solu- tion of potash, with as much water added as to double the quantity of iluid. This liquid is changed twice a day, increasing its strength each time, by adding more of the soluion of pearlash, and dimin- ishing progressively the quantity of water ; so that the last solu- tions be the strongest. The intestines gradually become whiter, and begin to swell. After having sulfered them to macerate from three to five days, or more, according to the state of the atmos- phere, the operation proceeds as follows : — Every time that the alkaline solution is changed, the pans arc placed upon the box called the refresher^ placed on a table, or on tressels, in a slanting direction, so as to facilitate the running otT" of the water. This box must be large enough to hold the frame on which the cords are to be stretched. The intestines are scraped with the edge of a copper cube, held in the left hand. The fore- finger of the left hand is placed near to the edge of the copper cube ; whilst, wnth the right hand, each intestine is drawn over the edge of the disk or cube, and between the fore-finger. When they have all been treated in this manner, and placed in n fresh pan, a stronger alkaline solution is poured on to them than that from which they were last taken, as we have before mention- ed. This operation is necessary for cleansing the intestine of its greasy quality, and bringing the cords to perfection. As soon as it is perceived that the inreslines begin to swell, and some little bubbles appear on their surface, (for in this state they fise in the water,) it is necessary to twist them immediately, or they will begin to shrivel ; which sometimes happens, particularly in iummei', and occasions the loss of the intestines, and also the time spent over them. In hot weather, the inteatinefi are, indeed, most PREPARATrON OF CATCLT. 225 easily cleaned from fat ; but then the workman must be more than ordinarily attentive ; and the different lyes for the washings must be made stronger with alkali, and applied more quickly, hi win- ter, all goes on in better order, and the operation is more certain. The manufacturers of this article generally place their workshops in cool places, where there is a little dampness. The intestines being now ready to be twisted, they are taken out of the alkaline solution. Some manufacturers plunge them again into fresh water, and wash them well therein ; but, although they become, by this method, of a better color, and take the sulphur better, they run the risk of being weakened. To twist and finish the cords, a machine is used—a kind of frame, two feet high, and tive feet long ; on one end of which are placed a number of pegs ; and in the opposite end are bored, with a large auger, a number of holes, inclined in such a way, that when pegs are placed in them, to attach the cords to, they may not be liable to slip and come out. The intestines are now selected ac- cording to their size ; and two or three of them are taken, and the ends twisted round one of the pegs first placed ; and the other ends are carried to the opposite ones, and attached to them. Two turns of the intestines around the peg are sufficient to prevent their slipping. When fixed to the pegs, they must not be drawn tight ; as they would be subject to snap during the twisting, if sufficient play were not given to them for that operation. If any of the intestines should be found too short to reach th» opposite side of the frame, they must be lengthened, by pieces cut off any others which may be too long 5 and care must be taken to make the ligature near the last-placed peg, to preserve the cord of an equal size in its whole length ; as otherwise it would be false in its tone. The frame being filled up in the manner we have described, two or three of the pegs, bearing one end of the intestines, are fixed to spindles, if the machine contains several, and turned round several times ; passing the finger and thumb of the left hand frequently from one end of the cord to the other, beginning at the spindle. When all the cords have undergone this operation, and the pegs are all replaced, the whole frame is placed in the sulphuring closet, with several others ; as it would not be worth while to sulphur one at a time. The sulphuring closet is placed in a damp place, surrounded as much with water as possible. An earthern vessel, containing the sulphur, is placed in it, with the frames ; the sulphur is then set on fire, and the closet well closed in every part, to confine the fumes. When the cords have remained a sufficient time — which, of course, varies in some measure, according to circumstances — the frames are taken out, and placed on the refresher, and rubbed with a horse-hair cloth. This done, they are again placed in the frame, twisted anew, and returned to the sulphuring closet, to undergo the same process as before. If the state of the atmosphere require 29 Vor,. J. 22G farmers' and mechanics' journal. it, tha whole of these processes must be twice or thrice repeated ; a»)d they are then left to dry. When the cord is sutiiciently dry, it is known by its not running up when a peg is taken out, and remaining stiff and straight, in- stead of flagging. If dry enough, they are w^el! oiled with good olive-oil, and coiled up into rings for sale. They become better by being kept some time. To make the fourtli strings for violins, or any other sized cords, intended to be covered with metal-wire, the process is so well known, that it need not be here described. The whole success of these operations depends principally oiv the ability and experience of the workmen in managing tlie diffe- rent washings, stretchings and twistings, attd in a judicious use of the sulj)hur. When the cord is too much sulphured, it readily snaps ; and, on the contrary, when it is not enough so, it stretches too much, and never keeps in tune. [Diet. Technologiqut, On the .Application of Larch Bark to anszver all lie purposes of Cak Bark^ in Tanning Leather. By Thomas Whi;e, Esq., of iVoud- lands, Durham. [The Larch here recommended, is the European species, but if the American species, Larix Americana, is not the same, its pro- perties camiot be very diiferent. 'I'his tree is abundant in Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont, and is well known by the names of Hackmctack or Cypress. In New Jersey, it is known by the name of Tamarack, and in the Canadas it is called Epinette Rouge. We be- lieve it has been U'^ed in some j>arts of the United States, for tan- ning ; but its propetties are not generally known. If it be really as valuable for tanning as the writer says, it should certainly be saved for tliat purpose as well as the Hcndock bark.] [From Transactions of t!ie Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c.] Woodlands, August I3lli, 1811, Sir, — In the year 1 786, my deceased father did himself the honor of laying before the Society of Aits, &;c., his remarks on the im- provement of this place ; and in a second letter, in 1796, he wrote some further observations ; since which time, the plantations, as well as the place in general, have made great progress in beauty asid improvement, which induces me to trouble you with a few- ideas, that 1 flatter myself will be of importance to the country at large, a^ well as of pj-ivate bjiiefit to persoiis in possession of woods, which you will oblige me by laying before the Society. As the trees have now advanced, as I have before observed, to a considerable size, we have beeti busy for some years, in weeding them out to a timber distance ; in doing which, lately, and whilst taking otf the bark of some larch trees that were wanted for build- LARCH BARK FOR TANXING LEATHER. 227 ing purposes, our agent observed the nails of his fingers to be stain- ed, which induced l.i:n to think, that the bark of this Irec miglit be uj^eTul in tanning leather ; a thought that struck the active mind of my father many years ago, when he was desirous of trying its virtues in this necessary and useful business, but was prevailed upon to give up the project, on being told that a tree containing lurpentiriC would not answer the purpose ; his adviser thinking the larch was a species of the tir tribe, instead of the cedar. In consequence of this renovated idea, I was determined to have the most impartial trial made of the bark of the oak, and that of the larch, and in or- der to show the latter no lavor, 1 procured some of the best oak bark in the country, such as can rarely be puichased, and took that of the larch from a small young tree. 1 next purchased two calf- ekins, of the same value, weight, and quality ; and put as much of the tine oak bark to one skin, as was applied of the larch bark to the other, both remaining in the pits the same time. During the operation, as we repeatedly weighed a certain measure of larch liquor against the oak, the latter alwa}s requiied an additional quantity to make the scales equal ; which accoimls for the skin tanned by larch, being above one pound and a quarler heavier than the other, which it was, when dried and ready for tlie currier, the increase being gradually perceptible during the whole business. Which of the two skins proved the best, I leave to the Society to determine ; but I flatter myself, that, exclusive of the additional ■weight of that produced from larch, the color of it is preferable for gloves, saddles, boots, &lc. As I am proceeding with some other experiments, one of them will, I hope, prove which of the two infusions that the skins were tanned in, will atibrd the greatest weight of leather, in order to produce a fair test of the intrinsic value of both trees, when applied to tanning; the result of which I shall do myself the honor of lay- ing before the Society at a future period. it must be observed, that the bark of oak and birch (the two kinds used to any extent) can only be taken otFthe trees for a very few weeks ; whereas larch bark may be collected at any period during three parts of the year ; and, I believe, with almost as good eflfect even in winter ; and, as the bark is stript off this tree with very little trouble, the expense of doing it is much less than the oak. It is unnecessary for me to inform the Society, that as oak is daily decreasing in lliis country, so as to require a great annual importation, the larch tree (which I believe there is little doubt of being the^edar of Lebanon) is in a fair way to be as celebrated herea/ter, as_it was in former times. * * * * I am, Sir, your most obedient Humble Servant, Thomas White, To C. Taylc-i, M. D. Sec. Woodlands, 26/A June, 1812. Sir, — T am sorry that I have not been able to send before, two pieces of leather, of a strong quality, tanned with larch bark ; and 228 farmers' ajjd mechanics' journal. wliich, Uiough perfectly useful for most purposes, would have con- liiuied to great advantage some time longer in the tan -pit, for making soles of shoes. With the specimens, I send a pair of gloves, and a remnant of leather, converted into shoes, both tanned with larch bark, by a person at Hexham ; who told me that glovers would use nothing else, could they get a sufhcient supply. In addition to the equality that larch bark is upon with oak, in regard to its tanning as great weight of leather of every descrip- tion ; it has the advantage of being quicker in its operation, and from its light color, of being preferable, as mentioned before, for gloves, book-binding, &;c. It must be observed, that nothing has been introduced intp the tan-pit, to make the leather tirmer, but bark. J am, Sir, your most ol)edient servant, Thomas White. To C. Taylor, M. D. Sec. Durham, April lUth, 1813. I, Thomas Farbridge, Tanner, of Woodlands, in the county of Durham, do verify, on oath, befoie one of his Majesty's Justices of the Peace, that on or about the 21st of June, 1811, I put a calf- skin, weighing, when green, 12lbs., into a tan-pit, to which, at dif- ferent times, I applied 43 l-4lbs. of larch bark ; and on the said 21st of June, I put another green calf-skin, of the weight of 12lbs. also, ii)to another pit, and in the same manner applied, at different times, 42lbs. of oak bark ; and on one and the same day drew both these skins, when tanned ; which, when dried, produced as follows : yiz. The larch skin 6 l-4lbs., and the oak 5 l-2lbs. ; both skins undergoing exactly the same process, and the former having neither oak bark, nor any other substance of tanning quality, put into the tan-pit, but larch bark. And although the larch liquor had 1 l-4lb5. more bark than the other, it was infinitely stronger ; for, after the two skins were tanned, I put three sheep-skins into each of the pits ; and, although 1 drew the three from the larch liquor about twenty-one days before those put into the oak bark, they were in a better state ; and, at the end of the second tanning, the larch liquor was the strongest ; as I have ever found it to be after every ex- periment, where the weight of leather was equal. 1 moreover declare, that the skin which is on the point of going to London, the one-half marked oak, and the other larch, was tan- ned, after being equally divided, the one part with 43lbs. of larch bark, and the other with an equal weight of oak bark, being put into the tan-pits on the same day, about the 21st of May last, and drawn together about a month ago ; and that nothing of a tanning quality was put into the larch-pit, but larch bark alone, and the process exactly the same in regard to each half, as in the first ex- periment. I moreover declare, that the specimen of hide leather sent to London in November last, as well as the hide now to be sent, al- ON THE MANUFACTURE OF CIDER. 229 though tanned in a pit with a number of others, underwent exactly the same process, without any bark or mixture but pure larch bark : and although no comparison was made betwixt it and oak, I am certain it would have required as much bark of the latter, to have produced leather of equal good quality and weight. Thomas Farbridge. Sworn before me, at the place and date above written, Edward Davison. AanicuiiTURS. ON THE MANUFACTURE OF CIDER. ^ [Concluded from page 211.] 5. Vinous Fermenlation. This is commonly called xoorking. It conjmences at the temperature of 59° Fah. and cannot be conduct- ed in safety when the heat is over 75°, for a high temperature in- duces a too rapid fermentation, by which much of the spirit passes otFwith the disengaged carbonic acid gas, and the acetous or vine- gar fermentation begins at 77°. This will show the importance of conducting the vinous fermentation under a proper temperature, which is from 50 to 70° Fah. To show the chemical effect of the vinous fermentation, it will be proper to repeat that the unferment- ed juice, or 7nust, of the apple, consists of saccharine matter or su- gar, vegetable mucilage or extract, astringency or tannin ; malic, and a small matter of gallic acid, the principle of flavor, tinging or coloring matter, and water. The sugar becomes the basis, or spirit, of the fermented liquor ; the spirit, after vinous fermentation, and the tannin, or astringent matter, preserve it from the acetous fer- mentation, if the vegetable mucilage, or yeast, is separated when it has performed its oflice. This vegetable mucilage acts upon the saccharine matter in a manner analogous to yeast upon the wort of the brewer — it causes fermentation, and converts sugar into spirits — by its giving ofFcarbonic acid gas, and imbibing hydrogen ; the liquor becomes clear, and part of the mucilage rises to the sur- face with the disengaged air, in the form of frolli, and the residue is precipitated, with the heavier impurities, to the bottom, in the form of sediment or lees. This is the critical period. The liquor may now be drawn off clear. If left longer, the feculent matter, or froth, by parting with the gas, which I'enders it buoyant, soon settles and mixes with the liquor, renders it turbid, and as soon as the temperature attains a proper height, causes a new fermentation. This will explain the reason why ciders become harsh and sour on the approach of warm weather in the spring. The elementary principles of sugar, ardent spirits and vinegar, it has been ascer- tained by the experiments of Lavoisier, are the same ; and these substances only differ in the proportion of their component parts, and in the modes of their chemical union. Sugar consists of hy- drogen, oxygen and carbon. An increased proportion of hydrogen enters into the composition of ardent spirits, and of oxygen into vinegar. The same agent, vegetable mucilage, which converts f30 TARMERS' AND MECHANICS' JOURNAL. the sugar of the ap;>le into spirits, will convert the spirits into vine- gar, unJer a proper temperature, and aided hy the oxygen of the aimo?phc:e. The process of making vinegar is greatly accelerat- ed by exposing cider or wine to the atmosphere, the oxygen of which it imbihes, and which is termed by chemists the great acidi- fying principle. Here again we see the propriety of professional cider manufacturers, who might be provided with cellars where the temperature could be regulated, and who would carefully rack oft^the liquor at the completion of the vinous fermentation. The vinous fermentation commences and terminates at different periods, according to the condition and quality of the fruit, and the 8tat3 of the weather. The juice of unripe fruit, if the weather be warm, will begin to ferment in a few hours after it passes from the press ; and seldom stops at the vinous stage. The juice of ripe fruit, when the temperature is lower, does not begin to ferment under a week or fortnight, or longer, often continues slowly through the winter, and when made from some of the finer cider apples, is not completed under six or nine months. Indeed, in some cases the liquor does not become clear urnder a year, and the sugar is not wholly decomposed under two years : for the whole of the sugar is seldom decomposed during the first sensible fermentation. — Knight considers cider at two years old as in the best state for bot- tling. For until the sugar is decomposed, fermentation insensibly goes on, and the strength of the liquor increases. The like in- sensible process goes on in wines, and when it is completed, the wines are said to be ripe, and are in their highest state of perfec- tion. {See J^rCiilloch.) Temperature being the same, 1 think it may be assumed as a rule, that fermentation will be rapid and short, in an inverse ratio to the proportion which the saccharine mUter bears to the mucilage and water ; and that the vinous li- quor will be rich, high flavored and durable, in the proportion as the sugar and astringency preponderate in the must. 6. Pre cant urns to prevent Acetous Fermentation. These are, supposing the previous contingencies to have been favorable, a careful separation of the vinous liquor from the froth and lees — a cool temperature — racking and fining — and artificial means to de- stroy tiie fermenting quality of the remaining mucilage. T have already suggested the importance of drawing oflf the liquor from the scum and sediment — at the termination of the vinous fer- mentation. This period may be known by the cracking of the froth in an open cask, or, if in a close one, by the application of the nose or ear to the bung-hole. If the fermentation has not ceased, a hissing will be appai'ent, and the gas given off will give a pungent sensation to the nose. If the liquor is not sufficiently clear, or indications appear of the acetous fermentation having commenced, the cider should be racked into clean, strong casks, and fined with isinglass, eggs, or skimmed milk. This operation may be repeated, if found necessary ; but it should be performed in clear, cohi weather. After the first racking, the casks should be kept bunged close, and further rackings be avoided, if possible, as SALIVATION OF HORSES. 231 every racking reduces its strength, and much of the spirit escapes with the carbonic acid gas whicli is evolved in the iormcntive pro- cess. Tlie oxygen of the atmosphere, besides, increases the vine- gar fermentation. But if" these methods fail, resort may be had to the me;in« of impeding the na(ur:ii operation of the mucilage, < r vegetable leaven. This may be done by what is called sluminitifr, that is, burning a rag impregnated with sulphur, in the cask in which the liquor is to be decanted, after it has been partly tilled, and rolling it so as to incorporate tlie liquid with the gas ; or by putting a drachm or two of Uie snlplmte of potasli into emch cask, which will precipitate and render insoluble the remaining leaven. If the fruit is 2;ood, and properly ground, and tliC cider racked from tbe fennenting casks at a pro[)er lime, most or all of tiie subsequent Oj)erations will be superseded. I fear, Mr. Editor, I have been too prolix upon a subject which almost every farmer professes to understand ; yet considering it, as I do, of great importance to the community at large, I cannot close this without suggesting to the consideration of the enliiihtened Trustees of your State Agricultural Society, the propriety of ascer- taining, by experiment and analysis, the comparative value of our cider-fruit, and of awarding premiu'ns, not only for the discovery of the best kinds of cider apples, but lor indigenous or hardy grapes, best adapted for American wines, J. Buel. Aibamj, Feb. 26, 1827. SALIVATION OF HORSES. — OIL OF PU3IPKIN SEED. The following article respecting Oil of Pumpkin Seed, and the Salivation of Horses, we copy from that valuable work, llie .'Ameri- can Farmer. A query was inserted some time since in this Jour- nal, respecting the Salivation of Horses, and its cure. It is gene- rally attributed to what is known by the common names of puke- weed, Lidian tobacco or Lobelia. This, together with the other plant mentioned by Rafinesqiie, viz: Euphorbia, which we have never seen in Maine, may bring it on, and so may many other acrid plants which are accidentally eaten by horses. We believe, how- ever, that these causes act much more seldom than is imagined. It is not impossible, that a certain state or stage of the juices of grass may bring on this salivation, either by fermentation or other cause not well understood — stimulating the coats of the stomach, and ex- citing a superabundant flow of fluid. We are led to this conclu- sion by the Aict. that horses at some seasons are not so much af- fected with slavering, as they are at others, although they run in the same pasture, — and we have observed ditferent horses in the •ame pasture, diiferently. aifected ; — some very much, others, 232 farmers' and mechanics' journal. scarcely any ; hence we should be led to infer, that the health or state of the horse's stomach, had its share in producing the com- plaint. We have generally effected a cure, by putting the horse to hay a little while. Horses have been troubled with slavers in the win- ter while fed on hay. This must have been caused either by some acrid plant in the hay, or to some quality of the hay itself — per- haps from improper management in making. Horses have also been affected in the same manner when kept in a yard, and soiled or fed on green clover. Some horses scarcely mind it ; others, are very much reduced by it. " Having purchased of a drover, from the back-woods, a well looking pair of young horses, both did well on red clover, given to them in the yard, until salivation commenced. After this, one ^of them seemed to hold his own, while the other fell away, greatly. Being determined, if it were possible, to habituate the sufferer to this kind of food, a few weeks reduced him so much that his life seemed to be in danger. It required some considera- ble time, feeding on grain and the speargrasses, to restore him to his original plight." — [Ijorainh- Husbandry.^ Red-House, JV. C, Sept, 14, 1828. Ma. Skinner, — I have noticed frequent inquiries being made in your very valuable paper, concerning the cause and origin of a dis- order which horses are subject to, which we call in this section of country- the Salivation of Horses. Ft is a subject of deep importance to the owner of that valuable animal, to discover, if possible, the true origin of this disorder, which that noble animal are more or less subjected in many parts of the United States. It is a laudable object in any person, to en- deavor, if possible, to discover and find out a remedy for any dis- order which this noble animal is subject to. I cannot better en- force my ideas upon this subject, than to send you an article upon the subject, extracted from the Watern Review, written by C. S. Rafinesque, Professor of Botany and Natural History in Transyl- vania College, Kentucky. This article is entitled to great respect, as it is written by a gentleman of acknowledged talents. It con- tains much valuable matter, and many useful hints as regards this disagreeable disorder. I also send you another article upon the subject, " On the Oil of Pumpkin Seed," extracted from the same I work, and written by the same gentleman, which 1 have no doubt " vi^ill be of use to some of your friends. As it regards our crops in this section of country, I cannot speak in very flattering terms. — The crops of wheat are very indifferent, owing to the extreme warm winter, and to the great quantity of rain which fell in the ON THE OIL O;' PUMPKIN SEEDS. 233 commencement of thn spring. There will not be a half crop of tobacco made in this county, owing to the coolness of the spring and the great scarcity of plants. The crops of corn are very good, and cotton very promising. Yours, very respectfully, Jas. W. Jeffrey*. 0\ THE OIL OV PUMPKIN SEEDS. To Dr. C. L. Seeger, JYorthamptoyi, (Mass.) Your inquiries respecting pumpkins, which have lately reached me, I hasten to answer to the best of my knowledge. I understood that j)umpkin seeds were pressed like rape seed, and of course cold : when I added " or likefiax seed,'''' it was be- cause I had never seen flax seed or linseed pressed warm after roasting, as you say it is done with you. Pumpkin seeds, being very oily, and containing thin oil, require no heat to help the effect of the press. They will yield their oil to the press as easily as almonds, walnuts, and seeds of the melon tribe. The Harmonists press this oil in the press used for rape seed oil. 1 do not think that the pumpkin seed oil can be employed, like linseed oil, for painting. It is too thin and fluid, but it will answer in the instances where walnut oil is employed, being similar to it in that respect, although otherwise much sweeter and less desica- tive. Pumpkin bread and cakes are much used in the interior of the State of Kentucky, as pumpkin pies in New-England. The bread is made either by itself or mixed with corn meal, by kneading pumpkins either raw or boiled, and baking them immediately after- wards;, without any addition of yeast. It has, therefore, a great similiarity to corn bread, and is eaten either warm or cold. Jt is very sweet and of a reddish color : 1 cannot say it is vet-y palata- ble to me, but those that are used to it like it well. You knovr that corn bread is not liked at first by many persons. I think that the best pumpkin bread is that made by uniting equal parts of corn meal and boiled pumpkins. Respecting the cultivation of pumpkins, I can hardly give you any additional information. Their culture is well understood all over the country, and all the farmers know how to avail themselves of the facility which they have of growing among corn, without in- jury to either crop. I do not conceive that any positive advantage might result from their separate cultivation. But manures might be highly beneficial in either instance, and would increase the crops. 1 remember the following additional uses which may be made of pumpkins : 1. The cakes, remaining after the oil is pressed from the seeds, are eaten greedily by cattle and hogs. 2. In Europe, they make good preserves of pumpkins, by cut- ting them in slices and boiling them for a long time in strong syrup •f sugar. 30 Vol. 1. 234 farmers' and mechanics' journal. 3. In the south of Europe, a very good soup is made by mashed or diluted pumpkins with oil, butter, or broth. This dish is called Furlata in Tuscany. Rice is often added to it. 4. The hard skins of pumpkins, if uninjured, may be used for pails, buckets, baskets, &:c. The pumpkins may be made to as- sume almost any shape, by being confined while young, in wooden or hard vessels, which they will fill gradually, moulding themselves to their shapes. I remain, respectfully, yours, &c. C. S. Rafinesque, Prof, of Botany and JYalural History. Transylvania Univers-ity, Sept. 10, 1819. ON THE SALIVATION OF HORSES. BY C. S. RAFINESQUE. This disorder frequently attacks horses in many parts of the United States. It is well known to consist in an unnatural elfusion of saliva in a watery state, flowing often with rapid succession, and debilitating exceedingly the animals subject to it. Cows, also, have been known to be slightly affected by the same disorder ; but no other domestic animals. Various conjectures have been formed on the cause of this mor- bid affection, some of which are rather ludicrous if not extravagant. Such, for instance, is that which ascribes it to a spider swallowed by the horse ! But I am not aware that any one has published as yet the real cause ; and the knowledge of a speedy remedy seems to be siill more wanted. Being enabled to point out the true cause, and to offer a reme- dy, I venture to publish both in the expectation of contributing thereby to lessen and prevent the injury arising from neglect and accident. I am happy to mention that 1 am indebted to my worthy friend, Mr. Bradbury, for (he leading facts in this statement. We both agreed in conjecturing properly on this subject; but he had the advantage to ascertain the facts by actual experiments, and to point out the proper cure. Two kinds of weeds, which grow occasionally in meadows and pastures, produce this disorder, whenerer they are accidentally eaten by horses and cattle, together with clover or grass ! Sheep and hogs never eat them. The first and the worst is the Euphorbia hijpericifolia., a small milky plant with opposite smooth leaves and very small white flowers. The second is the Lobelia injlata, or asthma-weed, a larger plant, with alternate hairy leaves, blue flowers and swelled seed vessels. Both have the leaves ovate, oblong, and slightly toothed. They both blossom at the end of the summer, when of course they are largest and most detrimental. Being mixed with the se- cond growth of clover and grass, they sometimes become entangled thereto, and are eaten by horses, who would probably reject them otherwise. They may likewise become mixed with the second crop of hay, and be eaten with it by horses. Hence has arisen the APPLE POMACE. §35 vulgar opinion which ascribed this disorder to the second growth of clover. Both the above plants have energetic properties. All the spe- cies of the genus Euphorbia are strong drastics, and the Lobelia injlata is little inferior to said genus in energy ; it has been useful- ly employed in the cure of asthma and other disorders : it was one of the hidian medical plants. They produce a slight salivation even in man. Some other plants may have similiar salivating properties, but the two above mentioned are the most common ; being found al- most all over the United States. They are not uncommon in Kentucky. By attending to this, it will be easy to prevent the disease : since they are both annual plants, which may easily be destroyed in the meadows, by pulling them up before they ripen their seeds. Should they grow too thick, horses and cattle should not be allowed to pasture where they grow, (when the weeds are in blossom,) and burnt on the ground. Should the horses and cattle happen to eat them notwithstand- ing, and be attacked with the salivation, they may be cured in a single day by feeding them plentifully with cabbage leaves, which appear to be an effectual antidote for this peculiar disorder. If no cabbages should be at hand, the leaves of turnips, radishes, mustard, and such other plants of the cruciferous tribe, might pro- bably answer equally as well. 1 venture to hint that cabbages and the cruciferous plants might, perhaps, become an efficacious remedy in the morbid salivation brought on men by an excessive use of mercurial preparations, to- bacco, &IC. It is by similar analogies that the materia medica is often enlarged, and effectual remedies are discovered, or succeda- neous palliatives adopted. It is my wish that these facts, conclusions, and hints, may be- come useful, since the constant aim of science should be, to apply its extensive resources to the practical benefit of our fellow beings. And such, 1 trust, will always be the ultimate objects and results of my pursuits. SAVE YOUR POMACE. It is customary, with many of our farmers, to throw the pomace out by their cider-mills, year after year, there to collect in one huge heap, or else to draw it out, and put it under some stone wall, or in some bye-place, as they would a nuisance, which they are glad to get rid of. Now, with due deference to older heads, we pronounce this a wasteful and slovenly practice. " Why, what in the world is it good for ?" say they ; " it is like a pile of cedar chips, and has neither heart nor nourishment in it ; it's fit neither for manure nor fodder." We know a person, who very carefully 236 farmers' and mechanics' journal. shovels it away from his cider-house and carts it into a mud-hole, under the impression above staled. Now we should not be sur- prised, if some of his posterity, should hereafter be seen, digging out that said mud-hole, and spreading its contents upon the very land, which it is now so carel''ul]y kept oif of. The fact is, that Pomace is fit, both for manure and fodder ; that it is indeed too valuable to be thrown away. It is composed principally of vege- table fibres, rendered comparatively inert, it is true, by having the juices — mucilage, sugar, &c. &;c., partly pressed out of it. But a little quick-lime mingled with it, would brini^ it to a state of putre- faction or decomposition, and render it soluble, and consequently fit for nourishment to plants. But the better way to reduce it to the state of manure, is, to give it to your cattle and let them pass it through that mysterious laboratory — their stomachs. Thus a greater saving will be effected, nouiishment will be afforded to your cattle and manure given in return. It is thought by some, that cattle will not eat it, and by others, that it is hurtful to them. Let us prefer the question to the " dull ox" in person. Offer him a quantity that has been kept clean, and he will soon convince you, that it is far from being unpalatable. The cows on our common, have been teaching this lesson to us, for several days. Somebody had left there a load or two of pomace, and they have been feast- ing upon it until the rains came, and what remains is trampled into the sand and mud. We find the following communications in the J^. England Farm- er, which will serve to corroborate our opinion upon the subject, [From the Middletown (Conn.) American Sentinel.] APPLE POMACE. On taking notice of large heaps of apple pomace near some cider-mills in the vicinity of Middletown, I am induced to men- tion, that it is good for cattle, sheep and swine, and ought not to be wasted, for it is good for nothing for manure : I tried it more than 10 years ago, by carting away a large heap of it, which had lain accumulating many years, and was satisfied that it did not pay me for my trouble ; I could not say it helped the crop, although it was put on sandy soil, and the land inclined afterward to be mopy, and bore less grass. It was according to my father's custom, and the practice of steady habits, to keep milch cows away from po- mace, but wishing to prove all things, I kept a cow principally upon it more than three months in the year 1786, feeding her sparingly at first, for a iew days, and then letting her lie at a heap which was replenished with fresh pomace every few days, and where there was little else to eat, and we thought she did as well APPLE POMACE. 237 as the other cows which lay in good rowen feed, and it did not dry up her milk, as farmers generally suppose it will. If a cow eats her fill of apples, it checks her milk, and so it will if she eats her fill of grain, and overeating grain sometimes causes death, yet cows might do well on apples after being accustomed to eat them, even by lying in an orchard and eating as many as they wish ; if cows are allowed to take their fill of pomace at first, it may check their milk, and make ihem stagger ; it is the distention of the sto- mach, rather than the injurious effects of the apple or pomace, that checks the milk. I have never wasted any pomace since my experiment, when I have owned a cider-mill, but in the year 1794 I sold my place and bought another farm, and had no cider-mill for many years, but the trouble of going a mile to make cider, loss of the pomace, and paying for the use of the mill, induced me to build one near my house, where two men could easily roll a hogs- head of cider from the mill into the cellar. No pomace has been sutfered to lie near the mill since it was built ; we place a cart close to the press, and throw in the pomace and carry it away and spread it for cattle to eat, throwing a little to the hogs, (which is but very little more labor than to carry it by hand two rods, and throw it in a heap,) and the cattle will eat the pomace, and the apple seeds which scatter, are picked up by the fowls. I like this practice better than to have a heap of stinking pomace near the mill, which is not worth carrying away. If you have more pomace than your cattle will eat, you can dry it, house it, and feed it out in winter ; it will be saving hay. 1 have told many farmers of my practice, who feed out pomace in the same way ; and if I have published something like it before, the reader will excuse me for having it printed again, when we are sensible that many people read very superficially, and most people are apt to think their own method is the best, and it becomes necessary to give precept upon precept ; but I have no motive but public utility. I have also published how to make cider, but people like their own mode best, although Newark cider sells in New- York for four or five times as much as that which is made in New-England ; and I think it is wrong to have the Yankees so much outdone : but making cider is nearly done with for this year. I hope that some more of our farmers will, at least, feed out a little pomace for a trial, against next year. A Farmer. [From the New-England Farmer.] POMACE. Mr. Fessenden, — Seeing in your paper of the 16th of Novem- ber, an article relative to the disposal of apple pomace, which, from my own experience, I think incorrect, I have thought proper to offer a few remarks on this subject. I have for eight years past made from 150 to 300 barrels of cider annually, and have disposed of my pomace in the following man- 53$ farmers' ajsd mechanics' journal. ner : my piggery is situated near my cider-mill house, and consists of two apartments, each sufficiently large to contain my pomace, and other substances intended to make manure, for one year. Here I throw my pomace, when sufficiently pressed, for my hogs to work over, which gives them constant employment, and I am of opinion that they get considerable nutriment from it. The next season, after the frost is out of the ground, I throw in some loam, and in the summer, at leisure times, I continue to throw in weeds from my vegetable garden. My hogs keep continually rooting this compost over, and causing the pomace to decompose, which, at the end of fifteen or eighteen months, makes excellent manure. The next season for making cider, my pomace is thrown into the other assortment, which passes through the same process. I usual- ly keep six or eight hogs, which are divided and kept in these apartments. My mill-house, and other accommodations attached to it, consists of a building 80 ft. long and 23 ft. in width. The water-spouts of this building have conductors to carry the water into each of these apartments, which are kept continually moist, and which I think very important for my hogs to wallow in, in the heat of summer, as well as to decompose the pomace. I take out of one of these apartments upwards of 25 ox-cart loads of excellent manure, every spring. I have given my low mowing land a top- dressing of this manure, and have taken the same year, a crop of hay equal to 2 1-2 tons to the acre, and a crop of rowen equal to one ton to the acre. This manure 1 consider worth to me from 25 to $30, besides the service the pomace is to the hogs. Before the adoption of this plan I used to throw my pomace into my pastures, upon rocks, and received little or no advantage from it. I have not written the above with a disposition to differ from any person in opinion, but with a view to general utility, upon a subject apparently triffing, yet connected as it is with the number- less items that engage the attention of farmers, it may serve as a ipoke to support the firm wheel of Agriculture. A Farmer, Norfolk County, Dec, 4, 1827. To this last communication succeeded another, not approving the plan of the Norfolk Farmer, as being the most economical, because all of the pomace could not be consumed by six or eight hogs ; and alleging that pomace did not contribute much to the manure, until it had passed through the stomachs of the hogs. He recommended that the pomace should be carefully dried under cover, and dealt out to the stock at such times, and in such quantities as was most proper ; thus making it an article of foddeir or rather of luxury. We are aware, that there is a prejudice against the use of pomace, and also of apples, as an article of food for hogs or cattle — that (hey are injurious, &c. ; but we presume, that whenever this kind MISCELLANEOUS. 239 of food has been injurious, it was on account of the animal eating too much and thus cloying the stomach. We know a practical farmer who frequently fats his beef, and hogs, upon nothing but apples, and has ever found it a palatable and nourishing species of food. VV^e hope to have a communication from him on this subject. EXTRAORDINARY YIELD. The River La Plate or long red Potato, is noted for its fruit- fulness. A gentleman of this town, raised the present season from two bushels and a peck, fifty bushels. The ground was broken up last year, planted with potatoes and manured very liberally. The present year it was not manured at all — the potatoes were cut into one or two pieces — one piece was planted in a hill and the eyes were carefully placed uppermost. They were hoed as soon as they were up, and also after they were about six inches high. Another person informs us, that he once raised over three pecks from one potato of this kind. IVEISCELLANEOUS. Diseate of Silk Worms, and its cure. In the southern parts of France, where silk worms are raised, it is very common to observe the insects attacked by a disease called the jaundice, in consequence of the color acquired by them. Very careful examination is continually made for the discovery of such worms as may be attacked by it, that they may be removed, lest the disease, being contagious, should spread to the others. The Abbe Eysseric of Carpentras, had recourse to a remedy in these cases, which, though apparently dangerous, had been war- ranted by the success of twenty years. He used to powder his worms over with quick-lime by means of a silk sieve ; he then gave them mulberry leaves moistened with a [ew drops of wine, and the insects instantly set about devouring the leaves with an eagerness which they did not usually show. Not one of the hurdles upon which he raised his worms, appeared infected wilh the jaundice. It was at first supposed, that the cocoons of silk were injured bj this process ; this, however, is not the case, and his method of practice is now adopted generally in the department of Vaucluse. [Bull. Univ., D. viii. 360. Tenacily of Iron, as applicable lo Chain-Bridges, The following results have been deduced from experiments naade in Russia, and detailed by M. Lamb, in a letter from Petersburg, Ann. des Mines, x. 311. In the apparatus contrived for the pur- pose, the power was applied by a hydraulic press : ' 240 farmers' and mechanics' journal. The best iron tried, supported 20 toiis per square inch, without being torn asunder. The bars began to lengthen sensibly when two-thirds of this power had been applied, and the elongation ap- peared to increase in a geometrical ratio with arithmetical isicre- ments of power. The worst iron tried, gave way under a tension of 14 tons to the square inch of section, and did not lengthen sensi- bly before rupture. By forging four bars of iron of medium quali- ty together, an iron was obtained which did not begin to Icngtiien until 16 tons had been applied, and supporting a weight of 24 tons without breaking. Taking these results as sufficient data, it was decided by the committee appointed for the purpose, that the thickness of chains in a suspension bridge, should be calculated so that the maximum weight to be borne should not exceed eight tons per square inch of sectional surface, and that before being used they should be sub- jected to a tension of 16 tons per square inch, and bear it without any sensible elongation. [Jour, of Science and Arts. Cementaiion of Iron by Cast Iron. Pure iron, when surrounded by, and in contact with, cast-iron turnings, and heated, is carbonised very rapidly, so as to harden, to temper, and, in fact, to exhibit all the properties of steel. M. Gautier finds this a very advantageous process in numerous cases, especially where the articles to be case-hardened, or converted into steel, are small, as iron wire, or wire gauze. The tempera- ture required is not so high as that necessary in the ordinary pro- cess of cementation, and the pieces to be carbonised are not in- jured in form. The kind of cast-iron used, should be the gray metal, and the more minutely it is divided the more rapid and com- plete is the operation. By covering the mass of cast metal, in which the iron to be carbonised is enveloped, with sand, oxidation, from contact of the air, is prevented, and the cast metal may be used many times. Plumbago experimented with in the same man- ner, does not produce the effect. [Jour, de Pharmacie, 1827, p. 18. For the Farmers' and Mechanics' Journal. QUERY. A good way to acquire information, is, to admit our ignorance, and frequently ask questions of those who have attended to the subject. This may appear frivolous to those who care nothing about the subject, or have no thirst for information. But almost any question, if properly considered and answered, will elicit in- formation. I would inquire, therefore, where is the centre of bear- ing in the hub of a common carl-wheel, supposing the under side of the axle a straight line and the wheels standing on a level with each other ? And also, what is the best mode of tilting axle-trees to the hubs of wheels for common roads, taking into consideratioa the greatest strength and the least friction ? S. H. I THE NEW-ENGLAND FARraEBSMND MECHANICS' JOURNAL. Vol. I. GARDINER, NOVEx^BER, 1838. N... 11. IVCECHAIflCS. For the Fanners' and Mechanics' Journal. Specification of the Patent granted to Wm. Coburn, for a Method of Extracting Tannin from Bark, ^c, by Steam. To all persons to whom these presents shall come, William Coburn, of Gardiner, in the County of Kennebec, and State of Maine, Currier, sends greeting : — Be it known, that 1, the said WilHam Coburn, have invented, constructed and applied a new and useful improvement in the mode of applying sienni for extracting tannin and other ingredients contained in Hemlock, Oak, or any other Bark, or from the leaves and branches of sumach, oak, or chestnut, or from any other-sub- stance usually used in the tanning or manufacturing of skins into leather. This improvement consists in applying steam to the substance from which tannin is to be obtained, in the following manner : viz. The steam is conveyed from the boiler, by a tube into the lower part of a cistern or tub. The tub, or vessel used for that purpose, is furnished with a false bottom perforated with holes, and raised a few inches from the true bottom. The tub is tilled with the sub- stance to be acted upon by the steam, which is suffered to pass into the tub between the bottom. Cold water, or bark liquor, is then occasionally poured into the top of the tub, and the liquor thus obtained is drawn ofT by means of a cock placed between the bottoms of the tub. The advantages of this mode are, 1st. The simplicity of the apparatus necessary for the applica- tion of the steam ; no pressure is required to confine the steam in the tub, other than the weight of the materials acted upon. 2d. By the application of cold bark water, or liquor, or cold water, the steam is found to penetrate the substance much more easily, and a greater quantity of tannin, &;c. is obtained. Gardiner, JVovember, 1828, Mr. Editor, — By experiments in my mode of extracting tannin as above described, 1 think that a saving of about one-third may 31 Vol. 1. 242 farmers' and MmmANICs' JOURNAL. be effected in tanning, by using my apparatus. A quantity of bark that had been thrown out of the vat for a day or two, and consid- ered as spentj was put into the cistern and steam applied. It was estimated, that one-half as much tannin was extracted, as had been before by the common process. Other experiments were instituted upon bark treated by diffe- rent methods, with similar results. WM. COBURN. We, the unders!i;ned, have examined Mr. VVm. Coi5U!1n's appa- ratus for extracting tRuniu by steam, and are coiiviiiccd that more taniiin can be extracted by his mode, than by any other with which we are acffuainted. BENJAMIN COOK, ^ BENJAMIN ELWELL, | HENRY EEEMAN, }- Tanners. MYRICK HOPKINS, | BENJAMIN WEYMOUTH, j Gardiner, Xov. 17, 1828. On the Manufacture of Glue, or Size, for the use of Weavers, Pa- per-hanging Manufacturers, <^-c. Glue is made from hides, skins, and pelts ; the skin of the ears, legs, &c. ; and the older the animals are producing them the better. Hidt-roundings are the best material for this purpose : viz. the clippings of hides, wl)ich have only been limed; as leather which has been tanned, or dressed in oil, is of no value for glue or size ; except for the use of the black paper-case makers, who use tanned leather for making their glue. The proportion of their value for this use is nearly as follows : — 112lbs. of the hide-roundiiigs are equal to making 56lbs. of glue •, the same quantity of chamois-leather or glovers' clippings, not oiled nor tanned, or of alumed or whitlawed leather, to 46lbs. of glue ; of hare and rabbit skins, (which are never limed, and are mostly used by buckram-stifleners and linen-dyers, in consequence of their not having any lime or alum in them,) to 35lbs. of glue ; also the same quantity of fellmongers' shreds yield from 25 to 28lbs, of glue ; and of parchment slips or cuttings, from 14 to I6lbs. A great deal, however, depends upon the various articles enu- merated, being perfectly free from lime, dust, or dirt, their perfect state of dryness, and their good condition. The expenses of boiling them into glue are much reduced when the various articles have been soaked in water for 24 hours pre- vious to boiling them in other fresh water. The quantity of water must be regulated by the strength of the glue or size .required ; allowing one pint of water for an ounce of glue, or two gallons for a pound of glue, for single size. The hide-roundings require one gallon of water for 16 ounces ; alumed leather, chamois leather and glovers' clippings, one gallon per 20 oz. ; hare and rabbit skins, one gallon per 24 oz. ; fell- ON IMPROVING THE QUALITV OF SAWS. 243 mongers' shreds, one gallon per 28 oz. ; and parchment cuttings, one gallon per 50 (xz.. The exact quantity of water ought first to he put into the boiler, according to the quantity of size intended to be made ; and when the article to be boiled into size, is added, the depth, or quantity of liquid required to be constantly maintained till the gelatine is extracted by the boiling, will he correctly ascertained ; and any visible waste occasioned in the boiler during the operation, must be continually supplied, by adding the necessary quantity of water ; or otherwise considerable time will be lost in the process. An iron pan, or boiler, is much better than any other, provided that care is taken to add cold water, by a little at a time, while the boiling is continued. And it is also necessary to have an iron grating placed inside the boiler, in order to prevent the article from burning to the bottom of it, and to lessen the time and trouble required in frequently stirring it. We have extracted the above useful particulars from the Manu- facturer''s Assistant, a work containing much valuable information ; to which we may also add, that, after the boiling is completed, the clear size ought to be strained from the dregs, To finish it for use. And that the paper-hanging manufacturers prefer to make their white size for light colors, of the skin which covers the foreheads of calves, previously freed from the hair by liming them. The skins of soles, and no doubt of other fishes also, after being freed from all greasiness by soaking them in lime-water, will very readi- ly dissolve into a size in water, by the assistance of heat ; and which, after straining it clear, may no doubt be usefully employed for many of the purposes of isinglass, &;c. [Tech. Repository. On Improving the Qualitij of Sarvs, by Hammer-hardening their Teeth. The Editor lately mentioning to Mr. Christie, the worthy Secre- tary of the London Mechanics Institution, Mr. Turrell's great im- provement in gravers, eflfected by hammer-hardening them ;, it oc- curred to him, that the practice, frequently adopted by smiths, and other workmen, of hammering the worn and blunted lops of the teeth of their back and frame-saws, merely with a view of spread- ing them sideways, so as to free themselves in use, j)revious to filing them sharp again ; must not only have that eHecl, but must likewise greatly conduce to the improvement oi ihc'w hardness and toughness, from the condensing effect of the hammer upon them. Mr. J. I. Hawkins, on being informed of this, by the Editor,, perfectly agreed in this opinion of Mr. Christie's ; but, with his usual acuteness, suggested the farther improvement of first filing the teeth into shape, and then finishing Ihern by hammer-hardening their tops ; which would not only spread them out sideways, but would also preserve to them all the advantages of the elfcct of the hammer upon them ; which, according to the present practice of filing them after hammering them, are in a great measure lost ; and 244 farmers' and mechanics' journal. he thought there would be httle difticulty in, applying his improve- ment to the teeth of all saws, which were not exceedingly small, lie would screw the saw fast in a vice, (the teeth in the chaps of which were guarded fronn indenting the saw, by plates of copper lining the chaps on each side,) and, with the flat cross-pane of a hammer, the handle of which was held towards the fore part of the saw, and the hammer itself at a proper angle, to suit the form of the teeth, he would then hammer-harden every individual tooth. The best saws are those which have been considerably condens- ed by hammer-hardening them on their sides, in making them ; but this additional process, of hammering the tops of their teeth, can- not but prove a considerable improvement upon them. [Technical Repositoi-y. On the great improvement made in Brick-layers'' Trowels, hy Ham' mer -hardening them. By Mr. George Walby. There is, perhaps, no implement which undergoes more severe treatment than the brick-layer's trowel does, in its constant em- ployment of hacking bricks into shape, and thus encountering the pieces of flint, pebbles, &c., ordinarily mixed with the clay ; and which, besides having a tendency to injure its edges, also render it liable to break continually. Mr. Walby, therefore, by his excel- lent processes, accomplished a most dilllcult task, and rendered his superior trowels highly prized, by those persons who were the most competent judges of their merit, from their constant expe- rience in their use ; and, indeed, his brick-trowels, like the hand- saws made by the Editor's late father, were continually changed, by grinding, into other and smaller kinds, until they became too diminutive for any useful purpose ; their originally excellent quali- ty remaining perfect to the last. They were made of the best shear-steel, carefully worked throughout, and especially to avoid over-heating the steel ; and towards their finishing in the plating or forging, and when nearly reduced to their proper thickness, besides beating them in a clean hollow-fire, to avoid contact with cinders, &c., he also removed all scales upon their surface, previous to giving them their last planish- ing, under the rapid blows of a hammer driven by a steam-engine, by means of a very ingenious revolving elastic steel brush of his invention. He carefully attended to the proper hardening heat, and quenched them in a composition or hardening liquor, similar to those used by saw-njakers : he next blazed them off to the spring temper ; and, lastly, hammer-hardened them as much as possible. They were then ready for grinding, after which operation, their elasticity being again restored by blueing them, they were glazed or brightened, ready to be mounted into their handles. We have many particulars of the various tools, used by Mr. Walby in his practice of trowel-making, and which are well de- serving of being published. LIME INJURED BY EXPOSURE TO AIR. 245 On the vnprovemenl of Drills, hj hammer-hardening them cold. Mr. Andrew Prltchard, the inventor of the hard-shell lac cement, finding that steel, when hardened and tempered, is susceptible of receiving the condensing efFect of the hammer ; has applied it, with considerable advantage, to the points of small drills, by ham- mering them upon their ilat surfaces. On improving the Edges of Square Broaches, or Boring-bits, by Haminer-hardenhig them. Mr. Joseph Clement, an excellent workman, and mechanical draughtsman, informed the Editor, since the publication of Mr. TurreiTs great improvement in gravers, that a friend of his in Scotland, many years since, improved the quality of his square broaches, by hammer-hardening them cold, after being hardened and tempered upon their flat sides. He, however, kept this pro- cess nearly a secret. The Editor thinks it would have been much better to have, ham- mered them upon their angles, as Mr. TurreU does his gravers, which would have had a much better condensing eflfect ; and then to have ground them again, to bring up the blunted edges to their proper figure for use. ""The tive-square broach is also equally sus- ceptible of improvement in this way. [Tech. ReposHory. Experiments showing how quickly Lime imbibes Carbonic Acid Gas, and is injured by Exposure to Air : Practical Inductions, ^c. On the 22d of August, 1776, I exposed two pounds avoirdupois of well-burned nonetfervescent chalk-lime, in fragments of the stze of a walnut, spread on a board, in a dry unfrequented room. I exposed the same quantity of this lime, at the same time and in the same manner, in a passage through which there was a constant cur- rent of air 5 and I put the same quantity of this lime, in fragments of the same size, in a box which might hold as much 'foveoi it, and placed the box loosely covered with its hd, close by the hrst portion of lime. r , r ^ i In twenty-four hours, the superficial lumps of the hrst parcel cracked in some parts a little, those of the second cracked more, those of the third were not visibly altered. In forty-eight hours, the first parcel cracked so much as to fall into smaller fragments on bein^ moved, and these were reducible to powder by pressing them between the fingers : The second parcel underwent the like or rather a greater change, fov it was more cracked and triable : The third now begun to crack in the superficial parts. On weighing them, I found that the first parcel weighed 2 lbs. 5 oz., the second, 2 lbs. 6 oz. I dr., the third, 2 lbs. 1 oz. 10 drs. : 1 then returned them to their former stations. In six days, the first parcel weighed 2 lbs. 10 oz. 7 drs. 5 the se- cond, 2 lbs. 12 oz. 1 dr. ; the third, 2 lbs. 4 oz. 8 drs. In twcnty-one days, the first parcel weighed 3 lbs. 1 dr. ; the second, 3 lbs. 2 oz. 1 1-2 dr. ; the third, 2 lbs. 6 oz. 8 drs. 246 farmers' and mechanics' journal. During this increase of weight, the fragments spht into smaller pieces, but did not fall into powder, except in a small part of them, or when they were handled. By similar experiments made on well-burned stone-lime, 1 found that this imbibes matter from the air nearly in the same manner as ehalk-lime, but rather more slowly ; which I think is owing to its closer texture. On exposing common chalk, or stone-lime, in the same way, I find that it increases in weight much less and more slowly. To discover the quantity of water which the lime imbibed from the air, and which contributed to this increase of weight, 1 put each parcel in a glass retort ; and adjusting to it my apparatus whereby all that is condensible is saved, whilst elastic fluids are at liberty to escape, I found that the quantity of water contained in each parcel of lime, was nearly in some, and in others accurately l-24th of the gained weight, the remainder of the weight gained was of carbonic acid gas mixed with a little air, which latter 1 do not reckon, be- cause it was already weighed in the lime. If a glass bottle be filled with fragments of well-burned chalk- lime, or stone-linfic, or shell-lime, and well stopped with a ground glass stopple slightly waxed where it fits the neck of the bottle, the lime will remain unaltered in weight, or in any other known particular, for a year or two ; as 1 have repeatedly experienced : even the phosphorescence of lime is thus preserved in its full lustre, for a year or more. Thus it appeared that well-burned lime imbibes carbonic acid gas from the air, the sooner, as it is the more fully exposed to it : that lime imbibes this matter from the open air, the more greedily as it is more perfectly deprived of it previous to the exposure : that lime cannot be long preserved unaltered in any vessels which are not perfectly air-tight, but may be kept uninjured for any time in air-tight vessels filled with it : that chalk-lime, by reason of its sponginess, or by some other condition of it, requires to be kept less exposed than stone-lime, and well-burnt lime less exposed than common lime, to render the depravation of them equal in equal times : that if carbonic acid gas imbibed by lime previous to its being used in mortar, be as injurious to the mortar, as the carbonic acid gas retained in equal quantity by ill-burned lime is, lime grows the more unfit for mortar every hour that it is kept exposed to air, whether in a heap, or in casks pervious to air. I think, moreover, (hat these experiments show that lime under- goes these changes by expos'jre, much quicker than has been sus- pected ; since well-burned chalk-lime kept in a dry room, imbibes near a pound of carbonic acid gas in three weeks, in the summer season. Not to trust to theory what I could prove by experiment, I did not rest satisfied with the observations and reasons which might persuade one, that lime, which has imbibed some carbonic acid ,gas, is as unfit for the uses now under consideration, as lime which ON BLACK DYEING CLOTH AND HATS. 247 retains an equal quantity of the like matter by reason of the defi- ciency of heat in burning it. I tried parcels of well-burned chalk and stone-lime, some of which were used fresh, others exposed two days, others six days, others twenty-one days, in the same circumslances'; by making several specimens of mortar with them, and e\pu,«in;^ I he s[(ecime!)s in the manner already related ; and in a few moullis I was satisfied that the specimens made with fresh lime were the liarde«;t and best, and that the others were worse, as the lime of them had been long- er exposed ; for those made with the lime which had been exposed three weeks and had gained four or live ounces to each pound, were so easily cut or broke, so much atfected by moislure and dry- ing, and so liable to break off from the tiles, as to be utterly unfit for the ordinary uses of mortar. After this there remained no doubt that lime grows worse for mortar every day that it is kept in the usual manner in heaps or in crazy casks ; that the workmen are mistaken in thinking that it is sufficient to keep it dry ; that lime may be greatly debased without slaking sensibly ; and that the superticial parts, of any parcel of lime, which fall into small fragments, or powder, without being wetted, and merely by exposuie to air, are quite unfit for mortar; since this does not happen until they have imbibed a great deal of carbonic acid gas. I now saw more clearly another cause of the imperfection of our common cements. The lime being exposed a considerable time before it is made into mortar, and drinking in carbonic acid gas all the while, the quicker as it is the better burned, is incapaljle of acting like good lime, when it is made into mortar ; and often ap- proaches to the condition of whiting, which with sand and water makes a friable perishable mass, however carefully it be dried. [Higgins^ Experiments and Observations. ON BLACK DYEING, AS APPLIED TO WOOLLKN CLOTH AND HATS. The dyeing of black has deteriorated so much within the last forty years in England, and in this country as the copyist of Eng- land, that the colors would be considered as unwearable, were not the cloths as evanescent in their fabric as the colors are fugitive. The faint miserable colors given to the blacks in the present day, has been mainly the result of the prevailing passion for cheap goods. To meet and indulge that ridiculous unprofitable passion, the manufacturer lias been compelled gradually to make his goods in the most flimsy manner, and the dyer to make his color at as low a rate as possible. So much has the dyeing of black been lowered in the west of England, that a piece of twenty yards of broadcloth which forty years since was charged thirty shillings, is now done for six shillings and eight pence, and the dyer makes nearly the same profit now as he did then. Before the year 1790, all the black cloths dyed in England, ex- 248 farmers' AMD mechanics' journal. ceptins: the coarser grades, were colored blue in the woad-vat |>re- vious to their receiviiii; the black dye ; and a consideiable portion of nuto;alls was used with logwood, &c. in finishing the color. All the black cloths brought from England, have a white and a blue rose near the end. The white rose w ;s designed to show that the cloth was white previously to its bein^ dyed blue ; for, as cloths dyed other colors, if found defective, were usually dyed black to cover their imperfections, and as repeated colorings were found to injure {\\c icsture of the goods, the dealers would not give the sanrie price for cloths without the white rose. The blue lose was de- signed to show that it had received the bbie dye, and the color of the rose was considered a criterion of the depth of the blue given. The white and blue rosss aic sLiil preserved ; but the blue is never put on, excepting by dipping a corrier of the cloth in the blue-vat, and by tying a rose on that part. Nulgalls, which v.ere found to give permanency to the colors, have also been exploded as too ex- pensive ; and the blacks now given to the public, are dyed with only logwood, fustic, and sumach. The lattei- being the only ma- terial in the composition that has any tendency to impart th^ least degree of permanency to the color, and that is nccessr.rily used in such small portions, to preserve the blue bloom of the now fashion- able colors, as to have but little etfect in checking the fugitive dye of the logwood. The French and the Germans have always made much better black, and given to that color r, far greater degree of permanency than the English. 1 am aw;>ie that tiiis opinio:i will be consider- ed as high treason bv Eivjlish agents, through whose intluence the most flimsy goods, and the most miseraSle colors, have become fashionable in this country, and the public taste in this particular, been materially vitiated. To prove the correctness of this opinion, I need only request any citizens, who have an opporiunity of doing it, to compare an English black that has been worn three months, with a French black that luu- been worn th-e same time. The color put on hats is even more fugitive than that put on the cloth ; and it is high time that our dyers, both of woollen and hats, should pursue some mode of giving more permanency to their colors. The primary object of this essay is, to show them how this can be effected, without any additional expetise to the opera- tor. 1 am aware that it would be worse IS. an useless to attempt to bring our dyers back to the old cxpensi'. 3 but highly permanent process of giving a woad-blue to their goods before coloring them black : for the public taste has become so highly vitiated by the passion for cheap goods, that firmness of fabric, body, and perma- nency of color, and every other quality that give to them an in- trinsic value, riie now never taken into consideration. As giving a blue ground is out of the question, and as the nutgalls, the next most jcrmanent mode, must also be resigned as too expensive, 1 have to ditect th«^ attention of our dyers to a material growing aband;i*.tly in this co'.uivy, whicii ansv/ers even a better purpose than n jlj^alls, and will i.-jst no mv;re than the process now pursued. GURN'RV'S STF.AM COACH. 24!^ Most persons living- in the interior of the country, know that the bark of the swamp-maple will make good black ink. thouiih they mav not be aware that ifoiir nonn.ls of this bark, dried and <,o(V)>d, are equal to one noiind of the bes) t of several subscribers. We have inserted selections on the culture and management of this article, from various authors, in former numbers ; but, although there may be some repetition, we hope that further attention to the same subject, may not be entire- ly useless. Hemp, (says Loudon.) is one of the few plants employed in agri- cuhure. which have the male and female flowers on difTerent and di'^fi'ict platits. This circumstance has some influence on its cul- ture for seed. Soil — The soil best suited for hemp, is a rich, deep, mellow, vegetable mould. A deep alluvial soil, or such as is better known by the name of intervale, also produces it luxuriantly, and if it be moist, or more inclining to moisture than drvness, it will be stiJl better. Ft was formerly cultivated on such soils, (in this State,) durint; the Revolution, for the purpose of being manufactured into twine, frc. for nets and seines. Almost any soil, however, if it be not exhausted, or if it be well manured and well worked, will pro- duce it abundantly. It is important that the soil should be well pulverized. Indeed, most of our New-Kngland farmers fail in this imnortant part of cultivation ; they do not use the plough and har- Vow enoui^h. Old <4rass lands, that have been broken up, and have had one crop of potatoes, or corn, taken from them, would be suita- ble. Tt is not necessary that the soil should be extremely rich ; for in this case, the hemp will grow too luxuriantly and coarse. On the other hand, it should not be very poor ; for the crop will, of coiir«p. be thin and light. — The ground should, if possible, be plonscbed in the fall, that it might have the benefit of the frosts of the winter, and spring ensuing. If fall ploughing cannot be eflfect- ed. however, it should be done as early in the spring as possible, and well oulverized. Time of Sowinfr, (§/t . — Hemp should be sown as early in the spring as the fro«t will permit. It is generally sown broadcast, or as wheat and rye are sown in the country. Great attention should be paid to harrowinii it in ; that the ground be well broken and no hard lumps or clods left. For this purpose, a bush-harrow CULTURE OF HEMP. 25S should be used, in conjunction with the common kind, and a roller wou i !io hiuiiiy useful. The qiianfity of seed, to be put upon the acre, must vary ac- cording; to the quality of the soil. The judgment of the farmer, and the oh'ect he has in view, must regulate this. From two to throe bushels, however, may be considered as the average quantity per acre. The seed should be good, — have a plump appearance, ard he fresh, heavy and bright. No |)articular culture is required after it is sown, except, that, m some instances, the weeds are puled out ; this, however, is very seldom done, as the hemp springs up ! .d choaks the weeds. On this account it is often sown for a weeder upon a soil that has become foul with weeds ; " the quick- ness of its growth and the exclusion of the free circulation of air about its roots, occasioned by the largeness of its leaves, killing or suffocating all sorts of weeds or under growth." Time and Mode of Gathering. — There are diiferent rules observ- ed, with regard to the time of gathermg hemp. Some harvest it as soon as it is out of blossom. Perhaps a better criterion is, the change of color, which takes place very soon after the pollen of the male plant, has become matured, or, in other words, as soon as the male flowers begin to wilt. The leaves turn yellowish, and be^ come somewhat speckled. In some countries, they sow their hemp in drills, or rows, and pull or reap the male plants as soon as thev begin to change. The best way, however, for saving seed, is, to sow a separate field for this particular purpose. After the seed is threshed out, the fibre, or lint, can be obtained. It is best to reap or cradle it. The following letter, from an experienced cultivator of hemp, gives us valuable information on the subject : " There is no invariable rule as to the tiine of cutting hemp planted for seed, by the general complexion of either the male or female ; but particular care must be had to the color of the seed, when the hull that encloses it is taken off. The seed should be generally changed to a grey or brownish cast. If two thirds of the seed wear that appearance, the sooner y<)u cut the better. It should be bound in small bundles immediately after cutting, and set up in small stacks, — from four to six bundles in a stack — bind- ing in all the branches, by putting three bands round the, same, near the top of the shocks or stacks. It may stand in this situa- tion until dry enough to thresh, — say from five to ten days, as the weather may be for drying. The seed may be threshed in the field on sheets made of strong cloth, or on a fjoor. Great care should be used in moving the 254 farmers' and mechanics' journal. hemp to osile and ungenial to their natures and constitutions, and therebv early inchning to derny ; but which were speedily leslored to their ori- ginal vigor and complexion, by a proj)er and tinicl} ap[>!icatioM of white sand. " The sand which has invariably been found to surpass all others for general and special purposes in horticulture, is a peculia-i-i ;oft and fine zohilc sand, of an unusual smoothness, nearly as fine as flour-emery, " Where none other than the common white sand, which is usu- ally coarse, can be obtained, small quantities of the most line can be sif ed out with a tine sieve. [Or still better procured from it by washing over. — Ed. Tech. Rep,J " Little argument can be necessary to convince the unprejudiced florist, gardener, or amateur, of the general utility of suitable sands being mixed with the more cold and heavier soils ; thereby ren- dering them open and porous to discharge all copious falls of rain, dissolving snow, &c., and which tend to oveicharge adhesive soils with an undue proportion of moisture, and thereby to chill and starve the stock of plants and flowers." [TecA. Repository. SALIVATION OF D03IESTIC ANOIALS. Fayette, Kij., Oct. 5, 1828. Mr. Ski.vner, — In No. 28, Vol. 10, of the ..American Farmer, (to which 1 am a subscriber,) there is a communication from Mi. J. W. Jeffreys, of N. Carolina, enclosing some reflections " On the Salivation of Horses," by C. S. Ratinesque, late of Lexington, Kentucky. It is the obiect of this notice to correct several mistakes into which the latter gentleman has fallen, in treating of a subject about which he had no |)a< tiral knowledge. He says, no othc- domestic animal is liable to the excessive flovr of saliva of which he speaks, and which is so extensively and in- SALIVATION OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 259 juriously known among us. but the horse and the cow, and the hit- ter only shglitl}. This is not true. Hogs are quite as liable to it as < ows. I have seen every hog or* my farm, of all ages, amount- ing to several hundreds, afflicted with it at the same time. I never knew it terminate fatal'y in any animal but the horse. The disorder is attributed by him, to two plants or weeds, which are not uncommon in this region, viz: the Euphorbia hypericifolia, and the Lobelia inflata. This. 1 apprehend, is also incorrect. The former weed abounds among us ; but. as he truly states, hogs do not eat it ; yet (hev are more subecf to salivation than any animal be-iidi' the horse. — The latter weed does not grow on my planta- tion, nor in my vicinage, and yet my stock, especially my hogs, are annually more or less salivated. This disorder is a very disagreeable one, and extremely iniurious to our stock ; one which e\ery body can account for as they sup- pose, yet one which all allow to be perpetuated among them. I have no iheory on the subject, but I will state a few facts which \ have observed for some years. I believe most domestic animals are subject to the disorder. Horses, cows, hogs, sheep — and even my goats, I have seen sali- vated. The condition of the animal at the time, whether fat or poor, sick or well, seenfis totally immaterial — all being equally liable to be attacked. The period of its arrival, and length of duration, are uncertain ; except that it is never seen but in warm weather — and other things being equal, the warmer the weather the worse the salivation. It lasts from six weeks to tive months. It seems to be much more violent during a dry than a wet summer. Stock, grazing on red clover of the first or second crop, on a re- cent harvest stubble of any kind, or on an unniixed blue grass pas- ture of recent formation, are not often salivated. On. the contrary, stock pasturing on red clover older than the second crop, on an old white clover tield, or on pasture land of any kind very closely bit down, are very liable to be salivated. The free use of water and of salt, will greatly mitigate the dis- ©rdei . There is a very large weed found in the corners of fences, and in other rich, untrodden spots, common among us, called the rich or hull weed, which all stock, but especially horses, are very fond of, that will mitigate the flow of saliva in a few hours, and stop it in a few feeds, if the animal has not access to whatever originally produced the disorder. The disorder may be always cured in a day or two, by feeding the animals on any kind of grain whatever. I have seen a horse salivated and cured several times in a week, just as his food was cha!i<^ed. Upon the whole, 1 do not pretend to know what is the imme- diate cause of the disease ; but i am satisfied that it is produced by something taken into the stomach of the animal, and that it can 26® FARMERS^ AND MECHANICS' JOURNAL. always be cured in a few days at farthest, by resorting only to nu- tritious and healthy food. It seldom produces death, excej't in ag- gravated cases, attended with great neglect. 1 do not think it is attended with pain, nor even by soreness about the mouth or sab- vary glands, but produces its effect by a perpetual wasting awav of th^' principle of bfe. It unquestionably produces no constitutional iiiiury ; for all you gourmands know the excellency of our beef; the most patriotic citizen in St. John's Colleton wiM testify to the lusciousness of those swine which have become his abomination ; and I doubt not Mr. McD******, hmiself, rides a biood-horse ex- ported from Kentucky by the Downings. in his circuits through his district. If you think 't of any conseijuence. you ran use these remarks, which are of no other value than as they may correct er- rors, which are given dignity to by be being circulated in your pa- per. Your obed't serv't, B. [„1merican Fanner. FOOT ROT IN SHEEP, We are sorry to hear that this troublesome disease continues in some flocks. It is, however, princi[,a!ly confined to the Saxonies. It is hoped that no pains will be spared to eradicate it. The fol- lowing recipe will be an excellent af^companiment, to the wash laid down in the 2d No. of this volume ; and if but one can be used, it would be better to use this, because it will adhere to the foot much bettei. The following mode of treatmeat is recommended for this most troublesome disease in sheep, by a very intelligent and highly dis- tinguished gentleman residing in Vermont, in a letter to his friend in Boston. This gentleman was among the first who introduced the fine-woolled sheep into this country, and is now the owner of a very larje flock of the finest woolled sheep, many of which were imported direct from Saxony, and are of the purest blood. The opportunities this gentleman has had, both in Europe and in this country, for investisjating the causes and effects of this disease, ren- ders his advice invaluable ; and every wool-grower shoyld preserve these directions as a rich legacy from one of his country's bene- factors. " By great attention with dry, hilly, sotmd pastures, the consti- tution may be so improved that we mav nitimatelv eradicate ibis vexatious and injurious disease. My remedy has been as follows : When the sheep were only slightly afltcted, to put on one, two or three dressing? of blue vitriol, powdered fine, either dry, or mixed with olive oil. to the consistence of soft salve, and when the foetid smell has subsided, dress with white-lead, thinly mixed with olive oil. When olive oil is not at hand, boo;?' jard will answer, or even drv white-lead. If the disease is bad and has taken deep hold be- tween the horn and the sensible part of the hough, there is u& GOOD BACON. 261 remedy short of paring away the horn as far as it appears unsound, an-1 cuttiii ■■ awav the livid flesh, when ap|.i} the hiue v.tnol as above, until the frctid smell has subsided, when finish the cure^ >th white lead. The sound tlcsh may readily be distinguished from thediseaspd, hv the former's bleeding freely, and the blood and fle^h having' a brijiht and lively appearance, like a fresh cut in a healthy nart of the body, whereas the diseased part will be of a greenish brown, or liver color. At this season of the year, when the hornv part of the hongh is pared off. it will be necessary to put on a bo-t made of sheep-skin, and moderately tied with a woolled string, round the fetlock ^oint. to defend the hough from cold and dirt. The boot ou^rht to be daily washed in strong soap-suds, and every four or five days replaced with a new one. The sheep OM-ht to be dressed every morning, and before each dressing, the diseased part ought to be well washed with warm, strong, soft soap- .uds Prior to driving the sheep into the pen to be dressed, it will be well to sprinkle the pen over with slacked lime, to prevent the disorder being increased by contact with the infectious matter. Much attention ought to be paid to the separating the lame sheep from the flock, and when cured, to their being taken from the lame flock. Attention ought also to be given to the cleanliness of their sheds, and that they do not run on wet ground. Sometime, lamo- ness proceeds from cracks between the houghs, i. e. the skin vvhich connects Ibe two houghs together ; but the milder type of theifoot- rot also often commence^ between the houghs. They are, how- ever ea^ilv distinguished from each other, for in simple cracks the hou-h retains its natural coolness, whereas foot-rot is invariably attended with heat in the hough, particularly about the crown, i. e. the part between the horn and the hair. For simple cracks, soap- suds and white-lead are sufticient. One part oil of vitriol ana three parts water mixed, is used by many instead of blue vitnol Attention ought to be paid to cleaning the issues. Pure water aud as much salt as they.wiU consume, are at all times necessary to the health of sheep." [K h. Farmer. GOOD BACON. The following is the mode of curing Bacon in Virginia, laid down bv a gentleman of the Isle of Wight county, who had much expe- rience in the process. It is needless to say that Virginia hams en- joy a reputation scarcely short of those from Westphalia. There 'is "a considerable quantity of Bacon cured in this part of the coun- try, but often in a manner so iniudicious, that the meat becomes excessively hard, ils flavor is lost, and the palate is regaled with nothing but a villainous compound of salt and smoke. The sug- gestions contained in it may also be of service in the curing of salmon. . " To have good Bacon, the pork must be fat ; it may possihlu be too fat, though that is verv rar^lv the case in Virginia. Hogs about !8 months old, which are raised poor, and afterwards well fatted; 262 farmers' and mechanics' journal. in a short time on cum. are. I thitik, deridedly to be preferred. Beiore the pork be salted up it should be thoroughly cold, a circnm- stauce indispensable to its lasting preservation ; and it is at least the safest course, in our uncertain climate, to lose no time after- wards. To give bacon its most exquisite flavor, both molasses or su^^ar and saltpetre should be used. I usually put a table-spoon- ful or two of molasses on the flesh side of the ham, a little before it is salted, and after the molasses is rubbed over it, a heaping ta- ble-3j>oonful of (ineiy pulverised saltpetre ; the ham supposed to weigh, when cured, from 12 to 15 lbs. I put nearly the same quauiity on the middlings and shoulders, and proportionably on smaller pieces, believing that it essentially contributes not ovA^ to- wards improving the flavor and appearance, but also to ihe pre- servation of bacon, and as a preventative against the worm, hijg, and skipper. In order to ensure perfectly sound bacon, the j'-rk must be salted at least twice. The second salting should take olace about the third day after the first, at which time I add about a third of the quantity of saltpetre applied in the first instance, li, how- ever, the pork should be frozen when salted in the first instance, it should be re-salted as soon as practicable aftrr it (haws, without which there is great danger of iiiury. I use the J.iverpooi ^,>ck salt and prefer it on account of its fineness. A bushel to the thou- sand weiuht of pork is perhaps onite enough. Care should be taken to let the brine drain otf from the pork, whilst in salt, as its contact with it tends to injure its flavor, ff salted in casks, there should be a hole in the bottom after the second salting, that the brine may escape. 1 here are difierent opinions as to the length of time the pork should remain ni salt. I would recommend four weeks. If saltpetre in suflicient quantities be used,ya< pork can scarcely be made too salt. I have known prime excellent bacon to have remained in salt more than three months. — The last ope- ratio!i in the curing of bacon is the smoking of it. This may be eufiiciently well done perhaps with any kind of wood, but strong solid green wood, as hickory or oak is the best. Contrary to old opinions, the operation is carried on in the closest smoke-house ; a considerable degree of heat, too, is not only perhaps not iMJurious, but promotes and facilitates, I believe, the operation. The old idea of the fire-tainled meat is erroneous. The effisct, so called, is oc- casioned by the pork not being thoroughly cured — In hanging it up, it is most advantageous to put the joints highest, for, as they are most assailable by the skipper-fly, they are least liable thereby to have eggs deposited on them. There is an opinion which has long universally prevailed, and which I think the experience of the last winter has belied. It is, that if pork be once thoroughly cold be- fore salting, it may with proper care be saved. This, in ordinary winters, is true. But in such a winter as the last, when the ther- mometei- ran, in 24 hours, from between 30 and 40 to 60 and 70, and remaiiod so for U^.wv or (ive days, I do not think that fat and large pork can be saved by any reasoMn!>ie attei.tion to it." [Virginia Phanix Plough- Bmj. MISCELLANEOUS. 263 To preserve Bacon sound and szveel through the summer. Dear. 3ir, — In the Farmer, voliune 3, page 309, you piiblislied a cornmunicalioij from Mr. J. VV. Lincoln, of Worcester, leconn- mcnding, that hams, after being soaked, should be packed away in oats. 1 followed his advice last year, and really feel ?o much in- debted to him for the hint, that 1 must thus j)ubliciv thank !um ; and for the benelU of my ,ieighl)ors ask you to re[)ublis!i his iciter. To give you the best proof of the beautiful state ol" preservation se- cured by this method, 1 send you a ham weighin;^ 1 I 3-4 lbs., you will (ind it perfectly fiesh and full of essence — free from all sort of speck or blemish. Those praitisiiig this mode of preserving their bacon free from skippers or vermin of any kind, should recollect, that the chest or cask ought to be perfectly tight, and raised about six itichcs from the ground, and the oats packed in, quite tight. A ham of this size should be boiled three and a half hours at lease. [^V. E. Fanner. [Some people do not smoke their bacon at all. After the hams have lain in the pickle a sufficient length of time, they are taken out and hung up to dry ; and after they are thoroughly dried, they are packed away in oats or wheat. Hams thus treated, will keep a long time, perhaps as Jong as jf they were smoked or washed in pyroligneous acid.] IVEISCZSZ.I.ASa'SOUS. Cattle Fairs before the Revolution. Before the Revolution, regular Cattle Fairs were held in the town of Hardvvick, under the patronage of Timothy Ruggles, one of the most distinguished men in our county in fortner times. The political commotions which overspread the land swept away the custom so beneficial to the agricultural community. — We notice that the enterprising inhabitants of Southbridge, propose to revive the ancient usuage, and hold, on Saturday, the 8th day of Novem- ber, a Fair, for the exhibitio ), sale, and exchange of cattle, horses, and s[)ecimens of the mechanic arts. The beneficial effects wliich have resulted from the encourage- ment i^iven to industry by the Agric:j!tural Societies, have been manifested in the annually increasino; numbers of beautif d and vaiu!)le animals which crowd to their exhibitions, and in the spirit of improvement and of liberal competition which has gone throua-h the community. — The shows of these associations, while thev pre- sent to observation and imitation the rarest specimens of the pro- ductions of the earth, of mechanical skill, and of good bre.i'dingf have not been occasions where the farmer could part with his sur- plus r)roperty, or supply his want** h>.' sale or excha:);j;e. The best premium on t' •:; i>!oductu)iiS of -i '•'^. ^ ' ^ w p— r 3 rr •ij — : :i , •^^ ^ :'i ^! ^'S ' .■*< 'A , .i •»j* ^ M' I V V^ ^ ' "' ''^ ^ '^ \1 * '^ ^i: ^s^. v^ '\\ a X * ^ ^ -5! %! l3 THE NEW"EI^GLAND FAR:^IEPS' AND MECHANICS' JOURNAL. Vol. I. GARDINER, DECSMBER, 1828. N... 12. IKCECHAITICS. The following is taken from Hale's Carpentry, a work which ought to be in the hands of every "brother chip" in the nation. It is compiled from the best of (he English and other authors, and pre- sents, in a condensed form, the essence of those works which are rare, and too expensive to be purchased by our carpenters in gene- ral, and yet it is not read so much as it should be. Why are our mechanics, in general, so afraid of a book ? Why is it that those, who can scarcely make a movement in their respective arts, but they put in practice some of the fundamental principles of me- chanical philosophy, should be so stubborn in keeping themselves ignorant of those principles ; and not only themselves, but others ? Why should not a Carpenter be a philosopher, and a learned man? Is there any inconsistency in the thing ? Would it injure him in the least, if he should become an adept in any of the natural sci- ences ? Would it render him the less skilful in shingling a hovel, or planning a church ? The principal objection that has been urged against giving me- chanics, &:c., an insight into the sciences, and one that has been brought forward even in the rouncils of the State, is, " that it will make gentlemen of them.'''' Now there is no term in the Eri'^lish language more abused, or more vaguely used than this same word gentleman. If by it is meant that nondescript biped, which we sometimes see on the end of a cigar, wagging his tea-colored bea- ver, cracking his whip, and abusing the waait-a-r of a country tavern. Heaven forbid all learning. But if by Gentleman is meant, that man of a wel'-informed and noble mind, who understands his business and minds it — who knows his phrc in society and keeps it, — who is aware that he has a country, and honc"s it — who pays 34 Vol. 1. 2(i6 farmers' and mechanics' journal. to others, and to himself, that respect which he ought, and " wh© does as he would be done by," — then by all means give them learn- ing.— The book in question will not make a man a Carpenter, or a Philosopher, by merely buying it. It should be studied, and studied attentively, and the person who has done that, will find himself well paid for the trouble, and well prepared to proceed to the higher and more important study of Architecture — a science, as grand, as noble, as interesting, and, in this country, as little un- derstood as any there is. OF SCA.RFING, &c. Taken [with a few omissions) from TredgoliTs Elemenfarij Principles of Carpentry. The joints having to support whatever strain^ the pieces joined are exposed to, should be formed in such a m;i!iiui- that the bear- rng,parts may have the greatest possible quantity of surface ; pro- vided (hat surface be made of the l)est form for resi^-ting (lie strain^. For, should that part of the joint which receives the strain be narrow and thin, it will of course either indent itself into the pieces to which it is joined, or become crippled by the strain ; and which- ever of these happens, a change must be produced in the form of the framing. The etFect of (he shrinkage and expansion of timber should be considered in the construction of joints. On account of the shrink- age of timber, dovetail joints should never be used in carpentry, as the smallest degree of shrinking allows the joint to draw out of its place ; and, consecpjently. it loses all its efiect in holding the parts in their proper si(uation. Dovetail joints can only be used with success, when (he shrinkage of par(s counteract each other ; a case which seldom happens in carpentry, but is common in joinery and cabinet-making. Joints should also be formed so that the contraction or expan- sion may not have a tendency to split .any part of the framing. The force of contraction or expansion is capable of producing as- tonishing effects where the pieces are confined, and may be some- times observed in framing that has been wedged too tightly to- ge(her in improper directions. The powerful effect of expanding timber is well known to quarry-men, as they sometimes employ its force to break up large stones. In forming joints, the object to be attained should always be kept in view, as that which is excellent for one purpose may be the worst possible for another. Of lengthening pieces of Timber, that are to resist strains in the direction of their length. The simplest and perhaps the bes( n.ethod of lengthening a beam is to abut the ends toge(ber. aiid p-rice a piece on each side ; these, wken firmly bolted together, form a strong and simple con- OF SCARFING, &C; 267 wexion. Such a method of lengthening a tie is shown by the fol- lowing figure ; and is what ship-carpenters cs.[]Jishing a beam. It is obvious, however, that the strength in this case depends on the Fio. 55. ^T T ' T + 1 + ^ + ' bolts, and the lateral adhesion and friction produced by screwing the parts together. The dependence on the bolts may be much lessened by mdent- ing the parts together, as shown by the upper part of the annexed figure ; or by putting keys in the joint, as shown by the lower side Fig. 56. of the same figure ; but the strength of the beam will be lessened in proportion to the depth of the indents. The only reasons for not depending wholly on bolts, are, that should the parts shrink ever so little, the bolts lose a great part of their effect ; and the smallness of the bolts readers them liable to press into the timber, and thus to suffer the joint to yield. The sum of the areas of the bolts should never be less than two- tenths of the area of the section of the beam ; and it is not a good practice to put the bolts near to the end of the pieces. The most usual method of joining beams is that called scarjiiig, where the two pieces are joined, so as to preserve the same breadth and depth throughout ; and wherever neatness is preferable to strength, this method should be adopted. From Fig. 57 to Fig. 60, four methods of scarfing are shown. The first, Fig. 57, is the most simple ; it depends wholly on the bolts, and in this and like cases, it is best to put a continued plate of iron on each side for the heads of the bolts. The ends of the plates may be bent and let into the beams. Fig. 57. ^^ ! —7 ■ 1 7 -» <= ^c^ I ! - ft f ii ' - "T + T + •t 268 farmers' and mechanics' journal. The annexed figure is a joint that would do without bolts, but is is clear that (he strength would not be quite so great as half the Fig. 58. z p strensith of an entire piece. The key or double wedges, at a, should only be driven so as to bring the parts to their proper bear- ing, as it would be better to omit it, than to drive so as to b, oduce much constant strain on the joint. It is not necessary th:i» there should be a key. except when bolts are to be added, and then it is desirable to bring the Joints to a bearing before the bolts be put in. The addition of bolts and straps makes this an excellent scarf. The following figure is a slight modification of the last described scarf, where the keys are supposed to be of hard wood ; if of a Fig. 59. curled grain so much the better. In this form the scarf is easier to execute, and equally as good as the last, when bolts are used. The next figure represents a scarf where the oblique joints in the last examples are avoided, and the same degree of strength is obtained ; at the same time it is very simple and easy to execute. Fig. 60. To determine the length of a scarf, in joining beams, it is neces- sary to know the force that will cause the fibres of timber to slide upon each other. The researches upon this subject have already been laid before the reader in Chap. Vlll. Fart 1. To apply them to our present object, let A B, in the succeeding figure, be Fig. 61. '^r OP SCARPING, &,C. 269 part of a scarfed beam, slnxned in the direction of its length, and put togetiuT without i'olfi*. Now, it is plain that the strengih of the part c 6, must bo exactly equal to the force that would ^ ause the fibres to slide at the dotted line c d ; for if the part c d, were shorter, the ioint would be less strong than it is possible to make it. Also, if the depth of the indent a c be too small, it would be crush- ed by the strain ; consequently, the parts must have a certain pro- portion, so that the joint may be equally strong in each part. In the first degrees of exlcnsion and compression the resistance is equal, therefore the depth of tlie indent a c must be equal to the part c 6, in order that the strain may be equal ; and it is evi- dent, that when there is only one indent, as in this example, the depth a c should be one-third the whole depth. Also, let d be d the depth of the beam, and m the number of indents ; the — = the 3in depth of each indent. Or the sum of the depth of the indents must be equal to one third of the depth of the beam. To determine the length of the part c d, we must know the ratio between the force to resist sliding, and the direct cohesion of the material. Let the ratio be as 1 : n •, then c d must be equal to n times c b ^ that is, in oak, ash, or elm, c d must be equal to from 8 to 1 0 times c h. In fir, and other straight-grained woods, c d must be equal to from 16 to 20 times c 6. Hence may be derived some maxims that will be sufficiently ac- curate for practical purposes : i. In oak, ash, or elm, the whole length of the scarf should be six times the depth or thickness of the beam when there are no bolts. ii. In fir the whole length of the scarf should be about twelve times the thickness of the beam, when there are no bolts. iii. In oak, ash, or elm, the whole length of a scarf depending on bolts only, should be about three times the breadth of the beam ; and for fir beams it should be six times the breadth. iv. When both bolts and indents are combined, the whole length of the scarf for oak and hard woods may be twice the depth ; and that for fir, or soft woods, four times the depth. Of lengthening Beams that are intended to resist cross strains. Beams to resist cross strains require to be lengthened more fre- quently than any others, and from the nature of the strain, a diffe- rent form must be adopted for the scarf from that which is best for a strain in the direction of the length. There are cases where beams are exposed to both strains at the same time, but the cross strain is generally that of the most importance. Of this we have an example in the tie-beam of a roof, where the strain in the direc- tion of the length is very small compared with the cross strain. 270 farmers' A^D mechanics' journal. Let C D, Fig. G2, represent a beam strained by a load at E, and supported at the ends. All the parts above the middle of the depth, b c, will be compressed, all below will be extended ; there- fore, the square abutment a e is better for the upper side than any complicated joint whatever; and it is evident, that all oblique joints should be avoided on the compressed side. In this figuie the whole of the strength of the lower side depends on the bolts and strap. Fig. 62. The following figure shows another form, where the lower side is indented so as not to depend wholly on the strap and bolts ; and Fig. 63. a key is introduced to tighten the scarf. It will readily appear, th it had the joint been cut to the dotted line instead of the oblique line, the strength would have been much impaired. The annexed figure represents an angular view of a scarf, where it is jointed the contrary way. An iron plate at A B is supposed Fig. 64. to be removed, which shows the tongue at the end of the scarf. This method appears to me to employ more of the strength of the limber than any other, and is very well adapted for a tie-beam where it is strained both across and in the direction of its length. In all these cases the depth of the indents, and the length of the scarf, will be obtained by the same rules as for beams strained in the direction of their length. In scarting beams to bear a cross strain, it would be a great ad- vantage to apply hoops or straps instead of bolts, as the coach- makers and ship-carpenters do. It would be easy to form the scarf so that hoops might to be driven on perfectly tight. IMPROVEMENTS IN TANNING. 271 There is no part of carpentry that requires greater correctness in workmanship than scarfing ; as all the indents should bear equal- ly, otherwise the greater part of the strength will be lost. Hence we see how very unfit some of the complicated forms shown in the old works on carpentry were for the purpose. It is certainly very absurd to render the parts diflicult to be fitted, when the whole of the strength depends on their fitting well. " But many," says Pro- fessor Robison, " seem to aim at making the beam stronger than if it were one piece ; and this inconsiderate project has given rise to many whimsical modes of tabling and scarfing." ENGLISH PATENTS. To Thomas John Knowlys, Esq. and William Duesburv, Color IMannfacturer, for their havuig invented certain improvements in Tanning. Enrolled February, 1827. This improved mode of tanning, consists in suspending the hides in a close vessel, from the interior of which the air is to be ex- hausted by means of an air-pump, and when the \acuum within is sufficiently perfect, the tanning liquor is admitted, which imme- diately penetrates into the pores of the hide, occupying the place from whence the air has bfen extracted. By these means the operation of tanning will be greatly facilitated. The hides to be tanned, are introduced into the vessel, and are suspended by hooks at the upper corners, with weighfs at botlom to keep the skin extended. As many of these hides as may be re- quired to he tanned, are in this way placed within the vessel, and when the lid is tightly fixed on, the air is to be extracted from the interior by means of an air-pump. When a sufficient exhaustion has beesi etiected within the vessel, the cock of fe20- Hampshire, September 4. 1828. The socket vice may be made of any size, according to (he use to which it is to be applied, and of metal or wood. When made to be used as a socket for awl'^, it should be of steel ; its whole Jength should be about two inches and three-fourths ; one end, for about three-fourths of an inch, should be round, and about one- fourth of an inch in diameter; beginning three-eighths of an inch from the end, it should taper slightly to the end, upon which, for the same distance, a screw should be cut ; it should then diminish, and again increase in diameter, in both cases slightly, and i;radual- Jy ; at three-fourths of an inch from the end it is flattened abruptly, forming a shoulder on two sides, and is made tapering on the two edges, to the other end, where it is pointed ; a hole is made longi- tudinally into the round end. about three-fourths of an inch deep ; it is then cut twice transversely, from the end to the bottom of the hole, dividing it into four equal parts ; a hollow screw, or nut, adapted lo the vice, is screwed upon this end, compressing it so as to hold, firmly, the shank of the awl ; the outside shape of the nut HOW TO MAKE GLASS-PAPER, &C. 275 should be square, so that it may, by means of a small wrench, be easily screwed on or oiF. The pointed end of the socket vice, may be inserted in a handle of wood, so far as to the commencement of the screw. When made for other uses, the size and the form of the shank may be varied, to suit such uses. Luther Hemminwav. [lb. TO MAKE GLASS-PAPER. Take any quantity of broken window-glass, that which has ra- ther a green appearance on the edge is best, pound it in an iron mortar, then have two or three sieves of dififerent degrees of fine- ness, ready for use when wanted ; take any good tough paper, fine cartridge is best, and having levelled the nobs and bumps from both sides with pumice-stone, tack it at each corner on a board, and with good clear glue, diluted with about one-third more water than is used generally for wood work, go quickly over the paper, taking care to spread it even with your brush ; then, having your sieve ready, sift the pounded glass over it lightly, but to cover it in every part; let it remain till the glue is set, take it from the board and shake off the superfluous glass again into (he sieve, and hang it in the shade to dry : in two or three days it will be fit for use. Note. — This paper will be much better than any you can buy, as sand is frequently mixed with the glass, and colored to deceive the purchaser. [Cabinet- Maker'' s Guide, TO TAKE OUT BRUISES IN FURNITURE. Wet the piece well with warm water, then take some bro,vn paper five or six times doubled, and well soaked in water, lay it on the place, apply on that a hot flat-iron till the moisture is evapo- rated, and if the bruise is not gone, repeat the same ; you will find after two or three applications, the dent or bruise is raised level with the surface ; or, if the bruise is small, soak it well with warm water, and apply a red hot poker very near the surface, keeping it continually wetted, and you will soon fi^nd the indentation vanished. [lb. TO MAKE CEMENT FOR BROKEN CLASS. Take one ounce of isinglass, steep it in half a pint of spiri(,> of wine, for twenty-four hours, then let it dissolve over a slow fire, always keeping it covered, or the spirit will evapoiate ; Ihcn fake six cloves of garlic, bruise them well in a mortar, put them iii a linen cloth, and squeeze llie juice into the isinglass, mix all well together and keep it for use, it being excellent lo join glass orna- ments, &c. &c. " r/^. 276 farmers' and mechanics' journal, ACKICULTURZ:. SHEEP. This invaluable animal is found in almost all climates, from the poles to the equator. The difference in situation, and mode of man- agement, have inevitably made a great many varieties, some of which are now carefully kept up and cultivated, by those who make a business of breeding Sheep. The English carry the plan of hav- ing distinct breeds of animals for distinct purposes, to the greatest length, and, as in their division of labor, they find a manifest ad- vantage in it. Hence in England we find a greater variety among their domestic animals, and especially among their Sheep, than in any other country. According to their writers, besides the Me- rino and Saxony, which are common, almost every county has its peculiar breed which are distinguished from each other by some peculiar quality or property. Thus, they have the Dishley or New Leicester breed, distinguished for long wool and remarkable fatten- ing qualities — The South Downs, distinguished for short fine wool and the excellent quality of their mutton — The Devonshire Nots, distinguished for their great quantity of wool, &c. &;c. This plan is a good one, and ought to be more systematically adopted and pursued in this country. It is, indeed, not necessary to carry the practice so far as the English farmer does, but different breeds of sheep should be kept, and kept pure and genuine for specific purposes. The breeds may be few, for the objects in this region need be but few. We want, for instance, very fine wool for the finest fabrics. For this purpose the Farmer should raise Merinos ; and the Saxonies (which are only a variety of the Merino) may be mingled with them. For long wool of moderate fineness, that shall be excellent for combing or worsted, and also for very fat mutton, we would recom- mend the Dishley or New Leicester breed. For fine short wool, suitable for common fabrics, and for excel- lently flavored mutton, we would recommend the South Down breed. For coarse long wool, which shall be suitable for a coarse wiry kind of fabrics, such as Camblels, &c., we would recommend the Caramanian. Now we do not recommend to every farmer to keep all of these breeds, and much le?s do we recommend that careless, Slovenish ON SHEEP. 277 practice of junfibling all the breeds together, as many farmers do, thereby abusing nature, by thwarting her intentions, and filling the country with Hybrids and nondescripts. During the Merino Fever, as it is called, most of our New-Eng- land farmers entered into the speculation. A very few proceeded carefully and judiciously, and have now converted their flocks into full-blooded and genuine Merinos, the wool of which will not suf- fer in comparison with any whatever. A very few kept, what is called, the old or common breed, and avoided the Merino as they would a wolf. But the majority have gone on without care or sys- tem, and their flocks are now neither of one kind or the other. They have neither fine wool nor coarse wool, long wool nor short wool. They have none sufficiently fine to manufacture into supers fine broadcloths, nor sufficiently coarse to make a horse blanket; and as for mutton, they are much worse off than they would have been had they stuck to the old breed. A farmer should consider well what he wishes to do with regard to sheep, and what particu- lar object, in this respect, his farm and conveniences will enable him to accomplish with the most profit. If fine wool be the object which engages his attention, let him keep the Merinos, or Saxo- nies (which is considered nearly the same) and let them be Meri- nos— all Merinos — and nothing but Merinos. He should con- tent himself with the wool, for the mutton is certainly inferior, to that of the other breeds which have been enumerated. The different breeds which it is thought would be beneficial to our farmers to keep, and preserve pure, are four. Let us attend to their peculiar qualifications and specific distinctions. 1. The Merino and Saxony, The Merinos were first introduc- ed into England from Spain in 1787. It is thought, however, bj some, that the stock was originally carried from England many years previous. They were first introduced into the United States by Col. Humphreys, of Connecticut, and Livingston, of New- York, and have proved of incalculable service to the country. The Saxonies (originally Merinos) were carried from Spain about sixty years ago, into the electorate of the Duke of Saxony. These have been improved with the utmost care, and have now repaid the trouble, by the immense sales of them for shipping to this coun- try. " This breed bears the finest wool of the sheep species ; the males usually have horns of the middle size, but the females are usually without horns : the faces and legs are white, the legs rather 278 farmers' and mechanics' journal. long, but the bones fine. The average weight per quarter of a tolerably fat ram, is about seventeen pounds, and that of ewes, about eleven pounds." The shape of this breed is not considered very perfect by pro- fessed breeders and judges. " The throatiness, or pendulous skin, beneath the throat, which is usually accompanied with a sinking or hollow in the neck, presents an offensive appearance, though it is much esteemed in Spain, as denoting both a tendency to fine wool and a heavy fleece. Yet the Spanish sheep are level on the back and behind the shoulders, and there is no reason to conclude that deformity in shape, is necessary to the production of fine wool. The fleece of the Merino sheep, weighs, upon an average, from three to five pounds ; in color, it is unlike that of any other breed ; there is upon the surface of the best Spanish or Merino and Saxo- ny fleeces, a dark brown tinge, approaching almost to a black, which is formed by dust adhering to the greasy properties of its pile ; and the contrast between this tinge and the rich white color below, as well as that rosy hue of the skin, which denotes high proof, at first sight excites much surprise. The harder the fleece is, the more it resists any external pres- sure of the hand, the more close and fine will be the wool : here and there indeed, a fine pile may be found in an open fleece ; but this occurs rarely." — Loudon, 2. The South Dozon. This breed of sheep take their name from the extensive downs, or commons, in the counties of Sussex, Kent, &c. England. Very few of them have as yet been introduced into New-England ; indeed, we know of but one importation, viz : that of Messrs. A. & A. Lawrence, of Boston, in the autumn of 1825. In the Middle and Southern States they are coming more into no- tice. They were first introduced into the United States (if we mistake not) by that enterprising and energetic agriculturist, John Hare Powel, Esq., of Powelton, near Philadelphia, who thinks very highly of tiicm, and of whom they could undoubtedly be ob- tained in great purity. Their specific characters are, — faces and legs uniformly grey ; bones fine or small ; neck long and slim ; ra- ther low before ; shoulder high ; somewhat light in the fore quar- ter ; sides broad ; loin tolerably good ; thigh full ; and twist good ; wool very fine and short, (the staple being from two to three inches in length,) weighing, on an average, two pounds and a half to a fleece, when killed at two years old. Flesh fine grained and of ON SHEET. 279 very excellent flavor. Quick feeders. Constitution hardy and vigorous. Capable of great improvement. Lawrence, an Eng- lish agriculturist, says, they are second to none of the breeds in Britain, and recommends them very highly for "hill or pasture sheep." PowEL, in the Memoirs of the Pennsijlvaaia ^Agricultural Socielt/, says, the South Down Sheep have fuier fleeces of shorter . staple and much less weight, smaller, carcases, less loaded with fat, showing more proof within, affording mutlou of tiner texture and beiler llavor than any breed known. Their forms are hot so accu- rate, their fore quarters bein2, iighlei- and their necks larger than those of the Dislsley Sheep, but th<'!r chests are sufliciently wide to allord ample space for the position of their lungs ; upon the health- ful action of which, able, scientific and practical men agree, the vigor and useful animal secretions must depend. They are much more hardy ; have more offal ; they consume rather more food in proportion to their size than the Dishley Sheep, but by their vigor and activity, are enabled to find support, and to thrive upon bleak and barren hills, where Dishley Sheep would die from exposure, or would starve. 3. Dishley, or JVerc Leicester Sheep. This breed of Sheep have been introduced into Massachusetts, by S. Williams, Esq., of Northboro', in that State, and a few importations have been made by others. Mustapha, a portrait of whom accompanies this num- ber, is from Mr. Williams' flock, and belongs to the Editor. The drawing gives a good representation of him, excepting that the legs are rather too long, and too large. The characteristics of this breed, are, — heads clean, straight, broad, and without horns ; eyes bright and lively ; pelts thin ; wool long and fine, admirably well calculated for combing, and weighing on an average, eight pounds per fleece. They fatten kindly and very early, being remarkably well calculated for the market; thriving and remaining quiet on pastures that will scarcely keep other sheep, and requiring less food than others. Constitution not quite so hardy as that of the South Downs. The world is indebted to the celebrated Bakewell for this breed, who brought it to a degree of size, &c. really aston- ishing ; and it was rams of this breed, which he let for such enor- mous prices. In 1789, "He made twelve hundred guineas by three rams ; two thousand, by seven, and of his whole stock, three thousand guineas." [See Bewick^s History of Quadrupeds, — Lou- do7i, — Young'' s Tour, ^c. c^c.] 280 farmers' and mechanics' journal. The superior qualities of the Leicester breed, are, — that they will feed quickly, (at at almost any age, even on indifferent pas- tures, and carry the greatest quantity of mutton upon the smallest bone. Their carcases are round, have remarkably broad backs, and short legs ; and to shovr the immense weight to which they may be fed, we give the measurement of a Ram of 3'r. Eakewell's, mentioned by Young in his Eastern tour, at three years old : — his girt was five feet ten inches ; height, two feet five inches ; breadth over his shoulders, one foot eleven inches and an half; breadth over his ribs, one foot ten inches and an half ; breadih over his hips, one foot nine inches and an half. The dimensions of a Wedder, or Wether, as we call them, owned by Mr. Culley, and killed when four years old, were as follows : — " Girt four (eet eight inches and a half; breadth over his shoulders, one foot three inches ; over his middle, one foot seven inches and a quarter ; across the breast from the inside of one fore leg to lae inside of the other, nine inches. At the dividing of I'na quarters through the ribs, it measured seven inches and one-eighth of solid fat, cut straight through without a slope ; and his mutton was of a most beautiful bright color. But in nothing was he so remarkable as in the smallness of his bones." — Bewick. We mention these facts, to show what can be done with the breed by care and attention, though we are doubtful if such very fat mutton is desirable* 4. Caramanian, or Camhlct Woollcd Sheep. This breed is a na- tive of Caramania, a province of Asia Minor. They are large and long legged ; necks long, heads horned, backs straight, chests or breasts moderately wide ; wool very long, somewhat coarse and wiry, similar to goats' hair. Selim,^ whose portrait is also present- ed you, is a half-blood, from the original buck, kept on the farm of Wm. Shotwell, Esq., of Woodbridge, (N. J.,) brought into the United States by Capt. Gerry, in 1825. The following history of him is taken from the New-York Statesman : — " He was taken from on board a Turkish vessel bound to Canstantinople, and presented to Capt. Gerry by the Greek Admiral Tombazo, who assured him that he was a native of the above place. Their wool is particu- larly adapted to the manufacture of Camblets, and their flesh is * His wool oii|Tht not to liave been represented quite so long, he being only half blood. In other respects the drawing is very correct. — He be- lonffs to the Editor. ON SHESP. 281 esteemed excellent aiul delicate. This animal has a broad tail, and the natmal color of the wool is dark brown or snull" color ; the fleece, before shearing, dragged on the ground, (except under the belly,) so as completely to hide the feet, and weighed 21 lbs. ; he is in prime condition and sound health, the size greater than any of the largest sheep of our country. The head is beautiful, the eye piercing and quick in inoiion ; no fleece bcvond the ears : the head appears to project out from ihe fleece, having the re!ieml)lance of the dark brown short fur of the deer's head ; the horns are hand- somely seated and of the middle size. John Bkentnal, Esq., an Eiighsh farmer of high standing, re- siding in VVoodbridge, in a letter to ^Villiam Shotwfll, of New- York, dated 10th June, 1 o25, says, he took 21 lbs. of wool from him ; that he would have produced from 4 to 3 lbs. more had he not have been robbed ; that there were several places of 5 or 6 inches square from which the wool had been taken ; further, he is extremely gratified with the frame of the animal ; that he is large and perfect, his limbs well proportioned, his skin extremely deli- cate and white, his strength great ; and he has no hesitation in say- ing, this very extraordinary animal will prove of much greater ad- vantage to our breeds of sheep than the Merino or any other hith- erto introduced ; as he is but three years old, he will undoubtedly increase in size and produce a still more abundant quantity of wool ; observing, that its superior size, the weight of the 9eece the length of the wool, and the quality of the flesh, cannot but be the best recommendation ; and says, to ascertain the quality of the flesh of a sheep is by the smell. A person handling a buck of the Merino, English or American breeds, will fiiid his hands extremely offensive, which was not the case in shearing this ; on the contra- ry, his fleece and flesh were perfectly sweet. He recommends shearing twice a year. The breed of this sheep must be exceed- ingly valuable in this country, and we should not be surprised if Mr. Shotwell should receive orders for lambs for England. The hair is not as tine as the Cashmere goats, but it is thicker and in greater quantities." We are not so sanguine, respecting the value of this breed, as the person quoted above ; but we verily believe it may be made highly useful to us. Why not manufacture our own Camblets ? and why not use this wool for all the purposes to which goats' hair is put ? Large quantities of this article (goats' hair) are imported 36 Vol. 1. 282 farmers' and mkchanics' journal. from Smyrna, to be manufactured into various articles. It would be much better to raise these sheep and put their fleeces to the same uses. — The Goat is a mischievous animal, and will not thrive in this region. The Caramanian is peaceable and will do well here. Besides Camblets, his fleece may be advantageously used like com- mon hair, for stufting sofas, couches and matrasses ; and a thousand other uses may be made of it, for which oiher wool would be either unfit or too valuable* MODE OF PREPARI.\G SOME OF THE CHEESES ENTUMERATED IN LOUDOx's LIST. The Brick-bal Cheese is so named from the forrn of the mould ; it is formed of new milk and cr<\i;n in the proportion of two gal- lons of the for:ner to a quart of the latter. It is pi'incipaily made in Wiltshire in the monlh of September, and should not be cut un- til it is twelve months old. Cheshire Cheese is in universal esteem ; it is made from the whole of the milk and cream, the morning's milk being mixed with that of the preceding evening, previously warmed. The general weight is sixty pounds each cheese. Green, or Sage Cheese, is made by steeping over night in a pro- per quantity of milk, two parts of sage, one part of marigold leaves, and a little parsley, after they have been bruised. On the follow- ing morning, the greened milk is strained oif, and mixed with about one-third of the whole quantity intended'to be run or coagulated. The green and white milks are run separately, the two curds be- ing kept apart until they be ready for vatting ; these may be mixed, either evenly and intimately, or irregularly and fancifully, accord- ing to the pleasure of the manufacturer. The management is the same as for common cheese. Green cheeses are made in the vale of Gloucester, as also in Wiltshire. Lincolnshire Cheese is made by adding the cream of one meal's milk to that which comes immediatelv from the cow ; it is pressed gently two or three times, and is turned for a few days previously to being used. It is chiefly made in spring, but the richest is that made in autumn. It will not keep above three months. Norfolk Cheese is made from the whole of the milk and cream ; the size is from thirty to fifty pounds ; it is generally colored yel- low, and is reckoned a good keeping cheese. Soft, or Slip-coat Cheese, is made from new milk hot from the cow, and the afterings ; and what is required to make one pound of butter, will, in general, make one pound of cheese : this is a small soft rich cheese, which must be used immediately. Stilton Cheese, which, from its peculiar richness and flavor, has been called the parmesan of England, is made in die following man- ner:— the night's cream is put to the morning's milk, with the ren- net ; when the curd is come, it is not broken as is usual with other MODE OP PREPARING CHEESES. S8o cheese, but is taken out whole, and put into a sieve to drain gradu- ally ; while draining, it is gently pressed till it becomes tirm and dry, when it is placed in a vat, a box made exactly to fit it ; and it is so extremely rich, that without this precaution, it is apt to bulge out. and break asunder. It is afterwards kept on dry boards, and turned daily, with cloth binders round it. which are tightened as occasion requires. After being taken out of the vat, the cheese is closely bound with cloth till it acquires sufficient firmness to sup- port itself: when these cloths are removed, each cheese is brush- ed once every day for two or three months, and if the weather be moist, twice every day ; the tops and bottoms are treated in a simi- lar manner daily before the cloths are taken off. Stilton cheese derives its name from the town where it is almost exclusively sold ; it is made principally in Leicestershire, though there are also many who manufacture it in the counties of Huntingdon, Rutland, and Northampton. Sometimes the cheeses are made in a net, resem- bling a cabbage net, which gives ihem the form of an acorn ; but these are neither so good nor so richly flavored, as those made in vats, having a thicker coat and being deficient in that mellowness which causes them to be in such general request. {Bath Papers, vol. iii. p. 132, 153.) Stilton cheese is not reckoned to be suffi- ciently mellow for cutting, until it is two years old, and is not sale- able unless it is decayed, blue, and moist. In order to mature them the more rapidly, it is a frequent practice to place the cheeses in buckets, which are covered over with horse-dung. Wine is also reputed to be added to the curd, in order to accelerate the ripening of the cheese. Cottenham Cheese, from the town of that name in Cambridge- shire, is a thicker kind of cream cheese than the Stilton ; its supe- rior delicacy and flavor are attributed to the fragrant nature of the herbage oi» the commons on which the cows are pastured, and ac- cordmg to Professor Martyn, to the prevalence of the grasses, Poa aqnatica and praiensis. Suffolk, or Skim Cheese, is made of skimmed milk; it forms a part of every ship's stores, not being so much affected by heat as richer cheese, nor so liable to decay in long voyages. Wiltshire Cheese is made of new milk coagulated as it comes from the cow ; sometimes a small quantity of skimmed milk is add- ed. In some dairies it is manufactured in winter as well as sum- mer ; in the former case it is liable to become scurfy and white- coated ; the last of which defects is frequently cojicealed by a coat of red paint. Dutch Cheese is prepared much in the same manner as the Che- shire Cheese, excepting that muriatic acid is used instead of ren- net, which renders it pungent, and preserves it from mites ; IJuit of Gouda is preferred. Parmesan Cheese was formerly supposed to be made from the milk of goats, but it is merely a skim-milk chcoe. the curd hariien- ed by heat, well salted, pressed, and dried, long kept, and rich in flavor from the rich herbage of the meadows of the I*o. where (he 284 farmers' and mechanics' journal. cows are pastured. The process, aocordiii^i to Pryce, (Bath Pa- j)ers, vol. vii.) is hs follows : — the evening's milk, after heing skim- med in the morning, and standing till ten o' clock, and the morning's milk skinuned about two hoars after it is drawn from the cow, are mixed together. The mixture is then suspended in a copper caul- dron over a wooden tire, and frequently stirred till it attains about 82° of Fahroidicit ; the rennet is then put in, and the copper being rctnoved from the (ire. the coagulation quickly takes place, and the curd is afterwards worked with a stick till it is reduced to a small grain. The iiihi\^ now occupies the surface, and a part of it being taken out, the cauldron is again turned over the tire, and its con- tents brought to nearly a boiling heat. A little salfron is now add- ed to impart color, the whole being all the while well stirred, and the superintendent examining it from time to time with his finger and thumb, to ascertain the exact moment when the curd shall have become sufficiently solid. When this is the case, the caul- dron is removed from the fire, and the curd allowed to subside ; three-fourths of the whev is then drawn olf, water poured round the bottom of t!ie cauldron outside to cool it, so as to admit of a cloth being passed below the curd, which is thus brought up and pltT.ed in a tub to clear. VVhen drained, it is put into a wooden hoop, and about half a hundred weight laid on it for half an hour ; the cloth is then removed, and the cheese being replaced in the hoop is laid on a shelf; here it remains for two or three days, at the end of which, it is sprinkled over with salt ; this sprinkling is rcneated everv second day for about thirt} days if it be summer, and for about forty or fifty-five days if it be winter, afler which, no further attention is required. The best Parmesan Cheese is that which has been kept for three or four years, hut none is ever carried to market for sale, until it has been kept at least six months. Westphalia Cheese is of the skim-milk kind, and of a different character from any of those hitherto described. The cream is al- lowed to remain on the milk till the latter is in a sub-acid state ; it is then removed, and the milk placed near a fire spontaneously to coagulate. The curd is then put into a coarse bag, and loaded with ponderous stones to express the whey ; in this dry state it is rubbed between the hands, and crumbled into an empty clean milk vat, where it remains from three to eight days according as the cheese is intended to be strong or mild. During this part of the process, which is called mellowing, the curd undergoes the putrid fermentation, and acquires a coat or skin on the top, before it is taken out of the vessel, and kneaded into balls or cylinders, with the addition of a considerable portion of carraways, salt, and butter ; or occasionally a small quantity of pounded pepper and cloves. When over-mellowed, a third part of fresh curds, likewise crumbled into small pieces, is superadded, to prevent or correct its putrid tendency. As the balls or cheeses do not exceed three or four ounces each in weight, they soon dry in the open air, and are then fit for use. When nearly dry, they are sometimes, for the palate of epicures, suspended in a wood fire chimney, in a net, for €ARE AND RFARAGE OF HONEY BEES. 235 several wee'o slowly by partly covering them with a cloth. The queen bee may be known by the dark- ness of her color, and the brisk movements of the other bees about her. and the slowness of her movements. 4th. If too great a pro- portion of the bees should have passed into the new hive, the queen is to be taken and safely kept, until the swarm can be separated^ and properly apportioned, when the queen bee is to be returned to the new hive. 5th. The remainder of the bees are to be returned to the old hive, where they will provide themselves with another queen bee. 6th. After the swarms are properly apportioned, the hives are to be placed upon their stand, where both swarms will commence the labors of the season. SECOND METHOD OF SEPARATING. The hives are to be made of a size, and of wide boards, and about twelve inches square ; two sticks are to be placed each way through the centre. Seats are to be put under and near the top board, within half an inch of each other. Some time before the hive shall be filled by a swarm of bees, another hive of the same size is to be placed under it, without a top board, but with seats. The comb will be fastened to the seats. When the lower hive is full, they are to be separated ; when the under hive is to have a top board attached to it by cleats ; the cleats to run one and a half inches above the side boards, the better to accommodate another hive. This process may be continued from time to time, as may be deemed necessary. The first of the above methods is preferable. The honey may be taken from the hives by either of the above modes ; either by removing a part of the honey, and dividing the bees, as above de- scribed ; or, by placing all the bees in the new hive, and removing all the honey. Francis Kelsey. [Franklin JournaL ECONOMY IN FODDER. It may seem somewhat out of season to say any thing on this subject, at a time when there is such an abundance of hay, &c. in every barn. But we see no cause for waste on that account. Another year may bring with it want, in this respect, and the farm- er be compelled to sacrifice his stock in consequence. Much may be saved this year, and laid away for the wants of another less abundant. — For this purpose we would recommend a Straw Cut- ter, to thoi^e who can afford it, as being a valuable implement, and ECONOMY IN FODDER. 287 one by which a great saving can be effected. Read the estimate made below, and consider the result. Mr. Benjamin Hale's account of the savings tyiade by the use of " Hotchkiss' Straw Cutter," employed to cut Strazo and Haij as Fodder for Horses. Mr. Hale is proprietor of a hne of stages running between New- buryport and Boston. He says : The whole amount of hay purchased from April 1, to October 1, (six months,) and used at the stage sta- Tons, cwt. q. lb, ble, was ■ - - - - 32 4 0 10 At twenty-five dollars per ton, (the lowest price at which hay was purchased, in 1316,) - - ^800 00 From Oct. 1, 1816, to April 1, 1SI7, whole amount of ha}^ and straw purchased for, and consumed by the same number of horses, viz : T. civt. q. lb. Cost. Straw, 16 13 3 10 ^160 23' Hay, 13 14 1 00 350 00 $510 23 Deduct, on hand April 1, 1817, by estimation, four tons more than there was Oct, 1, 1816, at ^25 per ton, 100^ $410 23 Saving by the use of Hotchkiss' Straw Cutter, four months of the last six months, or the flifference in expense in feeding with cut-fodder and that which is uncut, - - _ _ _ $389 77 Vrhole amount of hay used for the horses of the Sa- lem stage, twenty-five in number, from April 1, to T. cwt. q. lb. Oct. 1, 1816, viz : - 22 0 0 0 At ^30 per ton, (the lowest price in Salem,) ;» - $660 00 Whole amount consumed by the same number of horses, from Oct. 1, 1816, to April 1, 1817, viz : T. cwt. q. lb. Cost. Straw, 15 13 0 0 $187 80 Hay, 2 15 0 0 81 00 $268 80 Saving in using chopped fodder five months, - - 391 20 Total saving in using the straw cutter 9 months, viz: At Newburyport four months, - _ . $389 77 At Salem five months, - - - - 391 20 Total, - - ... ^780 97 The member of the Board of Trustees of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, to whom the above account was communi- cated by Mr. Hale, was informed by that gentleman, that he used no more grain from October, 1816, to April, 1817, than was used from April, 1816, to October, 1816. [Mass. Agricultural Rep. and Jour., p. 400, vol. iv. 288 FARMERS AND MECHANICS' JOURNAL. ITOTiaSS. GREAT INVENT70N. BURNAP'S VENEER CUTTEP. It is with pleasure we announce Mr. C. B Burnap^s new me- thod of cutting Veneers. His machine is now in succes?f';l opera- tion in this village, where it can he exa:i!ineci by those who wish to see one more new thing under the sun. It is so constructed that any log of wood, after being turned round and smooth in the lathe, can be converttid into one single sheet of Veneer from one- twentieth to one-quarter of an inch in thickness, according to your wish. — A log of any kind, — Mahogany, Bird's-eye Maple, Ea>s Wood, &c. &LC., can thus be unrolled like a piece of cloth, and any particular number of yards or feet cut oiF that may be de- sired. The advantages of such a machine can be easily imagined, and we hope the inventor will reap a rich reward, for the time, trouble and money which he has expended in bringing his machine to perfection. It is certainly the most ingenious and useful ma- chine that has been produced in New-{.inglarid for a number of years. Mr. Burnap calculates that a log, 13 inches diameter and 4 feet long, will give 800 square feet of Veneer l-20th of an inch thick. P. S. — A Patent is secured, and Mr. Burnap will be ready to dispose of Rights and Machines in the spring. CAUTION. In page 46, we inserted a Recipe for a lute to put around Grafts. It was selected from good authority, and it has also been recom- mended by other writers, as an excellent preparation. Some com- plaints have been made, however, by those in this vicinity who have tried it, that it did not answer the expectation, and was rather an injury than otherwise. We mention this, to caution those who are disposed to try it, not to apply it too freely, until they have as- certained its true quality.