0
NOV' o X 2001
Newsletter of the
Hawaiian Botanical Society
Volume 39 Numbers 3, 4 July - December, 2000
ISSN: 1523-7338
GRAY HERBARIUM
Lobelia gloria-monii s
In This Issue
Environmental, Ethno-
botanical, and Com-
mercial Aspects of Wa-
ter Hyacinth by Ingelia
White and D. Chad
Durkin
21
Charles H.
Lamoureux:
1933—2000 26
Minutes of the Hawai-
ian Botanical Society:
December 1999 —
December 2000 27
Kava (Piper methysti-
cum): History, Uses
and Effects by Kialani
L. Hinson
32
Evaluation o/Puccinia
lagenophorac as a bio-
control agent for Se-
necio madagascarien-
sis in HawaPi by Eloise
Killgore, Mohsen
Ramadan and Donald
Gardner 37
Environmental, Ethno-
botanical, and Commercial
Aspects of
Water Hyacinth
Ingelia White and D. Chad Durkin
Department of Natural Science
Windward Community College
Kane‘ohe, Hawai‘i 96744
ingelia@hawaii.edu
ABSTRACT. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a vascular,
floating herb that thrives in streams and ponds all over Asia and
the Pacific. Because of its rapid rate of growth, reproduction, and
high nutrient uptake, the plant makes an excellent biofilter in pol-
luted water. Experiments show that water hyacinth grown in nutri-
ent rich solution displays an ability to reduce total dissolved nitro-
gen by 98%. Ammoniacal nitrogen removal remained above 98%,
whereas nitrate nitrogen removal fluctuated between 97 and 99%.
Phosphorous uptake was almost 99% during the first 10 days of
growth, and slowly declined to 92% at the end of 30 days. Ethno-
botanical and commercial uses of water hyacinth are discussed.
Keywords: Eichhornia crassipes ; Water hyacinth
There arc two species of water hyacinth in Asia and the Pa-
cific; Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms (syn., Pontederia az-
urea Hooker, syn., P. elongata J.H. Balfour, syn., Heteranthera
formosa Miquel), and E. azurea (Swartz) Kunth. (syn., P.
Continued on Page 23
22
Newsletter of the Hawaiian Botanical Society
Published by the Hawaiian Botanical
Society which was founded in 1924
to...
“ ...advance the science of botany in
all its applications, encourage re-
search in botany in all its phases,
promote the welfare of its members
and develop the spirit of good fel-
lowship and cooperation among
them. ”
Any person interested in the plant life
of the Hawaiian Islands is eligible for
membership. Information may be
obtained from the Society at:
c/o Department of Botany
3190 Maile Way
University of Hawai‘i
Honolulu, HI 96822
Membership
The Society year is from December I through
November 30
Membership
Cost/year
Individual
$10.00
Student
$5.00
Family
$12.00
Life (individuals only)
$180.00
Institutional Rate
$20.00
Honorary and Life Members
pay no further dues.
Executive Committee
President
Shahin Ansari
(UH Department of Botany)
Vice-President
Lyndon Wester
(UH Department of Geography)
Treasurer
Ron Fenstemacher
( Ho 'okahe Wai Ho 'olu ‘in a)
Secretary
Elizabeth Stampe
(UH Department of Botany)
Directors
Mindy Wilkinson
(UH Department of Botany)
Jonel Smith
( Ho'olo Maluhia )
Committees
Appointed by the Executive Committee
Newsletter
Cliff Morden, Editor UH-Botany/CCRT
Mindy Wilkinson, Assoc. Ed. UH Botany
Don Gardner, Assist. Ed. UH Botany
Rob Anderson, Layout Specialist UH Botany
Conservation
Steve Montgomery Independent Consultant
Undergraduate Grants
Leilani Durand UH-Botany
Alvin Chock USDA-APHIS-IS/UH-Botany
Science Fair
Karen Shigematsu, Chair Lyon Arboretum
Winona Char Char and Associates
Native Plants
Alvin Yoshinaga, Chair UH-CCRT
John Obata Bishop Museum
Karen Shigematsu Lyon Arboretum
Roger Sorrell
Volume 39 (3, 4), 2000
23
Continued from page 21
aquatica Swartz, syn., P. ciquatica Vellozo). They are
free floating freshwater plants in the Pontederiaceae
family, originally from tropical South America.
Eichhornia crassipes has stoloniferous rhizomes
reaching up to 30 cm in length, consisting of several
short intemodes. Each node bears fibrous roots and ro-
sette leaves. The leaf is orbicular or ovoid in shape, 15
by 13 cm2, and supported by a 5 cm spongy, globular
petiole. Inflorescence terminal in spike, containing four
to 25 blue purplish flowers with a darker purple marking
in the center. The flower is zygomorphic, 5 cm in di-
ameter. Perianth lobes connate, forming a tube. There
are six stamens, inserted and didynamous, bearing sub-
equal dorsifixed anthers.
The flower of E. azurea is blue, with a yellow patch
in the center. Its 15 cm long fusiform petiole bears one
orbicular leaf. The petioles are widely spaced and alter-
nately arranged along the fast growing rhizomes. Water
hyacinth blooms from April through December in the
tropics (Stodola, 1967).
Alexander von Humboldt introduced water hyacinth
to Europe from South America in the early nineteenth
century. From there, the plant was distributed to botani-
cal gardens in Asia, arriving in Java, Indonesia in 1886,
India and Japan in 1890, and Vietnam in 1902. From
Vietnam, water hyacinth traveled to southern China and
Hong Kong, reaching Singapore and Malaysia in 1903.
It was introduced to Sri Lanka in 1904, the Philippines
in 1912 and Myanmar in 1913. King Rama V of Thai-
land received this plant from Java, and it spread over the
Mekong basin to Cambodia and Laos. From India, the
plant spread further to Bangladesh and Pakistan. Today,
it grows in more than 50 countries throughout the
warmer parts of the world, including New Zealand, Fiji,
Cook Islands, Solomon Islands, Samoa, Guam, New
Hebrides, New Caledonia, and Hawai'i (Gopal, 1987).
In many cities in Asia, water hyacinth is sold as an
aquarium plant. Because of its beautiful delicate flow-
ers, it is frequently used for offerings in Buddhist tem-
ples. The inflorescences, young leaves, and petioles are
steamed, fried and made into stew in Indonesia, Taiwan,
and the Philippines. The leaf and petiole contain 16
amino acids, including alanine, arginine, aspartic acid,
cystine, glutamic acid, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, ly-
sine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, serine,
threonine, tyrosine, and valine. The plant is rich in pro-
vitamin A (carotene), vitamin B (thiamine, riboflavin,
pyridoxine), vitamin B-complex (niacin, panthothenic
acid), and vitamin E. Minerals such as iron, phosphorus,
potassium, magnesium, copper, zinc, manganese, so-
dium, and sulfur are found in water hyacinth. It also
contains nitrates, oxalates, and tannins (Gopal, 1987).
The petioles are used for making baskets, handbags,
hats, floor mats, vases, ice chests, shoe soles, rope, and
stuffing for upholstery in the Philippines, Thailand and
Indonesia. The leaves are used as cigar wrappers in
Thailand. The fibrous roots of water hyacinth provide a
sheltering environment for the deposition of eggs by fish
and crabs, as well as a food source for them. People in
Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand, and the Philippines util-
ize small clusters of plants by placing them into bamboo
fish traps. Water hyacinth is utilized in homeopathic
medicine. It has also been used to cure skin diseases in
horses (Gopal, 1987).
Combined with copra meal and rice bran, water hya-
cinth is used commercially as green fodder for cattle,
pigs, goats, sheep, rabbits, poultry and catfish in India,
China and Malaysia. Because it is readily available in
large amounts year round and has high water content, it
provides a good source of mulching in Asia. A high
content of potassium, nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium,
makes it excellent compost in the cultivation of the edi-
ble mushrooms Volvaria volvacea and Agaricus spp. in
Indonesia. In Kashmir and Myanmar, submerged water
hyacinth mixed with hornwort (Ceratophyllum demer-
sum) serves as raised bedding for growing hydroponic
tomatoes, corn, rice and taro.
Containing high levels of growth hormones in its
leaves and nitrogen-fixing rhizobia in its roots, water
hyacinth is incorporated into soil to improve the growth
of legumes. Extracts from its roots are used for yeast
production. The petioles are components in the manu-
facture of paper and fiberboards. The entire plant is
used for fuel and for the production of biogas in the Phil-
ippines, India and Indonesia (Gopal, 1987).
Water hyacinth has become a great nuisance in many
Asian countries because of its high rate of reproduction,
producing huge amounts of biomass that infiltrate fresh
water bodies and rice fields, interfering with the growth
of rice seedlings. It also clogs waterways and slows wa-
ter flow by 40 to 95%, resulting in flooding during
heavy rains (Gopal, 1987).
Human waste, industrial runoff and agriculture create
pollutants in streams, lakes and oceans. Utilizing solar
radiation and wastewater, many water plants are biologi-
cally engineered to absorb toxic substances, including
heavy metals and pesticides (Josephson and Todd,
1996). Most wastes are a mixture of organic and inor-
ganic pollutants. Inorganic chemicals such as nitrogen
and phosphorous are largely responsible for water pollu-
tion problems (Gopal, 1987). The nitrate and nitrite
forms of nitrogen are dangerous to humans if taken in
excess. They cause methemoglobinemia if ingested by
24
Newsletter of the Hawaiian Botanical Society
infants. High concentrations of nitrates and phosphorous
in wastewater effluents also act as a fertilizer, stimulat-
ing excessive growth of planktonic organisms and water
weeds (Wilber, 1971).
An experiment was conducted at the Sea Grant aqua-
culture site at Windward Community College, Hawai‘i,
in Spring 1999, to find out the possibility of using water
hyacinth as an environmental cleaner for removing ex-
cess nitrogen and phosphorous from nutrient rich water.
Materials and Methods
Fifty-two adult E. crassipes, each containing four to
Five leaves were selected. The plants were divided into
four aquarium tanks, each measuring 23 cm x 23 cm x
45 cm. The control tank received 10 plants. The re-
maining tanks received 12, 14, and 16 plants respec-
tively during the First 10-day period. For each of the
next two 10-day periods, 13 to 15 adult plants were
placed randomly in treated tanks.
The tanks were put side by side on a wooden bench
out of doors. The tops were covered with plexiglass and
the sides with opaque brown paper to inhibit the growth
of algae. The control tank contained only tap water,
while the other tanks were each Filled with 16 liters of
nutrient rich water in various concentrations. Nutrient
solutions were made by dissolving Gaviota Foliar 60 fer-
tilizer, containing 3.25% nitrate nitrogen, 7.5% ammo-
niacal nitrogen, and 19% phosphoric acid.
At the end of each 10-day period, water samples were
taken to the laboratory and Filtered to remove suspended
solids. The removal values of nitrate, ammonia, and
phosphate were calculated by using HACH test kits.
Young shoots were then counted and taken out from the
tanks. Residual water was removed from the tanks,
which were then refilled with different concentrations of
nutrient rich water for the second period. Further treat-
ment and observation was repeated for the third period.
Results and Discussion
About 60% of adult plants produced young shoots
within 20 days. The shoot multiplication continued,
with 94% of plants bearing shoots by the end of the 30-
day experiment (Table 1). This growth rate is affected
by solar radiation and air temperature (Aoyama and Ni-
shizaki, 1994). At the time of this experiment, during
the months of March and April, climatic conditions in
Hawai‘i were mostly favorable.
Total dissolved nitrogen was almost entirely con-
sumed over a period of one month. The removal of am-
moniacal nitrogen remained constant above 98%. Ni-
trate absorption fluctuated between 97 and 99%. Phos-
phorous uptake was significantly high, reaching 99%
during the first 10 days, but slowly declining to 92% by
the end of 30 days (Fig. 1 ).
The evapotranspirational rate, which is high during
spring and summer months, is affected by temperature,
nutrient uptake and vapor pressure deficit (Gopal, 1987).
A constant high transpirational pull most likely occurs in
plants growing in a stable warm tropical climate, result-
ing in high absorption of water and nutrients.
Fig. 1. Nitrate, ammonia, and phosphate absorption.
Table 1. Nutrient removal values for water hyacinth grown in tanks over a 30 day period.
Volume 39 (3, 4), 2000
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Newsletter of the Hawaiian Botanical Society
Conclusion
With an ability to consume high amounts of water and
nutrients during its rapid growth, development and
reproduction, water hyacinth provides a potential
resource as a biological cleaner for polluted streams and
lakes in the tropics. With proper management, the plants
can be further utilized as mulch and compost to enhance
agricultural production, as well as for food, medicine
and fiber.
Literature Cited
Aoyama, L., and Nishizaki, H. 1994. Uptake of nitro-
gen and phosphate, and water purification by water
hyacinth. Water Science and Technology 28 (7): 47-
53.
Gopal, B. 1987. Water hyacinth. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Josephson, B., and Todd. J. 1996. Ecological engineer-
ing. J. Ecotechnology 6: 109-136.
Stodola, J. 1967. Encyclopedia of water plants. T .F .11.
Publications, Inc., New Jersey.
Wilber, C. G. 1971. The biological aspects of water
pollution. Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Illinois.
Charles H. Lamoureux
September 14, 1933 — October 16, 2000
The Hawaiian Botanical Society notes with sadness the death of Dr. Charles Lamoureux, a widely known and re-
spected botanist. As University of Hawai‘i professor of botany, Dr. Lamoureux was a leading expert on Hawaiian
plants and natural history. At various times during his tenure on the UH Manoa campus, he served as chairman of the
Botany Department and as Associate Dean for Academic Affairs at the University of Hawaii College of Arts and Sci-
ences. From 1992 until the time of his death, he held the position of Director of the Harold A. Lyon Arboretum in
Manoa. Through his depth of knowledge and sound judgment, he was an inspiration to the many undergraduate and
graduate students, faculty members and administrators who had the opportunity to interact with him on a personal ba-
sis.
Dr. Lamoureux was bom in Rhode Island and earned botany degrees at the University of Rhode Island and at the
University of Hawai‘i. He received his Ph D. degree at the University of California at Davis in 1961, and returned to
Hawai’i to join the UH faculty. During the course of his career, Dr. Lamoureux traveled extensively in the Pacific,
doing field work in American Samoa, Bali, Micronesia and the Marshall Islands. He served as a consultant to agen-
cies and businesses, including the state’s Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism, and the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Dr. Lamoureux’s well-illustrated soft cover book “Trailside Plants of Hawaii’s National Parks” met the informa-
tional needs of uncounted hikers in Hawaii’s parks, and undoubtedly served as the first and only guide that many
first-time visitors would have to the variety of “exotic” vegetation found in the Islands. The book received the U. S.
National Park Director’s Award and the National Parks Cooperative Association Award of Excellence in 1977-78.
Dr. Lamoureux also served on the Honolulu Botanical Garden Board and volunteered numerous hours to help the
city’s five botanical gardens.
Dr. Lamoureux’s sudden death leaves a large void in the botanical and scientific communities of Hawai‘i and the
Pacific that will be difficult to fill. The Society joins his many colleagues, former students, friends and family mem-
bers in mourning his passing.
Volume 39 (3, 4), 2000
27
Minutes of the Hawaiian Botanical Society
December 1999 Meeting
The December 6th meeting of the Hawaiian Botani-
cal Society was called to order by Leilani Durand, presi-
dent.
Guests: None were present. The minutes of the
previous were approved as read.
Membership report: No new members were reported;
the Society has a total of 199 members.
Treasurer’s report: Ron Fenstemaker reported a total
of $3,500.98 for the Society.
Committee report: The committees had nothing to
report.
New business:
• An election of the new officers was held. Nomina-
tions from the floor were requested. The members
voted to elect the slate as stated:
President: Shahin Ansari
Vice-President: Lyndon Wester
Secretary: Elizabeth Stampe
Treasurer: Ron Fenstemacher
Old business:
• A volunteer was requested to audit the end-of-year
treasurer’s report. A member volunteered to do so.
Announcements:
• Several plants were given away, including
• Marsillea villosa from 1 930’s herbarium spores!
• Portulaca villosa from seeds in a cabinet in the Bot-
any Dept.
• Solarium sandwicensis from Keith Robinson.
• Delissea retidosperma from Keith Robinson.
• Jared Diamond will speak on Dec. 6lh and 7lh.
• Openings for botanists were announced with the
Center for Plant Conservation and the Army,
and on Kaho’olawe.
Plant of the month
The plant of the month was corn.
Speaker: Sarah Nourse
Feature topic: Plant biotechnological research at Ha-
waii Agricultural Research Center (HARC)
Guest Speaker. The speaker of the month was Chi-
fume Nagai.
January 2000 Meeting
The January 10th meeting of the Hawaiian Botanical
Society was called to order by the new president, Shahin
Ansari.
Guests: Two guests were introduced to the Society.
Membership report: No new members were reported
this month.
Treasurer’s report: The treasurer was not able to pre-
sent a complete report, lacking information on interest
funds. The members voted to approve putting a year-
end gift of $250 into the Life Membership Fund.
Committee report: It was announced that a field trip
coordinator is needed, as well as a membership coordi-
nator.
New business: No new business was reported.
Old business: No old business was reported.
Announcements:
• Vicky Caraway announced a workshop on Maui on
threatened and endangered plant propagation.
• Workshops on critical habitat designations were
also announced.
• It was announced that the Manoa Falls trail would
be shut down on the 20th and 21st of January for
tree removal.
• The existence of Cyanea truncata seedlings at Lyon
Arbortetum was announced; this species previously
had been thought to be extinct.
Plant of the month:
The plant of the month was Sophora toromiro.
Speakers: Steve Montgomery (and David Orr)
28
Newsletter of the Hawaiian Botanical Society
Feature topic: Trees and Tapioca in Northeast Thailand
Guest speaker: Lyndon Wester, UH Geography De-
partment
February 2000 Meeting
The February 7th meeting of the Hawaiian Botanical
Society was called to order by the president, Shahin An-
sari.
Guests: Two guests were introduced to the Society.
Minutes: The minutes of the previous meeting were
read and approved.
Membership report: No new members were reported.
Treasurer’s report:
• The Society has a total of $2,960.29. Income was
$131.55, interest was $0.74, and $40 was spent.
$250 was added to the life member fund for a total
of $6,067. 1 8. The total number of life members was
unknown.
Committee report: The committees had nothing to re-
port.
New business: No new business was repo'led
Old business: No old business was reported.
Announcements:
• Vicky Caraway suggested a volunteer trip to
Hakalau in June or July and volunteered to organize
it.
• A Waianae Kai hike was announced which will be
on April 8th, 2000.
Plant of the month: Halophila hawaiiana
Speaker: Frank Parrish, National Marine Fisheries
Feature topic: Protecting paradise: Screening systems
for predicting invasive pest plants in the Hawaiian Is-
lands
Guest speaker: Curt Daehler, UH Department of Bot-
any
March 2000 Meeting
The March 6th meeting of the Hawaiian Botanical So-
ciety was called to order by President Shahin Ansari.
Guests: Two guests were introduced and welcomed by
the Society.
Minutes: The minutes of the previous meeting were
read and approved.
Membership report: No new members were reported.
Treasurer’s report:
• The Society has a total of $2,938.00. This report
was approved by the membership.
Committee report: The committees had nothing to re-
port.
New business: No new business was reported.
Old business:
• The board recommended supporting the American
Lands Alliance’s revisions of the WTO’s Agreement
on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. The mem-
bers voted to do so.
• The board recommended paying to fly out the re-
searchers who recently discovered a new species of
Cyonea on Maui to give the next plant of the month
talk. The members voted to do so.
Announcements:
• A hike of Waianae Kai has been planned for Satur-
day, April 8lh, 2000. Hikers should meet at 9 am at
Ka’ala Farms.
Plant of the month: Fossil Gossypium from Salt
Lake area tuffs
Speaker: Curtis Manchester, U.H. Department of Geog-
raphy
Feature topic: Information analysis of biodiversity
Guest speaker: Laszlo Orloci, University of Western
Ontario
Volume 39 (3, 4), 2000
29
April 2000 Meeting
The April 3rd meeting of the Hawaiian Botanical So-
ciety was called to order by President Shahin Ansari.
Guests: No new guests were present.
Minutes: The minutes of the previous meeting were
read and approved.
Treasurer’s report:
• Income: $2.93 (error?)
• Interest: $2.93
• Spent: $71.23 total
• $12.49 (stationery)
• $49.37 (postage, copies)
• $71.23 (March meeting notices)
• Total: $2,869.69
Committee report: The committees had nothing to re-
port.
New business:
• The secretary suggested buying a bulletin board.
The members voted to approve the motion; the treas-
urer suggested a price range of $ 1 2-$ 1 5 .
Old business:
• The secretary sent a letter to the American Lands Al-
liance to express the Society’s support for their pro-
posed revisions to the WTO’s Agreement on Sani-
tary and Phytosanitary Measures.
• Vicky Caraway announced that 12 people have
signed up for the trip to Hakalau from June 1 0th to
12lh, and asked that people meet after the meeting to
discuss trip logistics. She added that there is a wait-
ing list for the trip.
•
Announcements:
• The Wai’anae Kai hike on April 8lh was announced.
• Alvin Yoshinaga gave out free plants, including Ipo-
rnoea, Achyrunthes , Portulacal, and Solatium.
• The existence of a new Center for Plant Conserva-
tion Directory, for sale for $5, was announced.
• Vicky Caraway gave out botanical guides to the
‘Awa’awapuhi Trail on Kaua‘i.
Plant of the month: New Cyanea discoveries from
Makawao, Maui
Speakers: Fern Duval, Hank Oppenheimer
Feature topic: Culinary herbs - A case for urban eth-
nobotany
Speaker: George Staples, Bishop Museum
May 2000 Meeting
The May 1st meeting of the Hawaiian Botanical Soci-
ety was called to order by President Shall in Ansari.
Guests: Two guests were introduced to the Society.
Minutes: The minutes of the previous meeting were
read and approved.
Membership report: No new members were reported.
Treasurer’s report: The report was approved as read.
• Total income: $526.08
• $5 13.00 dues
• $3.08 interest
• Total Spent: $305.78
• $248.32 science fair
• $1 1 .46 meeting notices
• $46.00 postage
. Total: $3,079.99
Committee report: None.
New business: None.
Old business: None.
Announcements:
• The web site’s location was announced: go to www.
botany.hawaii.edu, then click Bot Soc.
• Sam Gon announced that a previously unpublished
manuscript of interviews with kahuna may be pub-
lished in the Newsletter. It contains Hawaiian names
of plants from original sources.
• The plant donation and raffle on Monday, September
2nd was announced. Tickets will cost $3 each.
The Science Fair awards were announced:
I sl place: Su Que Leong
2nd place: Shanelle Sanborn
Junior research division:
1 51 place: YukoHara
2nd place: William Thomas
Plant of the month: A wine palm is returned to Polyne-
sia
Speaker: Steve Montgomery
30
Newsletter of the Hawaiian Botanical Society
Feature topic: It is not easy being green in Rapa Nui,
the Chilean comer of Polynesia.
Speaker: Hui Lama, Kamehameha Schools
September 2000 Meeting
The September 1 1th meeting of the Hawaiian Botani-
cal Society was called to order by President Shahin An-
sari.
Guests: No new guests were introduced.
Minutes: The minutes of the previous meeting were ap-
proved and approved.
Membership report: No membership report was avail-
able.
Treasurer's report:
The treasurer’s report was approved as read:
• Total income: $72.93
• Total spent: $371.46
• Total: $2,781.46
New business:
• The West Maui Mountains Watershed Protection
Project sent the Botanical Society a copy of their En-
vironmental Assessment for reading and comment,
and the members were asked if anyone was inter-
ested in doing so. No one volunteered.
• The Treasurer announced that the Society will be re-
ceiving an unspecified sum of money from the B.
Krauss estate and so the members need to figure out
what to do with it.
Old business: None.
Announcements:
• Alvin Yoshinaga brought milo and cotton plants.
• The formation of the Oahu Invasive Species Com-
mittee was announced, as was its web site: http://
www.hear.org/oisc/
Plant of the month: Cosmetic use of Limonia acidis-
sima (wood apple)
Speaker: Lyndon Wester, UH Manoa Geography Dept.
Feature topic: Operation Malama: Army Rare Plant
Conservation on O'ahu.
Speaker: Matthew Kier, Natural Resources Center, US
Army
October 2000 Meeting
The October 2nd meeting of the Hawaiian Botanical
Society was called to order by President Shahin Ansari.
Guests: No new guests were introduced.
Minutes: The minutes of the previous meeting were
read and approved.
Treasurer's Report:
The treasurer’s report was approved as read:
• Total: $2762.73
• Total income: $68.51
• Total spent: $87.24
New business: There was no new business to report.
Old business: There was no old business to discuss.
Announcements:
• Bruce Koebele brought hame plants.
• A resolution has been put to the City Council to con-
demn Waimea Falls Park. A hearing on this is
scheduled for Wednesday Oct. 4th at 9:00 am.
• Vicky Caraway spoke about the Conservation and
Reinvestment Act, which allots permanent funding
for conservation and restoration with money from an
oil spill. Funding may be cut or made less perma-
nent. Vicky gave out faxes to send to support the
Act.
• On October 24th, the Hawai'i Leeward Planning
Conference will occur in Kona; it will focus on criti-
cal habitat of endangered species.
Plant of the month: Hcsperomimnia
Speaker: Susan Ching, UH Manoa Botany Department
Feature topic: There is a native species of laua'e : Re-
sults of a detective investigation.
Speaker: Nani Anderson-Wong, UH Manoa Botany
Department
November 2000 Meeting
The November 6th meeting of the Hawaiian Botanical
Society was called to order by President Shahin Ansari.
Minutes: The minutes of the previous meeting were ap-
proved as read.
Volume 39 (3, 4), 2000
31
Treasurer's report:
• Total income: $7.96
• Total spent: $29.81
• Total: $2,740.88
• B. Krauss royalties: $8.73
• B. Krauss trust principal: $3,347.65
• B. Krauss total income: $3,356.38
• The Treasurer suggested that we give Bea Krauss'
settlement to the Neal Miller Fund.
(No announcements, old business or new business were
recorded.)
Old business:
• The membership discussed the money from the Bea
Krauss estate.
• Alvin Yoshinaga said that Volume 26 No. 1 of the
Newsletter has a description of the Neal Miller Fund.
• The treasurer described the funds, the Life Member
fund, the Neal Miller Fund, and the Annual Fund,
and suggested that the Bea Krauss money be put
with other legacy money in the Neal Miller Fund.
• Vicky Caraway made a motion to change the Neal
Miller Fund to the Neal Miller — Bea Krauss Fund
(NMBK).
Plant of the month:
Speaker: My Lien Thi Nguyen
Artemisia vulgaris - Mugwort, used for Vietnamese acu-
puncture and moxibustion treatment.
Feature topic: Ethnobotany of Pacific island coastal
and mangrove plants
Speaker: Mark Merlin, Professor, UH Biology Program
December 2000 Meeting
The December 4lh meeting of the Hawaiian Botanical
Society was called to order by President Shahin Asari.
Guests: No new guests were introduced.
Minutes: The minutes of the previous meeting were read
and approved.
Membership report: None
Treasurer’s report: The treasurer’s report was ap-
proved as read.
• Total Income: $3.81
• Total Spent: $196.19
• Total: $2669.89
Announcements:
• The treasurer asked everyone to please send in their
dues.
• Aaron Lowe announced that Arbor Day was a suc-
cess, and that DOFAW has two technicians hired to
work on eradicating Miconia.
• Bruce Koebele brought Bortamia from outside the
Maui Botanical Garden.
• The president announced that Dr. Gardner is asking
for articles for the Newsletter.
• The membership proposed and approved the follow-
ing new officers:
President:
Vice President:
Secretary:
Treasurer:
Board of Directors:
Brandon Stone
Don Gardner
Chuck Chimera
Ron Fenstemacher
Jeff Preblie
Susan Ching
The Membership Committee will consist of
Carol Annable and Alvin Yoshinaga.
Plant of the month: Schiedea adamantis
Speaker: Trae Menard
Feature topic: Volunteers making a difference with na-
tive plant restoration
Speaker: Bruce Koebele, Ka'ala Cultural Learning
Center
Committee reports: None
New business: None
32
Newsletter of the Hawaiian Botanical Society
Kava ( Piper methysticum ): History, Uses and Effects
Kialani L. Hinson
Biology Program, University of Hawai‘i, Honolulu, HI 96822
kialani@hawaii.edu
Nearly every culture in the world has its indigenous
and favored mind-altering substances. Stimulants, nar-
cotics, vision-producing plants, beverages and other
preparations play important social roles and are a part of
various ceremonies and events. In Southeast Asia, betel
nut is the widely used stimulant of choice, while the
chewing of coca leaf is central to society in Andean cul-
ture (USMC, 1967). South American tribal people rely
on visionary plant mixtures, such as ayahuasca, and Afri-
can kung, and pygmies smoke Cannabis. Coffee, choco-
late, tea, and kola nut are w idely consumed and contain
drugs that directly affect the nervous system.
Kava contains a mind and mood-altering agent that
occupies a central place in culture and custom in the Pa-
cific. Kava is the name of both the plant, Piper methysti-
cum, and the pungent beverage prepared from its roots.
Originating from the South Pacific as a favorite drink of
the Pacific Islanders, kava possesses a wide range of
uses such as a ceremonial drink, a therapeutic elixir for
relaxation and anti-anxiety, and a social beverage (Walji,
1997). Many kava drinkers claim that its effects do not
differ greatly from those produced by consuming alco-
holic beverages.
Description
Kava is a member of the pepper family, Piperaceae.
The genus Piper contains about 2,000 species, ten of
which are used in products like spices or medicinal
drugs. Black and white peppers are prepared from the
red berries of P. nigrum, and the stimulant arecoline can
be found in the nut of the species P. betle. Piper methys-
ticum is a descendent of wild kava, P. wichmannii. The
origin of P. methysticum has proven difficult to deter-
mine because of the large gaps in kava’s occurrence
across the Pacific. However, because there are more P.
methysticum cultivars in Vanuatu than anywhere else in
the Pacific (80 out of 118), this archipelago is the as-
sumed place of origin (Walji, 1997).
The Kava plant can be described as a robust and at-
tractive perennial shrub with smooth, heart-shaped, alter-
nate, petiolate green leaves. The leaves themselves are
quite long — about 8-25 cm. They possess three main
veins that extend to their tips, and rest on petioles 2-6 cm
in length. Some forms have leaves with pubescence on
the underside of the lamina or the veins, but most are
generally smooth (Lebot et ah, 1997).
The plant requires protection from the sun and wind,
and thrives in temperatures between 20 and 30°C and
high humidity. In altitudes of less than 400 meters, the
plant requires an average annual precipitation of 2200
mm. Less precipitation (about 1800 mm) is needed at
higher altitudes. Large amounts of nutrients in the soil
are best for the success of the kava plant — the best yields
being obtained on silica-clay soils with a pH of 5.5 to
6.5. Mature plants are usually 3-5 years old, but faster
growing varieties are used commercially (Walji, 1997).
Kava is propagated vegetatively, and female plants
are generally uncommon. Planting is done in a similar
manner to that of sugar cane. Sections of kava stalks are
laid in trenches of mud where they sprout. The stalk
sections are then planted in shallow trenches where they
grow to maturity in 5-7 years. By that time, the roots
have become thick, knotted masses and are suitable for
the preparation of the kava beverage. Once planted, the
roots continue to grow, sending up new stalks. The
active ingredients are located in the rootstock of the plant
(Cass, 1998).
Numerous varieties of kava are cultivated, just as in
any other common crop such as tomatoes, coffee,
bananas, and apples. Cultivar classification systems vary
from island to island, and are distinguished by their
physiological characteristics, as well as their effects on
the body and mind. In 1935, 21 cultivars were identified
in Fiji, two in Micronesia, 14 in Hawai'i, and 247 kava
cultivars clustered into 82 morphotypes were discovered
in Vanuatu (Lebot et al., 1997). The cultivars are
distinguished by the colors of their stalks and leaves, the
thickness of the joints, or stalk length between joints.
For example, Fijian farmers classify kava based on the
color and shape of their internodes. They also
differentiate among different parts of the plant because
some possess more concentrated amounts of kavalactone
(the chemical compound responsible for the effects
associated with kava). Other factors may include the
shape of the roots, color of the internodes, color of the
stems, or the presence of spots on the internodes. Plant
colors can range from purple stems with green tinge, to
light green stems with dark green spots (Lebot et al.,
33
Volume 39 (3, 4), 2000
1997). Almost every kava grower has a favorite cultivar
that is preferred for its effects.
On islands where farmers themselves eat kava fresh, a
selection process is underway each time a plant is sam-
pled. If the farmer likes the taste and effect of a particu-
lar plant, cuttings will later be collected for clone propa-
gation. If the taste is terribly unpleasant or does not pro-
duce the desired effect, the plant is left to rot (Walji,
1997).
Hillary Clinton was honored with a kava ceremony
when she visited the Polynesian islands (Nature’s
Source, 2000). In the ceremony, the hosts sit cross-
legged in a circle while the guest stands on a platform
waiting to receive their kava. A group of young men
bring out the kava while chanting. The host serves the
kava to the guest while kneeling on the ground. The
guest is expected to drink the kava (without stopping)
until none is left. Once the cup is empty, everyone says,
“a maca,” meaning “it is empty” and claps three times
(Walji, 1997).
During the nineteenth century, kava’s traditional reli-
gious and political significance made it a target of Euro-
pean missionaries and colonists. The missionaries did
not like the effects kava had on its consumers: sitting
around all night talking until they fell asleep. Some be-
lieved that the kava drinkers used it to communicate with
other gods. Activists wanting to suppress the consump-
tion of alcohol and tobacco in Europe, North America
and Australia turned their attention towards kava, de-
scribing it as some sort of alcohol or beer. By 1850,
kava was illegal in Hawai‘i without permission from a
doctor. This ban would not be lifted until the time Ha-
waii became a territory (Ohnuma, 1999).
Preparation
In the Pacific, Kava is usually consumed at dusk be-
fore eating because a full stomach can lessen the effects
of the drug. Kava may decrease one’s appetite, so a light
meal is consumed after drinking. While there are several
traditional methods of kava preparation, all serve to ex-
tract the active chemicals from the rootstock. Methods
include chewing, grating, grinding, or pounding kava
stumps and roots and then adding cold water to the prod-
uct. The “mastication method” of kava preparation is
not often practiced today. However, this method was
once a common practice on the island of Fiji (Lebot et
al., 1997).
Before 1750, kava drinking was associated with an-
cestor worship in Fiji. Village priests prepared the kava
as an offering to the village ancestors each morning.
Kava consumption was limited to the men and priests of
the village. At this time, kava preparation involved
grinding instead of mastication, in decorative bowls. Fil-
tering of kava took place by pouring it through bracken
fern leaves suspended in a wooden canister-like device.
Unlike present day Fijians that drink kava from coconut
shell cups, early Fijians drank the kava right from the
canister (Lebot et al., 1997).
After 1750, the method of preparation changed to
mastication. After pounding the rootstock on a stone, the
bite-sized pieces were chewed by men or women. The
chewed kava was deposited into a large wooden bowl
directly from the mouth and mixed with water. After
straining, the mixture could be served in coconut shell
bowls (Cass, 1998).
The Samoan preparation of Kava is very similar to
that of the Fijian preparation. A girl, preferably a virgin,
would chew the kava after purifying herself for the pro-
cedure by washing her hands and wrists. The macerated
kava was mixed with water and filtered for serving.
During the preparation of the beverage, the girl would sit
cross-legged in a grass skirt on a mat behind the kava
bowl. Bare breasted and with flowers in her hair, the girl
would present an image of beauty to add to the aesthetics
of kava preparation (Lebot et al., 1997).
Captain Cook was greeted by a kava ceremony when
he visited the islands. Being the only member of the
crew to taste the beverage, he had this to say about it:
The manner of brewing, or preparing, the liquor is as
simple as it is disgusting to a European and is thus:
several people take of the root; chew it in to a kind of
pulp, when they spit it out into a platter. ...When a
sufficient quantity is done they mix with it a certain
proportion of water and then strain the liquor
through fibrous stuff and it is then fit for drinking
which is always done immediately; it has a pepperish
taste, rather flat and insipid and intoxicating (Walji,
1997).”
The practice of mastication was later abandoned by
Polynesian cultures, partly because of the arrival of
Europeans. The Europeans found this practice unsani-
tary and sometimes repulsive. Grinding of the kava is
the norm in present day, and the young Samoan girl now
wears a blouse when preparing the kava mixture (Cass,
1998).
Chemistry and Compounds
The medically active constituents of kava are a group
of compounds known as kavalactones. Fifteen have
been identified, but only six seem to be present in kava
in significant amounts. These include demethoxy-
yangonin, dihydrokavain, yangonin, kavain, dihydro-
34
Newsletter of the Hawaiian Botanical Society
methysticin, and methysticin. The kavalactones are con-
tained within oil cells that yield a greenish-yellow resin
when released (Walji, 1997).
The first researcher to engage in serious work on de-
termining the medical application of kava was Cuzent.
On April 10, 1857, he isolated a crystalline substance that
he called “kavahine.” At around this same time, a few
other scientists had also managed to isolate the same
compound. The compound now named methysticin had
been discovered. However, it was not until 1 889 that me-
thysticin was first obtained in a pure state by Pomeranz
(Lebot et al„ 1997).
Physiological Activity & Effects
Among the kavalactones, dihydromethysticin has the
greatest effect on barbituric narcosis and acts as a good
inhibitor of nervous and muscular contractions. Kavain is
the most effective in inducing surface anesthesia. The
effects of kavain have been compared to those of cocaine
in strength and duration. However, if too much is
injected, paralysis of peripheral nerves is induced
(Reichart, 1997).
Physiological effects of kava can include reduction of
heart rhythm, but unlike alcohol, it does not inhibit the
one’s capacity to think clearly. It can also cause pupil
dilation and photophobia in inexperienced or young
drinkers. About 150 ml of kava is enough to put a person
into a “deep, dreamless sleep within 30 minutes.” An
added benefit is the absence of a “hangover” that one
would experience the morning after consuming alcohol
(Lebot et al., 1997).
H.J Meyer, author of the book “Pharmacology of
kava: An Ethnopharmacological Search for Psychoactive
Drugs, " studied the effect of kava on various animals.
Pigeons slept for 2-10 hours after the administration of
kava. Monkeys fell asleep within 15 minutes and re-
mained asleep for over 15 hours (Lebot et al., 1997)!
Medicinal Uses of Kava
Kava holds great promise for the mitigation of three of
the most common health disorders: anxiety, depression
and insomnia. The effects of stress and anxiety can in-
clude weakened immunity, nervousness, indigestion, dif-
ficulty concentrating, and an overall haggard feeling.
When anxiety turns to panic, symptoms can include
tachycardia (when the heart beats too fast), palpitations,
dizziness, trembling, and extreme fears of dying, and los-
ing control of the mind. To combat these symptoms,
many people turn to alcohol or drugs that include pre-
scription tranquilizers and sleep aids. Alcohol seems to
be the most widely used because of its availability and
high potency. Now, with the spread of the use of kava,
people suffering from any of these disorders may have
another safer option (Brant, 2000).
Sleep apnea is a sleeping disorder affecting 18 million
people in the U.S. Men are twice as likely to suffer from
apnea than women (4% compared with 2% of women).
Sleep apnea occurs when there is an interruption in their
normal breathing rhythm causing the person to stop
breathing for a few seconds. While sleeping on one’s
side or undergoing surgery to correct any sort of abnor-
mality are possible treatments, some individuals respond
well to kava. The kava relaxes their muscles allowing
them to have a more relaxed, deeper sleep (Walji, 1997).
Insomnia is the most common sleep disorder. It in-
volves not being able to get a satisfactory sleep at night,
or not being able to sleep at all. Causes of insomnia are
most often linked to psychological or emotional problems
like depression, anxiety, unexpressed anger, fears, or ar-
guing with loved ones. Germany and other European
countries have approved the use of kava for treatment of
insomnia because of its success in promoting muscle re-
laxation therefore enabling one to fall asleep and stay
asleep (Reichert, 1997).
Kava has many other uses ranging from treatment of
epileptics, to use as a contraceptive. Contemporary uses
include treatment of bladder discomfort in England, treat-
ment of urinary tract infections in France, and arthritis,
restlessness, stress, psychosomatic conditions and nerv-
ousness in Germany (Walji, 1997). Table 1 shows the
various reported uses for kava in the Pacific (Lebot et al.,
1997).
Consequences of Use
Overuse of kava can have some serious side effects.
Heavy consumption of kava could cause skin lesions and
drying of the skin. Some drinkers develop bloodshot eyes
(Brant, 2000). While over consumption is a risk when-
ever one introduces a new drink whose effects are similar
to that of alcohol, kava abuse is uncommon. Most people
consume kava in reasonable amounts, whether it is for
pleasure or for health reasons. However, there have been
cases of a community, like the Aborigines in Australia,
showing signs of kava abuse.
Kava drinking was imported to Aboriginal communi-
ties to replace other forms of substance abuse. The result
was not what was expected, and individuals began to con-
sume huge amounts of the drink. A study was done on a
few Aboriginal communities in the 1980’s because of the
increase in consumption of kava in those areas. Eighty
percent of men and 20 percent of Aboriginal women re-
portedly consume kava daily and in very large quantities.
The amounts consumed are fifty times higher than that of
drinkers in the Pacific (Walji, 1997).
35
Volume 39 (3, 4), 2000
Table 1. Kava-based medicinal treatments in Polynesia.
Condition Medicinal Treatment
Inflammation of the urogenital system
Gonorrhea and chronic cystitis
Difficulties in urinating
Female puberty syndromes, weakness
Menstrual problems, dysmenorrhea
Vaginal prolapsus
To provoke an abortion
Migraine related to women’s sicknesses
Headaches
General weakness
Chills
Chills and sleeping problems
General treatment of diseases
To prevent infection
Rheumatism
Weight gain
Gastrointestinal upsets
Irritation of the respiratory tract and asthma
Pulmonary pains
Tuberculosis
Leprosy
Skin diseases
Certain skin diseases
To prevent suppuration
To calm nervous children
Drinking macerated stump and young kava shoots
Drinking prepared kava
Drinking macerated stump
Drinking masticated kava
Drinking prepared kava
Application of macerated kava
Kava leaves in the vagina
Drinking masticated kava
Masticated root tissues, eaten or drunk as an infu-
sion
Drinking of masticated, macerated kava diluted
with water and boiled
Drinking macerated kava; fumigation with the
leaves
Drinking of masticated, macerate kava diluted in
water and boiled
Fumigation with the leaves
Drinking of masticated kava
Drinking of macerated stump
Drinking of macerated stump
Drinking of macerated stump mixed with other
medicinal plants
Drinking of macerated stump
Drinking masticated kava
Drinking juice extracted from the stump
External application of masticated stump
Application of masticated stump in a poultice
Kava cure to cause desquamations; at the end of
the cure, new healthy skin is formed.
Application of masticated stump in a poultice
Drinking of kava drink prepared from the nene
variety
Researchers from the Menzies School of Health
Research in Darwin, Australia took an epidemiological
survey of 97 Aboriginal kava drinkers in Northern
Australia. They discovered that many of the heavy kava
drinkers had an increased likelihood of developing “skin
rash, malnutrition, general ill health, liver damage, and
biochemical changes in red and white blood cells and
platelets.” Despite these findings, there has been no
evidence to indicate the need to put legal bans on kava
importation or consumption (Lebot et al., 1997).
Personal Experience
About a year ago, I decided to be adventurous and
sample a bowl of kava. The Kava Bar had just opened
on Kapahulu in Mo‘ili‘ili and a few of my friends were
going down to try some. I had a feeling that I would
never come back to that bar again after tasting it, so I de-
cided to “go for it” by purchasing the most expensive and
potent bowl of kava. A small brown bowl sat in front of
me with filled about half way with what appeared to be
“muddy water.” I stuck my finger in it to see if it was
cold — it was room temperature. Being one of those peo-
ple that are very picky about the way food is presented, I
didn’t think I could drink it. However, peer pressure got
the best of me and 1 put the bowl to my lips and took a
big gulp. What I felt then was an overwhelming urge to
36
Newsletter of the Hawaiian Botanical Society
gag. My body wanted to purge this disgusting liquid that
I felt was poisoning my system. It was like 1 had just
crouched on the ground and taken a sip out of a mud
puddle left by the rain. To make a long story short, 1 re-
fused to finish the bowl for fear of it all coming back up
(I’m not a big drinker to begin with). I did however feel
quite a bit more relaxed after drinking the kava. I took a
nap about 45 minutes later and woke up feeling great. If
one can stand the taste, I understand why kava is an ap-
pealing drink. It gives one the feeling of complete re-
laxation. I felt like socializing, like laughing, then like
sleeping. I awoke without a headache (as opposed to the
huge one I receive after drinking half a glass of wine
cooler).
Conclusions
Piper methysticum not only serves as a social bever-
age, but also can be used to treat and sometimes cure se-
rious disorders and illnesses. While a great deal of medi-
cal research is still in progress, many individuals have
had very pleasant experiences with this drug. The most
striking thing to me was the list of all the different disor-
ders/diseases that kava has been used to treat. While I
don’t know exactly how successful all of those treat-
ments were, I can only assume that some must have
been, or why would people continue to use it? Another
interesting point is that kava can produce effects much
like alcohol, and is used like prescription drug in many
cases, but anyone can drink it. It will be interesting to
see if new research merits putting an age restriction on
the consumption of the beverage. Honest'y, it would
make no difference to me because my experience with
kava has left me with a “bitter taste in my mouth.”
Bibliography
Brant, H. 2000. Kava kava: the solution to today’s
problems of stress and anxiety? http://www.
vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/health_psychology/
kava.htm#WHAT_IS_KAVA_KAVA
Brunton, R. 1989. The abandoned narcotic. Cambridge
University Press, New York.
Cass, H. 1998. Kava: nature’s answer to stress anxiety
and insomnia. Prima Health, Rocklin, CA.
Connor, K. M. 1999. Kava: nature’s stress relief. Avon
Books, New York.
Kilham, C. 1996. Kava: medicine hunting in paradise:
the pursuit of a natural alternative to anti-anxiety drugs
and sleeping pills. Park Street Press, Vermont.
Krauss, B. 1979. Native plants used as medicine in
Hawai‘i. Lyon Arboretum, Hawai‘i.
Lebot, V., Merlin, M., Lindstron, L. 1997. Kava: The
Pacific Elixir. Healing Arts Press, Rochester, VT.
Nature’s Source. 2000. Kava kava for anxiety, http://
www.naturaltechniques.com/kava_kava_for_anxiety.
htm
Ohnuma, K. Posted July 7, 1999. Tropical Tonic.
http://www.islandscene.com/food/1999/990616/awa/
index. asp
Reichert, R. 1997. Kava kava: the anti-anxiety herb
that relaxes and sharpens the mind. Keats Publishing,
Connecticut.
Tenney, D. 1997. Kava kava, valerian, and other
nervine herbs. Woodland Publishing, Utah.
Titcomb, M. 1948. Kava in Hawai‘i. Polynesian
Society, New Zealand.
USMC Unit Leaders Personal Response Handbook.
1967. http://www.usssatyr.com/betel.htm
Walji, H. 1997. Kava: nature’s relaxant for anxiety,
stress and pain. Hohm Press, Arizona.
37
Volume 39 (3, 4), 2000
Evaluation of Puccinia lagenophorae as a Biocontrol
Agent for Senecio madagascariensis in Hawai‘i
Eloise M. Killgore and Mohsen Ramadan ,
Plant Pest Control Branch, Hawai‘i Department of Agriculture, Honolulu
Donald E. Gardner
USGS-Biological Resources Discipline, Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center, Department of
Botany, University of Hawai‘i at Manoa, Honolulu
Senecio madagascariensis Poiret is, or fireweed, is an
introduced pasture weed in Hawai‘i. It was first noticed
by ranchers in the early 1980s in Hawai‘i Island’s Ko-
hala district, and is becoming widespread in pastures and
along roadsides mostly on the islands of Maui and Ha-
waii. During the past approximately 20 years since its
discovery, fireweed has spread through pastures and
along roadsides down the coast to Ka‘u, near the south-
ernmost part of the island (Nilton Matayoshi, personal
communication). Fireweed is not usually an aggressive
invader in the sense that it is a poor competitor with
other plants, but it is among many species of Senecio
containing pyrrolidine alkaloid toxins that cause senecio-
sis, a serious liver disease, in cattle, horses, and sheep.
(One such species [S'. jacobeae, tansy ragwort] has long
been targeted for biocontrol on the U. S. mainland and
elsewhere (Julien and Griffiths, 1999)). The disease may
result from direct consumption of fresh plant material or
ingestion of hay or other feed contaminated with Se-
necio.
Although it is not known how S. madagascariensis
was introduced to Hawai'i Island, incipient infestations
on the islands of Kaua'i and Maui were traced to Austra-
lian hydromulch used for roadside erosion control. It is
thought that contaminated seed was the source for the
infestation on 0‘ahu (N. Matayoshi, personal communi-
cation). Fireweed in Australia is widespread along the
coast of New South Wales and is spreading to southern
Queensland. This weed was “declared” (i.e., designated
noxious) by the Rural Lands Protections act of 1985 be-
cause of its detrimental effects on cattle and sheep
(McFayden and Sparks, 1996).
Australian researchers began searching for biocontrol
agents for fireweed in the mid 1980s in Madagascar and
South Africa, but they have not evaluated any agents for
release. In the meantime, plant exclusion, use of com-
petitive species, and herbicides are considered effective
control measures in Australia (McFayden and Sparks,
1996).
The Hawai'i Department of Agriculture (DOA) began
exploration for natural enemies of fireweed in August
1999, focusing on its native ranges in South Africa and
Madagascar. The trip also included a visit to the Allan
Fletcher Research Institute at Brisbane, Queensland, dur-
ing which samples of fireweed infected with the rust fun-
gus Puccinia lagenophorae Cooke were shipped to the
DOA plant pathology quarantine facility in Honolulu for
testing. Senecio madagascariensis is not native to Aus-
tralia, and it is not known whether the rust already ex-
isted in that country on native or nonnative Senecio spp.
This rust was also found in nearly all fireweed sites in-
spected in the above countries. Several insects and a
“white rust” (. Albugo Candida ), also were shipped to
Honolulu for evaluation in quarantine.
Of the 76 genera and 181 species of the family As-
teraceae in Hawai'i, six genera and 90 species are en-
demic. Senecio belongs to the tribe Senecioneae, sub-
family Asteroideae. There are no endemic genera within
this tribe, although related tribes include many endemic
species (Wagner et a!., 1990). In the absence of eco-
nomically important species of Asteraceae, host range
testing was directed at evaluating the ability of the fun-
gus to infect endemic members of the family.
Because of the impracticality of testing each of the
181 species found in Hawai'i in the limited quarantine
space available, it was desirable to follow the centrifugal
phylogenetic testing sequence approach devised by
Wapshere (1974). This is based on the assumption that
non-host specific pathogens will be most likely to infect
hosts most closely related to the target species as op-
38
Newsletter of the Hawaiian Botanical Society
posed to indiscriminately attacking plants which are less The Rust
closely, or not related to the target species. Wapshere’s Puccinia lagenophorae is autoecious (it completes its
model therefore was the criterion for selection of the life cycle on only one host, in contrast with the alternate
plants for host range testing listed in Table 1. hosts required by many rust fungi). This species is inter-
Table 1. Members of the family Asteraceae inoculated with Puccinia lagenophorae , and their reactions.
Host Plants
Reaction Tested
Family Asteraceae
Subfamily Asteroideae
Tribe Senecioneae Tribe Heliantheae
Crassocephalum crepidioides
positive
8
Bidens alba
negative
8
Emilia sonchifolia
positive
8
B. campylolheca *
negative
8
Delaria odorata
negative
8
B. menziesii *
negative
2
Erechtites sp.
negative
9
B pilosa
negative
7
Coreopsis sp.
negative
9
Tribe Anthemideae
Cosmos bipinnates
negative
10
Achillea millefolium
negative
9
Echinacea purpurea
negative
8
Artemisia mauiensis*
negative
4
Helianthus annus
negative
9
Chrysanthemum morifolium
negative
7
Lipochaeta connata
negative
4
C. carnatum
negative
9
Wollastonia micrantha**
negative
12
W. waimeaensis**
negative
10
Tribe Astereae
Tithonia sp.
negative
1 1
Aster sp.
negative
8
Tridax procumbens
negative
10
Conzya bonariensis
negative
8
Verbesina encelioides
negative
10
Erigeron bonariensis
negative
8
Wedelia trilobata
negative
8
Erigeron sp.
negative
8
Zinnia sp.
negative
6
Tetramolopium fdiforme **
positive
8
T. rockii * *
positive
4
Subfamily Cichorioideae
Tribe Lactuceae
Tribe Gnaphalieae
Lactuca saliva
negative
9
Gamochaeta purpureum
negative
10
Sonchus oleraceus
negative
8
Helichrysum sp.
positive
8
Youngia japonica
negative
9
Tribe Heleneae
Tribe Cardueae
Dubautia laevigata*
negative
4
Arctium lappa
negative
8
D. latifolia**
negative
2
Gaillardia sp.
negative
8
Tagetes sp.
negative
9
* endemic, occurring only in Hawai'i
Wilkesia gymnoxiphium * *
negative
3
** endangered endemic
Wilkesia hobdyi * *
negative
2
Host Plants
Reaction Tested
Volume 39 (3, 4), 2000
39
esting from a biological standpoint in that the spore states
have been modified in a rather unique way. The normal
spermogonial state is lacking, as is a conventional ured-
inial state. The “repeating” function (i.e., the ability to
re-infect) is assumed by the aecial state. The well-
defined yellow-orange “aecial” cups produce catenulate
(chainlike) spores that are angular or cubical in shape,
thus resembling aeciospores, but which are capable of re-
infecting the plant. These are termed aecidioid uredinial
spores. The dark colored telia produce two-celled spores
typical of the genus Puccinia. These germinate readily to
produce basidia and basidiospores (Wilson and Henderson,
1966).
Materials and Methods
In quarantine, the pathogenicity of Puccinia lageno-
phorae was first demonstrated on fireweed plants grown
from seed from the Hawaiian population. Rust spores
were collected by tapping infected plant material over a
sheet of paper. Approximately 1 cc of spores was stirred
into 200 ml of 1% Tween-20 in distilled water. Spore
suspension was sprayed to upper and lower leaf surfaces,
and stems with a hand-held sprayer. The plants were
placed in Plexiglas™ chambers, which in turn were
placed in darkened incubators for 18 hrs. at 18° C. Plants
were then removed to quarantine greenhouse benches un-
der natural lighting and maintained at 18.5 - 27° C.
Host range testing included 42 species in eight tribes
of the Asteraceae, selected as described above. Inocula-
tion was carried out as described for fireweed. At least
four plants of each species were inoculated. For each in-
oculation trial, at least four fireweed plants were included
as controls. The entire inoculation procedure was re-
peated once.
Results
Of the 42 plant species tested, five became infected by
P. lagenophorae. These were Crassocephalum crepidi-
oides, Emilia sonchifolia, Helichrysum sp.,
Tetramolopium filiforme, and T. rockii (Table 1). The
severity of infection on these species was low, ranging
from one to four infection sites per plant, with no visible
effect on overall plant health. In contrast, infection was
conspicuous and severe on S. madagascariensis , causing
decline of test plants and inhibition of flower production.
Conclusions
Of the Asteraceae species found susceptible to P. la-
genophorae, Crassocephalum crepidioides and Emilia
sonchifolia are common nonnative weeds of no commer-
cial or ecological value. However, because P. lageno-
phorae was able to infect the two endemic species of
Tetramolopium, T. filiforme and T. rockii, designated
“endangered” and “vulnerable,” respectively, considera-
tion of this rust as a biocontrol agent was suspended in
accordance with current U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service
policy.
Notwithstanding the failure of the rust to be released,
P. lagenophorae was shown to be effective in controlling
fireweed. Documentation of this work in the literature
provides information for future consideration in biocon-
trol efforts involving species of Senecio.
Literature Cited
Julien, M. H., and Griffiths, M. W. (eds.) 1999. Biologi-
cal control of weeds: A world catalogue of agents and
their target weeds. Fourth Edition. CABI Publishing,
Wallingford Oxon, UK.
McFadyen, R. and Sparks, D. 1996. Biological control
of fireweed. Pages 305-308 in: Eleventh Australian
Weeds Conference Proceedings. R. C. H. Shepherd,
ed. Weeds Society of Victoria, Australia.
Wilson, M., and Henderson, D. M. 1966. British Rust
Fungi. Cambridge University Press.
Wagner, W. L., Herbst, D. R., and Sohmer, S. H. 1990.
“Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai'i,” Vols. I
and 2. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publica-
tion. University of Hawai'i Press and Bishop Mu-
seum Press, Honolulu.
Wapshere, A. J. 1974. A strategy for evaluating safety
of organisms for biological weed control. Annals of
Applied Biology 77: 201-211.
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