iliiiSSii^?iiS5IS fe:;w5?«iii THE MINISTRY. 1. The Hon G. H. REID, M.P. 3. The Hon. J. COOK, M.P. 6. The Hon J. H. YOUNG, M.P. 7. The Hon A. GARRAN, LL.D., M.L.C. 9. The Hon. A. J. GOULD, M.P. 2. The Hon. J. N. BRUNKER, M.P. 4. The Hon. J. H. WANT, Q.C., M.L.C. 6. The Hon. J. H. CARRUTHERS, M.P, 8. The Hon. J. GARRARD, M.P. 10. The Hon. S. SMITH, M.P. ^EW SOUTH WALES: cc THE MOTHER COLONY OF THE AUSTRALIAS." Edited by FRANK HUTCHINSON, Oup. !^20 0. of D, 896. Bu ^utljoritD : SYDNEY: CHARLES POTTER, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, PHILLIP STREET. 1896. [Berjhtered under the Copyrhjht Act of 1870.1 4/351-Oo-G rf [3s] ERRA TA. Page ri. Paragraph ** Electoral Districts." Eighth line, for 2,5 '3 ^'^'''^ 2,1 I o. Ihirteenth line, for " thirt\ -nine " read "twenty-six" Fourteenth line, for " eigtity-five " read *' eighty-eight." Illustration facing page i68. For "Harvest Home" read " Harvest Queen." Page 3S7. For 25 May, 1833 (Mitchell's expedition to the Darling), read 25 May, 1835. PagG 359- Eleventh line from bottom For "Assembly" nad " Council." hid (pl5 YV mj CONTENTS. INTllUUUCTluX, l.y thu i;iiitor(Fi!.\N:; lIiRinxsoN) .. .. .. .. .. .. — PHYSICAL GKOGKAPKY AND CLIMATIC, by H. C. RrsSELl., B.A., C.M.G , RR.S. 1 THE CONSTITUTION AND LAWS, by Professor Pitt CoiiBKTT . . . . . . . . . . 7 THE LAWS RELATING TO CROWN LANDS, by 11. A. G. Ciury .. .. .. .. :J."> COMMERCIAL RELATIONS, by R. L. Nash .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4.'i I.MPORT TRADE, by W. G. RK.NDAiJi .. .. .. .. .. .. .. t,5 WOOL INDUSTRY, by Henky W. Wright .. .. .. .. .. .. .. CC PASTURES, GRASSES, AND FORAGE PLANTS, by Frkd. Tirxkr, F.L.S., F.R.II.S., &c. .. 70 LIVE STOCK, by Alexasdkr Bruce .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. i?7 AGRICULTURE, by J. L. TiiOMrsoN .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 104 FRUIT CULTURE, by Albert H. Bex.son . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.''. VITICULTURE, by P. F. Adams . . . . . . 12;j SUGAR GROWING AND ITS MANUFACTURE, by W. S. Cami'bkll 134 HORTICULTURE, by W. S. Ca.mip.f.ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 SILK CULTURE, by W. S. Ca.mpbki.l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 TOBACCO CULTURE, by Sami el Lamb . . . . I.i9 TIMBERS OF THE COLONY, by J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.,&c .. .103 SOME MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS, by J. H. Maidex, F.L.S., &c. .. .. .. 181 THE DAIRYING INDUSTRY, by A. A. Dunxiuliff . . . . . . . . . . . . Is7 MEAT EXPORT TRADE, by Cutiibert Fbtherstoxiiaugii . . . . . . . . 199 FISH INDUSTRY, by J. Douglas Ogilby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 MINING INDUSTRY, by W. H. J. Slee, F.G.S., &c. .. .. .. .. .. .. 22C COLLIERIES, by Joiix Mackenzie, F.G.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..233 WATER CONSERVATION, IRRIGATION, AND DRAINAGE, by H. G. McKi.n.xf.y, M. Inst. C.E. . . 240 THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARTESIAN BORING, by J. W. Boultbee . . . . . . 25,'; SYDNEY AND PRINCIPAL TOWNS, by Frank J. Donoiiue 202 RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS, by R. L. Nash .. 270 POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC SERVICE, by S. H. L.wiliTON 231 PUBLIC WORKS, INCLUDING ROADS AND BRIDGES, by .1. W. IIollimax 287 OUR SOCIAL CONDITIONS, by Frank J. DoxoiiVE .. .. .. .. . .. 293 LITERATURE AND ART, by Frank HiTCiiixsoN .. .. .. .. .. ..305 RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS, by Frank J. Donouue 312 EDUCATION, by R. N. Morris, LL.D. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..321 THE MANUFACTURING INTEREST, by Frank J. DoNOii IE.. .. .. .. . 333 FEDERATION, by Edward Dowlinq . . 310 APPENDICES- HISTORICAL DATA, by F. M. Bladen, Barristcrat-Law 353 FROM EUROPE TO SYDNEY, AND HOW TO LIVE THERE, by W. G. Rexdall .. .. SC3 47S1.R8 LIB SETS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Faces pa^je THE REiD MINISTRY, 1895 C — (Frontispiece) SYDNEY AND HARBOUR FROM THE NORTH SHORE. TEMPORARY HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, SYDNEY ... ... ... ... 10 THE LANDS OFFICE, SYDNEY ... ... ... ... ... ... 25 SYDNEY EXCHANGE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 45 CIRCULAR QUAY, FROM NORTH .SYDNEY ... ... ... ... ... 52 CIRCULAR QUAY, FROM CUSTOM HOUSE ... ... ... ... ... 54 M'ARTHUR AND CO.'S WAREHOUSE, SYDNEY ... ... ... ... 64 A LOAD OF WOOL ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 66 DIAGRAM SHOWING FLUCTUATIONS IN PRICES OF WOOL, 1883-1896 ... ... 68 WINCHGOMBE, CARSON, AND CO.'s WOOL SHOWROOM, PYKMONT, SYDNEY ... 70 DIAGRAM— ^WOOL-PRODUCING COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD ... ... ... 72 SHEEP-.SHEARING WITH MACHINE-SHEARS ... ... ... ... ... 74 AUSTRALIAN MILLET ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 80 ROUND-LEAVED .SALT BU.SH — CABBAGE BUSH ... ... ... ... ... 82 SCENTED OR DARLING CLOVER ... ... ... ... ... ... 84 WINGADEE STATION ... .., ... ... ... ... ... 94 MUIR PEACH TREES AT GOVERNMENT EXPERIMENTAL FARM, WAGGA WAGGA... 118 HOT- HOUSE AND GREEN-HOU.SE FLOWERS GROWN IN NEW SOUTH WALES... ... 142 AN amateur's green-house, NEAR .SYDNEY ... ... ... ... 148 SILK CULTURE ... . . ... ... ... ... ... ... 150 SILK CULTURE (COCOONS) ... ... ... ... ... ... 156 SANSOON TOBACCO (CIGARETTE) GROWING AT DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, SYDNEY 159 SHIP "HARVEST HOME," LOADING THE FIRST CARGO OF N.S.W, TIMBERS FOR LONDON 168 FORE.ST OF YOUNG BLACKBUTTS, MANNING RIVER ... ... ... ... 172 TALLOW-WOOD LOGS .. ... ... ... ... ... ... 172 "HONEYCOMB," THE CHAMPION DAIRY COW OF THE WORLD ... ... ... 187 GOVERNMENT MEAT MARKET, DARLING HARBOUR, SYDNEY... ... ... 199 GOVERNMENT MEAT MARKET, DARLING HARBOUR — INTERIOR VIEW ... ... 202 SEA-MULLET (MUGIL DOBULA) ... ... ... ... .. •.• 219 the .schnapper (sparcsomus auratus) .., ... ... ... ••• 223 broke:? hill silver mines ... ... ... ... ... ••• 226 gold-mining (panning, cru.shing quartz, cradling) ... ... ... 228 "WESLEY" TIN BIINE, FLANNERY's WASHIN(; PLANT ... ... ... 2.33 262 264 vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Faces TEXT HILL TIN SMELTING WORKS, EMMAVILLE ... ... ... ... 234 DIAMOND DRILL PLANT ... ... ... ... •■■ .•• 237 NEWCA.STLE, FROM THE CUSTOM-HOUSE ... ... ... ... ... 238 NEWCA.STLE HARBOUR, SHOWING STEAM CRANES ... ... ... ... 240 METROPOLITAN COLLIERY, HELENSBURGH ... ... ... ... ... 242 WILLANORA WEIR, LACHLAN RIVER ... ... ... ... ... 252 WARREN WEIR WORKS, MACQUARIE RIVER ... ... ... ... ... 252 ARTESIAN BORE, WAKREGO DISTRICT ... ... ... ... ... 255 TOWN HALL, SYDNEY GEORGE-STREET, .SYDNEY NEW CITY MARKETS, GEORGE STREET, SYDNEY .. ... ... ... 268 THE TURNING OF THE TURF OP THE FIRST AUSTRALIAN RAILWAY, JULY 3rD, 1850 271 THE SAME, FROM A PAINTING AT THE TIME BY JOHN RAE, ESQ. ... ... 272 REDFERN RAILWAY STATION, SYDNEY ... ... ... ... ... 276 DIAGRAM SHOWING GRADIENTS ON THE WE.STERN LINE ... ... ... 278 GENERAL PO.ST OFFICE, SYDNEY... ... ... ... ... ... 281 PUBLIC WORKS OFFICE, .SYDNEY ... ... ... ... ... ... 287 HAMPDEN BRIDGE, WAGGA WAGGA ... .. ... .. ... 288 BRIDGE OVER DARLING RIVER AT WENTWORTH ... ... ... ... 291 STEAM CRANE, DARLING HARBOUR ... ... ... ... ... 293 ST. Andrew's cathedral, Sydney ... ... ... ... ... 312 THE UNIVERSITY, SYDNEY ... ... ... ... ... ... 321 ^ MAPS — NEW SOUTH WALES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 .SHOWING AVERAGE RAINFALL ... ... ... ... ... 6 SHOWING AVERAGE TEMPERATURE ... ... ... ... ... 6 PORT JACK.SON ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51 CITY OF .SYDNEY ... ... ... ... .. ... ...at eud NEW SOUTH WALES RAILWAYS, &C. ... ... ... ... ... at end OI^ • are ~ir is •, his ects icli a this r, at and and cre- tctly ' the •ery hich TEXT DIAMC NEWC^ NEWC. METRO WILLA WARR ARTE? TOWN GE0R9 NEW THE T' THE „. RKDF DIAG GENEr PUBl HAMI BRIDG STEAM ST. AI THE I MAPS- N Si s: PL CIT INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this book may bo very briefly told : As there are stages in the life of the individual when he naturally pauses, or is made to pause, and takes stock, so to say, of his actual position, his profit or loss account to date, his probable or possible prospects for the future, so there maybe in the case of a community. Such a time in the affairs of this community to the projectors of this volume appeared to be the present. We are on the eve, rather, at the starting point of a totally new departure in our political and commercial, and therefore, it may be hoped, in our industrial and social, career ; and in order that due note may be possible here- after of our progress or otherwise, it behoves us to know exactly to-day, in all these respects, where we start from. Hence the engagement of experts in all these departments, and in every branch of them, to set down, in no great detail indeed, which would swell the volume to a library, but with absolute accuracy, precisely where and how we stand at the present moment in regard to each ; and hence, we think may be added, within the covers of this book one of the most marvellous records ever written of any country in the world. It is perhaps needless to say that the credit of the inception of this work rests with the same bold, busy brain to which also is due mainly the new departure it is meant to mark. It was the present Premier, the Hon. G. H. Reid, who first suggested the idea of some such publication, which, with his long experience in such matters, was speedily put into form by the publisher, the Government Printer, Mr. Potter, to whom also is due chiefly the excellent choice of writers to deal with the several subjects. Any editor might well be proud of such an array, and the present one may fairly take this opportunity of saying that an easier task than his, so far as any revision or correction of his contributors is con- cerned, probably never fell to editor's lot Doubtless this was due mainly to his contributors' own perfect competence, and something perhaps may be put down to the inspiration, so to say, of the mar- vellous tale which many or most of them had to tell. As he must be a dullard indeed who can read some of the papers in this book viii INTRODUCTION. describing the wondrous achievements within little more than a human lifetime, and the yet more wondrous possibilities of this young land without feeling a glow of patriotic pride that he belongs to such a country, so he must be doubly a dullard who could write them without himself being moved with something of the spirit of the brave deeds or bright visions he was recounting. This in truth has been the editor's chief difficulty — rather to restrain the zeal of some of his contributors, if not exactly in painting the lily or gilding the gold, at any rate in making what was meant to be simply a plain matter-of-fact record of Australian progress read like nothing so much as an Arabian Nights tale. Not indeed that even that would be in every case such an extravagance. There have been marvels, not to say miracles, in Australia's short story, outrivalling Sindbad's ; magical transformations — witness Ballarat or Broken Hill — to which Aladdin's palace was the merest mush- room. But the object of this book being to set forth, not the romance, nor even the wonder of the country's progress, but the plain facts of its position to-day, and chiefly the practical side of that, there has necessarily been som^e pruning in this direction, and hence if any of these papers seem wanting in the warmth or colour proper to the subject, let it be put down to the strictly business scruples of the Editor, and not to any lack of enthusiasm on the part of the writers. Of course there are subjects dealt with here which needed no such precautions. It would have been difficult for instance for Professor I'itt Cobbett to "enthuse" much on his subject, the ]^aw and Constitution of New South Wales, admirable as on the whole both are, or for ]Mr. Harris Curry on his, the Laws relating to Crown Lands, though he does properly describe them as " characterised by comprehensiveness and liberality." Both these papers will be found excellent digests of their respective subjects, and for all interested in either subject — and who are not ? — very useful for reference. Commerce and speculation naturally go to- gether, and doubtless in some quarters, in a sense, the most purely speculative papers in the book may be said to be the commercial. To some extent this was inevitable, since, as one of them admits, the change in the fiscal policy is still too recent to allow of any full or fair judgment, much less positive prediction, as to its results. At the same time it can hardly be called mere speculation to say that "with the loosing of her fiscal bonds the commercial supremacy of New South Wales is assured," seeing that that appears to have INTRODUCTION. been very fairly maintained, even without the loosing, and consider- ing-— which perhaps, after all, has had more to do with the matter — this colony's immense natural advantages. In any case no one can cjuestion the ability and perfect knowledge of the subject with which these papers — by IMessrs. Nash and Rendall respectively — are written, while he must be a very rabid opponent of the new policy who will not join in the hope that their most sanguine anticipations of its results may be fulfilled. Another paper of marked ability is that by the first-named of these two writers, on our railways — in their splendid success, under the management of ]\Ir. Eddy and his fellow commissioners, not the least remarkable of the many instances in these pages of the country's progress. Accord- ing to this writer, not only are they " the most efficiently main- tained., the best managed, and the most profitable of all the state railway systems of Australasia," but in many important respects, "will stand comparison with the admirably maintained railways of the old country," and he adds, " cannot by men like myself, Avho have studied the working of the railways of the United King- dom and elsewhere, fail to be viewed with admiration." It would be difficult to overrate the value of such a paper as this, in the proper appraisement to the world of one of the country's prin- cipal assets, and the confounding of those who are in the habit of criticising the working of our railways without studying anything, except, perhaps, the display of their own ignorance or spleen. To the general public, however, the papers of most interest and value will probably be those treating of the country's several great industries hi esse or in iwsse, her productions, and grand natural resources. It is not too much to say that here may be found, set forth by the most competent authorities, a complete course of infor- mation and instruction on every phase and feature of the country's practical development ; and it may be noted that while the older industries are dealt with as fully as the exigencies of space would permit, not less attention is given to the very newest, or to those later developments, in each and all, on the intelligent study and prosecution of which depends so largely the future progress of the colony. Thus, while the great pastoral industry in its more familiar aspects is ably dealt with in the papers by IMessrs. Bruce and Wright on Live Stock and Wool respectively, it assumes quite a new or at least even larger importance in the admirable paper on the ]\Ieat Export Trade by that undoubted enthusiast on the subject, Mr. Cuthbert Fetherstonhaugh, whose vision of Australia, and specially b INTROD UCTION. New South Wales, becoming the chief or one of the chief food pro- viders to the hungry millions of the old world, if realized, must certainly, in his own words, " soon restore the great pastoral industry to its pristine preeminence." As much may be said of the papers by jNIessrs. ]\IcKinney and Boultbee respectively, on Water Conservation and Artesian Boring, setting forth the incalcu- lable benefits to be derived not only by the pastoral industry but by the country generally from a thorough system of irrigation, as the one writer has it, " giving encouragement to dreams of progress and development, even in the most arid districts, far beyond the conception of the present nomadic, purely pastoral population," or as the other, " equivalent to the addition of a new province." Then there are the group of papers relating to the several branches of agriculture, following the excellent one by Principal Thompson, of the Agricultural College, on the main subject. These include every conceivable phase of this great industr}'-, from grain- growing to tobacco culture, wine-growing to butter-making, and may be said to form a veritable farmer's vade mecum, wherever in this wide country of infinitely varied soil and climate, and therefore of production, his lot may be cast. Principal Thompson's paper may be specially noted both for its eminently practical character and the excellent account it gives of the work being done in the way of agricultural education under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture, established in 1890 by the present Minister for ]Mines, etc., the Hon. Sydney Smith. Certainly it would seem to be all needed, for though the Principal of the Agricultural College is naturally sanguine as to the future of agriculture in this country, his conditions are absolute. There must be, he declares, much im- jDroved methods of culture, more intense cultivation, a better system of rotation of crops and more careful husbanding of resources, all directed to the raising of only the best class of products. In a word agriculture must be made a science. And when we are told that the course of education at the Agricultural College includes, besides all practical farm work, such subjects as the principles of agriculture, agricultural chemistr}^, botany, geology, physics, mechanics, &c., that the Department of Agriculture is for ever gathering and dis- tributing fresh information for the farmers, and that at the several experimental farms throughout the country tests are being made as to the best crops and methods of culture for the special district, there is evidently good hope that the requisite scientific knowledge will be supplied. INTRODUCTION. The much neglected Fish and Timber industries find sympathetic treatment at the callable hands of Messrs. Ogilby and Maiden, ■which, it is hoped, may tend somewhat to their improvement. Much useful information as to the IMining Industry is furnished by the Chief Inspector of Mines, Mr. Slee ; and a series of thoughtful papers by ]\Ir. Frank Donohue and others deal fair]}-, if not very fully, with the several features of our social and educational progress. But why run further through the long list r The book is here to speak for itself, and may be described generally as a sort of literary panorama (though necessarily, from the purely practical character of most of the papers, with few literary pretensions) of the present condition and prospects, from almost every point of view, of the Colony. That it will altogether escape criticism, of course, cannot be expected ; that it will answer largely its main purpose as an authentic record of the country's progress up to date, and further, as spreading far and wide, both among her own people and those of other countries — the book has been translated into French, and will be well distributed — a fuller knowledge and appreciation of the splendid resources and cajoabilities of this glorious land, ma}', the Editor thinks, as certainly be hoped. FRANK HUTCHINSON. PUBLISHER'S NOTE. IHE Publisher desires to express his acknowledgments for assist- ance, in the way of illustrations and otherwise, to — The Several^GovERNMEXT UNnER-SpXREXARiES, ^Messrs. Dalgety & Co , Messrs. Winchco:mbe, Car.son, &: Co., ^lessrs. Geddes, Birt, t^ Co., Messrs. Scott, Sibisald, & Co., The Proprietors of the "Australasian Pastoral Review," The Proprietors of the " Stock and Station Journal," and Others. Physical Geography and Climate. By H C Russell, B.A., C M.G., F.R.S., Government Astronomer. Very early history points definitely to the knowledge of a great south land, the " Terra Australis incognita/' and the stories which were told of its gold and other treasures for ages inflamed the minds of the adventurous navigators of those early days. Later the actual Australia seemed to contradict these stories, but colonisation and exploration show that there was a solid basis of fact as to the enormous natural treasures of gold and precious stones, and many invaluable stores of other minerals, which fully justify the dreams of early navigators. Whether the natives ever did barter gold for European or Asiatic products cannot be decided now, but the fact remains that the old myths about Australian natural wealth are fully borne out by actual experience. These earlier references to Australia treated the country as a whole. Our present purpose is to deal only with New South Wales where the first colonists landed. It is only a fraction (one-seventh) of the whole continent. Its eastern boundary is the coastline between latitudes 28° 15' and 37" 30' south, the northern boundary is the 29" parallel south latitude, except a small distance near the coast whore the river Macintyre and the Moun- tains come in and are used. The western boundary is the 141st meridian, and the southern boundary is the river Murray. Its climate is without doubt that of the best part of Australia, and very similar to that of Southern Europe, with extremes that place the hottest point of New South Wales on Sicily, and its coldest town, Kiandra, with an elevation of 4,600 feet, upon Edinburgh. General Features. New South Wales is divided by its natural features into three distinct areas in which there are essential cliffei'tmces of climate. First we have a strip of country 800 miles long bounded on the one side by the ocean, and on the other by the mountain chain, known as the coast districts. This area varies from 30 to 150 miles in width, and in it there are no less than fifteen considerable rivers — a good index of the general abundance of rain on the coast, which ranges from 36 to 76 inches. About these rivers there is found an abundance of first-class agricultural soil, a genial climate, with rain and sunshine alternating, and hence a natural forest of luxuriant growth, only a part of which has been brought under the plough. The details of the climate on the coast as to the distribution of temperature and rainfall will be found in the accom- panying charts, and it is only necessary to add that in the summer the prevailing winds which ai'e from east to south are cool and pleasant. The numerous rivers, of which we will say more presently, make this coastal area a well-watered country, and greatly facilitate the transport of agricultural products to the Sydney and other markets. NFW SOUTH WALES. The second division likewise extends tlie whole length of the Colony and comprises the whole of the high lands ranging in altitude from 1,000 to 7,000 feet; the greater part, however, is from 2,000 to 3,000 feet. Here, also, the rainfall is abundant, from 26 to 50 inches per annum, and, as a consequence of this rainfall rivers and smaller streams are very numerous, making this section of the Colony a well-watered area. {See maps.) There are vast areas here of first-class soil for the growth of cereals and fruit, and all of this section is good for pastoral purposes. The third division includes the great plains of the w^est intersected by the Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, and Murray, with many smaller rivers. The rainfall varies from 10 inches in the extreme west to 2-5 inches in the eastern part. [See maps.) The soil is chiefly good for pastoral purposes, the rainfall being too small for agriculture, except in the south-eastern part, wdiere the comparatively abundant rains of winter, spring, and summer, coupled with most suitable soil, make wheat-growing a profitable investment, and the finest wheat of Australia is grown here. In the early days of the Colony much of this flat country was without sui'face water in dry years; but a large capital has been devoted to making tanks that are invaluable and the wells of artesian water afford an abundant and perennial supply. Of these an enormous number have been made, which yield, literally, rivers of water, and the number is being added to every year. Prac- tically these wells and bores have solved the difficulty as to surface water in dry seasons. The distribution of rain is best seen in the small map of rainfall ; and the temperature map gives the seasonal tempera- tures_, the mean, and the highest and lowest temperatures. Inland Rivers. The inland rivers of New South Wales are the longest and most important in Australia. The Murray, which is the most permanent, has never been known to be dry. Fed, as it is, by the snows of the vSnowy Eange, capped by Kosciusko, the highest point in Australia, it is always in flood in summer, for the summer melts the snow. It is navigable for 1,703 miles, 1,216 in New South Wales, and 487 in South Australia. The Murrumbidgee, its chief tributary, is 1,350 miles long, and the Lachlan, its other tributary, is 700 miles long. The Darling is really a tributary of the Murray, and discharges into it at Wentworth ; but it is by far the long-er river of the two, and is navigable from Wentworth to Walgett, 1,758 miles. It must, however, be understood that its existence depends upon rain. Its tributaries are important streams measured from the Darling to their sources : — Tributary. Miles long. Culgoa 1,.124 Warrego... ... ... ... ... ... 1,210 Macquarie ... ... ... ... ... 750 Namoi 600 Bogan ... ... ... ... ... ... 450 Gwydir ... ... ... ... ... ... 445 Macintyre ... 350 From the head of the Culgoa to the sea, via the Darling and Murray^ is 3.869 miles. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 3 Coast Rivers. It lias already been sliown tliat the coast district lias abundant rain, the annual fall ranging from 36 to 76 inches. Most of this rain is brought in by easterly winds, laden with moisture, which, when they reach the mountains, rise up over them ; and in doing so they drop abundance of rain in accordance with a well-known law of nature that, if a cloud rises it drops some of its moisture, and this abundant downfall feeds the numerous rivers. We find, then, no less than fifteen rivers of various sizes, but all helping for navigation and the general water supply necessary for husbandry. Beginning, we pass these rivers in review : 1. The Tweed River flows into the sea at the northern boundary of the Colony, its abundant stream is fed by the rain on the highest of the coast mountains ; it flows to the north-east 30 miles, but its naviga- tion is by its bar harbour made only possible to small craft. 2. The Richmond Eiver, immediately south, rises in part in the same high range as the Tweed, and flows through some rugged pastoral country and large areas of very rich soil, parts of Avhich are covered with valuable timbers, and it reaches the sea in 120 miles, and drains an area of 2,400 square miles. It is navigable in one branch to Casino 40 miles, and the other branch to Lismore 65 miles. Products, sugar and tropical fruits. 3. The Clarence River. Rising in the mountains it reaches the sea after a course of 240 miles, in latitude 29" 26'. It is one of the finest rivers of the east coast, and drains an area of 8,000 square miles, which is rich in minerals and tropical vegetation. Climate perfect in winter, but warm as Southern Europe in summer; it is, however, tempered by the trade wind, and abundant rains. The river is navigable for 136 miles, and is in places half a mile wide. 4. The Macleay River rises in the northern tablelands, flows through magnificent gorges, with many waterfalls, one of which is 240 feet ; in places the mountains rise almost perpendicularly from the river to 3,000 feet. The river is 200 miles long, passing through a country very rich in timber, it drains 4,800 square miles, and is navigable for 30 miles. 5. The Hastings is a fine stream flowing into the sea at Port Macquarie. It drains 1,400 square miles of country, with abundance of fine timber and rich alluvial soil. 6. The Manning River rises in the mountains near Nundle, flows easterly through a fine timber country and rich soil, draining an area of 3,000 square miles ; navigable 20 miles. 7. Karuah River rises in the Mount Royal Range, flows for 45 miles through rich agricultural soil to the sea at Port Stephens. It drains an area of 600 square miles. 8. The Hunter River rises in the Liverpool Ranges, and makes a south and east course for 200 miles to the sea at Newcastle ; it drains 7,900 square miles, and is navigable for large steamers 35 miles. The Williams, one of its tributaries, is navigable for 20 miles to Clarence Town; and the Paterson, another tributary, is navigable 18 miles. The whole of the Hunter River district is very rich in pastoral and agricul- tural products; it is famous for its vineyards, its corn, and its tobacco; and minerals are not wanting, the finest deposit of coal in the Colony is found here. NFW SOUTH WALES. 0. The Hawkesbury is another very fine river, which rises in the CulLarin Range and flows northerly for 190 miles ; then its course turns to the east, and near this point it is joined by large tributaries, the Colo and the Macdonald. Sections of the river are, unfortunately, known by different names, the upper portion being the Warragamba, the central portion the Nepean, and the rest the Hawkesbury. The r;ver is navigable 140 miles, to Windsor, and in its lower reaches the scenery is magnificent, far exceeding Sydney Harbour in grandeur and extent, but of the same genei-al character. The alluvial lands of this river were the first wheat fields of the young colony, but wheat has long since given place to lucerne, a far more profitable crop. The whole length of the river is 330 miles, and it drains an area of 8,G00 square miles, and has eighteen tributary streams. 10. The Shoalhaven River is the largest of those south of Sydney. It takes its origin in a swamp called Carombars, at an elevation of 2,800 feet. This river is 2G0 miles in length, and drains an area of 3,300 square miles. In its upper reaches it passes through very rough coun- try, in which minerals abound, especially gold. In its lower reaches it flows through rich agricultural land. Owing to obstacles in the river, it is only navigable for 12 miles. 11. The Clyde River is an important stream, taking its rise in the Pigeonhouse Mountain, and flowing 70 miles in a southerly course to Bateman's Bay ; it drains 450 square miles of country, which is rich in dairy and agricultural land. 12. The Moruya River rises near Araluen, and flows 80 miles to S.E., into a wide estuary. This river drains 350 square miles, and is the only outlet by water of the rich auriferous districts of Araluen and Braidwood. In its lower reaches are found magnificent alluvial flats. In its upper course it passes through rugged country containing abun- dance of gold-bearing quartz and very rich silver ore. The river abounds in fish and oysters. 13. The Turas River rises in a lofty mountain known as Barren- Jumbo, and takes a N.E. course through rich pastoral and mineral lands. It drains 600 square miles of country. 14. The Bega River is a fine stream, rising in the coast ranges and flowing east 60 miles to the sea thi"Ough a rich pastoral and agricul- tural land. Great quantities of butter, cheese, &c., are produced in the district, while amongst its mineral stores are abundance of coal and kerosene shale. 15. Towamba River rises in the eastern slopes of the coast range; thence it flows 40 miles through a rich pastoral and agricultural dis- trict into Twofold Bay, 280 miles south of Sydney. This is the port from which cattle for the Tasmanian market are shipped. Neglecting the smaller streams and the portions of these rivers which could easily be made navigable by the removal of a few trees, we have in actual use 5 15 miles of navigable water in our coastal rivers. Ilarhoiirs. New South Wales has a coast-line of 800 miles on which, compara- tively, very little stormy weather is experienced. liefore the coast was well lighted easterly gales were dangerous, but now the lighthouses guide the mariner into the places of shelter PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE, 5 wliicli arc numerous. Bog"iunin^ *"RAC£ RAINFALL ^""JSi 16 ■ J^r ^^^W$:- MAP .;:i::4=^*?-=T- r-*^/ ,^^>»- NEW SOUTH WALES I ^a"''i^>.__r5-^_-4--=^?=£.- J rr/ ^^ new iSOUTU WALEI 1 IS^ISI jrFf 191 :f2©^3i^^4;Sr ■ .=.'riT^r-^--' m m m ^20^ 26 29i 39;^" average rainfall VpIW^,:. ---d^f 5^,^ HEW SOUTH WALES J^ -^^fi^^-.f — ""^"^^ I The Constitution and Laws.* By Pitt Con»ETT, Challis Professor of Uw. in ,he Univcr^iij- of Sjdnuj-. Earlier Farms of Government. The first settlement of New South Wales dutea back to the year 1788. The history of the govc-rnmont of the Colony since that time may be ronghly distributed into four periods :— f I ) A period of miHtarv .,.1 d.-|>.t.' ,'..v..rnn.ent, extv,.l,„t: fr-.m i7.S8 to 182.1,- nd.pfed itili conducted by officials who were ftppointed by ro the Home Government ;' and (4) A period of The Present ConstUuKm — (i) The Impmal BlemmL Tho Colony, although it possesses a domestic constitution of its own, is strictly a dependency of the British Empire. This involves the exist- ence of two sets of legislative, executive, and judicial authorities — the one imperial »nd the other local — the line between whose jurisdictions IS not always clear and is often drawn in one way by law and in another by coiivtution. Of the Imperial element it will be suBioient '" '■''■ '■ '' ■ '' I'l' -> iitcd by two fundamentalprinciplesorfactora — 8 K£W SOUTH WALES. the supremacy of tlie Imperial Parliament, and the Royal prerogative. The former, although still an active principle, is greatly limited iu practice by considerations of policy, under which imperial legislation is virtually confined to matters of general or imperial concern and to cases M'here such intervention is requested by the Colony itself.* The prerogative powers of the Crown in relation to the Colony have not only been considerably modified by statute,*" but are still more largely qualified by the convention which precludes the Crown, under ordinary circumstances, from interfering in matters of local or domestic concern. These powers, moreover, are no longer wielded by the Crown itself, but by a minister responsible to the Imperial Parliament — the Secre- tary of State for the Colonies." From icithcmt, the Royal preroga- tive manifests itself mainly in two ways — (1) the control which is still exercised by the Secretary of State over colonial legislation and over the colonial Governor ; and (2) the maintenance of the appellate jurisdiction of the Crown as exercised through the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Within the Colony, the pre- rogative powers of the Crown, so far as they are delegated to the Governor, still constitute the basis and measure of local executive authority, except indeed in so far as they have been modified by local or imperial statute."^ (ii) The Local Element. So far as relates to local affairs, therefore, the Colony enjoys the fullest measure of self-government. Its domestic constitution rests partly on statute," partly on the common law,*^ and partly on conven- tion.^ Its groundwork is furnished by the Imperial statute 18 and 19 Vic, c. 54, to which the local Constitution Act is appended by way of schedule.'' The latter has, however, been considerably modified by later acts, such as the Constitution Act Amendment Acts of 1857, 1884, and 1890, the Triennial Parliaments Act of 1874, the Parliamentary Representatives Allowance Act of 1889, and the Electoral Act of 1893.' The chief factors that require to be noticed in connection with the local constitution are the Governor, the Legislature, the system of Administration, and the Judicial system. " As illustrations of the former class of cases we may take Foreign Enlistment and Extradition Acts ; as illustrations of the latter, the passing of the Federal Council of Australasia Act, 18S5, and the proposed reference of the Federal Constitution to the Imperial Parliament. '' 18 and 19 Vic, c. 54, sec. 2 ; Constitution Act, sees. 47 and 48. ^ Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, ii. 249. '' For a judicial recognition of this principle see ex parte Leoiuj Kum (7 N.S.W. R. at p. 262), which on this point is not affected Ijy the later decision in Chun Tecong Toy v. Musiirove. (1891, App. Ca. 272). '• The statutes affecting the Constitution are partly imperial, such as 9 Geo. IV, c. 82, 18 and 19 Vic, c. 54, and the Colonial Laws Act, 1865 ; and partly local, such as the varioiLS Constitution Act Amendment Acts 1857, 1884, 1890. With them we may class orders and regulations made under this authority. ^ The Letters Patent and Instructions take effect under the Royal prerogative as it exists at common law. f-' The Ministerial system rests on convention, the only reference to it in the Consti- tution Act being found in sec. 37. '' The Constitution Act is not strictly a .local statute, having been altered by the Colonial Office before being assented to by the Crown. ' Strictly the Parliamentary Electorates and Elections Act, 1893. CONSTITUTION AND LA WS. The Office of Governor. The office of Governor is constituted by Letters Patent from the Crown nnder the Great Seah The present Letters Patent In-ar date the 29t]i April, 1879. The powers and duties annexed to the office are conferred partly by this instrument/ and partly by Imperial or local statute."' The permanent Instructions, also, provide a standing body of rules for the guidance of the Governor in the exercise of the duties conferred on him. The present Instructions bear date the 'Jtli July, 1892. They may, however, at any time be supplemented by particular or further instructions issued by the Secretary of State. The duties of the office, as thus constituted, may be discharged either either by the Governor himself, by the Lieutenant-Governor, or by an Administrator of the Government ; a separate commission being pro- vided for each of these officers. The Governor himself is appointed by the Crown, on the recommendation of the Secretary of State, and holds office at the pleasure of the Crown, although the usual tei-ni of office is six years.'= His salary is at present fixed at £7,000 a year, this sum being charged on the Consolidated Fund. The commission of the Lieutenant- Governor is usually issued to the Chief Justice of the Colony, but is only operative'' in the event of the Governor dying or becoming incapable or departing from the Colony. It is also usual to issue a third commis- sion to the President of the Legislative Council or some other high official, authorising him to administer the government in the event of both Governor and Lieutenant-Governor being unable to act. But both these commissions may at any time be superseded by a special commission issued to any other person. The Governor is the connect- ing link between the Imperial and local authorities. His functions may be roughly grouped under three heads : — (1) Those attaching to him as the local representative of the Imperial Government. Here he acts not as a local constitutional ruler but as an Imperial officer subject to the Secretary of State for the Colonics.'" In this capacity he is the medium of communication between the Imperial and local authorities ; and exercises also certain powers of reservation in regard to colonial Bills. (2) Those attaching to him as the titular head of the Colonial Government. In this capacity he is charged with a multitude of functions relating alike to legislation, administration, and judica- ture. These functions he is required to exercise, for the most part, on the advice of his Ministers, who are in their turn responsible to the Legislature. Even here, however, he is invested with some discre- tionary power, the nature of which will be referred to hereafter. (3) Those attaching to him as the representative of the Crown, in its august capacity. These functions are for the most part of a formal or ceremonial kind, and their exercise depends on his own judgment and discretion. It is at this point that the Imperial and local aspects of his office blend, and it is hard to say which predominates. a ,S'ce Letters Patent, cl. 2, 5, 8 to 11. , ri i ^ Constitution Act, sees. 2, 7, 9, 37, 54, 55. There are also a vast number of local statutes which confer administrative powers on tlie Governor, to be exercised ou the advice of the Executive Council. "^ Colonial Office Regulations, 1894, No. 7. '^ Except for the purposes of precedence. « On this subject generally, see Todd, Government of the British Colonies, ch. xviii. lO NEW SOUTH WALES. The Legislature. The Legislature of the Colony is made up of the Sovereign^ who is for this purpose locally represented by the Grovernor^ and two Houses of Parliament — a nominee Council and an elective Assembly.* This body is invested by statute with a general legislative capacity, in- cluding the power of making changes in its own constitution and judicial system,'' subject only in certain cases to the necessity of reservation." Its powers are, however, limited — by the principle of the supremacy of the Imperial Parliament, in virtue of which any colonial enactment that conflicts with the provisions of an Imperial statute extending to the Colony is deemed to be inoperative and void;'' by the principle of territoriality, in virtue of which a colonial enactment is pre- cluded from having any extra-territorial effect, except where authorised by imperial statute f and also by certain provisions restricting the imposition of certain kinds of fiscal duties.^ The Legislative Council. The Legislative Council consists of not less than twenty-one mem- bers, who are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Executive Council." The present number is sixty-eight,'' of whom one-fourth con- stitute a quorum.' There are certain personal qualifications, but no property qualification. Four-fifths of the members at least must consist of persons not holding any office of profit under the Crown.J Subject to certain provisions as to the vacating of seats and resignation, mem- bers hold office for life."" The chief officer of the House is the Presi- dent, who is appointed by the Governor and Executive Council from amongst the members. Although appointments to the Upper Chamber can only be made by the Governor on the advice of the Executive Council, yet it would seem that the Governor possesses a discretionary power of refusing to act on such recommendation in certain events; as in the case where there was good ground for believing that such recommendation would not be endorsed by the Legislature or the constituencies.' The Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Assembly consists of 125 elective members, of whom twenty, exclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum." Members are subject to certain qualifications imposed by the Electoral Act 1893," and the Constitution Act." Of these perhaps the most important is that which excludes any person holding an office of profit under the Crown, with the exception of the chiefs of the nine great administrative » Constitution Act, sec. 1. '' IS and 19 Vic, c. 54, sec. 4 ; 2S and29 Yic. c. .36, sec. 5. '' Reservation appears to be still required l^y statute in the case of certain bills, such as bills altering the electoral system. See 13 and 14 Vic, c 59, sec. 32 ; and 18 and 19 Vic, c 54, sec 3. The non-observance of this requirement led to the passing of the Colonial Acts Confirmation Act, 1894. •> 28 and 29 Vic, c. 63, sec. 2. ' Beg. v. M'Leod (L.E., 1891, App. ca., 455.) ''Constitution Act, sec. 45 ; 36 and 37, Vic, c 22, sec. 3. s Constitution Act, sec. 2 ; and Letters Patent, cl. 11. •' November, 1895. ' Constitution Act Amendment Act, 1890. J Constitution Act, sec. 2. '^ Constitution Act, sees. 3, 4, 5. ' Todd, 657 et se/j. , 821 et seq. "' Constitution Act, sec. 23. " 56 Vic. No. 38, sec. 65. ° ConstitutionAct, sees. 17, 28; strictly, also, theConstitutiou Act Amendment Act, 1884. CONSTITUTION AND I A WS. 1 1 departments, whose presence in the Legislature is, of course, essential to the system of Ministerial government." The acceptance even of one of the latter offices has the effect of vacating the scat of the member accepting it, although he is eligible for re-election.'' Members re- ceive an allowance at the rate of £300 a year,<^ The chief officer of the House is the Speaker, who is elected by the House itself, on the occasion of the assembling of a new Parliament after a general election, or on an intermediate vacar.cy occurring. Tine Electoral System. The system of Parliamentary representation is now governed by tho Electoral Act of ISOS.'^ This Act establishes in the Colony a uniform system of manhood suffrage, single-member constituencies, equal elec- toral districts, and self -registration of voters. It also attempts to pro- vide additional safeguards against illegal voting and corrupt practices. Electoral Districts. Under this Act three Commissioners were appointed, whose duty it was to distribute the Colony into 125 electorates, each returniug one member, and each containing, so far as was consistent with practical con- venience, the same number of electors. For this purpose the Commis- sioners were directed to ascertain from the rolls then in force the total number of existing electors qualified by residence, and to divide this total by 125." The result was to give the quota, or proportionate number of electors for each district. This was found, in fact, to amount to 2,513 electors. The Commissioners were, however, allowed a margin of 600 above or below this quota, Ho enable them to give some consideration to existing boundaries, natural features, lines of communication, and community or divergence of interest." On these principles the Colony was ultimately distributed into eleven city districts, thirty-nine subur- ban districts, and eighty-five country districts. The new system came into operation on the 29th of December, 1893. To guard against future inequality arising from changes in population, the Act requires this distribution to be readjusted on the same principles, and by means of the same machinery, after each decennial census ; whilst it also authorizes a readjustment in the fourth or fifth year after any census, in regard to any part of the Colony where the electoral roll of any district shows an increase or decrease in the prescribed quota of not less than 25 per cent." The Parliamentary Franchise. The Parliamentary franchise is also regulated by the Electoral Act of 1893. Under this Act every person claiming to vote for any district must be the holder of an elector's right for the district ; must ^ Constitution Act Amendment Act, 1884. These officials, together with the Vice- President of the Executive Council, constitute the Ministry. ^ lb, sec. 3. <-■ Parliamentary Representatives Allowance Act, 188f>, sec. 2. __ of the House, called the Coniniittee of Elections and Qualifications.' This consists of nine members appointed by wai'rant under the hand of the Speaker, with the approval of the House, at the commencement of each session."* The Committee is empowered to decide, finally, all rpu's- tions respecting the validity of electioiis, or the (pialificaticm of any person returned; and to investigate and report to the Assembly iijxiu any other matter referred to it."' Tlic Duration of ParlidDtcnf. The power of convening the Legislature is vest(Ml in the (Jovoi-nor subject to the condition that one session at least must be held in each year."^ This power is really exercised on the advice of the Ministry, who, both for the purposes of legislation and su])])ly, find it necessary not only to convene I'arliaraent frequently, Init also to maintain it in session for a considerable part of each year. Once in being, Parliament may be prorogued, or dissolved , or may expire by lapse of time. Prorogation has the effect of putting an end to the session ; it ap])lies c>f[ually to both Houses ; and is effected by proclamation of the (iovcrnor.'' The effect of pi-orogation was fonuerly to })ut an end to all business not then comjiletcd ; but both Houses have now made provision for enabling bills commenced in the previous session to be resumed in a subsequent session at the point at which they were dropped.' Dissolution has the effect of terminating the existence of the Assembly and of suspending the functions of the Council ;' it also is effected by proclamation of the (Governor. The duration of Parliament is limiteil to three years^ by the Triennial Parliaments Act, 1874. If not previously dissolved, the Assend)ly will, ipso jure, cease to exist after the lai)se of three years from the date of the return of the writs on the occasion of the last general election.'' Whether it ceases by dissolution or by lapse of time, a new Parliament must be convened within forty-six days.' The powers of prorogation and dissolution are commonly exercised by the Governor on the advice of his I^Iinisters ; but with respect to dissolution he is invested with a somewhat wider discretion than usual, it being his duty to see that this prerogative power is only resorted to in cases in which a recourse to it is dictated by the public interest.'" •' Electoral Act, 189.S, sees. 84, 85. ^ lb., sec. 102. <= lb., sees. 1-M, l-'7. '' lb., sees. 121, 122. ^' //)., sec. 128. ''Constitution Act, sec. ;W ; Letters Patent, el. 11. «-' Constitution Act, sec. .S. >' lb., sec. .SO ; Letters Patent, cl. 1 1. i Standing Oidcrs, Legislative Council, 278 to 2S0 ; Legislative Assembly, 400 to 411. J Tlie Council is ineimwliile prorogued ; but Parliament, of wliicii the Council forms a part, is for tlic time-being non-existent. '- '.r, Vic, No. 7, sec. 2. ' KK'ctoral Act 189:5, sees. 5,3 to 55, oS ; and Inutlicr Amendment Act, 189:1, sec. 10. "" Todd, cli. xvii. 14 A'-EW SOUTH WALES. The Conduct of Piihlic Business in Parliament. Tlie conduct of public business in Parliament is regulated in part by statute/ in part by rules and orders framed by botli Houses in pursuance of statutory powers/ and in part by usage. The Engliali lex et con- suetudo Pa rliamenti has no application except in so far as it may bave been expressly adopted under statutory authority." The present Stand- ing Oi'ders of the Legislative Assembly were adopted and approved in 1894; and those of the Legislative Council in 1895. The general methods of procedure, both in respect to the conduct of debates, the passing of public and private bills, and the transaction of miscel- laneous business, are for the most part modelled on those of the Imperial Parliament."^ In recent times special provision has been made for the j)urpose of protecting Parliament against obstruction; this includes {inter alia) certain limitations wdiich have been placed on formal motions for adjournment; and the adoption, subject to certain restrictions, of the principle of the closure.^ The conduct of financial business is subject to the following rules: — (1) All money bills must originate in the Legislative Assembly ;'^ (2) The Assembly will not pass any vote or bill for the appropriation of revenue or taxation, except on the recommendation of the Governor f whilst, (3) All financial measures brought before the Assembly must be founded on previous resolutions come to in Committee of the whole House.** 'No public work, the estimated cost of which exceeds £20,000, can be commenced, unless previously reported on by the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Public Works, and approved by resolution of the Assembly.' The Relation of the tico Houses. Technically, each House possesses co-ordinate powers ; the concur- rence of each is necessary to legislation ; whilst, in general, any measure may originate in either House. To the latter rule, however, there are two exceptions, viz., that all money bills must originate in the Legislative Assembly ; and that bills affecting the constitution of either House, ought to originate in that House.^ With respect to money bills, there is a general recognition of the principle that, under a representative system of government, the control over revenue and expenditure ought primarily to rest with the elective chamber. Never- theless, the Legislative Council both claims, and has occasionally exer- cised, the right of rejecting measures of taxation. *" It also claims the right of amending money bills, except, perhaps, where the amendment ^ Constitution Act, sees. 1, 7, 8, 22, 24, 31, 33, 35, 53, 54. ^ lb. sec. 35. ' Kidky V. Carson (4 Moo. P. C, 63) ; Taylor v. Barton (7 N.S.W. R. 30). •^ See also Standing Order Legislative Council, 2 ; and Legislative Assembly, 2 « Standing Orders, Legislative Council, 13, 102 ; Legislative Assembly, 49, 175. ' Constitution Act, sec. 1. e 10., sec. 54 ; Standing Order, Legislative Assembly, 247. The object is to concen- trate all responsibility for expenditure in the hands of the Executive. '' Standing Order, Legislative Assembly, 247. ' Public Works Act, 1888, sees. 3, 10, 13. J This principle has been constantly insisted on by the Legislative Council ; see reso- lution 2nd April, 1873, Official History, 510. ^ The Stamp Duties Bill (No. 2), 1880; The Income Tax Bill, 1893; The Land and Income Tax Assessment Bill, 1895. In a subsequent session this last bill was amended by the Council, it having been ruled that it was not technically a taxing bill. CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 1 5 would have the effect of imposing any additional charge on the people ;' but this claim has commonly been resisted by the Assembly.'' With respect to general legislation, although the powers of the two Houses are formally equal, yet the Assembly exercises in the long run a predomi- nating influence, OAving, no doubt, to its representative character, its control of the public purse, and, perhaps, in the last resort, to the pos- sibility of " swamping." Although this extreme step has never, so far at least as relates to the Colony, been authoritatively sanctioued,"" and although it may, perhaps, be unconstitutional, yet the fact that there is no maximum limit to the number of the Council, and that the right of making additions to it is vested in the Executive, undoubtedly tends to diminish the chances of any permanent deadlock." The Royal Assent. The assent of the Crown is essential to the validity of colonial legislation. This assent, however, is usually given as a matter of course, through the Governor.'' Strictly, a colonial Act, even after it has been assented to by the Governor, may be disallowed by the Crown, through the Secretary of State for the Colonies, within two years -/ but in practice this right is not taken advantage of. There are, however, certain bills which the Governor is required either by statute* or by his Instructions to reserve. By his Instructions the Governor must reserve all bills relating to divorce, or involving any grant of land or money to himself, or affecting the currency oif the colony, or imposing differential duties,'' or inconsistent with imperial treaties, or interfering with the discipline of the Eoyal forces in the colony, or to the prejudice of the prerogative or the rights and property of British subjects outside the Colony or the trade and shipping of the United Kingdom, or containing provisions to which the Royal assent has already been refused.' But even these bills the Gover- nor is empowered to assent to, in case of emergency, except where the bill is repugnant to the law of England or inconsistent with Imperial treaty. This obligation of reservation is perhaps a necessary measure of precaution ; but in practice the colony enjoys the fullest freedom of legislation in regard to its own domestic affairs. Between 1855 and 1890, only 15 bills were reserved, and none of these were finally disallowed.J The Executive Council and Ministry. The Governor is the titular head of the executive department of government, but like the sovereign in England he is required to exercise these powers, at the instance and on the responsibility of certain constitutional advisers. Many of his powers he is expressly ^ See ruling of Sir T. Murray, 26th April, 1871 ; see also Official History, pp. 269, 355, 371, 401, 457, 472, 522, 606. b See Official History, pp. 401, 472, 522, 605. •^ An abortive effort at swamping appears to have been made in 1861 ; see Official History, 334 et seq. ^ As to the functions of a nominee chamber generally, ste Toil J, 695 et S''g. As to nominations to Upper House, see p. 10 supra and references there cited. ^ 5 and 6 Vic, c. 76, sec. 31. f lb., sec. 32. k 13 and 14 Vic, c 59, sec 32. ^ Except so far as is allowed by the Australian Colonies Duties Act, 1873. ' Instructions 1892, cl. 8. J Todd, 158. Even the Divorce Amendment Act of 1892 was ultimately sanctioned. 1 6 njlW so [/tit wales. required to exercise with the formal assent and advice of the Executive Council^ this obligation being imposed partly by statute' and partly by the Instructions ;^ other powers he exercises on the advice and responsibility of a single Minister.'' The constitution of the Execu- tive Council, and the duties of its members, are regulated by the Letters Patent/ by the Instructions/ and by statute/ It is usually presided over by the Governor, and consists of the Vice-President, and nine other members, who are at the same time the heads of the great executive departments. Saving the presence of the Gover- nor, the Executive Council is in fact identical with the Ministry or Cabinet. It was no doubt originally intended that the Executive Council should constitute the real executive organ, but the presence of the Governor appears to have led to the adoption by its members of the practice of deliberating in private, and this, in its turn, gave rise to the Ministry or Cabinet as a distinct though informal institution. Hence the Council has come to assume the character of a formal body, through the medium of which the more important acts of State are sanctioned or allowed ; but whose action is prompted or set in motion by a responsible Minister, after consultation with the whole Ministry in matters of moment, or on his own responsibility in minor or departmental matters. Members of the Executive Council resign their offices on ceasing to be Ministers. The Ministry or Cabinet is virtually a committee of the leading members of both Houses, who possess the confidence of the majority in the Legislative Assembly, and generally represent the dominant party in that House. It is made up of the chiefs of the executive departments, who are at liberty to sit in the Legis- lative Assembly,^ and whose tenure of office depends on political considerations ;'' together with the Vice-President of the Council. The Ministry or Cabinet is thus an informal deliberative body; it has no corporate existence or official recognition ; and no formal record is kept of its proceedings. In the Colony there is no distinction, such as exists in England, between Cabinet and Ministry.' For the rest, how- ever, the relations between the Ministry and the Legislature, are much the same as those which exist in the United Kingdom.-' Although the Governor is as a rule bound to act on his Ministers' advice, yet he is expressly authorised by his Instructions to refuse such advice in case of need.'' In practice, however, such cases are not very frequent. It is difficult to reduce them to any satisfactory principle, but roughly they may be said to include : — (1) Cases where the Governor acts as => Constitution Act, sees. 3, 37 ; besides whieh there are an immense number of local statutes, which confer new administrative powers, but expressly ret^uire these to be exercised on the advice of the Executive Council. ^ Instructions 1892, cl. 6. This clause, however, expressly authorises the Governor to act in opposition of such advice, if he deems it necessary, subject to certain conditions. '- Such as the prerogative of mercy in non-capital cases : see Instructions, cl. 9. •' Letters Patent, cl. 6. '" Instructions 1892, cl. 3, 4, and 5. f Executive Councillors Act, 1881, sees. 2, 4 ; Promissory Oaths Act, 1870, sec. 5. - For a list of these officers see Constitution Act Amendnient Act, 1884, sec. 2 and schedule. '' Constitution Act, sec. 37. The Cabinet, under the P]nglish system, is strictly a committee of the larger body or Ministry. The tendency in the Colony is to use tlie term to indicate a sitting of the 3Iinistry. J Aixson II. chap. iii. sec. 3. ■-• Instructions, cl. G. CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 17 guardian of the law or of tlie Coustitiition;* (2) Cases where ho acts as supreme guardian of the public interest;'' and (;J) Cases where ho acts as the representative of the interests of the Imperial Governuioiit.' In the event of his refusing to act on the advice of his Ministers in matters of domestic concern, it will be incumbent on him, if his Minis- ters should resign, to procure other Ministers who will accept the political responsibility for his action/ Tlie Adminidratlce Beitartmvnts and tlie Piihlic Service. For the purposes of administration, the public l)usinessof the Colony- is distributed between nine different departments, each of which is pre- sided over by a responsible Minister, as head, and worked by a staff of permanent officials. These Ministers are : — (1) The Colonial Secre- tary;'' (2) The Colonial Treasurer; (3) The Attorney-General; (4) The Secretary for Lands; (5) The Secretary for Public Works; (0) The Minister of Justice ; (7) The Minister of Public Instruction ; (8) The Secretary for Mines and Agriculture ; and (9) The Postmaster-General. The functions of the departments respectively presided over by these Ministers are fixed partly by statute and partly by Executive minute. The Ministers or political heads of these departments arc technically appointed by the Governor alone,*^ but are really selected on the recom- mendation of the political leader who may be invited by the Governor to form an administration, and who appears to possess the confidence of the Assembly; they also retire or are dismissible from office on political grounds. The appointment and tenure of other public officers are now regulated, in the main, by the Public Service Act, 1895.^ This Act was passed for the purpose of effecting a complete reorganiza- tion of the Public Service, and of withdrawing both appointments and promotions, as far as possible, from the sphere of political influence. To this end the Act constitutes a Public Service Board, consistiug of three Commissioners, who are appointed for a period of seven years, and are irremovable during that period except by resolution of both Houses, although they are liable to vacate their offices in certain events specified by the Act.'' This Board is charged with the duty of investigating both the organization and working- of each depart- ment of the Pubhc Service, and of determining (subject to the restrictions imposed by the Act) the number, grade, and salaries of the officers employed.' The Boai'd is endowed with the poM-er of making administrative regulations ; and is also required to furnish an annual report on the state of the Public Service for presentation to Parliament.J The officers of the Public Service are distributed into five divisions — the special, professional, clerical, educational, and "" E.g., refusal to sanction the issue of public moneys in violation of statutory require- ments : see Constitution Act, sec. 55 ; Todd, 628 et scq., 726. ^ E.g., refusal to sanction any abuse of position, or wanton sacrifice of puV)lic to party interests, by the Ministry in otiice ; Todd, 662, IZQct -v-q. '■ E.g., refusal to sanction an administrative act in violation of treaty obligations, Todd, '819. '' Todd, 817 et seq. <^ This officer is now usuaMy termed the Chief Secretary. '' Constitution Act sec. 37. s 59 Vic. , No. 25 ; as to officers excepted from the operation of the Act, see sec. J. '' Ih., sees. 5, 6. i i «. ' lb., sees. 7 to 15; the grayling and classiiication of officers must be renewed at intervals of not more than 5 years. J lb., sees. IS to 20. NEW SOUTH WALES. general." As a rule all future appointments to the permanent service are to be made by tbe Governor and Executive Council either at the instance of the Board itself, or at the request of the political or per- manent head of a department addressed to the Board, but in any case only on the certificate of the Board ;'' the appointees being under ordinary circumstances selected by competitive examination, and being further subject to a probation of six months. The control of future promotion is also vested in the Board, subject, however, to certain conditions prescribed by the Act, which include {inter alia) the passing of a cpialifying examination on transfer from the lower to the higher grades recognised in the certain divisions.'' Public officers still con- tinue to hold office at the pleasure of the Crown,^ although they enjoy the pi'otection of certain provisions of the Act designed to guard against arbitrary or unfair dismissal. *^ Officers appointed after the passing of the Act are not entitled to any pension or allowance f but are subject to an obligation of compulsory insurance, or to an equivalent deduction of salary.*' Public officers are prohibited, except by express permission of the Governor, from engaging in commercial or professional business outside the duties of their office.' The con- trol and working of the Government railways and tramways are vested in the Railway Commissioners, under the provisions of the Eailways Act of 1888.-' The Agent-General is the representative of the Colony in the United Kingdom ; it is his duty to look after its general and commercial interests in the United Kingdom and Continent of Europe, and to carry out such instructions as may be given to him from time to time by the Executive. TJw Fiscal System — Revenue — Ajjpropriation. The fundamental principles which underlie the fiscal system of the Colony are : — (1) That no tax or impost shall be levied on the inhabi- tants except with the consent of the Colonial Legislature ;'' (2) That all public revenue raised within the Colony, whether by taxa- tion or otherwise, belongs to the Colonial Legislature ;' and (3) That no public money shall be expended except under the authority of an Act of the Legislature." The main sources of the Colonial revenue are : — (1) The proceeds of taxation, including customs duties, excise duties, stamp duties, and licenses, to which must now be added a tax on the unimproved value of land, and an income tax ;" (2) Revenue derived from Crown lands, including the proceeds of sales, interest on unpaid balances, and rents ; (3) Moneys received for services rendered, including the revenue derived from the Government railways, tram- ways, and postal and telegraph systems ; and (4) Miscellaneous receipts, such as the proceeds of fines and forfeitures. The proceeds =» Public Service Act, 1895, sec. 21. »= Ih., sees. 28, 29. ' lb., sees. 22 to 27 ; -fee also sees. 3.S and 34 ; and as to special and temporary appoint- ments, sees. .37 and .38. ■'/?*., sees. 40 to 48. '" 76. , sec. 58. ^ lb., sec. 49 et seq. "^ 76., sec. 59. •' lb., sec. 63. i lb., sec. 64. J 51 Vic, No. 35. •^ 18 (ieo. Ill, c. 12, as extended by policy and convention to all British Colonies; see also Constitution Act, sees. 44 and 45. ' 18, 19 Vic., c. 54, s. 2; Constitution Act, sec. 50. ™ Constitution Act, sec. 53. " Under the Land and Income Tax Act, r.nd the Assessment Act, 1895, this amounts to Id. in the pound on the unim[)roved value of land, subject to an exemption of £240 ; ■whilst the tax on incomes amounts to 6d. in the pound, subject to an exemption of £200. CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. 19 of these revenues go to form the Consolidated Revenue Fund of the Colony.'' The collection and payment of these revenues into tlio Treasury is regulated by the Audit Act, 1870, and is subject to the control and supervision of the Auditor-General.'' No moneys can bo paid out of the Consolidated Fund, with the exception of the civil list and other charges specified in the Constitution Act,'' except under the authority of either a pornianent Act,*" or the annual A])pr(jpi-ia- tion Act. Temporary supply bills are, however, passed in anticipation of the Appropriation Act, with a view of putting the Government in funds to meet current expenditure. A fund is also provided, called the Treasurer's Advance Account, for the purpose of enabling the Government to meet expenses of an unforeseen nature; the amount of this fund is fixed by the Appropriation Act for one year, whilst payments made out of it are allowed in the supplementary estimates of the following year. Subject to this exception, all payments out of the Consolidated Fund must be sanctioned by legislative enactment. Payments out are also required to be made in pursuance of warrants under the hand of the Governor,^ and in the manner provided by the Audit Act.*^ All public accounts are subject to audit by the Auditor-General who reports to Parliament thereon.^ The financial year commences on the 1st July and ends on the following 30th June. A periodical statement of receipts and expenditure is required to be published in the Gazefte} Military and Naval Forces of the Colony. The military forces of the Colony comprise : — (1) The Permanent Forces, (2) the Partially-paid Forces, and (3) the Reserve Forces ; together with a Head Quarters and General Staff.' The Governor is titular Commander-in-Chief, but the actual military command is vested in the General Officer commanding the Forces ;' whilst tlie civil con- trol over both military and naval establishments is vested in the Colo- nial Secretary, as Minister of Defence.'' The engagement, discipline, and discharge of members of the Permanent Forces are regulated by the Military and Naval Forces Regulation Act of 1871;' whilst the Partially-paid Forces are subject to the Volunteer Force Regulation Act of 1807 and the regulations made thereunder."" A local defence committee has been recently instituted for the purpose of assisting the General Officer commanding the Forces with advice in relation to " Constitution Act, sec. 47. '' 33 Vic, No. 18, sees. 1 to 10. <^ Constitution Act, sees. 48 to 53. '' The payment of the interest on the public debt, and the salaries and pensions of the judges are provided for by permanent Act; see 36 Vic, No. 21, sec. 4; 4G Vic, No. 15, sec. 3. « Constitution Act, sec. 55. ' .33 Mc, No. 18, sees. 11 to 16. « Ih., Part II. •' n>., Part II., sec 21. ' These forces give a total peace estaljlishment of 5,867 men, and a total war estab- ishment of 9,241 men. There is also one volunteer corps wliich has not been enrolled in the partially-paid forces. J Who is appointed under .34 Vic. No. 19, sec. 6. . . ^ With the exception of the Public School Cadet Corps, whicli is subject to the Minister of Public Instruction. ' .34 Vic, No. 19. Under sec .1, members of this Force are subject to the Imperial Army Act 1882, and articles or regulations made tliereunder, so far as these are not in- consistent with the local Act and regulations made thereundor. '" 31 Vic, No. 5 ; see especially Part II. 20 NEW SOUTH WALES. the defences of the Colony. The Naval Forces of the Colony comprise the Naval Brigade and a corps of Naval Artilleiy Volunteers^ both of which are parLially paid/ By an ag-reement concluded in 1887 between the Imperial Government and the Australasian Colonies^ an additional naval force of five armed cruisers and two torpedo boats, is to be maintained by the Imperial Government on the Australasian station, the Colonies undertaking- to pay interest not exceeding £35,000 a year on the cost of construction and equipment, and a further sum not exceeding £91,000 a year towards the cost of maintenance. The agreement is to continue for not less than ten years, but may be terminated at or after that time by two years' previous notice. This agreement was ratified so far as related to the United Kingdom by the Imperial Defence Act, 1888,'' and so far as related to the Colony by the Australasian Naval Forces Act, 1887." Public Education. The educational system of the Colony now rests on the Public Instruc- tion Act, 1880.'" This Act provided for the establishment through- out the Colony of a system of compulsory and non-sectarian education ; the Council of Education, established under the previous Act of 18G6, was dissolved ; and the control and working of the new system, together with the administration of all moneys voted by Parliament for educational purposes," were transferred to the Minister of Public Instruction ; at the same time it was provided that all aid previously given to denominational schools should cease after 1882.*^ The different classes of schools at present existing comprise (1) elementary public schools, in which only primary instruction is given ; (2) superior public schools, for the purposes of higher instruction ; and (3) a limited number of high schools, both for boys and girls, in which a still more advanced course is followed, and which are intended to constitute a link between the public schools and the University." The Act also provides for the establishment of evening" public schools ; for the appointment of provisional schools and itinerant teachers in sparsely inhabited districts ; and for the establishment of a training school for teachers.'' Attendance is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14 for not less than 70 days in each half year, unless the child has been or is being otherwise efficiently instructed, or is prevented from attending by -nfirmity or distance.' The instruction given is non-sec- tarian, but embraces general religious and moral teaching ; in addition to which provision is wmade for the giving of separate unofficial re- ligious instruction by voluntary teachers, at the option of the parents.' Parents are required to pay certain small fees which are fixed by the Act, bvit may be remitted in case of poverty or inability;'' a higher rate of fees, however, is payable in the high schools.' Pro- vision is also made for the establishment of Public School Districts and School Boards for the inspection of schools and the supervising of "■ Comprising in 1894 about 591 men. >' 51 and 52 Vic, c. 32. <= 51 Vic, No. 22. '' Except in so far as this has been varied in certain particulars by the Public Service Act, 1895, sees. 46 to 48. <■ Except where specifically appropriated. ^ 43 Vic, No. 23, sees. 1,2, 7, 28. « lb., sec. 6. '■ //a, sees. 10, 22, 23, 24. * lb., sec. 20. J lb., sec 17. ^ lb., sec 11. ^ Jb., sec. 27 ; these being fixed by regulation of the Governor and Executive Council. CONSTITUTION AND LA \VS. 2 i teacTiers within the district." A system of State bursaries and scho. IJ. 22 JVi:W SOUTH WALES. lies to tlie Judicial Committee of the Privy Council — (1) in certain cases specified by the Orders in Council/ and (2) in other cases by special leave of the Council. Besides the Supreme Court there is also a system of local Laud Boards and a Land Court of Appeal'' as well as a Vice-Admiralty Court." The inferior Courts include — (1) The District Courts, which exercise an inferior civil jurisdiction ;'' (2) The Courts of General and Quarter Sessions, which exercise a subordinate criminal jurisdiction and are presided over by a District Court Judge as chairman*"; and (3) the Magistrates^ courts, whicb exercise a petty jurisdiction both in civil and criminal cases. *^ The magistrates of the Colony include — (1). Stipendiary Magistrates, who are appointed to act within the metropolitan district; (2) Police Magistrates, who are appointed to act at different places throughout the Colony ; and (3) Honorary Justices of the Peace. The system of jury trial has been adopted in the Colony and applies to the trial of all criminal offences except those punishable by courts of summary jurisdiction; as well as to civil issues of fact or damages triable before tbe Supreme Court at common law. In other cases the adoption of this mode of trial is made to depend sometimes on the consent of the judge/ sometimes on the agreement of the parties/ and sometimes on a claim to this effect being made by either party.*' There is no grand jury in the Colony, the functions of that body being performed by the Attorney General. TAe Laws of the Colony. The laws in force in the Colony may be classed, according to their origin, under three heads : — (1) Rules of English, law, which became applicable to the Colony, either at the date of the original settlement, or by virtue of 9 Geo. IV, c. 83. Under the latter statute, all rules which were then (1828) in force in England, and which were reason- ably suited to the circumstances of the Colony, were to be applied in the administration of justice.' These rules are, however, capable of being altered, and have to a large extent been altered by local legislation.^ (2) The Imperial law, whicb includes such Acts of the Imperial Parliament as apply to the Colony either by express enact- ment or necessary implication, together with orders and conventions made in pursuance of them.'' Rules derived from this source can- not be altered by the local Legislature, except under express powers conferred by Imperial Act.* (3) The Colonial law, which includes rules derived either from colonial legislation or the interpretation of the local courts, together with a slight element of local usage. Even the colonial law, however, embraces many rules of English » 13th Nov., 1850 ; 13th June, 1853. »' 48 Vic, No. 18 ; 50 Vic, No. 21. "= 26 and 27 Vic, ch. 24 ; 31 Vic, ch. 45. -^ 22 Vic, No. 18 and Amending Acts. '• 22 Vic. No. 18, sec. 25. f The jurisdiction of the magistrate in criminal cases is regulated by 11 and 12 Vic, ch. 42 and 43 ; and in civil cases by 10 Vic. No. 10. s 44 Vic, No. 18, sec. 36. '' 48 Vic, No. 7, sec. 9. ' 9 Geo. IV, ch. 83, sec. 24. -' Thus the devolution of land upon intestacy has now been assimilated to that of personalty ; see 26 Vic, No. 2 ; 54 Vic, No. 25, sec. 32. '' Some of the Imperial Acts apply to the Colony alone, such as 18 and 19 Vic, c 54 ; some to the Australasian Colonies generally, such as the Australian Colonies Duties Act, 1873 ; and some to all British territory, such as the Foreign Enlistment Act of 1870. ' For an illustration of the bestowal of this power -fee the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, sec. 547. CONSTITUTION AND LA WS. 23 origin, some of these having been directly adopted, whilst others have been embodied with modifications in Acts of the colonial Legislature. Much colonial legislation, however, is of an original character, having been framed to meet the peculiar conditions and re([uirements of the Colony. Amongst other things, a system of registration of titles to land has been established,* as well as a system of registration of deeds;" whilst the old distinction between the devolution of real and personal property in intestacy has been abolished." Naturalization — Chinese. The subject of naturalization is governed by the local Naturalization Act of 1875, under which any alien who has resided in the Colony for five years and intends to continue such residence, may on complying with certain conditions and paying a small fee obtain from the Gover- nor through the Chief Secretary a certificate of naturalization.'' Ho will then become entitled (although only within the Colony) to all the rights, and will be subject to all the obligations of a natural born English subject.' Naturalization in the United Kingdom or in iuiy other Colony does not extend to New South Wales, but special facili- ties are afforded to persons who have been so naturalized of obtaining naturalization certificates in New South Wales.' Aliens, whether domiciled within the Colony or not, are virtually entitled to all civil rights except (1) political or public rights, and (2) the right of being registered as owners of British vessels.^ The immigration of Chi- nese, however, is subject to certain restrictions imposed by the Chinese Restriction and Regulation Act of 1888. By this Act a poll-tax of £100 is imposed on every Chinese entering the Colony ; vessels arriv- ing in the Colony are prohibited from bringing more than one Chinese for every 300 tons of tonnage ; no Chinese even after entering may engage in mining without the consent of the Minister for Mines ; whilst the naturalization of the Chinese in the Colony is altogether prohibited. *" Miscellaneous Points. The principle of religious equality has long prevailed in the Colony. There is no established church, and all religious denominations remain on the footing of voluntary associations.' Notwithstanding the desire of the Imperial Government to maintain, as far as possible, a uniform marriage law, the facilities for divorce have of late been considerably increased by local legislation. Under the present divorce law a wife may obtain a dissolution of marriage by reason of adultery only on the part of the husband,^ whilst wilful desertion for three years and upwards, habitual drunkenness coupled with cruelty or neglect, or conviction for certain offences will, also, under certain =* The Real Property Act, 1882, and Amending Acts. ^ 7 Vic, No. 16 ; 20 Vic, No. 27 ; 24 Vic, No. 7. " Probate Act, 1880, sec. 32. '' Naturalization Act, 1875, sees. 4 and 5. *■ lb., sec 6. ^ lb., sec. 8. " lb., sec. 3. '■ Chinese Restriction Regulation Act of 1888, sub-sec 3 to 8 and 11 ; but for exemp- tions, see sees. 12, 13, and 15. ' As to the position of the Anglican Church in the Colony, see Todd, cli. xiii. J 44 Vic, No. 31, sec. 1 ; subject to the husband being domiciled in the Colony at the time of the suit. 24 NEW SOUTH WALES. circumstances^ constitute a sufficient ground for divorce/ The pro- visions of the Exti'adition Act of 1870, and the treaties entered into thereunder, apply in the Colony, subject to certain differences in the mode of procedure.'' The surrender of criminals as between British possessions in general, and between the Australasian colonies in par- ticular, is governed by the Fugitive Offenders Act, 1881." A system of judicial co-operation has also been established, under which facilities are given, as between adjacent colonies, for the mutual furtherance of judicial proceedings, and the mutual enforcement of judgments/ " 55 Vic, No. 37, sec. 1 ; only the general purport of the section is given above. t 3.3-34 Vic. ch. 52, sees. 17 and IS. ' 44-45 Vic, c G9. d See, as regards N.S. W., 19 Vic, No. 12 ; 52 Vic, No. 23 ; 44-45 Vic, c 69, sec 15, I 25 The Laws Relating to Crown Lands. By H. A. G. Curry, Department of Lands. It may be at least claimed for tlio laws relating to Crown lands of New South Wales that they are characterised by liberality and com- prehensiveness^ and it is a fact deserving of more than passing mention that each succeeding enactment exhibits broader and more generous provisions than any of its predecessors. In Pai-liament no subject excites keener or more general interest than land legislation, and its importance is so widely recognised as to ensure the fullest possible consideration and criticism. The growth of the present body of laws has been rapid, and is an evidence both of the desire and the determination of successive Governments to keep pace with the ever- varying requirements, which are a necessaiy consequence of the pro- gressive conditions, of the Colony, In the year 1881 the Acts then in force* were repealed, and the " Crown Lands Act of 188i" t by which they were superseded has since been amended and largely supplemented by the " Crown Lands Act of 1S89" J and the " Crown Lands Act of 1895,"§ leaving out of account a large number of intermediate Acts of more or less importance. Prior to the commencement of the Act of 1884 the provisions of the law were somewhat indiscriminately opera- tive over the unsold land of the whole Colony. One of the features of that Act was the modification of this condition of things by the separa- tion of the Colony into three divisions, termed respectively the Eastern, the Central, and the Western, in connection with each of which the provisions of the law were made to diif er ; and by an alteration of the tenure under which pastoral leases had previously been held. Happily the Crown Lands Act of 1895 — an Act wide in its scope and partaking more of the character of an original than of an amending measure — has followed with a long-desired provision which admits of the classi- fication and survey of land before selection. Such a provision is well calculated to prevent the complications and delay which experience has shown to be almost inseparable from unsurveyed land being ap])lied for without due regard to conflicting interests or to the question whether * The principal of these Avere the Crown Lauds Alienation Act of 1S(51, the Crown Lands Occupation Act of 18(31, the Lands Acts Amendment Act, IS?.'), and the Lands Acts Further Amendment Act, 1S80. The Acts of ISGl were known as the late Sir John Robertson's Acts. The Act of 1875 was introduced by the late J. S. Farncll, and the Act of 1880 by Mr., now the Hon. James Hoskins, jNI.L.C. t Introduced by the late James Squire Farnell. Took effect from 1st January, ISSo. J Introduced by the Hon. James Nixon Brunker (now Colonial Secretary), when Minister for Lands in Sir Henry Parkes' Government. § Introduced by tlie Hon. Josej)!! Hector Carrutliers, Minister for Lands in the present Government. The Hon. G. H. Reid, Premier, 189(). Note.— It should not pass unmentioned that Mr. Henry Copeland, M.l'., and the late Mr. Garrett were both associated with important proposals of land legislation. 26 NEW SOUTH WALES. the land is legally available^ while at the same time it affords protec- tion to the public estate against indiscriminate absorption in detached portions without reference to any general symmetry of design. Administration. The head office of the Department of Lands and Survey is in Sydney, and is presided over by the Minister for Lands — the permanent head of the Department being the Under-Secretary for Lands."^ Branches of the Department are now situated in various parts of the Colony. Prior to 1885 the whole business of the Department was dealt with at the head office, but during that year it was largely decentralised by the calling into existence of local Land Boards. Each Board is presided over by a Chairman, who is a salaried officer of the Govern- ment, his coadjutors, of whom there are two, being local residents, remunerated by fees. At the head office of each Board a District Surveyor and a staff of clerks and draftsmen are employed, besides whom are surveyors and other field officers located elsewhere within the boundaries which mark the Board's jurisdiction. Applications for certain classes of holdings, such as Homestead Selections, Conditional Purchases, Conditional Leases, &c., come before the Board in the first instance for investigation, and applicants are not entitled to finally (though in some cases they may provisionally) take possession of the land applied for until their applications have been what is termed " Confirmed '' by the Board. Against a Board's decision an appeal lies to a Land Appeal Court, which consists of a President and two Commissioners. Each Board District includes several smaller districts, called Land Districts (for each of which, however, there is a separate Board), which have been established for the convenience of the public. In each district a Crown Lands Agent is stationed, whose duty is to supply information to persons seeking land, and to receive applications, deposits, and other pajnnents under the Crown Lands Acts. At the head office in Sydney an Information Bureau is in existence, where the fullest and latest particulars as to the situation of available land in the Colony, and the prices and conditions under which it may be taken up, are always obtainable. Reserves-, Dedications, 8)'c. The Governor is invested with large powers of temporarily reserving Crown lands either from sale or lease generally, or from any specific kind of sale or lease. Reservation takes effect immediately upon noti- fication in the Government Gazette. Revocation of reservation does not mature until the expiration of sixty days after Gazette notification. The purposes of reserves are various : for instance, for water supply, for preservation of timber, for commonage, for the convenience of stock travelling through the country, &c. Reserves of the last-men- tioned description may be up to one mile in width, and are associated with camping reserves usually C40 acres in extent. " William Houston, Esq. LAWS RELATING TO CROWN LAXDS. 27 Within one month after Gazette notification, an abstract of the reservation is laid before both Houses of Parliament, if in session, or if not in session, within one month after the commencemeRt of the ensuing session. The Governor is also invested with the power of dedicating Crown land in such manner as may seem best for the public interest, and he may, if thought necessary, issue a grant in fee-simple and vest the land in trustees. An abstract of any intended dedication has to be laid before both Houses of Parliament before the dedication can be made. When a Government township or village is laid out, it is usual to define the boundaries of adjoining suburban lands, and beyond these again to define the boundaries of what is called a " population area." Methods of Disposal of Crown Lands. The principal methods by which Crown lands are alienated are by Homestead Selection, Conditional Purchase, Purchase by virtue of Improvements, and Purchase at Auction. The principal methods under which Crown lands are let are by Settlement Lease, Pastoral Lease, Occupation License, Conditional Lease, Homestead Lease, Improvement Lease, Scrub Lease, Lease of Inferior Lands, Annual Lease, Artesian Well Lease, Special Lease, and Residential Lease. It will be convenient to refer to each of these under separate heads. Limitations as to Selecting. The intention of the authors of the various Land Acts has been to provide land on easy terms for those who might require it for their own bona fide use and occupation. Unhappily this intention has been too often disappointed, and the liberal provisions of the law taken advan- tage of for speculative purposes, and for the aggregation of large estates. To prevent a recurrence of, or to limit, this evil, stringent provisions were necessary. These have been supplied by recent legislation, and may be summed up as follows : — 1. An applicant for a homestead selection, an original conditional purchase, an original homestead lease, or a settlement lease, is debited with the quantity of land already held by him in fee simple or under conditional purchase or conditional lease, and can take up only such an area, as, added to that already held, will keep within the maximum area allowed for the holding applied for. Provision is made against defeat of this restriction by any fraudulent transfer. 2. A person who shall obtain a homestead selection, an origmal conditional purchase, an original homestead lease, or a settle- ment lease, will be precluded from obtaining any further holding of any of these four classes unless he has obtained a certificate that adverse circumstances compelled hini to abandon or surrender his holding. 3. If his holding consists of a homestead lease or a settlement lease, the disqualification will, however, in any circumstances cease when the term with which the lease started shall have run its full course. 28 NEW SOUTH WALES. Every application of any of tlie classes referred to is required to be made in good faith, and an application is not taken to be made in good faith unless tlie sole object of tlie applicant is to obtain the land in order that he may hold and use it for his own exclusive benefit according to law. Qualifications to Select. A person of, or over, the age of 16 years (of either sex) may make a Conditional Purchase or Homestead Selection, but no person under the age of 21 years can apply for any lease other than a Conditional Lease, or in certain circumstances a Homestead Lease. For the last mentioned lease a minor may apply if not less than 16 years of age and of the male sex. Minors, so far as concerns their transactions in connection with certain holdings under the Crown Lands Acts, enjoy the rights, and are subject to the liabilities, of persons of full age. A person who is not a naturalised subject of Her Majesty is debarred until he obtains letters of naturalisation, or until he has resided in New South Wales for twelve months, and then at the date of application he must lodge a declaration of his intention to become a naturalised subject within five yeai*s from that date. Married women are disqualified unless they are judicially separated and actually living apart from their husbands. Homestead Selection. The Homestead Selection system owes its introduction to the Crown Lands Act of 1895, and offers special advantages to the small capitalist, inasmuch as the land may be held for the first five years at the extremely low rental of Ij, and thereafter at an annual rental of 2h per cent, of its capital value. The rental period dates from the date of confirmation of the application by the Local Land Boai-d, and the rent is payable in advance half-yearl}^. The initial capital value is determined and advertised before the land is thrown open, and is not susceptible of alteration for the first fifteen years. For every subsequent period of ten years the land is revalued by the Local Land Board, a fresh appraisement being necessary for each decade. It is important to note that no minimum value is fixed by law, and it is thus made possible fi'om the beginning, and throughout, to accommodate the rent to actual and changing values, an advantage which, during a period of depreciation, must necessarily be felt by the land owner. Land before being made available for Homestead Selection (and there is no restriction as to the division of the Colony in which it may be situated), is ascertained to be suitable for the purpose, and is measured into blocks, estimated to be each sufficient for the maintenance of a family, not, however, in any case exceeding 1,280 acres' in extent; but, for the convenience of town residents, lands within easy distances of their places of business, are some- times made available in comparatively small areas. After a given date (which is notified in the Government Gazette) the land may be obtained on application to the local Crown Land Agent, the earliest applicant having the right to the block which he may have chosen. Where LAWS RELATIXG TO CROWN LANDS. 29 two or more applications happen to be tendered simultaneously for the same block, the Land Agent determines their priority by ballot.* At the time of application one half year's rent and one third of a fee charged for survey (see appended scale) have to bo deposited. Payment of the balance of the survey fee is spread over the first two years, one half of such balance being payable within the first, and the other lialf within the second twelve months after cDufirmatifm. To illustrate the foregoing: — If a block of 610 acres (1 square mile) should be adver- tised at £1 per acre, or £640 in all — but it should be mentioned hero that land is frequently thrown open at prices considerably below this — the first annual rent would be £8, and the survey fee £8 Is. od. Of the former £4, and of the latter £2 13s. i)d. (/.c. £6 IGs. Od. in all) v/ould be required at the time of application. This initial expense will be recognised as small, and it will be seen that the selector is not called upon afterwards to expend any but a nominal sum in improvements. All that the law requires in this con- nection is that he shall within the first eighteen mouths after confir- mation of his application erect a dwelling house worth at least £20. A condition of perpetual residence, commencing within three months after date of confirmation of the application, however, attaches to the holding, the object of which is to secure that the land shall be used for its intended purpose, and as a salutary check against, what has hitherto been, a prevailing tendency to take advantage of the law for merely speculative purposes. To such pui^poses a short definite term of residence has, unfortunately, hitherto been found to lend itself, land freed from all but monetary obligations being readily taken over. Should the land selected contain improvements at the date of appli- cation, the Selector is required to pay for them in four equal yearly instalments, with interest at 4 per cent, per annum. The title of a homestead selection is a freehold one, but the issue of a grant in fee simple is deferred for five years, and during this terra the land cannot be transferred. The issue of the grant is contingent upon the Land Board granting a certificate that the conditions attaching to the selection have, up to the time of inquiry, been pro- perly fulfilled. The grant contains provisions for "the annual pay- ment by the grantee, his heirs, and assigns for ever of a perpetual rent ; the performance by the grantee, his heirs, and assigns for ever of an obligation to live upon the homestead selection, having his or then- home and place of abode there t; and forfeiture to the Crown of the lands granted in case the obligation to live thereon or to pay any sums due as rent be not duly performed/' The condition of residence may perhaps appear stringent, but it is not inflexible, as before issue of the grant the Local Land Board may grant leave to the selector for a necessary cause, and for suc!i period as may be determined, and, after issue of the grant, the * This provision as to ballot applies to conflicting applications of all kinds, incluaing applications for Conditional Purchases, Homestead Leases, &c. + After issue of the grant the minimum period of lining on the laml may be dcfi^^^^^ by the Governor by regulations. The period, however, cannot be less tlian se^ en montl.a In every year. 30 A'EfV SOUTH WALES. Governor, although expressly debarred from abrogating the con- dition altogether, is invested with the power of granting exemptions from, or relaxation of, its performance in such cases of inability or hardship (such as sickness, &c.) as are likely to arise. No one exemption can operate for a longer period than one year ; but as no limitation is placed upon the number of exemptions which may be granted, it follows that an original period of exemption may, if necessity should dictate, be extended by a series of exemptions fol- lowing one upon the other. To meet the circumstances of persons who, though anxious to secure a Homestead Selection, may be prevented by their occupations from immediately entering into residence, the law provides that, until issue of the grant, that is during the first five years, the condition may be performed by an approved deputy, on the understanding, how- ever, that when the grant does issue, the selector himself will take over the obligation. In such cases the general conditions differ from those attaching to an ordinary Homestead Selection. The survey fee is payable in full at the date of application, the rent up to the issue of the grant is 3| instead of \\ per cent, of the capital value, the dwelling-house has to be worth at least £40 in value, and, in addition, one-tenth of the land has to be in full tillage within three years after the date of confirmation, and one-fifth during the fourth and fifth years after that date. When a number of selectors comprising not fewer than twenty families desire, for the sake of social conveniences and advantages, to settle together, the Grovernor may allow their respective conditions of residence to be performed within the boundaries of a village or hamlet adjacent to their selections, subject to such conditions as he may see fit to prescribe. There is one special advantage conferred upon a homestead selector, which has, so far^ not been extended to other purchasers from the Crown. This is protection for his holding. He is at liberty, by a simple process of registration at the office of the local Crown Land Agent, if not in insolvent circum^stances at the time, to secure himself against depriva- tion. His land cannot then be sold under a writ of execution, will not be affected by his bankruptcy, or in any way taken from him for the satisfaction of any debt or liability under process or constraint of law. He himself is precluded from transferring the land while the registra- tion remains unwithdrawn, and the registration becomes inoperative Avhen he ceases to live on the land, or obtains protection for another holding. A Homestead Selection may be surrendered, in which case the surrenderor is entitled to tenant-right in improvements. Tenant-right may also be conceded in the case of a forfeited Homestead Selection. Conditional Purchases. The Conditional Purchase (or, as it is sometimes called, the Free Selec- tion) System, dates back to the year 1861. As the words imply, a con- ditional purchase is a purchase in fee simple subject to the fulfilment of certain conditions. These conditions include residence for a term LA WS RELATING TO CROWN LANDS. 3 i of ten years, tlio fencing or other improvement of tlio land, and the payment by annual instalments of the purchase money with interest at 4 per cent, per annum. A conditional purchase may be of land in the Eastern or Central Divisions, and may comprise unre- served country land not held under pastoral or other lease. The fact of land being held under annual lease or occupation license and containing improvements is not a bar to purchase, nor is survey or classification ui the land a necessary preliminary. If an ap])licant selects land con- taining improvements, he accepts an obligation to pay for them, but payment is usually spread over a period and arranged for in instal- ments. In either of the divisions mentioned the minimum area is 4() acres, the maximum area being in the Eastern Division G40 and in the Central Division 2,5G0 acres. The maximum areas referred to may be acquired by degrees at intervals, that is to say, the selector may take up a comparatively small area at first, and gradually supple- ment it by what are called additional purchases. Land applied for under conditional purchase is ordinarily taken at a statutory price of £1 per acre, but the law contains a provision for the setting apart of what are termed Special Areas (which may be in the Western as well as in either of the two divisions already mentioned), and the price of land within these may be fixed at 30s. per acre and upwards. A conditional purchase within a special area cannot exceed 320 acres in the Eastern or 640 acres in the other divisions, and in the Eastern Division carries no right to a conditional lease. One featun- with respect to special areas is that they may include land within suburban or population boundaries, but it is to be understood that the minimum and maximum areas of all special area conditional purchases, whether within suburban or population area boundaries, or not, are governed by the terms of the proclamation setting them apart. With an application (which has to be made to the local Crown Lands Agent) for a conditional purchase of ordinary land, a deposit of 2s. per acre and a survey fee according tj the appended scale are required, No other payment to the Crown is necessary for three years. At the end of the third year from the date of application an instalment of Is. an acre is due, and thereafter a like instalment is payable annually. Three months^ grace is allowed for the payment of each instalment. The deposit and the first instalment are wholly devoted to reduce the debt, interest not being charged for the finst three years. The balance, after payment of the first instalment, is therefore 17s. per acre. Out of each succeeding instalment interest is taken and the residue credited in reduction of the debt. The interest is computed on the balance as reduced from year to year, and is, con- sequently, a diminishing quantity. Under this system it takes thirty instalments of Is. per acre, together with the original deposit, to clear off the debt ; but the holder of the land may, after he has obtained a certificate from the Local Land Board that he has fulfilled his condi- tions, pay off two or more instalments, or the whole of his balance according as it suits his convenience. On a conditional purchase within a special area a deposit of 10 per cent., and annual instalments, each 5 per cent, of the priceof the land, are required. A survey fee is payable at the date of application. 32 NEW SOUTH WALES. The following is a coinplete illustration of tlie metliod of payment referred to. The figures refer to a conditional purchase of 40 acres applied for on the ord September, 1891, at £1 jDcr acre : — Date when Portion Amount Instalment due Interest of Payment upon which PajTnents. (three months' taken out of taken to Balance. the Interest Period of Interest. 1 grace allowed Instalment. reduce the is for payment). Balance. computed. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Deposit. 4 0 0 0 1 application. 4 0 0 35 0 0 Instalments. 2 0 0 3 Sept., 1894 Nil. 2 0 0 34 0 0 2 0 0 3 , , 1895 17 2 0 12 10 33 7 2 34"'6"o 3 Sept., 1894, to 3 Sept., 1895 1 2 0 0 3 > , 189(3 1 6 9 0 13 3 32 13 11 33 7 2 3 , 1895, to 3 , 1896 2 0 0 3 , , 1897 16 2 0 13 10 32 0 1 32 13 11 3 , 1896, to 3 , 1897 2 0 0 3 , , 1888 15 7 0 14 5 31 5 8 32 0 1 3 , 1897, to 3 , 1898 2 0 0 3 , , 1899 15 0 0 15 0 30 10 8 31 5 8 3 , 1^98, to 3 , 1899 2 0 0 3 , , 1900 14 5 0 15 7 29 15 1 30 10 8 3 , 1899, to 3 , 1900 2 0 0 3 , , 1901 1 3 10 0 16 2 28 18 11 29 15 1 3 , 1900, to 3 , 1901 2 0 0 3 , , 1902 13 2 0 16 10 28 2 1 28 18 11 3 , 1901, to 3 , 1902 2 0 0 3 ! , 1903 12 5 0 17 7 27 4 6 28 2 1 3 , 1902, to 3 , 1903 2 0 0 3 , , 1904 1 1 10 0 18 2 26 0 4 27 4 6 3 , 1903, to 3 , 1904 2 0 0 3 1 , 1905 111 0 18 11 25 7 5 26 6 4 3 , 1S04, to 3 , 1905 2 0 0 3 , , 1906 10 3 0 19 9 24 7 8 25 7 5 3 , 1905, to 3 , 1906 2 0 0 3 , 1907 0 19 C 10 6 23 7 2 24 7 8 3 , 1906, to 3 , 1907 2 0 0 3 , 1908 0 IS s 114 22 5 10 23 7 2 3 , 1907, to 3 , 1908 2 0 0 3 , , 1909 0 17 10 12 2 21 3 S 22 5 10 3 , 1908, to 3 , 1909 2 0 0 3 , , 1910 0 17 0 13 0 20 0 8 21 3 8 3 , 1909, to 3 , 1910 2 0 0 3 , , 1911 0 IG 0 14 0 18 16 8 20 0 S 3 , 1910, to 3 , 1911 2 0 0 3 , , 1912 0 15 1 1 4 11 17 11 9 18 16 8 3 , 1911, to 3 , 1912 2 0 0 3 , , 1913 0 14 1 1 5 11 16 5 10 17 11 9 3 , 1912, to 3 , 1913 2 0 0 3 > , 1914 0 13 0 17 0 14 18 10 16 5 10 3 , 1913, to 3 , 1914 2 0 0 3 ! , 1910 0 12 0 18 0 13 10 10 14 18 10 3 , 1914, to 3 , 1915 2 0 0 3 , , 1916 0 10 10 19 2 12 1 8 13 10 10 3 , 1915, to 3 , 1916 2 0 0 3 , 1917 0 9 7 1 10 5 10 11 3 12 1 8 3 , 191fi, to 3 , 1917 2 0 0 3 , 1918 0 8 6 1 11 6 8 19 9 10 11 3 3 , 19]7, to3 , 1918 2 0 0 3 , , 1919 0 7 2 1 12 10 7 6 11 8 19 9 3 , 1918, to 3 , 1919 2 0 0 3 , , 1920 0 5 11 1 14 1 5 12 10 7 6 11 3 , 1919, to 3 , 1920 2 0 0 3 J , 1921 0 4 6 1 15 6 3 17 4 5 12 10 3 , 1920, to 3 , 1921 2 0 0 3 , , 1922 0 3 1 1 15 11 2 0 5 3 17 4 3 , 1921, to 3 , 1922 2 0 0 3 , , 1923 0 17 1 18 5 0 2 0 2 0 5 3 , 1922, to 3 , 1923 A conditional purchase holder who may, for any year, be unable to pay his instalment may obtain the Minister's permission to suspend payment, in which case the interest alone is payable, or may itself remain unpaid, and become part of the original debt. During the period of suspension the holder must reside on the land. If of, or over, an area of 100 acres a conditional purchase may be subdivided, and the balance paid up on one or more of the blocks into which the land has been subdivided. In certain circumstances a conditional jourchase may be converted into a homestead selection. An original conditional purchase cannot be transferred until the conditions of the first five years are certified to have been fulfilled. Conditional Lease. Any applicant for, or holder of, a conditional purchase applied for since the 1st January, 1885, is entitled to hold adjoining land under conditional lease. With an application for a conditional lease a deposit of 2d. per acre and a survey fee as for an additional conditional purchase are payable. A conditional lease may comprise up to three times the area of the purchase by virtue of which it is applied for, and the total area of conditionally purchased and conditionally leased land may reach 1,280 acres in the Eastern, and cannot exceed 2,560 acres in the LA WS RELATIXG TO CRGWN I.AXDS. 33 Central Division. The lease has a terra o£ twenty-eight years, subicct to payment of an annnal rent as appraised by the Land Board', and to the fulfilment of such conditions as apply to an additional conditional purchase. Pending appraisement of rent, a provisional rent of 2d. j)cr acre is payable. The rent, which is calculated from the date of application having-^ regard to the fact that the lessee may enter into immediate occupation, is payable annually in advance, and is subject (on the application of the lessee or at the instance of the Minister) to reappraisement at the expiration of fifteen years, the new rent applying to the balance of the term. The lessee is entitled to convert his lease wholly or partly into an additional conditional jnn-chasc at any time during its currency, and to continue to hold the balance under lease. Although, therefore, in the Eastern ]^ivision a con- ditional purchase cannot be applied for in excess of OiO acres, double this area may be secured by the agency of a conditional lease. Tenant-right in improvements is given to the last holder of an expired lease, and the Governor may concede it where the lease has been forfeited or surrendered. Condition of Rpsiclencp attaclied to Conditional Purchasvs and Conditional Leases. The term of residence is computed so as to expire ten years from the date of application, and although the applicant may enter into residence immediately, he is not required to do so until his applicaticni has been confirmed by the Land Board. He then has three months' grace to do so. Residence is defined as '''continuous and bond tidr. living on the land as the holder's u.sual home without any other habitual residence." A separate condition of residence attaches to every additional con- ditional purchase or conditional lease, but in this connection certain cjualifications have to be pointed out. An original conditional purchase and any additional conditional purchases and conditional leases of the same series are treated as one holding, so that no alteration of the original ^>/are of r^sidence is necessary. The new condition of residence is abrogated altogether so long as the additional conditional purchase or lease is held by the same person who applied for the original conditional purchase ; but this exemption will not apply if the holder has previously taken up or is the owner under conditional purchase or conditional lease of 1,280 acres in the Eastern Division, 2,560 acres in the Central Division, ting themselves greatly. A regular supply of shipping possessed of adetpiate frozen storage, proper warehouse accommodation at the ports of ship- ment, slaughtering places up the country in touch with the railways, where freezing can at once bo effected, and cold carriage over the rail- ways are all requisite to a proper development of the trade where the principal flocks and herds are located hundreds of miles inland, for it is an essential that the meat should be delivered in the United Kingdom in the best condition. Thus, there is much still to be accomplished before this industry can be brought into full bearing. 50 A^FJV SOUTH WALES. The Signifcance of the Present Suri)lus Exports. In the years when New South Wales, as well as neighbouring' colonies, was importing British capital extensively for investment, the imports, as was to be expected, exceeded in value the exports. But we must never lose sight of the fact that probably something like £100,000,000 of British capital is invested here, or is in the hands of non-residents ; and that, taking the average of the five years, 1890-94, payments to the extent of over £5,000,000 a year had thus to be made to other countries — mainly to Great Britain. The Government Statistician places this payment upon British capital, and by way of incomes to non-residents at £5,168,900 per annum in the five years, 1890-94, inclusive; and even after the curtailment of dividends and incomes since the crisis, these payments probably exceed £4,000,000. In view of this important factor in New South "Wales finance, tlie following marked change since 1890 carries considerable significance: — Year. Imports. Exports. Excess of Imports. Excess of Exports. 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 £22,615,004 25,383,397 20,776,526 18,107,0.35 15,801,941 15,992,415 £22,045,937 25,944,020 21,972,247 22,921,223 20,577,673 21,934,785 £569,067 £500,623 1,195,721 4,814,188 4,775,732 5,942,370 In 1895 the excess of exports is very striking. Thus, upon the face of these returns, it is evident that this Colony is more than paying its way in the shape of an excess of exports. But these valuations are those at New South Wales ports ; that is, after all the imports have been swelled by the cost of carriage to our shores, while at the same time the exports are returned minus all shipping charges. Nor do all these shipping charges accrue to the outside shipovv^ner. There are 968 vessels upon the New South Wales Register, with an aggregate of 109,372 tons, upon which 5,806 men find employment; and if these earned a gross average of £100 per head there would be an addition of £580,000 a year to be added to the surplus exports after meeting all payments to British investors and others to the full. There were questions raised in the United Kingdom at the time of the great collapse in prices, and after the financial crisis in Australia, whether these colonies could meet their obligations. Those questions need not have been raised ; but figui'es such as those given above answer them fully. When, too, it is taken into consideration that the pro- duction of New South Wales is not only capable of development, but is at the present time actually expanding greatly, the power of her people to deal with that indebtedness and to honour their obligations lies beyond the bounds of dispute. That, for a time, the extravagance of the " boom " period, and its heavy commitments, were followed by loss and hardship, and a curtailment of the spending powers of the people was inevitable. But that period of extravagance, with its actual restriction of production, is at an end, the losses have already, in a great measure, been lived down, and the lesson, bitter as it was at the time, has not been without its advantages. Even old COMMERCIAL RELATIONS. 51 countries like tho United Kincrdoni liavo experienced tUo effects of such transitions, and liavc been slower than this Colony to recover. During 1895 there was a material recovery of Conlidence in New South Wales, and that in spite of a deficient niiiifall ; and 18U0 is opening,' with yet increased buo3^ancy. fSydurij and Neuccastle as Ports. Naturally, with the largest share of the trade of these colonies, the shipping returns of New South Wales are likewise the most extensive. The harbour of Sydney, not seldom with nearly a hundred great ocean steamers and sailing ships on its waters, affords the most indisputable evidence of being a busy port, for which its natural advantages entirely fit it. It is, indeed, the iDUsiest port in the Southern Hemis- phere. For many miles the depth of water is ample for tonnage of the deepest draught ; its tides average but 3 feet 4- inches, and the flow and ebb of water in the centre of the stream is almost imperceptible. Again, the harbour is almost entirely landlocked, even tho com- paratively narrow opening through the Heads being unseen from any part of Sydney, while the great rollers coming in from the Pacific expend their entire force upon the rocks which face the entrance or upon the nearest shores of Middle Harboui-, another extensive water- way at present given over to the Sydney excursionist, but which will some day add to the importance of Sydney as a port. The accom- panying plan of Sydney Harbour will serve to show the dimensions of tho port better than many pages of description would do ; and the multitudinous bays and coves, separated for the most part by high land, afford ample protection in all weathers. Upon the shores of Sydney Harbour the CTOvernmcnit have consti-ucted some 15,500 feet of the wharfage, the major part with a de])th along- side from 25 to 30 feet at low tide ; and the private wharfs are very numerous, and in the aggregate of fully equal extent, though the depth of water alongside varies considerably. Still, many of tho private wharfs will accommodate vessels drawing from 20 to 25 feet, and one has a depth of no less than 35 feet. The bottom, too, being soft, even, and free from currents, vessels may rest thereon at low water without risk. These 7 miles of wharfs are fitted with ample crane power and storage, and additions are constantly in ])rogress. At Newcastle, there are also about 12,000 feet frontage of (-Jovern- ment wharfs, which will accommodate vessels drawing from 20 feet to 23 ft. 6 in., in addition to 1,500 feet of private wharfs. The dock accommodation in Sydney is extensive. The tM'o Govern- ment graving docks on Cockatoo Island stand fini5t in importance. The Sutherland Dock is 600 feet long by 81 in width, andjvould admit a vessel drawing 32 feet ; while the Fitzroy Dock is 170 feet long by 59 in width, and Avould admit a vessel drawing 2U feet. Next in importance is Mort's Dock, 410 feet by GO feet, which wdl accommodate vessels with a draught of 19 feet; and there are, m addition, a number of floating docks and patent slips at Sy.lney, and two patent slips at Newcastle. It would be possible to extend information of this description very greatly. The lighthouse and tug services are excellent; and the 52 NEW SOUTH WALES. accommodation at sucli minor ports as Wollongong, tlie Riclimond and Clarence Rivers^ Twofold Bay, and elsewhere, are also subjects wliicla miglit Le enlarged upon, as New Soutli Wales possesses many harbours wliicli will in the course of years come into greater pro- minence. The developments now in progress at Lake Illawarra are also of considerable importance. But to enter into these matters would extend these remarks to an inordinate length. The Sliippincj Returns-. According to the published returns of the different Australasian colonies, the shipping tonnage entered and cleared during the year 1894 were as under : — Colony. Entered. Cleared. New South W ales Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Austi'alia Tasmania New Zealand Total Tons. 2,859,968 2,163,716 459,647 1,449,-336 675,775 439,050 631,100 Tons. 2,878,586 2,127,743 468,378 1,459,249 653,303 459,317 631,250 8,678,592 8,677,826 But bald figures such as these need a great deal of qualification. For instance, a P. and O. or Orient liner reaching Sydney as its final port is entered and cleared only once, and Sydney is admittedly the most important port which it enters in Australian waters. Yet on its outward voyage it calls at Albany (Western Australia), Adelaide, and Melbourne, and is entered and cleared, and the same process is repeated on its homeward voyage, and upon this weekly mail service alone these duplications add something like 300,000 tons per annum to the apparent tonnage entering and clearing Victorian, South Aus- tralian, and Western Australian ports. In New South Wales, too, a vessel proceeding from Sydney to Newcastle for coal is not included as tonnage entering the second port, but only the first port of entry and the port of final departure are returned, and purely coasting- services are excluded. Thus the above comparison does not adequately indicate the relative magnitude of the shipping returns of New South Wales. If however, we take the average value of the exports per registered ton cleared in 1894 at £7 3s. in New South Wales, at £6 12s. in Victoria, at £5 3s. in South Australia, and at £1 18s. in Western Australia, we obtain a clearer insight into the relative significance of these shipping services to the different colonies, A quarter of a century back the shipping returns of Victoria exceeded those of New Soutli Wales materially, and even as late as 1881 the shipping cleared from the ports of this Colony showed, apparently an excess of only 1 37,000 tons. Last ycai', however, the excess was as much as 750,000 tons, and as has been shown, the utilisation of that tonnage here was relatively greater. COMMERCIAL RELATIONS. 53 Ndtionalifij of the Shi'pjnng. The question of natiouality is important as indicatinj,^ the extent to which foreign competition has been carried. The following figures show the tonnage cleared in 1891, the tonna -* a: CO n CO CO •* o 42 •^ : CO i-i IM no l:- -/ in CO 'ti CO re m dS =t3 : 6 l-H «*H (N '"' Oi ^3 w2 =*i : ■** Oi i-t s o n c- <- 1-1 o IM n in m 00 CO O \r r^ ^a'^' (— 1 1^ ^ rH D '-' ^ 1^ IT CO CO O (M O X o «f»C^ CM V) 05 t* 3S ■5 (M rH rH ^rt CO § 1^ I— ( J^ '^i -^ « C" ,—1 f— i. -^ o If* r^ o ^ CO r^ 9 trt'^ rH :o -T- r-t 'X C-1 IC -* f. o w2 ^^ lO o CO lr~ 35 00 o c3 l-H O m M CO 1^' Ol c: " i-T ^' ^' ,u Tf " i-T ^ CO u. ■^ '"' ■^ CO -f nj ra CO T- CO CO jt^ >n 1-1 o o o IM aS 3 S S cs CI ■^ CO n ri r^. •■o a .^2 O lO :/i c: c CO o •J) CO CO CO IM S P v.^ 00 CO ^' cr ca 00 O 00 i-T ^^ O ■""" CO *"* ■* 03 lO 05 M rr) <- o CO CO CO CO CO CO N C5 <» "J o CO GO (/ 1^ •^ rH '^ o. =^-1. ^ji CO 1-1 :s o O CO (M rH 1-. 1~ c ^ •^ iTi "* 9 =rt'.; " L^ .— * ,_( o ir » CO o o CO CO o Ol t- CO lO CO •* tH -. C £ a ^ 1 J ^ s 1 p. 3 3 C 0) ■a a p 1 < 3 .■s ^ ■-5 s ■a "2 s 1 1 "S •a S 2 O > a !3 < c H o X t ii ^ c^ bp c 3 c = c c c o 5 c= •g c CU g C o o •p 3 c S g E- C/2 u. o (- flH O I-: O ^ cc a: a: t^ H i-J w H H o tM W 'A a P-l THE IMPORT TRADE. 59 Witli reference to the Piicific Island trade, it is wortliy of note that the change in the fiscal policy of the (Joverninent is already showing indications of increased trade with Sydney, and this has been made more apparent by the expansion in transactions between the west coast of America and Sydney, which gives promise of enhancing the volnnie of trade with the Pacific, and nothing can be more conduci\'e to its development than the improved steam service which is now available in that direction. One of the most practical and significant features in connection with the development of this trade has been the recent establishment of an oil-mill in Sydney for the treatment of copra or cocoanut, for the extraction of cocoanut oil and the manu- facture of oil-cake. In opening this new venture, which is the first of its kind in Australia, if not south of the Equator, Lever Brothers (Limited) will concentrate in Sydney a large proportion of raw material for manufacture which previously was only transhipped for London. Not only will the island trade be directed to our port by tliis new project, but with the manufacture of oil-cake the dairy-farming industry will receive a stimulus which Avill place butter manufacturers and exporters beyond the dangers of droughts and their disastrous effects. Sydney being in a position to shortly absorb the bulk of the copra production at her doors, v/ill hold an impregnable position with respect to a reciprocal trade wdth the islands, and a glance at the table given above shows that this is no small quantity. The expenditure of some tens of thousands of pounds of English capital in such a venture is at once significant, and illustrates in a practical way that English manu- facturers have some confidence in the future of trade in Sydney. This undertaking is one which must necessarily succeed, inasmuch as all the oil which can be produced here will be at once absorbed for manufacturing purposes by the Company mentioned at their English works, so that a market is secured which will stand to the producer without fear or favour. Under such advantageous conditions the future of our trade in the direction of the Pacific seems assured. A cursory glance at the details of the import trade in some of the items enumerated may not be out of place, as the trade of Sydney carries with it distinctive features of interest to the foreign manu- facturer, producer, and the local importer alike, and which may bo summarised thus : — Tea. Until quite recently the direct import of tea to New South AVales was a small proportion of the trade done with Australia. Now, how- ever, this commodity has taken a strong list Sydney ward, and compe- tition has grown strong between China and the more enterprismg growers of India and Ceylon for a first place in our markets. Kecent Eastern hostilities certainly gave a great fillip to business with Colombo, and Calcutta has left no stone unturned to be well withm the running. The result has been heavy consignments and large oifermgs at auction, upon which the blender and retailer have thrived at the expense ot growers and importers. India has proved a powerful rival butli in quality and price, which has tended to flood the market with common descriptions, and not always of a very desirable quality, against which Ceylon has held her own fairly well, notwithstanding the loss ot 6o Ari:w SOUTH WALES. demand for liiglier grades. China teas, however, especially the finer descriptions, have suffered materially in the conflict, and costly Foochows have long since been banished to the realms of neglect. Bugar. The periodical apparition of " beet sugar," either of continental or threatened colonial production, has levelled the market for Queens- land sugars fully 50 per cent, during the past few years, while China, Java, and Mauritius have been active in reducing prices to their present level of £15 10s. in bond. The introduction of beet sugar has not proved a success, inasmuch as recent shipments have invariably resulted in '' sweated" cargoes, involving importers in heavy loss. Although the partial failure of the 1895 Queensland crop has strengthened market values, prices have been so completely held in equilibrium by Mauritius and other imports, chiefly to the southern colonies, that the realisation of higher prices has been out of the question. Breadstuffs. The return to freetrade has heralded what may be regarded as a phenomenal departure in wheat and flour transactions. At the moment of writing over 20,000 tons of wheat, and several thousand tons of flour, are on the way from San Francisco to Sydney as the first bulk instalment of American breadstuff s to aid in making good the shortage in the 1895-6 wheat crop, which is estimated at between 4,500,000 and 5,000,000 bushels less than the Colony's requirements. This wheat is being brought alongside our wharves at 3s. 4|d. to 3s. 5d. per bushel (c.i.f. and e.), as compared with 4s. to 4s. 3d. for new season's local wheat, although 4s. 6d. was paid by Sydney millers for the first parcels of new wheat. Considering, however, that the prices paid to farmers the previous season only averaged Is. lOid. per bushel, there is no reason to comjalain at competitive value of grain introduced duty free. Flour is in a very similar position. The present quotation is nominally £10 lOs. to £11 (£1 per ton duty paid), as against £6 10s. a year ago, so that the import of American flour at a concession of £1 to £1 10s. on ruling rates can hardly be considered a calamity by the local miller. Victoria and South Australia will prove light contributors to local requirements for 1890, so that the advent of American wheat and flour may be regarded as very opportune. Dried Fruits. Notwithstanding the fact that this market has had to exist under the burden of a 50 per cent, duty in the past, the volume of business has been very considerable as well as expansive, especially during the latter part of the year just closing. When it is stated that currants purchased at lis. (f .o.b., London) are sold by importers at IJd. to l|d., and elemes or sultanas, first cost of which is 15s. Gd. and 19s. 3d., are quoted at 25d. to 2jd. and 2jd. respectively (duty under the existing tariff on which is 2d. additional), it will be seen that profits are not large, and this is considered a good year, as the margin of one-eighth of a penny per pound is about 50 per cent, above the past five years' THE IMPORT TRADE. 6 1 average. Dates arc sold at 1|(L as against a cost of 10s. Gd. (f.o.l)., London), but on tlie better classes of dessert fruit the margin is slightly better. It Avas generally expected that the irrigation schemes which have been floated at Mildura and elsewhere would have resulted in the heavy production of colonial dried fruit, but so far the ventures have not had any appreciable effect on the local market. America has l^ecn the only rival to Southern h]uropc who may bo regarded as liavin" appropriated any of the Australian trade, and business with the United States in all kinds of fruits is certainly on the increase. The reduction in the price of sugar, and the extension of orchard farms throughout the Colony, has had a direct effect on the import of jams and preserves, more especially in the better classes of goods, which have made severe inroads into the volume of business with the United Kingdom, and with a liberal supply of these goods at 5s. per dozen for reputed 1 K. tins, and 6s. 6d, for English lipped glass jars, local manufacturers have a pretty good hold of the trade. AVhat importation is done lies between Tasmania and Victoria, with a moderate contribution from South Australia, and the balance from the United Kingdom, while the bulk of exports go to Queensland and the Pacific Islands. Oil-stores. The import of pickles and condiments has suffered with increased local production of a better article at a lower price, while potted meats have been slightly influenced in a similar manner. The extension of dairy farming has had no visible effect on the importation of condensed milk, for which there is an ever-increasing demand, especially in the droughty areas of this and the northern colony. Several efforts have been made to produce this article locally, but, on the principle " that the imported article must be the best," consumers have not taken kindly to the local production, notwithstanding its superior quality and lower price, which is 5s. 9d. per dozen, as against Gs. 3d. for the imported article (Id. per B. duty paid). It is worthy of note that a large quan- tity of pickles and sauces are put up locally, which are represented as English or Eastern pack, and the attractive get-up of these goods has given them extensive sale. No doubt the advent of freetrade wdl have a salutary effect on trade in these items. Despite such unde- sirable competition, the import of reputable brands of condiments has held its own fairly well, and for pickles worth from 5s. to (say) ^')->. per dozen laid down cost there is an active demand. Business m starch has been chiefly confined to the United Kingdom and the Continent, on a basis of about £25 per ton cost. Local manufacture has not been attended with much success, although a good deal of cornflour has been produced on the spot. America, England, and the southern colonies have contributed liberally to the sup])ly cf iancy and special kinds of soap, in addition to extensive manuJactures ot commoner descriptions on the spot, so that prices have been pretty well levelled to their present limit of 12s. Gd. to 13s. per cwt. for the latter Preserved fish, especially tinned varieties, have had a good deal ot 62 JVEW SOUTH WALES. attention^ witli an increasing- demand for American goods. The con- sumption of canned salmon in Australia is about 60,000 cases per annum, of wliicli 20,000 are taken by Sydney and 25,000 by Melbourne. Prices this month (December) have reached the satisfactory level of 5s. 6d. for pink, 6s. for red Alaska, and 7s. for Skeena (Id. per Hi. duty paid) . Cheap sardines have also been scarce and in request at 2s. 9d. for quarters. Demands for these goods have, on the whole, fallen off owing to the lighter observance of the Lenten period, com- bined with the cheapness of other classes of goods and the larger supply of fresh fish from our local waters, as well as from New Zealand and America, which has largely affected the European trade. Oil and Kerosene. English brands of linseed oil have had to meet strong competition with Calcutta. The present position is, as compared with £19 10s. per ton (f.o.b., London), 2s. 6d. per gallon for English and 2s. 4d. for Indian (each half and half raw and boiled). Castor, China and other kinds are on a parity of value ruling in the East, although more often than not they are below the level of the ever-shifting markets at producing centres. The kerosene market has been mainly at the bid of the American Standard Oil Company and American speculators, while local manufactures from shale have had trifling attention at Sjbout 2d. a gallon under imported oil. Even protected to the extent of 6d. per gallon^ the manufacture of kerosene has not paid except in the matter of by-products. The local market being supplied by sailing ships from New York, provides ample opportunity for local speculation with the 40,000 or 50,000 cases generally held in bond, but the results are not as satisfactory to importers as might be expected, owing to the large number of small holders who keep prices at l3ed-rock levels. Candles. It is a remarkable fact that antipodean manufacturers absorb our tallow staple, and return in the form of candles at lower prices than they can be manufactured for on the spot, and this is even more to be wondered at when it is known that local makers of these goods have laid down the most costly and perfect machinery and plant known to the trade, but without effect so far as competitive prices with Ger- many are concerned, although the colonial article leaves nothing to be desired either in quality, appearance, firmness, or illuminating- power. Prices for the better grades of local stearine candles range from about 5.kl. to 5|d., as against 4|d. in bond or 6|d. duty paid for the best imported kinds. A large number of inferior goods are put up on the spot, selling as low as o.\d. Germany, both direct and through London is by far the largest contributor to this Colony^s requirements, although, as will be seen above, Victoria and South Australia lend a good deal to our imports. The extension of the use of gas, electric light, and kerosene, and the low charges for these fuels and illuminants, have considerably curtailed tlie demand for candles, and during the past two or three years especially the falling off in trade has been very pronounced. THE IMPORT TRADE. 63 Metals cuid Jlardiriin'. There is no department of trade wliicli lias slunvn .such a satisfaotory response to improved cost as that of metals. For some years until the middle of that jnst closing the hardware tradeof this Colony, in common with that of Australia, was in a most deplorable condition. Small demand, keen competition, and sacrificial prices often prompted by financial straits, were few of the many drawbacks the larger and sounder import houses had to contend with, and the losses made were very considerable. The present year has led the hardware trade to fresh pastures however, and the general character of business has been most encouraging. Unfortunately stocks have run down so low as to give merchants very little opportunity of recovering much advantage from old low-level cost prices ; on the whole, however, the position is very cheering, and this department of the import market has never been in such a satisfactory condition to welcome the return of freetrade as at the present. Some items have shown results far beyond expec- tations ; barbed wire, for instance, has improved to the extent of fully £3 10s. per ton, the present price being £14' per ton in bond. America has quite distanced English and German competitors in the supply of this article, and on all hands the American product has been pro- nounced superior alike in quality, finish, general utility, and price. Germany has retained the largest share of business in fencing wire owing to the lower prices demanded as compared with English manufactures, notwithstanding the efforts of ]h-itish makers to intro- duce " rolled ^' as a substitute for " annealed steel drawn " Avire. Continental manufacturers have also made a strong bid for the supply of baling hoops, both black and galvanised. Spot values for these lines, although greatly improved, are notyet up to a very profitable standard, as the pi-esent ruling quotation of £7 7s. 6d. for No. 8 and £7 12s. Od. for No. 10 fencing wire is fully 5s. under laid down cost. The same state of things prevails with galvanised iron, ordinary brands of which are worth £15 to £15 5s. in bond, although stocks could not be replenished at the price. Iron bars, plates, and sheets, tees, angles, and the like, have found increasing demand at higher prices. Stocks of nails, Muntz metal, zinc, and similar lines have become so completely skeletonised that there is every reason to believe that in spite of the higher range of values ruling the import of these lines will show rajiid expansion. Tinplates, too have run up to los. as their high-water mark, and anything above 12s. is regarded as a certainty for some time to come. Operations in this line are pretty extensive, and imports are valued at £60,000 per annum. America has proved a lion in the i)ath of English and Continental m.anufacturers of tools of trade and general ironmongery so far as this Colony is concerned, as will be seen by tlie figures given above.. In the colonies "lightness combined with strength " seems to be the great desideratum in this class of goods, and the '' Utili Dulci " trade-mark, which American goods seem to bear, has threatened to completely displace the more familiar wares of con- servative English manufactures, or the common-place goods puriK.rting to be "made in Germany." In this connection too Continental manutac- turers have not been slow to ado])t the names of English manufacturing centres to furnish their goods with a passport to Australian consumers. 64 NEW SOUTH WALES. Trade in tools and hardware is certainly inclining towards tlie United States, and witli tlie increasing communication witli tliat busy manu- facturing world the older channels seem likely to become neglected. Leather. Notwithstanding the important place this and the northern colony hold in the export of hides (and recent operations have been on an increased scale), the local tanneries have failed to grow independent of the outside world. Here again the American manufacturer asserts himself strongly, vieing with the English market for the supply of our wants, which he does by one-third. With an export of three times that of our imports, it is almost a wonder that we should require to approach foreign markets, but no doubt time will effect a great revolution in this particular, as already the local manufacture of leather goods has become an important industry, so much so that some of our factories boast of the most modernised appliances in the world. Soft Goods. Reference has already been made to the distribution of the imports of this most important class of manufactures, contributing as it does about one-fifth of the entire revenue of the Colony. The volume of imports has been practically untouched by local manufacture, and even the most optimistic forecast of the manufacturer cannot bring within measureable distance the establishment of self-supporting industries for the absorption of the bulk of our great wool staple locally. Mean- time, the supply is practically in the hands of English and foreign houses, and the variety and extent of the requirements of this Colony, as well as the demands made upon its stocks from other consumers, are such as to encourage the importer to believe that in spite of the retail character of the distributing trade, this Colony has an immense future before it, and one which gives promise of placing the port of Sydney at the head of the list of commercial centres south of the line, not only in the import and distribution of soft goods, but in all manu- factures which are inseparable from the extension and progress of civilisation. Import Charges. Costs incidental to import form an important factor in the import trade, and one which cannot fail to have the closest attention of both importers and producers or manufacturers at sources of supply. The Australian trade presents peculiar advantages in the matter of freight at the opening of the wool season, when bottoms can be secured at English berths at 50 per cent, or even greater reductions on current rates. This was brought under very prominent notice last season when several outward-bound ships to load wool were supplied with cement at the rate of about Is. per cask, as against 2s. to 2s. 3d. in the ordinary course. This is a matter which is worth the closer attention of English and Continental shippers, and one which would amply repay investigation. Competitive steam rates have done much towards reducing sail freights, indeed so much so at times that fears have been entertained that the white wings of cargo traders will ere long become THE IMPORT TRADE. 65 extinct in Anstralian watci-s. In prospect of the expansion of trade with Sydney, however, this calamity to shi])ping slioukl bo averted, and although a lower range of freights may be paid than in tlie ])ast' there is every reason to believe that the actual tonnage roipiired will be much larger. The charges made at the port of Sydney, although lower than at either of the sister colonies, are now havin" a good deal of attention, and the probabilities lie in the direction of lower rates. The present tonnage charges are 4d. per ton in, one payment lujlding good for any number of movements in and out for a period of six months. The pilotage charges are 4d. each way, and £3 for each removal within the harbour^ to which has to be added other importer.s' costs, such as wharfage Is. 8d. per ton dead weight, on the assoc-iated and Government wharfs, and by arrangement on private whai-fs. Groods which may become subjected to '' imperfect entry " are fre- quently laden with excessive charges in the matter of wharfage. Cartage, 2s. per ton. each way in and out of store ; commission, 1 per cent.; discount, 2^ per cent.; and exchange about 3.^ per cent. (00 days) comprise the most important charges attaching to imported goods. In the case of transhipment the items of wharfage and cartage are omitted, and that of 2s. per ton lighterage substituted, which is a distinct advantage to the importer selling for export. Bonding and store charges are made upon all goods which are not taken immediate delivery of. The aggregate charges at the port of Sydney are the lowest imposed at any port in Australia, except Newcastle, where con- cessions are given in the way of remission of wharfage, which is under the control of the Government. 66 Wool Industry. By Henry W. Wright. The development and prosperity of pastoral enterprise in tlie Aus- tralasian group of colonies, and particularly in New Soutli Wales, since tlie dawn of the present century are not only marvellous in themselves but without parallel in the history of states. The growth of the cotton trade in the southern portions of the United States of North America has undovibtedly been sufficiently remarkable to constitute one of the principal of the many features of industrial expansion which have marked the course of the same period ; but even that gigantic industry can show no such stupendous an increase as has been witnessed in the case of the Australasian wool trade, nor can the pecuniary results derived from the growing and exportation of the great vegetable textile fibre in North America be for one moment compared to those which have accrued from the promotion of wool-producing interests on this Continent. Born almost with the birth of the mother colony herself, the national industry — mainly through which it has been possible for Australia to advance — of producing what may justly be regarded as the most valuable fibre used in the manufacture of textile fabrics has gone on expanding decade by decade until for some time past Australia has stood unrivalled among all the countries of the world for the quality and quantity of her wool products. The handful of sheep in this colony a hundred years ago have given place to countless numbers, which have spread throughout Australasia and are now approximately estimated at upwards of 121,000,000. This rapid spread of the flocks has fortunately been accompanied by a no less surprising growth in the colonial wool trade. Happily truly marvellous advances in the manipulation of raw wool and other fibres of a like kind, and in the manufacture of textiles in the old world, have been coincident with the development of pas- toral enterprise in the southern hemisphere. But for this fact such phenomenal progress as that witnessed in the Australian wool trade could scarcely have been possible. The people of these colonies as a body freely acknowledge the debt of gratitude they owe to those who first formed flocks of fine-woolled sheep in New South Wales ; but the good which has either directly or indirectly accrued to these young countries through the successful efforts of such captains of industry as Donisthorpe, Lister (now Lord Masham), Isaac Holden, and others, in Yorkshire and Lancashire, is probably less generally recognised and is certainly less frequently referred to. It was mainly through the instrumentality and wonderful ingenuity of these and WOOL IXni'STRF. C-] contemporary inventors that it became possible for tlie manufacturinr.' industries to expand with sufficient rapidity to absorb llio ovci^ increasing- supplies of raw material ])roduced in Australia. Net (,nly has the nineteenth century witnessed almost incrediljle results in tlio way of mechanical invention, but also in the development of iulicrcnt capabilities of taste, and as a consequence, in times of normal trade the wool products of this continent have always been in great request^ and the comfort of woollen and worsted wear has been extended to millions of people who even half a century ago could not have aspired to its use. At the outset all the wool grown in this colony was consigned to London for sale, and this method of dealing with the annual output for long remained the most popular one, notwith- standing the fact that by its adoption growers practically lost all control over the disposal of their produce, and had moreover usually to wait patiently for the best part of a year to elapse before the actual result of the sale of same became known to them. With the prooress of modern industrial civilisation, and the improvement and extension of the mechanism of distribution, the isolation of small and remote communities has long ceased, until to-day, through the mediuin of steam and electricity and trade competition, the whole world has become a neighbourhood so to speak. Nowhere is this more clearly recognised than in Australia, where, as the tendency of commerce to draw the producer and consumer into closer relationship with each other gradually acquired momentum, the old-time system of dealinor with the annual wool c\\\) was completely changed, and large local markets for the sale of our principal product were successfully estab- lished. Once the wool-combing machine was brought to perfection, people in all parts of the woi-ld were encouraged by the increasing supplies of raw material and the facility with which the newest machinery could be obtained from England to seek to fill their own requirements in the way of textile fabrics, and were no longer content to turn to Yorkshire and Lancashire for nearly every stitch of clothing. On the continent of Europe the development of manufacturing interests was especially very rapid, and in the race for commercial success and distinction which followed in the train of the partial shifting of trade from its old and accustomed channels, the movement in the direction of acquiring the raw material at the various points of production was speedily initiated. In having to visit London and buy wool there Continental users soon found themselves at a great disadvantage as compared with their English competitors, whose closer proximity to that entrepot naturally enabled the latter to land their purchases in the factories at a less cost and in less time than was possible in the case of vfool bought in London for use in the French and German industrial centres. It gradually became manifest that the only way for the manufacturers outside the United Kingdom to equalise matters was to go beyond London and purchase at least a portion of the wool required at first cost in the colonies. In this way wonderful c-hangcs soon came to pass in the colonial wool trade. French and (u-rnian buyers quickly became staunch supporters of the system of selling v/ool in Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide, and the operations of a comparatively few firms speedilv forced others to follow suit or content themselves with running the risk of having to take merely a secondary 68 K£W SOUTH WALES. position among the textile workers of tlie world. Once fairly estab- lisliedj tlie Australian markets grew at a marvellous rate. They came into existence because tliey filled a natural want, and tlie business now annually transacted in tlie leading selling centimes is on a scale of sucli magnitude as to warrant tlie belief that tlie time is not far distant wlien all tlie wool grown in Australia will be sold locally, prior ta shipment. Some colonies there are in which markets have not yet been established ; but notwithstanding this, during the past two years 50 per cent, of the total quantity of wool produced was disposed of on the spot chiefly to English, Continental, and American buyers, some small quantities being purchased for the far East, with which latter cpiarter there is a prospect of a large direct trade being done in years to come. Users have found that by securing the first pick of the clip each year in Australia, and by making their own freight and insurance arrangements for their purchases of wool, important economies are possible ; while from the building up of markets at his door, the grower has likewise reaped unlocked for advantages. To the latter, the per- sonal supervision of the sale of his produce, which he is thereby able to exercise, is no small matter, and the promptness with which the whole transaction is completed, and the net proceeds of the sale are made available, is another important consideration. The grower has also derived great good from being brought into close contact with his best customers, with whose requirements he thus becomes more thoroughly familiar. Eor long past it has been the practice to sell all the wool dealt with in the Australian markets by public auction, and for cash before delivery. Public wool sales were inaugurated in Sydney by Mr. T. S. Mort in the year 1843, at which time the buying was nearly all done on speculative account, but few purchases being made for direct shipment to the mills in Europe and America, as at present. No record of the annual turnover in wool in the Sydney market since auction sales of that product were first held has been kept ; but this is a matter of small moment, as it is more particularly during the past decade that the local market has assumed really important dimensions, and for that period the returns are available and are as follows : — • Sydney Wool Sales from 1884-5 to 1894-5. Season. Bales Offered. Bales Sold. Increase in Saks. 1884-5 172,501 112,906 1885-6 178,360 110,576 3 per cent. 188G-7 174,924 128,734 10 ,, ,, 1887-8 227,466 162,511 26 ,, „ 188S-D 268,284 209,252 28 „ ,, 1889-90 268,790 234,419 12 „ „ 1890 1 333,870 251,314 7 )> ,, 1891-2 301,880 278,304 10 „ „ 1892 3 398,010 362,305 30 „ „ 1893-4 455,571 401,830 10 „ ,, 1894-5 488,509 425,135 5S „ „ •/ h h O cq Q 3 c^ buo >-H CD Q i ii £^" vrooL ixnrsTRr. 69 The foregoing figures afford a striking illustration of the growth of the Sydney wool market, an increase in the sales since season 1888-89 of 100 per cent, being shown. For many years past Sydney has ranked as the principal wool emporium in Australia, and if there'is one thing more clearly demonstrated than another in connection with the wool trade here, it is the independence in the long run of this interest of anything like artificial encouragement. 'J'hat a locality so naturally favoured by its geographical position and splendid shipping facilities as Sydney should year by year accentuate a prominence gradually gained by the possession of these advantages, is perhaps not so very surprising; but it must be borne in mind that a very laro-e proportion — nearly one-third — of all the wool grown in New South Wales still finds an outlet via the border, and is either sold or shipped from Mel- bourne or Adelaide. Large quantities of the sta])le are also owing to the financial arrangements of growers forced past Sydney every year to other and less important markets, where higher selling charges are, moreover, in vogue. Complaints are constantly being made that many station properties cannot now be worked so as- to enable the owners to properly fulfil financial obligations entered into some years ago, and pay interest on mortgages ; and there can bo no question that so long as the produce of such properties is hauled unnecessary long distances, and saddled with unnecessary intercolonial freightage, the capital employed will naturally be robbed of no insignificant proportion of its legitimate due. A cursory glance round the magnificent wool stores to be found in Sydney will at once show that the commercial princi])les, energy, and enterprise, which have already built up a colossal trade in wool here, such as has no parallel in any other colony, may be relied upon to accomplish even larger successes in the future than any achieved in the past. The relative importance of the Sydney market at the present time will be most clearly seen by the following returns, which show the quantities of wool sold in all the Australian markets between 1st Julv, 1891, and 30th June, 1895 :— Australian Wool Sales. Market. Bales sold. Sydney Melbourne and Geelong Adelaide 425,135 329,568 64,765 Total S19,46S The distribution of the foregoing quantities of wool is approximately estimated as follows : — United Kingdom (Home Trade) Continent of Europe America ... India, China, and Japan Local Manufacturers and Scourers Total Bales. Pcrceiita Q e> •^ 0 -^ *>! 0 0 0 V) z o -i -1 to 0 s »0 0 0 5> 0 0 o H 0 •^ «o 5 > oc s 3 ' 1 OS oc 0 or QC > QC 5 2 > i CD 03 ki s. , 2E .5 -c , 1 1. s a. ; -^ : .S r 1 Co 1 1 ■ 1 s 1 £ :2 " 1 -5 03 s 1 " 1 i ^ 1 ■ .K Hungary. IVOOL INDUSTRV. Approximate Average Value per Bale. Season. Average \aluc per Bale. Quantity. Total Vuluc. 1S92-3 1S93-4 1894-5 £ S. d. 10 10 0 10 0 0 S 10 0 Bales. STO.Ttll 9(i3,97(J 1,C2G,491 £ 9,20.-),990 9,«539.7GO 8,725,173 Note.— The average value of wool per bale in the Sydney market for the six months ending 31st December, 1895, is estimated at £10 oa. Very valuable information respecting the importation of colonial wool into Europe and America from 18G0 to 1804 i.s fumiishcd by Messrs. Helmutli, Scliwarze, & Co., of London, who supply the fol- lowing returns, from which the general drift of values may be conveni- ently ascertained : — ■ Imports per Season. Year. Australasian Bales. Cape Bales. Total Colonial Bales. Average Value per Bale. Total ^■aIue. £ £ 1860 ... 187,000 79,000 266,000 252 6,850,000 ) 1861 .. 212,000 84,000 206,000 23i 6,882,000 ( £7,000,000 1862 ... 227,000 82,000 309,000 22| 7,030,000 1863 .. 242,000 94,000 336,000 22^ 7,644,000 ; ^' ^ • 1864 ... 302,000 113,000 415,000 24^ 10,271,000 ^ 1865 ... 334,000 109,000 443,000 23| 10,521,000 1866 ... .351,000 128,000 479,000 24i 11,7.35,000 1 £11,000,000 r Period. 1867 ... 414,000 1.35,000 549,000 20^ 11,392,000 18G8 ... 483,000 156,000 639,000 18Jr 11,822,000 1869 ... 504,000 1.53,000 057,000 1.5^ 10,348,000 1870 ... 546,000 152,000 698,000 ^n 11,691,000 . 1871 ... 573,000 186,000 759,000 20h 15,560,000 Year of transition 1872 ... 554,000 189,000 743,000 26 i 19,690,000 1 1873 ... 571,000 176,000 747,000 24| 18, 11.-), 000 1874 ... 659,000 170,000 829,000 23i 19,274,(100 1875 ... 720,000 197,000 917,000 22i 20,403,000 1876 ... 769,000 167,000 93(5,000 m 17,550,000 1877 .. 835,000 186,000 1,021,000 m 19,144,000 1878 ... 801,000 169,000 970,000 m 18,187,000 1879 ... 826,000 189,600 1,015,000 16i 16,748,000 £20.000,000 1880 ... 869,000 219,000 1,088,000 20i 22,032,(100 ' I'uritnl. 1881 ... 957,000 204,000 1,161,000 Hi 20,027,000 1882 ... 993,000 197,000 1,190,000 17^ 20,825,000 1 1883 ... 1,054,000 199,000 1,253,000 16i 20,988,000 1884 ... 1,112,000 191,000 1,30.3,000 16 20,848,000 1885 ... 1,094.000 188,000 1,282,000 14 17,918,000 1886 ... 1,196,(00 236,000 1,432,000 13i 19,332,000 1887 ... 1,207,000 237,000 1,444,000 14 20,216,000 18S8 ... 1,315.000 289,000 1,604,000 13.Jr 21,6.-)4,000 J 1889 ... 1,. 385, 000 310,000 1; 605,000 15i 2(), 272,000 1 1890 ... 1,411,000 288,000 1^699,000 14| 25,01)0,000 1891 ... 1,683,000 322,000 2,005,000 m 27,067, 0( to . £26,0 AU variously magnified. PASTURES, GRASSES, AND FOR ACE PLANTS. 8^ vaTia, E. Br.); '' native parsley " {Apium UjdojJiijlhim, F.v.M.) ; "iiardoo" [Mur.s'dea drummoiidii, A. Br.); " pur.slanu " fPortulan'i oleracea, Linn.) ; and several other jjlants, which form a f^(jud i)fr- centage of the herbage on some of the pastoral areas of this Coloiiv. Shruhs. Dodoiuva attenuata A. Cuun. "Hop-bush." A viscid slinib, usually growing from 8 to 10 feet higli. It is peculiar to the arid western plains, and in some districts is moderately plentiful, especially on snils of a sandy nature, and the sand-hills are often covered with it. During seasons of drought this shrub is a valuable stand-by for stock, and large quantities are cut down when other feed is scarce. Dodoniva lohidata, F.v.M., also grows in the interior, and on some stations in the Lachlan district it is considered one of the best shru]>s for fora<''e. In the early days of settlement the fruits of both these shrubs, as alsfi of some allied ones, were largely used as a substitute fur hops, hence the common name " hop bush." These shrubs bear pleiitv of seed. EremopMla longifoUa, F.v.M. '^Berrigan." A tall, erect shrub sometimes growing from 10 to 20 feet high. It is peculiar to tlm interior, and in some districts it is fairly plentiful. In adverse seasons it is largely cut down as forage for stock, and cattle and sheep cat it readily. It is said that rabbits eat the bark of this shrub in preference to the bark of any other tree or shrub. The " berrigan " bears plenty of fruit, which is eaten by emus, and on this account is often called "emu bush"; but under this appellation many berry and drupe-bearing trees and shrubs are known in the interior. Jk'sides these there are "butter bush" [PlttoHporum 2')hUbjrxoides, IJ'C.) ; "cassias" {Cassia spp.) ; "emu-bushes" {EremopJiila s^fp.) ; "rose- bush" {Heterodendroii olexfolium, Desf.) ; "silver-bush" {I'richiniitm ohovatum, Gaud.) ; " Sturt's cotton plant " {Gossijpium sturtli, F.v.M.) ; and several other shrubs found in different parts of the Colony. Trees. Flindersia maculosa, F.v.M. "Leopard" or "Spotted tree." An ornamental tree of somewhat pendulous habit, and grows to a height of from 30 to 45 feet. Its trunk is remarkably spotted by the falHng off of the outer bark in patches, hence its common name " leopard " or " spotted tree." From its trunk and branches large quantities of an amber-coloured gum of a pleasant flavour exudes, but as far as the writer is aw^are, this has never been put to any economic use. During very dry times, when feed is scarce, this tree is largely cut down and fed to stock. Sheep are very fond of it, eating both the leaves and young twigs. Stercidia dlverslfolia, G. Don. " Kurrajong." An exceedingly ornamental tree often attaining a height of 00 feet on the eastern slopes of the Dividing Range, and from 20 to 30 or more feet ni tlie interior. As a rule, when feeding stock on the leaves of this tree, the branches only are cut off by thoughtful persons, Icavnig the trunk standing, which soon throws out a fresh supply of In-anchcs and leaves, thus providing a supply of fodder for future contingencies. 86 NEW SOUTH WALES. Cattle and sheep are very fond of tlie leaves, and tliey tlirive on tliem. The roots of the young '' kurrajong " trees, which resemble turnips in consistency, but are sweeter to the taste, were at one time used by the aborigines as an article of food. Water in considerable quantity can also be obtained from them, and this, too, in the driest of seasons. If the ^^kurrajong" seeds are roasted, pounded^ and macerated in hot water, and a little sugar added, a capital beverage is obtained. In addition to these trees, there are the " belar " or " bull- oak^' {Casuarina glauc a, Sieh.) ; '^ cattle-bush" {Atalaya hemiglmica, F.yM.) ; '^Wilga" {Geijera 'parviflora, Lindl.) ; '''Yarren" {Acacia aneura, F.v.M.) ; and several others found in the interior. All the grasses, salt-bushes, and miscellaneous herbage mentioned in the preceding pages have been figured and fully described in the w^riter's works on the "Indigenous Forage Plants of Australia" and *' Australian Grasses." 87 Live Stock. By Alexander Bruce, Chief Inspector of Stock. Horses. The number of horses in the Colony since its foundation at the dates here mentioned was as follows : — Year, i Number. Year. Number. 1788 1825 1842 1851 1861 7 6,142 56,585 1.32,437 251,497 1871 ISSl 1891 1894 337,597 398,577 4.59,755 500,068 The larger proportion of our horse stock is to be found in the coastal mountainous, and western slopes divisions. Their numl)er is less in the intermediate division, and much less in the salt bush. Their B •eeds and Grades. Breed. Grade. Total. Ordinarj-. [Thoroughbred. Draught Light-harness Saddle 131,4.38 115,228 179,489 22,406 18,.360 33,147 153,844 1.33,. 588 212,636 500,068 The Drartrjht Horse. — It was estimated that at 1st January, 180."), there were in the Colony 153;,844 horses of the draught breed, one-fifth of which may be fairly described as pure breds. If we except the draught horses in the valleys of the Hawkesbury and Hunter Kivors, where there were a few representatives of the heavy draught breed, the draught horses of New South Wales some thirty-five or forty years ago Avere more of the largo sized light harness type than of the true draught horse. They were light, clean legged, active, and hardy, and were treated and driven like bullocks — six, eight, and ten in a team — tlieir food while carrying on the roads being only the grass they could get by the way. Since that time, however, a very great improvement iia.s taken place in our draught horse by the importation of first-class licavy draught sires, principally Clydesdales, with a few Shire horses. Of the active farm-horse tvpe, aga'in, there have been a good many importa- tions of the Suffolk Punch, which have made a great change for the better in that class also. And now, om- draught horses as a whole wdl compare favourably with those in any part of the world, while t]u\v are much better cared for, and fewer horses do the M'ork and do it better. A^FW SOUTH WALES. Light Harness Horses. — The number of this class of horse was esti- mated at 133,588^ one-tenth of which maybe ranked as jjure-bred. In the early days of the Colony only a few representatives of this breed were to be met with ; but within the last thirty years, but especially within the last fifteen, a good many Cleveland entires, some Yorkshire coaching horses, and American trotters, with a few German coaching horses, have been introduced, which have brought about a large increase in the number of the better class of our light harness and coaching' horses, and a considerable improvement in their carriage and action. The number of ordinary light harness horses has also been increased by putting light weedy well-bred mares to the Suffolk Punch and smaller Clydesdales, the result being a light harness horse of a very useful stamp, but lacking in style and character. Saddle Horses. — It was estimated that our saddle horses at the 1st January, 1895, numbered 212,636, one-tenth of which may be said to consist of thoroughbreds and first-class hacks. In the early days of the Colony our saddle-horses were greatly improved by frequent introduc- tions of thoroughbreds from England ; but the thoroughbred was then a different stamp of horse from the racehorse of the present day. He had a great deal more bone and muscle ; and in substance and shape the thoroughbred was a far more suitable sire for producing saddle- horses than the racehorse now is. A good many high-class Arabs were also imported, and when put to large well-bred mares they left some very superior upstanding saddle-horses, fit to carry a man, and carry him well, day after day perhaps 40 or 50 miles for a fortnight, with nothing by the way but the natural grasses they had at night, and at times but little of that. In fact, some forty or fifty years ago our saddle-horses, taking them as a whole, were among the best, if not the very best in the world ; for it was no uncommon thing then to find horses which could do a journey of 80, or even a hundred miles in a day. With the outbreak of the diggings our saddle-horses began to deteriorate, and from one or other of the following causes: — (1.) Through the hands on the station leaving and going off to the diggings, and the horses being neglected. (2.) Through putting draught entires to the upstanding mares of the saddle breed. (3.) Through the use of light weedy racing entires. (4.) Through the over supply of horses of an inferior sort, and the want of a sufficient export trade in horses. Imp'ovement, or an Export Trade in Light Harness and 8 addle-Horses. Within the last twelve or fifteen years, however, very much more attention has been paid to the sires used in breeding light harness and saddle-horses, greater care has been taken in the selection of the mares, and there have been frequent importations of Norfolk and American trotters, Irish hunters, and Yorkshire coachiug and saddle-horses, and more recently of the English hackney. With, therefore, such an excellent climate, and country so well adapted as ours for breeding light harness and saddle-horses, we may, in the course of the next few years expect, with proper cai-e, to regain the position we lost, and to be able to say that if our light harness and saddle-horses are not the best in the world, no other country can ]n-oduce better, and at so little expense. The increased prices which the right stamp of horses of the light harness and saddle breeds brino- in our own market is sufficient to LIVE STOCK. 89 induce our breeders to persevere in tlie improvement of their studs ; but tlie very high prices which the really first-class, thoroughly broken, and well framed light harness and saddle-horses bring in London, and the reasonable freights now charged on the large cargo steamers trading between London and Sydney, add very much t«» this inducement; and there are good grounds for belieVing that out breeders will before long be producing high-class horses of both these breeds in considerable numbers, and finding a ready sale for them in London at remunerative prices. Marliet Prices of Horse StocJc, First-class heavy draught, for breeding purposes. — Entires, £80 to £100 ; mares, £20 to £30. First-class heavy draught, for ordinary purposes. — L'nbroken, £12 to £18 ; broken, £20 to £30. First-class farming horses, for breeding purposes. — Entires, £30 to £80 ; mares, £15 to £25. First-class farming horses, for ordinary purposes. — Broken, £10 to £18. Second-class draught horses. — Unbroken, £5 to £8 ; broken, 17 to £14. Pure-bred coaching horses. — Entires,£40 to £150; mares, £20 to £ 10. Fii'st-class light-harness horses. — Unbroken £10 to £20; broken, £15 to £30; well-matched pairs, £50 to £150. Second-class well-bred light-harness horses. — Unbroken, £5 to £10; broken, £6 to £12 ; well-matched pairs, £30 to £00. First-class saddle-horses. — Unbroken, £10 to £18; broken, £1S to £30. Second-class saddle-horses. — Unbroken, £4 to £7; broken, £Gto II 0. Thoroughbreds for racing purposes. — Yearlings, £20 to £500 ; mares, £20 to £70. Cattle. The number of cattle in the Colony since its foundation, at the dates here mentioned, was as follows : — Year. Number. Year. Number. 1788 1825 1842 1851 1861 6 1.34,519 897,219 1,738,965 2,271,923 1 1871 1881 1891 1894 2,014,888 2,597,348 2,046,-347 2,290,112 The great falling off in the number of the cattle stock from 18<)1 to 1871 was attributable partly to losses through pleuro-pneumouia, but principally to owners changing their cattle-runs into shcep-stations. This was, to some extent, from a dread of the disease, but chiefly because sheep paid better than cattle. Thus, while the number of cattle at the 31st December, 1894, was only about the same as m 18«)1, the_slieei) during that time have increased from 6,119,109 in I80I to ..(.9/ /, 2,0. In other words, while in 1894 there were very few more cattle in the Colony than in 1801, there were more than nnic tnncs as many sheep. go NEW SOUTH WALES. Still there liave been considerable fluctuations in tlie number of our cattle during tbe period mentioned. In the first place, there was a heavy decrease through the losses from pleuro-pneumonia in the period between 1861 to 1871. From the latter year^ again, through a rise in the price, the number was fairly maintained till 1881, when it once more began to decline, with a fall in the price occasioned by a heavy influx of cattle from Queensland, which up to nearly that time had been taking considerable numbers from us to stock up new country. This decrease continued till 1889, since when, through the increase of selec- tion, and the adoption of the practice now generally followed of running small lots of cattle in the sheep paddocks, cattle are again gradually increasing. General Description of Cattle. At one time there was a great lack of uniformity in our cattle in quality and form, and much room for improvement. These defects were to a large extent attributable to the great variety of breeds from which they were descended. There is in them more or less of the blood of almost all our British and Irish breeds, and even of the cattle of the Cape Colony ; and, as if this was not enough of " diif erentness, " a good many breeders in the early days, under the false notion that such a course was necessary to the proper management of their herds, kept up a continual round of changes in their bulls, to the perpetuation of this incongruity and the deterioration of their cattle. The unenclosed state of the country and consequent impossibility of keeping the different breeds separate also tended to check improvement, aided as it was by the scarcity of labour which followed on the outbreak of the diggings. Within the last twenty-five or thirty years a great change has taken place for the better ; sounder ideas, too, on the principles of breeding-, and the really valuable points of the cattle have come to be held ; the runs have been enclosed and subdivided, heifer paddocks have been formed, and large numbers of pure-bred stock of higher quality, for which long prices were paid, have been introduced. The result is that the beef cattle both in this Colony and Queensland will now in ordinary good seasons compare most favourably with those of any other part of the world. Nevertheless, our owners have still a good deal to do to be in a position to carry out a profitable export trade in either live cattle or beef ; and among other things which will call for their attention, the following- may be mentioned : — (1.) They should continue to increase the eai-ly maturity, and improve the quality of their cattle, and adopt a sound system of cross-breeding for fattening purposes. (2.) They should see that their cattle are supplied not only with sufiicient natural pasture, but also, in those portions of the Colony where tillage can be profitably followed, with such cultivated food as the lucerne, English, and other grasses and green crops, so as to become thoroughly prime at an early age, and furnish a steady supply of prime chilled and frozen ])eef for the English and other markets. (3.) They should de-horn their young stock, and accustom those of them intended for shipment to being tied up, and to take cultivated food. LIVE STOCK, 91 Tlie course here indicated with respect to providing" cultivated food to supplement the natural pasture, must eventually he followed in the eastern and more temperate portions of the Colony, for it is inipoKsil)le that wheat- crrowing can be profitably carried on year after year without manure, that is without stock ; and besides, as a rule, it pavs better to consume a large portion of the crops (zrown on a farm with stock, than to send the crops to market. Shorthorns. — Of the different breeds in this Colony the .Shortlinrns blood is the most prevalent. By far the larger proportion of the im- ported cattle have for the last forty or fifty years been of that breed ; and there is little doubt, considering the improvement which has l)een made in the quality of our cattle, that this was the best single breed that could have been introduced. Here, as in every other part of the world, the Shorthorns are allowed to be superior to every other breed in size, squareness, compactness, early maturity, and imposing appear- ance ; while the pure bulls of this breed possess the power in an eminent degree of marking their progeny, even when put to inferior cows of other breeds, and conveying to them the size, substance, and quality for which they are themselves so justly distinguished. In fact, they supply the very qualities which colonial cattle generally lack. There have been repeated and frequent importations of high-class pedigree Shorthorns from England during the last fifty or sixty years, interrupted at times by prohibition. In some years as many as 100 head of the different breeds, j^rincipally Shorthorns, were introduced from Great Britain. Serefords. — Herefords have proved themselves in Australia to be an excellent race of cattle, with distinctive type, characteristics, and form, thoroughly established and capable of being transmitted to any other races with which they may be interbred. They are especially remark- able for their weight, hardihood, and good meat. They are ])rincipally located to the north of Sydney, in the eastern and north-eastern pcjrtions of the Colony. The importations of Hereford pedigree cattle from England have also been continuous, more particularly by Mr. Reynolds, of Tocal, whose herd is the oldest established and, it is believed, the best in the Australian Colonies. Devons. — Both Devon bulls and cows were imported as early as 1832-3, and their progeny made excellent crosses with the cattle then in the Colony, both for meat and milk ; but they did not gain favour with stock-owners on account of their wildness. Further inii)ortations were subsequently received, but they also were mixed with and lo.st in the general herds^ ; and it was not till some forty-five to fifty years ago, when Captain Holder formed a pure Devon herd on the Hunter, winch afterwards passed into the hands of Mr. Reynolds of Tocal, that the Devons came into favour. Regular, though not frequent, importations of this breed from England have been kept up. When we consider the good travelling qualities, and the excellence of the meat of the Devons, there is no doubt they will ere long be found on many of the runs on the back countrv ; and as fencing progresses we may expect to find herds in these outlying districts with Devon cows breeding to Shorthorn and Hereford bulls, the progeny being fattened off and not bred from. 92 KFW SOUTH WALES. Blctrli-poUi'd. — Importations of tlic Black-polled Lrecd liave at various times been made^ but, as in the case of the Devons, they were at first all but lost in the gceral herd. Within the last few years, however, several breeders in lihis and the neighbouring Colonies have formed Black-polled herds, principally from importations fi'om New Zealand, w^here the breed is now fully established. As beef cattle, the Black- polls, whether bred and fattened as pure, or used for crossing with the Shorthorn, cannot bo excelled ; and although they are being introduced by some of our breeders into their herds, this is not taking place so rapidly as was to be expected. Having been accustomed in breeding Shorthorns to cut out any that were black or of dark colour, our breeders are unwisely prejudiced against the Black-polled ; but this prejudice cannot continue in the face of the fact that the Black-polls and their crosses with the Shorthorn regularly " top " the London market, and that no cattle pay their breecler and fattener so well. Red-polls. — The Colony is indebted to Mr. Philip Charley, of Belmont, Richmond, for the introduction of this excellent breed of cattle. Although they do not carry the same depth of flesh, nor mature so early, nor make such heavy weights as the Black-polls, their meat is first-class, and brings very nearly as high a price in the London market. The Red-polls are also fairly good dairy cattle, and this accounts for their lightness of flesh as compared with the Black-poll. An addition of four head from England has recently been made by Mr. B. Osborne, of Jugiong. Crosses. — It will be seen from the foreo'oino- statement that the number of cattle described as crosses is very large, the Shorthorn breed taking, as it does in all other parts of the world where it obtains a footing, the premier ^ilace among the crosses. There is no doubt that crosses bred from pure or fairly pure cattle on both the sire's and dam's sides are very profitable stock, especially for fattening ; and this our cattle-breeders have discovered ; but unless crossing is carried out in accordance with the correct rules of breeding, and as far as possible stopped at the first cross, at any rate in beef cattle, it will not be attended with success. The Australian Dairy Cattle. — For many years the districts from which our dairy produce came was from the country on the upper waters of the Hawkesbury River, and from the farms on the Coast Division, but principally from Camden, Wollongong,Illawarra, and Ulladulla districts. Latterly, however, w'ith the introduction of the Laval Separator and other improved dairying appliances, and the formation of co-ciperative dairy factories, for which the country is largely indebted to Mr. Dymock of Kiama, a paying export trade in dairy produce has been established ; and not only has the number of our dairy-farmers greatly increased, but many of our larger cattle-owuers in the Coast and Mountainous Divisions, and even in the next division — the western slopes — who are within reach of steam carriage, and who formerly devoted their attention to fattening cattle, have gone extensively into dairying, and find that daily produce pays them better than beef. This industry is bound to increase, for although extensive tracts of the Colony are well adapted for grain-growing, the same country is specially so for dairying and fruit-growing. There are some 384 dairy factories in the Colony, and their number is being steadily increased^ while well-appointed LIVE STOCK. 93 creameries witli artificial cold, and nil tlic latest impnivemcnts in dairying, are also being- establislird. Tlu' uutinit of dairy produce is yearly on the increase, and large nunibi'rs of cattle are' rf(|uirc«l to improve and maintain the character and strength of our dairy herds. It was estimated that at the 3 1st December, 189 J., there were •1-:>H,21 1 dairy cows in the Colony, and they principally consisted of wliat innv be termed the Grade Shorthorn, with not unt'req\iently a dash of the Ayrshire, obtained from the early importations of that breed. In soine few instances the herds are almost pnro Shorthorns. Of late years, however, considerable nnnibers of Ayrshire and some Alderney' liulls have been introdnced into what may be termed the Australian dairy herds with good results, so far as the dairy produce is concerned, though not as regards the steers. Still, as dairy produce pays better than veal or beef, the introduction of the pure milking breeds — or, at least, the breeding of cattle for milk instead of beef — is bound to go on and increase, especially as our dairymen are coming to see that if they ar.* to make their business pay, they must go veiy much more extensiyely than they have been doing into providing cultivated food for the cows during winter. Our dairymen in many parts of the Colony have been altogether too slow to see and attend to this, and it is not an unusual thing to find that even in districts in which dairying is the princii)al industry only a very few dairymen provide winter food for their cows. The results are, that the owners have little or no butter to disjiose of when it brings the best price ; their cows, if they have not died of staryation, are '' bags of bones " by the end of winter ; and the spring has run into summer before they are in a condition to give a full yield of good milk. The Ayrshire, Alderney, and Holstein Breeds. — Although during the last forty or fifty years several Ayrshire and some Alderney and other Channel Island cattle were introduced from Great Britain, it is not more than fifteen or twenty years ago that pure herds of these breeds were formed in this Colony. Two or three were so about that time, and several others have been established since, the owners of which have imported some highly-bred stock of both breeds, but more Ayrshires than Alderneys. A good many Ayrshires have also been introduced from New Zealand, where large numbers of Ayrshires of the Ijest types were imported from Scotland. We have also several re])ri'sentatiycs of the Holstein breed, which has such a strong hold in the dairies of Holland, Germany, and Denmark, but as yet in too few numbers for our dairymen to know how the breed will be liked. Market Prices of Cattle /S'^oc/v.— First-class pedigree cattle— Bulls, £20 to £100 ; cows and heifers, £10 to £10. Well-bred goo.l herd cattle— Bulls, £G to £12 ; cows and heifers, £2 10s. to £5. Store cattle- Bullocks, 40s. to 60s.; cows, 30s. to 40s. Fat cattle— Bullocks, it to £7 ; cows, £2 10s. to £5. Dairy cow^s— £1 to £10. Sheep. The Estahlishment and the Maintenance of our Me rhm W»"l- groicing Industry. There can be no question whatever that to Captain ^Facarthur we owe the establishment of this industry, which has done, and i< doing, and must continue to do so very much for the Colony. 94 ^'J^W SOUTH WALES. The sources from wliicli the stud slieep have been drawn from the time the fine wool industry was initiated by Captain Macarthur — and that was ahnost from the foundation of the Colony — may in a general way be stated as follows : — Tlie Sources from ichich our Merino Studs liave heen Dravn. The Camden FlocTc. — The first pure-bred merino sheep introduced into this Colony were the small lot of Spanish merinos brought from the Cape of Good Hope — but originally from the Escurial or Royal flock in Spain — by Captains Waterhouse and Kent in 1797;, at the instance of Captain ]\Iacarthur, who asked them, when they were leaving Sydney for the Cape, to procure provisions for the Colony, to obtain, if they could, some wool-bearing sheep. Then we had the importations from the Royal Spanish merinos kept at Kew, in England, usually termed the "George III flock," by Captain Macarthur, in 1804. From that date till 1823, there is no definite information on the subject; but we can gather from the history of some of the leading flocks that, although most of those who formed pure flocks at that time purchased sheep from Captain Macarthur, several breeders imported high-class rams from Germany, and some of them introduced German ewes as well as rams ; while several merinos from the Royal flock at Kew, and a few of the Rambouillet blood from France, were also imported. The Mudgee and Merrnca Flocls. — From 1823 to 1833, although Captain Macarthur's Camden flock still held the premier position in the estimation of the majority of sheep breeders, the flocks of the Hon. George H. Cox's grandfather, Mr. William Cox — who had purchased some of the pure Spanish sheep and their progeny from Captain Waterhouse — and that of Mr. Riley, of Rabey, which was founded on high-class imported German slieep, came into very general favour, and several of the other Mudgee pure flocks also began to be appreciated, and sheep from them to be in general request. It was during this period also that the now famous Collaroy flock was founded by Messrs. Jones and Davidson by the importation of Saxon rams and ewes, to which some ewes from the Camden flock were added. During the seventeen years from 1833 to 18-50, while the Camden flock had, mainly through the deterioration of the pasture, brought about by the com- paratively small area of the country on which the sheep were kept, and its continuous stocking, lost ground, the Mudgee and Merriwa flocks, favoured as they were with a better climate, especially for wool- growing, more extensive pastures, and in the hands of equally able and experienced breeders, gained in position and favour, and the majority of our sheep-breeders then began to get their stud sheep from the flocks in these districts. During that interval there were sevei-al German and Rambouillet sheep introduced. Mudgee, Merriwa, Riverina, Victorian, and Smith Australian Floclcs. ■ — From 1850 to 1870 there were only a few importations of German sheep, and fewer still of French ; and it may be said as regards the central, the northern, the north-eastern, and the eastern portions of the Colony, almost all the breeders went to Mudgee or Merriwa for their stud sheep. They did bo also to a considerable extent in River- ina ; but duriucr that time there were several local flocks in that ■ ■ ■ f .1 :/•«■'*■ •kr ■•.V, ,- ■^'i'• LIVE STOCK. 92 portion of tlie Colony — sucli as Wan^anella — of very lii^li merit from whicli a good many of the breeders there drew their stud rams, wliiU; a few introduced Victorian blood. In the extreme sdutli-western portions of lliverina ag-ain, and in the middle and lower JJiirliu"- country, South Australian i-ams were generally used. The Tasmanian, Mudgeo, Merriica, Riverina, Victorian, and Sauth Australian Flocls. — Early in the seventies, our breeders l>!'gan to intro- duce Tasmanian merino rams, which, wdiile most of them liad Camden blood as a foundation, wero very largely descended from imi)orted German sheep. So well did these rams mate with our own ewes, that they were afterwards brought over in largo numbers, and in 1875 sales of stud sheep, principally Tasmanian, were established by ]\Iessrs. Mort & Co., and have continued ever since, at which as many as 3,000 Tasmanian sheep, with perhaps, oOO or 400 bred in this Colony, and, say, 100 from Queensland, Victoria, and South Australia, were sold annually in Sydney. Latterly the number of sheep brought to these sales has greatly increased — in 1894 some 9,000 were offered — through the intro- duction of large numbers of th.o different long-woolled or English breeds from New Zealand, and some from Victoria and Tasmania. This increase is partly due, also, to an increase in the number of merino, stud, and flock rams now offered at these sales by breeders in this Colony. The American Merino. — Some twenty-five or thirty years ago several American merinos were imported into this colony, but with the excep- tion of one ram which was used in Riverina they failed to find favour with our breeders. About 1881, however, a few first-class rams of this breed were brought from America by the Messrs. McFarland, of Barooga, which they put to properly selected Australian ewes Avitli excellent results. This led to American sheep being imported in con- siderable numbers ; and so far as regards increased density and yolk, and heavier and better covering, there is no doubt they improved our sheep. They are also straigliter on the back and shorter on the leg, but they are often sharp on the shoulder and narrower in the chest, w^hich shows they are less robust than the Australian merino. It is questionable, therefore, considering the comparative harshness and roughness of the wool in many of the American sheep^ whether, notwith- standing the increased weight of fleece which the get of the American sheep give, their introduction in a large and general way would be advantageous, and whether their use should not be confined to men avIio are acknowledged breeders and can engraft the desirable qualities of tliese sheep on their flocks without introducing the undesirable. The Victorian Merino. — The Victorian merinos have also on several occasions been introduced into this Colouy; but although it wuuld bo to the advantage of our sheep-breeders if they could engraft the brightness, softness, and high combing qualities of the best flocks m the western portions of that Colony on their own, it has been found from experience that these Victorian sheep do not maintain their character with us, and, except, perhaps, in a few instances in Kiverina they are not now used in this Colony. The South Australian Merino.— It is different with respect to the South Australian studs. Considerable numbers of them are annually purchased by our sheep-owners for their stations on the Darling, and 96 NFW SOUTH WALES. in tlie westei'ii portions of the Colony, for wliich tliey are well adapted, being of the strong merino combing type, with good sized carcase, and carrying a fleece of very saleable wool. The Queensland Merino. — Some excellent stud merino sheep have also been brought to our sales from Queensland, where several of the breeders have for many years maintained pure bred stud flocks of high merit. The Present Sources of Supply of Stud Sheep. The merino stud rams requii*ed by breeders in this Colony now come principally from Tasmania, Mudgee, Merriwa, and Riverina ; but of late years several other breeders of this class of sheep in New South Wales have made steady progress in improving their position, and their sheep have taken good places on the show-ground and at the sales. This, in many instances, is largely due to the introduction of the American merino which has taken place since 1883, and which still continues, and there is no question as to the success of that blood at the show-yard whatever the ultimate effect of its introduction on the stamina and constitution oft the sheep and the quality and price of the wool may be. We are still also receiving some merino stud sheep of high quality from Queensland at our annual sales ; and our sheep-owners in the western and south-western portions of the Colony as a rule continue to obtain their studs from South Australia. So far, again, as regards our flock rams, a good many of them also come from Tasmania, but the majority of that class of sheep are bred in the Colony. Progress and Future Prospects of the Wool-growing Industry. The number of sheep in the Colony at the dates here mentioned was as follows : — Year. No. 1 Year. No. 1788 29 *186l 5,615,054 1803 10,157 1871 16,278,697 1825 2,-376,622 1881 36,591,946 1842 4,804,946 1891 61,831,416 1851 13,059,324 1894 56,977,270 * In 1S51 the seijuration of Victoria took place, and involved the loss of more than 6,000,000 sheep ; while in 1S60 t^'ueeiisland beean^e a separate Colony, which led to another large reduction in the number of sheep in this Colony, and these losses account for the heavy decrease in the number of the sheep returned for 18C1. It will be seen from the foregoing statement that from 1861 to 1891 there was a large, and, upon the whole, a steady increase in the number of our sheep, principally because our stock-owners found that sheep running at large in paddocks, instead of being shepherded, paid very much better than cattle. This " turning out," as it is termed, of the sheep led to a radical change in station management, which commenced in this Colony about the end of the sixties. The runs were enclosed and subdivided, and better provision was made for water by putting- down additional wells and constructing more dams and tanks. In these ways the carrying capacity of the runs was increased by at least one- third; the expense of workiug the improved runs was reduced by one- half; the sheep were healthier; the fleece was better, both as regards quality and weight; and owners, instead of having the greater part of LIVE STOCK, 97 tlioir time taken up in tlie management of large nuiiiLers of Klieplicrds and hut-keepers, could then devote the necessary ])ortion of it to the improvement of their runs and sheep. Since 1891 the increase in the number of sheep has stopped, and last year (189-4) there were about 5,000,000 less sheep than in 1891. This has arisen from several causes, of which the following arc the principal : — 1. The carrying capacity of the runs in the present state of their improvement had been more than reached. 2. The system of breeding for numbers and wool, and selliug bi'eeding and store sheep, had ceased to pay, as the Queens- land markets had practically closed through the increase of the sheep in that Colony. 3. Through the fall in the price of wool and the want of an export trade in mutton. 4. The uncertainty and high cost of labour. 5. The prevalence of the rabbit pest. 6. The comparatively high rents charged for Crown lands, con- sidering the uncertainty of the seasons and the very low prices of mutton and wool. As to the probability of our sheep once more increasing, that can be only looked for, to any great extent, if the rise which has recently taken place in the price of wool be maintained -, if the long-looked-for export trade in mutton of an extent at all in proportion to the number of our sheep be established ; if the labour question be put on a satis- factory footing ; if more effective and continued action be taken in dealing with the rabbits ; and if the rents of Crown lands are fixed at reasonable rates, and sufficient encouragement be given to the Crown tenants to make improvements, especially by subdividing and clearing their holdings of scrub and in artesian boring. If these things take place, then we have a right to expect that improvements, which are now practically at a standstill throughout the Colony, will be proceeded with and the carrying capacity of the land largely increased, especially on the eastern side of the Colony, where the adoption of a system of supplementing the natural pastures by cultivated food for the stock is urgently called for, both to make our fat stock really prime at an early age, and to keep up a steady supply for export. Sheep in the Australasian Colonies. As will be seen by the following statement, this Colony in 189i possessed nearly as many sheep as all the other Australasian Colon — i.e., about half the sheep in Australasia. Colony. 1 No. New South Wales Victoria ... Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania New Zealand Total 56,077,270 13,180,943 19,587,691 7,-325,003 2,132,311 1,727,200 20,230,829 121,161,247 98 NEW SOUTH WALES. Merino — Comhiug and Glotliing. There are two principal divisions of merino sliecp^ " Combing and Clotliino-/' and the retmms show that in this Colony on 1st January last, out of 56,977,270 merino sheep, 38,429,679 of the whole were classed as "Combing," and 15,611,102 as "Clothing." Prior to 1870 a large majority of the merino sheep belonged more to the " Clothing " than the " Combing" division; but about that time a change in the manufacture of woollen fabrics took place in the United Kingdom from clothing to combing. This of course led to increased demand for combing wool; and as the change was to the advantage of our sheep-breeders, inasmuch as it led to a considerable increase in the weight of the fleece, while the price of the wool was at least maintained, they lost as little time as possible in making the required change in the sheep. To do so they introduced merino rams of larger frame, with wool stronger and longer in the staple, and more of a combing type ; and to such an extent has this change been carried that there is scarcely a flock of any size in the Colony with the fine and superfine short dense clothing wool which about 1870 was grown in several parts of the Colony. It is true that considerably more than one-fourth of the sheep of the Colony are returned as clothing ; but although this is the case, they might, according to the true distinction between combing and clothing, be classed as combing, if they possessed the necessary soundness and elasticity ; so that there are much fewer sheep of the true clothing type in the Colony than the returns show. The Different Grades of Merino Sheep, and the Country for ichich they are each adapted. In the returns referred to, the merino sheep in each of the two main divisions of clothing and combing are given as being of the different types or grades, i.e., (1) " Fine and Superfine," (2) " Medium," and (3) "Strong;" and as the size of the sheep, speaking in a general way, regulates the diameter of the fibre of the wool, it follows that the " fine and superfine " will be the smallest framed sheep, the medium the next, and "stroug-woolled" the largest. This, again, speaking of the eastern portion of the Intermediate division and the Western Slopes and Mountainous, will, if the manage- ment is correct, be found generally to correspond with the description of country in which the several types are kept. For instance, on country where the soil though kindly is liglit, and the pasture com- paratively thin, the small framed fine and superfine type of sheep should be found ; where, again, the soil is stronger and more fertile, and the pasture closer and more nutritious, the next larger sheep of the medium type should be kept ; and when the soil is very good, and the pasture very nutritious, the largest type of merino, and also the cross-bred, should be kept. In this way it will be seen that the class of country, the class of sheep, and type of wool in the portions of the Colony indicated, to a large extent run on similar lines, where the owner — as he should do, if he is to make the most of his holding — selects the class of sheep for which his country is best adapted. No sheep- breeder can expect success if he; doe.s not keep this rule constantly in view. LIVE STOCK. 99 While making tliis statement, the fact is not overlooked tlmt the circumstances which are hero mentioned as settling that questi(m can be altered by the owner supplementing the natural pasture to a greater or less extent with cultivated food; and this must eventually Ij;- done in the portions of the Colony here alluded to, and es])ecially in tliose nearest the seaboard, if we are ever to establish an extensive ])ayiu<' export trade in meat. There is an exception, also, to the rule here laid down as r.-^ards the Salt Bush division, because the great heat and dust at times in that description of country have a much more deteriorating effect on wool of the tine type than on the strong ; and the owner tluTc finds it more to his advantage to keep the large-framed, strong-woolled slicep, whereby he not only obtains a heavier and sounder lleece, but a much weightier carcase of mutton. Lotuj- WoolJcd Sheep. It is scarcely necessary to say that the long-woolled sheep are bred and kept almost exclusively for crossing purposes. The term " Long- woolled" which is generally applied in the colonies to the British breeds of sheep, is without doubt correct when we compare the length of staple of even the South Downs, the shortest wooUed of these breeds, with that of the merino. It was at one time the custom with breeders as well as manvifacturers in the old country to divide the sheep and wool of the British breeds into two classes " Long-wools " and " Short- wools " ; but as the merinos are really the " Short-wools/' they have lately been known as such; and the term "Medium-wools" is now generally applied to those breeds of British sheep at one time known as " Short-wools.'" The " Long-wools " include the English Leicester, the Lincoln, the Border Leicester, the Devon, the Cotswold, the Wensley Dale, the Romney Marsh, and the Eoscommon ; and the " Medium-wools " include the South, the Shropshire, the Hampshire, the Suffolk, and the Oxford Downs, together with the Clune Forrest, the Dorset Horn, the Ry eland, and the Cheviot, and the British and Merin,o Cross-breds. As, therefore, it Avould be likely to lead to con- fusion if we in these Colonies continued to apply as we now do the term "Long-woolled" to all British sheep, it should be dropped and the term " British " used instead. Lincolns. — The detailed statement given of the different breeds which make up the above number of pure lored and " long-woolled " sheep shows that more than half of what are termed Long-woolled Shee]) arc Lincoln. — This has arisen principally through the Jjincoln cross giving considerably better returns as regards wool than any of the other British breeds, while the mutton of the fi.rst cross of the Lincoln and merino is very good, if marketed in prime condition and at an early age ; and this it can be on really good pasture, or with the aid of cultivated food. The English Leicester.— The breed with the next largest number of representatives in the Colony is the English Leicester; and while the first cross of this breed and the merino has a good paying fleece, stud the sheep themselves come early to market, the mutton does not bring the highest jDrice as it carries too much fat and is wanting in red meat. lOO NEW SOUTH WALES. The Border Leicester. — In 1894 whou tlic last available returns were made, very fewslicep of this breed were to be met with in the Colony; but since then a considerable number have been introduced from New Zealand ; and as they are hardy, good sized, well shaped sheep with a comparatively good fleece of saleable wool, and do better on second-class country than the Lincoln, it is to be expected that they will in many cases bo used by our breeders for crossing with the merino, although their cross-breds are somewhat short of red meat. The Bomney Marsh. — During the last two or three years several owners, Avhose flocks have been suffering fi'om fluke and foot-rot^ have introduced Komney Marsh rams ; and they have acted wisely in doing so, for while the Eomney Marsh is an exceptionally hardy sheep, and will no doubt lessen the number of losses these owners have lately been sustaining from the cause mentioned, the Eomney Marsh crosses will clip fairly weighty fleeces of good useful wool, and give a saleable carcase of, say, 60 ffi. of two-year old mutton, if well cared for. The ^Sollfh I)ou-n. — This breed, which has a fair number of represen- tatives in this Colony, was one of the earliest British breeds introduced ; but although the quality of the mutton of the first cross with the merino is superior, the shape of the sheep excellent, and its hardness and con- stitution all that could be desired, the great falling off in the weight and quality of the wool in the cross has prevented the South Down ram from coming into anything like general use for crossing purposes. Still it will pay well to put' the South Down rams to cross-bred ewes, especially the Lincoln and merino cross, to breed lambs for the London market — a business in which it is believed an extensive remunerative trade will before long be established. Shro'psMre Doivns. — Although the number of sheep of this breed now in the Colony is small, there is no doubt but it will rapidly increase ; for while the shape of the sheep (a very important consider- ation in the London market) and the quality of the mutton are very nearly equal to the South Downs, the Shropshire cross kills heavier, and the fleece in this cross both weighs more and is more valuable than the South Downs. Like the South Downs, the Shropshire will be principally used for breeding lambs with the first cross ewes got by rams of some of the British breeds out of merino ewes ; but even with merino ewes the Shropshire ram gets first-class lambs of fair weight and prime quality. Cross-hreds. Previous to 1883 it may be said that it was not practicable to put either beef or mutton in a fresh state on the London market; but since that time this has all been changed, and there is not now, nor has there been for the last ten or twelve years much more risk in placing fresh lieef and mutton on the London market than in shipping tinned meat, or even wool. This being the case, sheep-breeders in New Zealand have during that time been taking advantage of this altered state of things, and doing a trade in frozen meat, which, taking the relative number of Bheep in the two Colonies, Avas more than ten or eleven times the LIVE STOCK. loi mag-nitudo of tliat Joiio Ly our slirc])-()\v]K'rs ; and tlioy have but-n enabled to do so mainly tliroiioli using British rains, and brccdiiK.- aii'l exporting cross-bred slieej). To show the result of this, it has (inly to be stated tlial whih- sli'fi)- owners in New Zealand were during tlu' period alluded to iiiakiiig iVoi,, 15s. to 18s., and sometimes 20s. each for their fat cross-ljred two-year nUl wetliers,and from 10s. to 12s. for their fat six-months' old lambs, JM-eeders in this Colony, by clinging- to the merino, although in many cusi's holding country suitable for cross-breds, have only made from 7s. to 10s. for thci'r fat three and four-year old wethers, and from 5s. to 7s., or less fcjr tlieir seven to eight-months old fat lambs. During the last few years, how- ever^, with the low price of both merin(j wool and merino nnitton, a good many of our sheep-owners have introduced British rams into their Hocks, and it is to be expected that many more, where the country and circum- stances admit, will follow their example, and take to cross-breeding. When it is remarked that the country has to be suitable for the large-framed sheep, it must not be thought that this refers only to tlie country in which the climate and soil are similar in all resj)ects to those in New Zealand, where the cross-breds have been such a success, for we have in this Colony at least three classes of country well adapted for cross-breds: — (1) That in which the natural pastures are very nutritious, and the water supply ample. (2) That with the climate and soil like those in New Zealand, well adapted to the growth of root crops and cultivated grasses. (o) That in which lucerne is a paying crop ; and it is believed that even in comparatively poor country green crops and other cultivated food will in many parts of the Colony be eventu- ally grown to supplement the natural pastui'C, and carry and "top off" the larger framed sheep; for if the agricultural settlement is to be a success, a system of mixed farming and . rotation of crops must be adopted. The production of cultivated food for stock has in some ])arts of the Colony been already begun, and will, it is believed, before long be generally taken up in those districts which are adapted for that system. This is absolutely necessary if we are ever to establish a steady paying export trade in chilled and frozen meat. But there is still another very important reason why this system should in many localities be adopted. A great deal of the land suitable for cultivation, situated in the higher and colder portions of the Colony, is in its natural state unsound, and the sheep there are in many cases afflicted with fluke, foot-rot, and worms. This arises mainly from the pre- valence of surface water on a great deal of the best feeding ground iu those portions, and the lack of nuti-ition in the natural grasses. Cul- tivation will to a large extent remedy both these evils ; for if it is properly carried out the land will no longer be, as in many cases it now is, a breeding ground for fluke and worms, for the water wdl u(» longer lie upon it, and the cultivated grasses, clovers, and other crops will not only have sufiicient nutrition to keep the stock sound and iu robust health, but will enable their owners to turn off a large share of them fat and fit for export, which they now find all but impossible. I02 NEW SOUTH WALES. Market Prices of Sheep — Stores Delivered on Station. Class of Sheep. Merino. Lincoln. Leicester. Downs. First-class, 2Ji(re-h/'ed Stud Sheejj. Rams Ewes £150 to £200 £15 to £40 £20 to £40 £10 to £15 £12 to £30 £8 to £12 £12 to £35 £8 to £12 Good, pure-hred Stud Sheep, to Breed FIocJc Bams. Rams Ewes £10 to £20 £7 to £15 £4 to £12 £3 to £6 Good Flodc SheejJ. £6 to £12 £2 to £5 £6 to £12 £2 to £5 Rams Ewes £2 to £5 £2 to £4 4s. to 6s. 6s. to 12s. Good Store Sheej:). £2 to £4 6s. to 10s. £2 to £4 6s. to lOs. Merino wethers Do. ewes Crossbred wethers Do. ewes 3s. to 5s. 6J. 3s. to 4s. 5s. to 7s. 4s. to 6s. Prime Fat Sheep)- Merino wethers Do. ewes Gs. to Ss. 6d. 4s. to Os. 6d. 7s. to lOs. 5s. to 8s. Crossbred wethers Do. ewes Diseases in oue Live Stock. Looking at otlier parts of tlie -world we can say that tlie live stock of tlie Colony are comparatively free from infectious or contagious disease. Happily such deadly and costly ailments as glanders^ farcy, rabies, rinderpest, slieep pox, and foot and moutli disease have never obtained a footing among our stock. Stringent measures are adopted by us in conjunction with the other Australasian Colonies to prevent the introduction of such diseases : An effective code of regulations has been agreed to which is strictly carried out and no stock are introduced from places outside the Colonies except in terms of these regulations, which, among other things, provide that no cattle or sheep can be introduced into Australasia which have not come from Great Britain or L-eland, and then only when accompanied by certificates that they had been repeatedly inspected previous to shipment. On arrival they are inspected and have to undergo sixty days quarantine before being allowed to land. Horses. — Our young horses at times suffer from strangles, but usually of a mild type. In country which is subject to inundations, or where the ground is wet and unsound, the horses at times become infested with parasites which bring on what is known as Australian stringhalt, and also — it is believed — the blindness which attacks them when running on inundated country in some of the hottest portions of the Colony. There have been, too, epizootic outbreaks of influenza, but they occurred at considerable intervals. We have also occasional deaths in horses from anthrax, and a troublesome horse mange affects the horses in the northern portions of the coastal division. LIVE STOCK. 103 Cattle. — Some three or four jears ago there wore many cases of tuber- culosis among our cattle, but its true nature has become known, and owners are by killing and boiling down those showing symptoms of tlio disease gradually lessening the number of affected animals. They are adopting the same course with regard to cancer and actinomycosis with like results. Wo have at times outbreaks of pleuro-])neum(jnia (mostly traceable to Queensland cattle) which are stamped out by inocu- lation. There are also occasional losses from blackleg and splenic apoplexy, but the losses from those ailments are, as a rule, slight. Sheep. — The diseases which have caused the heaviest losses in she(Mi arc fluke, worms, and foot-rot, for which owners are now generally a])ply- ing the most effective remedies, i.e., surface draining, burnin"- off old pasture, and giving proper licks and drenches. A few years back a good many sheep were lost from liver-rot, brought on by a series of wet seasons ; but this disease has now almost disappeared. The most deadly disease among our sheep is anthrax, but it is not generally jireva- lent, and is to a large extent kept in check, and it is hoped will be eventually reduced to a minimum by the system of vaccination intro- duced by the late Mens. Pasteur, and carried out in the Colony by one of his pupils, M. Moment, and by Mr. J. A. Gunu, an Australian expert, who prepares his own vaccine. There has been no scab in the Colony since 1868, but the sheep suffer from tick, and in a few instances from lice. Akxual Retuen from the Live Stock or the Coloxy, Prepared by Mr. Government Statistician Coghlan. Live Stock. Value. Total ^■alue. Sheep. £ £ Wool Sheep slaughtered and preserved ... £1,509,100 Lambs ,, ,, „ 40,340 8,810,829 1,555,440 592,100 99,621 11,057,990 Boiled Tallow £438,600 Tongues, Oil, Shank, Skin, Wool ... 15.3,500 Surplus of Export over Import Total from Sheep Cc'tlle. Total number of Cattle killed was 370,400 Deduct number imported... 143,746 900,000 Net Cast 232,600 Horses. Cast of Horses was ... 1 00, 500 Total Value £ 4.j2,000 12,409,990 104 Agriculture. By J. L. Thompson, Principal of Agricultural College. Agriculture, -wliicTi lias been described as " tbe foundation on wliicli all civilisation rests/' is one of our leading industries. Climatp. Consecjuent upon tlie remarkably varied climates found in New Soutli Wales, tlie products of cold, temperate, and sub-tropical countries can be grown within its limits. For farming purposes we may consider three distinct climates — f((J Coastal. — Area, 38,200 square miles ; average annual rainfall, 44*98 inches, varying from G-t iuclies on the coast to 31 "48 at foot of dividing range. The northern portion is sub- tropical ; chief crops, maize and sugar-cane. From Macleay River to the south, with a cooler climate, the chief summer crops are maize_, oaten hay, potatoes, lucerne, pumpkins, melons, grapes, and other fruits ; winter crops, wheat, oaten hay, and potatoes, whilst dairying is largely followed. fhj Tahlclands. — Area, 84,900 square miles ; average annual rainfall, 30*84 inches, varying between 35 inches on the east to 25 inches on the west. The northern tableland, New England, grows sugar-beet and general English crops. To the south wheat is the chief crop, whilst dairying is exten- sively carried on. fc) Western Districts. — Area, 187,600 square miles ; rainfall varying between 21 "6 inches at foot of the range and 9 inches west of the Darling. Characterised by dryness, long hot summer, cool winter, irregular rainfall, and want of uniformity in the seasons. Near the range wheat is largely grown, especially in the Riverina; lucerne docs well, exceptionally so under irrigation. The region is eminently suited for drying fruit, of which many kinds grow luxuriantly; cost of transport is, however, detrimental to growers. In surface contour. Eastern Australia may be compared with a portion of an unturned plate ; the ridge representing the dividing range forming the table-lands, with, outside, the coastal zone, and inside, the western districts or interior. History of Agriculture. The earliest attempt at agriculture in New South Wales was made by Captain Phillip, who, in 1788, endeavoured to raise wheat and other crops at Sydney, with but indifferent success. In 1789 James Ruse started farming at Parramatta. Later attempts were constantly AGRICULTURE. 105 being' made witli varying success. Ju 1791 there were 7U0 acres under cultivation ; in 1792, 1,100 under crop, and IGI cleared. In 1795 Governor Hunter established successful farms on the llawkes- bury, 30 miles from Sydney, wheat and maize being the chief crops. In 1800, 7,(377 acres were under cultivation; in 1821, ;)2,2(i7 ; in 1877, 513,840; in 1887, 975,471. For many years agriculture was confined to the coastal zone and tableland. To-day over 2,000/J(J() acres are under agricultural operations in all parts of the Colony ; only about 0^7 per cent, of the total area of New South AValos being, however, actually devoted to the growth of agricultural produce. At present cultivation is secondary to stock-breeding. There is plenty of good, though variable, land; whilst the crop yields are large when com- pared with those of other countries. Communication with the central market, difficult in the past, is improving yeai-ly ; and there has been a steady increase in the surface cleared for future use. Estahlishment of the Department of Ayn'cuUure. A new era dawned for agriculture in New South "Wales when, in February, 1890, a Dej^artment of Agriculture was established under Hon. Sydney Smith, M.L.A. ; a Director was appointed, and im- mediate steps were taken to organise and get into working order a comprehensive scheme of agricultural education, based on the best points in the systems in vogue in Great Britain, Germany, and the United States. Since 1890 operations have gradually extended ; the main objects in view being — • 1. Dissemination of such information as will be likely to benefit growers, looking to the position and needs of the different districts. 2. Introduction of new useful crop plants. 3. Investigation of crop diseases, and recommendation of suitable measures for relief. 4. Formation of a museum of agricultural products and a library concerning the industry. 5. To educate farmers by lectures, demonstrations, and experi- mental farms. G. To educate young agriculturists in the sciences related to, and the practice of, the art ; by establishment of farm schools and a central College. 7. To encourage growth of imported products so as to enable us to supply our own wants. 8. To endeavour to show how to grow good products, and bc'^t prepare them for the market. 9. To assist in opening up new markets. To carry out this programme various experts have been appointed, who advise when required as to the best methods of procedure. An official organ, The Agricultural Gazette, containing articles dealing with every branch of agriculture, is published monthly, bringing the Department into touch with growei'S ; manuals, dealing with dairying, forage plants, grasses, and bulletins on various cognate subjects, have been published and distributed freely. I06 /YFJV SnUTIT WALES. 'Kavokeshuv]] AgriciiUnrnl College. Perhaps tlie great importance attaclied to education of the people in ao-ricultural matters is best evidenced in the establishment of the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, at Richmond, 38 miles from Sydney. Opened in March, 1891, with 25 students, six months later the number was doubled ; and the new buikling, to be occupied February, 1896, will accommodate 98. Three thousand acres of bush land have been converted into a first-class farm, with cultivation paddocks (GOO acres), orchard (30 acres), vineyard (10 acres), mulberry plantation for silkworm-rearing (10 acres), bee and poultry farm (15 acres), grass (1,000 acres), the balance beiug uncleared at present. The buildings contain lecture halls, chemical and botanical laboratories, museum, library, offices, houses for principal and resident masters ; each student has a separate bedroom-study ; and electric light is to be used throughout. All necessary fai'm buildings are provided. The dairy is most complete, and the stock varied. Carpentering-, black- smithing, farming, orchard, dair}^, and other kinds of work are con- stantly in full swing. The crops are varied and extensive, including wheat, oats, maize, tobacco, potatoes, sweet potato, pumpkins, melons, buckwheat, turnips, mangel, and rape. ExjDerimental work is always going on, and larg-e numbers of economic plants are to be seen growing. The orchard contains stone-fruits, pomes, fig, guava, citrus fruits, persimmons, and a large vegetable garden. An irrigation farm of 100 acres is in contemplation. Students take out-door work and lectui*es on alternate days ; the latter comprise principles of ag-ri- culture, agricultural chemistry, botany (including vegetable path- ology), geology, physics, mechanics, surveying*, entomology, farm book-keeping, veterinary science and practice, arithmetic and English. The course of study covers two years, and to take a diploma, examina- tions must be passed in eig-ht subjects ; the three first-named being compulsory, together with practical work and good conduct. Ei'perhnental Farms. Experimental farms are to be established in every distinct climatic region in the Colony; at Wagga Wagga (southern tableland), Lismore (sub-tropical coastal), and Bathurst (central tableland), work has been commenced ; tests are being made as to the best crops and methods of work for the special district. The water running from numerous artesian bores, put down by Government in the western districts — chiefly Avest of the Darling — has been largely made use of for demonstrating possibilities of culti- vation in the dry interior, 500 miles from the coast, and with gratifying results; lucerne, maize, wheat, tobacco, bananas, melons, pumpkins, stone-fruits, quinces, date palms, poplars, willows, and other plants grow remarkably well, showing that the hot interior, Avhen water is available, can be made to support a large population. It ma}' be remarked that, as yet, town sewage and ashpit refuse are rarely used for irrigation and mauurial purposes ; there is great room for the utilisation of this material, properly prepared, as an economical and useful fertilizer. AGRICULTURE. 107 In forestry iiiueli lias bt-cn done, Ly planting and tliinninfr, to improve tlie natural forests, a most important matter to tlio farmer, in etiualisiuf^ the How of rivers and givino- protection from the strong, hot, drying winds frequently prevalent. The establishment of shelter belts of useful trees, and new timber-producing areas, must come about in the future. At Booral, on the Hunter River, a plantation of mulberry trees is in tho hands of an expert appointed to encourage silk production. The Agricultural tSociL'ties, subsidised by (lovernmcnt, liiive done good work in stimulating rivalry, and encouraging the breeding of good stock, and the raising of first-class products. Conferences aro periodically held for general discussion in matters relating to farming, orchard, and' related industries. A travelling dairy for some years conveyed to dairymen the most approved methods of l)utter and cheese making. National prizes have been freely offered, and avv'arded, for the best farms, orchards, pro- ducts, or new implements ; to encourage such a system of cultivation as will give best results, and improve the general standard of crops, stock, and holdings alike. This object is being assisted by an eifort noAv being made to secure correct names for our chief products ; when we know what we are growing, growers can be advised what to discard as poor and useless, and every eifort made to induce the growth of varieties suitable both for home consumption and export. Suchj in outline, is the important work initiated for an excellent piirpose. Distinct benefit has undoubtedly been derived from the work already done ; there may be seen in agricultural circles, by such as are interested, an awakening to the fact that scientific knowledge applied to agriculture enables growers the better to meet those, often, enormous difficulties found in variable seasons, insect and fungus pests, commercial depression, and such influences as, in the past, have kept cultivators from realising the maximum of return from a minimum of labour. It should not be forgotten that, under the Minister for Education, instruction is given in agriculture at the Technical College, Sydney, with such practical lessons as circumstances permit. Tlie Land. Total area fit for occupation, about 100,000,000 acres; of tbis, 22 per cent, is alienated, held by 54,428 owners. The best land is said to have been already taken up ; in the past, however, position with regard to water was the first consideration. There is plenty of good land suitable for cultivation if water were only availaljle. With regard to conservation of water, surveys are being made throughout the districts most requiring it, for the purpose of _ framing a feasible scheme ; when water is extensively conserved, millions of acres^of the interior will be yielding crops second to none in the world. Several irrigation colonies have already been commenced, with great prospect of success ; already 40,000 acres are irrigated by private enterprise.^ Most of the available land requires clearing; this costs from los. per acre in sparsely timbered country, up to £oO in the dense forests of the northern districts ; various labour-saving appliances have been introduced for pulling down trees and extracting stumps. Io8 Ki:W SOUTH WALES. The system of partially clearing land is sometimes followed ; scrub and small trees are cut out, large trees being ringbarked. This ac- celerates the ultimate clearing, for when they become dry they are easily burned. Meantime the ground is cropped. Such a proceeding is mostly followed by persons with limited capital, and such country has not an attractive appearance ; moreover, the roots, stumps, and trees left in render cultivation difficult. Metayage (lessee paying a share of the produce to lessor^ in lieu of a money rent) is carried out here and there, in some cases with advantage. Direct ownership by the cultivator is, however, of greatest benefit to him. Fences of various types are used in subdividing the land ; those most commonly erected being post top-rail and six wires (costing up to £80 a mile), post and three or four rails, post and five or six wires (costing as low as £18 per mile where droppers are used for keeping wires apart, the posts being further apart than usual) ; sometimes logs are laid dog-leg' fashion. Where timber is plentiful fences can be erected very cheaply. Barbed Avire is now largely used, and is invalu- able for keeping in animals having a tendency to stray. Chief Crops — Cereals. Mlieat is largely cultivated on the tableland and its western slopes. Area^ (1895), 647,483 acres, being much below that of 1894. Eust prevents its cultivation in the coastal district. Average return for thirty years, 13"26 bushels per acre, ranging- between 4*75 bushels, in 1889 (a rusty year), and 17'37, 1887. Cost of growing depends on size of holding. On large farms^ with first-class appliances, approximately 15s. Gd. jjer acre; medium-sized farms, 20s. ; small, 27s. Average return per acre — if grown for grain, £2 5s. ; for hay, £3 10s. Excellent grain is grown ; an average weight of average samples from various parts of the Colony gives GQ^ lb. to a bushel. Our production does not fulfil requirements. There are signs, however, that a great increase in wheat production Avill shortly take place. Strong efforts are being made at Wagga Wagga Experimental Farm, where there are 400 varieties under cultivation, to produce rust-resistant wheats with good gluten contents, and with every prospect of success. 3I(tize. — Area under cultivation, 1894-5, 208,308 acres; average yield for thirty-three years, 31-5 bushels per acre — higher than that of any other country. In 1894 we consumed 5,671,827 bushels and imported 46,294 bushels. One of our most valuable products, being used for a great variety of purposes — green, as food for dairy stock and pigs and for silage ; green cobs as a vegetable, either fresh or canned ; dried grain, or the whole cob ground pith and grain together, for stock food ; ground as maize-meal for man ; starch is extracted from it ; whisky and schnapps are distilled from it; and sugar can be obtained from the stems. Land is ploughed 7 to 9 inches deep ; seeds (soaked in copjjcr-sulphate solution as a precaution against smut, or in tar- water to keep away birds and vermin) are planted in September and October, even later, singly by the Farmer's Friend Seed Drill about 16 inches apart, in rows 4 feet apart, manure being dropped by the same machine ; sometimes sown by hand, four to six seeds in a hill, 4 feet 6 ♦ All statistics based upon " Coglilan." AGRICULTURE. 109 inclics apart cacli way^ tlie former method jirct'erahlo. Aftor-eult iva- tion is constant ; as sliowin.o- tlio benefit of frequent sliallow eultiv:iti(.n in our dry climate (a ])lan tliat should be extensively followed), at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College : — Maize not cultivated j'ieldcd ... 3.">-22 busliuls per acre. )> once ,, ,, ... 38-50 ,, ,, ,, twice ,, ,, ... 41-37 ,, ,, ,, three times cultivated yielded 60-41 „ ,, >■> four „ „ ,, 61-42 „ „ The plant should be left undamaged whilst growing (no tasselling, topping, or suckering). A rainfall of 30 to 35 inches per annum is needful, but irrigation gives good results. Harvesting and husking are done by hand. The stalks are not burned, but are cut up Ijy a roller fitted with steel blades and plouglied in to rot, returning much valuable plant-food to the soil. Pests are numerous both in growing crop and store, weevil, army-worm, and smut being the worst. Cost of production, exclusive of rent and interest on capital, approximately £4 2s. per acre ; average return, £5 2s. 6d. Oats. — This cereal is much neglected. Area (1895) for grain, hay, and green fodder, 180,481 acres ; average yield of grain for ten years, 20"9 bushels per acre. Chiefly grown for hay ; it should be much more largely grown for grain, as it is the best of all grains for horse-feed. Barlei/. — Area, 1894-5, 13,336 acres ; yield, 17"2 bu.shels per acre. A sample of malting- barley, grown in the Riverina district and for- warded to England to test its value for malting purposes, was pro- nounced by Messrs. Truman, Hanbury, Buxton, & Co. " Of first-class quality and equal to the best Chilian." 150 acres are being grown at the Wagga Wagga Government Farm, in order to further test the English market. Bye. — 1895, only 1,359 acres sown, yielding 15"2 bushels per acre. Millets. — 1,585 acres of various kinds grown in 1895 for grain and green food; grain return, ri"2 bushels per acre. Sorghum is almost entirely grown as green food for cattle, but experience shows that maize is much better, whilst young or stunted sorghum acts dele- teriously upon stock. Root Crops. Development of the Sugar-heet industry bids fair to put an end to thie necessity for importing sugar (31,245 tons imported in 1891). Roots grown at Hawkesbury College Farm yielded uj) to 15"(31 per cent, sugar, whilst others grown on the northern tableland we7it as high as 24-75. Land is ploughed deep or subsoiled ; seed, soaked in rain-water and urine, to hasten germination, sowni 10 to 20 lb. ])er acre 1 inch deep if ground be moist, a little deeper if dry. To obtain roots from Ir^ to 2h lb. in weight (the richest in sugar) careful thinning and after-cultivation are necessary. Care must bo taken in manuring, as freshly-dunged soils tend to decrease quality of the root as a sugar producer. Roots should be stored, at a temperature of alxnit 50^ Fahr., if inconvenient to extract juice at once. Plant (sufficient to cope with the produce of a fairly large district) can, however, be laid down for washing roots, pulping, extracting juice, and evaporating to a condition carriageable in bags, for £150. Approximate cost of no NE W SO UTH WALES. producing 1 acre, £7 12s., exclusive of rent and interest on capital. Average return, 15 tons at, say, 16s. per ton, £12. Sugar-beet makes a good rotation crop witli cereals and lucerne, clover, or grasses, whilst tlie refus!-> pnlp makes excellent stock-food, especially if mixed with chaff. Potatoes-. — Grown both as winter and summer cro]?.* Area in 1895, 30,089 acres, yielding an average of 2*83 tons per acre. Sometimes 15 tons are dug per acre. As a field crop, about 15 cwt. seed used per acre, ploughed under every third furrow ; kainit, superphosphate, and bone-dust mixed, largely used as a manure ; 1 to 2 cwt. per acre. Cost to grow, £5 to £G per acre ; average return, £10 9s. per acre. Turnips. — Commonly grown in winter; \ to lib seed used per acre, drilled in with manure. Yield, up to oO tons per acre. Mangold.— A valuable heavy yielding crop, coming in when turnijjs are nearly done. Cultivation of this and the preceding root is greatly neglected ; they should be extensively grown in a rotation as stock food. Various CrojJS. — Onions, Arrowroot (Canna edulis). Chicory (average yield, 40 j cwt. dried root per acre). Carrots (a useful field crop, good horse-food) are also grown, but to a very limited extent. Leguminous Crojis. Lucerne (Medicago sativa), perhaps our best fodder plant, does remarkably well wherever the natural rainfall is sufiicient or irrigation can be applied ; keeps green and luxuriant during hottest months of summer if roots are Avithin reach of moisture ; stands drought well if soil is deep ; frequently yields 7 or 8 tons per acre, and as many as eight cuts in the year, and it will last twelve or fifteen years. By means of a box apparatus fitted on a wheelbarrow, 35 acres have been sown by one man in a day. Broadcasting is better than drilling, using about 12 tb. seed per acre. It should not be fed down close the first season, and the best results are undoubtedly obtained by cutting, and carting- it to the animals. Dodder, its chief enemy, is readily kept in check by timely eradication. Every stock-owner in the country should grow it ; and as a paddock runs out it could be put under rotation (legumes improve the ground much more than other plants if ploughed under) and another jDaddock laid down. Bed Clover and Tares are grown (largely with rye-grass) for dairy food ; and to assist the former in setting its seed humble-bees have been introduced from New Zealand. Lentils, Field-peas, Beans, and other pulse crops should be extensively grown for stock food. Our leguminous crop plants, and many wild forms, possess root nodules, indicative of the presence of soil bacteria, now known to extract nitrogen (the most expensive of manures) from the air and store it in such a way as renders it available for the host- plant. Sugar-cane. — Productive area in 1895, ll,201 acres, confined to north- east portion of the Colony. Average production, 18'G tons cane per acre ; five years ago it Avas 21' tons. The decrease is largely due to the prevalence of disease, believed to have been induced by constant crop- * The seasons run, roughly— sprini/r, September, October ; summer, November to March ; winter, June July, August. A GRIC UL TURE. j j j ping of caue without change. The Departmental Pathologist diagnoses the disease as a clogging of the vessels by a gmnniy subslanci', the result of 'a Bacillus ]>resent in the plant. Steps are "being taken, by burning diseased ])lants, improved methods of cultivation, c^iri'ful rota- tion, importation of new clean varieties, and raising of seedlings, to stamp out the disease. Average return ])L'r acre, £12. PumpJaiLs and Melouft are largely grown as field ci-ops. Averan-e yield of tons, though 20 tons may occasionally bo obtained from an acre. 'J'hey command a ready sale ; the former largely used as stock food and as a vegetable, the latter for jam-making and eating fresh. Tobacco. — Tobacco-growing was attempted in the early days of settlement, and a few years ago attained some importance ; of late however, it has gone out of favour. In 1895, 710 acres yielded 11 -t cwt. per acre (against 4,83o acres in 1889). Mostly grown in small areas. It requires constant attention to keep it in good condition and free from insect pests. To revive the industry energetic steps are being taken, and as good quality of leaf can be grown, there is no reason why the bulk of our home requirements could not be o-rown and possibly a surplus exported ; instead of, as at present, importino- nearly all we require. Ho^js can be grown on the tableland, and, if near towns, the necessary labour for picking could readily be obtained at reasonable rates. We imported in 1894, 811,938 lb. Flax. — Owing to the fall in prices in many kinds of farming produce, other newer crops should be tried, such, for instance, as linseed flax. In 1894 we imported various products of this plant to the extent of £85,832. Very good samples of seed and fibre have been grown at the College, Richmond. Castor Oil does extremely well. Bunfloicer gives great variety of useful products, is very easily grown, thrives everywhere, and con- sequently is available for the dry interior : it is a good bee-plant, as also is BiickwJieat. There are numerous other useful plants that ought to be more widely grown, looking to future needs as Avell as imme- diate returns ; in fibre plants, oil producers, perfume plants, tanning materials, dyes, starch plants, insecticides (pyrethrum and hellebore are both largely used here), willows (an inquiry was, lately made for wood fi-om a particular species to the extent of £200), which can be planted along watercourses, and are useful in a variety of ways. All shelter trees mio-ht be of return-Q^ivinsi: kinds. Other Fodder Plants. Of our other fodder plants, rape is most useful. ^Ve hear of sheeps- burnet thriving where other plants failed. Lately, a species of Poly- gonum (sachalinense) has been introduced as a marvel for weight of crop (80 tons greenstuff per acre) ; so far, however, this, with prickly comfrey and other belauded inferior plants, has not proved a success. Of introduced grasses little need be said ; certain species are largely sown for improving pastures in the cooler districts. In warm districts greater use is being made of tl^e native grasses and fodder plants for 112 NEW SOUTH WALES. tlie same purpose, tliey being accustomed to the climate, and more likely to do well than tlie generality of exotic forms, though a few of the fatter thrive almost anywhere. 20,080,814 acres have been ring- barked (trees killed by cutting through the bark and Cambium layer ■with an axe), in order to encourage growth of grass for grazing pur- poses : over much of this country great improvement would take place if suitable seed were scattered at seasonable times and paddocks given a periodical rest : the natural herbage is not allowed time to shed its seed, owing to country being fully or over stocked. The saving of seed from good kinds of native grasses would bring in profitable returns. Orchard and Garden. As an adjunct to farming, orchard and garden are too often neglected. In no district in the Colony need the farmer be without fruit and vegetables ; all house water could be used for irrigating. Tree-planting is of much greater importance to farmers than they generally imagine, and profitable trees might be just as well put in as unprofitable. Olives. — We can grow fine olive trees, though only a few exist, at Camden, Mudgee, and Inverell. At Albury and Wagga and other places in the Colony, the soil and climate are almost exactly similar to that at Dookie in Victoria, where I made olive oil that took prizes wherever shown. There is always a sale for pure olive oil. The trees might be grown 24 or 30 feet apart in clumps in corners of paddocks, the land subsoiled 15 to 18 inches deep ; giving beauty, shade, shelter, and profit. Easily propagated, they grow in any soil except heavy clay or where wet. Irrigation can be advantageously applied where the rainfall is short of 30 inches annually. In our hot, dry climate mulching is necessary. They require pruning, keeping the inside well open, in order to obtain the best fruit, which is borne on two-year-old wood only. Many other useful trees could with advantage be planted round the paddocks or homestead. Weeds. Of weeds, native and introduced, we have legions ; the climate suits them, and, unfortunately, little or no notice is taken of them when first seen. AVhere energetic measures are taken to stamp out the first arrivals little trouble is experienced. Over 250 introduced species are scattered over the country ; some, e.g., prickly pear and sweet briar, reducing large areas to such a condition that many pounds per acre must be expended in clearing, possibly for the second time. Pests. Fungus pests and noxious insects are numerous ; our annual loss must be hundreds of thousands of pounds, largely preventable. It is satisfactory, however, to know that the practice of trying by spraying and other measures to lessen or prevent such evils is rapidly oii the increase. Growers are finding out by experience that it pays to spend a little money to save crops that would otherwise be lost ; and it may I AGRICULTURE. u^ be noted tliat at the Agricultural College over eight}-- lectures (with suitable practical work) are devoted to this subject during a student's two years' residence. Large numbers of noxious animals are destroyed ercrv year, whilst, unfortunately, wo have many native plants possessing properties poisonous to stock. The best farmers' SJteci-), for carcase, is the cross-bred ; for low-lying, undraiued land Romney ]\Iarsh should be tried, or a cross between Merino and Romney Marsh. Merinos are pre-eminently wool-producers. Our hest. Dairy Cattle arc Ayrshire, Jersey, and Holstein ; f(jr beef. Shorthorns and Herefords ; for workers, Devons. Other breeds and crosses, however, give good general-purpose cows. The average yield is, with separator, 200 lb butter or 500 lb cheese from 500 gallons or more of milk. The factory system is well established, and dairying may be looked upon as one of our most paying industries. Shipments of dairy produce are now regularly sent to England. Cheese sent from the Hawkesbury Agricultural College was pronounced by experts '^ equal to the best English Cheddar." College butter sent to the British Dairy Farmers' Association, Islington, was reported by the Colonial Consignment and Distributing Co. " as being of real choice quality with fine aroma," realising 128s. per cwt. It is satisfactory to note that this butter was made by a student of the College. Polled breeds of cattle are coming more into prominence, or dis- horning is resorted to — a hot iron or caustic potash being applied to the horn-bud when a few weeks old. The chief advantages lie in the greater gentleness of manners and security in travelling. It is unnecessary to house stock in winter except in the cold parts of New South Wales, but shelter should be provided against sun heat. One very important matter, especially so in a country with variable seasons and subject to drought, is provision of winter food for dairy stock, in the shape of ensilage, hay, or green food. Nothing can surpass the first-named ; any plant that stock will eat, including such things as spotted thistle, mangold and turnip tops, and all surplus fodder, can go into the silo. Chaffed maize, cut when the cobs are fully formed but before they ripen, makes excellent silage. The chief farm Horses are Clydesdales. Much orcarhd and light farm work is done by the product of thoroughbred stallions and clean- legged draught mares. Suffolk Punch is used to a small extent. The climate is well adapted for horse-breeding, and of late a good trade has been developed with India in horses for military purposes. Cleveland Bay or hackney stallions with good-actioned, sound, medium-sized draught mares should give the stamp of horse required. Small holders could bring up such horses with advantage, as they would be much more docile than if reared on a large run. Pig-hreeding and bacon-curing are largely carried on, and make a profitable industry. When farm produce is low in price, or inferior in quality, it pays well to fatten pigs for market. Berkshire, Poland-China, and Tamworth are our chief breeds. Every farmer should keep pigs, and if in dry-curing, half coarse salt, half sugar, with \ oz. saltpetre to each pound of the mixture be used, a sound, sweet bacon results. 114 NEW SOUTH WALES. Poultry-breeding is largely carried on, both for home consumption and export. Eg-gs and birds have been sent to England from the Agricultural College with great success. A large trade will result if care be taken that all birds are of the finest quality, large, young, and regular in size and condition. Indian game are now largely used for crossing with Dorkings and Houdans. Plymouth Rocks and Brahmas are also greatly fancied. Bee-farming is successfully carried on ; the annual yield of honey being sometimes extraordinarily large, though largely dependent upon the season. Future of Agriculture in New South Wales. Our agriculture must become of greater and greater importance to us, and probably to Great Britain also, as years go on. Southern position enables us to market products when northern countries are lacking, whilst we can produce the very best class of products. As to future success, much depends on farmers keeping abreast with the times with regard to crops, methods of growing, use of labour- saving appliances, harvesting, and packing for the market. Small farmers are at some disadvantage compared with large owners, but many minor industries can be carried on concurrently, " Many a mickle makes a muckle.''^ A good living can be made off the land and a fine free healthy life enjoyed. In this country land can be obtained on very reasonable terms, fainning operations can be carried on almost continuously, hay is ready to stack the third or fourth day after cutting, manures, in many cases, need not be largely used, winter and summer crops can largely be grown, whilst the mild and varied climate gives extraordinary variety of crops. Of drawbacks there are many, most of them surmountable. Notwithstanding difficulties, found wherever the soil is tilled, there has been an all-round advance in farming the last few years. Matters are fairly prosperous, and prices, which show great range of variation during the year, have now an upward tendency. An export trade in produce is being developed, and cool storage pro- vided ; water is being conserved, and will be much more largely so as time goes on ; scientific knowledge relating to farming is rapidly spreading. It is recognised that cultural methods must be improved, cultivation made more intensive, and only the best class of products raised ; whilst under a good system of rotation and careful husbanding of resources the soil will improve greatly, resulting in better returns. Pests must be battled with : America and France have shown that it pays well to carry on a systematic and persistent war of extermina- tion. Not the least important point, a careful system of bookkeeping needs to be followed, " double entry " being the most suitable. When we remember, in the light of the foregoing statements, that Great Britain alone imports in one year food-stuffs to the value of over ninety millions sterling; that our own requirements are yearly increas- ing, whilst we import food-stuffs to the extent of over one and a-half millions; we may safely conclude that there is ample room for expan- sion of the farming industry, with no need to fear for its future success. 1 1 Fruit Culture. By Albert H. Benson, Department of Agriculture. Few parts of tlie world possess greater natural facilities for the pro- duction of fruit in greater variety than the Colony of New South Wales. Owing to the extent of country, and the great differences in climate, ranging from that of the temperate regions on our higher table-lands to that of the tropics on our north-eastern seaboard, from a moisture laden atmosphere and a rainfall of over 100 inches per annum to a dry desiccating air and a rainfall of from G to lO inches per annum, and with every graduation between these extremes, we are able to grow every kind of fruit from mangoes to gooseberries, or, leaving out a few extreme tropical fruits, all the cultivated fruits of the world. Not only are we able to grow this great variety of fruits, but many of them of such quality and to such perfection, that they cannot be excelled if equalled in any other part of the world. On the north-eastern seaboard of the Colony, we have a climate and conditions that are almost tropical, and in a few favoured localities quite tropical. Here the rainfall is heavy — the air is laden with moisture, and in sheltered positions frosts are almost unknown. The soil generally is of great natural fertility, aud the land in its virgin state is covered with a dense impenetrable scrub composed of masses of most luxuriant vegetation with immense trees interspersed. Here all the fruits of the semi-tropics flourish — the mango, custard apple, banana, and pine-apple, grow side by side, and the passion-fruit and guava grow wild, and produce an abundance of the finest fruit without any cultivation whatever. These fruits spring up every where that they have a chance iu the scrub, as the fruit is eaten readily by birds, and the seeds are distributed widely in their castings. The orange, lemon, and citron, grow here with very little attention, and though many of the trees are found to be badly infested by scale insects and other pests owing to an entire lack of attention, there are in my opinion few districts where they will pay better or where they can be grown to greater perfection, provided that only the choicest varieties are planted, and that the trees and orchard arc thoroughly attended to. The common or rough lemon and the citron, grow with- out the slightest trouble, and it is not at all an uncommon thing to meet with these fruits growing in the scrub from chance seedlings producing fruit in abundance^, and holding their own against the indigenous vegetation, thus showing the adaptability of citrus fruits to the soil and climate, and the ease with which they can l)e grown. In the central seaboard district, which cmln-accs the Hunter and its branches on the north, and extends to about Kiama on the south, we have a large tract of country where the orange and other citrus Il6 NEW SOUTH WALES. fruits still flourisli; but where tlie place of tlie tropical fruits of tlie north-eastern seaboard is taken by the peach, nectarine, apricot, oriental plum, pear, early varieties of apples, and several varieties of plums, as -svell as table grapes. In this district the soil generally is of a much poorer character, but with occasional rich tracts of alluvial land, such as that of the Hunter and Hawkesbury. The rainfall, though still large, is much less than that of the north-east, and the conditions are only subtropical. This district is essentially the home of the peach, as it grows wild wherever the stones are deposited along the banks of creeks, and anyone who takes a trip up the Hawkesbury will see numbers of large peach-trees, bearing heavy crops of fine fruit, that have never been planted, cultivated, or pruned, and that have been grown from chance peach-stones that have been carried down and left by floods. When cultivated the peach is very prolific ; in fact, it is much given to overbearing, as are also plums and apricots, Avith the result that the quality of the fruit grown often suffers from the number that the tree has to bear. Where, however, the trees are projDerly attended to, and only allowed to bear as much fruit as they can bring to perfection, the quality of the fruit is good ; grown with an ease that is probably unsurpassed in any other part of the world. Here the pear, when once established, is as hardy as a native tree, and large numbers of old pear-trees can be seen in the neighbourhood of Sydney which are growing without the slightest attention, and, when not attacked by the Windsor pear blight,bearing heavy crops of fruit. These old neglected pear-trees are often of large size, and they usually mark the site of old orchards from which all other varieties of fruit-trees have long since disappeared, the pears alone remaining and defying neglect. This is the oldest fruit-growing district of the Colony, and it grows fully three-quarters of all the fruit raised, its nearness to the Sydney market enabliug the fruit-growers to readily dispose of their fruit, as Sydney always has been, and probably will continue to be, the greatest consuming and distributing market for fruit in the Colony. Here in the past fruit-growing, when properly canned out, has been a very paying industry, and many growers have succeeded in building up comfortable homes and in saving considerable fortunes, and more money has been made from well-kept orchards, taking into consideration the amount of land occupied and the capital expended, than from any other branch of husbandry. Now, however, the times are somewhat changed, owing to the great increase in the production of fruit, which has been caused by the planting of many new orchards, not only in Cumberland, but throughout the Colony, and this increase of production has caused the supply at times to be in excess of the local demand, so that the markets are glutted, and inferior fruit is hard to dispose of at any price. Good fruit, however, still meets with a ready sale, and often at prices that are rarely equalled in other great fruit-growing centres, as the Sydney market has hitherto been able to absorb all our first-quality fruit, and is so far the best market for such fruit. As I purpose dealing more fully with the disposal and utilisation of fruit later on, I will pass on to other districts of the Colony, but before doing so I must say that in many cases fruit- cultui'e has been carried out in a very slovenly manner in this district. Though the oldest and largest producing district, it contains at the FRUIT CULTURE. jjy same time tlio dirtiest, most nog-lectcd, and most diseased orchards in the Colony, and grows a largv proportion of the greatest rubhish, which is due in a great measure to tlie prevalence of the insane systeni of trying to grow every possible variety of fruit in the same orcliard, instead of confining the attention to the growth of those varieties that the soil and climate are capable of producing to perfection. In the table-land districts of the Colony there are large tracts of country widely separated from each other, but which have a climate and rainfall that is just suited to the production of the fruits of the temperate regions, including a]iples, pears, plums, quinces, cherries, and all kinds of berry fruits and hardy nuts. In these districts the winter is more or less severe, snow being not uncommon, and frosts of frequent occurrence. The summers are generally bright and warm during the days, but always cool at night, so that though there is sufficient sun-heat to put plenty of sugar in the fruit, the fruit does not ripen as rapidly as in warmer or more humid districts, and the fruits grown possess much greater firmness, and are much better keepers and shippers. In these table-land districts the rainfall is usually sufficient for the successful growth of all the fruits adapted to the climate, but the rainfall is often badly distributed, and there are longish spells of dry weather, which necessitate the orchards being kept in a high state of culture in order to obtain the best results. No trees in this district require irrigation, but where berry culture is gone in for extensively, it will always be advisable to have a supply of water to fall back upon during a dry spell. Most of the table-land districts are well supplied with water, and contain numerous running streams, the water of which could easily be conserved for use in a dry time, as the hilly nature of the country gives many opportunities for the formation of natural reservoirs by damming- up gullies, so that, should water be required for berry culture, there is often little diffi- culty in conserving it. Apples, pears, plums, and cherries, when planted in suitable soils and properly looked after, are usually heavy bearers in these districts, and the fruits are of firmer texture, higher colour, better flavour, and better keeping qualities than the same fruits when grown in other parts of the Colony. Cherries do remark- ably well in many parts, the red Kentish cherry growing almost Avild and without the slightest cultivation, and yet bearing heavy crops of fruit ; in fact, this variety is such a hardy grower that it is planted in hedges to form a breakwind or protection for the orchard against the prerailing winds of the district. In the central districts of the Colony we have an enormous extent of countiy that is suited for fruit-culture but of a totally different type from that of the districts I have already mentioned. Hero we have a soil and climate that are best adapted to the growth of the vine, the olive, the fig, the apricot, the ])rune, and drying peaches, in fact, for nearly all varieties of drying fruits. Here the rainfall is much smaller, the summers hotter and drier, and the winters much milder than in the table-land districts, but everywhere throughout this dis- trict, where the rainfall exceeds 20 inches per annum, all the fruits that I have mentioned can be grown to great perfection without irri- gation, provided that suitable sod is chosen, and that the right varieties are planted. Here the success of fruit-culture depends mainly ou Ii8 NEW SOUTH WALES. thorougli cultivation and tlie retaining in the soil for tlie trees^ use of as mucli of tlie rainfall as possible. On tliis retaining of moisture in the soil the whole success of fruit-culture in this district depends, and the retention of moisture is accomplished by a thorough system of cultivation. For example, after every rain the surface of the ground is broken as soon as the land will carry horses without injury; this prevents the formation of a crust on the surface, as well as of the capillaries right to the surface, and it is by means of the capillaries, or rather through them, that heavy surface evaporation takes place, and consequently dries out the soil. The breaking of the crust after rain is followed by deeper cultivation, the implements used stirring but not turning the soil, and if this is continued throughout the dry time the land will retain all the moisture required for the proper development of the trees and fruit. In order to show the result of thorough cultivation in this district, the following illustration will give some idea of the growth of Muir peaches at the Government Experimental Farm at Wagga Wagga, sixteen months after planting, which have been grown in the average soil of the district entirely without irrigation, but under a system of culture such as I have just described. During the past winter the trees were pruned back to within 8 inches of the main trunk, and all the growth shown in the illustration has been made in sixteen weeks, and during an unusually dry season. The trees are planted 25 feet apart each way. The cultivation of the olive both for oil and for pickling is destined to be a great industry in this district. The tree is a rapid and vigor- ous grower, cropping heavily and bearing good fruit, and, in addition, coming into bearing in much less time than it does in Europe ; in fact, the conditions prevailing in this district are, as a whole, much more favourable to the growth of the olive than the most favoured districts of Spain, Italy, or Southern France. In addition to the fruits men- FR UIT C UL TURE. 1 1 9 tioued, apples and pears, cherries, and citrus fruits in favourable situations do well, tliougli the quality of the poinaceous fruits is n(jt equal to that of the same fruits when grown in our table-land districts, and the citrus fruits are inferior to those grown in more suitable situations ; where cherries will grow they are usually very early and of large size, but are, as a rule, inferior to the same fruit grown in the colder districts. Our dry western country also grows good fruit, but here its suc- cessful culture depends largely on having water available for imgation when necessary. With irrigation on suitable land, apricots, peaches, almonds, figs, grapes, olives, oranges, and lemons can be grown to great perfection, those varieties of deciduous fruits that dry well being the most suitable. Citrus fruits do well, and produce fruit of exceptional quality ; in fact, I question if finer citrus fruits were ever grown or seen in Australia than the collection of citrus fruits grown by Lord Ranfurly at Old Mildura and exhibited in Melbourne at the Mildura Citrus Fair held during August, 1895. Though Old Mildura is not in New South Wales, it is only separated from it by the river Murray, and we have many places in our western country that are capable of producing citrus fruits equal to those grown at Old Mildura. As artesian water has now been found over a large portion of our western country, and as there is every reason to believe that the supply is practically inexhaustible it is impossible to say to what extent fruit- culture may be carried by its use. This district contains immense areas of perfect fruit soils that are easily irrigated as they possess good natural drainage, and respond well to the application of water when it is properly and judiciously applied. Experimental fruit- culture is now being carried out by the Department of Agriculture at Pera Bore, near Bourke, with every prospect of success, and in my opinion there is practically no limit to the quantity of fruit that this district is capable of producing under a combined system of irrigation and thorough cultivation. I have now dealt with all the different parts of the Colony, and have endeavoured to show that owing to the wide range of climate a very large number of fruits can be grown here successfully. I have also endeavoured to show the class of fruit that are best adapted to the different districts, and to give some slight idea of the capabilities and possibilities of the Colony as a fruit-producing country. In the early days of the Colony, fruit-culture was looked upon more as a hobby of the rich than as an industry suitable to the Colony and capable of supporting a large number of persons, the soil and climate of the first settled districts being considered unsuitable for_ fruit- growing. The trees planted, however, did so well that the cultivation of fruit soon increased largely in and around the older settled districts of Cumberland, with the result that the industry often turned out tt) be a very profitable one, and many of the growers became comparatively wealthy men, as the demand for the fruit was in excess of the supply, and the prices obtained were consequently highly remunerative. The fruit trade remained in this condition until some ten years ago, since when the area under fruit-trees has been very largely increased, and the production of some kinds of fruit is now in excess of the demand, I 20 A'£IV SOUTH WALES. tliG result being that tlie prices realised, as a whole, arc now much lower than they used to be. It is, however, only inferior fruit that is over-produced and is unremunerative, as first-quality fruit always sells well in our markets, and is easily disposed of at satisfactory prices. In the past the growers have simply looked to one market, viz., the market for fresh fruit, and now that this market is occasionally over- supplied there are many complaints from the growers that the trade is overdone, and that there is no longer any money in it. Now, because one market happens to be overdone for a short time during the summer season, that is no reason at all that the industry, as a whole, is overdone, and anyone who looks at the imports of fruit into this Colony, both green fruit and preserved fruit, either iu the form of canned fruit, dried fruits, jams, or jellies will see at a glance that we are still very far from supplying our own requirements, and that there is still a considerable scope for an increase in the production before we need to talk much of over-production or have fruits for export. In the past the fruits grown have usually been those that have pro- duced the heaviest returns with the least trouble, quality being usually of secondary consideration ; the fruit has been grown simply to supply the green fruit market, and now that this market is overstocked during the height of the season these fruits which are usu^ally valueless for any other use, should be supplanted by varieties valuable not only for the green-fruit trade, but, which, if this market is over-supplied may be utilized by drying, canning, jam-making or otherwise. Fruit-gTowing in the future will have to be carried out on totally different lines from what it has been in the past if our growers intend to keep even our own markets ; and before we can hope to compete in the world's markets with any chance of success^ and be able to hold our share of these markets we must grow better fruit than we are doiug at present, and when grown market it in such a manner that it will be a credit to our Colony, and hold its own on its merits. There has been an enormous increase iu the production of fruit throughout the world during the past ten years, and the following figures, which I have taken from T1\q Californian Fruit-groicer for 21st September, 1805, will give some idea of the immense production of fruit in California alone, and of the rate at which production is increasing there. In 1894 the follov\'irig quantities of fruit were shipped from California, viz. : — • n.. Fresh fruit 179,570,500 Citrus fruit 118,125,.30O Dried fruit ... 103,500,400 Canned fruit 106.125,-2C0 Raisins fruit 94,112,.350 Nuts fruit 7,901,112 Total G09,340,8C2 Which is equal to 25,391 carloads of about 24,000 lb. or 12 tons American each. The total shipments in 1890 were only 3:30,313,900 lb., or only a little more than half of 1894, so that the output has nearly doubled in a period of five years, and it is estimated that the gain for the next five years will be equal to that of that of the period shown. This enormous increase in the production of fruit is not confined to California alone, but many other of the United States are becoming heavy fruit- FRUIT CULTURE. 121 producers as well. The Cape of Ciood Hope is paj-iuf^ consideraLle attention to fruit-culture, aud in all the colonies of Australasia the industry is very much on the increase. With this very great increase in the production of fruit the only chance of making fruit-growing pay in the future will be to grow nothing but the best varieties, and only such as the district is suited to, and which it will produce to the greatest perfection. If this is done I believe that we will be able to hold our own markets easilv, and I also believe that it is possible for us to raise fruit of such quality that even with the great increase in production it will be able to hold its own in every market. In order to do this the fruit- growers of the future will have to be a very different individual from the fruit-grower of the past. He will have to conduct his business on the strictest commercial lines, and use his brains as Avell as his hands. He Avill have to employ in^provcd methods of culture, systematically prune and thin his trees, keep his orchard in a state of vigorous health by the eradication of all insect and fungus pests, and by the application of manures when necessary ; grov/- nothing but the finest fruits that it is possible to produce, and when he has grown them market them in the best possible manner. The fruit-growing of the future will be a science, and no one will make a success of it unless he keeps al)reast of the times, and takes advantage of all the assistance that improved machinery can give him, as well as of ail the information on diseases, &c., published by scientists in all parts of the world. Fruit-growing in New South Wales, if properly conducted, will, I believe, have little to fear fi-om foreign competition, as we possess sevei'al advantages that the older fruit-growing countries do not. In the first ])lace, we can grow a greater number of fruits to perfection than any other country of the same size on earth. Secondly, we have a large area of the best fruit-growing land which is available for fruit-culture at a very low price. Thirdly, the rainfall over a large portion of the country adapted for fruit-growing is sufficient for the successful culture of deciduous fruits without iri-igation, provided that the land is kept in a state of perfect tilth. Fourthly, our large belt of artesian country with its probably inexhaustible supply of water, and water that can be utilised Avith the least expense, is capable of producing all kinds of drying fruits at a rate that few countries if any can compete against. Fifthly, if our growers will lay themselves out to grow the right kinds of fruit for exporting to Europe, we have a large market for choice fruits during the European winter when the local fruits are out of season. Owing to the reverse of the seasons here, their off season is our harvest, and we can thus supply them with fruit at a time that there will be little European or North American fruit, save oranges, on the market, and in the case of citrus fruits, the same rule applies as our fruits ripen at the time that these fruits are scarcest in Europe. Despite the advantages this Colony possesses for the building up of a big fruit industry, it will depend 'entirely on the energy of our growers whether this Colony will take the place that it shouKl in the fruit production of the world, or whether it will be inished aside by the more enero-etic oTowers of other countries, who even though they may 122 NEW SOUTH WALES. be growing fruit under less favourable conditions than those possessed by our growers, yet lose no cliance to extend their industry, and find a mai-ket for their produce whenever and wherever they can. In our own Colony we should endeavour to popularise the consumption of fruit as much as possible, and this can only be done by supplying the general public with good fruit at low rates. At present fruit is looked upon more or less as a luxury, instead of which it should be considered as an essential part of every meal, as it is nature's greatest remedy for keeping the mind and body in vigorous health, it is especially valuable in a climate like this, and should take the place in a great measure of the large quantity of animal food consumed by all classes of the community. In conclusion, I can only state that there is still a good opening for energetic fruit-growers in this Colony — men who will not be contented with '^good enough," but who Avill have the push and energy to take advantage of any information that will tend to advance their industry, and who will never be satisfied till they are able to turn out fruit second to none in the world, which will go direct from the orchard to the consumers whenever it is possible to do so. This can only be accomplished by an active co-operation of all of our growers, as it is by this means only that we can minimise the cost of production and distribution, and be able to compete successfully against other fruit- producing countries. Keen competition and low prices have compelled the Calif ornian growers to co-operate for their own protection, and the same causes will compel our growers to co-operate if they intend their industry to prosper. 123 Viticulture. By P. F. Adams. -The following paper is designed to sliow tlie capabilities, in botli soil and climate, of New Soutli Wales as a wine-producing country ; that the pests to which the vine is subject to are controllable, and to give reasons why the wine trade is not more prosperous, and suggest the remedy : — Soil In soil. New South Wales possesses all the elements of a great wine- producing country. Commencing in the south, the valley of the Murray is formed of hills of Silurian formation, abounding in the most important elements of mineral plant-food — potash and phosphate. Even in the alluvium of the river these elements are in such abundance that, taken together with the nitrogenous matter of the alluvium, vines planted therein will go on producing heavy crops for twenty years without manure. Here and iu the Upper Murrumbidgee Valley are thousands of acres of land capable of producing the thin wines required for making brandy. By the adoption of viticultural machinery, and judicious design in planting, the maximum quantity could be harvested with a minimum expenditure of labour. Yet until legislation removes existing restrictions nothing can be done in distillation, and these unrivalled capabilities remain in abeyance. The foot hills adjacent so abound in potash, lime, and phosphate, that they only require nitrogenous manure or humus in small quanti- ties to go on producing crops for all time. The only di-awbacks to the upper valleys are late frosts, but the fertility is so great that if two crops out of three are harvested the result will be greater than that of most other districts. Lower down, the valleys of both rivers open into undulating ground, possessing all the principal mineral elements, and at Corowa the soil is further enriched by nodular concretions of sulphate of lime. The wealth of these valleys lies in the natural endowment of the very mineral elements which are the most expensive to supply arti- ficially. Travelling northerly, the country rises, and the tablelands are too cold for viticulture; but on their western border a margin, ranging from 50 to 100 miles, exists, all more or less suited to the vine. At and around Forbes, on the Lachlan River, the watershed of that stream embraces a considerable area of soil well suited to viticulture, although not to the same extent as iu other western valleys — again in consequence of the encroachment of the high tableland thereon the area is limited. 124 ^'^^^ SOUTH WALES. At Dabbo tlie valley of tlie Macquarie Eiver and its tributaries opens out ; enormous areas exist^ principally of upper Silurian or Devonian origin, containing the mineral constituents of wine, with limestone in abundance. Nearly all tlie tributaries of tlio Macquarie River above Dubbo pass through country of this character, and upon the higher waters are thousands of acres suitable to the production of wines of a very high character, the climate being also favourable. Passing northward to the watershed of the Namoi and its tributaries, we find in the neighbourhood of Quirindi, both in soil and climate, every thing that could be desired, and very promising wine has been sent to Sydney for exhibition from this part. It is surprising that the growers" of the Hunter River Valley do not avail themselves of the opportunity of acquiring vineyards north of the Liverpool Range, and grow a suffi- cient quantity of full-bodied wine to supplement the product of the Hunter vineyards in wet seasons by blending. The best soil for viti- culture will \)Q found on the eastern margin of the great black soil areas of the Liverpool Plains, especially where the waters rise in granite country. This also applies to the watershed of the Peel River; scattered all over this area are innumerable sites for vineyards. Of the district watered by the upper tributaries of the Gwydir River the writer has not sufficient personal knowledge to describe, but he believes that a large tract suitable for wine-growing may exist, and has also seen promising samples of wine produced there. The last area to be described on western waters is the Macintyre River and its tributaries, on which unlimited areas exist so rich in potash and phosphate that the vines grow and produce to excess, but the product, although admirably suited for blending, and of great value for that purpose, does not find the favour with the public it merits. Some very excellent samples have been produced in these localities, particularly where the basalt had thinned out and exposed the under- lying granite or other old formations. The geological character of the district is granite of several varieties overflowed by a general volcanic outburst, from which the potash and phosphate are derived. Of the vast areas westward of the country already described, there is any quantity of land in which the soil is all that can be desired, and where the vine grows luxuriantly if supplied with a very small amount of water. The fruit is luscious and excellent in flavour, but the cli- mate is unfavourable to the production of wine of delicacy. Having described the climate of the western slope of the Main Dividing Range we now take its eastern watershed Here we find a vast extent of excellent soil, but the prevalence of rain during the season of vintage deters vignerons from planting. However, exception may be taken to the western waters of the Clarence. The same drawback exists as far south as the Manning River, although on the Upper Macleay some very good wine has been pro- duced in favourable seasons. At Port Macquarie the only grape which flourishes is the Isabella, and wine is made from it, but it does not find much favour with the public. VITICULTURE, 125 We next come to tlie Hunter and its tributaries^ wliero l;lie greatest variety of geological formation is found ; consequently in the alluvium of its lower waters tlicre is a great and favourable mixture of soil, and heavy crops of light wine are harvested. Higher up the soil of the hills improves, and wines light in character and in certain seasons of excellent quality are produced. In fact, as far as soil goes, this district has everything required within a comparatively short distance of navio-- able water. The Paterson district is of Devonian formation ; the Lower Hunter carboniferous and sub-carboniferous, with occasional volcanic remains, which supply potash, iron, and phosphate. The valleys of Black Creek, the Wollombi I3rook, Mulbring Creek and Goulburn River are sub-carboniferous, and abound in lime. At Singleton, beds of old alluvium exist, rich in all the vine requires, and on the Upper Hunter, Fal Brook, and Isis, wherever the coal measures have been either worn away or have never existed, the soil derived from sub-carboniferous forma- tion and further supplemented by the washing down of Devonian formations, is admirably suited to the production of high-class wines. Of the counties of Cumberland and Camden, except in a few localities where the remains of volcanic outbursts exist, the soil is not favourable to wine-making. Further south, beyond the coal measures, the soil is good all the way to the Victorian boundary, but the humidity of the climate about vintage time prevents it being availed of for wine-growing. It has now been shown that for quality of soil, and extent thereof. New South Wales has certainly no reason to complain, having in fact all that can be desired in that connection. Climate. We now pass on to climate, of which this Colony has indeed every variety, but weighted with an uncertainty of season, winch has exer- cised a depressing effect on the wine industry and caused other colonies having a more equable climate to pass her in the race of development. How this has occurred, and the action proposed in remedy, will appear later on. Success or failure depends on rainfall. If it occurs in fair quantity, at the proper time, all is well. If rain is denied altogether, or abundant at the wrong season, failure occurs. In winter, rain is required to enable the vine to absorb its mineral plant-food. In spring, to bring down nitrogen from the atmosphere and enable the vine to assimilate its plant-food. The summer or '^ Tropical '^ rain continues the action of the spring rain, and finally swells the fruit before ripening. This rainfall occurs usually in Janu- ary, and is an absolute necessity in the elevated districts of the west, where vines are later in ripening than in the east, and the summer climate is less dry. As in describing the soil, we begin with the climate of the valleys of the Murray and Murrumbidgee. Excepting for late frosts, the climate of the upper parts of these valleys is all that can be desired ; but as we proceed downwards these frosts are scarcely felt. The winter climate is excellent ; the cold causes the vines to shed their leaves early and bud late, giving the vines a long rest, which appears to brace them for the work they have to perform in summer. At an elevation of 8U0 126 A'ZTF SOUTH WALES. feet the late frosts occur in October, at a time when the canes are nearly 12 inches long, and so frequently that in one year out of three the crop will be lost unless precautions are taken by raising a smoke before sunrise. To provide the necessary straw or litter, and distribute it, is no great work, and it need only be burned to save the crop. Many intending vignerons are deterred from planting in districts so affected, never considering the advantages accruing on the other hand. I believe that the time will come when existing restrictions to distillation will be removed, and, despite late frosts, the upper valleys of the ]\Iurray and Murrumbidgee will become the great brandy- producing areas of New South Wales. In the lower valleys if the spring rain is not sufficient the tropical rain generally falls in time to save the crop. As we proceed westward down these vq,lleys, the tropical rains de- crease in volume, and if absent the result on the vintage is disastrous — the grapes wither and can with difficulty be pressed, and the result is coarse, inferior wine. The remedy for this is watering ; no plant returns so much profit for the cost of watering, and no plant gives such results from so small an expenditure of water, and yet no pre- caution against failure is so much neglected. In the districts in question facilities for obtaining a supply by pumping are frequent. The time will come when one of the principal objects to be kept in view in designing new vineyards will be water and a free flow of it along the rows of vines by easy and gentle grades. A little attention to this will save labour eventually. Northward from the Murrumbidgee the belt of climate suitable for vine-growing is narrow and confined to an elevation from 600 to 1,000 feet ; below this the tropical rains do not generally reach, having been intercepted by the high tablelands over which they pass. The valley of the Lachlan at and about Forbes possesses a dry but even climate, with command of water within certain limits ; with a supply of water to the vineyard, wine of a very saleable character could be produced in almost any season. The quantity of land on the Upper Lachlan is limited, the country falling from the tableland too rapidly, leaving- but a narrow belt of available land. Continuing northerly to the valley of the Macquarie, the climate at Dubbo, elevation 800 feet, is drier still, and admirably suited to the production of raisins, but without watering the wine produced has a tendency to strength and coarseness. Ascending the river to Wellington, 1,000 feet elevation, the climate improves, and the tropical rain falls generally at the right time and in fair quantities. The valley of the Cudgegong from Wellington to Mudgee. 1,500 feet and upwards, has a climate almost unequalled in the Colony, the tropical rain falling in sufficient c{uantity to secure an abundant yield, capable of producing excellent light wine. If ever a true hock is made in the Colony, it, in all probability, will reward the grower who plants iu this district the German Riesling grape, the only vine capable of producing a true hock. The next western water is at the heads of southern tributaries of the Namoi Eiver, about Quirindi, elevation 1,300 feet, and extending northerly on this watershed is an area not extensive, being limited to a certain geological formation, Ijut, for both soil and climate, unequalled for the production of wine VITICULTURE. 127 by any other district in New South Wales. The Great Northern l{ail- way passes through it, and the produce is therefore readily available for blending with the wines of the Hunter. Nature has done so much for this district that, with the most ordinary care, bad wine ought never be made, nevertheless the writer had, up to 189], never tasted a really well-made wine from it, and unless an improvement has since been effected, it is a pity to see such capabilities wasted. The main branch of the Namoi, the Peel River, from its junction, flows through a country having great capabilities. Taniworth, 1,300 feet elevation, is situated near the lower extreme of the viticultural area, but all the country drained by the Peel River and its affluents below an altitude of 2,500 feet possesses a climate as nearly perfect for viticul- ture as any that can be found in New South Wales, and being well watered ought to produce some of the most saleable wine in this Colony. The grapes ripen here as at Mudgee and Quirindi, after the tropical rain, the elevation being sufficient to counteract the effect of low latitude. Tamwortli, on the Great Northern Railway, is the entrepot and outlet of this promising district, and situated near its lower boundary. The next valle}^ is that formed by the tributaries of the Gwydir River, which fall rapidly from the high tableland of New England, and in all probability it includes a belt of good viticultural soil and climate ; but of this the writer has no personal knowledge. The next western watershed is that of the Macintyre River and its tributaries, with Inverell at an altitude of some 1,600 feet as its centre. The climate being dry during the ripening of the grapes, the wines have a tendency to richness which will in time make them valuable for export to Europe for blending with light wines of bouquet from the Mediterranean. The recent reduction in the rate of railway freight charges will be a great boon to this district. Having described the climate of the western watersheds, we now take the eastern. Very little can be said however, as the tropical rain occurs on or about the time of ripening, therefore success is the exception rather than the rule. There are, however, on the upper waters of the Clarence places where high lands intervene, and inter- cept the tropical rain before it reaches them ; it is probable that good wine may be produced here in dry seasons. From the Clarence to the Hunter the influence of the tropical rain is so great that only the Isabella grape thrives ; this vine retains its fruit in spite of wet and mildew, which decays the produce of nil the European varieties. We now come to the valley of the Hunter, and its trilnitaries, which extend from one to two hundred miles from its mouth. Here, as at the Clarence, high lands intervene between its northern affluents and the coast, and attract the tropical clouds which discharge the bulk of their rain before reaching the valley. Until a distance of 30 miles is attained from the sea board the climate is too moist for a certain crop each year. As we progress westerly to the neighbourhood of Gresford and Sin- gleton, although at only a trifling elevation above sea level, the climate improves, becoming more regular, so much so that several wine-growers have succeeded by blending together the vintages of certain years in 128 xi:jv south wales. producing wines so nearly resembling eacli other from year to year that buyers have no reason to complain in this respect. However^ the large amount of capital locked up in this kind of business increases the cost to the buyer. Higher up these rivers the climate is dryer, and in localities favoured with a suitable soil, wines of considerable strength are produced. Climate alone will not produce good wine, and, with the exception of the old alluvium^ all the good wines of the Hunter are grown on soil derived from geological formations below the coal-measures. The climate of the Counties of Cumberland and Camden is unsuited to wine-growing ; excepting in their most western parts very little good wine is made, and further south the tableland approaches too near to the coast, the heat and tropical rain preventing the slow process of ripening so necessary to the production of wine. Those good wines which have been made in Cumberland and Camden are the result of the skill and attention which have been brought to bear ujDon them, and no person unless thoroughly qualified through having made wine in a similar climate, in Europe for instance, should engage in wine-making in these parts. PeHs, Diseases, and Treatment. In late years the Australian viticulturist has to contend vrith plagues unknown to early colonists. About twenty-five years ago the O'idium Tucheri spread over all the grape producing countries of the globe, and has never left. However, it is now understood, and may be fought by preventive measures. The best known is sulphur applied before the fungoid is visible. Once seen treatment is too late for the spot observed, because the fume of sulphur is only fatal to the germ as it floats in the air, therefore it is in an invisible state that the fungoid can only be successfully fought. During rain and immediately afterwards the spores abound and multiply ; therefore as soon as the leaves are dry is the time to apply sulphur with greatest effect. Treatment should com- mence when the first leaf breaks from the bud, and if the weather is dry at the time, the sulphur will remain effectual for many days, perhaps until rain falls. If applied after every rain until the gi^apes are as large as peas, no injury by Oidium will result. The smallest quantity of sulpliur fume present in the air is fatal to the spores. The quantity required is small. If ten pounds weight could be equally and evenly distributed over an acre it would be as effectual as a hundred weight. Some vignerons mix their sulphur with equal parts finely sifted lime, wood ashes, or even road dust, and this is supposed not only to help to distribute the sulphur but to have a curative effect mechanically. Next comes the black spot, or anthracnosis. This is also a fungoid pest, attacking the muscat tribe and several other valuable vines. The treatment is spraying with Bordeaux mixture. Full directions for preparing and applying the remedy will be found in Yol. 2, page 421, of the Ayricultural Gazette. The first spraying should be administered when the young shoots are about four or five inches long, and continued every three weeks, or oftcner, if the weather is wet or the black spot appears. Spraying should not be done during the blossoming of the vines, at which "time sulphur should be applied instead. When the berries are formed VITICULTURE. 129 continue spraying till they are as large as peas, at which time the Ji.soaso ought to be got under. But if the spot still shows, the Ireutmont must be changed, and Eau Celeste substituted. If caterpillars are troublesome, the addition of Paris gn-cu at iIk- rate of a toaspoonful of the powder to every 22 gallons of the ]^>rdeaux mixture will destroy them at once. The above-mentioned treatment, if persisted in, will be found effectual with black spot^ Oidium, and caterpillars^ and sulphuring except during floAveriug is not recpiired. We now come to the most dreaded of all plagues, the ])hyiloxera. In this the writer had recent experience, and an o]')])(ji-tu]iity of observing, all of which leads to the belief that vigorous action in inspection and treatment will eradicate it in a short time. In this connection there are two important facts. First, as an insect the phylloxei-a is easily killed ; its vitality is nothing comj^ared with peach or apple aphides. Secondly, it is transmitted in the course of nature only in the winged stage. Of course the insect in its under-ground stage may be carried, but this can only be by either wilful or gross negligence ; therefore, practically we have to take measures to destroy it before it has time to reach the winged stage. This can only be done by careful and repeated inspections, and when found, destroy at once by application of specific in such quantity as to kill the vine itself. A few hours after such an application all mature insects die, and the eggs, if they hatch, find nothing but dead roots. Vitality will remain in the stock, and, after a time, if not removed, fresh shoots and roots will sprout. It is therefore necessary to dig out the stocks and burn them. After destroying all infected vines, and a belt of apparently sound ones round them, a preventive dose of specific should be administered to all the vines left. Tlie remedy lies in constant and vigorous inspection and prompt destruction wherever the disease is found. Enough money has been spent in trenching- out vineyards in this Colony to have maintained inspectors sufficient to deal with all the vineyards in Australia. It is only through want of knowledge of the habits of the insect and of the necessary preventive treatment that it has been allowed to get such a hold that no other course than trenching out remained. Present State of the lVi)ie Industry. Having shown that New South Wales possesses extraordinary advantages in both soil and climate, the question arises, Wliy is not the wine industry in a more prosperous state ? The answer is that our wine-growers have heretofore taken no steps to counteract the effect of variation of season, and to produce from year to year a wine that does not vary with soil, climate, and season — one that will always have the same strength, character, and quality. In New South Wales there may be at the present time some one hundred brands of wine in the market, and with few exceptions they all vary from year to year to such an extent that the ordinary customer fails to identify the wine, and thinks he has been imposed upou. Now, this is hard upou the wine-grower who has done his best, and Las produced a good, honest article, but unfortunately irregular in character. I30 AEW SO cm WALES. For a parallel to tlie present state of tlie wine trade^ let us look to tlie butter industry a few years ago compared A\dtli its jDresent pros- perous condition, and we shall find that the remedy for the wine trade lies in the same direction. Practical Suggestions in Remedy. The first step in reform will be the establishment of a ^^ winery" in each of our most important districts, either by co-operation or by capital — preferably the latter, as it is desirable to have both the vintages and export business under the same control. The small grower who cannot sell his wine with any degree of regularity will find it far more to his advantage to sell grapes to the winery for cash on delivery. He can then put his whole capital into a certain venture. There is too great a difference between wine farming and wine makiug for both to be successfully carried out by one and the same individual. In a winery where machinery is used, and everything done on a large scale, a better article can be produced at less cost than by the small grower. A winery need not necessarily be very expensive at the outset, if designed with a view to extension. The first requisite is an abundant water supply. Choice of site should be given where a sloping bank exists, rising, say 30 feet in 100 above the drainage outlet ; such a rise from cellar floor to level of crushing mill will admit of performing all the heaviest work by gravitation. If the natural slope cannot be found, the height must be got by staging, although at an additional cost. In this case the grapes would have to be hoisted to the level of the sorting tables. The machinery employed in pumping water, must, and wine, crushing, and separating, also the wine-presses should be of the best quality, and designed for saving labour. Care and fore- thought must be exercised in this, or economical working will not result. Tlie fermenting house or cellar, if the slope of the ground admits, should be placed at such a height that vats or presses may be filled from trollies bringing* the mark from the crusher ; the floor on which they stand should be sufficiently raised to enable the must to run by gravitation into the fermenting casks from which it would be pumped to the storage casks. In some districts, where the vintage is early and the climate hot, refrigerating machinery may be necessary. This, however, would be of the simplest make, as it would be only necessary to reduce the temperature a few degrees ; consequently neither first cost nor working expenses would be great. The principal object in establishing local wineries is to focus, or bring together the whole product of the district into one wine — or in technical phrase, " the vintage of the year." Of vintages there may be several, red, white, or sweet, for instance, but the fewer classes of wine attempted the better. In order that choice may be afforded in selecting wines suitable for the general blend, a winery would be required in the far south ; another in the limestone district of the Macquarie, another at Tarn- VITICULTURE. \xi ■worthy two on tlie Hunter, one of them on the lower river, and one above Singleton, all connected bj railway with a central export depot located upon navigable water. It will be necessar^^to exercise groat care and judgment in selecting the due proportion from the district wineries, with a virw to incorpora- tion, and the production of a wine that will require little or no sul)se- quent treatment to assimilate it to standard. The system now proposed is not new; it has been in vogue loi- ;i hundred years in France and wineries are almost universal in California. If New South Wales is ever to be a great wine exporting country, we must be in a position to supply from year to year a wine of even strength, character, and quality, and this can be done by no other means than by vatting the wines of different districts in those pro- portions which the peculiarity of the season may suggest. It may be urged that blending destroys the individuality of wine. This is true. But where is the advantage of an individuality which varies with every season ? Except with the wine-grower who has already an appreciative constituency of custom, local individuality must be sunk and a general one adoj^ted. It is not proposed to blend mature wines, especially those having unequal alcoholic strength. The objection to this is well known to every practical winegrower. The blending will be done in the Eastern wineries by adding stronger vintages of the previous year during fermentation, the result will be complete incorporation and an average standard strength, or so near an approach thereto that blending will not cause disturbance. Three-fourths of the wine will be grown on Eastern waters, perhaps within 100 miles of the port of export, and onl}^ one-fourth will be subject to distant trainage. Before entering largely into the wine export trade several subjects will require careful and deliberate consideration. First, the classes of wine most likely to find favour, and, secondly, the standard alcoholic strength to be maintained in each. In the opinion of the writer four classes will be enough, say full- bodied red and white, with an alcoholic standard of 25 per cent, proof spirit, a light red and a light white, strength 20 per cent, proof spirit ; but it is probable that the industry would be started with one red wine of 21 per cent, proof spirit called Claret, with the name of the company as a prefix, and if ultimately it was deemed advisable to introduce a stronger, the strength of the claret could be reduced 1 per cent, without prejudice. As to the manner of placing our wines on the I]nglish market, I cannot do better than quote from the report of the special commissioner, Sydneij Morning Herald, of 31st December, 1895, as follows :— " But since writing the lines mentioned I have had opportunities to observe that large cxuantities of good sound wines suitable for hotel and restaurant dining-rooms were badly required. But you might have good wines in London and not be able to sell them. \ ou would require to push and advertise your wines, and gain tiie goodwill of hotel managers and the chief men of big companies before you could hope to sell the good wines profitably. The causes of the South Australian Wine DepOt not being a comjilete success arc that in the first place the trade is in but few hands, and in tlie second, tlic depOt lias not the millions of gallons of good wine. 132 A'FJV SOUTH WALES. When llie day comes that the millions of acres in New South Wales which are suitable for wine production are respected by capitalists, there will be some prospect of Australian wine being well respected in England. My limited exjieriencc here leaves the impression that the present system of marketing Australian wines or of using the name Australian on wines sold is doing much injury to the future trade. I know a London wine house Avhich is said to have 2,700 agents in Great Britain. It would be a difficult matter on the jjart of a single winegrower to influence these agents in favour of Australian wine, but a winegrowing company with a good capital could have its own depots and its own agents. I am strong in the opinion that a good reliable market for Australian wines can be obtained in Britain. I know that tlie light wines (they must l^e light and sound) can be readily sold in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and that the same countries will willingly pay fair remunerative prices for sound red wines. I would not be afraid to place some of my small savings in a strong Australian Vineyard Company. I have many times put the plan of such a company before readers in Australia. The plan has been discussed, but when the call for capital was made the sums offered were too small to start a venture of the kind. There is jirofit in wool-growing, and small sums set it going, because wool is easily marketed, and is an annual crop, but more than six years are required before the vineyard comjjany can hope for a return." Tlie above is perliaps the most recent opinion to hand, on the subject, and, moreover, from the pen of an able business man, and one who is disinterested ; therefore, his opinion is worthy of the serious consideration of those interested in the progress of the wine industry of this colony. Writers in California also deplore the state of the wine trade in Eastern markets and also in Great Britain ; they complain that there is no encouragement offered to growers to plant vines of higher class which do not bear so freely — that low-priced wines only are in demand by dealers ; they further regi'et the want of judgment on the part of consumers, who, if they understood the subject, would repudiate an inferior article. It is not to be expected that wine-brokers and dealers will take much interest beyond the question of immediate profits, neither can the wine-growers wait till the popular taste so far educates itself that inferior wines will be shut out of the market. In the meantime a favourable opportunity occurs for a strong com- pany operating on the lines herein projected to step in and sell a good, sound, wholesome wine at present ruling rates. If the dealers find it remunerative to pay fees and commissions, it will pay a company to do the same. By woi-king on a large scale, employing labour-saving machinery, having command of strong wines to bring up weak musts, and thereby keep up a uniform strength and character, Xew South Wales could compete with any other country. It would simply be a question of capital and time. The returns published in the Statistical Bogistcr give an average of only 207 gallons per acre as the produce of New South AVales vine- yards. But these figures do not represent the producing power of properly cultivated vineyards, and the crops of Avhich had been pre- served exclusively for vintage. For the purposes of this paper it will be necessary to add 70 per cent, to the averages of districts given in the Statistical Rojjister, and with this addition a very good criterion can be formed of the yield to be expected from vineyards cultivated as they would be by a strong company. VITICULTURE. "^ZZ In tlie Southern and Western districts, in the hjcalities where watering is advised, fully cent, per cent, nuiy l)e added in order to get an estimate of production under high cultivatio7i. Failing the necessary enterprise to take advantage of our natural resources, the question arises as to how far the Government could assist in developing a trade. The subject has been fully considered, and deemed to be one for private enterprise alone. This view of tho case will most likely be taken by future administrations, and therefore the subject may be dismissed. A proposal to establish an CEnological Laboratory met with more success, and had the financial condition of the Colony warranted the expenditure of some £5,000, it might have now been in operation. In order to derive full benefit therefrom an CKnological Laboratory must be situated centrally in a district where grapes come so quickly under the influence of fermentation that transport by rail would be impossible. The object of such an institution is to test practically under scientific control the important questions of fermentation, blending, and matur- ing, and also to impart instruction to students in such subjects. In order to do this, cellarage and casks for 5,000 gallons would be required, together with appliances for crushing, pressing, and reducing temperature. The first expenditure would be the greatest, and with no less sum than £5,000, could the attempt be made on the smallest scale. However, after a few years, the sales of wine and brandy would pay working expenses. A really pure brandy would be a boon to the hospitals. This paper runs into greater length than originally expected ; but to set forth our resources in soil and climate, how a wine of even character and quality may be produced from year to year, and, finally, to combat existing trade restrictions, could not have been done in a few words. 134 Sugar Grov^iiig and its Manufacture. By W. S. Campbell, Department of Agriculture. The cultivatiou of tlie sugai'-cane and the manufacture of sugar from it liave within the last thii-ty years developed into a very important industry in that semi-tropical portion of New South Wales^ which is the north-easternmost corner of the colony^ and the most easterly portion of the Australian continent. It does not seem to be generally known that the sugar-cane was one of the first of the exotic plants introduced into Australia in a.d. 1788. It was obtained by Governor Phillip, at the Cape, with other plants, on his voyage to form a settlement at Botany Bay. These exotics were planted somewhere near the site of our present Custom House in Sydney. AVhether the sugar-cane made any progress there does not appear, for history has not supplied any further particulars respect- ing it. About thirty-three years after the arrival of Governor Phillip, a penal settlement was established at Port Macquarie, at the mouth of the Hastings Eiver. Three years afterwards '' at a Government plantation established at Port Macquarie, some sugar was manufactured from cane grown on the spot. Six hundred acres were planted with the cane, and it was stated that the sugar and rum produced repaid the Government for the outlay incurred." This plantation, according to the Sydney Herald, 1832, was situated on Wilson^s River, a northern tributary of the Hastings. It was formed by the late Mr. Thomas Scott, who introduced the sugar-cane from the tropics in 1822. Mr. Thos. W. Scott, of Port Clare, Brisbane Water, son of the late Mr. Scott, informed me that from the first crop of cane which his father succeeded in producing, he made 70 tons of sugar, which was sent to the Commissariat Stores in Sydney. Shortly afterwards the penal settlement was abandoned, and nothing further was cai-ried out to develop the sugar industry. Mr. Thos. Scott, who was the pioneer of this industry in A:iEtralia, was born in the year 177G, and died so recently as 1881, having attained the great age of 105 3- ears. When a young man he managed his father's sugar plantation in the West Indies, where he acquired his experience. For many years, indeed up to the time of his death, Mr. Scott strongly advocated the cultivation of the sugar-cane in New South AVales and Queensland, and it is probably due to his perseverance that the sugar industry finally became established and developed into its present importance in both colonies. For upwards of thirty years he was a constant contributor to the press • — the Sydney Morning Herald, the Ernjnre, and the Queenslander — on the subject. In 1838 he made a small sugar plantation at Port Clare, Brisbane Water, near Gosford, and manufactured small quantities of sugar there which he distrilmted about this colony and Queensland for public inspection. For his services in introducing the industry, he SUGAR GROWING AND ITS MANUFACTURE. 135 was granted, sliurtly before his deatli, a small jK'usiuu Ly Parliament. Mr, Scott was the first and only person for many years tu send haiiauas to the Sydney market. 'I'hese were produced at Brisbane Water. About the year I8O0 much public attention was directed to the possibility of cultivating sugar-cane profitably in this colony, and experiments on a considerable scale were carried out on the Clarence, the Hastings, and the Manning Rivers, and in 1807 fairly large areas were planted with this crop on these rivers, and arrangements were made for the erection of sugar mills on the Clarence and Macleay by the Colonial Sugar Refining Company, and on the Hastings by Mr. Morrison, in conjunction with the late Mr. Thomas Mort. In 1809 the last-mentioned mill was worked for a considerable time, and that year two of the Sugar Company's factories were completed ; but it was not until the following year that any considerable quantity of cane was crushed at these mills. In 1870 the Company's two mills at Southgate and Chatsworth on the Clarence were worked through the whole of the season. During the same year the mill at Darkwater, on the Macleay River, was at work during the season. The returns to both producers and manufacturers were, however, very unsatisfactory on account of the extremely wet season and the want of knowledge of those concerned in the industry. The results, however, justified further experiments and expenditure, and from that time onward there was a steady increase in the area of cane planted on the Clarence ; but the cold winter that followed 1870 showed that sugar-cane could not be profitably grown either on the Hastings or the Macleay, and in 187-3 the Colonial Sugar Company removed their mill from the latter river to Harwood, on the Clarence, while the industry was abandoned on the Hastings. For some years the three mills erected by the Company were worked with success, and in consequence a number of farmers erected small mills for the manufacture of sugar from their own cane and that grown by their neighbours. For many years the chief industry on the Clarence was the produc- tion of maize for the Sydney market. At one time this was a very profitable crop ; but, by degrees, as the area under maize was increased in other places, the industry apparently became less profitable. The farmers, therefore, gladly welcomed a new crop which seemed likely to become a reliable one ; and for many years, and until comparatively recently, the growing of cane has proved a good investment of labour, and should continue to do so as long as the present prices paid by mill proprietors continue. In 1879, the Colonial Sugar Company's large mill at Southgate, on the Clarence, was worked for the last time, and four yeai's later the machinery at Harwood and Chatsworth was amalgamated in one large factory at the former place. This Company has at the present time only three large mills at work in the Colony, instead of five, as before ; but the capacity of these three mills is much in excess of the former. The rich alluvial land on the banks of the Tweed River caused considerable attention to be directed to the locality as being a very suitable one for cane-growing. The Tweed is the most northern river in New South AN'ales, and an exceedingly beautiful one, being adorned in many places with rich tropical vegetation, and backed up by an elevated and rugged range of 136 NEW SOUTH WALES. mountains, which forms the boundary between this colony and Queens- land, known as the Macpherson Range. In 1877 the Colonial Sugar Company decided to ei'ect a mill here, and in 1880 it was started, and has since been continuously at work. A few other mills small and large had also started, but about three or four only are still at work. About this time the rich country on the Richmond River, which is south of the Tweed and north of the Clarence, attracted great attention, and a vast number of selections were taken up, both along the banks of the river and its tributaries, and on the beautiful, undulating, vol- canic country lying between the Richmond and Tweed Rivers, generally known as the " Big Scrub." The rush for land in this district was extraordinary, and large areas were taken up by selectors who could not hope to make use of them, except for speculative purposes ; many of these selections afterwards changed hands for large sums of money. Areas were cleared, cane planted, and numbers of small, and in some cases large mills were erected, and the manufacture of sugar attempted by persons who were entirely ignorant of the process. Some of these mills did fairly well for a time, and the owners were able to employ a good deal of labour ; but, owing to the fall in sugar, and ignorance of the proper processes of manufacturing it, only a few now remain. The country about here is extremely fertile and well watered by almost everflowing creeks of excellent water. In its natural state it is clothed with magnificent vegetation quite tropical in appearance. Owing to the peculiar nature of the red volcanic soil common to the " Big Scrub " the heavy tropical rains which frequently occur do not impede to any great extent farming operations, for ploughing and cultivation can be carried on almost immediately after heavy rains. This is not the case on the alluvial banks of the rivers and creeks where the bulk of the sugar-cane is produced, and it is oftentimes extremely difficult to carry on necessary work. Notwithstanding the advantages the farmers enjoy in this red-soil country, the cultivation of the sugar-cane is in too many instances but indifferently attended to, for only too frequently weeds may be seen over- topping the sugar-cane even after it has attained its maximum height. The sugar-cane produced on the beautiful undulating country within a few miles radius of the village of Rous is purchased under agreement by the Rous Sugar Company's mill, which is situate at the village. This mill, which is an extensive one, has been working for many years through many difficulties and changes. The price paid for cane here is about 7s. to 8s. per ton. This company grows a large quantity of cane for its own use. A considerable area of land which was at one time cultivated for sugar- cane in this "Big Scrub" country is now used for grazing purposes, for which it is well adapted ; and dairying has taken the place of sugar- growing to a considerable extent. The dairying seems likely to become of great importance to the whole district, for it is doubtful whether a better country could be found for the production of high-quality butter and cheese. Sugar-cane succeeds well here, and frosts sufficiently severe to cause injury to the cane do not seem to occur. A State experimental farm has lately been established in connection with the Department of Agriculture on a portion of the " Big Scrub," and experiments are being carrie»/•; secoml, colour ; third, texture; fourth, hurning ; fifth, size of leaf. The only one our tobacco-growei's regard is the last, and least important. Another cause for our want of success in tobacco-growing is the continual use of colonially-grown seed. In other crops the farmers change their seed frequently, because it is apt to run out ; but in tobacco they go on growing plants from their own seed year after year on the same soil. The tobacco consequently acquires a character of its own, and its peculiarities become exaggerated. Again, in the eagerness for a heavy crop, tobacco has almost always been planted in the richest river flats. Now, I have constantly pointed out that the best tobacco cannot be grown on these rich tints, which can only produce big, fat leaf of low commercial value, and 1 have constantly urged tobacco-growers to try the second bottoms on the upper reaches of the rivers and creeks. I was speaking on thus point at West Maitland three years ago, and Mr. Buxton, the manager of the tobacco factorv there, who has had fifty years of tobacco experience l64 JVFW SOUTH WALES. in tlie Colony, said that lie had always found the tobacco from the upland valleys much finer, both in flavour and colour, than that grown on the lower flats. The Victorian Government sent ]\Ir. Sinclair to America last year to inquire and report on the cultivation of sugar-beet and tobacco. In his report, page 37, he says : — "■ It is not on these rich bottoms that the best tobacco in Kentucky is grown, as might be expected. Here the farmer has his corn patch. For the tobacco crop the upland slope, if not too steep and not liable to be washed or scoured, to the loss of soil or plants, and the elevated flat portion of the rising ground is cleared of timber for tobacco-growing. In this upland, undulating timber country the finest tobacco is produced.^' The example of Java is also very much to the point. There are two classes of Java leaf sold in Europe. One brings 6d. to 8d. per lb., and the other from 2s. to 3s. per lb. The former is grown in alter- nation with rice on the flats, the other in the upland valleys. If we will persist in growing from the same seed year after year on these rich flats, there is no help for it, the leaf will get bigger, stronger, and coarser every year, until at last it becomes unsaleable. At an early stage of my Australian experience, I used to insist that tobacco should not follow tobacco year after year on the same soil. I still hold to that opinion as a general rule ; but I am bound to admit that there are exceptions in which better tobacco has been grown in the third and fourth years than in the first and second on the same land, but they are exceptions. The growers had waged successful war with the weeds, grubs, and caterpillars that infested the land when newly cleared, so that, as the land became cleaned and sweetened by constant tillage and care, it yielded better crops of better tobacco year after year. But, as a rule, it is far better to alternate the tobacco crop with a grain or fodder crop. There is another matter which has worked against the tobacco industry — it is the want of an efiicient organisation for the disposal of the crop when harvested and matured. Two brothers cultivated tobacco on the halves on a certain piece of ground. When the crop was fit for market it was evenly divided into two portions, one brother sent his share down to Sydney, and it was sold at 5d. per Hi. The other sent his to the same firm a fortnight later with a letter, pointing- out its excellent quality, and it was sold at 6^d. The practice of sending small lots of tobacco to be sold at auction at the produce sales amongst pumpkins, maize, potatoes, hay, chaff, and onions, is altogether bad. It is not worth a manufacturer's while to keep a man to go round every day to look for and buy these little parcels, so the middleman or jobber comes in and makes a big profit for any small lots of good tobacco that come up for sale. We want some system by which we can ensure a fair price being obtained for every parcel of well-grown, well-cured, and well-assorted leaf sent to Sydney, so that careful growers might be encouraged to even greater care ; but while it is a mere chance what price he gets, no man cares to bestow much labour in putting up his crop for market. Another difficulty which we have to contend with is the uncertainty of the seasons. There have been times when it has been possible to TOBACCO CULTURE. 165 cure tobacco in tlie open air, without a shed of any sort, simplv scaffolding it on poles in the iield, and chancing the weather; Init, «If course, this is very risky. A grower at the foot of the Toowoomba Range, Qiicciislaiid, t..l.l me that he had harvested a crop by simply cutting it down and h-ttiiig it lie on the ground till dry, turning it every two or thrc(> hours. When sufficiently dry, he carted it to the shed and stacked it; there it cured itself in a little over a fortnight. He said that the crop cost him £16 per ton and sold for £:37. I only accept this with a grain of salt- it is liossihle, perhaps, but the chances are a thousand to one again.st. The uncertainty of the seasons in New South Wales renders the proper curing of tobacco a matter of much difficulty. I have examined many hundreds of samples of tobacco grown in this Colony, and in the great majority of them I have found mildew on the stems or on tlie tips and margins of the leaves. In many of the samples the mildew was plainly apparent, in others only to be discovered by the aid of a magnifying glass or being subjected to moisture for a few hours. When mildew once becomes established it can never be entirely destroyed. Even after tha most skilful treatment at very high tom|)eratures it will reassert itself when it is placed in a moist atmosphere. The effect of this fungus is to destroy the natural aroma of the tobacco. In a favourable curing season it does not make its a])pearance, but if a few damp days intervene while the leaf is in a partially dried state it is very apt to be developed, sometimes very rapidly. If a week or two of such rains as we frequently experience should occur, nothing but fire can save the tobacco. It was because Mr. Holtz, of Glendon Brook, knew this, and provided against the contingency, that he could always sell his tobacco at the top price of the market. He l)uilt very ample sheds and provided abundance of suitable wood for fuel, and on the occurrence of rain lit a number of fires in each shed, and ke])t them constantly going as long as the damp weather continued. The curing of tobacco by the natural air process occupies from five to nine weeks in ordinary seasons ; but there is a process of drying by artifically heated air, by which it can be accomplished within a week. This process was employed, though with very imperfect and makeshift appliances, by Mr. Hungerford and Messrs. Rose, of Baerami, under my directions, with very fair results, last year, and is to be thoroughly tested this season at the experiment stations at Moonbi and Nemingha. If it proves a success (as I have every reason to believe it will), mildew can be banished from New South AVales tobacco-sheds. One very important question to be proved is whethei- tobacco cured by this process will retain the texture that is wanted in cigar wrappers, and if not, whether any modification of the process will be possible to secure that texture. The Department of Agriculture is making great efforts to assist the development of an export trade in tobacco. Not only is the new sys- tem of fire-curing to be thoroughly tested, but seed has been obtamed of many choice varieties of tobacco, which are being acclimatised at the experiment farms which are being established in various parts of the Colony. Some of these new tobaccos promise very well, m spite of the dry season. It is very desirable that no tobacco-leaf shall he sent from this Colony to foreign markets, except the very best we can 1 66 A^FW SOUTH WALES. produce. We cannot hope, or even wish, to compete in the supply of low-grade tobaccos against the cheap labour of other tobacco-prodvac- ing countries, and, as we can grow high-class leaf, it would not be wisdom to grow the inferior grades. I have already spoken of the want of an organisation for placing the crops of small growers on the Sydney market, so as to secure to the grower the fair market value of his leaf. In the development of an export trade the want of some system will be even more sharply felt, especially in its earlier stages. The capitalist who goes in for tobacco-growing on a large scale by hired labour may well be left to take care of his own interests ; but in this Colony, at least for some years to come, tobacco will chiefly be grown in plots of \ acre to 3 acres by farmers having families of boys, and to enable such to ship their crops, some organisation will be required, and this, I think, should be undertaken by the State. It is palpable that isolated ship- ments of a few bales of tobacco, sent by individual growers, would be at a great disadvantage on arriving at a new market, where it would be quite unknown. Small lots of unknown tobacco would not be worth the notice of any of the larger firms, and would only be taj^en up by a few of the smallest class of manufacturers, and by them only at very cheap prices. It will, therefore, be necessary to collect these small crops into a large shipment (of some thousands of bales, if possible) so as to challenge the attention of the largest firms of manufacturers. There will be difiieulties in the way, of course. Any plan which proposes to establish a new source of wealth, and does not present difiieulties, would scarcely be worth considering. It has been in over- coming difficulties that the best features in the Australian character have been manifested. About five years ago, in a conversation I had with Sir Thomas Mcllwraith as to the best means of developing the tobacco industry in Queensland, I urged strongly the advantages that would accrue to the Colony if the tobacco trade was made into a State monopoly, on lines somewhat similar to the French Kegie system. I pointed out that the trade was then drifting into what was, or would shortly become, practically a private monolopy — hostile alike to the interests of tobacco- growers and to tobacco consumers. That the American Tobacco Trust was using great endeavours to secure a monopoly of the Australian tobacco trade, and was on the high road to success in regard to one portion of it — namely, the cigarette business, which was large, and rapidly increasing. I pointed out that a monopoly, owned and con- trolled in the United States of America, could not be to the advantage of Australians, but served only to enrich Americans at our expense. Sir Thomas promised to consider the matter, but said the time was scarcely opportune. Since then the American Tobacco Trust has virtually established a monopoly in cigarettes in all the Australian colonies, and, I am informed, is working to secure the control of the tobacco trade also. I think that a modification of the French l^egie system would be of great service in New South Wales at the present time. Very briefly, the French Kegie system is as follows : — It is enacted that the growth, manufacture, and merchandise of tobacco or any of its products shall be carried on solely for the benefit of the State. TOBACCO CULTURE. 167 The Regie owns all the factories, macliinciy, utensils employed in the industry, and also all the stocks of tobacco, whether manufactured or in the leaf, or in process of manufacture. The director of the Regie at a fixed date in each year estimates the quantity of home-grown leaf which will be required hn- the HUpj)ly of the factories in the year following, and he fixes the ])rice to be paid for it in three classes — first quality, second quality, and third quality. The director decides which of the provinces of the empire shall be permitted to grow tobacco, and what proportion of the total quantity required shall be grown in each of the selected provinces. This decision is published by proclamation and advertisement. Farmers who are desirous of growing tobacco for the Regie make a])])lication to the officer appointed in each disti-ict, and the quantity allotted to the district is divided equally amongst the applicants, who must be lioim fide cultivators of the soil, and be provided with the proper appliances for cultivating and curing the quantity of tobacco allotted to them. The largest area allowed to any one applicant is a little (jver 3 acres, Jjicenses to grow tobacco are issued to the successful af)plicants, who enter into bond and give security that all the tobacco grown shall, when harvested and cured, be delivered into the depots of the Regie, which are established in each of the tobacco-growing districts, and to utterly destroy by fire, in the presence of an appointed officer, all damaged and unripe tobacco, and to uproot and destroy all growing plants which remain after the harvesting. When the crop is harvested, cured, and properly classed into 1st, 2nd, and ord, it is to be delivered at the depot, where it is received and examined by the officer ap])ointed to that duty, who gives the cultivator a docket, stating the weight and classification of the tobacco received by him. The cultivator takes the docket to the office or treasury of the depot, and there and then receives prompt cash payment for his leaf. Cultivators who desire to grow tobacco for export, apply in the same way, but receive a different form of license, and enter into a different bond. Under such a system there is no possibility of a glut in the market ; no more leaf is permitted to be grown than is required. The price is fixed before the license is issued, so that the grower knows what he is likely to receive. The only chance is that in a good season he gets a heavier crop containing a larger proportion of first quality, and in a bad season a smaller croj) containing a larger proportion of second and third quality. The careful cultivator has i\\Q advantage that he has always a larger proportion of first quality in his crop than the careless grower has, and he always gets the full value of what he delivers. The State factories having no competition to face, have no interest ni paying second price for first quality. in its relation to the consumer the State factory having no private interests to serve will have no inducement to accept or manufacture inferior or damaged leaf, and will, therefore, always turn out sound, good tobacco. At the same time, as tobacco manufacturmg is a very profital>le business. States which have adopted the Regie system liave found it to yield a large and increasing revenue. 1 1 r 1 I think tiiat some modification of this system would be very helpful in establishing this important industry on a satisfactory footing. i68 Timbers of the Colony. By J. H. Maiden, F.L.S., Superintendent of Technical Education, &c. The Geographical Conditions of the Colony as regards the availahleness of her Timber Suj^ply. Without entering into tlie mucli-debated question as to tlie extent of tlie relation of cause and effect between forests and rainfall, we may state that, rougUy speaking, tlie rainfall of New South Wales gradually diminishes from the coast-line to her western boundary, while the altitude and denseness of the forest vegetation diminishes in a similar direction. The general forest conditions of the rich-soil gullies of the intervening mountains and elevated table-lands a good deal resemble those of the coast belt. What is known as the Dividing Eange forms a huge vertebral column, whose general direction is north and south, extending through nearly the whole length of the Colony. This range is roughly parallel to the coast, and at no great distance from it. As far as the com- mercial timbers of the Colony are concerned, it separates the territory into two divisions, — the first comprising the eastern slopes and the comparatively flat country thence to the sea, which yields the great bulk of our readily available forest wealth, while the country to the west produces timber available only for utilisation in the districts in which it is grown, partly because of its inferiority of size and value (with a few notable exceptions), and partly because of the cost of land-carriage to the coast. In considering the availahleness of the western timbers, it must be borne in mind that none of our rivers, flowing east and west, are of any great length, because of the proximity to the sea of the Dividing Range already alluded to, and therefore the advantages of cheap water-carriage between the inland forest regions and the coast are not available. Bru^h and open Forest. The timber-trees of New South Wales are found, for the most part, in either what are called brushes or open forests. The brush perhaps corresponds to what in India would be called jungle, and consists- of well-watered, rich-soil areas in the coast districts, which not only support rich arboreal vegetation, but also creepers and climbers of various kinds, and shrubby undergrowth. The tree-vegetation is of a o o cc < I- 00 en '- cc u. cc u UJ CD I 5 H J. ^ S] £ CO o < -^ o o - Q . z oc o UJ Jj I- co a: O O UJ u. cc TIMBERS OF THE COLONY. 169 most varied cliaractei', but rarely iiicludes Eucalypts. In open forests on the other hand, Kucalypts t'orin the prcviiiling vegetation in the coast districts, and frequently attain a great size. As compared witli brush forests the soil is less rich and moist. Of the open forest timbers (including she-oaks, cypress pine, &c.), we may say that we possess a fair knowledge; it is mainly in regard to the brush-timbers tliat our knowledge is defective. This results from a variety of causes. In brushes the variety of trees is very great, and they are less gre- garious than those of the open forest. 'J'here is a good deal of uni- formity in the barks of the trees, — a nearly smooth bark being of very common occurrence, while the trees are so close together, that their leafy tops intertwine, and it is impossible, in many cases, to get a fair idea of the shape and general appearance of a particular tree. Only those who have visited our dense northern brush forests can form an idea of the difficulty of distinguishing more than a few kinds of trees. The massive trees, wonderfully vertical, remind one of cathe- dral columns ; craning the neck for an upward view in the dim forest light is inconvenient and even painful, and results in only general impressions, while if a gun be fired with the view of bringing down a twig for purposes of identification, the probabilit}- is that it cannot be stated, with certainty, from what particular tree the specimen has fallen. If one cuts through a tree, it very often happens that other trees prevent its falling down, and thus its leafy top is nut available for examination. Botanical C lass iji cation of Trees. The principal forest vegetation of the Colony consists of trees belonging to the genus Eucalyptus. Those which have smooth (or comparatively smooth) trunks are known as gums, and this term is qualified by adjectives such as white, blue, and red. A white gum has a white trunk. A blue gum has a trunk or leaves (or both) with a bluish cast. A red gum has the timher red, and so on. Others have rough bark, thus those with a rugged, hard bark (accompanied by a timber of great hardness and durability) are known as iron- barks ; those with a thick, fibrous bark (accompanied by a timber which is very fissile) are known as stringybarks. The common names for the various kinds of Eucalypts are very numerous, and they vary so much in different localities, and also for the same tree, that an accurate knowledge of them can only be acquired by much travel and study. The natural allies of Eucalyptus are the other genera l)elonging to the Myrtacete, of which the principal are Atu/ojihora (apple-trees), Syncarpia (turpentine), 2 V/.s/o^rm ' (brush-box and water gum), Melaleuca (tea-trees), and Ewjenia (myrtles). The next genus to Eucalyptus in point of number of arboreal species is Acacia, which includes many trees generally known sim]ily as wattles, or qualified by the prefix black, green, silver, goldeu, broad-leaved, weeping, &c. Other Acacias are known as hickory, blackwo.xl, myall, boree, mulga, brigalow, dead finish, sally, gidgee, yarran, ironweod, and a host of other names. The Acacias rarely form forest trees of tlie largest size. 1 70 NFW SOUTH WALES. Among'st other natural orders yielding timljer-trees are Pittos- porejB, Tiliacea) (yielding blueberry ash^ maiden's blush, &c.), Rutaceae (yielding many of the soapwoods \_'Evodia\, also Geujeva, Peyitaceras, &c.), Meliacet^ (yielding cedar, rosewood, &c.), Sapindaceas (yielding Cujmnias, NepheUums, native tamarind, &c.), Leguminosse (includ- ing Acacia and black bean), Saxifragese (including a number of plain, easy working, durable timbers, such as coachwood, marara, &c., belonging to the genera Ceratopetalum, Weinmannia , Achama, Eurryphia, S,-cJ, the Verbenaceas (including the white beech, the mangrove, Vite.v, S)'c.), the Proteacefe (including a number of fissile timbers bearing a strong family likeness, such as silky oak, honeysuckle, &c.), the Monimacefe or Sassafras family, the Euphor- biacefe, (including some hard, dense timbers known as scrub iron- bark [BridcUa], pencil cedar, Avater gum, &c., belonging to the genus PhijUanthus, and not to be confused with other timbers bearing the same vernacular names), Casuarinte (including she-oaks in variety), Cupulifera? (including a true beech. Fag us; Moorel, a durable timber which Avould be much sought after if it were found growing in less inaccessible situations), the Santalace^e (including the native cherry), the Conifer^e (including the cypress pine, Moreton Bay pine, and she or brown pine), and others. The number of plants, indigenous to New South Wales, which attain tree size, amounts to several hun- dreds, but many of them are not of economic importance. Statistical. I attach some particulars of the exports fi-om, and imports of timber into, the Colony for 1894 (for which I am indebted to Mr. Coghlan, Government Statistician). It will appear that the value of the exports is about one-ninth that of the latter. We are a great timber-using Colony (although much of it is used for rough purposes), but we can form no reliable estimate of the value of the timber thus used for home consumption. Export of Timbers from New South Wales duriua; 1894. Description. Quantity. Value. £ Dressed Timber 72,301 sup, ft. 532 Rough ,, (5,308,210 ,, „ 26,556 Houses ... 3 No. 372 Laths ... 800 „ 1 Palin»s . . 1,100 ,, 7 Posts, rails, and spars -',071 ,, 4,093 Doors 45 „ 40 Sashes 198 ,, 109 Sliooks and staves 4,713 pkgs. 2,220 Shingles 63,000 No. 41 Spars 1 ,, 4 Wooden blocks 7,890 ,, 49 Total 34,030 TI^JBERS OF THE COLONY. 171 Imports of Tiiiil.cr into New South Wales during 1894. Description. [ Quantity. \'aluo. Dressed timber lioiigli „ Laths Palings Doors Sashes Shooks and staves Shingles Shutters Total 6,002,320 sup. ft. 49,453,151 ,, 3,505,600 No. ... 56,231 ,, 12,855 „ 615 ,, 61,332 pkgs. ... 830,500 No. ... 3 ,, 41,420 243,370 1,998 464 5,540 430 9,298 408 3 302,931 During 1894 we exported 46,000 spokes and 9,600 felloes to Victoria and 31,500 spokes to Soutli Australia. The exports of these articles to New Zealand approximately equal those to Victoria. " Felloes and spokes " are enumerated in the Customs statistics under the heading of " Carriage-makers' materials." Hubs and naves are included in the same classification, but no figures are available as to the imports and exports of those articles. Following are some statistics re our saw-mills, &c., for the years 1892 to 1894:— 1892 1893 1894 No. of sawiuills. Hands employed. Quantity of tiniber.sawn,&c. (in thousands of super, feet, 1 inch thick.) Plant or macliinery. Power ,. , (Horse). ^ '''»«• 288 283 299 4573 3266 3257 229,696 196,114 173,088 5262 4452 5101 £ 274,575 330,170 292,790 We now proceed to a more particular examination of the various kinds of our timbers. Hardwoods. After ironbark, a convenient practical classification of our hardwoods is into ''Pale hardwoods," ''Eed hardwoods" (both these comprising the commercial or best hardwoods of the Colony), and the inferior or doubtful hardwoods. Ironbark stands alone as the embodiment of the combination of a nnmber of qualities valued in a timber, viz., hardness, strength, and durability. It may he called the king of New South AVales timbers. It is extensively used in bridge-construction, for railway sleepers, for posts, for shafts, framing, &c., by the waggon and carriage builder; for large beams in buildings, particularly in stores for heavy goods — in a word, wherever great strength is required. For such purposes as railway sleepers it will last an indefinite period, and in many cases has only to be taken up, not because it shows signs of decay from exposure on the permanent way, or disintegration because of the vibration to 172 NEW SOUTH WALES. wliicli it lias been subjected, but because holes liave been made in the sleeper by the renewal of bolts and spikes. Sleepers which have borne the heaviest traffic of the main line near Sydney for twenty-five years are now as sound as the day they were laid. While by no means a scarce timber, it is in such active local demand (particularly for railway purposes), that it would appear not to be desirable to actively stimulate an export trade in it. Po le Ha rdicoods. Timbers of this character are to a certain extent under a cloud in Europe. The reason is that some of our inferior timbers — those which we in New South Wales would never use except for inferior or tem- porary purposes, and which are of a pale colour — have been exported under misleading names. The man who svibstitutes an inferior timber for a superior one specified, trusting to the ignorance of the purchaser or his inspector not to detect the substitution, is guilty of dishonesty, and I believe the ordinary machinery of the Courts is quite adequate to deal with conduct of this kind. But the best remedy lies in the spread of knowledge in regard to our timbers, and meantime, if a purchaser lacks the knowledge, he should employ a timber expert to inspect for him. A business man, as a rule, obtains expert opinion in regard to the quality of a line he is buying if necessary, and if this principle be applied to timbers, the death-stroke to substitution would be given. I would like to emphasise what I look upon as a great truth, that is, that one of the main reasons why colonial timbers are not more used is because users are nervous through ignorance. I have no intention of touching upon the fiscal question, but I will express the opinion that if it be desired to stimulate the use of our indigenous timbers, and conversely, to discourage the use of imported ones, the best plan will be the diffusion of knowledge concerning the trees in our forests. How many persons in this Colony, learned in Oregon, redwood, spruce, Baltic, and so on, could turn over a heap of sawn stuff from our mills, name the timbers, and then state the most approved uses for them ? The present is not a suitable occasion for discussing the various ways by which a- knowledge of our timbers may be diffused, but the question is connected with our national prosperity, and I should be lacking in my duty if I failed to emphasise the point on every occasion that presents itself. One of our best pale hardwoods is the blackbutt {E. pilnlaris, Sm.), a thoroughly safe and well-tried timber, and one so valuable for wood-paving that if the municipal authorities of Europe and Amei'ica knew its real worth, an active demand would spring up for it. We, in New South Wales, look upon this as a timber of the front rank for wood-paving, and we have not only had extensive experience of wood- paving, but also of the merits of our own timbers. Yet in Europe it is mistrusted because of its jjale colour ! White mahogany [E. acmenoides, Schau.) is also a valuable timber, but comparatively few know of its merits, because it is often confused with other timbers, particulai'ly stringybark, confusion which has resulted in the appraisement of the durability of stringybark at too high a fio-ure. FOREST OF YOUNG BLACK-BUTTS, MANNING RIVER, NEW SOUTH WALES. TALLOW-WOOD LOGS, BROUGHT FROM FOREST TO WHARF ON WOODEN TRAIN-RAILS, MANNING RIVER, NEW SOUTH WALES. TIMBERS OF THE COLOXF. 173 The tallow-wood (E. vnrroconj.^, F.v.M.), v.-liich docs not extend south of tlie Hawkesbiiry J^iver, is 11 picturesque tree. The timber is so valuable (it is easily worked, is of good appearance, shrinks litth", and is very durable), that the opinion is generally held by experts that, next to ironbark, it is our most valuable hardwood. When freshly sawn it is of a canary-yellow (rarely reddish) colour, but its most remarkable property is its gr(>asy nature, which is turned to practical account in the laying of ball-room Huors. Spotted gum (E. maculata, Hook, f.), a tree with a smooth bark, with the outer layer peeling off in blotches, giving it a spotted appearance, is found both north and south of Sydney. It is a timber that has probably suffered both from unqualified praise, and from unreasoning prejudice. Its sap-wood is Avorthless, being more ready to decay than perhaps that of any other hardwood in New South Wales ; its heartwood is perhaps below the average as regards brittle- ness. But, given mature spotted gum, with its sap and heart carefully removed, it is an admirable timber, in some respects unrivalled amongst colonial timbers. For toughness and elasticity it is simply unrivalled amongst our hardwoods, rendering it a formidable rival to American hickory for carriage-building. As regards its durability, we have indisputable evidence of its value in such trying situations as wood-pavements, tram-rails for logs from forest to mill, &c. Grey box (E. hemijMoia, F.v.M.) is a tough, inlocked timber, really valuable for purposes where these properties are brought into play. For instance, it can be recommended with confidence to railway-carriage builders and others, who require a strong, durable timber for framing, &c. The pastoralist looks upon his tree with especial favour, as usually indicative of good grazing country. Bed Hardicoods. Timbers of this class bear a good reputation for durability, con- sequently we sometimes hear a person say " send me only red hard- woods.'^ The idea has arisen because some of our Red Hardwoods are amongst the most durable of our timbers, but it should not be forgotten that timbers at least as durable are to be found amongst our Pale Hardwoods. Consequently a purchaser who insists on a red timber, limits his choice, and shuts himself out from what experts consider to be the most durable of our timbers. One of the best, and perhaps the best of our timbers belonging to the Red class, is the so-called red mahogany fE. res in if era, Sm.), a rough-barked, handsome tree mostly found in the northern forests. It resists destructive agencies of all kinds. It resembles the AVestern Australian jarrah a good deal, and, in my carefully-formed opinion, is quite as durable a timber. I have seen jarrah as well as red mahogany attacked by cobra, but the mature timber of both trees is excellent. Red mahogany has a rich, handsome colour, hence it is used for substantial furniture. Grey gum {E. j^ropinqua, Deane and Maiden) is a timber which resembles red ironbark a good deal, to which, however, it is inferior 111 strength. Its durability is, however, notorious, and for such purjx.ses as posts, paving-blocks, &c., it can hardly be excelled. A drawback lu 174 ' ^^W SOUTH WALES. its liability to gum-veins, consequently large sizes are often defective. Gum-veins of moderate size do not affect the durability of a timber, and my ad\'ice to municipal authorities would be to encourage its use for paving-blocks, kerbing, &c. The authorities of some country and suburban municipalities, where suitable stone is not available, might be reminded that many of our hardwoods form cheap, durable, and neat kerbing-. And in a township hardly anything is more important, both for aasthetic and sanitary reasons, than well-defined roads and paths. The grey gum is well known, amongst forest trees, by the dull grey appearance of its bark, with irregular white blotches. The Murray red gum [E. rostrata, Schlecht.) is chiefly found on the flats, subject to inundation, adjacent to the rivers Murray, Edwards, and other rivers and creeks near the New South AVales-Victorian boundary. It is also found in the western districts, always either on the banks of a river, or on land subject to inundation. The great bulk of the Murray red gum forests are in New South Wales, and are largely Avorked for the purpose of supplying Victorian demand. In the southern colony it is used in enormous quantities for railway sleepers, wood blocks, and other situations, such as for posts, house blocks, &c., in which a very dui-able timber is necessary, A draw- back to it is some tendency to shell off, which limits its uses for such purposes as flooring and decking. Closely allied to the preceding is the Forest red gum {E. tereti- cornis, Sm.) which is found in open forests, and is not a riverside tree like the preceding. As might be expected from its wide geographical range, and the various soils in which it is found, it varies in quality, but in most parts of the Colony the mature timber is of a very durable character, and hence is used for posts in the ground, a severe test of the durability of any timber. It is a tree that is often gnarled, and shows unmistakable evidence on its trunk of the twisted, interlocked character of its timber. It is consequently difficult to season, but it is worth taking some pains over. Both the Murray and Forest red gums are smooth-barked trees,' with the thin outer layer of bark falling off in small ribbons. The Sydney blue gum (jE*. saligna, Sm.) is, for the most part, a smooth-barked tree, but the lower part of the trunk has rough, fibrous bark for a height which varies in different districts and situations. It is usually found on the well-drained sides of hills, but a variety (known as Flooded gum) usually frequents the banks of streams, or land subject to inundation. In exceptional cases the two timbers grow intermingled. The flooded gum yields a timber usually inferior in quality to blue gum, and it must not be confused with the Murray red gum, of which the name flooded gum is a synonym. The blue gum of Tasmania and Victoria {E. glohulus) is a pale-coloured timber, quite different in appearance to the Sydney blue gum, which is a red timber usually paler in colour than red mahogany or red gum. It is straight in the grain, comparatively easy to work, and therefore, for a hardwood, a favourite with carpenters. It is the timber most largely used in this Colony for felloes of wheels. The Woollybutt {E. longifolia, Link, et Otto.), so called because of the fibrous, woolly texture of its bai-k, is a tree that attains its best development in the southern coast districts. It is not one of our best TIMBERS OF THE COLONY. 175 timbers, being deficient in strength and elasticity ; but it is a very- durable timber, and its defects are no drawback to its use for such purposes as wood-paving. Most people in the coast and coast mountain districts know a tree with a scaly bark, which is often stained with a blood-like exudation. This is the Bloodwood {E. corijinhd.sui, Sm.). It is usually faidty, owiii<'- to the presence of gum- veins, but it has tAvo im])ortunt pn)])erties to recommend it. One is that it is one of the most durable timbers in the Colony, the other is that Avhen the cut-end of a log is exposed to the ardent rays of the sun it does not open out like most colonial timbers. For posts, piles, timbers for culverts, wharfs, &c., it can be safely recommended, its gum veins, unless very large, merely offending the eye, and in no way affecting its durability. I am of opinion that the presence of this gum (kino) is actually a preservative of the wood. Supplementing the timbers enumerated in these two great classes, I may mention that we have four Stringj^barks, which, however, are of unequal quality, viz. : — E. ohllqiia, capitellata, macrorrhyncha, and eugenioides. The Yellow Box {E. meUiodora) of the southern and western districts is a tough and durable timber, but never available in large sizes. The Red Box [E. puhjnnthema), which strongly resembles ironbark in appearance, strength, and durability, is one of the most valuable timbers the Colony produces, but it principally occurs on the western side of the Dividing Range. Infe rio r Ha rd icoodg. In this class we include those hardwoods which are of either doubtful quality, or are inferior to those already enumerated. White gums of various kinds fE. jxiucijiora, E. hannantoma, E. viminalis) , messmate (E. amygdalinaj , peppermint (E. amygdalhia and E. j)ipe'''^i<^0 > mountain ash. fE. sieherianaj, swamp mahogany fE. rohusta), bastard mahogany fE. hotryoides) , mountain gum fE. goniocalyx) , apple fE. stuartiana) , swamp gum fE. gunnilj. Some of these are timbers of fair value, e.g., mountain ash, swamp and bastard mahogany, and mountain gum. Closely allied to the Eucalypts are various hardwood trees known as apple fAngophoraJ , myrtles fEugeniaJ, water gums fTristania laurina and RhodamniaJ, tea-trees fMelaleucaJ , turpentine fSyii- carpiaj, and brush box fTristania) . Botanically they all belong to the Natural Order Myrtacca*, and are confined to the coast and coast mountain districts. As a rule, these timbers are of inferior quality because of their liability to shrink and twist in seasoning, and of some tendency to dry rot, but 1 am of opinion that they have been neglected because of the ready availability of Eucalyptus timbers of high class. Two timbers, however, stand out as possessing conspicuous merit, namely the turpentine {Syucarpia laurifolia, Ten.) and the brush box {Tristania ronprfa, R.Br.). Amongst the more immediate allies of the turpentine and brush box may be mentioned the tea-trees (3/e/«/e!