‘ - - 18 , . . ' . : ‘ ; : - ‘ . y a A . ’ ‘ ‘ ‘ i an ' ‘ 45 a . 7 2 ’ ss . P we ‘ i : : ' ‘ ‘ ‘ Y ’ ¥ r , ers i 7 f 4 ‘ ‘ . : : Fa a sew oom tant ‘ - L carps Ae . ‘ 1 ¢ : : ‘ 1 R . iy : At ; ‘ - gg" ' Mei : eS hs . : “ 7 bey : cme : * _ Vag - a aT “ : ) ’ F : a ta : at 5 a 7 Le ’ sivoedeseseeueves Peeeetetee ee NA ONO) ed) JDL S de ‘ed ‘bad Ny SISGII IS 5 = IJ \D\S\ f J Sr Uy i \ j\ WIA A | : N\A WANA) PJ) Ai] ro! AM i 4i\\ ( Jw ) =|] =f) \ h i VI ( Hi A HAE \\ 4) \ We i ; 4 \ wy es J { sl ~ wH#\ 1 he hoi } | 17 he || j i i ty def! Wey ~T\ed| tad Ned | Www VOSUUVCRRR ew vs he AA vue Svuyy WAL) eo INS Sri wus wie WAY Wyeey iH I Hi A | A Vivi vivre vj Aj || Ji \ j\ }\ \ J ‘eae I AA Ja I ded | Aa vi We | MAYS; Nee, dhe ah Mee LA roe cay een rtd Cy "i , ‘ " 3 «| . | / f New York Stzte Museum Bulletin a a Entered as second-class matter November 27, 1915, at the Post Office at Albany, N, Y. " ms under the act of August 24, 1912 \oag ] pray 3 Published monthly by The University of the State of New York . Nos, 221, 222 ALBANY, N.Y. . May-June, 1919 e e : - ig m Pn The University of the State of NST/ ly > : me New York State Museu ca eM Y 8 ~ 192 NAL MUSS 2" ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE THEIR ORIGIN AND SIGNIFICANCE BY JOHN M. CLARKE D.SC., COLGATE, CHICAGO, PRINCETON ‘ LL.D., AMHERST, JOHNS HOPKINS MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL*+ACADEMY OF SCIENCES NEW YORK STATE PALEONTOLOGIST ALBANY THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 1921 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Regents of the University With years when terms expire (Revised to March 1, 1921) 1926. Purny T. Sexton, LL.B., LL.D., Chancellor . . . Palmyra 1927 ALBERT VANDER VEER, M.D., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. Vice Chancellor Albany ° 1922 CuestEeR 8. Lorp, M.A., LL.D. 3 ; : 3 i: Brooklyn 1924 ADELBERT Moot, LL.D. . : ; Buffalo 1925 CHARLES B. ALEXANDER, M.A., LL. B., rite D., Litt, D. ; Tuxedo 1928 WALTER GUEST KELLOGG, B. ie LL. D. 5 3 . . Ogdensburg 1932 JamMES Byrne, B.A., LL.B., LL.D. 5 ; ; ; s New York 1929 HERBERT .L. Bripeman, M.A., LL.D. . i . : Brooklyn 1931 THomas J. Mancan, M.A. E : 3 : 4 : Binghamton 1933 Winuiam J. WALLIN, M.A. Sree : Z : : Yonkers 1923. WitLiAM Bonpy, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D. : as : : New York 1930 WiuiiaAmM P. Baker, B.L. ; : ER ; ; Syracuse Acting President of the University and Commissioner of Education FRANK B. GILBERT, B.A., LL.D. Assistant Commissioner and Director of Professional Education Aveustus 8. Downine, M.A., Pd.D., L.H.D., LL.D. Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education CHARLES F. WHEELOCK, B.S., LL.D. Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education GrorRGE M, Wiuey, M.A., Pd.D., LL.D. Director of State Library JAMES I. Wyer, M.L.S., Pd.D. Director of Science and State Museum JOHN M. CuarKE, D.Se., LL.D. Chiefs and Directors of Divisions Administration, Hiram C. Case Archives and History, James SuLLivan, M.A., Ph.D. Attendance, JAMES D. SULLIVAN Examinations and Inspections, AVERY W. SKINNER, B.A. Law, FRANK B. GILBERT, B.A., LL.D., Counsel Library Extension, WILLIAM R. Watson, B.S. Library School, Epna M. Sanperson, B.A., B.L.S. School Buildings and Grounds, FRANK H. Woop, M.A. School Libraries, SHERMAN WILLIAMS, Pd.D: Visual Instruction, ALFRED W. ABRAms, Ph.B. Vocational and Extension Education, Lewis A. WiILson ’ « . = © . ue a + a i if 1 = Organic Dependence and Disease: Their Origin and Significance. By John M. Clarke, D.Se., Colgate, Chicago, Princeton LL.D., Amherst, Johns Hopkins Member of the National Academy of Sciences New York State Paleontologist New Haven: Yale University Press. London, Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press. Mdeccexxi. Copyright, 1921, by Yale University Press. CONTENTS Introduction What is Disease? : What is Normal Living? . The Meaning of Abnormal Living ; Protective Covering a Basic Factor in Dependence Proper Understanding of the Shell or External Skeleton Stabilization, Longevity and Dissolution . Divisions of Geological History Independence of the First Fauna : : : : General Survey of the Cambrian Fauna of North America . The Cambrian Fauna Generally Precambrian Life ; 3 5 The Beginnings of Symbiosis and Parasitism Complex Character of Parasitism Beginnings of Symbiosis Relation of Symbiosis to Parasitism . - Illustrations of Primitive Parasitism The Case of the Annelids . The Barnacles . ; é : : : Karly Parasitism of the Snails upon the Crinoids . Symbiotic Conjunction of Crinoids and Starfishes The Work of Pseudoparasitic Boring Organisms . The Distinction between Protozoan and Metazoan Parasitism Sporozoan and Bacterial Parasitism in Geological His- tory . : Summary and Conclusions 104 107 109 Organic Dependence and Disease: Their Origin and Significance. INTRODUCTION HE purpose of this essay is to set forth a basis of fact and reasonable inference bearing on the com- prehension of the control which governs the histor- ical origin of dependent and abnormal conditions in the liv- ing world. The facts and their interpretations, together with their higher intimations as here presented, are based upon pale- ontological knowledge, that is to say, biological knowledge with the added element of unlimited time through which the life factors have worked. These are prime factors; they together remove our subject and its conclusions from the field of purely modern biology. The knowledge we have little by little acquired in the spe- cial field indicated by our title does not as yet make a great sheaf and it is not likely that the facts, in spite of their pro- found interest to us, can have any immediate value in the application of remedial measures in the correction of ab- normal physiology. This statement is, however, not made without some reserve; a real clue to the inception of any abnormal physiology in nature must lead to interpretations of wide moment. For a good many years the writer has endeavored to gather together from the earliest assemblages of life on the earth as preserved in the ancient rocks, such organic re- mains as might shed light, not primarily on the introduc- tion of disease, as we loosely employ that term, but upon 6 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE the existence and earliest appearances among these ele- mentary expressions of life, of conditions which show an actual mutual dependence of creatures one upon another; that is to say, of the conditions commonly known variously as symbiosis, mutualism and parasitism. Such evidences are not easy to acquire among primitive forms of life as preserved in the rocks of the earth’s historic record, but persistent and long-continued search with the aid of a va- riety of special procedures adapted to the extraction of the peculiar character of the material employed, enlarged by the inspection of many great museum collections and joined with the help of generous colleagues and the special sup- port of the National Academy of Sciences, has resulted in even so much light on these significant paleopathologic problems as is here set forth. The writer desires to present his facts without embar- rassing detail and his conelusions without bias. In his own justification for both he may urge a long acquaintance with nature’s modes in the preservation of such materials in the fossil state and reasonable familiarity, based upon com- parative morphology, with the forms of life that go to make up the earlier faunas and floras of the earth. It will be observed, and special emphasis is put on this, that these chapters deal with the lower forms of life, the invertebrates among animals and cryptogams among the plants. The actual outstanding evidences of pathological and traumatic lesions among extinct animals of the verte- brate type are not comprehended within this discussion as such phenomena are registered only among faunas of the earth too late and too specialized for our consideration. Such lesions have been noted by several students of verte- brate paleontology and most interestingly brought together by Dr. Roy L. Moodie, whose investigations into the history of such registered conditions and of the possible effect of disease in the extermination of races of the higher animals through the later ages of the earth are very suggestive to ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 7 anyone concerned with the origin of our actual inheritance of specific pathological conditions.* It hardly seems necessary to premise that pathological conditions, or diseases, to speak specifically, are as much a matter of evolution as the human hand or the bird’s wing. The statement of so obvious a fact here would have seemed superfluous except for the sharp citation recently served upon his colleagues by an eminent physician, that ‘‘human maladies are but a narrow fringe along the border line of disease,’’? which would seem to intimate that repetitive emphasis may wisely be laid upon this statement. In the ancient rock formations and the life assemblages with which we are here dealing there are few of these higher creatures, the vertebrates, and among them speciali- zation in organs and function has gone so far as to becloud the record we are seeking to disclose. Here the effort is to take the simplest and least differentiated expressions of life conditions in their earliest appearance, before the hving world had become so inexpressibly complicated as it is to- day or so indelibly stamped by the accumulated heritage of boundless ages. It may be said that these investigations, which rest upon the certain results of the laws of life, lead the reflective mind into passages tangent to human con- cerns of high moment. We shall need for the immediate purpose a clear under- standing of what is meant by disease, as the term is here used. Our employment of the word is a rather loose one; probably no physiologist or pathologist would be satisfied with it, if indeed the term could be adapted to modern path- ological use. It has at best only a popular value and its ap- plication is without scientific exactness. Thus, tuberculosis 1 Roy L. Moodie. 1916, American Journal of Science, v. 41: 530-31; 1916, Science, v. 43: 425; 1917, ‘‘ Annals of Medical History,’’ pp. 374-93. 2R. G. Hecles. ‘‘The Scope of Disease,’’ Medical Record, March 8, 1913. The reader is also referred to Doctor Eccles’s other important papers in this field: ‘‘ Disease and Genetics,’’ op. cit., August 2, 1913; ‘‘ Parasitism and Nat- ural Selection,’’ op. cit., July 31, 1909. 8 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE is a pathological condition involving the normal growth of a living creature, the Bacillus tuberculosis. This condition is a disease only from the point of view of the host of the parasite, that is, of the sufferer. To the parasite it is the normal, though adjusted, mode of life. This, however, is an advanced and complicated example whose history, when worked out, must be determined on the basis of causes pro- ducing such adaptation of parasite to host, and the study of such adaptations must always keep in view the ease with which adaptations have constantly been and are constantly being made. Let us discuss this matter more at length. WHAT IS DISEASE? We must answer this question in terms of the original use of the word—disease is discomfort; it is thus the early Knghsh writers employed it and we must not forget this simple meaning which is not observed in common usages. But in the specific application of the term to physical dis- comfort we shall find Huxley’s definition broad and clear: ‘“‘Disease . . . is a perturbation of the normal activities of a living body.’’ In this expression by the great Kng- lish physiologist there is a definite implication that disease means disorder of specific function, as we generally under- stand it. But the broader idea in this definition is clear; that disease is any departure from normal ving. It may be a departure in a single function or it may involve several functions of physiology; and such an abnormal condition may permeate so many functions as to create a general im- pairment or maladjustment of the entire anatomical ma- chinery. It is elementary, as well as scriptural, to say that seldom can one organic function become impaired without involving others, for no member of the body can say to another, ‘‘I have no need of thee.”’ There is, however, a still broader conception that we can draw from Huxley’s definition and which is of the first im- ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 9 portance for our purposes. It is this: That the entire body, organism or creature and the entire race or stock to which it belongs may become abnormal through subjection to an abnormal or perturbed mode of life. Such body, creature, race or stock is therefore in a state of disease. This condition has so frequently entered upon the life modes of the animals and plants as to form an essential basis of their classification and it is the mightiest single influence in the separation of them into grades of excel- lence. We hesitate to call such animals and such entire races of animals and plants ‘‘diseased,’’ but their mode of life is obviously disordered and we have no choice but to term it abnormal and consequent upon a ‘‘perturbation of normal activities.’’ Illustrations of this will presently be given. WHAT IS NORMAL LIVING? With the help of the hght drawn from a study of the early faunas of the earth, that is, the assemblages of ani- mals which were the first to people the salt waters of the ocean, we can find an answer to this question which I think would hardly be fully possible from the study of existing animals alone. Normal living, in the broad sense in which we desire to be understood, means full activity of an un- impaired physiology inclusive of the function of locomotion or mobility. This is not a very complete definition as it leaves out of consideration the primitive development of the locomotive function, which must have worked itself out gradually just as other organs have developed in response to the demands for their functions. Except for that, the definition does very well, and it implies that normal living means independent living; it means that every creature which is in itself a perfect physiological mechanism and has in itself the essential basis of progress in grade, in which lies any ‘‘hope of salvation,’’ must maintain to ma- 10 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE turity an independent life, whatever may happen to it in the period of its waning. - At the risk of stating our conclusions before we have fully marshalled the evidence, deductively, then, normal liv- ing is, in terms of biology, correct living, that is to say, righteous living, and in so far as dependence invades the mode of life whether in organ or individual, such living is ~ unrighteous, disordered and diseased; in better phrase, bio- logically, is without hope, for such perturbation or disease is beyond voluntary or casual rectification. These ideas apply not to the individual only but to the species, the race, the stock, even to the broadest divisions of life, the sub- kingdoms themselves. In speaking thus of dependent life as an expression of perturbation of function, it is easy to fall into misappre- hension, for in writing on the subject of parasitism the mind of the reader is likely to turn involuntarily to the overwhelming invasion of all the earth by protozoan and protophytic parasites, parents of ‘‘germ diseases’’ and in- festations, sponsors for the deadly assaults upon humanity whose victims count up more than all other causes of death combined. We shall presently endeavor to indicate the ele- mental and historical differences between such unicellular parasitism and metazoan parasitism; the latter involving the mutual somatic relations of multicellular differentiated and well-defined animals or plants. The présent statements are made with special reference to metazoan dependence. THE MEANING OF ABNORMAL LIVING From the world about us volumes have been filled with examples of these departures from the normal mode of liv- ing. It is safe to say that a vast majority of all life of the world is permeated by this loss of original excellence, which 1s, In more explicit terms, a condition of dependence and degeneration. We can not get a more impressive conception of its effect throughout all nature than in its elemental ex- ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 11 pression; the primary division of the whole kingdom of life is based upon the interpretation of this fact. Let us consider the plant world, the trees of the forest and the lilies of the field. They are clothed in a majesty and beauty before which the attainments of the animal kingdom pale. In the earliest life ages of the world, the days that geolo- gists have called the Proterozoic, the multicellular progeny of the earliest unicellular beings whose simplest beginnings we are slowly coming to know, determined through adapta- tion the entire subsequent course of life upon the earth. With our present understanding I believe it safe to say that the career of the life record on earth was laid down, ‘‘con- ceived in the lowest parts of the earth,’’ when some of these progeny found it to their material advantage to anchor themselves and to draw sustenance out of the soil or sea bottom where they stood, while to others fell the lot to seek, or being of more pronounced excitation and reaction, chose to seek their food from place to place. Those became de- pendent, the latter retained their independence; and there _ eame the great cleft in the world of life, a cleft so deep and so enduring that time has had no power to heal it. A great tree may well be of more service to the community than a man, some human derelict, but a tree will never become a man, nor anything else than a tree. In all the bewildering developments of the plant kingdom in which we find organs and fluids for the digestion of flesh, organs of special sense implying a nerve system that yields to and perhaps inter- prets the impacts of touch and of light, functions which have led undisciplined philosophers to the fancy that this apparent assumption of special functions indicates a refine- ment of anatomy which approaches the bridging of the abyss between plant and animal, the plant in its most im- pressive attainment still remains anchored and rooted, sometimes tossed about or floated by the waters but essen- _ tially devoid of independent motion. The significant fact, supported by the most tangible and 12 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE obvious of evidence, of the primitive divergence of the two great subkingdoms of life, lays elemental emphasis on the distinction between normal independent living and abnor- mal dependent living; between what we may with perfect propriety term, in biological sense, right living and wrong living. Out of the first of these groups have come all the great triumphs of life; the races of life which, by keeping in- dividual and racial independence, have persistently climbed upward. The second group has been hampered and rooted from the beginning, hopeless of ever throwing off its chains or of arriving at any end beyond a certain refined functional specialization within its own limitations. The giants of the redwood forests are the hoary and venerable obelisks of power shackled beyond redemption; the gardens of flowers are blossoms of a hope never to be attained. In any sound philosophy of nature this great fact, even though its in- ceptive cause is still veiled to us, must lie close to the base of all deductive reasoning. Lest these sentences be sus- pected of a teleological taint, let me express the conviction that, in any interpretation of such phenomena as those here considered, the materialistic formulas of adaptation and subjection to environment give way to recognition of pur- poseful activity which can be interpreted only in terms of psychology. As there are evidences of limited freedom in the plant world (as in the amoeboid movements in the Slime-fungi, the Flagellates and many Bacteria) so, by contrast, the ani- mal world is shot through with races of dependent crea- tures, and in so vast degree that it may safely be said the foundation races of animal life, the invertebrates, have in greater or less measure fallen by the wayside in the course of their journey through the ages; few indeed have kept to their charted course and to these few, linked together in the successive ages of the world, following one upon the heel of another, we owe all the enduring progress and at- tainment which our present life has reached. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 13 On this point our present knowledge permits us to lay emphasis, namely, that on the whole, in the survey of the earth and the sum total of its multitudinous and inconceiv- ably variant groups of life, there has been a strong mini- mum, a redeeming minority, of competent upward evolu- tion; and wise students of nature, in reflecting on this thought, have broken out into exclamations of wonder and amazement at the slender thread of chance by which we who call ourselves men have come to this estate, in a world where for millions of years the temptation to the easier way and the obstacles to independent living were con- stantly against us. Let us look at a most common illustration of the general fact of dependence among existing races of animal life, of very ancient ancestry. The oyster is early attached firmly to the sea bottom, to the rock or to the shell of a brother oyster and never stirs from its moorings for the rest of its life. It opens its hard valves a little way to let its servants, the food-bearing water currents, deliver their nutrient supplies and it defends itself in the struggle against en- emies, not by standing out in the open and meeting force with force but simply by closing its doors and shutting itself up in its calcareous caisson. To the attacks of sharp- toothed fishes and the relentless starfish the oyster has lit- tle defense. The nonresistant, flaccid, pacific creature within, fully equipped with the organs of special physiol- ogy, 1s essentially the same in habit as he was those millions of years ago when the oysters began to show themselves in the salt waters of the Carboniferous age. The knell of its progress was struck when first it settled down to a fixed immobile existence and, hopeless as the ox, the future holds for it no promise of improvement. And yet even today the embryo oysters have a brief period of locomotive freedom, proof enough in the laws of ontogeny that a free life was once the ancestral condition of the race. With the oyster’s cousin, the clam, the ease is similar; less degenerate in phys- 14 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE iology than the oyster and very rarely attached solidly to the sea bottom, yet the same degenerative effect upon the ‘animal has been produced by burying itself in the mud with only the tips of the valves or a pair of fleshy tubes extruded upward to reach the moving food supply in the water cur- rents, while the burial helps out in large measure the de- fensive purpose of the solid armature of the shell. The clam is a much older creature than the oyster and in specific functions it has, broadly speaking, degenerated less, but it serves to bring out the important fact that the habit of burial in the mud, from which it does not easily release it- self and never for long, is tantamount to fixation and in- volves the organic stagnation in which these creatures have lain for ages which can not be counted. This is hardly the place in which to restate well-known paleontological facts, but such cases as these and the extensive catalog of like in- stances must serve to remind us that such adjustments, early formed and perduring through the ages, have been attended with the least possible variation in proportion as the adjustment is perfect. The longest lived of all crea- tures, then, are those which have lived in most perfect adjustment and in which therefore readjustment is most hopeless. We have very direct evidence of the early formation and long endurance of specific habits of life in these adjusted dependents. The starfish of the Devonian age fed upon con- temporary mollusks in the same way and by the same mode of attack that the starfish uses today upon the oysters of Long Island sound; surrounding the tightly closed valves with their strong-armed rays, pulling steadily against the strained muscle contraction of the mollusk until the weary shell-fish, muscularly tired out, gives up, the valves relax and open and the extrusive maw of the radiate enters.* 1 Clarke. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, v. 15, 2d ser. Centenary num- ber. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 15 PROTECTIVE COVERING A BASIC FACTOR IN DEPENDENCE A knight in armor is a protected fighter and by his pro- tection increases his viability. A man ‘‘on his own,’’ who fights with his ‘‘dukes,’’ risks his viability but nevertheless increases his physical vigor and exalts his bodily prowess. A recent writer on the morale of our army in France brings out the fact that a man who could defend himself with his fists made a better soldier than the one who depended alone on the weapon he carried in his hand. Nature has given to a large part of the animal world one or the other of two solid supports for the soft organs and flesh of the body; an inside skeleton, like that on which our own soft anatomy is hung, or an outside skeleton or shell, to which we may here give special attention. I have used the expression, nature has given, meaning that the neces- sity of support to the body having early shown itself, such supports developed in response to external impacts and internal stresses; the historical course of development of these calcareous supports makes the fact sufficiently obvi- ous that they are a determined sequence and not a chemical reaction or a casual device. A rhizopod, a speck of soft protoplasm with the mar- vellous special function of eliminating the silica from its solution in the sea, exudes this mineral matter in the form of an outside shell of wondrous delicacy and sym- metry. The unprotected soft tissue in the primitive ances- try of all the great tribe of the Mollusea or shell-fish, tossed haphazard on the sea bottom and hopeless against attack except through concealment or powers of rapid self-propul- sion, acquires the special function of eliminating from the sea the salts of lime, carbonate or phosphate, and with them builds up its outside shell. We have just noticed that even today the young of such hard-shelled mollusks, in stages when their shells are but beginning to grow, are free swim- 16 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE mers for a while; their ontogeny or individual history here, as often, reflecting the successive phases of development through which their entire race has come. This ontogenetic fact referred to is so generally repeated in other groups of the lesser animals that it may safely be said of all which live their mature life encased in shells or moored to other objects, that it is in their infancy alone their normal life is expressed, and we know as well that the pervasion which has set in to change a life of freedom and independence has likewise set up changes of anatomy and physiology which make the mature creature only the more dependent by adjustment to his abnormal life. The de- velopment history of the individual is an important record for interpreting the status of that individual, whatever kind of creature he may be. The boy is father to the man in a very true sense when we apply it to ourselves or to any ani- mal that keeps its independence throughout life. But the boy, the young, the infant stage, is the only faithful reflec- tion of the dignified past in the case of such creatures as have lost their grip on normal living and have resorted to the sheltered life. With these statements of cause and effect it is easy and natural to ask and answer once more that venerable ques- tion whether the perfection of life lies in the perfection of adjustment. Independent living, freedom of locomotion and range expose the individual to ever new dangers. These the individual must quickly overcome or outwit; otherwise succumb. The choice is quick, imperious and fi- nal. To live is, for such independent creatures, an escape or a victory. To call it a ‘‘struggle’’ for existence is to designate it subjectively but very often it is exactly that, a quick reaction of refined innervation or ‘‘wits,’’ of the weak against the strong. But to the larger problem, that of those which have sought and found the easier way and which have snuggled into personal comfort, as contrasted with the struggles of the pathfinders of creation, there are ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE les many angles of approach. The common clam is the perfect adjustment; buried in the mud and fortified by its coat of mail it is difficult to find a creature better adapted and pro- tected. It is a natural sequence, then, that the race of clam has abounded in all the seas since almost the earliest ages. Again, the pea crab hides himself in the living oyster, and the hermit crab backs himself into an empty conch-shell or periwinkle, hiding away his soft degenerate abdominal joints and tail and using the mouth of his bombproof for of- fensive as well as defensive purposes. Neither of these in- quilines comes out; neither would dare to expose his soft- ened mature body outside; but his adjustment is competent notwithstanding the fact that he is a degenerate whose an- cestors were hard-shelled and who, succumbing to the out- side struggle, found this protection inside the shells of the mollusks. The paleontologist Ruedemann has beautifully shown that far back in Ordovician time or earlier, the acorn barnacles, whose hard-shelled descendants of today coat the submerged reefs of the sea and the hulls of befouled ships, were derived from the free-swimming crustaceans of the phyllopod type, through attachment by their backs; a process which seems to have started first as a partial burial of the carapace, leaving the food-grasping organs and sills exposed above the mud; eventually becoming an actual solid fixation because of the distinct advantage in protec- tion and ease of feeding which the animal had discovered. Lateral stresses, Ruedemann thinks, the play of the cur- rents against the carapace and the strains against its side walls, developed the sutures which divide the peculiar shell of the Acorn barnacle. The other great class of barnacles, Lepas, or the commonly known Goose barnacles, whose clus- ters are found today in places where the other barnacles grow, seem to have had a like origin at a like period of earth history, through a cementation, not by the back of the phyllopod ancestor, but rather by its head. These are most venerable degenerates of most adequate adjustment. They 18 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE started so many millions of years ago that a half of the whole period of life on earth has passed over their degra- dation and the whole race to which the barnacles belong, the entire class of cirripede crustacea, have taken this course. With a thousand like cases, they speak only of extreme | adaptation of their physiology to their adjusted require- ments. Substantially protected, their longevity has been thereby ensured. We do not need to raise the question as to whether these protected and adjusted creatures have been the source or starting point of any progressive de- velopment in the animal world, for they are, as we have said, the most obvious degenerates, out of which nothing better has been derived and from which nothing can be hoped for; on the contrary, which are moving slowly under their protection into an ever more hopeless state. Exam- ples quite as explicit in their teaching permeate the more progressed groups of life. Here we are dealing with the simple and less specialized because in them the laws of life can be read most clearly. It would be trite to say that a perfectly adjusted life is an unprogressive one. The adjusted life makes for con- servatism and reduces the chances of variation to its lowest terms. It stabilizes the organism in all its physiology; it anchors the type. Speaking for the moment in higher terms for the individual the adjusted life is likely to carry with it the highest content of happiness. To progress in or- ganic development it is the undeniable foe, but to the con- servatism of intellectual and spiritual ideals the undoubted friend. In the reading of this law of adjustment we must estimate its worth in terms of the end subserved. Today the world is rattling with uneasiness; it has en- tered a period of explosive evolution in human ideals di- rectly comparable to the compulsions which again and again in the history of life have brought quick climaxes and acute outbursts of culmination after slow ages of ac- ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 19 eumulating dynamism. The parallel is a true one. The insects branched into being from out of the scorpion stock of the early Paleozoic age. Slowly they made their way ahead, attaining the endowments of agility which life in the air imparts; quick nerve reaction and refinement. Sud- denly today they have reached a point where their intense vitality is an actual menace to the mammal life on the earth, whose future salvation seems in no small measure to be up in the air between these insects and their aérial enemies, the birds. The great reptilian bubble swelled up and burst in the days of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, leaving behind a few crocodiles and lizards for today, and that great agile race of highest variability—the birds. The alligators and salamanders and their scattered kin alone retain the type of structure so painfully worked out through the long ages before the days of the collapse and there is no chance, not the faintest promise in the history of Nature that she will, in such an earth as has now come into being, again experiment with this type of structure. Out of the crash of the reptilian overgrowth and extravagances only the birds seem to have emerged with a promise still ahead. Our own stock, the line down which we have come, travelled clear of these excesses in development, and while the rep- tiliian blood is in mankind it is not that of the reptilian cli- maxes, the dinosaur or the brontosaur. It is the surest thing that the minorities of those ancient days saved the day for us. And in the convulsion of ideas which has burst upon the present world through the lifting of the lid to pent-up and restrained bizarreries of impulse, there wili remain behind, if Nature is true to her standards, a stal- wart conservation of the type, minority though it may be, which has been worked out through the ages and in which must lie the enduring germ of future advance. The froth is a scum of bubbles, the relief of a tension it is well to be rid of. 20 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE The Proper Understanding of the Shell or External Skele- ton. It is well recognized throughout the evolution of or- ganic beings that a feature acquired as an advantage in the fight for existence is easily carried beyond the point of ad- vantage into a disqualification or obstacle in the same strug- gle. The elephant’s tusks, the narwhal’s horn, the moose’s antlers, the sabre-toothed tiger’s canines, bony collars and dorsal crests in the ancient reptiles, stony spines on head and body in infinite variety among invertebrates, are ready representatives of this fact. It is specialization-develop- ment carried from usefulness into disadvantage. The hard- ening of the outside coat of primitive organisms or the cre- ation of an external shell was, in its inception, a definite protective advantage so adjusted by secretion that it could not impair the activity of any function. In many of the sim- pler expressions of life, the Radiolaria, the Foraminifera and sponges, these mineral deposits were not permitted to interfere with the easy movements of the protoplasmic or simple cell contents, and so if the scattered mineral parti- cles became united into a solid framework, there were defi- nite openings and holes left for such movements. As net- works of minute rods or stars or little burrs, or in other forms of beauty and symmetry, built up by an unexplained directive process, the mineral matter is often disseminated through epithelial or epidermal walls, as in the sponges, or compactly joined together into definite continuity, as in the corals. The starfish and the crinoids have aggregated the skin deposits about centers out of which growth has often developed solid plates which press against one another without uniting and so produce a covering with some de- gree of elasticity. In the type of external skeleton shown by the mollusks, to which we have referred, the clam, the snail, the nautilus and their allies, the epithelium or mantle builds up by spic- ular calcification a hard continuous covering which actually embraces or is competent to embrace the entire animal; an ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 21 impenetrable and typically unjointed armor.t With them is to be grouped the vast army of brachiopods which | thronged the early seas of the earth, a group whose or- ganic station has been much debated, whose historic posi- tion and anatomy separate them too widely from the mol- lusks to justify speculations as to their descucrabion or derivation from that stock. This form of protective covering represents almost the extreme of defensive personal armor; a complete adjust- ment accompanied by, or resulting ra a stabilized inheri- tance. All groups of the Mollusca have not permitted this development to go to so great an extreme as in the lamelli- branchs, or clams, for the snail and the nautilus travel about carrying their coiled shells with them, quick to withdraw into them whenever danger comes and often to close the door behind with a shelly plate or hardened skin. Squids and cuttlefish, late representatives of the nautilus stock, have followed a divergent path in this development by which their outer shell has been enfolded within the body substance. These creatures, too, maintain an active mo- bility, flying like darts through the ocean waters. Ptero- pods, a very ancient and active molluscan type, and the translucent scaphopods are the surface swimmers of the deep seas. Both carry light external shells and all these together seem to portray the result of long struggle against the general enchainment of their class and to typify in a measure what the Mollusca might all have been had not subjection of close encasement been sought or thrust upon them. Among them all, the most palpable change, progress and variation of expression are within the active groups. A very much less seclusive body-cover was developed by the great group of articulated animals, the Arthropods, represented by the shrimps, crabs, lobsters and insects. In 1 Except chiton and such multivalvular mollusks, whose articulated shell ap- pears to be a response to the coiling habit which the animal had in much the ' same degree as the trilobite and the sow bug. 22 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE simplest expression such animals are constituted of a suc- cession, from head to tail, of a series of transverse body segments, each of which is to be interpreted as a somatic unit. Specialization among these somatic elements early appeared by adaptation to definite functions, and advance in specialization was followed by coalescence of the an- terior segments as we see them in the carapace of the lob- ster or the head of the trilobite. But regarding this type in its inception, we have to deal with a repetitive series of elementary like parts, comparable only to and probably derivable only from the ancestral segmented worms. The epithelium of this group was so vitalized that it could elim- inate from the water carbonate and phosphate salts of lime, combining with them a certain proportion of organic mat- ter which may have been in part derived from the epithe- lum itself. Thus we find the members of the group for the most part thin-shelled, with the shelly cover of plates deli- eately jointed one with another, so that the motion of the parts, except for such as are fused together, and of the ap- pendages of the parts, similarly covered and jointed, is in no way impeded. And in the normal expression of these creatures there is no impairment of locomotion. This is a protection by an exoskeleton which is a per- fectly advantageous adjustment, as it involves no interior constraint of organic function. The arthropods may put on an infinitude of shape and be found adapted to all media of life; they may present innumerable expressions of ex- treme degeneracy, subservience and adapted solid protec- tion acquired by boring or burial; but in all these conditions the type of epidermal protection is not fundamentally altered. The external shell on any creature, whether snail or sol- dier, is then a structure which, in the idea and the inception, helps, not hinders, in the fight against untoward conditions. Kept in subjection to the high function of locomotion, it has accelerated and helped to ensure progress. Used intem- ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 23 perately and in easy surrender it has exceeded its first pur- pose and finally walled up its owners against a fighting chance for improvement. STABILIZATION, LONGEVITY AND DISSOLUTION Over and over again in the history of the earth we find the evidence of a methuselan stability among living crea- tures, usually shown in definite species but sometimes per- meating an entire assemblage or fauna. Ruedemann has shown in great detail the extraordinary number of conser- vative types or ‘‘radicles’’ which have been perpetuated through the geological ages. It is a remarkable role of de- linquents.* Such illustrations as these will serve: There are the pro- toplasmic Foraminifera which appeared in the Ordovician and Silurian and have kept their generic characters over the lapse of millions of years, to the best of our knowledge, into the present seas (Saccamina, Lagena, Nodosaria). The brachiopod Lingula lives abundantly in the existing seas; its life began in the early Ordovician, and though students of this group believe they see some divergence in structure between the ancient and the existing Lingula, yet the type is but slightly altered and the line is unbroken over this enormous range of the ages. The brachiopod Crania has had a like career, and another brachiopod species, Leptaena rhomboidalis appeared in the Ordovician seas and con- tinued as a specific type through the Silurian, the Devonian and Carboniferous, thus caught in the world-wide conti- nental disturbances which brought to its close the long Paleozoic era. It varied indeed within limitations but re- tained its essential specific characters without dissolution for a period probably ten thousand times as long as the 1R. Ruedemann. ‘‘ Paleontology of Arrested Evolution’’; Presidential ad- dress before The Paleontological Society. (N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 196, 1916, pp. 107-34.) 24 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE Christian era. It would be only a long guess to tell why Leptaena rhomboidahs lived long and was more quickly adaptive than others of its congeneric associates. Not a feature of structure observed or deducible points to the ex- planation. Another brachiopod, Atrypa reticularis, lived through the millions of years from the Silurian into the Carboniferous with but indifferent modifications of its specific type. Some paleontologists may say that these statements fail to recognize the chronologic differences in these stabilized types, and that to identify living Forami- nifera, for instance, with those of the Mesozoic and of the Silurian is hasty and incompetent. It is an a prior state- ment without demonstration. For the brachiopods at least, the Lingulas, the Leptaenas, the Atrypas, the fact remains after careful scrutiny that the differences have not proved permanently translatable in terms of time and change, are hence negligible, and that other distinctive generic names that have been applied to them are not of much account. These are long-lived creatures, and, while exceptional in their longevity, we must try to realize that by virtue of structural and functional constitution they acquired an ad- justment or resistance to change which made them as nearly permanent and as completely stabilized as life, it would seem, can ever become. Their endurance without change can be expressed only in millions of years. Armored or protected, they were the more competent for this long life. But even Methuselah died, and Leptaena rhomboidalis died at last, as a species, through some revolutionary malad- justment which would no longer permit its endurance. These are patriarchal life periods; but for the multitude of species of the past that have kept their characters un- altered through a single geological system or a major sub- division of it, we must think of their days in thousands of thousands of years and not in any terms of easy concep- tion that we might use in our conventional expressions of time. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 25 There is also a stabilization that affects an entire fauna when the members of the assemblage are all in balance with their external and internal control; and so a single fauna may endure for a long period without change of complex- ion. Thus the invertebrate shelled fauna of the Mississip- pian or Lower Carboniferous marine limestones which spread over Colorado, New Mexico and northern Texas, shows such uniformity of character through a very long lapse of time; and in the Middle Devonian Hamilton period, when shallower water prevailed, there is a similar continu- ity of organic character without variation, throughout nearly a thousand feet of shale which must represent a period of many thousand years. The fauna must, however, eventually succumb, that is, yield by evolutionary or intrin- sic variation, or by extrinsic change; shallowing or deepen- ing of the sea, change of climate, a hundred outside influ- ences, to its surroundings; just as many of the long-lived species must yield, or at any rate have yielded, to a resist- ance too great even for their conservatism to overcome. It is again to be emphasized that it is protected, encased and unmobile life alone that achieves such long endurance; the conservative and sheltered types. The mobile and locomo- tory animals have at no time in the earth’s history evinced long life without change. These conclusions are so well established that we may rightly look to them for light upon the interpretation of certain tendencies to rest and unrest, conservatism and im- pulsive change, in human society, and while it may not seem very appropriate to speculate on the further bearing of this theme, it must be said in looking back over the field of organic history, that the value of the product must be in terms of the worth of the type conserved or broken; that is, worth in the sense of highest attainment in functional grade and in the approach to mentality. In such a sense a lobster is better than an oyster because it is of a vastly more refined grade of structure; and though the oyster has 26 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE had the longer life, its type was locked up almost from the start, and except for the lesson it teaches of stagnation and decline, we might say, without impiety, that its conservation has been a waste of time. And it is a type, too, that was won, not by the arduous struggles of the ages, but arrived at early and with ease. Therefore its lessened worth. DIVISIONS OF GEOLOGICAL HISTORY We cannot well proceed with this discussion without a succinct statement here of the stages of geological history, in which special emphasis is laid upon those earlier di- visions with which we are especially concerned. The table that follows is a condensed one of standard acceptance; it begins at the top of the latest life-bearing rocks and ends with the oldest. As to the estimates of time represented for the deposition of these sediments and for the existence of the life of the earth, this must be said: Ten years ago there was considerable variance of opinion be- tween the physicists who were estimating the age of the planet on the basis of the external disturbances to which it was subjected in our planetary system, and the geologists who sought to approach this problem from measurements of the rate of deposition and erosion of water-laid sedi- ments; but a conservative conclusion had been provisionally attained which was tacitly accepted by most geologists as somewhere between sixty and one hundred million years for the sum of all water-laid rocks and perhaps from forty to sixty million years for those rocks which still carry the obvious remains of life. Since the discovery of radium and with a growing understanding of the significance of radium decomposition and radio-activity these estimates have been enormously outstripped, so vastly indeed that the very size of the figures seems to put them under suspicion. The time element in this is still a factor of much discussion and ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 27 TABLE OF GEOLOGICAL DIVISIONS ADAPTED TO NORTH AMERICA ERAS AGES PERIODS CHARACTER OF LIFE Psychozoie Recent Rise of intelligence and age of man. Pleistocene Quaternary (Glacial) Successive glaciation, wide extinction of life through cold, followed by quick readjustments and rapid evolution. enozoic : C Pliocene Miocene Oligocene Eocene Tertiary The vertebrate stock approaches phys- ical culmination; obscure mammals achieve the erect position. The earlier mammals are of simple type. Upper Cretaceous Lower Diminutive and primitive marsupial- like mammals continue to the close of this period and start upon a specific upward progress. The great reptiles are becoming fewer after having governed the earth in infinite variety. Mesozoic Jurassic The reptiles at maximum development. In the period of their earlier and more plastic expressions birdlike reptiles de- veloped and started the race of birds, Triassic Permian Carboniferous While their origin-stock is represented by the primitive dinosaur reptiles. Here are the first traces of the mammal stock. Climax of Cryptogamous plants. Land reptiles and Amphibians fully estab- lished. Stalked Echinoderms (erinoids) at their maximum. Devonian Culmination of lung and armored fishes and primitive sharks. Beginning of forests. Paleozoic ae Silurian Scorpionlike arachnids (Eurypterida) at their maximum. Ordovician Cambrian Reign of invertebrates of all stocks, largely affected by dependence and loss of function except in Cephalopod mol- lusks and Crustacea, but locomotive independence was more generally re- tained in the older faunas. Proterozoic and Archeozoie Worms, Radiolaria, Cale-algae, Bacteria. 28 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE study; it is too soon to determine its value and to discuss it here is inappropriate, but we must at least grant to these suggestions the probability that we have heretofore greatly underestimated the time required for the upbuilding of the fossiliferous rocks and for the evolution of life. In terms of millions of years time becomes incomprehensible and the sum total, whatever it may be, must be regarded as com- petent for all the evolutionary processes of life and work. INDEPENDENCE OF THE FIRST FAUNA We still stand in ignorance of the real primitive or in- ceptive fauna of the earth, and when we use the expression ‘first fauna,’’ it is with the reservation which absence of facts compels. We may speak freely, however, of the first fauna known to us and with a fulness of knowledge that justifies, in good measure, deductions regarding the nature of its ancestors upon earth. The fauna of the Cambrian system represents to us the actually known first fauna, for evidences of organic life in the rocks before and below the Cambrian are desultory though positive. While we are considering the special nature of the Cambrian fauna from the point of view we have here taken, let it be not forgotten that this so-called ‘‘first fauna’’ must have been millions of years in the making, worked out by the slow and arduous advances with which first steps have ever been taken in the course of nature. Our ‘‘first fauna,’’ then, is also the prod- uct of the ages; and in spite of its complexion of simplicity, the entire absence in it of the vertebrate type and of what we are wont to regard the more progressed of its inverte- brate types, specialization in anatomical structure is per- haps, in view of our expectations, the most obvious fact that it sets forth. Let us keep this important fact in mind as we study its composition with reference to independent and de- pendent life. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 29 GENERAL SURVEY OF THE CAMBRIAN FAUNA OF NORTH AMERICA The present registry of described species is now about 1200, and they range from algae to crustaceans and anne- lids. This statement fairly represents the span of life in this fauna. It is a reach from an expression of perfect function with minimum of structural differentiation, as in the sponges, to the specialized organic structure of the tril- obite. Of the 1200 species; one-third (373) are brachiopods. Brachiopods are animals which we believe to be derived from a stock similar to, or identical with, that out of which the worms have come; and it is quite certain that the long- lived ‘‘inarticulate’’ brachiopods represented by Lingula, retain pretty definite annelid resemblances. A vast num- ber of Lingulas occur in this fauna and their form of at- tachment, if comparable with the lhving Lingula anatina, was like that of many contemporary worms—a burial in the mud, rather than a fixation to the sea bottom. The great array of Cambrian brachiopods presents at maturity a min- imum of fixation by means of the pedicle, which was an organ not homologous with the byssus by which the mussel shells are attached but an adapted organ obviously of a different original function. Throughout the later Paleo- zoic story of these brachiopods, attachment by the pedicle was easily surrendered, and solid fixation by the substance of the shells easily assumed. The fact is to be emphasized that the brachiopods are a distinct order of creatures with no affiliations with the Mollusca and none except in sem- blance with the Molluscoida. Of the Mollusea which swarmed in the Posteambrian seas, but few had then been developed or at least have been regis- tered: less than 10 per cent of the whole fauna, and but 3 per cent of these are of the dependent type of the oyster 30 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE and clam. ‘The rest are free (gastropods 39, pteropods 32 species). The sponges of the Cambrian are as yet in a large measure undescribed but the material in the collec- tions made by Dr. Walcott from the Burgess shale indicates the great abundance of the silicious sponges, while they re- tain a simplicity of form which is in contrast to the pro- eressed species of the Devonian. With the foregoing we may contrast the great outstand- ing army of independents—the Crustacea. Of the trilo- bites there are 502 species and of the Eucrustacea, the prim- itive shrimps, 89 species—together constituting one-half the entire list of described species of the fauna. These creatures were all elaborately innervated and highly loco- motive throughout their entire life, and their anatomical and functional structure was a very advanced attainment in specialization. Such an enormous development of the single type of structure represented by the trilobites, which were here at the climax of their entire career on earth, gave material and opportunity for different degrees of progress, delay, decline and reversion, all of which are to be estimated in the construction of a true classification of the great group. No adequate conception of their specialization can be obtained without a study of the restorations of their ven- tral anatomy as shown by Neolenus, a late member of this Cambrian or ‘‘first fauna.’’ This has been restored by C. D. Walcott on the basis of specimens collected by him in the Middle Cambrian of Burgess Pass, Alberta. The trilo- bite has maintained throughout its individual (ontogenie) and race (phylogenic) existence, complete freedom and full locomotor efficiency. And if this is true of them it is a fortiorc true of the Eucrustacea’ of this fauna of which 1 These Eucrustacea are creatures which to the casual observer show evident relationship to the ‘‘shrimps.’’ It is interesting to a paleontologist to observe the unconscious solemnity with which biologists familiar alone with evident structures in the vast group of living arthropods or jointed invertebrates, and their classification, debate with themselves the position and affinities of these ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 31 Walcott has brought out a most impressive number and variety. As to the annelids or worms, speaking in broad and familiar terms, while the number of species actually rec- ognized from the preserved parts is comparatively small, yet the rocks of this age are voluminously marked with their trails and borings, and we must conclude that these soft-bodied creatures were abundant. Deductively they must have been, for on evidence quite independent of fossil remains we look to these simply segmented creatures, or to some radicle constructed on a like pattern, as the starting point for several of the differentiated groups of the Cambrian; the specialized, partly stabilized and partly retrogressive brachiopods, the progressive crustaceans, and perhaps the echinoid holothurians and cystids. The worm radicle must therefore be very ancient and we have reason and evidence to predicate its abundance in the faunas of Precambrian time. Here then, in essence, we have the significance of the Cambrian fauna in terms of its abundance and independ- ence, retreat and advance. It enters later geologic stages of existence equipped to carry forward its great dependent groups to further expansion within the restraints of its in- duced limitations and a specialization into more perfected adjustments but without hope of any advance that will im- prove the grade of life; and to direct its independent groups, its segmented annelids, trilobites and crustaceans upward with the promise of quick developments which are ancient creatures to those now living and their proper place in the scheme of living things; forgetting or overlooking the fact that these designs are un- reckoned millions of years old and are in truth the parents of all such conjec- tures. They antedate classifications and the objects classified. Governor Wil- liam Bradford, of the Plymouth colony, must have at least ten thousand living descendants in this land of ours, rejoicing under various patronymics which time and marriage have brought. To which does the old progenitor now be- long, Smith, Jones or Robinson? All alike may claim him. 32 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE to advance without restraint into higher but more transi- tory organisms. THE CAMBRIAN FAUNA GENERALLY The known Cambrian fauna of North America is repre- sentative of the total life of that age, as its lists are twice the size of all from the rest of the world. The additional species from Europe, Asia, Australia and South America, in which the proportions of immobile and mobile organisms are about as indicated above, make a sum total of approxi- mately 1500 species. In this total the trilobites and other crustaceans constitute 58 per cent; for the North Ameri- ean fauna these latter figures are 58.7 per cent. But it is obvious that this fauna was an essentially independent congeries of animals in which we must reckon all the erusta- ceans, all the thin-shelled hyaline pteropods, all the anne- lids, practically all the thin phosphatic and allied brachio- pods (in contrast to their descendents) and perhaps the limpetlike gastropods—a fully 90 per cent representation of locomotive freedom. It is an assemblage, too, which, so far as our knowledge extends, was essentially free of ex- pressions of symbiosis, even of the most innocent form. PRECAMBRIAN LIFE (ARCHEOZOIC) Here hes the field still of greatest importance for future investigations of the beginnings of life. Out of it, thus far, little else than suggestions have been derived as to the ac- tual living things of those vast ages. From the midst of its heaved and altered sediments have been rescued here and there a few tangible fragments of recognizable species of life. From the critical knowledge which is to help most in the unveiling of the progress of life, this difficult reposi- tory is of such high importance that it should enlist the concern of students who are well endowed with patient en- ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE | 33 thusiasm, for no service to this science, whether in fact or philosophy, 1s more competent or more needed than the evidence which lies here buried. To Walcott, who has lifted the veil from the unsuspected specialization of the Cambrian fauna and, with Barrande, has taught us to re- gard that fauna, not as primitive but a venerable monument of life, we owe our best knowledge of life in the still earlier ages. Out of the vast Precambrian ages and its great seas which, in view of the high specialization of the rich Cam- brian fauna, must have laid down fossiliferous sediments for inconceivable ages, we know immense growths of lime deposits built up as-reefs in the seas like the corals of today and in whose formation algal life seems to have played effective part. There has also been described a spongelike Skeleton called Atikokamnia (A. lawsom and A. irregularis Walcott) from the Steeprock series of Ontario, an organism So primitive in its skeletal characters that its reference even to the sponges lies in doubt." Walcott? has described as ‘‘ Micrococcus sp. indet.,’’ a bacterium from the Algonkian (Precambrian) of Gallatin county, Montana, which the bacteriologist Kligler*® regards as close to the existing Nitrosococcus which derives its ni- trogen from ammonium salts. ‘‘The cell structure of the Algonkian and of the recent Nitrosococcus bacteria is very primitive and uniform in appearance, the protoplasm being naked or unprotected.’’ With this point before us we are confronted by the impressive inference that this simplest of organic structures has defied change and the ages. The type at least has not failed to find its appropriate surround- ings or to adjust itself readily to change in them. It is the 1Jt appears from the comments of Walcott that we must not yet regard the horizon of this organism finally established, though Van Hise, Leith and the discoverer, Lawson, regard it as from true sediments of the Precambrian Hu- ronian. 2 Proc. National Academy of Sciences, v. 1, p. 256, 1915. 3 See Osborn’s ‘‘Origin and Evolution of Life,’’ 1917, p. 85. 34 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE true example of the deathless life wherein reproduction by division has carried the parent into all its uncountable prog- eny. Once more it is well to enforce the fact that the simplest organisms have lived the longest and those that have so lived have been subjected to the minimum of change and the optimum of adaptation. While we recognize that to this the sessile condition and immobility arising from any other cause contribute, it is such persistent simple forms that Ruedemann has called ‘‘immortal types.’” THE COMPOSITION OF THE LOWER CAMBRIAN FAUNA IN NORTH AMERICA This is the ‘‘first fauna.’’ The casual remnants of life that have been found in the Precambrian rocks cannot be characterized as fauna or flora. And this ‘‘first fauna,’’ so far as known to us, must be regarded as an escape from unfavorable conditions, for its sediments have everywhere _ been easily lable to alteration by earth movements and destruction of its organic contents. So it is fair to say that much of the fauna is still to be uncovered. In its known composition, however, which is now numerically estimated at 243 species in North America, there is essentially the same relative prominence of groups of organisms as in the total Cambrian; thus the brachiopods (76) constitute about 30 per cent, the trilobites (110) almost 50 per cent. The Mollusea are represented chiefly by the gastropods (16 species), mostly of the simple, conical, limpet shapes and the free-swimming pteropods (12 species). Otherwise there are representatives of algae (2), sponges (1), corals (8), annelids (trails; soft bodies not retained), cystids (ele- mentary echinoids) (2), pelecypods or clams (1), eucrus- taceans or shrimps (5). That the percentage of locomotive 1 Op. cit., p. 116. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 30 - independence here indicated is essentially that of the Cam- brian fauna as a whole is an indication of how slowly sub- jection and dependence permeated the life of the earth. THE BEGINNINGS OF SYMBIOSIS AND PARASITISM In the foregoing we have endeavored to indicate that de- pendence is not a primitive but a secondary condition of organisms; that, as the alternate state to independence, it had involved in lesser degree even so early a fauna as the Cambrian; and in successive faunas to the present we have the full knowledge that it has vastly increased in its scope and effect. .We have no reason to believe that the depend- ent habit of life once acquired has ever been fully removed or lost; it is safe to say that dependence, under the normal procedure of the organic law, is incurable; an adaptation without escape. We are now to consider, not the expressions of race de- pendence, but those consociations among early animals which have led from conditions of mutual support and in- _ terdependence (symbiosis) into conditions of parasitism or absolute dependence of one animal or plant upon another’s vital functions. From the protozoa and bacteria to man and the oak, nature is riddled with such expressions of de- pendence and surrender. In the more innocent expressions of symbiosis termed — mutualism and commensalism, where associations of or- ganisms are purely social and apparently harmless or even mutually advantageous to the participants, it is probable that once fixed the outcome is infallibly deleterious. The glass-rope sponge (Hyalonema) has its coil of rope by which it anchors itself to the sea bottom, incrusted and shielded by a coral (Palythoa), which spreads like a thin wrap of felt all about it, while its ally the Venus’s Flower- 36 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE basket (Euplectella) imprisons a crab in its interior behind the bars it throws across its aperture but feeds it with ever changing water currents; worms and anthozoan corals grow together, with the tubes of the former surrounded by the cells of the latter, both sweeping the water currents for food which may go to either mouth; dead snail shells in which hermit crabs have taken residence are often beset with sea anemones (Sagartia and Adamsia) whose stinging cells may scare away the enemies of the crab, while the crab favors the fixed anemones by moving his establishment from place to place, thus to new feeding grounds. All these conditions seem on the surface entirely harm- less or positively advantageous to all parties involved; that is, advantageous in the sense that they make life easier, less arduous, discourage activity and perfect adaptation. The general effect of all symbiotic conditions is degenera- tive. They themselves arise from degenerate tendencies and could not exist save that degeneration had already set in. They are expressions of this condition and serve to confirm and transmit this tendency. The fact is tremen- - dously evident that even the most innocent of symbiotic, de- pendent or attached conditions of growth is the leaven of progressive degeneracy. It is well known that the critical methods of morphology and embryology have been requisite to determine the origi- nal ancestral independence of the most debased of para- sites. While the doctors of the Middle Ages wondered over the barnacles and pictured them as growing on trees, drop- ping thence to the ground transformed into geese, their real nature as debased crustaceans was not unfolded till the life history of the creatures showed that their early stages were free and predatory, and the adult condition one of extreme adaptation by progressive loss of functions and organs. Thus the parasitic and dependent habit is, in metazoan life, preceded by a free and predatory condition. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 37 Once the dependent habit is established the capacity for reaction grows weaker; degenerative adaptation creeps still further back in the life of successive generations and the degradation of the adult state becomes more profound. CoMPLEX CHARACTER OF PARASITISM Symbiotic conditions reckoned in terms of the host are often helpful. There is a world full of benign parasites but they are not haphazard. True parasitism as known amongst the existing animals and plants is in most cases exceedingly complicated. More- over, when the infesting parasite requires a series of hosts, a different one for each phase of its development, and when im all its stages it is a soft-bodied creature, we must recog- nize the hopelessness of trying to unravel from the geologic record the history of such complex adjustments and be sat- isfied to take them as they are after human ingenuity has succeeded in deciphering them. The course of such per- fected adjustments in evil living may be interesting knowl- edge, but the cause and origin of them can be deciphered _ only by the mode which we are following through the his- toric study of the more legible expressions of these associa- tions. And it is altogether probable that such complicated careers, especially such as are best known because of their relation to man, are of quite recent adaptations. B&GINNINGS OF SYMBIOSIS Our analysis of the Cambrian fauna has shown the degree to which it has been affected by dependence. So far, how- ever, as our present acquaintance goes, there is no obvious record of symbiotic or commensal conditions in that fauna; if they occurred at all, they were conditions rarely re- corded. This is a significant fact in its bearing on the origi- 38 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE nal directness and independence of life and must be given important weight in the conclusion that life started un- perturbed and with the best upward purpose; and even if the evidence is essentially negative it loses no force from this fact. It would seem then that not until life had got in full swing did these organic combinations come into existence, even in their simplest commensal expressions. Regarding bac- teria and sporozoa we have written on a later page, but among the invertebrates even the consociation of the anne- lids and the corals, which formed easily and early and has endured long under manifestations of various sorts, does not seem to have yet appeared with the opening of Ordo- vician time. RELATION oF SyMBIosIs TO PaRAsITISM We have intimated, and it seems a natural presumption, that parasitism, by which is meant an adaptation in which one organism has become helplessly dependent on another for its existence, is the outcome of the innocent combina- tions of symbiosis. One would have little difficulty in be- lieving that from such a complicated relation of the worms to the corals as shown in the Devonian by Pleurodictyum and its associates, which we shall presently. describe, a con- dition of genuine parasitic dependence might well have re- sulted, even though the fact is not actually demonstrated. It would seem that we must continue to distinguish an in- nocent symbiosis from a dependent symbiosis or parasit- ism, but this is based only on our present understanding, and a statement that the latter can be independent of the former and not a consequence upon it seems so illogical that it is really not likely to stand up when the facts are more far-reaching. In parasitic symbiosis the host is the resist- ing, not the consenting or cooperating partner. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 39 ILLUSTRATIONS OF PRIMITIVE PARASITISM Tue Casé of THE ANNELIDS One group of animals, the worms or annelids, is of prime interest in these considerations. The worms occur in vast variety in the existing fauna and their derived or secondary expressions are abundant. It is not with these that we are concerned. The primitive or archetypal worm is conceived as a simple fore-and-aft segmented structure in which the innervation is repetitive by segments and the alimentary and distributive organs simple and continuous. The worm has led a long career of ideal independence and it has been the architectural model for the higher creation. In the judgment of many morphologists there is, as we have al- ready intimated, a convergence backward into the past toward the archetypal worm, of great differentiated stocks like the brachiopods and the echinoids, while we recognize in all segmented creatures the normal continuous progeny of the annelid prototype. Worms, we may restate, were common enough in the Cambrian fauna, known both by their trails and burrows and by some highly specialized bodies; and it is probable that such evidences of their existence will not long be lack- ing in the Precambrian. The worm, however, had a soft body; its acquisition of a cover or shell which would en- able its preservation was a secondary development. So we are confronted in all the early rocks by few actually fossil- ized worms but with a great abundance of their trails in the soft muds. The worm buried itself halfway or wholly in the mud; encased itself, at times, in tubes of its own making; thus ensuring a protection against adversaries. But it retained an active, vibratile vitalism and an en- tire freedom from attachment to its tube. The rocks of these formations are often filled with vertical worm tubes, and the surface of the same beds may be marked by fes- 40 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE tooned and wavy markings in the sand, made by the occu- pants of these tubes as they swept the sea bottom with their extended bodies. They were eager commensals and in the Paleozoic faunas we find them in various associations, espe- Fig. 1. Silicified mass of stromatoporoid coral full of straight worm tubes (Gitonia) which start at various levels in the coral growth. Onondaga limestone (Lower Devonian). Fig. 2. A solid colony of Stromatopora constellata from the Upper Silurian (Coble- skill limestone) with its surface pitted by the openings of vertical tubes of the worm Gitonia sipho. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 41 cially with the corals and the sponges and the calcareous algae. The coexistence of the tubicolous worms with the corals is one of the commonest phenomena of present seas and it became established as early as the Silurian. In most of the ancient cases observed it is an elementary expression of commensalism, but not long after its start it becomes at times rather complex. Worm and coral may start together directly on settling down from the free larval state, or con- junction may be formed by attachment of the annelid larva after the growth of the coral has well progressed. In both eases the growth of the latter engulfs the former save at its tentacled aperture. We give herewith examples of these occurrences.* Fig. 3. The coral Cystiphyllum with short tubes of Gitonia corallophila opening outward through the thecal walls. Fig. 4. A calyx of Zaphrentis with a number of tube openings of Gitonia. Figs. 5, 6. A Zaphrentis from two points of view to show the course of the tube of G. corallophila with both ends opening outward into the calyx. Fig. 7. Tubes of this character opening through the lateral walls of Zaphrentis. All are from the Onondaga limestone (Lower Devonian). 1 Some of these illustrations are taken from the writer’s ‘‘ Beginnings of Dependent Life’’ (1908), but to these and to the other classes discussed, new illustrations have been added. 42 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE Silurian. The reef-building coralloids, Stromatopora, which abound in the stages of the Silurian are frequently permeated with straight tubes of the worm Gitonia sipho. This is an occurrence often repeated in the Stromatoporas and true corals (Favosites) of the Lower Devonian. Devonian. Interesting simple combinations of this cate- gory are shown by individual polyps of cyathophylloid corals like Zaphrentis and Cyathophyllum, where we have frequent indication that the tube of the worm is open at both ends and its continuity unbroken, each end opening at the tentacular surface of the coral. Often the worm dies in the coral and is buried in the stereom, or its upward growth is not so rapid as that of the coral and it is left be- hind with its head protruding from the side of the corallite. It is also quite evident that the coral may so build its tissue about the worm as to inclose it in a sheath which takes the Fig. 8. Head of the trilobite Dalmanites overgrown by a colony of the bryozoan Monticulipora in which is embedded a series of the tubes Gitonia sipho. Onon- daga limestone (Lower Devonian). ; Fig. 9. Colony of the coral Favosites sphaericus with a series of Gitonia tubes. Helderbergian (Lower Devonian), Figs. 10, 11. A weathered surface and a transverse section of a Stromatopora full of Gitonia tubes. Cobleskill (Upper Silurian). ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 43 place and serves the purpose of a self-constructed tube. Thus the worm Gitonia corallophila expresses itself in vari- ous meanderings among the simple corals. Some small lens-shaped coral colonies from the Ordovician of lowa are permeated with worm associates, all of which seem to start from the initial basal point of growth of the coral, and then, after a single turn or so of the tube in Serpula fashion, strike outward radially between the polyp cells, all reach- ing the tentacle surface of the colony. This combination indicates that the embryo worms aggregated themselves in numbers about the anchoring coral larva. Spiral worms and corals. These interesting associations are common throughout the Silurian and Devonian. Spiral worm tubes passing in these faunas under the name of Spirorbis and living independently are normally, or at least often, attached to shells of brachiopods and mollusks, where they escape any chance of becoming embedded, and after a few initiatory attached coils the tube often becomes free and resolves itself into very loose spirals (see figures of S. angulatus). In the tube called Autodetus, which is frequent in the Devonian, there is an initial spiral attach- ment, but the whorls of the free tube keep in contact and Figs. 12-15. Enlarged drawings of Spirorbis angulatus, a worm tube from the Hamilton group (Middle Devonian). These show the tendency of the tube to unwind in a lax spiral as soon as fixation is firmly established. 44 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE the whole shell takes on the form of a smooth cone attached by its apex. It is to be understood that the worm in these cemented tubes was highly flexible and vibratile and free to extend itself from the aperture and was not attached to the tube shell; and indeed, if like many living worms, could Fig. 16. Section of a Stromatopora colony showing the cut ends of the spiral worm tubes Strepindytes concoenatus from the Cobleskill limestone (Upper Silu- rian). The apparent difference in direction of volution in these is entirely due to difference of direction and angle at which the tubes are cut. Fig. 17. An enlarged restoration of the character of the worm tubes. Fig. 18. Streptindytes acervulariae Calvin. Two tubes of this spiral worm in a eolony of Acervularia Davidsoni. Middle Devonian, Iowa. abandon its shell entirely and build a new one somewhere else. Streptindytes concoenatus is such a worm, with tube stretched out in loose spiral, which we find to be common in the Stromatopora colonies of the Upper Silurian (Coble- skill) limestones. Our figures 16, 19, indicate that these worms started their growth at different stages in the growth of the colony, obviously attaching themselves to the ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 45 outer surface of the coral when it was well grown, but it is interesting to see that at any given stage they attach themselves not singly but in numbers, as though each set- tlement indicated a new crop of young worms. Streptin- dytes acervulariae Calvin is a quite large spiral tube not uncommon in Acervularia davidsoni, a coral of the Middle Devonian of Iowa, and S. compactus, a short, close-coiled species which is found buried up in the calcareous sub- stance of the Iowa Middle Devonian Stromatoporas. These embedded worms were often eventually strangled by the more rapid overgrowth of the coral, as there was no lateral way out for their heads as in the straight tubes. 19 Fig. 19. Streptindytes compactus, a spiral worm embedded in a solid stromatopo- roid coral. Sections of the tubes are indicated by the white dots. Fig. 20. A single individual enlarged. From the Middle Devonian of Iowa. The extraordinary case of the coral Pleurodictyum and its commensals. Pleurodictyum is a small compound coral growing in lens-shaped colonies with large cells, in its struc- ture very similar to the common honeycomb coral Favo- - 46 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE sites but distinguished by its habit of growth as well as details of cell structure. It does not abound in species and all that are known belong to the Middle and Lower De- vonian faunas. The following are its known species: P. lenticulare Hall; Helderbergian (New York). P. lenticulare var. laurentinum Clarke; Grande Gréve limestone (Gaspé). P. convexum Hall; Onondaga limestone (New York). Lower P. problematicum Goldfuss ; Coblentzian (Western Europe). Devonian. P. constantinopolitanum d’Archiac and Vernewil; Roumeli shales! (Turkey). P. amazonicum Clarke; Maecuru sandstone (Brazil). P. styloporum Haton—Hamilton (New York, ete.); Middle Devonian. The combination of the Pleurodictyum with what was long called a ‘‘coiled central body’’ or a ‘‘wormlike ob- ject,’’ actually the curved tube of a commensal worm, has long been known from the internal casts preserved in the sandy shales of the Coblentzian. The concurrence of the coral and its convoluted worm has been noted in several of the species here mentioned, but the varying degree of its frequency is instructive. Thus in the earliest species, P. lenticulare, I have seen the worm tube very rarely, after the examination of a considerable number of examples; in the var. lawrentinum not at all; never in the large species P. convexum Hall of the Onon- daga limestone. The single published illustrations of P. amazonicum and P. constantinopolitanum show its presence but enable one to form no conception of its prevalence. The combination is frequent enough in P. problematicum to have given rise to the specific name of the coral. The American Middle Devonian P. styloporum has afforded the material for most of the illustrations here given. Of this very com- -mon species in the calcareous shales of the Hamilton group I have been able to examine critically a great many individ- 1 The Roumeli shales of Roumeli-Hissar and elsewhere in the vicinity of Constantinople are generally regarded as the Mediterranean equivalent of the Coblentzian of the Rhineland. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE «AT uals and it is safe to say that the worm is present in the majority of examples. It is usually easy to determine its presence on inspection of the tentacular surface of the coral by the contrast between its round tubes and the angular coral cells. All the specimens here figured to show the con- volutions of the worm have been drawn from actual prep- arations. The history of the combination in P. styloporum is as follows: At the close of the free-swimming larval stage the coral, in fully eight cases out of ten, selected and attached itself to a dead or living shell of the common gastropod Loxonema hamiltonae. Directly upon fixation or even actually contemporaneous with it was the attachment of the larval worm upon the gastropod and alongside the incipi- 1 The selective attachment of such lens-shaped coralloid stocks seems to have acquired directiveness with the progress of time. At any rate we have a sug- gestive intimation of this in the very common Chaetetes lycoperdon (Prasopora simulatriz) in the Trenton limestone of the Ordovician, which is a stony coral Fig. 21. Basal surface of the solid bryozoan colony, Prasopora selwyni, which has attached itself to the brachiopod Plectambonites. Trenton limestone (Ordovician), Ottawa. of quite the same shape and habit of growth as these Pleurodictya. This is found attached sometimes to brachiopod (especially Plectambonites sericea) and as often to gastropod shells which were the abundant exuviae of the sea bottom. More often perhaps it is fastened to some casual stone or other hard object, but among all of which I have taken note there seems to have been no obvious preference by majority. 48 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE ILLUSTRATIONS OF PLEURODICTYUM AND ITS COMMENSAL WORM HICETES Figs. 22 and 23. Top and side views of the corallum in its normal size and form. The apertures of the worm tube are shown at X. Fig. 24. An etching which has the calcareous substance of the base of the coral removed and shows the initial convolutions of the worm tube. Fig. 25. The under side of a corallum with the impression of the gastropod Loxonema hamiltoniae to which it was attached. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 26. The form of the entire worm tube drawn from an actual specimen. bo ob 27. A shell of Loxonema hamiltoniae. bo 8. Vertical section of a corallum, showing the convoluted worm tube. bo 9. Enlarged surface of a Loxonema shell which had been the base of attachment for the coral. This specimen bears several serpulid worm tubes which were there before the coral began to grow. Fig. 30. Section of the coral, showing tubes of more than one worm. 50 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE Fig. 51. Etching of the basal part of the coral, showing the chief worm tube and a wormlike extension which appears to arise from the base of a polypite and turn into an upward course between the cells. Fig. 32. The greatly enlarged interior of a dead Hicetes tube encrusted with slender serpulid worms. Fig. 33. A minute sponge found in the tube of the large Hicetes. Fig. 34. Chonetes sarcinulatus, the brachiopod to which the German coral Pleuro- dictyum problematicum usually is attached. Fig. 35. Vertical section of coral and tubes. Fig. 36. The base of the Pleurodictyum problematicum attached to the brachiopod Chonetes sarcinulatus. From Stadtfeld. Fig. 37. The tube Hicetes overgrown by polyp-cells of different series. Fig. 38. An etching of the coral showing an actual attachment of the worm tube to the snail-shell Loxonema. Fig. 39. Vertical section of a coral showing the worm tube entrenched between the polyp-cells. Fig. 40. An almost unique illustration of the attachment of the American Pleurodictyum to the brachiopod Chonetes coronatus. —— 52 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE ent coral. In many cases, such as that illustrated in figure 38, the worm tube is directly fixed to the gastropod; again it may be free of the gastropod and separated from it by the thickened basal covering or epitheca of the coral. With the multiplication of cell growth and the up- ward trend of the coral, the worm began its convoluted growth, its tube growing as much at one end as at the other and with the same curvature at each end. Many of the ex- isting tubicolous as well as the boring worms have their tubes open at both ends. In view of the regularity of coiling shown in some of the commensal worm tubes it is interest- ing to notice that in this case the worm, after making a start, gets its double coil into parallelism for from one-half to an entire turn and then each arm starts off into a direct course outward and upward following the radial path of the coral cells. These tubes often pass in and out between the cells, shut off from them by secretions of the coral sub- stance, keeping their extremities always at the tentacular surface, and very seldom is there evidence of the worm encroaching on the polypite cells. Still this may occur and the worm tube occasionally becomes encased by a young polypite and holds a position in the center of the cell. Not always does the growth of coral and polyp and worm go on part passu. Ina group of the largest specimens of these corallites we have seen, taken from the shales on Jaycox’s run, Genesee county, N. Y., the later and accelerated growth of the polyps seems to have overwhelmed and strangled the worms whose tubes continue halfway or more upward and then abruptly end. Other worms also may be encased in the thickening base of the growing coral, as shown in figure 30, but it is not yet clear where their apertures lie, as I have never seen more than two annelid openings at the surface of an adult coral, both belonging to the same tube. Originally opening on the tentacular surface at an early stage of coral growth, they have been buried in the later accumulations of ster- ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE D3 eom. There are long tubular passages between the coral- lites in early-growth stages which have not been described in the structure of this coral genus but undoubtedly belong to it. In sections these may be confounded with worm tubes, but in etched specimens, such as have here principally served for illustration, their real nature seems to be clear. In this interesting combination there is still another member—a small silicious sponge. It has come to my notice several times. The one here figured was taken from the empty tube of the worm, but whether that is its usual position or whether it may seat itself in one of the coral ealyces or whether indeed it is a usual member of the con- sociation cannot be regarded as clearly established. Its 1m- portance is not to be magnified; such lhttle organisms are easily entangled in growing corals and must be expected in the fossil state. Some illustrations are here given which show how readily the dead parts of these organisms become encrusted with serpulid worms. Figure 29 is the surface of a part of a dead Loxonema to which a Pleurodictyum had grown, and figure 32 shows the inside of an old tube of the commensal worm (which is known as Hicetes innexus), itself incrusted with minute worm tubes. Interesting as is this instance of commensalism, its most extraordinary feature is the evidence of selection by the larval coral, of the body which serves as the base on which it is to grow. It is stated above that a very evident ma- jority of the colonies of this coral Pleurodictyum, as it oc- ‘curs in the Hamilton shales, are attached to an organic object and that this organic base in apparently a very large majority of the cases is a shell of Loxonema hamil- toniae. Occasionally the shell may be a Pleurotomaria of one or another species. On the other hand the Rhenish Pleurodictyum problematicum fixes itself by decided ma- jority to the brachiopod Chonetes sarcinulatus Schlotheim. I have examined a considerable number of specimens 54 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE of this Coblentzian species but have seen no other shell used for attachment nor have I found record of any other. Though it is not practicable to use percentages with reference to the frequency of this occurrence, the palpable fact remains that, as between these two closely allied if | not identical corals, growing in different and remote basins of the sea, one selects a gastropod, the other selects a brachiopod as its base of attachment. Kmphasis is put on the word ‘‘selects,’’ for among the brilliant examples of selective adaptation none could be more striking than this. The floor of the New York Devonian sea was covered with Chonetes and of the Rhenish sea with gastropods, dur- ing the life of this coral. Were either wanting in the other fauna, hundreds of other species of organisms lined the sea bottom. It is very impressive to find the evidence of thts singular Devonian association of coral and worm from parts of the world as remote from each other as New York, northern Brazil, western Hurope and Con- stantinople. The fact that in chronology the New York occurrence is later than the rest (Lower Devonian) seems to indicate a quick spread of this adjustment over the sandy sea bottom of the early Devonian of the world,’ from which the deeper contemporary waters of New York were ex- cepted and in which region this symbiosis did not arrive till the next succeeding stage. Of its ultimate fate a nega- tive evidence permits us only to say that it went out with the Hamilton stage and did not return with the partial re- turn of that fauna in central New York during the time that is reckoned as of the next succeeding stage—the Ithaca-Portage time of the Upper Devonian. I have not attempted to escape the obvious interpreta- tion of these phenomena nor to avoid its expression in terms of psychic function. To biologists who still find the term ‘‘instinect’’? a comfortable receptacle for such reac- 1 Save in the early Devonian of austral latitudes where the fauna is very unlike that of the rest of the world. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE Do tions, the interpretation may seem invasive. Nothing, I am disposed to believe, can be more illuminative of the prog- ress toward and in intelligence than the early case before us, in which a directed habit has already become fixed by heredity. Taken as a whole this combination is very complicated commensalism from a date so ancient as the Devonian, more extreme than any other yet known from the Paleozoic rocks. We find a somewhat parallel case in the present fauna de- scribed by Bouvier as occurring in the Gulf of Aden—a coral and a worm growing together, and hidden in the coral substance a gastropod on which both settled down when the partnership began; furthermore there appears to be a small bivalve in association with the worm. Other similar cases might be cited from the existing fauna. One stands with wonder before such evidence as this from the ancient faunas, questioning how such a habitude came about, what conditions impelled, stabilized and restricted it, and our wonder is none the less because here we stand at the inception of such associations and contemplate it from a world that is full of them today. And the inquiry naturally arises: What became of this organic combina- tion? It reached its acme only as the coral genus became old, indeed in the last of its representatives. Riddled with commensals, overloaded with boarders who fed at the same table and flourished, it may be that the worm became an effective parasite which helped to bring about the extinc- tion of its host. Commensalism between the worms and sponges. This combination appears in the late Devonian, but there is evi- dence that it is of earlier date. We have just cited the presence of a minute sponge in the Hicetes innexus, the in- colant worm of Pleurodictyum, and there is an undescribed Spreading sponge of the Middle Devonian (Hamilton group) which indicates the presence of coexistent annelids. The simple ancient instance I can here illustrate is that 56 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE shown by the spiral or meandering worm tubes which are found in connection with the glass-sponges Hydnoceras and ‘Prismodictya of the Chemung fauna (Upper Devonian of New York). Figs. 41, 42. Two silicious sponges, Hydnoceras and Prismodictya, with mark- ings of worm tubes on the reticulum. Upper Devonian. In a considerable number of individuals of Prismodictya from the same locality nearly all showed the presence of the annelid commensal and as the surface of the impres- sion left in the sands by the worm tube is in all cases crossed by the reticulated skeleton of the sponge it is in- ferred that the position of the former was internal. These ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE o7 are silicious sponges allied to the living Euplectella or Venus’s Flower-basket, and though we find no parallel ex- pression of commensalsm in the living glass-sponges, yet Kuplectella carries a parasite in the form of a crustacean Fig. 43. A silicified sponge from the English Chalk exposing a spiral worm tube encircling the wall of the cloaca of the sponge. (Courtesy of Dr. F. A. Bather. ) which in youth enters its open cloacal cavity and re- mains there so that when the sponge has in adult growth built the terminal or sieve- plate over its aperture the crustacean is wholly and permanently caged. This ancient association continued long after the Paleozoic, for I have else- where illustrated its occur- rence in the sponges of the Cretaceous from very strik- ing specimens sent to me by Dr. F. A. Bather of the Brit- ish Museum. They are here reprinted. All show a spiral worm tube encircling the long median cloaca of the sponge, in one the spiral be- ing dextral and the other sinistral. The flat section here shown is a direct photo- graphic print made from a thin slide and shows the actual distance of the annelid tube from the cloaca, and suggests also the presence of other commensal worms in the upper left-hand part of the sponge-body (prepared by Doctor Bather). hampton. All are from the Chalk series at Beck- 58 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE Figs. 44, 45. Sponges from the English Chalk showing spiral annelid tubes. In both the worm is seen to encircle the cloaca of the sponge and at some distance from it (Fig. 44, section). In Fig. 45 the direction of the spiral is the reverse of that in Fig. 43. From Beckhampton. (Courtesy of Dr. F. A. Bather.) Symbiosis in the worms and crinoids. The data for such association are not abundant. Myzostomum, a wormlike creature, believed to be an annelid, is parasitic on living erinoids where its species cause galls or swellings by the overgrowth of the caleareous substance. On the columns of Paleozoic crinoids small gall-lke protuberances are occa- sionally found, with a central perforation, and several authors have ascribed these to the Myzostomum.' These Myzostomid galls (Myzostomites) have been recorded from rocks as early as the Upper Ordovician, but we must confess to knowing very little about them, and some of the pit- tings and depressions on erinoid columns which have been thought to be the inner cavities of Myzostomid cysts are doubtless of other origin. Perhaps the best proof that these galls have been made by infesting worms is afforded by the 1 See Wachsmuth and Springer. 1897, p. 43, pl. 1, fig. 2; p. 502, pl. 39, fig. 7; R. L. Moodie; EF, A. Bather. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 59 46 Fig. 46. A crinoid stem from the Carboniferous with deep pits over the surface which may be due to the work of Myzostomites. Fig. 47. Transverse sections of a caleareous hypertrophy or “gall” on the jointed stem of a Devonian (Hamilton) erinoid. This shows, by etching and trans- parence, the filling of minute worm like tubules in the enlarged stem joints, and a darkened aggregate at the center along the stem-canal which has been contracted and obstructed by the spread of this growth, producing a genuinely _ pathologie condition. Enlarged. (The specimen from which these sections were made presented by Professor George H. Chadwick. ) specimen here figured from the Hamilton shales of the De- vonian. Commensalism of coral with coral. The so-called genus Caunopora is an interesting illustration of this habit of growth. Caunopora is a compact hydroid coral with sharply defined and definitely walled tubes scattered through its substance. For a long time it was regarded as the work of a single hydroid colony, but it is now known to be a lami- nate hydroid overgrowing a series of erect coral tubes like those of Syringopora or Aulopora. Fistulipora occidens presents a similar coalition of a hydroid coral growing about the tubes of Aulopora. These are both Devonian oc- 60 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE Fig. 48. Caunopora; a stromatoporoid colony showing the tubes of Syringopora, a coral that lived commensally with it. i Fig. 49. Schematic section showing the structure of the coral tubes in the stromatoporoid mass. Onondaga limestone (Lower Devonian). currences and this association of the hydroid with the zoan- tharian corals is widespread. Other occurrences of this sort are well known and we figure here a colony of the honeycomb coral Favosites which has overgrown a small plantation of the cyathophylloid coral Amplexus. In all these associations there has been apparently no interfer- ence with the functions of either member of the combina- tions. Naturally, as these are merely incidents of their growth they have been carried onward into recent coral plantations where such combinations are not infrequently noted. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 61 Fig. 50. OF size and mode of growth as mls (Denon) 20: between the microscopic tu- bules of the algae and the large regular tubes of the worms.” In a previous discussion of such perforating organisms® we instituted the generic designation Clionolithes for a group which was based on the form described by McCoy? from 1See T. S. Collins. ‘‘Some Perforating and Other Algae on Fresh Water Shells’’; Hrythea, v. 5, p. 95. 1897. 2 Comparison with the tubules of living perforating sponges may be made by reference to the work of Emile Topsent in the Archives de Zoologie Experi- mentale, 2d ser., v. 5 bis, 1887, 1891; 4th ser., v. 7, 1907. 3“‘ Dependent Life.’’ 4“¢ British Paleozoie Fossils,’’ 1855, p. 260, pl. 13, fig. 1, la. Fig. 70. Clionolithes radicans. Etched specimen of an old shell of the brachi- opod Dalmanella superstes of the Chemung shales (Upper Devonian), with a multitude of irregularly branching borings riddling the shell and apparently starting inward from the shell margin. x 10. ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 87 the Silurian as Vioa prisca and which was made by us to include not only tubes of that type, that is, straight sub- clavate fillings, but also very much smaller, much more intricate, arborescent or vagrant tubules. It is evident to us now that only the latter can be assigned to the sponges and that hence our name Clionolithes, devised to suggest relationship to sponges, is applicable only to this division. It is proposed to retain the name for that group, even though this may not be in precise accord with proper no- Fig. 71. Etching of a tube cluster of Clionolithes radicans in the shell substance of the brachiopod Leptostrophia magnifica. From an enlarged photograph. x 64. Grande Greve limestone (Lower Devonian). Fig. 72. The same in a shell of Atrypa reticularis from the Chemung sandstone (Upper Devonian). 88 ~ ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE menclatorial procedure. The Vioa prisca and its type being undoubtedly worm borings must take a more appropriate - designation. We are referring to Clionolithes, the form C. radicans, which enters brachiopod shells by a simple perforation and once within the shell substance produces a radiate and arborescent or root-shaped colony. Shells are often quite riddled by these colonies, which may maintain individual independence, no matter how numerous, though at times in a thick shell, galleries may so overle one another as to ap- pear massed or felted. Itis this form of sponge which may be taken as the type of the genus. Clionolithes palmatus, which has been found only in the soft shales of the Portage group (Upper Devonian), pre- sents a somewhat different aspect from C. radicans in its broad, sparsely branched or palmate tunnels. Clhionolithes reptans is a filamentous and vagrant tube tunneling just beneath the surface of the host-shell. It is common in brachiopod shells of the Lower Devonian and it is assigned to the sponges because there seems no better present interpretation of it. Of entirely different type and of much greater size is a perforating sponge which we observe in the Middle De- vonian Stromatoporas of Iowa. In this there is a large spherical central body from which stout cylindrical arms radiate into the coral substance. The formation of the tunneling appears to begin with the gradual burial of the round centrum with its branches and the subsequent exca- vation of additional tunnels by later outgrowths of the colony. These sponges have been found both as depres- sions at the surface of the coral and as completely buried bodies within the coral substance and revealed only by eut- ting. This parasitic sponge we shall designate Topsentia de- vonica. Worms. The boring worms of the existing fauna have ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 89 Fig. 73. The surface of a Stromatopora from which three individuals of Top- sentia, a boring sponge, have been removed by weathering. ; been especially studied by E. Ray Lankestert and W. C. McIntosh’ who have described the habits of such genera as Sabella, Leucodore, Dodecaceria, whose individuals abun- dantly penetrate corallines, corals, limestone and other rocks. Sabella saxicava Quatrefages makes a_ usually straight tube, but these are often deflected or curved, some- times looped so that both extremities protrude. This loop shape is a habit common to a number of worms which bury themselves in soft mud, and is familiar in the sediments of the Paleozoic rocks. Such U-shaped burrows into the sea bottom have been recorded in rocks as old as the early Or- dovician.* The same shape characterizes some of the living worms which construct agglutinated tubes. Such tubes as 1 Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist., April, 1868, p. 233, pl. 11. 2 Ditto, October, 1868, p. 276, pl. 18, 20. See also W. Blaxland Benham in Cambridge Natural History, 2, ‘‘ Polychaet Worms,’’ p. 287. 3 See Hayes, op. cit. 90 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE 75 Figs. 74, 75. The perforating sponge Topsentia devonica in a Middle Devonian Stromatopora (Iowa). Fig. 74 is a polished section; Fig. 75 shows the embedded sponge by transmitted light. these made by the worms are in contrast to the perforating tubes described because of their usual simplicity and their greater size, and among the fossil occurrences these fea- tures lead to comparatively easy and safe recognition. These simple worm-borings are found in many sorts of solid calcareous organic masses in the Paleozoic rocks. While we find in the Ordovician worms’ growing concur- rently with solid corals or coralloid bryozoa, like Praso- pora, there is no present evidence of perforating worms boring into such masses and more specially into mollusecan and other heavy shells, until late in the Silurian, from which date they acquire greater abundance and in the Devonian faunas become widespread. As the evidence now stands they were rife in the early Devonian everywhere, even in the austral faunas of this period which are in many respects widely distinct from the contemporary faunas of the north.* 1 See Clarke: ‘‘Fosseis Devonianos.’’ ‘ rik bead ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE oF In the later stages of the Devonian they seem less com- mon and become increasingly so through the rest of Pal- eozoic time. It would appear that the early Devonian was the climacteric period of these Sabella-like boring worms. In seeking a designation for these tubes and burrows, we have noted the fact that they were described by McCoy under the name Vioa prisca from a Silurian mollusk. Vioa being an existing genus of boring sponges, and as we are convinced that such tubes as were indicated by McCoy are referable to the worms, a more appropriate name is required and we propose to apply to all of them the desig- nation Paleosabella prisca (McCoy) disregarding differ- ences in size, which are often obvious, and of curvature, which are slight. We give abundant illustration of these occurrences and in the explanations to them point out fea- tures of special interest. Fig. 76. A stromatoporoid coral from the Niagara group (Silurian) of Hamilton, Ont., with weathered holes of boring worms or sponges. 92 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE To a flattened tube with raised edges, giving the sugges- tion of a distinct loop with the branches connected by a thin diaphragm, we have on a previous occasion applied the name Caulostrepsis taenola. So far as our present knowl- edge goes this has been seen only in strophomenoid brachio- pods from the Lower Devonian of the Rhineland. Fig. 77. Palaeosabella prisca in a valve of the brachiopod Leptostrophia. From the Grande Greve limestone (Lower Devonian); enlarged. Finally, it is worthy of note that the host-shells receive these boring worms in various ways. Sometimes the para- site starts at one surface and bores straight across to and through the other surface. Again a number of worms may commence their attacks simultaneously at the growing edge of the shell and while they bore parallel to, and within the shell surfaces, the shell grows on outward beyond the circle (‘uospnyzy ‘fT es10eH Aq ‘ojoyg) ‘adoos -0010}8 o[GUIS B SorInded TOATOS(O OY} SUIVASODIOJS OAT, SUIPOIDONS oY} PUB SIT]Z Ut seAtjoodsiod ofqeyrtwuler oY} Joo OF, “ZX ‘][oyS ey} Jo oovjans oy} 4V oVo[R SUIIOd JO SMOTVIOJIed TOUTE OY} SUIMOYS pUB BI[EqVsooR[ed JO Scully oqny oy SUIABO] POAOMLAI Wood SvY BI[oIStAop, podoryoRaq oy} JO [[OYS oy} YorupA wi (UBITOA -9q7 JOMOTT) OMOJSpuRS AUBYSIIO OY} UI SUIOJO [BIngeu vB JO WIRIdODTE]IQ °g 7) 1 ST AWeYSLIO ‘ox *OTOISPULS “e[EystIOP, podorpowsq oy} JO TOYS oy} UI e[fEqBsoorreg “GL “SIT ‘9m0}SpuBs AuUeysuig “GX ‘Sesuods SuULIOG Jo SuIIoJ aOSseT otv Sutduedutoooy -‘sseooad [eUIprvo Jvois oY} JO SSeUYOIyy OY} JY 0fF SUIAINO puB VvIAeBTESSUOY podoryoRaq oy} Jo sjavd Teuoquin pouexyory oY} Sueaojsod vijoqusoov[eg Jo oqny, “08 sq ‘atmoyspues AUBYSUIQ “ZX ‘Seqnj} JO Spe 4B aAano-yooy DTISLIOJPOVIVYO SUIMOYS “B[TOISIIO]T UL Seqn} VBljeqVsooe[eg JO WIRIs0eTE]G “[Q “Sly ‘OUOJSpULS AUBYSIIQ “ZX ‘SSOdd IO 9AOZ1OZUI saqny oy} Jo ouou puev ‘sd toy ye worytsodezxnf esojo ou eutod seqnz poaAdno omy ‘ommsy toddn oy} Ul ‘eIN{BAINd oT|STIOJORIVYO YIM VTeqesoerreg Jo suetwtoedg ‘Gg ‘Sly ‘amoyspues AUBYSLIQ “GX ‘ooMadeZ1OJUI JNOY}IA [[eys podoryoeaq wv SUI[ppld “B[feqBsoov[eg Jo Soreds yustoyip vB ATqeqoad puv WiAo0F ToT[VUIS W “Eg “BI ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE HN) Fig. 84. Caulostrepsis taeniola growing in the shell of the brachiopod Stropheo- donta from the Coblentzian (Lower Devonian) of Seifen. The margins of the brachiopod valves have been entered on all sides simultaneously by these borers which have made loop-shaped tubes joined by a median cavity. Together with these are simple tubes of Palaeosabella. of their entrance. Often the tubes adapt themselves to the thickening or thinning valves, taking advantage of the for- mer to recurve or loop, and compelled by the latter to flatten down. ‘The tendency to make a hook or loop, or to take on the U-shape, is shown in many eases and the development of a clavate form at the blind end is frequent and charac- teristic. Most interesting beyond these features is the fact Fig. 85. Cast of pouch-shaped (algal?) borings extending in from the surface of a brachiopod shell. x4. Oriskany sandstone (Lower Devonian). 88 Fig. 86. One valve of the phyllopod crustacean Hehinocaris punctata with marks of Clionolithes borings among the surface ornament. Hamilton group (Middle Devonian). Fig. 87. Clionolithes reptans; diffuse tubules in the shell substance of the brachio- pod Leptostrophia. x20. Oriskany (Lower Devonian). Fig. 88. The pygidium of the trilobite Homalonotus Dekayi exposing by weather- ing the tubules of a similar species; natural size. Hamilton group (Middle Devonian). Fig. 89. Clionolithes reptans in the shell substance of Spirifer arenosus. Oriskany sandstone (Lower Devonian). Fig. 90. A shell of the brachiopod Streptorhynchus with borings of Clionolithes canna Price. From the Pottsville series (Mississippian). Fig. 91. Clionolithes canna Price. Conemaugh series (Mississippian). Much enlarged. Fig. 92. Clionolithes palmatus in the shell substance of the bivalve Loxopteria dispar from the Portage beds (Upper Devonian). Fig. 93. A similar palmate boring in a gastropod shell, Loxonema, from the same locality. 102 ORGANIC DEPENDENCE AND DISEASE Fig. 94. Palacosabella prisca (MeCoy). Copy of the original figure. Fig. 95. The same in the shell of the brachiopod Spirifer from the Chemung group (Upper Devonian). Fig. 96. Similar clavate tubes in the brachiopod Leptostrophia. Oriskany sand- stone (Lower Devonian). Fig. 97. Sketch of Palaeosabella tubes converging from the margin toward the thickened apex of the brachiopod Spirifer. Fig. 98. A similar sketch to show the bend in the tube where the shell is thickest. Hamilton group (Middle Devonian). Fig. 99. The bivalve Aviculopecten with borings all beginning at a definite growth-stage of the shell, outside of which the shell is regular, indicating that the mollusk was alive when the borings were started and continued to live while they were making. Chemung group (Upper Devonian). Fig. 100. The sponge here started in the thickened apical substance of the shell of a brachiopod (Leptostrophia) and as it entered the thinner part of the shell was forced to take on a flattened form. At the inner end it shows a tendeney to divide. Fig. 101. A hook-shaped boring in the cast of a brachiopod. Oriskany sandstone (Lower Devonian). Fig. 102. ? nee fe / ou Ca SEW JO 30v9S 168 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the lake shore belt of Chautauqua county and in the interior districts included in Genesee, Monroe, Ontario, Livingston and other counties. - The Medina is the most prolific of the New York gas formations and for a number of years has contributed considerably more than one-half of the annual flow for the entire State. The development of local gas pools in the area around the east end of Lake Ontario resulted from experimental drilling that was chiefly carried out in the few years preceding and following 1890; this exploration was initiated independently of operations elsewhere in the State, as the conditions are widely different from those in the older fields. Perhaps the incentive for testing the possibilities of gas in the formations below the Medina came from the contem- poraneous discovery of the great gas and oil fields in the Trenton formation of Ohio and Indiana. At any rate, as was brought out by Prof. Edward Orton’s investigation, the main yield of gas in the Lake Ontario district comes from the Trenton limestone, the lowest horizon in which any considerable pools have been found up to the present. The particular beds that hold the gas are the extension underground of the Trenton belt which lies along the western margin of the Adirondacks and that in Jefferson county reaches from the Adirondacks foothills west to Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence river. They have a southerly dip and where tapped by the wells are covered by the shale formations of the Cincinnati group with an additional thickness of Medina shales in the more westerly localities. The productive pools so far exploited are restricted to Oswego county and the northern part of Onondaga county. The Pavilion district represents the most important of the rela- tively recent discoveries of gas in the State. The first holes were drilled in 1906, since which time some sixty wells have been brought in which have maintained a very steady flow. It lies in the south- east corner of Genesee county, having Livingston county on the east and Wyoming county to the south. The gas horizon is in the upper Medina formation, the flow coming mainly from the last 20 feet of the sandstone, which here measures about too feet thick. The limits of the field seem to be fairly well marked out by the borings; it is one of the few districts in which sufficient data are obtainable to indicate the precise structural features surrounding the accumulations of the gas and for that reason is of much interest. Production. The statistics of natural gas production for the years since 1897, covering the more active period, are given below. They are in part taken from Mineral Resources, published by the United | MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 169 States Geological Survey and partly compiled from direct reports from the field. Production of natural gas in New York NUMBER OF| PRODUCTION yeh WELLS M CUBIC FEET Neate DENS? cus Wlepbeenbugl iglesia tA BEY | Met ae ee ae $200 076 TOS). o\a B ceadd Ong ey AP URE ee RC ee 712222 A De ALTE CSA 229 078 MSO OMI Re oe Ls uinopehboye Mein agsiisyabspereue AT Mi saa Bal ay ticay ah) aie 294 593 MO OOMM Te ee sie oe cae sheceie gentle OAM fia a eis cee anna 335 367 LOC cic 0 6 ener cna as Rea ae A ESI (Na A ee ot He 293 232 OOD 6 500575 Chae Had Nc Or en nent G2G ee ws Leo nes 346 471 TO OZ craesichisl OB ena MAO NAM Hee a Nena TOOU aden er ene 493 686 OVO 6 ere bil) nie Ean CR So EA 744 2 399 987 552 197 TOOE 10'S e hers ae are ene ene Sonn 839 2 639 130 607 000 TOOOé -orgievbhe: See ae ara Stele a Risen 919 3 007 086 766 579 TOOT ost aia oi eae oe Be a ee 925 3 052 145 800 O14 MO OSes Red Akoueicwigahe cps Cy-oicepsyey® dey bps I 100 3 860 000 987 775 MG OOQMP Me renerehs epee ieie Sele ee eseiece I 280 3 825 215 I 145 693 TOMI ee tay. eR LASTS EN SO), I 340 4 815 643 I 411 699 TROD ew a afl a) an WP aren siten's. auiey@ AN I 403 5 127 571 I 547 077 1@UB ais. 4-8 Bisa IR ts eat a eee I 660 6 564 659 I 882 297 T@)II Sic. cles HAGUE RE ERED I 750 8 555 429 2 549 227 TONE AL BUS Rae ohe eet ERR Can ene I 797 8 714 681 2 570 165 GIES eed Se Re a A Stee 2 O51 7 810 040 2 335 324 TiS)EE CO) eee RR a SR 2 068 8 035 632 2 355 320 TO 7 Sy ros SO Ce Oe ne ene: anes oe 2 078 8 371 747 2 499 303 TGS oe yee eh abet ties ey eae MI 2 114 8 460 583 5 673 131 A steady gain in production has characterized the course of the industry during most of the period, a feature which may be attrib- uted to the sustained flow of the pools supplemented by the incre- ment obtained from a few new districts. FEATURES OF DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL GAS The available area for the occurrence of natural gas may be broadly indicated by reference to the main geological elements of the State. It is to be noted in the first place that the sedimentary rocks alone afford appropriate environment for the formation and storage of natural gas and petroleum. The derivation of both of these materials undoubtedly is traceable to the organic matter enclosed by the beds at the time of their deposition, and consisting probably of animal remains in large part, just as coal represents the accumu- lation of plant tissue under similar conditions. Of the different kinds of sediments, shales often contain noticeable amounts of 170 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM organic matter in the form of hydrocarbons, and occasionally carry so much of these that they may be of economic value for the produc- tion of oil by artificial distillation. In nature the process by which organic matter is converted into oil and gas goes on very slowly, but once under way it may continue for indefinite periods of time with cumulative results. A large mass of shale may thus be considered favorable to the generation of oil and gas, but it is not necessarily significant of their existence in any locality in economic quantity. For this it is also essential that a suitable repository or place of storage be provided. | Shales ordinarily are ill adapted for this purpose; they have too little pore space, and under pressure from an overlying load of sediments, their joints and seams, which near the surface afford some room for water, become tight through movements of the mass. Limestones, likewise are usually closely textured, but often contain cavities and openings produced by solution of underground waters, which may be connected into a more or less continuous series by the natural joints and bedding planes. They may have consequently a fairly high storage capacity and show considerable persistence in yield. The best materials for holding gas, oil or water are sand- stones and unconsolidated beds of sand, whose porosity in individual examples ranges from 4 or 5 per cent to about 30 per cent. Their absorbing power varies with the size and the shape of the grains and the conditions with reference to bond. Estimates of the porosity of the oil sands of Pennsylvania seem to converge around 10 per cent as an average. The effective porosity is greater for gas than for oil since the movement of the former through the small openings is not affected by friction to the same extent or by capillarity. The potentially important gas horizons are to be found in the great succession of Paleozoic rocks which spread over all the State west of the Hudson river with the exception of the Adirondack Highland on the north, where the rocks like those of the Hudson Highlands are of Precambrian age and of igneous or metamorphic character. Neither the Adirondacks nor the Hudson Highlands hold any possibilities for the production of gas or oil. Onthe borders of the Adi- rondacks and for several miles outward the lower Paleozoic sedi- ments which overlap on the older crystallines do not attain sufficient thickness to store any large supplies of gas. West of the Black river and south of the Mohawk, however, the sedimentary succession rapidly thickens with the appearance of new and higher formations. Thus the Precambrian basement in the vicinity of Pulaski, Oswego MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 171 county, at the east end of Lake Ontario, is reached at 1425 feet depth. At Central Square, farther south, it lies 2415 feet from the surface. At Utica granite is found at 1855 feet depth. In Onon- daga county the basement is 3000 feet or more below the surface, as shown by deep wells at Baldwinsville and Jordan. The thickness of the Paleozoic section in western New York normally increases from north to south at the rate of from 50 to 100 feet to the mile, with allowance for the variations in the elevation above sea level. This is the indicated dip of the Medina formation as taken from records of a large number of wells distributed over the central section to the south of the line of outcrop which lies along the shore of Lake Ontario from Oswego county to the Niagara river. Main gas horizons. Natural gas has been found over a wide range of the Paleozoic formations that extend in general from the Potsdam sandstone in the Cambrian to the higher Devonian strata represented by the Chemung sandstone, and also probably includes the basal Carboniferous which occupies a limited area in the extreme southwestern part of the State as a northerly extension of the main Appalachian belt. The largest and more permanent flows, however, come from a few stratigraphic horizons, which are here given in order of succession. GAS-BEARING STRATA DEVELOPED POOLS, BY COUNTIES Chemung and Portage sandstones....... Allegany, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua, Steuben Wianeelltrsishales . ccc. uc sploccs che heels « Cattaraugus, Erie, Livingston, Ontario Onondaga limestone................0.. Cattaraugus, Erie Salinaywaterlime wn) fs anh. Nose heie doce Cattaraugus, Erie IMiedinaysandstone ss. <,sccssvefe cls iec vi eiote sme Cattaraugus, Chautauqua, Erie, Genesee, Livingston, Monroe, Ontario, Wyoming Miremtonilimestone ss gin. cte tose eens: Niagara, Onondaga, Oswego, Oneida The Chemung and Portage are here classed together, as the horizons that yield the gas have not been well defined as yet. Some wells are known to give flows from both formations. , In the southern section of Allegany and Cattaraugus counties the productive strata may include Carboniferous representatives, as in certain districts there is a considerable thickness of these rocks above the Chemung and the boundary can not be established from the well records. In parts of Steuben, Allegany and Cattaraugus counties both oil and gas are obtained within the Upper Devonian strata. In the 172 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM northern part of Cattaraugus county and central and northern Chautauqua county productive pools have been encountered in the last few years by deep wells bottomed some rs00 feet or more below the Chemung and Portage horizons. The lower gas-bearing strata _ are assigned with some degree of probability to the Medina formation. The thickness of the Portage strata in western New York is placed by Clarke and Luther at about goo feet. On the line of the Seneca river it is 888 feet; and at Seneca lake 1122 feet. The Chemung formation, according to the same authorities, is over 1ooo feet. Along the Genesee the measured thickness is given as tors feet; at Seneca lake, 1050 feet. In the Cayuga Lake region and farther east to the Chenango valley the strata are even somewhat thicker than indicated for the western sections. The Marcellus beds are a black, soft bituminous shale that lies above the Onondaga limestone in the area west of Schoharie county, marking the beginning of the extensive shale accumulation that continued through the Hamilton period. The black shale is 4o to 60 feet thick in the natural gas region and is a well-marked horizon that commonly yields pockets of gas and occasionally more persistent flows. It is likely the original source of much of the gas occurring in the Onondaga limestone. The shale constitutes an element of some difficulty and even danger to the exploration for salt in the western part of the State, particularly in the excavation of shafts, owing to the gas flows that are frequently encountered at this horizon and that are sometimes violent when first tapped. The Onondaga limestone and the Bertie waterlime, the latter a part of the Salina series, constitute a subsidiary gas zone in parts of Cattaraugus and Erie counties. The two form practically a single horizon, so far as this area is concerned, for they are contiguous formations or at most separated by a thin sandstone layer (Oriskany). From the drill records it is frequently impossible to distinguish between the two limestones. Most of the gas in the Onondaga seems to occur in the “ bull-head’”’ stratum near the base which is more porous and permeable than the Corniferous beds above. The largest flows from these formations have been reported in the district in southern Erie and within Cattaraugus county where the wells are 1500 to 1700 feet deep. The Medina sandstone represents the most widespread natural gas zone in the State. Its importance did not gain recognition until quite recently but is now fully appreciated by drillers who are actively engaged in the search for new gas supplies in this horizon. The first large district in this sandstone was opened in Erie county MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 173 in the townships east and southeast of Buffalo during the few years succeeding 1899. Then followed the discoveries along the lake belt in Chautauqua county where shallow wells in the Devonian had long been in use, the opening of additional wells in central and southern Erie county, the development of the Pavilion field in south- eastern Genesee county and of other fields in the adjoining territory. There are doubtless important supplies in the Medina yet to be tapped, for the sandstone underlies an extensive area. Its outcrop extends from the vicinity of Oneida lake in central New York west for 150 miles to the Niagara river which it crosses and continues into Canada. Its extension on the dip, which is to the south, has been followed in places as far as 25 to 50 miles from the outcrop, and no doubt it underlies all of western New York between the outcrop and the Pennsylvania line. The inclination averages around 40 feet to the mile for the first several miles south, but seems to flatten in the middle part of the State so that the depth to the Medina in the southern tier of counties is less than would be anticipated in view of the dip near the outcrop. The Medina sandstone repre- sents only a part of the entire formation which includes a great mass of red and gray shales with their sandy layers that measures fully 1000 feet thick in western New York. The sandstone occurs above the main shale beds through a vertical range of 100 to 150 feet, terminated at the base by a 25-foot bed of gray sandstone (Whirlpool sandstone). Below the main shales at the base of the Medina occurs the Oswego sandstone, 75 feet thick in western New York. This is also a possible horizon for natural gas. Most of the pools in the Medina proper seem to be contained in the middle and lower beds of sandstone and above the thick shales. The Trenton limestone, as the name is used in the natural gas field, includes the assemblage of calcareous beds that lies just below the Cincinnati shales and is composed of the Lowville, Black River and Trenton stratigraphic units. The Trenton is developed in the Champlain valley, along the Mohawk river to the south of the Adirondacks, and in the Black River valley from which a broad belt reaches west tc the St Lawrence river and Lake Ontario. It does not outcrop in western New York, but is exposed on the north shore of Lake Ontario under which the beds extend to the south side so as to be encountered in wells all the way from Oswego county to the Niagara river. In this section a dip of about 4o feet to the mile is to be expected. On the west end in Niagara and Erie counties the Trenton is credited by Bishop with a thickness of 720 feet, mostly limestone. No important gas pools have been 174 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM encountered within the beds in that section. The most westerly point at which any considerable flow has been met is at Baldwins- ville, Onondaga county, where the top of the limestone lies 2240 to 2400 feet from the surface and is covered by 500 feet of Pulaski and Utica shales. In Oswego county small but persistent wells have been opened in the Trenton at Fulton, Pulaski and Lacona where the first was drilled about 30 years ago. In this region the Trenton aggregates 600 feet or over and is overlain by an equal thickness of shale. Through the Mohawk valley the Trenton occurs in more or less broken areas, with the outcrop lying close to the Precambrian border; the character of the formation also changes, shales largely superseding the limestones. In Oneida county, how- ever, it is still undisturbed and appears in considerable thickness in the wells at Rome and Utica. Gas flows that developed high initial pressure have been found at Rome but they did not prove persistent and no production has been recorded from them for several years. The top of the limestone was found at 660 feet and the thickness was a little over 400 feet. At Utica the limestone is 360 feet thick. In the lower Mohawk the Trenton is largely a shale formation being represented chiefly by 700 feet of black shales (Canajoharie shales) of lower Trenton age. NOTES ON FIELD DEVELOPMENTS The following pages summarize briefly the present stage of development of the natural gas industry in the principal districts which are listed according to the counties of their occurrence. The information has been obtained by correspondence with the larger producers and distributing companies, and from individual coopera- tion of those engaged in field exploration. Among the latter Mr D. W. Williams, formerly field expert for the Dominion Natural _ Gas Co., Buffalo, has been particularly helpful. For the records of the earlier developments preceding 1900, the reports by I. P. Bishop and Edward Orton, listed at the end of this chapter, have been freely used. Allegany county. The gas belt lies in the southern townships where the pools are found in sandstones that are probably to be correlated with the productive oil and gas sands of the Bradford field of Pennsylvania. The horizon is probably Chemung, but may extend locally up into the Lower Carboniferous. Many of the wells yield both oil and gas, and some of the latter is employed at the well mouth for operating the pump. The excess of production over the requirements for fuel and light at the source is sold to MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 175 distributing companies who operate pipe-lines in this district. Among these are the Empire Gas and Fuel Co., the Producers Gas Co. and the Iroquois Natural Gas Co. Well records for southern Allegany county are given under the head of petroleum elsewhere in this report. In central and northern Allegany county exploration for gas and oil has been carried on more or less extensively but without the discovery so far of any extensive pools. It would appear that the productive sands in the Devonian do not extend much north of the Clarksville—Wirt—Andover town lines. However, there are possi- ble deeper horizons for gas in the Onondaga or Medina which have been found to contain pools in Cattaraugus county to the west. Only a few deep wells in the territory are on record. Hume well. A deep well in the town of Hume, northern Allegany county, was drilled in 1899 on the Buel farm, 1 mile west of Hume post office. The following record is reported by Bishop.!. The well was practically dry. Soil 35 feet Shale 260 Shells and slate 280 Shale 401 Wet sand 402 Salt water 415 Shale 765 Gray sand 785 Shale 800 Gray sand, a little gas and oil I 055 Shale with some gas I 155 Soft brown shale I 177 Soft sand with gas I 192 Soft sand 1227 Sand with shale and show of oil T (234 Brown shale I 550 Light colored shale I 700 Very dark shale I 890 Hard flint rock I 925 Light colored shale I 945 Hard flint I 960 Soft light colored shale I 980 Flinty with shells, very hard 2 002 Dark shale 2 126 Very dark shale 2 174 White shale 2 380 Dark shale with occasional hard shells 2 550 Shale and shells 2 750 Hard xray and brown sand or limestone 2 840 Clear cock salt 2 900 Soft blue and red shale 3 O15 Blue and red shale 3 326 Canaseraga well. A test well at Canaseraga in the town of Burns 1N. Y. State Mus. Annual Rep’t 53, v. I, p. r108. 176 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM was drilled in 1908-9 by J. E. Dunnigan, Friendship, N. Y., who supplied the following details. It showed a little gas. Gray sand, some gas and oil at 275 feet Second gas streak in sand at 400 Chocolate sand with a little gas and oil at 975 Black and brown shale chiefly to 2 650 Hard limestone at 2 650 Rock salt (65 ft.) at 3 050 Blue shale at 3 115 Blue shale to bottom at 3 200 The limestone found at 2650 feet was doubtless the Onondaga but the top was probably reached before that depth, as the normal distance between the salt and the first Onondaga beds in the western areas is 500 to 600 feet. Cattaraugus county. As in Allegany county, the principal gas pools so far developed lie in the southern townships and are associated with the oil-bearing strata in the higher Devonian formations, an extension of the Pennsylvania oil and gas field. The productive district covers parts of Olean, Allegany, Carrollton, Redhouse and Humphrey townships. The reservoirs occur in sandstones that lie at several levels from soo to 1600 feet depth. One of the horizons is regarded by well drillers as the equivalent of the Bradford sand. The first oil well was drilled in 1864 and the county was a large producer for a time, but the wells now have to be pumped and the average output is only a fraction of a barrel a day. The surplus gas is sold to the distributing companies who have pipe-lines to the larger consuming cities. Further details of wells will be found under the head of petroleum. Exploration for gas in northern Cattaraugus county has shown the presence of deep horizons in what are regarded as Marcellus, Onondaga and Medina formations. The most successful wells are in the vicinity of Gowanda and between there and Cattaraugus creek and are thus partly in Erie county. The first important well, according to Bishop, was drilled in 1898 near the tannery of Grenssler and Fisher and yielded a flow estimated at 7,000,000 feet a day. The horizon is referred to the Marcellus shale, 25 feet above the Onondaga. A second well put down nearby showed a good flow from the Corniferous beds of the Onondaga. The Medina sandstone has been tapped in certain deep wells within the Cattaraugus reser- vation, west of Gowanda. Vinton well, Gowanda. This well is recorded by Bishop as drilled MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 177 by J. D. Rickerson and completed March 23, 1883. It was put down at Gowanda on the Cattaraugus county side. Salt water at 250 feet Gas and oil at 458 Oil at 904 Gas at I 006 Top of Corniferous at I 580 Water at I 580 Bottom of well I 700 McMullan well, Gowanda. This hole was drilled near the cemetery in Gowanda about 1899 and is reported by Bishop who obtained the record from Mr Michael McIntyre of the Gowanda Natural Gas Co. Drift 20 feet Casing 196 Small flow of gas at 615 Second gas at I 110 Top of Corniferous (Cor- niferous 185-190 feet Ie Kat eel I 410 Show of oil at I 600 Top of Niagara at I 680 Bottom of well I 720 Versatlles wells. These are in the extreme northwestern corner of Cattaraugus county on the Erie county border. They are quoted from Bishop’s records. Well No. r Well No. 2 Rock at 15 feet Rock at 42 feet Casing 185 Casing 199 Top of Corniferous at I 075 Top of Corniferous I 241 Bottom of Corniferous at I 275 Bottom of well I 543 Bottom of well I 383 In well no. 1 some gas was found-at 190 feet in shale. In no. 2 a small flow was tapped at 940 feet in shale. Chautauqua county. The first gas wells in the State were drilled in this county. The supplies were obtained by shallow wells bottomed in sandstones of the Chemung and Portage formations which together occupy the surface from the Erie county line to the Pennsylvania boundary. Many of the borings were only 100 to 150 feet deep and the deepest about 500 feet. The pools were not large, but they showed a fair degree of persistency and were scattered over the lake shore belt from Silver Creek southwest to the State line. Many afforded convenient and easily controlled supplies, but scarcely sufficient for more than local use, most of the wells in fact supplying only one or two families each with light and fuel. The aggregate production, thus, was not large. The principal towns within this natural gas belt are Silver Creek, Dunkirk, Fredonia, Brocton, Westfield, Mayville and Ripley. 178 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In 1886 a project for exploring the deeper formations in this region was formed by citizens of Fredonia. The incentive thereto - seems to have been supplied by the contemporaneous developments in the gas fields of Ohio where large wells were being brought in at depths of tooo feet or more. A well was started in that year and completed in the summer of 1887 at a depth of over 2500 feet. The test was unsuccessful, further than it revealed a small flow of gas at 2100 feet in sandstone which was regarded as the Medina. Thereafter for many years little effort was made to search for gas in the lower formations of the county. About 1903 interest seems to have revived, as a result perhaps of the success attained in locating pools in the Medina of Erie county. Silver Creek was the site of the new wells, and by 1904 several good producers had been brought in by the South Shore Gas Co. and the Silver Creek Gas & Improvement Co. The main flow was found in the Medina at 1700 feet. The wells have been persistent and the supplies were later increased by additional borings. In 1904 the Brocton Gas & Fuel Co. put down two wells at Brocton which penetrated the Medina at 2225 feet depth. One of the latter yielded a small flow from that horizon and the other gave a little sulphurous gas from higher up in the Devonian formations. The Frost Gas Co. of Fredonia shortly after undertook explorations in the town of Sheridan and the Welch company in the town of Westfield. These were also fairly successful. A well in the village of Westfield, as reported by the latter company, developed a flow at 2355 feet in white sandstone. Within the last 10 years a large number of deep wells have been put down in the lake shore belt of Chautauqua county and this has become one of the important producing districts of the State. The flow comes from the upper 150 feet of the Medina formation in the red and gray sandstones. Well on Miner farm, Sheridan. This well, situated on the farm of H. S. and M. F. Miner, was drilled between December 29, 1917 and February 19, 1918, for the South Shore Gas Co., who has kindly supplied the record. Surface materials 22 feet White and brown shale 055 lint I 175 White lime I 600 Niagara limestone I 812 White shale I 890 Clinton I 915 Red Medina I 995 Gray Medina 2 O15 White shale 2 030 White Medina 2 044 Red shale to bottom at. 2 O61 MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 179 A little gas was found at 1945 feet or 30 feet below the top of the red Medina sandstone. Well on H. S. Miner farm, Sheridan. The well was drilled in March and April 1918 for the South Shore Natural Gas Co. which supplied the record. A good flow of gas was encountered at 2101 feet in the white Medina sandstone. The Niagara horizon was marked by influx of “‘ black water.” Surface materials 22 feet White and brown shale 990 Flint I 205 White lime T 645 Niagara limestone I 846 White shale I 933 Clinton I 953 Red Medina 27038 Gray Medina 2 048 White shale 2 084 White Medina at bottom at 2 101 Well on Franklin farm, Hanover. The site of the well is on the R. Franklin farm, town of Hanover. Hole drilled for the South Shore Gas Co. from which the record has been obtained. Well bottomed April 4, 1918. Small flow of gas at 2300 feet. The Niagara horizon was indicated by the usual black or sulphurous water. Surface materials 14 feet White and brown shale I 296 Flint I 501 White lime I 896 Niagara limestone 2 125 White shale 2 210 Clinton 2 240 Red Medina 2 316 Gray Medina 2 334 White shale 2 354 White Medina 2 374 Red shale to bottom at 2 386 Erie county. The natural gas area of Erie county is larger and more important than of any other county of the State. Successful wells have been located in all parts of the county if not in every township, although of course they draw their supplies from many different pools that altogether underlie only a small portion of the whole surface. The range of gas territory may be said to extend from Niagara county on the north to the Cattaraugus-Chautauqua border on the south and from Lake Erie and the Niagara river to the eastern limits of the county. For the last 15 years, that is 180 . NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM within the more active period of exploration and development of the gas fields, Erie county has held a leading place in the industry. - The source of its importance can be ascribed to the Medina sand- stone which here seems to offer especially favorable conditions for the storage of natural gas. The whole county is underlain by the Medina formation which has its outcrop farther north in Niagara county and is reached at depths increasing steadily toward the south in accordance with the dip of the beds which is at the rate of about 4o to so feet to the mile in that direction. The upper 100 to 140 feet of the formation comprises the main sandstone beds within which the gas is commonly stored. Below is a body of red and gray shales with their sandstone layers, 900 feet or more thick, also a part of the Medina but usually barren of gas. Well records indicate usually a division of the sandstone into red and gray beds, the former occurring above and measuring about 70 to 80 feet thick, while the gray lies directly below or is separated from the red by a few feet of shale. The gray sandstone averages perhaps 25 feet thick. A second bed of the gray is occasionally indicated in the records and is referred to by some drillers as ‘‘ white Medina.”’ The Medina marks practically the lowest horizon at which natural gas has been found in quantity in this region. A few wells have been drilled into the lower formations, as far as the Trenton limestone, without encountering additional pools. In the higher strata gas may be found locally in some quantity. The Clinton shales have been found to contain pockets and the Lockport dolomite often affords limited quantities of sulphurous gas and water, which serve to establish the horizon where they occur. The most favorable horizons above the Medina are the waterlime in the Salina, the Onondaga limestone and the Marcellus shale. The Onondaga limestone and the underlying waterlime bed, according to Bishop, were probably the source of the gas in the Zoar field in southern Erie county which for a time was quite pro- ductive and probably had the record well that has so far been drilled in the State with an estimated initial flow of 25 to 30 million cubic feet a day. | Bishop! has compiled the following estimates of the thickness of strata for the section from Lake Ontario to Cattaraugus creek. 1 The Structural and Economic Geology of Erie County. N. Y.State Mus. Rep’t 49, pt 2, 1895. MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 181 Some changes have been made in the terminology, but none in the estimates as made by this authority. Portage shales and sandstones I 541 feet Genesee shale 25 Hamilton and Marcellus shales 287 Onondaga limestones 108 Salina waterlime 60 Salina shales 386 Niagara limestone, including 72 feet of shale below 319 Clinton 27 Medina sandstone 109 Medina shales, Oswego sandstone, and Cincinnati beds I 869 Trenton limestone 720 Calciferous IIO Total 5 561 The section probably falls short by too to 200 feet of the whole range from the top of the Portage to the Precambrian basement, for the Calciferous is not fully revealed in the wells on which the above estimate is founded and also the Portage may be a little thicker than indicated. Among the first successful wells drilled in Erie county were those located within the city of Buffalo. According to Bishop the Buffalo Cement Co. instituted the earliest systematic search for gas within the city limits by drilling on its property situated near the Main street crossing of the New York Central Belt Line. Its first well was put down in 1883 to a depth of 452 feet, and the second in the following year, both showing only a small flow. A third well in 1887 gave a good flow and encouraged the company to continue drilling operations, so that shortly several productive wells were opened. Active work was then undertaken by individuals and companies, and the distribution of the gas for household and indus- trial use provided for by the laying of municipal pipe-lines. In 1891 drilling was extended into the town of West Seneca, just south of the city line, and a large increment to the supply was soon obtained from that section. All of the commercial wells in Buffalo and vicinity had been absorbed by 1895 into the Buffalo Natural Gas Co. The district as then developed included Buffalo, West Seneca and a little territory on the west side of the Niagara river, in Ontario, Canada. Records of many of the wells are given in Bishop’s paper,! “ The Structural and Economic Geology of Erie County.’”’ One or two records are here quoted from that article. IN. Y. State Mus. 49th Ann. Rep’t, pt 2, 1895. 182 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Well No. 2, Buffalo Cement Co. Location is given as near Main street and New York Central Belt Line, Buffalo. A fair quantity of gas at 452 feet; salt water at 555 feet. Shale and cement rock 25 feet Fairly pure cement rock 30 Shale and cement rock in thin streaks 43 Pure white gypsum 47 Shale 49 White gypsum 61 Shale 62 White gypsum 66 Shale and gypsum, mottled 73, Drab-colored shale with several layers of white gypsum Dat Dark-colored limestone 133 Shale and limestone 137 Dark-colored compact shale 140 Gypsum and shale, mottled and in streaks 720 Limestone 725 Soft red shale 760 White solid quartzose sandstone 785 Soft red shale I 305 Well on John M. Fick farm, West Seneca. Drive pipe 26 feet Casing 123 Flint at 318 Bottom of flint at 509 Niagara at 890 Sulphur gas at Water and gas at Through water and gas to Clinton at Medina sand at Bottom Medina sand at Gas sand at Through gas sand Pocket to Well on Elbert More farm, Spring Brook. ne iS) iS) ios) Soil 17 feet Fresh water at 47 Casing 110 Shale 435 Flint 600 Niagara limestone at 935 Sulphur gas at I 100 Sulphur water at I 165 Shale (60 feet) at I 245 Clinton at I 325 Top of Medina at 1) 433 Gas sand at I 436 Gas sand at I 438 Bottom gas sand (white) at I 460 Red rock (800 feet) to 2 260 Black shale (900 feet) to Trenton 3 100 MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 183 North of Buffalo in the towns of Tonawanda and Amherst and in the proximate portion of Niagara county are a number of small wells, of which the most are grouped in the southeastern part of the town of Tonawanda and in the vicinity of Getzville, town of Amherst. Well on Mrs Eva Fries farm, Tonawanda. Well drilled in March and April 1918 by North Buffalo Natural Gas Co. Gas with a moderate flow was found at 561 feet in the Clinton formation. No gas in the Medina. Surface 274 feet Niagara 474. Shale, soft gray 549 Clinton 579 Medina, red sandstone 648 Medina, gray sandstone 682 Shale 685 The largest district of Erie county in regard to area and number of productive wells lies in the townships of Clarence, Newstead, Lancaster, Alden, Marilla and Elma, east and northeast of Buffalo. The proved territory embraces a surface of about 10 miles long east and west and 8 miles wide; the same gas belt may be traced, how- ever, beyond the limits of Erie county into the adjoining section of Genesee county, so that the area is even larger than indicated by these figures. The first wells in the district were put down some 25 years ago, but there was little activity in the exploration before 1900, when the possible importance of the field began to be realized. There are no extraordinary pools within the area that compare in pressure or yield with the records that have been reported from some of the great natural gas districts of the country. The wells mostly show a moderate flow, a few hundred thousand cubic feet a day, perhaps, as the usual upper limit, but they have proved profit- able by reason of their consistent nature and the favorable combina- tion of conditions for exploiting and selling the output. There are over 200 wells in the district. The gas comes from the lower third of the Medina sandstone, which measures about 110 feet thick in this part and is encountered at depths of 1000 to 1200 feet in most wells, measured to the top of the first bed. A contour map of the sandstone, based on well data and prepared by the geological staff of the Dominion Natural Gas Co. shows that the strata are slightly folded along a north-south axis across the dip. The most marked fold is an anticline whose summit lies just west of a line drawn between Mill Grove and Alden Center in the town of Alden. ‘There 184 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM is a considerable number of good wells situated along the anticline, though the productive pools occur along the flanks with nearly equal profusion. Minor folds are present to the east and west of the main anticline, the dip of the strata follows about the average rate of 50 feet to the mile. One or two typical well logs will serve to indicate the stratigraphic relations. Well on Charles Schlung farm, Lancaster. The well was drilled for the Akron Natural Gas Co. in 1913 by C. C. Rose. Record supplied by the Dominion Natural Gas Co., Buffalo. Volume 210,000 cubic feet. The flow comes from 1230 to 1240 feet depth. Flint 200-360 feet Niagara 810-I O10 Clinton at I 122 Medina I 140-1 250 Well on the Hoppe farm, Marilla. The well was drilled by C. C. Rose for the Akron Natural Gas Co. in t910. Volume 150,000 cubic feet at 1350 feet depth. Flint 320-470 feet Niagara 942-1 142 Clinton at I 220 Medina sandstone I 257-1 369 Well on the Emil Hinsken farm, Alden. Put down for the Akron Natural Gas Co. in 1912. Volume of flow 800,000 cubic feet at 1286 feet depth. Sulphur gas at 965 feet; water at 1000 feet. Flint 265-425 feet Niagara 875-1 075 Clinton at I 184 , Medina sandstone I 208-1 316 Bottom at I 379 Deep well, Elma. The record of this well, drilled by James Stearns in 1903, was supplied by H. O. Wagner of Caledonia, N. Y. Flint (170 feet) at 225 feet Niagara at 845 Black water at O45 Niagara, bottom at Clinton (20 feet) at Medina sandstone (115 feet) at Red shale (515 feet) at Little gas at Oswego sandstone (70 feet) at Black shale at Trenton limestone (750 feet ) at Potsdam at 025 130 WNN HHH eB No} (e) [o) Ww Ke) co (2) MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 185 Deep well, Depew. This record, taken from Bishop’s ‘ Structural and Economic Geology of Erie County,” supplies an interesting parallel with the preceding one. Drift to 34 feet Flint at 34 Niagara (200 feet) at 504 Shales (60 feet) at 794 Clinton (30 feet) at 854 Red Medina sandstone (90 feet) at 884 White Medina sandstone (12 feet) at 974 Red shale (1164 feet) at 986 Oswego sandstone (75 feet at) 2 150 Shale (630 feet) at 2 225 Trenton (720 feet) at 2 855 Dark gray sandstone (110 feet) at 3 575 Bottom at 3 685 A small flow of gas was found at 1100 feet in the Medina formation. One of the latest developments in the Erie county gas field has been the discovery of the Orchard Park pool in the town of East Hamburg, where a small area of high pressure gas was tapped in 1912. About twenty wells are located in the area. At first the flow was exceptionally large for pools in the Medina, but the yield fell off rapidly after the first few months. The wells are about 1700 feet deep. The output is handled by the Orchard Park Oil & Gas Co. In the town of Brant, in the southwestern corner of Erie county, is an area in which considerable activity has been in progress during the last few years. It covers a part of the Cattaraugus Indian reservation, and some 4o wells have been put down within the reservation or along the border. The gas comes from the Medina at 1700 to 1800 feet depth. On the border of Erie and Cattaraugus counties between Gowanda and Springville lies the Zoar district which was developed in the years 1888-95 and for a time was a large producer. The Kerr well, drilled in 1888 by Michael McIntyre of Gowanda, was probably the largest that had been drilled in the State up to that time. Its initial flow was estimated at 25 to 30 million cubic feet a day and the pressure forced out the string of tools and threw them 150 feet into the air. The horizon of the gas is referred by Bishop to the Salina waterlime and the lower part of the Onondaga limestone. The usual depth was about 2000 feet. In recent years attention has been given to the underlying Medina horizon, which is found at about 3300 feet, with some success. Kerr well, Zoar. Drilled in 1888 by Michael McIntyre of 186 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Gowanda. Record given by Bishop (“Structural and Economic Geology of Erie County ”’): Drift 379 feet Casing 755 Top of Corniferous I 725 Gas at 1 885 Bottom 2 150 Richardson well, near Morton’s Corners. This locality is in the town of Collins, just north ot the Zoar district.: The record is taken from ‘‘ Structural and Economic Geology of Erie county” by Bishop. Drift 80 feet Casing 435 Top of Corniferous at 925 Small flow of gas at Salt water at Salt water, chocolate colored sand at Through limestone and shale at Red Medina at Through White Medina at Red shale at Bottom (red shale) at WNNNHNNNN HS co ) on Genesee county. A small gas field occurs in the southwestern corner of Genesee county in the town of Darien. It might be considered as an extension of the eastern Erie county field although it is separated from the latter by a stretch of 3 miles in which no productive pools have been found. About 15 wells have been drilled, most of them in the area south and southwest of Corfu Station on the New York Central Railroad. The first holes were put down about 20 years ago. The gas occurs in the Medina sand- stone at about the same depth and under similar conditions as in the Alden section of Erie county. The main producer of the county is the Pavilion field which came under development in 1906 and since has ranked as one-of the most important fields for its size in the State. Mr W. P. Randall, formerly engineer for the Pavilion Natural Gas Co., has supplied the following details in regard to the occurrence of the gas." The Pavilion field lies south of the Roanoke district in the south- east corner of Genesee county. Its boundaries are defined approxi- mately by a line running from the southern boundary of Genesee county northerly to Bethlehem Center, thence easterly along the Telephone road through Pavilion Center to the east boundary of Genesee county, thence south on said boundary to the corner of Genesee county and thence west to the point of beginning. It comprises an area 3 miles wide north and south and 9 miles long 1See N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 174, 1914, p. 58-59. MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 187 Mices ' SCALE 0/ Map of the Pavilion natural gas field, from surveys of the Dominion Natural Gas Co., showing contours of the Medina gas-bearing strata 188 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM east and west. The gas is distributed by two companies, the New York Central Gas Co,, with pipes running to Batavia, Attica, Corfu, and other towns in that vicinity, and the Pavilion Natural Gas Co., which supplies Mumford, Caledonia, Le Roy, Pavilion, Warsaw, Perry, Mount Morris, Moscow and smaller places along the route. New lines are being laid by the latter company to Linwood, York, Greigsville, Retsof, Piffard, Cuylerville, Geneseo and Avon. The trunk lines convey the gas under pressure of from 60 to 125 pounds; reducing stations at the distributing points lower the pressure to the normal required for consumption. The gas is dry, nearly pure marsh gas with less than 8 per cent of other ingredients. The pressure in the original wells was 500 pounds a square inch and has shown little diminution. Along the eastern boundary of the field and near Linwood, wells of from five to seven million cubic feet daily capacity have been drilled. The field lies along the outcrop of the Genesee shale which is at an elevation of about 900 feet above tide. The gas flow is found at intervals in the last 30 feet of the Medina sandstone. The succession of strata explored by the wells conforms to the normal order as given in the reports of the New York State Museum, but in the western boundary of the field and near Lindon the Niagara is disturbed so as to make the drilling of straight holes a difficult work. Below such disturbances the Medina gives a very limited flow, and ~ consequently exploration in these places has been discontinued. The Niagara averages about 228 feet thick and black water (sulphurous water from cavities in the dolomite) occurs at about the middle. Below the Niagara comes the Clinton with a thickness up to 15 feet (Wolcott limestone?) and at this point anchor packers are usually placed. The Medina sandstone is a little over 100 feet thick; on the northern and southern borders of the field it gives a limited flow of gas, the largest wells being on the eastern border and around Linwood. A typical section in the Pavilion field is here given: Top of flint 475 feet Bottom of flint 625 Top of salt 072 Top of Niagara Black water Bottom of Niagara Top of Medina 678 First gas Second gas 753 Third gas 774. Bottom of Medina Hole bottomed Ss ce ee ce Be BO oe | NI 5 oO MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 189 Altitude at mouth of well is about 1000 feet above tide. Livingston county. There are a number of small pools in the northern part of the county, mainly in the towns of Caledonia, Avon and Lima, which support a few wells each. The flow in the aggregate is small and is employed locally for light and heat, being distributed by the Tri-County Natural Gas Co. to Le Roy, Caledonia, Scottsville and other communities in the vicinity. The horizon is the Medina sandstone which lies at depths below 1200 feet in most of the wells. Well on the John C. Mitchell farm, Caledonia. The well is located 3 miles south of Caledonia village and was drilled in 1913. A small flow of gas was found at 1309 feet. The record has been contributed by H. O. Wagner, Caledonia. Earth to 31 feet Flint to 178 Limestone and shale to 482 Salt and cave at 573 Niagara (205 feet) at 870 Clinton (10 feet) at I 228 Red Medina (61 feet) at I 248 White Medina (33 feet) at I 309 Well on the George F. Hudson farm, Moscow. This well, located at Moscow in the town of Leicester, is about 12 miles south of the preceding one. It was drilled for the New York Central Gas Co. Gas was found at 1886 feet. Flint (130 feet) at 500 feet Salt (80 feet) at I 125 Niagara (240 feet) at I 400 Medina sandstone (75 feet) at I 826 Bottom of well I 938 Wyoming county. The productive natural gas section is in the vicinity of Attica, on the border of Genesee county, and a little west of the Pavilion field. The first wells were put down over 20 years ago, and subsequent drilling has not materially enlarged the bounds of the pool. The flow is used at Attica, but of late years has not sufficed for the needs of the village so that the Attica Natural Gas Co. obtains a supply from the Pavilion field. The gas occurs in the Medina sandstone at a depth of 1800 feet or more. In the eastern part of Wyoming county, at Wyoming village, Warsaw, Rock Glen, Silver Springs and other places many salt wells have been put down. They have not revealed the presence of any considerable gas pools in the formations above the salt, which include the horizons of the Marcellus, Onondaga and Salina waterlime. 190 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Well on the Elon Gore farm, Attica. The well was completed in June 1914 and yielded a fair flow at 1087 feet. Flint (150 feet) at 840 feet Niagara (180 feet) at I 540 Medina (93 feet) at I 900 Shale at I 993 Bottom in shale at 2 078 Ontario county. About thirty producing wells are located in the town of West Bloomfield, mainly in the southern part along Gates creek. The gas is in the Medina sandstone which occurs at depths of 1900 to 2000 feet. The measured flow at the outset has ranged up to 1,000,000 cubic feet a day for the larger wells. The first developments took place about 1895 and the output has since been well sustained. The gas is piped by the Ontario Gas Co. to Honeoye Falls. Efforts to enlarge the territory by prospecting along the axis of the main group of wells to the east in the town of East Bloomfield have not been very successful. There have been a few successful wells drilled there, however, as well as in the towns of Bristol and Richmond on the extension of the Medina beds to the south and southeast of the West Bloomfield district. Well on the John Dailey Farm, West Bloomfield. The well was drilled in 1907 for the Ontario Gas Co. and had an indicated flow of 1,000,000 cubic feet a day. The gas came from 2018 feet depth, 98 feet below the top of the Medina sandstone. Flint (115 feet) at 525 feet Bottom of Niagara at I 825 Clinton at I 908 Top of Medina at I 920 Bottom of well 2 064 Well on the Abbey farm, Richmond. Drilled for the Ontario Gas Co., in 1913. A flow of 350,000 cubic feet was reported at 2137 to 2145 feet. Top of flint at 610 feet Niagara limestone at I 600 Clinton at 2 000 Medina sandstone at 2 22% In southern Ontario county is the Naples pool, situated about t mile from the village of Naples. The development consists of eight wells, of which the original hole was put down about 1884 as a wildcat oil well by Olean drillers and reached a depth of 1633 feet. The hole was bottomed in the Salina, the last 43 feet being in salt. The other wells were drilled between the years 1900 and 1910 to depths of 1050 to 1150 feet. According to Mr D, D. Luther, MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK IOI who has contributed these details regarding the development, the principal supply of gas is in the base of the Marcellus shale or in the upper beds of the Onondaga limestone; but pockets occur in the Hamilton shales above the Marcellus horizon. The gas is piped to Naples for heating and light. The wells are owned by Granby and Hemenway who report that the output has fallen off in recent years and increasing difficulties have been met from influx of water. Monroe county. A pool of natural gas occurs near Churchville in the western part of the county. Its precise location is 3 miles east of Churchville in the town of Riga. Mr Frank B. Barnard, president of the Churchville Oil & Natural Gas Co., which distributes the output, states that the gas occurs in the Medina sandstone and that the flow comes from a zone about 75 feet below the top of the formation which is found at 480 feet. There are about 15 productive wells and the gas is used in Churchville, Bergen and Riga. The occurrence has interest from the shallow depth of the pool, represent- ing probably the minimum depth at which any considerable flow has so far been reported in the Medina formation. The outcrop of the sandstone is only 7 miles distant, directly north of Churchville, at an elevation about 60 feet below the mouth of the wells, as nearly as can be ascertained from the topographic map. This would indicate a dip for the strata at the average rate of 60 feet to the mile. Well at Brockport. This well was put down many years ago and was reported upon by Prof. C. S. Prosser!, who gave the following record: Medina red shale 500 feet Medina dark red shale 900 Medina very dark red shale 950 Gray and bluish calcareous shale I 000 Blue shale and sandstone I 400 Blue compact Trenton limestone 2 000 Yates county. A few wells have been drilled in the vicinity of Rushville on the border of Ontario county. The flow is small and consumed locally. No details are at hand in regard to the horizon of the occurrence. Seneca county. A number of gas wells were in use at one time for the supply at Seneca Falls. Bishop? mentions that twelve were drilled in the period 1885-97 and at the latter date the supply amounted to 50,000 cubic feet a day. The flow apparently came from different horizons, including the Clinton, Medina and possibly 1 Proceed. Rochester Acad. Sci. v. 2, p. 91 2N. Y. State Mus. Ann. Rep’t 51, v. 2, 1897, p. 12. 1g2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the Trenton. One of the well records is here quoted from Bishop’s paper. Drive pipe to limestone 77 feet Top of salt sand at 305 Bottom of salt sand at 455 Top of big red shale at 485 Bottom of big red shale at 675 Top of Niagara at 710 Top of Clinton at 085 Top of Medina at Flow of gas at Gray Medina at Red Medina at All gray at Gray and black shale at Part black shale at All black shale at Shale and lime mixed at All shale at Top of Trenton at Black shale at Limestone at Nearly all black shale at Crystalline limestone at All black shale at Limestone with white streaks Bottom of well at 485 560 BHAWWWWWkWWNNNHNNNNN HHH () o) (o) Onondaga county. Natural gas is found at Baldwinsville, north of Syracuse, where it has been in use since 1897. ‘The pool supports about fifteen active wells. The main supply comes from the Trenton formation at depths below 2200 feet but some gas occurs in the Medina and Oswego sandstones at higher levels. Some of the wells were prolific at first, yielding as much as 3,000,000 cubic feet a day; they have been persistent producers, although their flow is now considerably reduced. The conditions of the occurrence were care- fully worked out by Prof. Edward Orton. The following is the log of the first well, put down on the Monroe farm just northeast of the village. Drive pipe 38 feet Cased 348 White Medina 542 Red Medina 620 Oswego sandstone _ I 200 Top of Trenton 2 240 Bottom of well 2 370 A few wells have been drilled in the vicinity of Syracuse, but without any marked success in the discovery of a gas supply. One well, drilled by the Empire Portland Cement Co. on the site of its former works at Warners, reached a depth of 3526 feet, encountering the Trenton limestone at 2700 feet and cutting a sandstone which MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 193 was considered to be the Potsdam at 3500 feet. The well yielded a small volume of gas, insufficient to pay for the experiment. Oswego county. Local pools of natural gas are found at Pulaski, Lacona and Fulton, supporting about fifty wells altogether. The initial developments in this section took place about 1890. Both Pulaski and Lacona are still supplied with gas from the original sources. The wells at Fulton have not proved so persistent producers and have been mostly, if not wholly, abandoned. At Pulaski and Lacona the wells are bottomed at about 1ooo feet deep, or 400 to 500 feet in the Trenton limestone of which the top lies at 400 to 600 feet from the well mouth. The full section, as estab- lished from borings to the granite basement, is given by Prof. Edward Orton as follows: Pleistocene 0-96 feet Pulaski shale 200-250 Utica shale 100-250 Trenton limestone 600 Calciferous 200 Cambrian limestone and sandstone 35-90 Precambrian granite at I 400-1 500 Oneida county. Active prospecting for natural gas was carried on in the vicinity of Rome, New York Mills and Utica in the nineties of the last century. The results indicated the presence of gas in small quantities in the Trenton limestone and Cincinnati shales, but no persistent flows were found. The most encouraging indica- tions were encountered in the wells at Rome where the gas when first tapped issued under high pressure and at the rate of 500,000 cubic feet or more a day. The flows, however, quickly subsided so that it was not considered worth while to attempt to distribute the gas for general use. Condensed records of wells in this section are here given. Well at Rome. Drift 125 feet Utica shale 660 Trenton limestone I 095 Beekmantown and Potsdam I 295+ Red granite at I 560 A flow of gas was encountered at 830 feet under pressure equivalent to 6 inches of water, which would indicate 3,500,000 feet a day, but which rapidly declined so that in a few months the measured volume was only a few thousands a day. - 194 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Well at Utica. The site of this well, drilled for water, is on the grounds of the Globe Woolen Mills It was drilled in 1896. A gas flow was encountered at 225 feet but was cased off. Drive pipe 48 feet Utica shale 495 Trenton limestone 864 Beekmantown and Potsdam I 304 Granite to botto n at 1 855+ Gas in other counties. Sporadic attempts have been made to explore for natural gas in the outlying sections, beyond the limits of the known productive areas. Thus, wells have been drilled in most of the counties that lie between the Mohawk river and the Pennsylvania boundary as far east as the Hudson river. In many instances there have been some indications of gas, real or supposed, that supplied an incentive for undertaking the test; very commonly the observation of gas bubbles arising from the bed of a pond or lake has aroused interest, or the tapping of a little gas in a shallow well put down for water supply. The lack of success that has attended such undertakings seems to show that the eastern part of the State is of doubtful value, to say the least, and caution should be exercised in embarking upon any extensive campaign of drilling in this area. _ Well on Murphy farm, Catlin, Chemung county. This well was drilled by the Catlin Oil, Gas & Mineral Co. in 1902-3. A small quantity of gas was reported and a trace of oil, as indicated in the following record : Earth 17 feet Light gray shale 344 Light slate ' 350 Brown slate I 220 First sand, some gas I 265 Brown shale (3) 620 Gray limestone, cherty I 625 Brown shale I 670 Salt I 718% Second sand, trace of oil I 763% Hard cherty limestone I 766 Red shale, changing to black 2 155 Third sand 2 195 Black soft shale 2 200% Well at Binghamton, Broome county. The record of this well is taken from a paper by C. S. Prosser in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, volume 4, 1893. Bluish gray argillaceous shale 50 feet Gray shale, more sandy 150 Bluish argillaceous shale 250 Bluish, finely arenaceous shale 350 Gray and blue shale . 550 MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE) /OF NEW YORK 195 Gray arenaceous shale, fossiliferous 700 feet Arenaceous and calcareous shale 800 Blue arenaceous shale 850 Arenaceous red and brown shale feYoye) Dark gray arenaceous shale I 000 Bluish argillaceous shale I 000 Mainly gray to blue arenaceous shale I 550 Brownish gray finely arenaceous rock I 950 Light gray arenaceous sandstone 2 000 Bluish argillaceous shale 2 050 Fine dark blue rock (Tully limestone?) 20250 Blackish argillaceous shale (Hamilton?) 2 300 Grayish argillaceous shale "2 350 Gray argillaceous, slightly sandy shale 2 400 Gray sandstone and blue shale 2 550 Gray and blue shales and sandstones 2 600 Gray sandy rock, fossil fragments 3 000 Dark gray sandy rock to bottom at ain 7 Weil at Norwich, Chenango county. The record is from the same source as the preceding. Altitude of mouth of well approximately 1000 feet. Dark gray arenaceous shale 75 feet Mostly argillaceous shale (Portage) 125 Bluish gray sandy rock (Portage) 175 Fine gray sandstone (Sherburne) 250 Dark gray and greenish shales, gas at 384 feet (base of Portage) 450 Biluish argillaceous shale (Hamilton) 620 Gray calcareous shale (Hamilton) 685 Gray calcareous shale (gas pocket) 875 Dark gray arenaceous shale, fossiliferous 1 460 Dark gray shales 2 050 Dark blue to black shales (base of Ham- ilton) 2) 235 Very dark shale (Marcellus?) 2 234 Well on Beckunth farm, Cincinnatus, Coriland county. The record of the well was communicated to this office by L. Nusbaum. Gravel 40 fect Quicksand 7 Blue limestone 110 Pink rock 200 Lime shells 254 Casing to 275 Hard shells 290 Light slate (gas pocket) 330 Hard limestone 305 Black sandy rock at 395 Salt water at 410 Bottom of sand at 435 Brown sand 580 Salt water and gas 590 Slate 636 Light slate 700 Brown shale 730 Light slate 890 Hard shelly rock 905 I 196 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Dark slate 928 feet Hard limestone 970 Dark slate 980 Hard brown sandstone Light slate Brown shale Hard sandstone Brown shale Hard sandstone Soft brown shale Lo oe A en oe BO ee | aN (oy On Well near Auburn, Cayuga county. This deep well, located 13 miles north of Auburn, is reported by C. S. Prosser in American Geologist, volume 25, 1900. The condensed general section taken from the well log follows. Salina green and gray shales I 055 feet Niagara limestone and shales I 380 Clinton shales (iron ore?) I 505 Medina sandstone (some gas) 2 115 Medina shale with some sandstone I 600 Oswego sandstone 2 770 Pulaski and Utica shales Beer Trenton limestone 3 570 Well at Ilion, Herkimer county. The site of this well was on the grounds of the Remington Typewriter Co. and close to the Erie canal. It was put down for gas, of which small amounts were found at 800, 950 and 1003 feet in the Calciferous sandrock. , The following is a condensed record, based on the log published by C. S. Prosser (American Geologist, volume 25, 1900). Drift 195 feet Utica shale 475 Trenton limestone 580 Lowville limestone (lower part perhaps Calciferous) 630 Calciferous sandrock I’ 105 Precambrian gneiss to bottom I 135 Well at Altamont, Albany county. A deep well for gas was drilled in 1886 at Altamont (formerly Knowersville) one-quarter of a mile south of the railroad station, and at an elevation of 510 feet above sea level. No detailed record of the boring was kept, but it is reported by C. A. Ashburner (see reference at end of article) that shales (Hudson River) were encountered to a depth of 2880 feet, at which point limestone (Trenton) was struck and penetrated for 132 feet to the bottom of the well at 3012 feet. A gas pocket with 40 pounds pressure was opened at 497 feet. Well on Finch farm, Knox, Albany county. ‘This boring was about 43 miles from the Altamont well in a direction a little west of north, at an elevation 1155 feet above sea level. It penetrated gray and MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 197 black slates with thin sandstone beds to a depth of 2200 feet, passing the horizon of the gas in the Altamont well at 1000 to 1050 feet, according to Ashburner. No gas was found. Well tn Catro township, Greene county. A deep well for gas was put down in 1886 in the town of Cairo, Greene county, about 33 miles southwest of Cairo village. It was located by Pennsylvania oil operators, who it is said expected to tap the Trenton limestone, although the formations in the vicinity are well up in the Devonian. Drilling ceased at 2200 feet after encountering nothing more than flagstones and shales of the Catskill series, without any gas. A flow of salt water entered the well at 610 feet and filled the bore to a height of 300 feet in 26 hours. References Ashburner, C. A. Petroleum and Natural Gas in New York State. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng. Trans., vol 16, 1888 Bishop, I. P. Petroleum and Natural Gas in Western New York. N. Y. State Mus. Ann. Rep’t 51, v. 2, 1899 Oil and Gas in Southwestern New York. N. Y. State Mus. Ann, Rep’t 53, v- I, 1901 Orton, Edward. Petroleum and Natural Gas in New York. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 30, 1899 PEA Peat bogs are present in most parts of the State and altogether cover an extensive area. The most reliable estimates place the swamp lands at about 5 per cent of the entire surface, which is 49,204 square miles. Just how much of the swamp area contains peat is unknown, but it is certainly a considerable proportion, as the condi- tions are usually favorable to the accumulation of peat. The occurrence of peat in New York has been described very fully in the early reports of Beck, Mather and Hall and more recently | in the papers by Ries and Parsons, to which references will be found at the end of this article. Parsons summarizes the general distri- bution of peat in the State in the following manner: ‘‘ It would be difficult to find a spot in the entire State that is more than 10 miles from a swamp, and though not all swamps furnish peat, yet it is within the limits of probability that peat will be found in at least half of them. The most extensive group of swamps is found in the Finger Lakes region and the lowlands near the St Lawrence river, though the largest swamp of all, the Drowned Lands of the Walkill, is in the mountainous part of Orange county, which borders New Jersey. Many peat deposits are found in the Adirondacks, and, 198 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM as exploration is carried farther, the recorded number will be much greater. The depth of the Adirondack swamps is likely to be much greater than most of the swamps in the central and western portions of the State, though the few visited by the writer are not very deep.”’ Details of occurrence. Mather! estimated that 1ooo acres of ' peat land were to be found in New York, Westchester and Putnam counties, with a probable yield of 2,000,c00 cords. Much of the area, no dowbt, has long since been converted to such use that the peat is no longer'recoverable. This applies to New York and West- chester counties particularly, but wild swamp lands are still to be found in Putnam county. Orange county once contained 40,000 acres of peat swamps (Ries). The largest single area is that of the Drowned Lands, west of Warwick, which once covered 17,000 acres. A good part has been drained and converted to agricultural use, but there are still areas of open and forest-covered peat lands. Parsons found the peat to vary from almost nothing to 18 feet in thickness. Measured sections are reported by him as follows: Pine island, 18 feet, bottom not reached; Black Walnut island, 18 feet, bottom not reached; one-half of a mile west of Durandville, 16 feet; 14 miles west of Durandville, 17 feet; one-half of a mile west of Big island, 12} feet, bottom not reached; 1 mile west of Big island, 123 feet, bottom not reached; Florida, 18 feet, bottom not reached. The Greycourt meadows, between Chester and Greycourt along the Erie Railroad, contain about 3000 acres of peat land now employed in agriculture. Near Pine Plains, Dutchess county, peat is found on the matgin of Stissing pond and south of there along the valley. Mather estimated 500 acres of a 6-foot bed in this vicinity, but Parsons’s tests indicated the peat to be patchy. In northern New York occur numerous sti lakes and swamps which contain more or less peat. An extensive tract of peat is found om the line of the Champlain canal in Kingsbury township, Washington county. Also in the vicinity of Fort Edward and Glens Falls in the Hudson valley are peat lands in areas of a few acres to several hundred acresiextent. Plants forutilizing thepeat-were erected near Glens Falls some 40 years ago. One of these plants operated in the Rosecrans swamp northeast of that city. A second plant was’ built for working the peat between Glens Falls and French mountain on the Lake George road. Im neither case was any large: output made. “' Geology of First District of New York. Third Ann. Rep’t, p. 74. MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK T9Q9Q Probably the largest areas of peat in northern New York are on the northwestern side of the Adirondacks, where the slope of the land is much more gradual than elsewhere and the drainage has been obstructed by glacial accumulations. Nearly all the streams that flow out of the Adirondacks on that side are colored by organic matter derived from swamps on their headwaters. The Black, Oswegatehie, Indian and Grass rivers all drain extensive swamp lands, but very little is known as to the character and quantity of peat found in them. A dredge for recovering the peat on the bottom of Black lake, which is an expanded part of Oswegatchie river, was built a few years since at Heuvelton, near Ogdensburg, but was never placed in operation. The engineers in charge of the enterprise reported that a large supply of peat occurs on the borders of the lake. In central and western New York occur some of the largest marshes in the whole State. Just west of Rome and northwest of that city on the line of the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg Railroad there are several thousand acres of bog lands which recently have been partially drained and put under cultivation. The new barge canal was instrumental in effecting the improvement of this tract, as it supplied an outlet for the water several feet below the old channel of the Erie. The peat and muck beds range up to 4o feet thick. A section given by Ries shows: Swamp muck, 3 to 5 feet; peat, 3 to 6 feet; moss peat, 8 to 12 inches; shell marl, 2 to 4 inches; mud, 1 to 2 feet; gravel, 1 to 3 feet; hard pan, 18 to 20 feet. A factory for converting the peat into commercial fuel was erected near Rome some years ago, but was not long in operation. The Cowaselon and Cicero swamps lie just south of Oneida lake and extend for nearly 25 miles in an east-west direction with an extreme width of 2 miles. Cowaselon swamp is the eastern part, north and northwest of Canastota, and has been mostly drained by the Douglas ditch, providing excellent land for onion-growing. From 33 to 6 feet of peat are shown in the sections by Parsons between Oniontown and Ognon. Montezuma marshes comprise a tract north of Cayuga lake, some 8 miles long and 2 or 3 miles wide. There is a bed of peat over much of the area, with a thick deposit of marl below. The marshes are intersected by the Seneca and Clyde rivers which periodically flood the lands and deposit more or less silt, so that the peat is not of first quality. Oak Orchard swamp is an extensive area of partly forest covered land in Genesee and Orleans counties. It includesa large proportion 200 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of excellent agricultural land. The eastern section of the swamp is reported by Parsons to have the greater thickness of peat, but _ apparently little of it would be available for working in view of the value of the soil for other purposes. Uses of peat. A great deal of experimentation has been carried on with a view to the industrial utilization of the peat beds of the State. Plants have been erected at one time or another in the principal bogs, but apparently attained little commercial success as in most instances operations were discontinued after brief trials. Among the causes leading to failures, no doubt, one of the most common has been the lack of experience on the part of the designers of plants in regard to the methods of preparation and handling peat as worked out in other countries which have an established industry. Much wasted efort has been directed to the designing of new types of machinery for harvesting, briquetting and drying the peat which a little inquiry into the matter would have proved futile at the outset. Peat in its natural condition is not a fuel. As it comes from the bed it carries 90 per cent, and often more, of water. That is 100 pounds of the wet peat will yield only ro pounds of water-free material. It is a difficult and expensive operation to expel all of the water and to do so mechanically with artificial heat is imprac- ticable, as it entails a consumption of heat units in the drying apparatus that is commensurate with, or in excess of, the heating value of the dried peat that is recovered. Consequently the drying must be carried out for the most part at least by natural means, that is by air-drying, the method employed in the peat bogs of Ireland and Sweden for converting the peat. into domestic fuel. By air-drying the moisture content may be reduced to 25 or 30 per cent. The remaining water seems to be held in chemical com- bination with the cellulose and its expulsion is accomplished only at temperatures above the normal. When peat is heated at high temperature in a retort to drive off the moisture there is a loss of combustible matter in the peat itself. This problem of the drying of peat has been the principal stumbling block in the road of commercial enterprises. Mechanical drying, so far, has proved a failure, and the only practicable method seems to be that of air drying which means of course an intermittent operation confined to a few months of the year. Peat that has been air-dried, containing around 25 to 30 per cent water, has about one-half the heating value of good commercial coal. MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 201 Perhaps the most promising field for the employment of peat as fuel is in connection with the gas-producer for power plants whereby the recovery of the nitrogen content in the form of ammo- nium sulphate becomes practicable. In this case it is not necessary to carry the drying operation beyond a point readily attained by natural means; a further advantage inherent in this method is that the peat requires no compressing as is necessary when it is to be employed at a distance from the bog. The nitrogen content of the peat then becomes a matter of importance, since with proper appa- ratus for its recovery a very considerable drawback upon the operating costs might be realized. The gas produced by the combustion of the peat, after removal of the nitrogen compounds, is used for fuel or power. Undoubtedly the most thorough investigation of the possibilities of peat as fuel that has been carried out in recent years is that of the Department of Mines of Canada which conducted working tests over a period of two years under expert guidance. A report’ pre- pared by B. F. Haanel gives a full account of the results obtained, as well as a review of the progress made in the use of peat abroad. The following paragraph from this report is presented as a succinct and reliable statement of the situation in regard to the commercial aspects of peat for fuel: “Unless the manufacture of peat fuel is conducted on a bog situated reasonably near a community which is able to take over the entire output produced, peat manufactured for domestic or fuel purposes alone would not prove a profitable venture. This is due to the comparatively low heating value of peat, to its moisture content and to the large volumes it occupies per heat unit, as compared with coal; and when to these disadvantages is added that of high freight rates per ton, the reason of the foregoing statement will be obvious. But while peat may serve as a domestic fuel in only certain cases, it may be well adapted for the production of power, or as fuel gas. This is especially so in the case of peat which has a high nitrogen content, since this element can be profitably recovered in the ammonia gas formed in the by-product recovery producer. According to the process employed in by-product recovery work, the ammonia gas is fixed with sulphuric acid, and the resulting product ‘“‘ammonium sulphate’ is then sold for agricultural pur- poses. The demand for this product is, today, greater than the supply, consequently its price per unit is somewhat high. Whenever, therefore, the nitrogen content of the peat is sufficiently high, the 1 Peat, Lignite and Coal. Mines Branch, Department of Mines, Ottawa,1914 202 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM production of a fuel, or power gas, accompanied by by-product recovery, would prove profitable. But in the case of the production _of power, the same economics must be introduced into the manu- facture of power that apply to a domestic fuel, and even though the content of nitrogen is well above the average, any increase in the cost of fuel rapidly decreases the expected profits. Peat is a low grade fuel which must be manufactured and sold at a comparatively low cost, if it is desired that it should serve as a substitute for coal. It is evident, therefore, for the foregoing reasons, that the manu- facture of peat fuel does not hold forth any glowing prospects for getting rich quickly, although reasonable and very good profits should in almost every case be realized when the industry is run on a business-like basis. But the element of speculation, and some of the commonly practiced methods of promotion must be eradicated if the peat industry is ever to become an accomplished fact.’’ The largest development in the use of peat in this country has been in the agricultural field, wherein the material is used both directly on soils and in mixture with chemical fertilizers. The more thoroughly decomposed nitrogenous peats are preferred for this purpose. A special form that has excited some interest in agricultural experiments is bacterized peat, prepared by sterilizing the natural peat at a temperature of 130° C. approximately and then adding lime until the material is neutral. After this the peat is inoculated with bacteria which have the property of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Bacterized peat is supposed to enrich as well as stimulate the soil. Reports by agricultural experts do not agree as to the results obtained in the use of this preparation. It has long been a common practice in many: parts of the State to employ the black, decomposed peat or muck as an amendment for soils. More of this material has been employed than for all other purposes. Its use is recommended in soils deficient in humus; it also improves the physical condition of certain soils, helping sandy soils to retain moisture and making clayey soils more open and porous. No accurate information in regard to the quantity of material employed in this way has been secured. References Beck, Lewis C. Mineralogy of New York, 1842 Hall, James. Geology of New York. Report on the Fourth District, 1843 Mather, W. W. Geology of New York. Report on the First District, 1843 Parsons, Arthur L. Peat, Its Formation, Uses and Occurrence in New York. N. Y. State Geol. 23d Rep't, 1904 Ries, H. Uses of Peat and its Occurrence in New York. N. Y. State Geol. 21st Ann. Rep’t, 1903 MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 203 PETROLEUM The oil region of the State is in the southwestern part and com- prises a stretch along the Pennsylvania border in Cattaraugus, Allegany and Steuben counties. The area altogether is about 40 miles long east and west and extends 15 miles or so north from the state line. It is the northerly extension of the Appalachian field, which reaches its main development in Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia. There are a number of pools within the area and their bounds have now been accurately delimited by exploration. No new pools of importance have been discovered within the last 20 years. The first oil well in the New York field was drilled at Limestone, Cattaraugus county, in 1864. The boring showed oil but not in paying quantities. It attracted notice to the locality, however, and a deeper well soon after encountered a heavy flow that aroused interest in the possibilities of the section. Active work in Catta- Ttaugus county did not begin until several years later, in fact the first systematic exploration dates from 1875-6 with the spread of the prospectors from the Pennsylvania region which at about that time was the scene of a tremendous oil boom. By 1878 there were over 250 wells in Carrollton township and oil had been found in the adjoining Allegany township. The exploration of the Allegany county area began in 1881 with the discovery of the Richburg pool, one of the largest in the State. Production. Statistics of production are available only for the period from i891 on, as in earlier years the output was combined with that of Pennsylvania. The following figures have been com- piled from the volumes of the Mineral Resources and from reports received directly from the field. Production of petroleum in New York ‘ YEAR BARRELS VALUE MOG lene APP nae ae het etd ess wear a gst afe%a clas I 585 030 | $1 O61 970 To} 9 Aiea wal ey Wee ha uk Os Ge oi A A bale I I 273 343 708 207 6G 2 nee ye tT UnA Agare ane ORR ae pores CB MAS Cy ey Eom Rp I O31 391 660 ©00 THSTOVL 5 “gabe age) UE, SRST ee eae epee Ne Te ee Q42 431 790 464 WSS oe chee oe ARAM cass aane it ales Mel At 34 de al tsLabea 912 948 I 240 468 TAOS aL Ce M2 LS Lacs. Bee: ae. eels I 205 220 I 420 653 LSS TAR Sy ARRAN atelier als iste Alctes MPaA ae eA ae tut Me I 279 155 I 005 736 TUStS faxaiplatbt bale, ios eae aide aerated Pua al Aah el ale ae I 205 250 I 098 284 MEBOR TED. retiree Dephs . SOT Td iee ott I 320 999 I 708 926 UC) OO pate miay irate reer enn AL Mate ogled i Cage ne eee Dae I 300 925 I 759 501 204. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Production of petrolum in New York (concluded) YEAR BARRELS VALUE LOOT nie trace Wn Cael Wa cia ceatenn at ate galalin ep ate I 206 618 $1 460 008 LQOD Es eee UN) RRA RC RE SI | AR Se I 119 730 I 530 852 BQO ACN tis, ya rite cites sami ceil eTBa as I 162 978 I 849 135 LOO A erage ree erage arab Ms ait cuetirele fey ey citetee ede ti I 036 179 I 709 770 1iCO Yo = ayn ATS AMR Sh RI NR a Te MRL uN 949 511 I 566 931 LICOYO LaMar Meemente Tero ty 2 ly BaP a Sh Te RONEN a eT alah I 043 088 I 721 095 TOO Fiera even nee ete lorae ie ereke: Suey MET acc ae tte meme ep he aye I 052 324 I 736 335 TGyO LN ee SA NAL PU AN Ta be I 160 128 2 O71 533 TOO) Wiikey IR AE REM aA ae ea acme Ia I 160 402 I 914 663 THCOyr eC es APRs A HAM Ae HG ah ie Ni I 073 650 I 458 194 1 Cov) of Ce hanbse aie era eel Ve nea AIDE eA LE 955 314 I 251 461 1 COS Pe a ee NS ee Me AU TIOS E eee ere 782 661 I 338 350 LCG) TAA AN a UT VN 916 873 2 255 508 DCO ir Wen i BS au ea SAMRAT ean A A 933 5II I 773 671 ICO) FSU Fe MT ef inane SPEDE Bae ANE ent ONE 928 540 I 476 378 ICG YII Se ee IN A at ds SE kU ra 874 087 2 190 195 TKO) 7 AI OL US aN ae A Do ae 879 685 2 850 378 TOMS pe naib aptesiecieyre tne vatiesb ran dieee. opaiantleesreeseomeisnews ae tipays 808 843 3 307 814 The crest of production had already been passed by 1891. The largest output was made in the years 1880-1885 when the flow reached as high as 5,000,000 barrels annually. The number of producing wells at present is in excess of 11,000. According to the Mineral Resources for 1916, there were 11,200 wells in production on December 31st of that year. About 3000 of the total are in Cattaraugus county, 8000 in Allegany county and the remainder in Steuben county. It will be seen from the above table that the production during the last four years has varied very little, averaging a little under 1,000,000 barrels annually. The maintenance of the output at such an even rate during the declining stages of the industry is quite remarkable and in striking contrast with the history of most fields. This is largely the result of adherence to a policy of conservation and economy on the part of the producers. The product of the New York wells is too valuable to be wasted, commanding the highest market prices paid for Appalachian oils. The economy with which operations are conducted is indicated by the fact that the average well yield is only about one-fourth of a barrel a day. The development of the remaining areas of undrilled ground and the redrilling of intermediate wells may be expected to report an active industry for a number of years to come. The product is handled by several pipe-line companies and shippers, including the MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 205 following: Columbia Pipe Line Co., Union Pipe Line Co., Fords Brook Pipe Line Co., Buena Vista Oil Co., and Madison Pipe Line Co. of Wellsville; Vacuum Oil Co., Rochester; New York Transit Co., Olean; Emery Pipe Line, Allegany Pipe Line Co., Tide Water Pipe Co., Limited, and Kendall Refining Co., of Bradford, Pa. There are refineries at Wellsville and Olean. Geological occurrence. The oil is found in fine-grained, dark- colored sandstones which have been assigned generally to the Chemung formation of the Upper Devonian. The Chemung in this section is partly mantled by conglomerates and sandstones of the Carboniferous, the only representative of the coal-bearing series to occur in the State. The precise horizons of the oil can not be definitely stated and their determination will require very detailed field work which hitherto has not been practicable on account of the lack of accurate field maps. The main oil sand in Cattaraugus county is called ‘‘ Bradford ” from the Bradford, Pa., district, which is just across the state line. In Allegany county the main horizon is recognized as the ‘“ Rich- burg.” In the southeastern part of that county and extending over into Steuben county is the Andover field with two producing sands, the upper called the ‘‘ Penney ’’ and the lower called the “Fulmer Valley’ sand. In the Bolivar or Richburg pool in the southwestern section the main “‘ Richburg”’ sand is succeeded 80 feet below by the “‘ Waugh and Porter’ sand. In the small Scio field which lies about midway of the county and north of the others there are two sands 280 feet apart, the uppermost being called the “Richburg” and the lower the ‘‘ Waugh and Porter.” The depth to the sands varies from 800 feet in the valley wells to 2000 feet or more in the borings made on the high ground. The following details of the different pools are taken mainly from the articles by I. P. Bishop’ and D. A. Van Ingen? in the reports of the New York State Museum. Allegany county pools. The Andover pool lies mainly in the town of Andover, but extends over the line into the town of Green- wood, Steuben county. The original wells were drilled for gas and the first ones were put down in 1889. Their depth ranges from 700 to 1300 feet, depending on the surface configuration. There is a considerable flow of gas, more than sufficient to supply power for pumping. Some sample well records are here given. 1N. Y. State Mus. Ann. Rep’t 51, v. 2, 1897 and 53, v. 1, 1899. 2N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 15, 1895. 206 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Richards well, lot 20, Greenwood, Steuben county. ititianene Wore oY UN edad 60 feet (QeEE Sa vederien Wana ONE IRIN CE eS Taba None 260 (has Sana (yp reeumates ce eres 746 Gray ‘sand and shaleto............ 777-5 dc Feveje oy cel ap amen aley Ae 6 ENT | fe ON an 814 Updike well, near county line. Weare presse | Ge YG! TSP A | asta 40 feet GEST La iota... ede .oiee- Bons 330 GhilaseWevelAnaielan icy ye” Bible aereue Eos: 627 Rotem of-:samdbat ey, Ulu, Bk 654 Rettenmia. 243 aaarcuildcets wal eth sess The southwestern extension of the Andover pool is designated sometimes. as the Fulmer Valley pool. The Alma pool lies close to the state line about midway between the eastern and western limits of the townships. The wells are from 800 to 1500 feet deep. The pool lies along a northeast-south- - west axis within sandstone 10 to 20 feet thick. A condensed record of one of the wells follows: SUMMA CE NATCIIONS Ko. se cusye) « ceepen en ecg 100 feet Sandstone ana Shales smc. s scche nn 210 Sandstone with water.............. 218 Sandstone andishale cj 0h... men 975 Sandstone with oil and water....... 995 Sb lic SORA ae ea OO a A Re I 109 CNG aaron f Sen ave SEOUL avs ven ee peeneedet oe I 126 inlarden orayasanldscOMes sores s.s 12 eae I 143 Bottom afseil sand’). 0 nn. BANA: I 153 [ran atta) ee ADe Zt, SRE SOI oh Ane ee 7 The Waugh and Porter pool covers a small area to the west of the Alma pool, in the town of Bolivar. It was opened in 1882. The wells tap the ‘“‘ Richburg” and ‘“‘ Waugh and Porter” sands which are separated by shale. The wells have a depth of from 13:50 to 1700 feet. The Bolivar, Richburg and Wirt pools form a contiguous and coalescent group, the oldest and largest section of the Allegany county district. They underlie parts of Alma, Scio, Bolivar, Wirt, Genesee and Clarksville townships. The earliest wells were put down in 1882, at Richburg about in the center of the district. The “ Richburg’ sand is here from 25 to 50 feet thick and lies 1400 to 1800 feet deep. A sampie record of a well near Richburg follows. Well No. 2, lot 33, Bolzvar. Gasisand (Zo feetyratin... cues ate pian I 341 feet Gi ates kane Oa Ve Ue eRe aires I 383.5 Botbomiyoil\sand ati) isan ae nee I 408.5 MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 207 The Clarksville and Niles pools lie to the west and north of the preceding and occupy a narrow belt with a northeast-southwest axis. The Clarksville is the larger, extending about five miles in the towns of Clarksville and Wirt. The Niles is just to the north- east in the town of Wirt, and about a mile long. The two are separated by a dry belt of one-half of a mile. Most of the wells are from 1000 to rsoo feet deep. Nile well. Blwershalenarnmiy sae eres siee sie a eer 400 feet White sand! (arst sand?)iate..) 2400. 630 Sore bluetrockiacy Males py gu da 880 Secomdusaracd (dank) aaae sauna ila (eYo{o) Me NSITAe me heme nies tHe te mate et etrec eves) 910 Slate with oil sand (3-8 feet)........ I 200 ID aiale Sa ea UNL Mlen sh MeR meena ee ey Ue I 600 The Scio pool near the village of Scio, is a small pool lying in an isolated portion and apparently independent of the others. The sand is shallow, 450 to goo feet from the surface, and the oil of light gravity. There is a very little gas in this pool. In northern Allegany county is the Short Tract or Granger pool, in the town of Granger near the Livingston county line. It was the scene of active exploration in 1906-8 when about thirty wells were put down which, however, did not prove profitable. The pool has since been abandoned. Oil was reported in a well drilled near Swain in the town of Grove at a depth of 740 feet. The deep well at Canaseraga in the town of Burns, mentioned under the head of natural gas, found a little oil at 275 feet in gray sand and again at 875 feet in chocolate sand. Cattaraugus county. The oil district includes a small area in the southern townships mainly in Olean, Allegany, Carrollton and Red House. A few successful wells have been opened also in the town of Humphrey in the second tier above the Pennsylvania line. As in Allegany county there are a number of individual pools whose boundaries have now been well defined by exploration. The largest of these lies directly on the boundary and is'an immediate extension of the Bradford district so that it may be designated as such. The pool is about ro miles long east and west and 23 miles wide as a maximum, with a total area of about 15 square miles. The eastern- most part in the town of Olean is sometimes referred to as the Haymaker pool, as it is set off from the rest by a narrow strip of dry ground. The Allegany pool is farther north in the town of Allegany and west of Olean. It is intersected by the Allegany river 208 NEW YORK and measures about 4 miles long to 2 miles wide. STATE MUSEUM The Chipmunk and Flatstone are connected pools, mainly in the town of Carrollton - but extending over into the town of Allegany. The Rice Brook, a ‘small pool, lies to the west of this near the west border of Carrollton township. There are three or four little pools with a few wells each in the town of Red House; also 5 miles north of the Allegany pool. one in the town of Humphrey about A number of well records for the Cattaraugus county district are given in Bishop’s paper’ from which a few examples are here reproduced. Bunnell well no. 2, lot 3, Allegany. MO uO classi met tego. poeta vad tna, Wee ayer 25 feet (CEISTINNEe Syl A aa cae oh Nh Micelle ARAN eal a 285 Salttwaterianwewne sees ere 400 Binstisan ca (mals))h eee pe eh) ae eas 510 SECOMGESATIG Me Wye ei gh aye ace 800 Gaslate eta eon cet: ane nme Os ec Nlaget I 020 Mopiiaindisand: aye eee uta ae I 080 Bottomithirdisand-a!. Seger eee. I 157 Bottomior welluei, aoe vane we iN I 197 Well no. 1, section 6, Olean. CASING ci miew cbMenteren ashe id ious tensor S 244 feet Top Chipmunk sand at............ 850 Bottom Chipmunk sand at......... 880 Noprsecond:sandiatyies «csc ceae 990 Bottom second sand at............. I O51 Top third sand (shells) at.......... I 390 Bottom third sand (shells) at....... I 451 Bottomvok wells. 87 ea I 714 Well on John King farm, Carrollton. Casi: AF ae es Loe A LE 2 270 feet Gasat Nanri. ae ey Amt BE rc MN cca ‘ 570 Mop) oiltsandi(@4teet)eaman sone 575 Bottomvoilisandiats (ih) ohgeei nee 599 Well no. 1, Rumsey farm, Carrollton. TD rahite eps Seder Seri oe tl sgehae caer 5 240 feet Cementienavieliatenae arate cca 284 Driver piper sey yak seaiin sat) nid 285 Oikandi salt waterta asics an sehen sek 480 AMliGtlefoitltatem seme uynes si Lie nea aa tae 580 iow lonesasiancdvolanie mee an sae 800 Bottomnor welll. jw dH. sisi.) viene pn 882 Well on Loup farm, Olean. The record of this well is compiled from data given by C. A. Ashburner (see references below), who reports it to have been the largest gas producer in the region that had been opened up to the year 1877. The yield was estimated 1N. Y. State Mus. Ann. Rep’t 51, v. 2. MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 209 by him at 24,480,000 cubic feet of gas and about one barrel of oil aday. The top of the oil sand is put at 1785 feet below the bottom of the Olean conglomerate and the well is stated by Ashburner to lie in a syncline. MPO TOC es Ue BO SU AL ERS 16 feet (CRYSTE OVERNIGHT 196 Gray shales and slate.............. 625 Fine shelly sandstone.............. 675 Slaalies yt yatopebin na a seule heAMli Gadi, 870 Fine sandstone and shales alternating 960 ITS gast sara eV Gin Ai eM MUNG 1180 Main (Bradford) sand............. 1230 Well on Joseph Renaldz farm, lot 45, Red House. Gast gga setName ald Al 300 feet Seunel (Closhoxanysnol -juowjag® . snonvuvisyo|VNONVLAVHD Ad\\eQ 718! arrears ee 3) WA inning Bie enbiepueues, Is fae G, ‘ > 4524 > AD|SDN}FO}}q ti Aja9 YUNOW .10d4307 © SNYVA1d0| YVAVOVIN uoigiy sally 30 SWIC ayyindeye a3ad073A30NN Invs O 773M Invs @ LIVHS 1WS Oo MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 225 _ Cayuga county to Niagara county. Salt was made in the early days at Kendall and near Medina, Orleans county, and at Somerset, Niagara county. Brine springs are known also along the outcrop of the Salina shales, as at Montezuma, Cayuga county, and in the towns of Savannah and Clyde, Wayne county, where evaporating works were once operated. The Hamilton and Portage shales of western New York are sources of weak brines. Most interest, however, centers about the occurrence on the Onondaga reservation where salt manufacture had its inception and has been carried on uninterruptedly down to the present time. The Syracuse brines are stored in sands and gravels that underlie the valley of Onondaga creek and Onondaga lake. These loose materials are probably of glacial origin, a part of the morainal accumulations in the vicinity, and occupy a channel or basin hollowed out in the Salina beds, that is the soft Camillus and Vernon shales. The buried channel follows the course of the surface con- tours marking the wider Onondaga valley. The gravels and sands extend to depths of several hundred feet at the foot of Onondaga lake. Originally the gravels were saturated with brine practically to the surface, so that it was only necessary to dig a shallow pit or hole to collect it. As the use increased it was found that the shallow brines became weakened, and then wells were put down which were gradually extended until the maximum depth of about 400 feet was attained. The present supplies come from wells 200 to 400 feet deep. There has been a noticeable decrease in the salinity of the brine with the continued pumping. It is generally held, and no doubt properly so, that the brine is supplied by leaching of the rock salt beds to the south. The flow of water is opposite to the inclination of the beds, which is to the south and about so feet or so to the mile, but there is a rise in the surface contours in the same direction sufficient to give the necessary hydraulic head. The rock salt beds supply all of the salt now produced with the exception of the relatively small quantity made by the solar process at Syracuse. The beds are assigned by geologists to the Salina stage of the Silurian, representing the equivalent practically of the Onondaga Salt group of the early reports of Hall and Vanuxem. The Salina is mainly a shale formation, but carries layers of thin limestone at the top (Bertie) besides gypsum and salt which occur in the gray and drab shales of the Camillus formation. Its lower member is made up of the Vernon red shale. The outcrop of the beds extends in an east and west belt from Albany county to the 226 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Niagara river. The belt east of Oneida county is thin and follows the range of hills in an east-southeast direction parallel with the Mohawk. With the gradual thickening of the beds and flattening of the topography the outcrop widens out rapidly as it approaches the Oneida lake section becoming ro miles wide in Onondaga county and nearly 20 miles on the line of Cayuga lake where the extreme dimensions are reached. Thence west to the Niagara river the outcrop forms a nearly straight belt 7 to ro miles wide. Our knowledge as to the horizon of the salt in the succession is derived entirely from the records of well borings and the few shafts that have been put down to the beds. The data supplied by the wells are not altogether reliable as most of the borings were made by oil well rigs, a method that does not admit of accurate records. The salt itself is not encountered except at some distance to the south of the outcrop where the covering protects it from the seepage of surface waters. In exploration the hard cherty Onondaga limestone following the black Marcellus shale is used as a bench mark by which to locate the position of the salt. The top of the limestone is taken rather than the base, as the succession below is variable and the line between the Onondaga and Oriskany sandstone where present or of the Onondaga and Bertie waterlime is not so easily established. It would appear from the various well logs that the salt lies at varying intervals from the bench mark, ranging from a minimum of about 350 feet to a maximum of goo feet or so. In the same locality within short distances the interval may also show con- siderable variations, as in the group of wells at Tully where the salt lies amywhere from 492 feet to 556 feet below the top of the Onondaga. ‘The cherty limestone varies from 60 feet thick in the eastern to rso feet in the western part of the salt district. There seems to be no constant position for the salt, further than that it lies in general within the gray shales between the Bertie waterlime above and the Vernon shales below (see diagram p. 95). Its variability in this respect agrees with the gypsum which likewise shows a considerable verticalrange. The question arises whether the salt is not actuallyin the form of lenses rather than beds, analogous to the gypsum which has been quite clearly shown to be in attenuated lenses that succeed each other along the strike and dip of the strata, in places separated by considerable intervals and again overlapping each other. The writer is inclined to view the rapid changes in the horizon, thickness and number of the salt beds as shown in the well records from different localities to be indicative of such structure. MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 227, The salt attains its maximum thickness apparently in the eastern section, on the extension of the dip south of the Onondaga-Cayuga county part of the Salina outcrop. This is indicated by the actual records of the wells drilled to the salt and indirectly by the relative magnitude of the gypsum beds which are exposed within the Salina belt from: Madison to Erie counties. Inasmuch as the gypsum represents one element of the series. of original deposits from the Salina sea or salt basin, in which it may be believed that the relative proportions of mineral ingredients were fairly uniform for the entire area of evaporating waters, there ought to be some balance between the volumes of the two materials, unless exceptional conditions obtained during the period of evaporation or the original relations have been destroyed by subsequent attack of ground waters on the beds: There is nothing to show that the salt beds have under- gone marked rearrangement resulting in any considerable increase or:shrinkage locally in their dimensions except for the wastage that has taken place along the outcrop. In the series of Tully wells, no. 2, group A; is reported by Luther to have been drilled through four salt beds, 24, 74, 36 and 60 feet thick respectively, in order from top to bottom and making an aggregate of 204 feet. At Ithaca a well drilled in 1885 showed a total thickness of salt, according to Prosser, of 248 feet, divided into seven seams. A test well on Portland Point, 6 miles north of the Ithaca well, pene- trated three beds, an wpper of 17, a middle bed of 27 and a lower bed of 72 feet, with a» parting of shale 27 feet thick between the upper and: middle beds and another shale parting 6 feet thick between the middle and lower beds: At’ Watkins, at the head of Seneca lake; a well was drilled 102 feet into the salt. There is no record of the total thickness. In Livingston county the several salt shafts-show a thickness. of ‘from so to 80 feet of salt including impure beds of shaly material. In the Oatka valley the salt beds have a thickness of 75 to 80 feet where they have not been leached. The data of wells put down by the ordinary oil-rig, which is the method: employed in drilling brine weils, are not to be regarded as very accurate and some allowance must be made therefore in comparing the records with reference to the salt. This applies both to the dimensions and the inte:pretation of the character of the beds. In some wells, doubtless; the measurements include beds which are really shale impregnated to a greater or less extent) with 228 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM salt, as it is extremely difficult to discriminate between a bed of that kind and an alternating series of salt and shale beds: Mining of salt. The production of salt by mining conducted through shafts sunk to the beds has been in progress in New York since 1885, when the first shaft of the Retsof Mining Co. at Retsof was bottomed. In the following few years other shafts were put down; one 25 miles south of LeRoy, Genesee county, by the Lehigh Salt Mining Co.; one at Livonia, Livingston county, by the Livonia Salt & Mining Co.; and one at Greigsville, Livingston county, by the Greigsville Salt & Mining Co. In 1906 the Sterling Salt Co. completed a shaft at Cuylerville, Livingston county. The last shaft to be put down is that of the Rock Salt Corporation at Portland Point on Cayuga lake which was completed early in 1918. Underground mining has an advantage over the method of extraction by brine wells on the basis of production costs. Its disadvantage inheres in the impure quality of the product, which necessarily contains more or less of the admixed calcium and | magnesium compounds, which in the process of brine evaporation are largely removed. Rock salt, however, finds extensive uses, and the consumption has grown more rapidly of late years than of evaporated salt. The mining operations are not essentially different from those employed in working a flat coal seam on the room-and-pillar method. Main galleries are extended east and west which serve as permanent haulage ways, and then headings are driven at right angles, at regular intervals, dividing off the ground into panels. The pillars measure 30 feet on the side and are spaced 30 feet apart, in the usual practice. This results in the removal of 75 per cent of the -actual working thickness. In the mines in Livingston county, the only ones that have been extensively worked, the portion of the bed suitable for mining ranges from 6 or 7 feet to 12 feet thick. The salt is broken by drilling a series of holes with rotary auger drills and charging the holes with dynamite. In the ordinary run a hole is 6 to 7 feet in depth and can be drilled in about 3 minutes. The auger is 13 inches diameter. Electric power is now used. It would seem practicable to undercut the salt, as is done in mining soft coal, but the trials that have been made with coal-cutting machines have not been successful. The salt is said to possess a degree of toughness that greatly lowers the efficiency of such machines even to make their use impracticable, at least in their present forms. The broken salt is loaded on to cars which are drawn by mules to the main haulage ways; then they are made up into trains to be hauled MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 2290 by electric locomotives to the shaft. The steel cars hold 3 tons each. These are loaded both by hand and by automatic shovels, the use of the latter having been taken up quite recently. At the shaft the cars are run on to cages and hoisted to the top of the breaker. There are two hoisting compartments in each shaft, the cages being operated in balance, and the usual rate is about a car each minute, the distance to the top of the breaker being 1150 feet. At the breaker the car is dumped into a bin from which it goes through the process of crushing and screening to provide the various sizes in demand. ‘These include lump salt, large and small and 5 graded sizes, ranging from three-quarters to one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. During the last several years the only active mines have been those of the Retsof Mining Co. and the Sterling Salt Co. The shaft at Portland Point has not been equipped for production. Manufacture of salt from brine. The making of salt by evapora- tion of brines, or water solutions of salt, is the really essential branch of the industry, so far as concerns the majority of uses. Brine salt may fill the place of rock salt in practically all applications; the relative cheapness of the latter is the principal factor in the development of the market for mined salt. It is only by evapora- tion that the impurities which are invariably present in the natural salt or brines may be removed and the product made fit for human consumption. ‘These impurities consist largely of calcium and mag- nesium compounds, of which the latter are obnoxious because of their bitter taste and medicinal qualities. Calcium chloride has a great affinity for water and causes the salt to cake when exposed to the air. The methods of salt manufacture that have been employed in New York State include the following: (a) solar evaporation; (bd) evaporation by direct heat in open kettles or pans; (c) evaporation by steam with jacketed kettles or grainers; (d) evaporation by steam in vacuum pans. Solar evaporation is the process in use for the natural brines found on the old Onondaga reservation near Syracuse. It was first em- ployed in 1821, previous to which time the salt was made in open kettles by direct heat. Both methods were in use until a few years ago, when the kettle process was discontinued, and all the salt now made at Syracuse consists of the coarse solar variety. The evapora- tion is carried out in shallow wooden vats, of which one kind known as aprons in which the brine is only about one-half of an inch deep performs the first step in the concentration, raising the salinity to a 230 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM point where the gypsum is about to precipitate. The brine is then drawn into-vats about 6 inches deep in which the gypsum or “ lime ” deposits and the solution becomes saturated with respect to the salt. This solution is called “‘ pickle’”’ and goes to the salt rooms where the final stage is accomplished. The salt crystals are raked from the fioor of the-rooms: about three times a season which: ina good year lasts from the middle of March to the middle of November: The vats are protected against rain by covers or roofs mounted om a wooden’ framework so as to be moveable. Some idea of the size of the industry in the flourishing days may be had from the statement of the- state- superintendent of the Onondaga Salt Springs in his report for 1894 that about 45,000 covered vats, each 16 by 18 feet, were then in use. ‘This implies an evaporating surface of 12,960,000 square feet. The estimated investment represented by these structures, with the-storehouses and mills, at that time was placed at $5.750,000. The-crop of the solar salt in 1894 was 2,355,394 bushels or’471,079 barrels. The artificial evaporation of brines is now conducted’ by open pans, by grainers and by the vacuum pan. Open kettles heated by fire or by steam coils are-no longer in use. Open pans are to be-seen in only a few plants, as they have largely been superseded by grainers which are more economical of heat and in which the process of evaporation is carried on with less frequent interruptions. The high temperatures attained by direct fire are likely to cause warping of the pans and’ buckling of the arches, necessitating’ considerable expense for repairs. They have am ad- vantage over grainers, however, in that the evaporation can: be hastened by rapid boiling which leads to finer crystals, as the quicker the process of precipitation, after the saturation point is reached, the finer will'be the crystal particles. On the other hand they require more attention. The pans are made of boiler iron and set’in brick arches: with fire grates at one end from which flues conduct the heated gases under the whole length of the pans. These latter are about roo feet long and 2e to 30 feet wide, divided into a front and back section by a trams- verse partition. The brine after settling and liming which remove | the iron and mechanical impurities is conducted into the back pan where it is preheated and then siphoned into the front pan in which the final evaporation is carried out. When the salt has formed a sufficient deposit in the pan it is raked out and additional brine added. From time-to time the operation is stopped to remove the bittern-and scale the pan which becomes encrusted with a deposit of gypsum. MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 231 Grainers.are now employed in practically all of the plants:engaged in making salt for domestic uses. They are seldom used alone, but most often in conjunction with open pans or with vacuum pans. The grainer :consists of an open vat, too feet or more long, 12 to 15 feet wide,.and about 2 feet deep, built of iron alone or lined with concrete or wood with a series of iron pipes, running the length of the vat and placed.about.a foot from the bottom, in which the steam is supplied. The brine is preheated outside of the grainer by waste steam. The process of salt making employs the principle of factional crystallization, whereby the concentration of the brine is kept above the point of saturation for the more soluble chlorides of magnesium and calcium; as ‘the bittern becomes charged with these it is drawn off and wasted or employed in a second series of grainers for making an inferior grade of salt. The salt particles from the gramer are oiten composed of several:small crystals, giving.a coarser size than with the open pan. The salt is removed by mechanical-rakers which operate continuously or by hand. Operations have to be suspended at intervals to scale the walls and pipes, the period of evaporation ranging from a few days to several weeks, depending on the amount of calcium ‘sulphate in the brine. Vacuum pans, technically, are superior to all other :mechanical devices for evaporating salt,.as they are most economical of heat and require less attention in proportion to the quantity of product. Their main drawback is the high cost of installation. As in use in New York they consist of a vertical cyclinder, terminated at each end by-a cone, built of sheet iron or steel. The ‘steam for heating is supplied to.a belt within the middle or the cylindrical part of the pan, in which is placed :a-series of copper tubes immersed in the brine or through which the brineis pumped. Vacuum.is maintained by means of a pump connected with the top cone, assisted by rapid condensation of the steam as it cames off at the same place. The salt as it crystallizes falls to the bottom and is discharged through a pipe, aiter which itis drained by a centrifugal. «A vacuum of about 28 inches is matntamned in the pan, if operated as‘single-etfect. At one plant there are four pans connected to work .as a quadruple effect, in which the brine is maintained under a vacuum of about 13 inches for the first, 20 inches for the second, 26 inches for the third and 28 inches for the fourth. Boiling takes place at progress- ively lower temperatures with increase of vacuum. ‘The:pans have to be boiled out every day or so and scaled at intervals of a few months. 232 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM List of brine plants. The manufacturers of salt in the Syracuse district, using the solar process, include the following who were in operation in 1916: J. L. Cady, P. Corkings, Draper & Porter, Empire Coarse Salt Co., Thomas K. Gale, Geddes Coarse Salt Co., High- land Solar Salt Co., P. J. Johnson, Cady & Johnson, Salina Solar Coarse Salt Co., Turk’s Island Coarse Salt Co., Western Coarse salt Co., John White & Son, Salt Springs Solar Coarse Salt Co. All the solar salt is marketed through the Onondaga Coarse Salt Association. It is sold in seven sizes, of which six represent the different sizes of salt crystals, separated by screening, as follows: Diamond C, BC, Standard, Diamond F, BF, and 6-mesh BT. The finest size is 8-mesh, which is crushed and passed through a screen of eight meshes to the inch. The list of manufacturers of artificially evaporated salt for recent years has included the following: International Salt Co., with works at Myers, Ithaca and Watkins; Worcester Salt Co., Silver Springs; Rock Glen Salt Co., Rock Glen; Eureka Salt Co., Saltvale; Rem- ington Salt Co., Ithaca; Watkins Salt Co., Watkins; Genesee Salt Co., Piffard; LeRoy Salt Co., LeRoy; Solvay Process Co., Solvay. Production. The record of salt production in New York State. is practically complete from the start of regular operations in 1797. In that year the output was 25,474 bushels, or 5095 barrels. By 1828 the production had grown to over 1,000,000 bushels, or 200,000 barrels, and by 1849 it passed 1,000,000 barrels. In the succeeding 30 years it made slow growth; in 1880 when the manufacture of salt from artificial brines was about to begin it had increased only to 1,599,750 barrels. The production since then has made rapid strides. Altogether the product of brine and rock salt in the State in the period 1797-1918 has amounted to the total of 323,870,546 barrels. The production of salt by grades for the last three years is shown in the tables below: Production of salt by grades in 1916 VALUE A GRADE BARRELS VALUE eS Comamoninnety akon An cae ate nh Ne I 694 943 $828 617 $.48 Commoncoarse; eee ne ee oe 267 421 153 844 .57 “Rablevand) dairy vyAaesecaeet, Af ape. I 308 529 940 969 aa SLOUGH Gy Me SNMMIU IR ner aN NOR Ne naeaealy Oe 249 728 110 505 44 Otherorades a2 sn iiamounes crete oly ae IO 567 129 I 664 863 Anite: 14 087 750 | $3 698 798 $.26 MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK GRADE Srollene 2 210) ee PNA a ae aaa BOONE ta DE A 233 Production of salt by grades in 1917 VALUE A BARRELS VALUE ONG LASO4 F720 ASI sat. 227 $ .73 252 114 218 747 .86 I 458 165 I 413 905 .96 130 914 91 978 -79 Il 811 722 2 315 862 : .19 15 457 636 | $5 371 713 $.34 a includes rock salt, sa!t in brine used for alkali manufacture, agricultural salt and small amounts of brine salt for which the uses were not specified in the returns. GRADE SOllettemeyeee aes hel NEUE ARN dito Sate TE Production of salt by grades in 1918 VALUE A BARRELS VALUE BARRIER I 581 671 | $1 517 725 $ .96 215 220 240 388 Th eat I 770 885 I 964 402 The init 118 029 125 107 1.06 II 532 257 | 3 489 245 -30 15 218 071 | $7 336 867 $.48 a Includes rock salt, salt in brine used for alkali manufacture, agricultural salt and small amounts of brine salt for which the uses were not specified in the returns. 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