YB New Y ork State Museum Bulletin iJBRAR'' new V , bot^ :;C/ GArf the world. This group includes about twenty of the fossil stumps from Gilboa as a part of the foreground, the background being a mural representation of a coastal marsh, in which it is believed the trees grew. In the middle distance are restorations of the trees with their leafage and fruit as they have been made out from prolonged and most careful study of the remains as found after much search in the rocks around Gilboa. The floor 7 8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM space in front of this tree group will be assigned to other specimens from this ancient forest, and in the center of the floor arrangement is located a particularly large and fine slab which shows the base of one of these trees of smaller size with the roots radiating from its edge in all directions and to a distance of 2 or 3 feet. This is the best exemplification found of the mode of anchorage of the trees in the soft muds in which they grew. In all the elaborate con- trivances necessary to the effective presentation of this tree group, in respect to adjustment of lights and installation of various appurte- nances, the Director acknowledges the very effective help of the Chief Engineer Edward R. Lord, and his staff. Unexhibited collections. There remain stored away in various places in the Education Building important collections of material which can not be shown for lack of Museum space. Among these are the entire collections of the recent mollusca of New York and elsewhere, and it is a matter of constant regret that these collections can not be shown, in as much as the study of the mollusca has always interested a considerable number of persons, and it is not proper to restrain such interests by hiding away material which ought to be made accessible to such students. Parks. The administration of the affairs of the Museum parks as now constituted by statute, comes under the control of the State Council of Parks. This has been a helpful procedure in so far as it has given means for repairs and upkeep which were not before available, and there is good reason to hope that hereafter something like adequate compensation may be afforded to the custodians at the Clark Reservation and at the ChittenangO' Ealls Park. The Museum reservations are thus in tetter condition, so far as con- venience to the public is concerned, than they have been since their acquisition. What is to be the eventual fate of these properties under the new legislation is still uncertain. In the case of sev'eral of them, the Clark Reservation, the Stark’s Knob, and Cryptozoon Ledge, the titles lie in The University of the State of New York, and in one of these title deeds the condition is made that in case supervision b}' the State Museum is surrendered, the property- shall revert to the original donor or to his estate. Legislation which will probably be formulated during the coming legislative session, will undoubtedly make some provision for general administration of such natural monuments through the State Council of Parks. No further acquisitions have been made. The Legislature of last }ear favored the acquirement of the archeological property known as the Flint Mine Hill, an aboriginal flint quarry, but although the bill REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1 924 9 for the transfer of this property to the State Museum passed the Legislature, it was allowed to lapse by the Governor in the expecta- tion that it would be taken up by the State Council of Parks. So far, however, the council has not signified its approval of this transfer. The program of the State Council of Parks is actuated largely by the recreational sentiment which has been so effectively encouraged by the President of the United States and thus keeps in the fore- ground the recreational needs of the masses of the people, especially in the surcharged municipal districts of the State. It has shown itself very likely to overlook or disregard matters of moment in the reservation of natural monuments of high educative interests which should be preserved against the inroads of industry and population. The State Council of Parks as at present consti- tuted under the statute, is made up of representatives of the large park interests, each of whom has direct concern only in the park or parks under his official charge, and in such a board it is quite diffi- cult to arouse any degree of interest in concerns which are outside the active official affairs of the individual members. Museum Association. This association is the expression of a desire on the part of the Museum to be helpful to all citizens who are interested in any of the sciences here cultivated. Its member- ship has now grown to be about 8,000. The form of the circular sent out is as follows : lO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ASSOCIATION Organized 1910 You are invited to become a member of the New York State Museum Association. Membership in the association has neither dues nor assessments and carries no personal obligation. Object. The object of the association is to bring into closer relationship with the State Museum all citizens of New York State who are interested in such scientific and other subjects as are included within the scope of this museum. , Service. The State Museum, through its staff of scientific experts, is ready at any time to give information to those who are interested in the subjects mentioned below and to suggest courses of reading or study in these lines. To those who are making collections in natural history, information as to pro- cedure and as to the location of suitable sites for collecting such material will readily be given. Membership. To become a member a Sign and return this circular. b Check the numbered subjects in which you are most interested. SUBJECTS Geology 1 Geology in general 2 Economic geology 3 Structural geology 4 Glacial geology 5 Paleontology or the study and collection of fossils Botany 6 Botany in general 7 Wild flowers of New York State 8 Ferns and mosses 9 Mushrooms 10 Trees and forests 11 Plant diseases 12 Swamps Entomology 13 Entomology in general 14 Insects injurious to agriculture, horticulture and forests Zoology 15 Zoology in general 16 Birds of New York State 17 Large and small mammals 18 Reptiles 19 Fishes 20 Conservation of animal and bird life Archeology 21 Archeology in general 22 History of the New York State Indians 23 Sites of Indian culture in New York 24 The collecting of Indian imple- ments 25 New York State Archeological Society Indians 26 Customs and welfare of Indians at present on the state reserva- tions Agriculture 27 Early agricultural methods and implements The Museum desires to ac- quire for its collection repre- senting the history of agricul- ture in this State, all available examples of the old-time tools, machinery and domestic acces- sories of early farm days. Pottery and glass 28 Information can be given and will be welcome in regard to the early efforts made in New York State in these industries. Local place names 29 The Board of Geographic Names, Education Department, will wel- come any reliable information regarding the origin of town, city, village, mountain, hill, stream or other local names. It is also ready to give such information on these matters as it has available. After checking this sheet in accordance with your wishes, sign here, giving full address Name Street City or village REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 II Publications. During the past year the following publications have been issued : Bulletins: Nos. 251, i8th Report of the Director; 252, A Revis- ion of the Nursery Web Spiders of the United States; 253, 19th Report of the Director; 254, Annotated List of the Ferns and Flowering Plants of New York State; 255, The Geological History of New York. Memoirs : No. 16, The Devonian Crinoids of the State of New York. Miscellaneous: Guides to the Mineral Collections, Circular of Information, etc. Of the foregoing publications. The Geological History of New York is a second edition, the public demand for it having required a reprinting of the book. The Memoir on The Devonian Crinoids is one of the series of quarto volumes on the paleontology of the State and this has excited widespread interest in scientific circles both in America and other countries. It has received the most flattering notices in scientific reviews and elicited highly favorable comment on the general work which the Museum is and has been for more than 50 years carrying on in the line of paleontological investigations. Legislative support and loss of staff. The financial provision made for the support of the State Museum is 1/372 of a mill on each dollar of the assessed valuation of state property, and about oi a mill on each dollar of the tax income of the State. This brief analysis is in itself sufficient to explain the reason why the expert members of the State Museum staff are constantly leaving their positions in search of something that will guarantee a reason- able return for their services. There has been in recent years a constant exodus of the best talent from this service into other places. This certainly does not stand to the credit of the legislative body which seems to view the proceeding with entire indifference and with a very much lessened comprehension of the value of such service to the State than their predecessors in office entertained. Things are done better than this in countries where the intellectual life is more magnified and honored. GEOLOGY Rock deformations. In the large field of geology as applied to the problems of New York, active operations have been carried on, especially in the region of the Schunemunk mountains and over the area covered by the Schunemunk quadrangle on the topo- 12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM graphic map. This is an area of the most complicated structure although in a large degree buried from sight. Final reports on this work will show that through this southeast zone of rocks in this State the dislocations concomitant with the mountain-making have broken and crumpled the crust of the earth in a manner that seems most extraordinary to a student of New York geological structures. It is apparently a continuation of the extreme deformations that are recorded in the rocks at Rondout and Kingston where there have been complete overturns of the rock strata so that older rocks are found resting upon those of later date. Mountain-making. The problem of the making of the mountains of New York is one of growing interest and of fundamental impor- tance of the science of geology. The observations made by Df Rudolf Ruedemann, on the mountain folds of the basal rock mantle of the entire earth, the result of arduous and searching records from observers in all parts of the world, bring out very clearly the fact that the first mountains of the earth, that is, the fundamental lineaments of the earth’s crust turned up by the radial contraction of our planet, have really been the parent mountains of the major mountain systems existing today. Doctor Ruedemann has found from his careful studies that the worn off and in large measure concealed edges of the crystalline basal rocks known generally under the term of Precambrian rocks, have a well-defined trend of structure or trend of bedding which is a clue to the axes of their folding. These moun- tain lines or lines of weakness having once given way to tangential stresses, have generally speaking, established themselves as lines of mountain-making for all subsequent time. As an illustration, the basal mountain structures in eastern New York, although worn down to their roots, are the floor on which the Taconic and Appalachian mountains have been built, and they seem likewise to have furnished the directives and courses for these later mountains ; in other words, we are entitled to speak of mountain ranges gen- erally which have been so obviously guided by the fundamental mountain folds, as “ posthumous mountains.” Doctor Ruedemann’s original discussions of this problem of fundamental geological importance have been published in these reports. The present report contains an application of these conclusions to the structure and physiography of North America. Earth movements in New York. One can not speak of the probability of crustal dislocations in the eastern United States with- out opening himself to the implication of being an alarmist. How- ever authoritative the records for such dislocations may be, the public REPORT OF TFIE DIRECTOR I924 13 does not care to be reminded of them, and intimations that even in this region of most ancient rocks we are living on an uneasy crust are received with detachment and stony silence. Nevertheless the facts remain. The State Geologist has on various public occasions called attention to the records of earth movements in this vicinity, some of which have been destructive. If any earth movement at any time in our recorded history has been sufficiently violent to cause extensive disorder of the land, such a movement may recur. Every resident of eastern New York is aware of occasional shudderings of the crust causing rattling of china, swaying of pictures, and such minor evidences of uneasiness. We do not yet know just what record such movements make on the rocks of the earth, but it is quite evi- dent that although they occur at rather remote intervals and are in themselves, from the human point of view, merely interesting sensations, they always imply the possibility of greater disturbances. The public hostility toward the recognition of a menace in these earth movements is due to two causes : firstly, the fact that no living being bas been a witness of any damage to property or life in this part of the country from such causes; secondly, that vested interests dependent upon the security of the land must decline to take notice of any such menace. For the first reason we must set against it the geol- ogist’s point of view. There is a positive record of destructive earth movements in the zone of fault which lies along the course of the St Lawrence river and runs south from Montreal in the line of the Lake Champlain and the upper Hudson valley. The record is not of the most dependable character, but the earthquake of 1663, stories of which in the relations of the Jesuit and other institutions estab- lished along these lines at that time, even after proper subtraction has been made for the emotions of the writers, do not fail to indicate the possibilities of these displacements of the rock foundations. In the southern Hudson river valley the lines of displacement have followed the course of the structure lines of the basal Precambrian rocks, but the entire zone of the Hudson valley is one that records extensive rock displacements in the past which may be renewed at any time when the subterranean stresses have piled up to a peak where their relief becomes imperative. The attitude of the general public toward matters of this kind is reflected by the absence of reaction from a highly sensational, almost lurid account of earth- quake possibilities in southeastern New York, which recently appeared in one of the prominent monthly magazines. The author of this article was a volcanologist of high repute, and the obvious purpose of his distressing picture was to inaugurate in this eastern country 14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM an institution for the exact measurement of earth stresses and strains, the constant subterranean tilts and movements of the rocks that we know to he going on beneath us. This rather extravagant and certainly intensive argument was received by the press of New York and the East in almost absolute silence. Recently a geologist of distinction with an engineer’s experience gave a carefully compiled account of the earthquake dislocations in and around Boston. The dissertation was prepared for the benefit of Boston engineers and architects. The writer of it brought together from historical records a formidable number of these displacements. So far as known, however, this paper did not bring any reaction from the press or from the public and indicated the importance of taking precau- tionary measures for future construction and self-preservation. Six months after the apf>earance of this Boston paper, an earthquake of some magnitude occurred in that region along the line of the so-called Fundian fault which runs thence northward into the Bay of Fundy. At various points in eastern New York are surface evidences of continuing and present displacements of the rock beds. Some of these have been recorded in the Reports of this survey where the breaking down of the rocks for little distances has actually faulted the overlying burden of soil and drift. There is a place in the Helderberg mountains, not far from the Indian Ladder, where a surface of rock smoothed off and polished by the glaciers has been faulted down in a series of small steps, showing that these move- ments have proceeded since the close of the glacial period. In speaking of these light displacements it is necessary to bear in mind the fact that an earthquake shock of devastating violence is not due so much to the distance the rocks move, as to the mass of the rock moved and a large mass of rock moving but a short distance downward, horizontally or upward, is the usual cause of serious disaster. The point of these remarks is this : New York State is involved in an eventual risk and a perpetual menace. Neither New York State nor any part of the eastern United States is giving any ade- quate attention to the importance of acquiring dependable informa- tion as to what these earth movements may mean to the safety and security of the people. While there is no occasion to become excited over possibilities of this kind, and while it might be unwise to make these matters the subject of open and popular discussion lest dis- tortion of expression should occur and needless . excitement be aroused, it is nevertheless true that until the State of New York establishes a geophysical institution equipped with apparatus of the REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 15 most accurate precision for registering these earth movements and estimating their periods of r^turrence, it will not be doing its full duty toward the State and its prodigious invested interests. The study of seismology has now gone So far that it has become well nigh possible to forecast the next occurrence of destructive earth- quake shocks in regions which are today possibly subject to them. Omori, the distinguished Japanese seismologist, forecast the last Japanese earthquake which caused the death of nearly a half million people. Prophets of evil have never been popular. We have a press story to the effect that a Japanese seismologist who more recently prophesied a recurrence of the Japanese disturbances was almost murdered by the mob. The writer of this report has a personal acquaintance with a geologist who was threatened with tar-and-feathers after an address before a chamber of commerce on the possibilities of such crustal disturbances in this State. The outstanding fact is that, as above intimated, the State of New York can meet this full duty in this matter only by acquiring, through its proper officials, an intimate knowledge of earth move- ments which will help to afford it a greater security. The problem of the salt. New York State has plenty of salt. It has produced salt for a century and the outstanding problem con- nected with it is and always has been to insure a market. More than ever we begin to see that the quality of the market depends upon the quality of the salt and the particular and intimate com- position of our salt beds. It would be rehearsing well-known facts to recur to the mode in which the salt is stored in our rocks. As the driller finds it, it appears in one or several beds, inter- bedded with the rock strata and having a uniform chemical com- position. The area of these subterranean salt beds extends from well east of Syracuse on to the western border of the State, and the same deposits are more or less continuous into Ontario and Michigan. It has been the historic interpretation of the salt deposits that they were laid down at a period of our geographical development when the coast line of the continent approximately skirted the region where now lies Lake Ontario, then bending off broadly along the course of the present Mohawk river, turning at the inner corner of the Appalachian land and running thence southwesterly. It was a shelving shore bounded outside by some broad sand barrier or bar, which created great salt pans where, by solar evaporation, the salt waters were progressively intensified in their salinity until precipita- tion of the salts began, and that when the peak or climax of pre- cipitation was reached, a gentle lowering of the coast line allowed i6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the normal marine waters to enter this extensive area and diminished the salinity as gradually as it had increased, until finally normal conditions of deposition were restored throughout the entire extent of this coastal region. This assumed process would be the simple, normal result of the rise and fall of the land under such geographical conditions as have been outlined. In any such process as this, normal deposition of the salts held in solution by the sea would have been in inverse order to the solubility of such saline contents. The more insoluble salts would come down first and the first deposit, therefore, in such an evaporating pan would be the sulphate of lime, gypsum, followed by chlorides of magnesium, carbonates of magnesium, chlorides of potassium, magnesium etc., and at the peak or climax the chloride of sodium, or salt. This process would be inverted with the incom- ing of normal sea water, which would help to increase the solubility of the various minerals so that the last as well as the first deposit in this cycle would be gypsum. That is to say, in a section across the salt 'beds there should be at the bottom, below the beds of salt, gypsum, and above the beds of salt also deposits of gypsum, and in the intervening beds not merely salt itself, but some intermixture of the chlorides of sodium with potassium, etc. This is the usual occurrence in most of the large salt deposits of the world that have been formed by such process of evaporation, and salts of this kind which show accumulation by normal evaporation processes are to be designated as primary salt. In the past we have rather assumed that the accumulation of our New York salts was by such processes, and that in their time the coast line was fringed by such salt pans. The intimate study of our salt beds, however, seems to throw increasing doubt upon this mode of their accumulation. There are no gypsum beds immediately underlying the New York salts. All of the large amount of gypsum recorded comes from beds above the salt. Untiring and incessant efforts have been made to find a potash element in our salt beds. A large number of analyses has been made of the salts and brines from every part of the salt field in the hope of determining the presence of potash. These analyses have never provided more than a mere trace of potash. The inference, there- fore, from this accumulating evidence is that there has been some- thing abnormal in the deposition of the New York salt beds. It is not conceivable that by the simple process of solar evaporation salt beds could accumulate without the presence of the salts of potash, and we are therefore forced to the conclusion that the potash once REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1 924 17 present in connection with these sodium de^xisits must have been removed by some process and perhaps deposited elsewhere. This fact, taken in connection with the irregularity of the gypsum de- posits, has raised grave doubt as to whether the New York salt beds can be regarded as primary salts ; whether they may not be a second- ary deposition of salt derived from some previously deposited bed of normal salts, probably lying ofif to the north and deposited by a process of leaching, which has concentrated the sodium salts in their l)resent position while the more soluble potash salts have been carried ofif into some other latitude at the same horizon, and may be today deeply buried under a heavy overliurden along the more southerly continuation of the beds of the saline formation. Professor H. L. Ailing, who has been deeply concerned with the character of our salt and the problem of the salt beds, reports find- ing in the salt itself strings of black bituminous matter which would seem to indicate the presence of some form of plant life, possibly comparable to the algae which are known to occur in normal salt beds and have been specially reported from the beds at Malagash, Nova Scotia. It can be readily understood how a low coast with its chain of lagoons would be a receptive and suitable place for such secondary accumulation as seems to have occurred and our present suggestion as to this form of accumulation does not necessitate any essential change in the interpretations. The investigation at present under way will help to prove or disprove these suggestions. The Cobleskill coral reefs and the Bertie lagoon. Closely knit up with the foregoing are interesting determinations which have recently been made in the investigations by Doctor Ruedemann. In the generally accepted geological column of New York rocks, the Bertie waterlime has been regarded as the upper stage of the salt-bearing group or as it is designated in accepted usage, the Cayugan group, while the Cobleskill magnesian limestone or dolomite is looked upon as a later and the next succeeding stage. The Cobleskill extends from eastern New York to Buffalo. The rock is obviously a mass of corals. There are many places where these corals have been so digested and altered that their individual structure does not appear, but the dolomitic character of the forma- tion is a rather definite clue to its origin as coral reef. The inter- pretation of this limestone comes to be in geographical terms a barrier reef extending along the entire coast line of New York from east to west, very much as the great Australian reef fronts the east- ern coast of Australia today. Behind this reef were lagoons in i8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM which the Bertie waterlime was deposited. These rock beds are most fully developed from the vicinity of Utica westward, and in them the remarkable fauna of Eurypterids, the most impressive in the world, is preserved. Along with these occur a series of notable, hitherto mostly undescribed, marine fossils which Doctor Ruede- mann has worked out in great detail. Indeed, this assemblage makes a singularly interesting faunal unit, which it is hoped will soon be elucidated in our publications. Doctor Ruedemann’s very great skill in bringing out the extraordi- nary characters of this fauna has served to make the most effective use of haphazard objects which have never before been properly appreciated. As a result of these investigations it is Doctor Ruede- mann’s conclusion that the Cobleskill coral reef and the Bertie lagoons were contemporary and in some degree intermixed. INDUSTRIAL GEOLOGY C. A. Hartnagel, Assistant State Geologist The completion of statistics on the mineral production of New York State for the year 1923 marks the twentieth year since this work was undertaken by the State Survey in 1904. The annual value of the mineral products of the State has shown a steady growth from 1904, in which year the minerals produced had a value of over $28,000,000. During the past 4 years the value of the mineral prod- ucts has averaged well over $70,000,000 annually. Clay materials. In 1904 the value of clay materials produced in the State including various types of brick, terra cotta, pottery, and tile, amounted to over $11,000,000. The 1923 production of the same materials was valued at over $25,000,000. Portland cement. In 1904, 1,377,000 barrels of Portland cement were produced with a value of $1,245,000. In 1923 there was pro- duced 6,853,000 barrels with a value of $12,834,000. Natural cement. In 1904 the number of barrels of natural cement produced in the State was 1,881,000 and in number of bar- rels exceeded the production of Portland cement for that year. At present the output of natural cement has declined until only a few thousand barrels are produced annually, this by only a single producer. Gypsum. The mine output of gypsum in 1904 was 151,455 tons with a value of $424,975. The 1923 output was 1,361,116 tons with a value of $10,344,745. The total output since 1904 is over 10,000,- 000 tons with a value of over $50,000,000. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 19 Garnet. The output of garnet in 1904 was 3045 tons with a value of $104,325. The 1923 production was 7662 tons valued at $583,190. New industrial uses for garnet indicate an increase mine output of this material. Iron ore. The output of iron ore since the year 1904 has fluctu- ated considerably. In 1904, 618,000 tons of ore were produced. The 1923 production amounted to 734,000 tons. Six different years dur- ing this period the annual production has amounted to over 1,000,- 000 tons. The total production for the 20 years is over 17,000,000 tons, of which the magnetite produced amounted to over 16,000,000 tons. Salt. The salt produced in 1904 amounted to 8,724,000 barrels with a value of $2,102,000. The 1923 production was 14,756,000 barrels with a value of $7,431,000. Stone. The value of the production of stone including granite, limestone, marble, sandstone and trap in 1904 amounted to $5,169,- 000. The 1923 production of the same materials was $10,648,000. The increase in value is due entirely to limestone which has shown an increase since 1904 of over $6,000,000. Each of the other items included under stone has shown a slight decrease in value of production. Slate. The value of slate produced in 1904 amounted to $93,000. This value represented largely roofing slate which at present has a decreased output of only about two-thirds of the amount produced 20 years ago. With the present large output of slate granules which became an important factor in the slate industry about 1918, there has been a great increase in the value of products credited to slate and the 1923 output largely representing granules was $927,000. Talc. The production of talc during the past 20 years has averaged around 66,000 tons annually. In 1904 the production was 65,000 tons and in 1923, 71,000 tons. At present prices the annual production is valued at well over $1,000,000. Natural gas. The production of natural gas in 1904 was 2j399)OOoM cubic feet. In 1923 the production was 6,497,oooM cubic feet. The largest production was between the years 1913 and 1920 with an average annual production of 8,ooo,oooM cubic feet. Petroleum. The production of petroleum in 1904 was 1,036,179 barrels. In 1912 the production had declined to 782,661 barrels. Since 1916 there has been a gradual increase in production and the 1923 output is 1,250,000 barrels, the largest output since 1900. Zinc. Mining of zinc ore was started in New York in 1915 since which time over 400,000 tons of zinc ore have been mined. The value of the zinc produced amounts to over $7,000,000. 20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Mineral waters. The output of mineral waters has shown a slight decrease since ]904. The present output is something over 0,O(X),ooo gallons annually as compared with 7,000,000 and 8,000,- 000 gallons in ]n‘evious years. The value of the output during the past 20 years has amounted to over $15,000,000. Molding sand. In 1904 the production of molding sand amounted to 320,000 tons with a value of $262,000. The 1923 production which is the largest during this period amounted to 731,000 tons with a value of $1,212,000. Other sand and gravel. In addition to molding sand there has lieen a large increase in the amount of sand and gravel produced. 1'he 1 923 production amounted to nearly 10,000,000 tons having a value of over $6,000,000. *\mong the other minerals which have contributed to the value of mineral production of the State during the past 20 years are graphite, emery, millstones, pyrite, diatomaceous earth, carbon dioxide, crude clay including slip clay, feldspar, quartz, marl, mica, peat, arsenical pyrites, apatite, gasoline recovered from natural gas, metallic paint, potash, lead and a few ounces of silver, recovered from lead ores, minerals for gem purposes. More detailed statistics regarding production of the minerals grouped immediately above will be given in another report. Natural gas survey. New York State has been producing natural gas on a commercial scale for over 100 years. Statistics of early production are not available. In 1904 when statistics were first col- lected by the State, the annual production amounted to a little more than 2,ooo,oooM cubic feet. In 1913 the annual production had increased to over 8,ooo,oooM cubic feet and this production was maintained for a period of 8 years or until 1921 since which time the annual production has fallen to something over 6,ooo,oooAI cubic feet. As is well known, natural gas has an ever increasing value both for fuel and lighting purposes, and in addition to the domestic sup- ply of the State an additional quantity is brought in from Pennsyl- vania amounting to over io,ooo,oooM cubic feet annually. W ith the gradual exhaustion of the present producing gas pools and the probable curtailment of supplies from Pennsylvania, it is evident that unless new supplies are found the natural gas industry must rajudly dec’ine. Thus far about one dozen natural gas pools have been found within the State. These pools are all located from near the meridian of the east end of Lake Ontario to the western REPORT OF TFIE DIRECTOR I924 21 end of the State in Chautauqua county. Already some 1600 pro- ducing wells have been drilled outside of the oil-producing regions of southwestern New York. Inquiries relating to the geological structure of western New York and the present developed gas fields have been numerous and while considerable unpublished information gathered during a series of years is available, it was suggested in my report of last year, that some field work be undertaken to supplement our present knowledge of the natural gas fields. Accordingly, during the summer of 1924 Professor Heniy Leigh- ton spent 6 weeks in the field investigating natural gas problems. The regions examined included the Dansville and Pavilion districts and in addition some time was spent in studying the gas fields in Chautauqua county. In the Dansville field Professor Leighton re- ports that nearly all the wells are located along a north-south line, with evidence of an anticlinal fold. As this field is comparatively new, more wells will have to be drilled outside of the present line of wells to determine whether or not any domed structure is present. Additional information has been obtained by Professor Leighton on the Pavilion field. This includes numerous well logs which will give us further knowledge of the structure of the Pavilion field. In Chautauqua county many additional well logs have been obtained by Professor Leighton and these will be of much value in studying the gas-bearing strata of Chautauqua county. It is hoped that this field work will be continued during the coming season. Molding sands. The special investigation of the molding sands of the Hudson river district, undertaken by C. M. Nevin of Cornell University, has been completed and the manuscript has been sub- mitted for publication. The work of Mr Nevin is of a high order and the publication of his report will meet an outstanding demand of the molding sand industry. Much additional light is thrown on the origin and depositions of the molding sands ; possible new sup- plies are indicated and the relations of the various beds of molding sand are given in some detail. Supplementary to these field studies, laboratory tests were made on a large number of samples collected in the field. These tests were made in conjunction with the American Foundrymen’s Asso- ciation and are proving to be of much value not only to producers of molding sand but to foundrymen who actually use the sand. Another end to be hoped for as a result of these studies is the development of a system of standardization for the various grades of molding sand. Such a system is much needed in the industry. 22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM FIELD WORK IN THE SCHUNEMUNK REGION DURING 1924 R. J. Colony The Schunemunk quadrangle in Orange county includes an area of great structural complexity. Considerable field work has already been done by the writer working in collaboration with Dr C. P. Berkey; during the season of 1924 the work was confined to check- ing up and verifying some of the results of former field work, more particularly in tracing the major structural lines, and in working over in as detailed a manner as the time would permit some of the extremely complex local areas within the quadrangle. The area may be very roughly divided into three parts on the basis of structure, stratigraphy and deformation history. These are quite separate and distinct from one another; all of them are com- plex. They are separated from one another by the major structural lines previously referred to. These three parts consist of : 1 The complex crystalline massive comprising the highlands, extending northeasterly along the entire eastern margin of the area, and also across the southern end of it. 2 The rolling lowland area lying in greater part to the west of Schimemunk mountain, but in part also to the north of Schune- munk and west of the northeastern extension of the highlands ; and southeast of Schunemunk, between the crystallines along the southern margin of the quadrangle, and the south end of Schune- munk mountain. 3 Schunemunk mountain proper, including Pea hill and the so-called “Idlewild Syncline” lying immediately northeast of Schune- munk, and the southwest extension in the extreme southwest corner of the quadrangle. During the field season of 1924 the work was directed to: I Tracing and locating the contact between the western and northern margins of the highlands, crystalline complex and the formations comprising the lowland area spoken of. This is one of the major structural lines of the area. The contact in general is a fault contact, especially along the western margin, where the crystallines have been overthrust upon the Wappinger-Hudson River series by reason of movement during the Appalachian deformation. Additional and later normal faults, of Triassic age, have compli- cated the situation very considerably. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1 924 23 2 Tracing and locating the great structural break extending from Snake hill, in the northeast corner of the area, southwesterly to Schunemunk mountain; here the break bifurcates and extends on each side of Schunemunk southwesterly. At the south end of Schunemunk the fault relations grow very complex and have not yet been worked out. The entire mass of Schunemunk has apparently been dropped as a fault-block-unit although upstanding above the surrounding softer formations by reason of the superior resistance to erosion offered by conglomerate and graywacke beds which comprise the formations making up the mountain. 3 Detailed study of Pea hill and the “Idlewild Syncline,” and the beginning of detailed study of some portions of the area just west of Schunemunk and south of it. These are especially complex regions that will require considerable additional work before they can be satisfactorily interpreted. PALEONTOLOGY During the year 1924 two bulletins on the Utica-Lorraine forma- tions of New York were submitted for publication and will appear shortly. The first discusses the stratigraphy of the Utica and Lorraine formations. The Utica formation is shown to consist of three divisions, characterized mainly by its graptolites. It reaches its greatest thickness around Utica. Northward in the Black river valley it is replaced by the contemporaneous uppermost division of the Trenton formation, the Cobourg limestone of the Canadians. The Utica sea invaded from the southwest. A late Utica invasion took place also from the north and is recognized in a black shale formation in the Black river valley, termed the Deer River shale in the bulletin. It is a southern extension of part of the Gloucester shale of Canada. The Frankfort shale is found to be a separate facies of the lowest division of the Lorraine. It is replaced north- ward by the contemporaneous Atwater Creek shale. The Lorraine group has been divided into two main divisions, the Whetstone Gulf shale, corresponding roughly to the Eden of the Ohio basin, and the Pulaski shale and sandstone, corresponding to the Maysville. Each has been divided into fossil zones that corre- spond to the members of the Cincinnatian recognized in the Ohio basin. A series of paleogeographic maps shows the extent of the sea in New York during each of the stages recognized. The second bulletin contains the descriptions of the first part of the fauna, the lower invertebrates as far as the brachiopods inclu- sive. A third bulletin to be printed later will contain the large ^4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM A gigantic Graptolilc, one-half natural size, from the Silurian of New York ( U i c t y o n c m a c r a s s i h a s a 1 e ( jurley ) REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 A new Silurian Graptolite from New York (Medusaegraptus m i r a b i 1 i s Ruedemann) 26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM remainder of the fauna, among them a number of new Ordovician eurypterids. Another bulletin, on Silurian faunas of New York, has been made ready for the press. It contains descriptions of new faunas from the Bertie waterlime and Lockport limestone. The first is noteworthy on account of its large typically marine element, inclu- sive of graptolites, associated with eurypterids. This has an impor- tant bearing on the problem of the habitat of the eurypterids, much discussed here and abroad in the last decade. The relations of the Bertie fauna to that of the Cobleskill, as well as the lithologic differ- ences, are explained by the conclusion that the Bertie was deposited in lagoons behind coral reefs, as represented by the Cobleskill. The Lockport limestone fauna is entirely different from the usual Lock- port limestone fauna with its corals and associated forms, and was found to have inhabited an original channellike depression between the reefs. It thus represents a new Lockport facies of great interest. The work on a monograph of the graptolites of North America is progressing slowly. Large collections have been sent in from different parts of the United States and from Canada and identifi- cation of the forms requested for use in geologic reports. These fossil lists have been furnished in each case and much provisional knowledge has been gained in making themi. The mapping of the capital district has been continued, but has not yet been completed on account of the large area, which com- prises four quadrangles. During the summer and fall various foreign geologists and paleontologists have visited the museum, among them being Doctor Bather, keeper of the British Museum; Professor Reynolds of Bris- tol University; Doctor Ehrenberg of Vienna University. These, like all preceding foreign visitors, have expressed themselves most enthusiastically not only about the educational character of the paleontologic exhibits, but especially also on the restorations of extinct marine, invertebrate faunas and floras. Thus far only the Devonian life has been represented by such groups, save a Silurian eurypterid group. It is desirable that also the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian should be in time represented by similar groups. Winifred Goldring spent much of her time supervising the exe- cution of the new group of Gilboa fossil trees and the restoration of the fossil forest. This impressive restoration brought up an end- less variety of problems both scientific and mechanical. The former had entirely to be solved by Miss Goldring, many of the latter also to a large degree. In connection with this new group an exhibit REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 27 of our wonderful Devonian flora was made by Miss Goldring in the subgallery. This exhibit showing the stems, leaves, inflores- cences and seeds of the Devonian trees in detail, with the original drawings of the parts accompanying them, will be of much interest both to scientists and laymen. MUSEUM NOTES In the achievements of Science there is not only beauty and wonder but also beneficence and power. It is not only that she has revealed to us infinite space crowded with unnumbered worlds ; infinite time peopled by unnumbered existences ; infinite organisms hitherto invisible, but full of delicate and iridescent loveliness ; but also that she has been as a great archangel of mercy, devoting her- self to the service of man. She has labored, her votaries have labored, not to increase the power of despots or add to the mag- nificence of courts, but to extend human happiness, to economize human effort, to extinguish human pain. She has lengthened life ; she has minimized danger, controlled madness, trampled on disease. Archdeacon Farrar Science has done more for the world than politics, more than schemes of education. It has found the basis of a true philosophy of life, a true principle of government, a true path to the mysteries. She is the mother of true religion. * * The laws of Science misdirected by human ingenuity to act against their wont upon materials mutually hostile, antagonistic and indifferent, have put the mark of Cain upon modern civilization. Mankind is showing daily its skill to create and its impotency to control these unnatural and monstrous unions. The mountains of scientific fact heaped together by armies of earnest laborers have grown too great for the most gargantuan appetite to assimilate and they are in danger of poisoning the human community. A mis- directed human ambition may bring the world to despair. * * * In education there now lie grave questions which our fathers did not raise : How far are schools of special science becoming mischievous to humanity and the State? To what degree are stu- dents of such schools pursuing the devious paths which they have devised among the data of Science but which Science herself never created? What is the real objective of such knowledge? The atom does not of itself explode its latent power, nor does the aggregation 28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of atoms. Is there to Ire virtue, happiness or content in compelling them to do so in violation of Nature’s orderly procedures? The ideals of humanity are not expressed in terms of high explosives, deadly gases, insidious poisons and death-dealing rays, nor was the iron in the heart of the earth designed for a potential weapon of death. W e ought to be getting farther away from these thing.s rather than farther in, and it would seem that, in the education of mankind, only schools of humanity and the humanities can bring the antidote to the evil by-products of scientific research. ^ + All men Irelieve in the same God. He is the God of life. In all the sufficiency of physical fact there can never be too much, never enough knowledge of the procedures of life. Life in its history and the inheritance which controls its present, its normal courses, its abnormal procedures which appeal to highest knowledge for adjustment and correction; the discernment of our own being and the interpretation of our own place, the understanding of the laws that make both the strong and the weak, the derelict, the fool and the genius ; this knowledge lies at the basis of human welfare. The laws of life laugh at the statutes of men which are not laid down upon them. The first discovery of petroleum in America. The little village of Cuba, Allegany county. New York, has the distinction of being the first place in America where oil or petroleum was discovered. This discovery was in 1627 — almost 300 years ago — when a French missionary, Joseph de-la-Roche D’Allion, was led to an oil spring by a Seneca Indian. The oil was highly prized by the Indians for medicinal purposes, and for many years petroleum was known by the name “Seneca Oil.’’ Brief references to Seneca Oil are found in many of the early historical documents. For example Sir William Johnson records in his journal the bringing of some Seneca Oil to Niagara Falls in the year 1767. For mail}' years the oil found floating on the spring at Cuba was the only source of supply in New York State, a quantity sufficient for medical demands, the only use for oil at that time. The regard of the Indians for the value of this spring is shown by the fact that to this day a tract of land i mile square in which the spring is located, is still owned b}' the Seneca nation. At present the State Geologist has under way a plan for cele- brating in 1927 the 300th anniversary of the discovery of oil in America. REPORT OF TFIE DIRECTOR 1 924 29 How the Susquehanna river lost its head. The Susquehanna is one of the oldest waterways in this State and it has a very com- plicated history running far back to the ages when the continental land of New York was but just elevated above the sea-line. Accord- ing to Professor Herman L. Fairchild, who has worked out the intricate history of this old drainageway, recently published as a bulletin of the Museum, the Susquehanna waters originally headed up in the Adirondack mountain region and flowed almost due south like other streams farther west in New York State, reaching the shifting shores of the sea which were moving- ever southward as additions were made through the geological ages to the rising land. Stretched from east to west across central New York is a series of limestone and calcareous shale formations, rocks which are highly soluble in waters which have been flowing over swamp and woodlands. When the surface of New York was old enough to become coated with vegetation, through the long ages of Mesozoic time when the sea had been driven out of this part of the State, the waters flowing from the north, full of carbon dioxide, attacked these limey rocks dissolving them out along their east and west strike until they had cut so deep into them as to create a steady dis- charge of water from west to east. In other words, they created the Mohawk valley, whose old limestone south bank is an upstanding- feature of the scenery known as the Helderberg escarpment. Thus the younger Mohawk decapitated the headwaters of all the older streams originally flowing south from the Adirondack highland and carried of¥ their waters in another direction. New York City decapitates the Schoharie creek. What Nature and the Mohawk slowly brought about in stealing the headwaters of the Susquehanna, the New York City board of water supply is intensively and rapidly effecting by robbing the Mohawk of the headwaters of its largest tributary, the Schoharie creek. After this stream has wandered many miles over the Catskill plateau, gathering its purest waters, it reaches the village of Gilboa, on its way north into the Mohawk, and it is at this point that New York City has attacked it in order to draw it back south into the new 18-mile tunnel through Shandaken mountain and so on to the wash- tubs of Manhattan. The Schoharie creek itself has been subject to a little stream-robbing during the ages, having lost its headwaters by the drainageways which are now spilling eastward over the Catskill front at Haines Falls and nearby throngh the cloves leading down into the Hudson. 30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Why the Shawangunk mountains are peculiar. The beautiful little lakes, Mohonk, Awosting and Minnewaska, draw together every year very select coteries of visitors, few of whom can properly pronounce the name of the mountain range along the comb of which the lakes are spread out. Shongum is an ancient vocable and only those who elide the harsh word into this form can be accepted as strictly orthoepic. The Shawangunk mountains are unique among the highlands of New York. A heavy mantle of rock made up of rounded white quartz pebbles cemented together by white quartz sand, has been tilted up to an impressive height, broken in two along an Appalachian northeast-southwest direction, the eastern part which once stretched over the lowlands to the Hudson river quite swept out of existence while the broken rock face stands erect and bare along the east face. Over the crest of this rough front and in the depressions of its surface as the remnant mass slopes away to the west, are the picturesque lakes we have referred to. We do not know where the eastern mass of this great sheet of white quartz conglomerate has gone or just what agencies ground it away to this bare crest and comb, although the great glacial sheet is under grave suspicion of having done the most of it. The question of where all these rounded white quartz pebbles which make up the Shawan- gunk conglomerate came from has been raised again by F. Holzwas- ser in her study of the geology of the country between Newburgh and the Shawangamk mountains, now being published by the State Museum. Somewhere not far away there must have been a’l area of land largely composed of quartz and other crystalline rocks, from which the ordinary flow of rivers coming down a fairly steep slope have derived this material and carried it downward out to the sea level, for such a rock as this must have been formed at or not far from a great river mouth. There is no such land today above the sea level, and the geological guide-finger points far to the east beyond the land of the Hudson, and the shores of the Atlantic to a continent which has long since sunk beneath the rising tide of Atlantic waters. The sea-lilies of the New York rocks. There are not many more beautiful creations of Nature than the graceful and colorful sea-lilies or Crinoidea which grow on the deeper bottoms of our seas. In the very ancient days when the Devonian rocks were laid down as sea deposits, the sea-lilies were far more abundant than now and their little communities or plantations dotted the sea bot- toms. There has never been found in these old rocks a richer and more varied plantation of these crinoids than the one unearthed near REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 31 the little hamlet once known as Muttonville, now more gracefully denominated Vincent, in Ontario county, N. Y. Over this bit of farmland once grew a crop of these wonderful calyxes attached by long flexible stems, swinging back and forth to the gentle pulsations of the ocean tides and currents, brilliant in color as the lilies of the summer and autumn fields which cover their remains. These old sea-lilies were animals and the botanical garden at the bottom of the Devonian sea at Vincent was a zoo. In one of the latest publications of the State Museum (Memoir i6) Winifred Goldring has given a full account and panorama of the graceful and complicated creatures from all the Devonian rocks of New York, 150 species in all, and the book constitutes one of the most impres- sive scientific works that the Museum has ever issued. Not only is it an attractive piece of bookmaking but its scientific quality is very high and its appearance has been applauded in scientific circles. Science says of it : “ This superb volume marks an epoch in American paleontology. The work has been done in a manner un- surpassed by any scientific publication produced in this country.” The American Journal of Science says : “With this monumental memoir the author has placed herself among the leading paleontolo- gists of the world and the New York State Museum continues its existence of 85 years as an intellectual and altruistic beacon.” How thick was the glacial ice in New York. The ice-shefet which gave rise to so much of our present landscape topography, came, of course, to a thin edge at its southern margin. John H. Cook of the New York State Geological Survey has brought together evidence from the deposits left by the glacial sheet, that along the southern margin, when the break-up began, the ice fields stagnated over lowlands and dissolved slowly like stranded bergs. Northward during the maximum accumulation, the ice mantle must have been very thick. A. P. Coleman concludes from his long studies of Canadian glaciation that a maximum thickness in Ontario would be approximately one-third of a mile. The New York geologists have been disposed to put this thickness at a higher figure. Professor Fairchild having estimated it in excess of i mile. Mount Marcy and the Adirondack peaks in the Marcy cluster have an ice-worn summit, and Marcy has an altitude of 5344 feet. This need not mean that the ice blanket has an actual thickness of the distance of the Marcy summit down to the sea level. The ice may have risen from the Adirondack valley surfaces upward in a continuous mass to those summits, or it may have molded itself in undulations to valley and mountain alike with a continuous surface but without 32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the necessity of assuming a vast thickness. Peaks as high as Marcy, if not totally buried and lost under the ice mass, would have been points where ice would have formed and whence it could have been dispersed downward into 'the mass of the general sheet, but the sum of evidence bearing on our glacial history seems to point to a more considerable ice thickness in New York than Coleman’s conclusions intimate for Ontario. The Museum and the Falklands. The Falkland islands are the remotest and roughest of the British colonies. There it rains 260 days out of 365 and the wind blows all 'the time. Out of these dis- tant islands, once French — Les Isles Malouines they are called on French maps — now British, the finest collection of its fossils are in the State Museum. A good half of their geological formations is the same as those of New York and some years ago Clarke made an exhaustive comparative study of the Falkland islands fossils on the basis of collections brought together chiefly by Lady Allardyce, the wife of the governor of the colony, supplemented by materials se- cured by the Swedish Arctic explorers, Andersson and Halle. Clarke’s extensive account was published by the Brazilian govern- ment. Lord Bryce, who visited the Falklands on his celebrated trip to South America, declared they were the dreariest bits of land on earth, while more recently Dr Herbert A. Baker, who a few years ago was directed by the British government to make a suiwey of the mineral resources of the islands, writes that it is quite impossible to conceive of a more utterly dreary and desolate region “and my chief est recollection is that of plugging stolidly along on horseback in the teeth of a shrieking wind and against a horizontal rain whose chill penetrated the very marrow of one’s bones.’’ Doctor Baker writes further: I personally owe you a debt of gratitude for your memoir on the South American Devonian. I recall countless lonely evenings spent in the remote shack of some inarticulate Falklands shepherd during which the battered volume was produced and the spoils of the day compared with the magnificent plates which adorn it. I have the tattered relic with me now and the pages still reek of the terrible plug tobacco with which one solaced himself after a day of 10 hours in the saddle. ^ What killed the fossils? In the more than half -thousand- millions of years that organic life has existed upon the earth, many hundred thousands of species of plants and animals and correspond- ingly large numbers of genera and families have passed in an end- less, ever increasing stream in through the ocean and over the land. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 33 From the beginning of scientific endeavor the question has been asked both by scientists and laymen : What killed these creatures ? There are two fundamentally different forms of extinction ; relative extinction, where the species change by evolution into dif- ferent forms, or groups of species change into different genera, and thus while they become extinct as relative species or genera, they live in their descendants; and absolute extinction where the form becomes wholly extinct without descendants. Thus the strange straight-shelled cephalopods of Paleozoic time, while extinct as such, may persist in the recent ink-fishes, while the giant dinosaurs are absolutely extinct. The principal cause of all extinction, both relative and absolute, has been found in changes in the physical environment. These arise from wide changes of the continental outlines, by elevation or sub- sidence of land masses. The periods of general elevation of the continents have generally been thosef of severe climates. Cold climates, notably glacial periods, and long spells of dry climate have been especially fruitful of evolutionary changes and of wholesale destruction of species, genera, families and even classes. Such a great period of stress came toward the end of the long Paleozoic era in which most of the New York rocks were formed. The shifting of lands and climates in such times not only traps many creatures where they can not survive but also brings new enemies in contact with species that are not sufficiently protected and so die out quickly. Thus the giant-sloths of South America may have succuml)ed mainly to the introduction of the sabre-toothed tigers from North America. Many forms, however, have died without apparent external causes. In such cases internal causes must be assumed. It seems that whole races, after a long climacteric period, reach a racial old age, which shows itself in gigantic creatures, as in the dinosaurs, in the development of excessive protective armor, as plates, spines, horns, antlers etc., and in excessive specialization. In general, highly specialized animals and plants are in greater danger of be- coming extinct than the more primitive main lines of evolution, from which these short-lived specialized races branch off. The gigantic forms not only need more food, require slower breeding and a longer period of adolescence, but also seem to lack the necessary equilib- rium of their constitution. The persistent long-lived types are therefore always small forms and the “immortal” ones mostly of microscopic size. An interesting illustration of how an apparently safe form ma;y 34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM rapidly succumb to a lowered vitality has recently been found in Austria where the skeletons of a great number of newly born cave bears were found in a cave where the she-bears were wont to cast their young. In this case the young died shortly after birth, pre- sumably from parasites and the big bears having no dangerous enemies among the beasts of prey, vanished through their lack of means to maintain their vitality. Many of the gigantic creatures of the Pleistocene age have obviously been killed off by man, the most destructive agent of the present era. On the whole, it seems that while general evolution leads steadily upward and the rulers of the animal world are successively animals with higher brain capacity which through their higher mental powers are able to suppress their lower relatives, the lowly forms, notably the Protozoans and the insects hold more than their own and if un- checked, may cause the extinction of much of the higher organic world. * * 51: A spider traps a humming bird. On the road to Seneca Point, Canandaigua Lake, N. Y., September 15th, 1924, my daughter and I were attracted by faint cries of distress which we took to be those of some small animal — a field mouse or chipmunk perhaps. Turning aside we discovered a ruby-throated humming bird caught in the orb of a spider. The bird had evidently flown into the web which it had completely demolished in its efforts to escape, but the strands had adhered so firmly to the tips of the primaries of the right wing that it was securely held and fluttered vainly, tethered to a stalk of Bouncing Bet from which it was suspended, not more than 18 inches from the ground. The gossamer threads had coalesced into one stout cable, very glutinous with the combined viscid drops of the web, and remarkably strong. Sympathy outrunning the passion for research, the captive was set free before there was opportunity to examine the wing, but the inference is that in the struggle the bird had wound itself up and the viscid substance had adhered to the primaries ; or that the spider had made an unsuccessful attempt to swathe her victim. Apparently the bird had been a captive for some time and was ex- hausted by the continued struggle, as its efforts were not vigorous when discovered. When freed, however, it darted away. The spider was not far off and was soon found in her nest with legs drawn up in the characteristic attitude; a very large specimen REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 35 Humming-bird snared by a cobweb 36 NKW YORK StATfi MUSEUM of .Iranc it s t r i fo I i ii in, of the deep reddish-brown phase. Having caught a Tartar she had discreetly retired from the conflict. Very probably the bird would never have escaped unaided. In my acquaintance with the birds of this country this is the first instance which has come to my knowledge of the capture of a bird in the web of a spider. McCook, however, in his American Spiders C cites two examples. Two well authenticated cases of birds taken by a native spider have come under my notice in the vicinity of Philadelphia. A farmer belonging to the Society of Friends, Mr Joseph Lownes, resident in the vicinity of Morton, informed me that he once found a bird, one of the smallest of our indigenous species of Kingster [probably Kinglet is intended], entangled in the snare of a spider, which I judged from the description to be A r g i o p e c o p h i - n a r i a. He watched for some time the movements of the bird, and believing that the latter would be finally overcome, he benevolently released it from the web. Another case occurred on the grounds of the Philadelphia “Rabbit Club,” near Fairmount Park, and was related to me by David J. de Haven, the custodian. He saw a large A r g i o p e co p h i- naria (as it appeared evidently from his description) capture in her web a humming bird. He watched the process of swathing the poor victim until it was completely wrapped around, when he slew the spider and rescued the bird, too late, however, for it was quite dead. McCook also considers several instances of the capture of mice and small snakes in the webs of Coras (Tegenaria) in e d i c i - n a I i s as sufficiently well authenticated to permit his citing them as examples in his work on American Spiders. In my hasty and necessarily casual view I saw no strands of the web adhering to the feathers of the humming bird, and whether Araneus had actually attempted to swathe her captive or not it was impossible to say. (Stanton D. Kirkham.) * * * More aerial engineering. Walking along the Silurian cliffs on the shore of the Bay Chaleur at Black Capes, the writer encountered a triangular retreat in the cliff face rising to a height of about lo feet. In the center of this space was a blue-gray butterfly spinning around its own axis, first in one direction, then slowly reversing to the other. Closer view changed the butterfly into a flat blue-gray pebble about the size of a nickel, hanging in mid-air, and suspended from the peak of the triangular space by a hawser of cobweb which 1 1889, 1 : 234. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1924 37 was connected aliove with the guy-ropes of a full-orlied geometrical weh of an Araneus spider. The side guys of this orb were attached to the sides of the rock ledges where they came together at the apex of this space. There being no place in this open space to fasten a vertical stay, the spider-engineer dropped down to the beach, un- reeling his line as he went, took a spliced hitch on a loose pebble. The web and its guy-line climbed back up on his own line, spinning ofif another as he went, and having reached his geometrical orb, hauled in the slack on his double sheet till he had lifted the pebble 3 feet off the beach so that it hung in mid-air, its weight giving him just the stay required. Closer examination showed that Araneus had fastened on to this anchor by a double clutch, a pair of strands on each flat side of the pebble, the four strands cemented to the smooth surface and uniting by pairs to form the double-twisted cord of the guy-line. This is not a wholly new observation. Spiders have been known to use heavier objects than this pebble for anchoring purposes, but perhaps NEW yOKK STATE MUSEUM the mode of doing this with a twisted two-strand line, splayed out at the end into a four-strand attachment, is worth special notice. Because of this twisted line the blue-gray pebble hung in mid-air, spinning first in one direction and then in another, as the guy-line wound and unwound. * A fly in the eye. A stinging stroke in the eye, a continued pain and the removal about twenty- four hours later of some wicked looking maggots, is the brief story of an unusual attack by a fly. The insect, one of our flesh flies, deposits its eggs mostly upon flesh of animals, either dead or wounded. It has been provisionally identified as IV ohlfartia vigil Walker. The patient was a stone cutter and his first thought was that he had been hit in the eye with a small piece of marble. The evening following, a physi- cian was unable to find the cause of the trouble. The next day an optician observed a cyst in the conjunctiva, and on cutting it out found that it contained several living maggots. This flesh fly evi- dently struck a blow and at the same time placed several maggots on the eyeball or in a small incision. Attacks of this nature on human beings are not unknown in this country. There are several records of this fly producing boil-like, red pustular sores on the exposed upper parts of young children, especially the neck and arms. These cases occurred in Canada. The one recorded above was in Cattaraugus county. A related south European, particularly Russian species, W ohl- fartia m a g ,n i f i c a Shiner, is known to attack human beings, the eyes, the ears and the nose being favored, blindness, deafness, or facial disfiguration or even death resulting in some cases. The maggots are armed with stout, horny mouth hooks, very effective weapons for tearing into the more tender tissues. ^ ^ 5ii The Appalachian air-barrier. Winds are potent agents in the distribution of insects. A detailed study of early spring air currents was conducted by Dr E. P. Eelt during 1923 and 1924 while engaged with the New York State Conservation Commission upon gipsy moth control. The easterly components for the period from May 10 to June 8, 1923, for six weather stations in western Massachusetts and the adjoining eastern New York were only 9.1 per cent. The weight at the end of the twisted strand REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 39 whereas the westerly component was 50 per cent. Data for 1924 showed approximately the same discrepancy. The records from weather stations were supplemented by the release of over 15,000 hydrogen-filled toy balloons. The drift was very largely easterly, less than 2 per cent of the total balloon mileage being in a westerly direction. The very general easterly drift is also shown by the return from the New England states in 1924 of 472 tags out of a total of 568, but fifty-four being found in New York State, although four of the fifteen balloon stations were in eastern New York and most of the others considerably west of the Con- necticut river. The low eastward component is with little question a result in considerable measure of the north and south mountain ridges and the prevailing westerly winds. Since the gipsy moth is spread largely through the young caterpillars being carried by winds when the temperature is above 60° F., these drift records indicate a pre- sumably slow spread of this serious pest westward in the Hud.scn valley. There were some interesting minor developments. In 1923 seven balloons drifted from no to 145 miles, twenty-two from 85 to lOC miles, and eighteen from 60 to 75 miles. The average velocity for sixty-five balloons found the day of liberation was nearly 18 miles, although one drifted 65 miles at the rate of 100 miles per hour. The very marked northeasterly drift in 1924 was shown by the return of seventeen tags from the province of Nova Scotia, three from New Brunswick and one from Newfoundland, the last released from Salisbury, Conn., and drifting approximately 775 miles. Another unusual record was made by a balloon drifting to Sable Island, the balloon making about 575 miles from South Londonderry, Vt. * * A spider monster. It may be stated as a general rule that the higher the organization of an animal the less is its ability to re- generate lost or damaged tissues. On the other hand, creatures of lowly structure are scarcely inconvenienced by accidents which would be fatal to those more highly developed. It is of small concern to the crab if it loses a claw, for with a little time and a safe retreat, another will grow. Salamanders and lizards may drop their tails with the comfortable feeling that a new one will in time replace the lost member. Farther down the scale of animal life even more striking regenerations may take place. A flat-worm cut across the middle not only grows a new tail but the cut-ofif tail 40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM III place of one of the eyes, this spider developed a horn-like process on the front of the head. The horn bears a slender, downward directed branch on the front face. Drawn by W. J. Schoonmaker. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 41 may produce a head of its own; or a starfish may reproduce its entire body from a single arm. While this tendency to replace lost tissues is universal among the simply organized animals, the struc- tures lost are not alwa)’^s replaced in kind. Thus a young crawfish deprived of an eyestalk does not grow another eye but an antenna- like structure, either simple or branched. Something of this kind apparently happens with the loss of the spider’s eye. The appended figure shows a peculiar, almost hornlike structure developed on the side of a spider's head in place of the posterior lateral eye of the left side. The whole face of the spider is distorted and the remaining eyes (spiders usually have eight) are thrown somewhat out of alignment. The left iX)Sterior median eye has moved farther to the left and lies at the base of the horn, while the remaining eyes are more nearly in the normal position. The horn itself is large compared to the size of the spider and tapers to a bluntly rounded point. The front face bears a slender, downward directed process which arises about one-third of the way from the base. The term “monster” in the title has no reference to the size of the spider for it is a minute creature about one-twentieth of an inch long. {Sherman C. Bishop.) ^ ^ ^ Strangely contrasting habits of eel and salmon. The peculiar habits of the eel have excited the interest of naturalists from tlic earliest times. To the ancienfs, they were creatures without sex, born of the bottom ooze or of the dew and imbued with powers in keeping with their extraordinary genesis. Traditions such as these have come down to the present day, modified and elaborated, but in no way less fanciful. The sober fisherman may regard the eel as the spawn of the ling or fresh water cod, which he calls “she-eel,” and defy you to show him the common eel with eggs in its body; some even point to the “hair-snake,” call it a young eel and derive it from a horse hair soaked in water. It is only within the past few years that anything like the complete life history of the eel has been made known. Observers had long been familiar with the migrations of the eel, the upstream venturings of the young “elvers” in the spring, their methods of surmounting obstacles and their habit of following the smallest trickle to its source ; they had known too of the downstream migrations of adult eels in the fall and set their traps and pots in accordance with this knowledge. But how to distinguish the sexes, and where and when 42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and how the eggs were laid were questions long unanswered. It is chiefly due to the remarkable investigations of J. Schmidt ^ of Copenhagen, that the answers may be given. The center of the spawning grounds of the American eel lie north and a little to the east of the West Indies. To this area the adult eels make their way for the spawning season which commences in early spring and may continue well into summer. The larval eels, called IcptoccpJiali, are totally unlike the adults and for many years were regarded as distinct species. When first hatched they are minute creatures, one-half an inch or less in length, ribbonlike and with a glasslike transparency ; at this stage they maintain themselves in water at a depth of about 600-1000 feet below the surface. They grow rapidly during the first few months of their existence and move up towards the surface. In this stage they begin their long journey to the fresh water streams of the Atlantic coast of North America and during this migration, they undergo the transformation into “elvers,” the young eels as we commonly know them. The larval stage of the American eel lasts about a year; but that of the European eel, whose breeding area partly overlaps the American, is almost 3 times as long, the length of the period commensurate with the distance to fresh water to be travelled. Transformed into “elvers” they seek the fresh water streams and follow them to their sources, often hundreds of miles from the coast. The sojourn in fresh water is a period of feeding and growth and when maturity is reached (in from 5 to 20 years according to the sex, climate and food), they seek for the last time the breeding places in the sea. The Atlantic Salmon The habits of the salmon as they pertain to the egg-laying period, are in direct contrast to those of the eel, in that the adult animal seeks the headwaters of fresh water streams in which to lay its eggs after having in most cases reached maturity in the sea. It is fairly well established that the salmon enter the fresh water in two distinct runs, the first in spring or early summer, the second later in the fall, for the purpose of egg laying. The eggs hatch in the early spring and the young fish at the age of 2 or 3 months show the vertical bars, “parr marks” which give them their name of “parrs.” These marks are often retained during the sojourn of the young fish in fresh water, a period of about 2 years and until a length of some 1 The Breeding Places of the Eel. Phil. Tran. Roy. Soc., London, 1922, 21 1 : 179-208. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 43 6 or 8 inches is reached. The “parr” becomes a “smolt” with tlie loss of its barred pattern and the acquisition of a uniform coat of silver and takes to the salt water where it remains for a year or two. The salmon may return to the fresh waters before fully mature and this subadult is known as the “grilse.” The mature fish is the “salmon” and is counted among the best of the game fish. After spawning, the adults of the Atlantic salmon may return to the sea but they are lank and lean after their exertions and go by the name of “kelts.” The Pacific salmon on the other hand, dies after spawn- ing. The Atlantic salmon is often landlocked and is capable of maintaining itself without recourse to the sea. At the breeding season, the male salmon undergoes a remarkable change in appearance and in the structure of the jaws. The cheeks and sides of the body become spotted with orange and the lower jaw develops a strong hook which is armed with large teeth. The skin takes on a thickened and slimy appearance and the fins appear to be fleshy. These are changes which accompany the development of the sexual organs in the male at the breeding period and have their counterpart in the excrescences which develop on certain salamanders under similar conditions. The strangely contrasting life habits in eel and salmon can find their explanation only in terms of their long history, which runs back far of present time into the records of paleontology. {Sherman C. Bishop.) * * Palaeotropism. This is a new word ; it makes its bow on this page. It means ancient habitudes, and it implies the origin, history and significance of present-day habits among the creatures of the living world. It thus designates a special branch of the scientific study of behaviorism. It is quite certain that the habits of all living creatures can be understood only in terms of their origin and gradual acquirement. It is a rather difficult matter to elucidate such adapta- tions by means of the fossil remains of the ancient world, but it is an interesting field of study which promises results to the patient investigator. As an illustration of the bearing of this suggestion we may cite this case : The worst enemy of the oyster plantations today is the starfish, which embraces the shell in its flexible arms and with a steady but gentle pull obliges the oyster to open his valves, and so the starfish inserts his stomach between the valves and sucks the oyster out and down. Some years ago Clarke found in the Devonian sandstones of Ulster county a vast accumulation of ancient starfish (a single slab in the State Museum carries over 200 44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of them), scattered among them being the open and closed valves of ancient bivalves, the progenitors of the oysters and clams of today. Many of the starfish and clams were found in such juxtapo- sitions as to make it clearly evident that the former had been feeding on the latter in much the same way as the act is done today, although the starfish were different and the bivalves also different from those of the present. As this feeding habit appears to be at least one hundred million years old, it may safely be regarded as fixed and beyond the reach of “reformers.” The story was printed by Clarke in the Centenary Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. * * * How did the barnacles start? The barnacles have long been an outstanding illustration of how an animal may run down hill by adjusting himself to easy conditions of life. They constitute a class of sessile crustaceans that are well protected by a heavy armor of shell consisting of a ring wall of plates and a composite, movable cover. They usually occupy, often to the exclusion of all other organisms, the intertidal zone of the seas, covering rocks and pilings and invading as bothersome pests ships’ bottoms and the surface of whales. Owing to their strange and much altered form, they were not recognized as. crustaceans until after the young and their development had become known. In these early stages they pass through a free-swimming or nauplius stage which is characteristic of other crustaceans, and during this period and the following Cypris stage in which they have the appearance of the common water-flea, spread out seeking advantageous places for settlement. As soon as these are found, they attach themselves by the head and a rapid metamorphosis takes place by which the head is lost and the very primitive adult body produced. The barnacles illustrate the far-reaching reduction of a highly organized body through adoption of a sessile mode of life on one hand, and on the other, the success which may crown even a greatly degenerated class of organisms if they have found a hitherto un- occupied niche in the household of Nature. With their broad and safe fixation to the underground, their heavy armor with tightly fitting cover and their ability to obtain plenty of food in the turbulent waters of the intertidal zone where they prefer to live, they are obviously well adapted to their surroundings and therefore flourish to a high degree in the present oceans. Barnacles like those of the present seas do not begin to appear until early Mesozoic time. Back of them must lie a long history and this history our investigators have been trying to make out. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 45 The Paleozoic rocks of New York have furnished a small number of rare fossils which have been used in the State Museum and seem to shed some light on this strange evolutionary history. The studies made by Doctor Ruedemann and Doctor Clarke indicate that the barnacles took their origin from bivalved, free-swimming crusta- ceans, such as the phyllopods and this is also indicated by their individual development. These phyllopod ancestors affixed them- selves by their heads, back down, so that their feathery limbs could have free play in the water. As a result of this, the two main valves of these pod-shrimps moved for protection towards the ventral or upper side, while two smaller plates, one in front and the other along the line of the back, moved forward and backward respectively, thus forming with the others the beginning of the ring wall. The two main pod-shaped valves, through stresses developed in them after fixation, were S]>lit up into five triangular plates each ; the middle one of each group, in the earliest known fossil still retains an inverted wedge form, thus com- pleting the outline of the original valve. This line of development led directly to the acorn-barnacles. The common goose-barnacles have a long scaly stem by which they attain a certain flexibility and higher position in the water, but this stem seems to have been originally a part of the head, and stemlike bodies found in the Paleozoic rocks are looked upon as probable ancestors to this group. The fossil history of the barnacles is an illuminating instance of far-reaching changes in structure, produced by persistent adaptation to a special mode of life, in this case a far-reaching reduction in organization by close affixation. It becomes more and more evi- dent that many of the apparently primitive sessile organisms have started from more highly organized, freely moving creatures, and have sacrificed their higher organization for an easier mode of life. ^ How society began. Innumerable books have been written about the mutual associations among animals, and it must be understood that the natural associations among human beings, so far as they are not controlled by human intelligence, can be interpreted only in the light of the associations among their predecessors on this planet. “Society” is a broad term. We commonly speak of social insects, ants, bees and wasps, but these are associations each with its own kind, not one kind with another. Yet the living world is full of associations of which the members differ in kind. They are special forms of adaptation. There are parasites, commensals and mutuals, in which the combinations are not always strictly social ; they may 46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM be of mutual help or of mutual harm. A tuberculosis germ is not of much help to its host, the patient, although there is no evil intent on the part of the parasite. With it, it is a matter of advantageous adjustment for purposes of feeding and reproduction. A coral fastens itself to the ocean bottom and a worm sits down alongside it. They grow up together, the worm inside the coral. Such associa- tions are enormously abundant throughout Nature everywhere. But the point here is that all such associations had a beginning, had to be started sometime somewhere. Clarke has studied out these associations among the earliest records of life, and some years ago established the fact that as we get farther and farther back among these records of the past the more independent of one another the animals seem to have been. The earliest forms of life seem to have been independent creatures which went out and rustled their own nourishment and did not wait for some neighbor animal or com- panion to bring it their way. The inference is that social asso- ciations are not primitive but acquired and there was a time on the earth when there was no “society.” ENTOMOLOGY Report by E. P. Felt, State Entomologist The season was unusually cool and backward and conse- quently many of the early-appearing insects developed much later than usual, a condition which was noticeable even well toward midsummer. Canker worms, for example, were feeding in July and the first brood of the elm leaf beetle did not complete its work until the latter part of the month, some grubs being found even in September. The changes in the staff incident to the present incumbent’s return July 1st could not but affect the continuity of the work. Dr M. D. Leonard, Associate State Entomologist, resigned April ist to take up special investigations of the Mediterranean fruit fly situation in Spain, with special reference to the possibility of bring- ing about changes which might facilitate the continued importation of Almeria grapes. The work, from April ist to the last of June, was conducted by Mr D. B. Young, Assistant State Entomologist, and owing to the very limited amount of assistance available during that period, it was necessary to concentrate on the most pressing matters. The lateness of the season mentioned above helped out very materially, because it delayed the appearance of insects which ordinarily would have attracted notice considerably earlier. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1924 47 The following is a summary of the observations and work in rela- tion to the various insects. Destructive leaf feeders. A number of injurious caterpillars were unusually abundant. The earliest and one of the most common was the apple tent caterpillar, Malacosoma americana Fabr. This insect was unusually numerous in the State and in the southeastern portion, notably in the vicinity of New York City and on Long Island, was so extremely abundant as to arouse very general popular interest. It was even proposed that officials of this State and New Jersey should unite in an effort to promote the immediate destruction of the pest. Owing to the extremely rapid development of these caterpillars and the fact that popular interest was not aroused until the pests had nearly completed their feeding, such procedure was not practicable and no attempt was made to put it into effect. The fall canker worm, Alsophila pometaria Harris was extraordinarily numerous in portions of Westchester county, becom- ing a veritable plague in certain residential areas. The ten-lined inch worm, the larva of the lime tree winter moth, Erannis tiliaria Harris, was unusually numerous in the eastern part of the State, partly stripping areas in some sections. The abundance of this insect was evidenced by the appearance of millions of moths about mid-October at lights in cities and villages of the upper Hudson, the insects being noticeable on account of their abundance from the vicinity of Kingston north to Lake George and in the southern foothills of the Adirondacks. Similar flights have also been reported from localities in western Massachusetts and Vermont. This insect is a true canker worm and therefore very local,' since spread is dependent upon the very limited crawling powers of the caterpillars and the wingless females. The great abundance of the males indicates a probability of more serious injury another season. The elm leaf beetle, Galerucella luteola Miill. developed unusually late and for a time it looked as though there would be little damage. During July, however, serious injury to the foliage of elms in Kingston, Poughkeepsie an'd other cities southward be- came apparent. In not a few cases practically all the foliage on groups or blocks of trees of a considerable extent was so thoroughly skeletonized, in southern WTstchester county in particular, that nothing green remained. Apple and thorn skeletonizer, Hemerophila pariana Clerck. The distribution of this recently introduced insect was care- 48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM fully worked out in 1923 by Dr M. D. Leonard. A very consider- able spread was demonstrated. The investigations of the past season show the insect to be generally distributed, without great increase in numbers, over practically the same area as during the preceding year, except that a notable extension has been recorded in the Mohawk valley, the insect occurring in small numbers as far west as Little Falls. There has not been, except in certain areas near Albany and in the Hudson valley south of Albany, the serious defoliation so characteristic of recently infested sections the preced- ing year. It appears probable that this relatively welcome condition was due to weather unfavorable to the insect, since the season was unusually cool. Severe injury appears probable in much of this recently infested area if there be a favorable season next year. European corn borer, Pyrausta nubilalis Hiiba. There has been little spread of this insect in the eastern part of the State and although there was a considerable extension in the western sec- tion, the infestation in this new territory is very light. The insect has increased but little in numbers in the eastern infested area aside possibly from one or two localities and even there the damage has not been extremely serious. The same is true, in a general way, of the western area, there being little increase in sections where the corn has been handled in such a manner as to reduce possibili- ties of successful wintering to a minimum. Near the center of the western area there has been some increase in stalk and ear infesta- tion. There is nowhere in this State an approach to the very serious conditions which have been observed during earlier years in the southern part of the province of Ontario or in eastern Massachusetts. Variations in the behavior of this insect the present season are indi- cated by the very serious injury reported from southern Ontario and the relatively little damage in eastern Massachusetts. Gipsy moth, Porthetria dispar Linn. The Ento- mologist, owing to his connection during the 15 months ending July I, 1924, with the gipsy moth work conducted by the State Conser- vation Commission, has enjoyed unusual facilities for noting the various developments. The investigations of air currents have shown, as recorded elsewhere, that winds in the Hudson and Cham- plain valleys in particular, are much less favorable for the west- ward spread of this insect than is the case farther east, an extremely large proportion of the drift being easterly. The intensive scouting of the eastern portion of the State in particular, supplemented by special work in other sections, has resulted in finding a relatively few infestations, none serious and practically all within a few miles of the New England border. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1 924 49 The outlying infestations found in western Vermont during the fall of 1923 and the discovery of two infestations in Canada the past season, one in the town of Lacolle, province of Quebec, just north of Champlain, Clinton county, indicate that work upon the barrier zone was started none too soon. The Canadian authorities realize the seriousness of the situation and are adopting every practicable means to exterminate these infestations. The infestations in this State have been cleaned up in a most thorough manner. There is also the closest possible cooperation with federal authorities, the latter concentrating upon keeping the infestation in western New England down to a minimum, thus lessening the probabilities of spread. The situation is well in hand and there appears to be no reason why the pest may not be held in the barrier zone area if the work be continued practically as planned at first. Birch leaf skeletonizer, Bucculatrix canadensisella Chamb. This little insect, sometimes extremely abundant, was some- what prevalent on gray birches west of Karner. It occurred in but small numbers, there being a marked contrast between the western slopes of the Berkshires and some areas on the eastern slopes where practically all the birch foliage was destroyed by this insect. This is a striking instance of local abundance, the injury being decidedly more marked on the eastern slopes of hills. The insect is reported as destroying birch foliage very generally in southeastern New England. Birch leaf miner, Fenusa pumila Klug. This, apparently a recently introduced insect, was first noted in the season of 1923. Observations during the past summer have shown the miner to be generally distributed in the eastern part of the State, north to the vicinity of Glens Falls and west along the line of the Delaware and Hudson Railroad to Binghamton, in spite of the fact that very little gray birch is found in the latter section. It is also known to occur in western New England. Apparently this species has spread rapidly, presumably being carried by winds in much the same way as in the case of the small moths of the apple and thorn skeletonizer. Our observations indicate an extended breeding season, a factor favor- able to rapid spread. Insects in the human body. There has been, as in past years, close cooperation with the Department of Health and health officers throughout the State and as a consequence, very interesting speci- mens are occasionally submitted for identification. One of the most unusual was a very young maggot of a flesh fly, provisionally identified as W 0 h 1 f a r t i a vigil Walker, which 50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM was removed along with several others from the conjunctivae of a man affected with some conjunctivitis and resident in Cattaraugus county, New York State. This maggot, along with several others, all living, occurred in a small cyst. This appears to be the first American record of adult infestation of the eye, such as is recorded for the European Wohlfartia magnifica Shiner, a species which occasionally destroys the eye of its unfortunate victim. There are several records of this American flesh fly occurring in boil-like sores in the exposed upper parts of the body, especially the necks and arms, of infants, all such cases, however, having been recorded from Canadian localities. Larvae or grubs of the black carpet beetle, Attagenus p i c e u s Oliv., were received, accompanied by unusual records, one having been vomited by a patient, presumably ingested with unwhole- some food, and the other recovered from the vagina of a patient, both from patients residing in Schenectady or its vicinity. The larva of our webbing or southern clothes moth, T i n e o 1 a b i s e 1 1 i e 1 1 a Hummel, was removed by a Schenectady physician from the urethra of one of his patients, where it had produced extreme annoyance. These unusual occurrences of larvae of carpet beetles and clothes moths are merely casual and interesting because of their unusual character. There is nothing to suggest unfortunate changes in habits on the part of these insects. These are cases where sanitation, using this word in a very general sense, was presumably largely wanting. Bat bedbug, Cimex pilosellus Horv. Occasionally houses sheltering numerous bats appear badly infested with the human bedbug, Cimex lectularius Linn. In most cases the very similar appearing bat bedbug is mistaken for this p>est of man, and usually no explanation as to the difference and the less obnoxious character of the bat insect suffices. Such a case came to notice this summer and in cooperation with Dr William Moore of the American Cyanamid Company of New York, the feasibility of destroying both bats and bugs in the walls of a dwelling by the judicious use of cal- cium cyanide was demonstrated. Experience showed that this could be done without serious inconvenience to the residents and with practically no danger if reasonable precautions were observed. Winds and the dissemination of insects. The Entomologist, in connection with his investigations of winds in relation to the possible distribution of young gipsy moth larvae in this State, has extended the work along this line by a careful study of the appli- cation of these data to the spread of various other insects, notably REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 51 the monarch butterfly, Anosia plexippus Linn., the cotton moth, Alabama argillacea Hubn., and such recently intro- duced insects as the apple and thorn skeletonizer, Hemerophila p a r i a n a Clerck, and the birch leaf miner, F e n u s a p u m i 1 a Klug. The very wide distribution of such small and feeble insects as gall midges and mosquitoes, to mention only a few of our better known small flies, is certainly suggestive in this connection. It is well known that birds soar for considerable periods and apparently with little muscular exertion. The recent European developments in gliders make it possible for a man to remain in the air for upward of 9 hours, and here again there must be relatively little effort com- pared to the work involved in flight without the aid of the wind. It would seem that an insect equipped with organs of flight would intuitively learn how to conserve effort and in not a few instances be content to drift with air currents rather than to rely entirely upon purposive flight. If this be the case, and one can hardly escape such a conclusion in a number of cases, it means a marked change in our opinions respecting insect distribution and may necessitate eventually considerable modifications in local lists, since there has been a general acceptance of these latter as actual records of insects inhabiting certain areas, whereas if there be general dissemination by winds, it may easily happen that species are frequently taken far beyond their normal range. The details of this study are presented in the Entomologist’s report. A freak specimen. There was received in midsummer a fifteen- spotted lady beetle, Anatis quindecimpunctata Oliv., which had been pierced by a pine needle while still in the soft, tender condition immediately following issuance from the pupa. This specimen was found by Harry D. Longstaff at Horicon on the top of an Adirondack mountain near a cliff remote from habitations. At the time of discovery it was still alive and being supported in mid-air on the tip of an old pine needle. An examination of the specimen showed that there was no crushing or mangling, as would have been probable if the insect had been thrust upon the pine needle by a shrike, for example. The neat entrance and exit of the needle and the color of the beetle showed that it had the soft integument of a recently transformed insect when transfixed. The probabilities are that the branch, swinging in the wind at the time the beetle was just issuing from the pupa, drove the somewhat old and stiff pine needle through the soft, developing insect and lifted it from an adjacent support. It is a most curious accident which might easily happen and generally escapes notice. 52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Collections. A number of new and very desirable additions to the collections have been made through field work, the most notable being a series of springtails or Thysanoptera, comparatively unknown forms, which were collected by Mr Young. Late seasonal collecting resulted in securing some extremely interesting living specimens showing local variations in certain leaf hoppers and the darkening colors rather common to insects about to hibernate. The arrange- ment and determination of the insects in the collection has continued whenever opportunity ofifered, and some progress along this line may be reported. There have been some unusually important additions to the state collections. A series of minute parasites from R. IM. Touts, Wash- ington, D. C., an authority on the Platergasterinae, was especially desirable. Professor A. C. Kinsey contributed an exceptional series of rose gall wasps, Rhodites, and their galls. Professor C. J. Drake has determined the lace-winged bugs, Tingitidae, contributing a number of unrepresented species. An extremely rare addition was a series of the snow born boreus, Borens n i v o r i u n d u s Fitch from L. J. W. Jones of Bainbridge. Through the activity of Dr M. D. Leonard while he was Associate State Entomologist, material additions were made to the collections in a number of groups as follows : Many Collembola were collected by him and Mr Young- and submitted for determination to the well- known authority in the group. Dr J. W. Folsom, who also made highly desirable additions from his own collection. As a result, there is now an exceptional representation of over thirty species of New York State springtails. E. T. Cresson jr, determined the Ephydridae, kindly contributing a number of species, and C. Howard Curran, curator of Diptera, Division of Insects, Canadian Depart- ment of Agriculture, identified the Dolichopodidae, generously con- tributing a number of species and also some very desirable horse- flies or Tabanidae. About lOO pinned, undetermined beetles collected in this State and California were contributed by Professor C. R. Crosby of Ithaca. Very few realize the richness of our insect fauna and the numerous forms which find their way to the Entomologist through one channel or another. Available estimates indicate that there must be living- in New York State at least 20,000 different species of insects, each occurring in the four major stages, namely, the egg; the larva, vari- ously known as the maggot or caterpillar ; the pupa or chrysalis ; and the adult or perfect insect, the latter usually represented by both sexes, males and females, which may differ widely from each other. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 53 The Entomologist is supposed to be able to give satisfactory informa- tion concerning any one of these 100,000 different forms of the insects, not to mention being able to recognize the characteristic work of many species upon plants, plant products and other materials. The state collection should contain satisfactory series of all of these stages. The large natural history museums have their custodians of the principal groups, such as the Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, Lepi- doptera, Hemiptera and others, these in turn usually being provided with some assistance. Even under such conditions, more material comes in than can be handled adequately. The State Museum at present has one Assistant Entomologist, who gives much of his time to the classification and arrangement of the insect material, although he may be drafted for and is frequently called to give his attention to other phases of the work. So far as progress in systematic classification is concerned, numerous interrup- tions, due to the necessities of identifying material transmitted by correspondents, are serious hindrances. Attention has been called previously to the fact that there should be at least one additional assistant entomologist in order that the material in the state collections may be worked up more rapidly and receive more adequate care. The entomological division of the Museum is receiving more calls than it can meet in a satisfactory manner with the present staff. This was emphasized by Dr M. D. Leonard, Associate State Ento- mologist, in charge of the office for more than a year, and is apparent to anyone conversant with the situation and the possibilities along this line. Publications. The Entomologist and the Associate State Ento- mologist, Dr M. D. Leonard, prepared a revision of a popular bulletin on the Apple and Thorn Skeletonizer and its Control. This was published as Cornell Extension Bulletin 86 and appeared last May. A third revision, necessitated by the call for information regarding this insect, is now in press. There have been also a number of minor publications, mostly newspaper items in relation to unusually inter- esting or injurious insects. The Entomologist’s Key to the Gall Midges, practically a summa- tion of his Studies of Gall Midges, I-VII, is now going through the press and will bring to a well-rounded conclusion an investigation commenced nearly 20 years ago. Office matters. The demands from schools, both teachers and pupils for information regarding the insects of the State, are increas- ing, and have resulted in the exhaustion of practically all of the available literature especially suited to their needs. It is obviously 54 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM desirable that such information be available and in this and the con- stant increase in demands and inquiries along these lines, is found another reason why provision should be made for a second assistant in entomology. The correspondence has been conducted along practically the same lines as in earlier years and as usual has covered a wide range of topics in relation to insect life. It has resulted in the accumulation of many desirable data and specimens. Lectures. The Entomologist lectured on insects and disease before the senior class of the Albany Medical College, in a post- graduate course in infections, diseases and public health conducted by the State Department of Health, and before the staff of the Divi- sion of laboratories and research of that department. A number of other lectures or talks on insects have been given in different parts of the State. General. The work of the office has been materially aided as in past years, by the identification of a number of insects through the courtesy of Dr L. O. Howard, chief of the bureau of entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and his associates. There has been effective and close cooperation with the State Department of Farms and Markets, particularly the bureau of plant industry, the State Conservation Commission, especially the gipsy moth office, the State Department of Health, the State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, the State Experiment Station at Geneva, the county farm bureaus and various public welfare organizations. A number of correspondents have donated specimens and rendered valuable service by transmitting data respecting various insects and assisting in other ways. ZOOLOGY Report by Sherman C. Bishop, State Zoologist The Zoologist and his assistants are charged with the develop- ment of the Division of Zoology and with the care and preserva- tion of the materials relating to zoology which are deposited in the New York State Museum. Under this general head, the following items may be considered : Field work. The collections are being constantly added to by active field work. During the past year excursions were made for the purpose of collecting those southern elements in the New York fauna which reach the northern limits of their di.stribution on Long Island and the southeastern counties. Particular attention was given the arachnids, reptiles and amphibians and large series were REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 55 collected at Mineola, Riverhead and M'ontauk Point, Long Island ; on Gardner's Island and in the Ramapo mountains in Rockland county. Shorter trips were made in the vicinity of Ithaca and Freeville, Albany, Middleburg and Westerlo. Various Pennsyl- vania localities were visited where certain species, rare in New York, are to be found in abundance. Care of collecions. Zoological specimens require constant care and attention. The bird and mammal skins and mounted speci- mens are subject to the attack of moths, beetles and other museum pests and alcoholic specimens are ruined with the evaporation and escape of the preserving fluid. Mounted specimens on exhibit and exposed to strong light, fade and must be replaced, they become covered with dust and must be cleaned at least once each year. This part of the work has fallen to the taxidermist, Arthur Paladin, who has been over the entire series. Specimens stored in formalin or alcohol include forms which can be preserved for study in no other way. Some fifty thousand containers receive the attention of the Zoologist or his assistants at least once each year. Classification and arrangement of specimens. A considerable part of the time of the Zoologist is spent in classifying and arrang- ing the materials brought together by field work, by purchase, by exchange or by gift to the Museum. Groups which heretofore have been neglected, have received the greatest attention and the Museum now has a representative collection of spiders and other arachnids, reptiles, amphibians and fishes. The exhibit series of fishes is particularly noteworthy and has been enlarged by the recent purchase of several well-mounted specimens of fresh and salt water species. Research, During the past 8 years Professor C. R. Crosby of Cornell University and the Zoologist have devoted themselves to the study of the very extensive arachnid fauna of the State with the view of presenting a descriptive account of this greatly neg- lected group. The materials accumulated and studied emphasized the necessity of much preliminary revisional work before the gen- eral account could be attempted. Sevei*al of these fundamental studies have been prepared and published and others are in manuscript. The Zoologist has also given considerable attention to the study of amphibian life histories and a general account of the salamanders of the State has been prepared. This account attempts to express the present knowledge of the habits and life history of the species found in the State. 56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Publications. During the past year the following papers by the Zoologist have appeared in the State Museum reports or other journals : A Revision of the Pisauridae of the United States. New York .State Museum Bulletin 252. Notes on Salamanders. New York State Museum Bulletin 253. A Fossil Species of Caddo (Opiliones) from the Baltic Amber, and Its Living Relatives: by S. C. Bishop and C. R. Crosby. New York State Museum Bulletin 253. The Genus Cyptobunus Banks (Phalangida) ; by C. R. Crosby and S. C. Bishop. Entomological News, 1924, 35 :i04. Notes on the Opiliones of the Southeastern United States with Descriptions of New Species; by C. R. Crosby and S. C. Bishop. Journal Elisha Mitchell .Society, 1924. The following papers are in press : Notes on the Mating Habits of the Sparrow Hawk. Records of Some Salamanders from North Carolina and Pennsyl- vania. Two New Spiders from the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina; by C. R. Crosby and S. C. Bishop. The following papers have been prepared : Studies in New York Spiders : Genera Ceratinella and Ceraticelus ; by C. R. Crosby and S. C. Bishop. Studies in New York Spiders: The Genus O'edothorax and Its Allies ; by C. R. Crosby and S. C. Bishop. Notes on the Spiders of the Southeastern United States with Descriptions of New Species ; by C. R. Crosby and S. C. Bishop. Lectures and demonstrations. During 1924 the Zoologist delivered twenty lectures on subjects pertaining to zoology and museum work. The Division of Zoology has continued to cooperate with vari- ous state and city agencies and by arrangement with the superin- tendent of the Albany schools. Dr C. Edward Jones, a series of lectures and demonstrations was given at the Museum to acquaint the teachers in the public schools with the value of the collections and exhibits of the Division of Zoology, in the teaching of nature study and biology. Over 300 teachers availed themselves of the opportunity offered and were supplied not only with material for classroom use but with a specially prepared printed leaflet out- lining certain features of the work. Work of the assistant to the Zoologist and the taxidermist. The Assistant to the Zoologist and the Taxidermist are both i>er- forming very useful and necessary work and relieve the Zoologist REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 57 of mucli of the routine labor connected with cataloging and care of specimens. But the field of zoology in New York State is such a vast one that the Zoologist must limit his major investigations to a few groups and give only casual attention to other subjects which are of no less importance. A' specialist trained in ichthyology should be added to the staff of the Zoologist and, because of the value and size of the Museum’s collection of shells, the services of a conchologist should be secured. In February 1924, the assistant to the Zoologist, Maria Seguin, tendered her resignation and was succeeded by Walter Schoon- maker who was appointed to the position in March 1924. Since his appointment, Mr Schoonmaker has been engaged chiefly in the collection and preparation of specimens for the Museum’s collec- tions and in the routine work of cataloging and record keeping. As opportunity permitted he has prepared a series of some eighty line drawings, illustrating various reports in preparation by tbe Zoologist. The taxidermist has cleaned the entire series of mounted birds on exhibit and has mounted a number of new specimens to replace those which have suffered much from overlong exposure to strong light and dust. Accessions, The most notable additions to the collections during the past year have been made by members of the staff. Extensive series of arachnids, amphibians and mammals have been collected and added to the study collection. Professor C. R. Crosby of Cornell University collected and sent to the Museum a remarkable series of the smaller spiders belonging to the Erigoneae, among which were several species new to science. New groups. No new large groups may be attempted with the present arrangement of cases in Zoology Hall but a series of small habitat groups showing some of the peculiar features in the life histories of salamanders has been projected and active work started. The Division of Zoology is handicapped by its lack of a trained preparator whose energies might be devoted to the reconstruction of the existing groups and to the development of new groups which require much accessory material in the way of restorations in wax and plaster. ARCHEOLOGY Report by Arthur C. Parker, State Archeologist Scope of the Archeology Division, The Division of Archeology embraces the several related divisions of anthropology, namely, archeology, ethnology, folk lore, language and comparative anatomy. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 5S It is the duty of the Archeologist to conduct field investigations in archeology whereby the ancient village and burial places of the aborigines of this State are discovered and excavated ; to make studies of the surviving aborigines with reference to their customs and material culture, as represented by survivals ; to collect and collate the unwritten literature and folk thought of the Iroquois ; to make studies of the language of these natives and to make necessary somatological and osteological measurements and observations. Material so collected falls into two general groups : exhibition articles for display in the Museum, and literary material for our archives. The object of all this effort is to discover all there is to know relating to the past and present condition of the aborigines of our State and to make this information available to the public. There is more than an ordinary interest on the part of our citizens in the subjects that fall within our scope as is attested by the attention given by all the great educational institutions and museums within our Commonwealth. It has fallen to us in a large measure to supply the facts to the world, and the demand is an insistent and an increas- ing one. During the past i8 years this division has practically revised the whole concept of aboriginal archeology within the State and it has been the fortune of this Museum through its researches to sift out the differences in the various native cultures, and indeed to have defined most of them for the first time. Staff. In the prosecution of the work devolving upon this division of the Museum there has never been the necessary staff of experts trained to make the desired investigations. The Archeologist alone, (with occasional manual help without training), has conducted all investigations. In so large a field and one wherein the facts are con- stantly retreating, good work has often been retarded and made impossible, especially in the face of the pressure of routine clerical work in the office. For the past lo years there should have been tour trained employees, two research men and two clerks. For lack of this help the Archeologist has been compelled to abandon many Important lines of endeavor to become an office machine devoting his time to answering letters and doing clerical work. This has been a most discouraging feature of the work. Condition of the collections. The collections are constantly growing and as far as possible new specimens have been placed in the proper exhibits. These collections are examined from time to time and kept in proper condition. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1 924 59 The ethnological groups in the Myron H. Clark Memorial Hall are a source of constant care and it is necessary to watch them for the various sources of deterioration, such as moths, lack of moisture, electrical defects, dust and structural changes. These exhibits, attracting many thousands of visitors, are in excellent repair and their condition is a tribute to the workmanship of the artist who installed them. Public interest. It has been the custom to report the interest of the public in our researches and exhibits. There has been no diminu- tion during the past year. Hundreds of visitors, at times a score or more each day, attest the eagerness of the public for knowledge concerning the several subjects to which attention has been given. Personal calls have also been received from writers, historians, playwrights, artists, directors of pageants, teachers, missionaries and other specialists, as well as many anthropologists. Supplement- ing personal calls have been numerous letters of inquiry from inter- ested students. More than 3000 replies to such inquiries have been sent out, many of them involving considerable study to provide the needed information. The public press has been particularly insistent that information be furnished and there has been scarcely a day when a reporter or special writer did not seek interviews or facts concerning some sub- ject under the division. The press has been friendly and has given the Museum and especially this division wide publicity. Albany tercentenary. The project to celebrate the 300th anni- versary of the founding of Albany brought about a concerted effort to enlist the help of certain special bureaus of the Education Depart- ment, including the Archeology Division of the Museum. Through arrangements made by H. C. Warded, the Archeologist delivered a radio address on “ Indian Methods of Signaling ” from the broadcasting station at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy in February. On this occasion through the cooperation of the Boy Scouts of Albany a message from Mayor Hackett of Albany was read inviting the people of the State to attend the tercentenary cele- bration. The Boy Scouts relayed the message from the mayor’s office to the Troy broadcasting station in 55 minutes, a distance of 9 miles, thus providing an excellent method of contrasting the speed of the Indian runner with the speed of modern radiotelephony. The celebration took place on June ist to 4th. It was the work of our division to stage the Indian pageant and to supply a histori- cal paper for the tercentenary program. 6o NEW YORK state MUSEUM Field researches in archeology. During the summer months a survey was made of certain archeological sites in Erie, Cattaraugus and Chautauqua counties, where several interesting and important localities were discovered. Later a detailed survey was made of sites along the upper waters of the Allegany and Genesee. The object was to trace the migrations of the Iroquoian people. The importance of this region must be emphasized for along these head- waters are several precontact sites of much significance to archeolo- gists. This region is as yet unexplored by competent archeologists. During August a survey was made of the sites embraced in the Penn Yan, Yates county, quadrangle. It was discovered that the occupation of this important section of the State was mostly early Algonkian. Sites were examined at Penn Yan, Branchport, Guya- noga, Hanfords, Blufif point, Yatesville, Second Milo, Wayne, Tyrone, Lamoka lake and Dresden. During the last week of August a site near Levanna, Cayuga county, was examined. This site proved to be a prehistoric Algon- kian site of the third Algonkian i^eriod. It belonged to the same cultural horizon as the Owasco lake outlet site excavated in 1915. The short time given the work demonstrated its importance. The pottery is especially worthy of study. The plan calls for a con- tinuation of this excavation during the season of 1925. The site has not heretofore been touched and therefore remains an unspoiled source of archeological information of rare value. Archeological reservations. The rapidity with which archeo- logical sites are being destroyed points out the ultimate end of these sources of aboriginal prehistory. The time is not far dis- tant when our most important ancient monuments will be obliterated. Interest should be aroused whereby typical examples may be preserved. This division has repeatedly called attention to this need and has made recommendations to influential societies and commissions seeking the establishment of public parks and scientific reserva- tions on the sites of Indian fortifications and villages. The site of Indian falls and Spirit lake provides an ideal setting for a scientific and scenic park. For many years this locality in Genesee county has been a camping and picnic ground where thou- sands of visitors gather on holidays. History, geology, Indian tradi- tions and scenic beauty all conspire to make the spot desirable. Attention was directed to this locality at the 1923 meeting of the Gene.see County Historical Federation and an attempt was later REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1 924 61 made to interest the State Council of Parks in the project to acquire it as a state reservation, but the land owners put prohibitive prices on their property and the plan was temporarily abandoned. The plan to acquire the Flint Mine hill as a reservation has received several setbacks but an implied promise has been given that it will be included under tbe state park bonding proposition passed at the 1924 election. If this reservation is acquired, we shall have an archeological monument of major importance and one unique in the history of the State. Field of research in archeology and ethnology. Scattered throughout the State are numerous Indian village, burial and forti- fication sites. These are of many cultures and date from remote times to so recent a time as 1779 when General Sullivan destroyed the towns of the Iroquois confederacy. What we know of these sites and of the specimens which they cover is only a fragment for only a limited amount of money and the attention of only a few experts has been given to the problem. Numerous amateurs have dug into mounds and earthworks and quantities of specimen.s, usually termed “ relics ” by collectors, have been unearthed. These specimens, however, have a meaning far greater than mere relics. Each is an important link in the problem of America’s prehistory, making necessary detailed observations. Amateurs seldom know how to make such observations and because of this, much informa- tion is forever lost. Added to the destruction by untrained col- lectors is the wear and tear of commerce and husbandry. Sites are destroyed in building operations, by flooding due to the eleva- tion of water surfaces by dams, and by farmers who find it neces- sary to level the walls of ancient forts for agricultural purposes. The field of archeology in New York is a rapidly diminishing one. Thorough work must soon be done or it can never be done. In the ethnological field is to be found the living Indian, descendant of the Iroquois. Twenty years ago there was some- thing to be found of his native products but today little remains. There is an occasional individual belonging to the native cult who still has a few products of his ceremonial society or perhaps a few articles connected with the preparation of corn as food, but the past has gone and a great opportunity has been missed. There are some Indians who even yet cling to the older traditions and who rememlier some portion of their native folk ways. These should be sought out and enlisted as informants. Tbe older men who kept up the ceremonies of the “ long houses ” have passed on to the mysterious hereafter and today we have none like Baptist 62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Thomas, Albert Cusick, Edward Cornplanter, Delos Big Kittle and Ward Snow, all of whom helped so much lo years ago. These fugitive facts point out the urgent need of immediate study of what does remain. Intelligent research can not be con- ducted by amateurs or by imtrained anthropologists for the results would be uncritical and empirical. The approach must be by way of sure knowledge, experience and training. BOTANY Report by Homer D. House, State Botamst Scientific investigations. The investigative work of the State Botanist during 1924, and since the latest published report of this office, has been directed chiefly toward the completion of the -Annotated List of the Ferns and Flowering Plants of New York State, which was published as Museum Bulletin 254. This has involved much bibliographic work as well as study of the plants in the state herbarium and in the field. Collections and field studies have been carried on during the past year in the vicinity of New- comb, Essex county; the east shore of Lake Ontario, in Jefferson county ; the vicinity of Oneida lake in the central part of the State ; and in other localities. Collections of plants from these localities, which are of scientific interest have been incorporated into the herbarium. The ferns and flowering plants of peculiar interest are to be reported upon in the State Botanist’s Annual Report under the caption “Local Flora Notes,” and the fungi under “Notes on Fungi.” A large number of fungi, both parasitic and saprophytic, chiefly of recent collection, have been studied in collaboration with Dr John Dearness, and will be reported upon under the heading “ New or Noteworthy Species of Fungi.” Contributions to the state herbarium. The additions to the col- lections since the previous report in the form of contributions and exchanges are presented in the following list of contributors, which also indicates the number of specimens received from each: Roy Latham, Orient , 522 E. Bartholomew, Stockton, Kan too Dr Harold St John, Pullman, Wash 100 Leland S. Slater, Coxsackie 60 Mr & Mrs E. A. Eames, Buffalo 56 C. A. Brown, Albany 50 M. S. Baxter, Rochester 35 F. A. Ward, Cortland 35 'Dr T. T. Davis, Madison, Wis 30 E. P. Killip, Washington, D. C 30 William C. Ferguson, Hempstead 15 S. H. Burnham, Ithaca 9 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 63 Rev. H. M. Deiislow, New York 7 W. C. Mueiischer, Ithaca 6 Rev. G. H. French, Albany 5 Dr C. E. Fairman, Lyndonville 5 Dr John Dearness, London, Canada 5 Mrs O. P. Phelps, Wilton 2 Additions to the herbarium. The total number of specimens which have been added to the collections from all sources during the year is 1355, of which 510 were received by contribution or exchange. Considerably more than 1000 specimens were received by exchange or contribution, but only 510 of them have been incor- porated into the collections. In connection with the curatorial work, the services of recent temporary assistants, Helen LaForce and C. A. Brown, have been most satisfactory and indispensable. The bulk of routine and curatorial work in the State Botanist’s office is of such bulk that permanent assistance is urgently needed in order to carry forward any extensive work in botanical research. The collections by the State Botanist, noted above, were made in the following counties of the State : Albany, Essex, Hamilton, Jefferson, Lewis, Madison, Oneida, Onondaga, Oswego, Rensselaer, Warren, Saratoga, Schenectady, Montgomery and Herkimer. Identifications. The State Botanist’s office has been called upon to identify 425 specimens of plants including many edible and poisonous mushrooms during 1924. These identifications were requested by 130 persons, mostly by mail, some of them, however, by personal visit to the office. The demand for this service varies considerably from year to year. It is a service of distinct value to those people of the State interested in its wild plants and mush- rooms, and the fact that there is not a larger demand for it seems to be due chiefly to the fact that it is not generally known that such service is available and free of charge. Visitors. The extensive collections of the state herbarium, includ- ing as it does a very large number of type specimens of fungi, is frequently consulted by specalists in various lines of economic or purely scientific botanical research. Such facilities as the herbarium room affords is always placed at their disposal and per- sonal attention is directed to making their visits productive of the best possible results. Lectures. During 1924 the State Botanist delivered eight lectures before various organizations upon the subject of plant life, wild flowers and wild flowers needing protection. r*''" ;'. .'"11 rn*i| ,tr/.T Trt riilorfu f ' , ' ■ ■■ ■ ■•■'• . , . . ' . I 111. •■•[r'lljk ■■ ... Misrt-:/ M ,) \ / ■ . .. ' • : . 'UlViW 'kiv 3 . 'miiiu-'l J.'i • ; ... ,((..{yi«. I il I rtl ' i I, ,(r^f>{r.l .'j if- tuf: ' .'i.'-i i-t.ir i.. : , JMuwBdprt sfff <>i eftoihbbA, mUii'. I;r. : li"' ic lijj-j'jlUvij •ii.j i. t,| (piTwi '}fiui ({‘Mti'/i II' "U(; j<'l fi.'i j .,(? 1 1 . u<’ . lit;; li litfw "ji. nCOY 'Jiitl • li'iv.i-) ':*! 'iff// .'Iiijim ->;i- iHVx (iKf(3 ;:ii-n»in ni/fti i;-> >il r/iit'i (ir.i(;l3 i.j jLB‘f'>7; I',; i' ' , '>it ifl jdf,* '>;i'j< |>tft x! ;>HT ' I!' I ll<‘i n; I ( . ■■ . ’(o 4.'VfJ0‘i‘'’ < ff)' .iCi.lld'IlK > ,lifl!;Vl!( '< .KuV'l >i 'hloj .I'MriA! '! 1 fill,, / fnin ;.yJi*or,^, '. /fuii j'iMviI-.'.': Nil!i;y t-rii! r-t.il iitiii / tr \ ,A' df.t "i. Tl .f’dotitioniin^bl, • 't ■<'^l(;l•,l ..'jtfif yf!:;)i.'|'n|i iftttii; ■ !i» ;Vii'-i.-!’i'.v‘iif. ot * . •'j.'.'jd i ( I'l pi'Miii .n '>(!i »i) 'Xit'n V . ■ ,>^t<.<'yj'f I'l;^ 1 r )n9itp‘)t '■ii’j/'i ’j / ' :i'l iittJ.Kid' 'll'!' •i.rib,. -ji'f td ({-<■, ' rdOn’^^Cj'' v(j ’!'> '."I M-.*--' r, .-I if ■n'.-x; i.is inoc (pli ,v -ft hi h'jix'yydni '■iii: !i, ‘ifqit.w'.j DwWf V>3 .. >•. " ■•‘I I r'ltl if-lf. /I'-l;'! ;■ li.fj .;| r\ '■< U.l'i; •)'!) f.Lfi, • ",.ii; '!f|- •i..'..,.' .I’l )..d,l j-x.’i dpif'.' ->})|> . •Mti-rf’)- 1 >, 'I'M I tni.; tf'ttJa ' 'i'll .'jiM/i': ''i.i . 'If li. -lii' ■; ■i ilit'f. •jy'x.VjrtJy,'.' .eib/ieJV ^ '1 '' y ■ iiMiiH-y-JM:- ‘I'ii) : , .i,. /[•).' c 'b'.Ij' 3i'; g/ti 'fjn'' .I'ti 'j' /: I'. MI’M'Kl •ii'lii TJl. yiyflJi' m M .’■ ( r >i:'/ Ij, ;;l t-n.i'hi',- uuKn t.nua^tyvl ' "f tr ull "» ■ > ri •i'.fli'itt'.M ftUjf j !fl' • ■ ftM .ibf t> -.hif . ."'If pivf ;4fli3iKl ’5 ;i Ilf nil 'r;o({li .>ri:.u;iJ'':i;;t:;(7o *iu<)hr// >1foi3ni • ,i"i(t,)7i'Mi| %'(}iiti;)'i • '-iv/ifli Tili'iw ■ Iwij.'Hfytwpfl' SINGING SPIDERS By Sherman C. Bishop Every one is acquainted with the songs of insects which in many cases are as characteristic of the various species as are the songs of birds. On the other hand, it is probably not generally known that some spiders are provided with delicate organs which are of such a character that we must assume them to be for the purpose of producing sound. In fact, some of the larger tarantulas are said to produce a loud hissing and one instance is reported in which the spider reared itself upon its hind legs and gave a most astonish- ing and terrifying demonstration. But the sounds made by the smaller true spiders have probably never been heard by human ears although it might be possible to listen to a spider chorus if our gross senses could be tuned to the proper pitch. The sounds produced by these smaller spiders are doubtless for communication between the sexes and not, as in the case of the tarantula men- tioned above, for the purpose of terrifying. Spiders are not to be regarded as having a voice of the character possessed by birds or mammals where the sound is produced by cords or membranes set in motion by the passage of air. In spiders the device may be compared more accurately with certain types of musical instruments or the simple combination of a stick and a picket fence when the first is drawn rapidly over the second. The general structure of the sound-producing (stridulating) organ is essentially the same in the various spiders in which it is developed but it is differently disposed in different species and appears in the most unexpected places. Two elements are concerned in the pro- duction of vibrations ; first, a rasplike surface over which, second, a picklike spine or series of teeth is rubbed or drawn. This arrange- ment necessitates the placing of one of the parts on a movable base and the pick is usually developed on one of the appendages. In some cases, however, contact is between structures on the thorax and abdomen or between two appendages. The stridulating organs are developed in pairs but in the following descriptions only one of the two is considered. In the family Theridiidae some of the males possess a file on the thorax and a pick composed of several teeth on the abdomen. In some of the spiders of the family Linyphiidae the lateral side of the chelicera of the male is furnished with a file which is scraped [65] 66 NEW YORK state MUSEUM I)y a pick borne on the inner face of the femur of the palpus ; in others, a pick on the basal joint of the hind legs rasps the file developed on a plate on the under side of the abdomen. In still other members of this family, the basal joint of the front legs is involved. The structures mentioned are described more in detail under the accounts of particular species and may be understood by reference to the appended figures on which the parts are indicated. In Asagena a m erica n a (figure i), the males have the stridulat- ing organs conspicuously developed. The file is a roughened plate at the side of the cephalothorax near the hind margin and is scraped by a series of spine-bearing teeth borne on a ridge on the side of the front margin of the overlapping abdomen. The abdomen is capable of considerable movement up and down and the parts are thus brought in contact. Theonoe stridula is an exceedingly minute spider, less than 1/25 of an inch in length. It belongs to the same family as Asagena and has the stridulating organ in practically the same position. The pick is developed as a short, broad tooth on the front of the abdo- men and may be apposed to a striated area on the hind part of the thorax. Lephthyphantes nebulosus ( figure 2) is a representa- tive of the family Linyphiidae in which the males have the file borne on the lateral face of the chelicera. The pick is a spinose hump on the inner side of the basal part of the femur of the palpus and is shown enlarged in figure 3. By moving the palpus up and down the pick is rubbed against the file. The males of some of the species of Tmeticus seem to be pro- vided not only with a file on the chelicera as in Lephthyphantes, but with another on the plate which is developed on the front part of the under side of the abdomen. Tmeticus obtusus has such an arrangement and the pick is a toothlike projection on the hind margin of the basal joint of the hind leg. By a lateral movement of the hind leg the tooth may be drawn across the roughened plate of the abdomen (figure 4). Here is provision for a duet by one individual, for the striae of the cheliceral files are much finer than the corrugations of the abdominal plates and the soprano of the mouth parts may be accompanied by the baritone of the hind legs. Troglohyphantes is the name given to a group of small spiders, some of which are only about 1/12 of an inch in length. They are cave-inhabiting species with more of an excuse for a signaling device than the spiders which live in the light. In the male here REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 67 figured, the hind face of the basal joint of the front leg is provided with a file which may be brought in contact with the pick on the front face of the second joint of the second pair of legs. This is not so complicated as it seems, as may be seen by reference to the figure (figure 5). Organs which may serve for the reception of vibrations are not so easily discovered in spiders but in one species of Leptoneta examined there was not only a stridulating organ but an arrange- ment of hairs which may well serve an auditory function. On the side of the tibia of the male palpus there is a long stiff hair which has the end flattened, grooved and somewhat twisted. The grooved tip holds the end of a long slim hair which arises nearer the base of the segment. This device has recently been described as the original crystal detector.^ ^ Ent. News. 36; 144, fig. i. 1925. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES Fig. I Asagena americana Emerton. Male showing the file of the stridulating organ on the hind margin of the thorax and the pick, consisting of several teeth, on the front of the abdomen. Fig. 2 Lephthyphantes nebulosus (Sundevall). In the male of this species the file is borne on the outside of the chelicera and the pick on the inner side of the femur of the palpus. Fig. 3 Lephthyphantes nebulosus (Sundevall). Top view of the base of the femur to show the pick. Fig. 4 Tmeticus obtusus Emerton. The file of the stridu- lating organ is conspicuously developed on the under side of the abdomen near the front, the pick on the hind margin of the basal joint of the hind leg. This species apparently has another file on the chelicera. Fig. sTroglohyphantes sp. The male has the file de- veloped on the hind face dif the basal joint of the front leg and the pick on the second joint of the second leg. [68] REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1 924 69 W. J. S. del y • ) I I FUNDAMENTAL LINES OF NORTH AMERICAN GEO- LOGIC STRUCTURE By Rudolf Ruedemann The present paper^ is a continuation of studies recorded in a recent essay of the writer.® In this the writer endeavored to show that the trend-lines of the folds of the Precambrian rocks, together with their foliation, schistosity, and the longitudinal direction of the batholiths, form a complex of phenomena that are causally connected, and that exhibit uniform directions over immense tracts of the earth.® There are three such tracts of super-continental ^ Published, save some additional data, in the American Journal of Science, ser. S, vol. 6, 1923, p. i-io. A confusion of the figures in this article and the large demand for copies of this and the earlier publication on the Pre- cambrian continents have made a reprinting of the two papers desirable. ^ R. Ruedemann, The Existence and Configuration of Precambrian Con- tinents, N. Y. State Museum, Bui. 239-40, p. 67-152, 1922. ® The truth of these premises was doubted by Professor W. J. Miller in a paper read at a meeting of the Geological Society of America. It is not necessary here to enter into a discussion of Professor Miller’s assertions, since they are based on individual views that do not agree with the consensus of other students of Precambrian geology. We may, however, mention in passing that recent exhaustive studies of the granite batholiths of Germany (Hans Cloos, Tektonik und Magma, Untersuchungen zur Geologie der Tiefen, Abh. d. preuss, geol. Landesanstalt, n. Folge, H. 89, 1922 ; S. v. Bubnoff, Die Methode der Granitmessung und ihre bisherigen Ergebnisse, Geol. Rundschau, Bd. 13, H. 2, 1922), demonstrate the dependence of the structure of the batholiths on directive lateral pressure {richtender Seitendruck or Gebirgs- druck), active during and after the intrusion, and thus serve still more to isolate Miller’s assertion of the absence of true folding in the Precambrian rock.s or its merely local character resulting from batholithic intrusion. Like- wise in his denial of uniformity of folding in the Precambrian rocks based on a wrong procedure of investigation. It is possible to study a building with one’s fingers on the bricks to look for minute cracks and breaks, or one may stand farther back to survey its general architectural lines. The writer in the above-mentioned essay has preferred the latter method. It is true that there may be local discrepancies with the general fold directions, as indeed there are in every fold-system. Thus there occur in the uniformly N. 20° E. trending system of the folds of the slate belt of eastern New York, small cross-folds, one north of Troy, another south of Albany. To unduly emphasize these merely local structures would only serve to hide and confuse the general picture of the fold system and thus to miss its meaning. Also some of the Canadian authors (as notably T. L. Tan ton and H. G. Cooke) have pointed out that minor cross-folds are often super- imposed locally on the major folds of the Precambrian rocks, while others, as M. E. Wilson (1913, 1919), have emphasized the fact that batholiths may locally affect the structural trends, but are themselves subjected to the same deformations as the intruded rocks, which deformations were caused by true mountain-building crustal movements. The uselessness of further discussion of the points raised by Miller is clearly indicated by Ailing’s final statement in his paper, “ The Origin of Foliation and the Naming of Syntectic Rocks” (American Journal of Science, ser. 5, vol. 8, 1924, p. 12-32) which reads: “He (Miller) is the only one of the Adirondack geologists who believes, ‘ that the Grenville strata of the Adirondacks have never been highly folded or severely compressed.’ ” 72 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM size which are termed Archi-America, Archi-Gondwana and Archi-Eurasia. The same tracts appear as continents in early Cambrian time and persist, more or less fractured, as fundamental units of the surface of the earth throughout geologic time. Figure i. The grain of North America. Observed trend-lines solid; inferred directions in broken lines. Numbers indicate sources of information (see footnote 4). Professor Charles Schuchert, in a letter to the writer, has termed the complex of Precambrian trend-lines the “ grain ” of the con- tinent. This appropriate term will be applied in this paper to the Precambrian folds and their associated phenomena, as the major axes of intrusion, foliation and schistosity. North America, as the remaining portion of Archi-America, is controlled , according to the author’s reconstruction {op. cit., fig. i), by a grain whose trend is roughly northeast in the eastern portion of the continent, east to west in the middle, and south to north and REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 73 northwest in the western plateau region ; the whole forming a south- wardly convex, asymmetric curve, whose western limb is more sharply turned upward than the eastern one. (See figure i.)* For details the reader is referred to the former paper. Precambrian Grain not Controlled by Later Influences In the present paper it is intended to suggest briefly to what extent the grain has controlled the later geologic history of North America. In this analysis, the question arises first whether the Precambrian grain of the continent, as we see it today, has not been altered by later influences instead of having been the controlling factor. It might be assumed that the original grain of the continent ran from east to west, as we find it in the middle and least disturbed portion of the continent, and that the marginal trends (northeast in eastern America and north in the western plateau and Rocky moun- tain regions) were superimposed upon an original, different trend by later folding, presumably through oceanic spread from the Atlan- tic and Pacific oceans respectively. It was, however, shown in the earlier paper that there is fair evidence of the Precambrian exist- ence of the trend-lines in both marginal belts, as seen, for example, ( I ) in the direction of the batholiths found by Berkey and Rice in the Highlands of New York; (2) the northeast direction in eastern * In this chart the trends of the Precambrian rocks have been entered as found in the literature. Where cross-folds are mentioned, these are indi- cated by a shorter line. Where the trend varies, the limits are given by a dotted line and the medium direction by a solid line. The figures refer to the following authors: i Cushing, Kemp, Smyth et al. (Adirondacks) . 2 Adams and Barlow (eastern Ontario and western Quebec 1913). 3 Adams, Coleman, 1915. 4 M. E. Wilson (Amherst township, 1919). 5 Cooke (Matachewan district, 1919). 6 Cooke (northern Quebec, 1919, Kenogami, Round and Larder Lake areas, 1922). 7 T. Tanton (Harricanaw-Turgeon Basin, 1919). 8 Collins (Gowganda mining district, 1913). 9 Collins (Timiskaming region, 1914). 10 Collins (Killarney Granite, 1916). ii Wilson (Timiskaming county, 1918). 12 Wilson (Kewagama lake area, 1913). 13 Quirke (Espanola district, 1917). 14 Lawson (Rainy lake). 15 Alcock (Reed-Wekusko area, 1920). 16 Bruce (Amisk-Athapapuskow district, 1918) ; Alcock and Bruce (Athapapuskow lake area, 1921). 17 Mc- Innes (basin of Nelson and Churchill rivers, 1913). 18 Terrell (Athabaska Lake-Churchill river, 1895). 19 Camsell (Tazin and Taltson rivers, 1916). 20 Van Hise and Leith (1909). 21 Darton (Sundance Folio, 1905). 22 Page, Comstock, Van Hise and Leith. 23 Keith (Asheville folio, 1920). 24 Lebling (1914), (irosby. 25 Berkey, Berkey and Rice (Westpoint quadrangle, 1921). 26 Cross (Silverton quadrangle, 1905). 27 Cross et al. (Needle Mountain folio, 1905)- 28 Cross and Hole (Engineer Mountain folio, 1910). 29 (Tross and Ransome (Rico folio, 1905). 30 Gilbert (Pueblo folio, 1897). 31 Hague et al. (Yellowstone National Park, 1899). 32 Darton et al. (Laramie-Sher- man folio, 1910). 33 Noble and Hunter (Grand Canyon, 1916). 34 Ransome (Globe folio, 1904). 35 Ransome (Bisbee folio, 1904). 36 Jaggar and Palache (Bradshaw folio, 1905). 37 Richardson (Van Horn folio, 1914). 74 NEW YORK/ STATE MUSEUM Canada and beyond; (3) the observation of ancient interlocking northeast-southwest gneiss bands by Keith in the Asheville quad- rangle; and (4) the presence of bars running in that direction in the Appalachian geosyncline from earliest Cambrian time on; and for the Rocky mountain region in the cases of original directions found in the blocks or “ Islands ” left undisturbed by later folding, as in the block of north Wyoming and south Montana (see Ruedemann Figure 2. Diagram of Paleozoic generalized epicontinental seas. 1922, p. 87-89). The original presence of these marginal trends is further attested as early as Lower Cambrian time, by the direction of the seas in the two original geosynclines of the continents, and even before that time in the western trough by the Belt terrane extending in the same direction. It was, for these reasons, concluded in the earlier paper that the Appalachian and Pacific fold systems are in their general directions REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1 924 75 “ posthumous in character to the Precambrian trend-lines of the same areas, and it has also been shown that the main orogenies were preceded in the same region by prenuncial folds, finding expression in “ barriers ” separating basins, as notably in the Appalachian region where these structures have been indicated by Ulrich and Schuchert.® Composite Picture of American Epicontinental Seas A composite picture of the epicontinental seas of North America from the beginning of the Cambrian to the Tertiary^ is that of two long geosynclines, one in the east, the other one in the west (as represented in Schuchert’s chart of the Upper Georgian), and these are connected by one or more east- west arms. (See figure 2.) The two long sea-arms represent the two geosynclines that are already present at the beginning of the Cambrian and were again and again inundated wholly or partly, the invading sea coming in at one or both ends or somewhere in the middle from the nearest ocean. These two geosynclines became submerged either singly or jointly, wholly or partly, in every period from the Canadian to the Mississip- pian eras. They are, so to speak, the axes of the epicontinental sea system. From them proceed seas in an eastward direction from the Cordilleran geosyncline, and westward from the Appalachian geo- syncline, in a more or less irregular fashion, but on the whole in broad east-west bands, as shown in Schuchert’s chart of Acadian time, and in many succeeding ones (Ozarkian, Canadian, Ordovician, Middle Silurian, Upper Devonian, and Lower Mississippian). There is thus furnished a fundamental picture of the early Paleozoic seas of North America, consisting of two northwardly diverging narrow basins, connected by transverse bands. One can not fail to note the general agreement of this pattern with that of the grain of North America, as given by the structure of Precambrian formations. As Paleozoic history proceeds, a further tendency to inundation from the north and south sides of the continent develops, from the directions of the present Hudson bay and the mouth of the Mississippi. This becomes distinct in lowest Trenton, late Rich- ^ The term “ posthumous ” used by European authors is rather misleading, as suggesting a complete, “ after death ” cessation of orogenic movement, and would be better replaced by epigonic or postclimacteric or a similar expression, denoting revived orogenic activity along the former trend-lines. * E. O. Ulrich and Charles Schuchert, Paleozoic Seas and Barriers in Eastern North America, N. Y. State Mus. Bui. 52, p. 633-63, 1902. ^ The reader is referred to Schuchert’s paleogeographic charts in his “ Paleo- geography of North America.” (Bui. Geol. Soc. Amer., 20, pis. 46-101, 1910) and Ulrich’s charts (in Compte-Rendu, XII Intern. Ge»l. Congress, 660, 1914) and in Bassler’s “ The Cambrian and Ordovician Deposits in Maryland ” (Maryland Geol. Siirv., 1919), as illustrating this chapter. 76 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM mond, and Silurian times (see Schuchert’s charts of Rochester- Osgood, Louisville and Guelph time). In the Devonian it has dis- appeared again, but throughout Carboniferous (Bradfordian, Fern Glen, Burlington, Saint Louis, Chester, Upper Pottsville, Upper Pennsylvanian and Permian) time the invasions all come from the Gulf of Mexico. Figure 3. Strikes of Paleozoic rocks. Compare with fig. i. Asterisk indicates strike changed by faults in Burnett area, Texas. This latter group of inundations, which appears as subsequent in regard to the grain of the continent, in contrast to the consequent inundations along the geosynclines and transverse bands, may be due to the uplift of the eastern and western regions caused by the increased folding arising from the geosynclines and the consequent sagging of the middle of the continent. The rather irregular alter- nations of the north and south invasions, on the other hand, may be due to a sea-saw motion of the continent, with alternating uplift REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1 924 77 in the north and south, perhaps resulting from alternating “con- tinental creep” and “suboceanic spread,” as suggested by Ulrich for smaller differential oscillations.® It is perhaps still recognizable in the present marine transgression of northern Canada as far south as Hudson bay, and the Tertiary invasions of the lower Mississippi region and along the south and southeast coasts. Present Strikes of Post-Precambrian Rocks in General Agreement with Grain (See Fig. 3.) The present strikes of the Post-Precambrian rocks are a com- posite result of the original inclination of deposition in the epicon- tinental seas, the later tiltings and foldings, and the variable depths of erosion. Notwithstanding these many factors, the general strike directions of the formations still furnish a fairly accurate picture of the original grain of the continent, as a glance at the geologic map of North America will show. In the east the general direc- tion (see figure 3) is still northeast, in the west it is northwest.® and in a small central area, south of the Great lakes, the predomi- nant direction of the strikes is east-west. It was this phenomenon, in part, which led the writer to assemble the facts of these strikes in a former paper^® and point out the symmetric arrangement in the elements of the Paleozoic platform of North America. ® E. O. Ulrich, Revision of the Paleozoic Systems. Bui. Geol. Soc. Amer., 22: 430, 1911. ® To which extent the grain here controls the coast-lines of the Paleozoic seas, as well as the strikes of the Paleozoic rocks, is for example, well illustrated in an interesting paper by E. B. Branson on the Paleozoic forma- tion margins in Missouri (American Journal of Science, ser. 5, vol. 8, no. 46, 1924, p. 317-29), which brings out the fact that the Paleozoic formation margins, now deeply buried, run parallel from southeast to northwest in Missouri, hence with the grain of the country. 10 R. Ruedemann, On the Symmetric Arrangement in the Elements of the Paleozoic Platform of North America, N. Y. State Mus. Bui. 140, p. 141- 49, 1910, and American Journal of Science, ser. 4. 30; 403-11, 1910. The dependence of strike of the Post-Cambrian rocks on the original grain of the continent is also shown somewhat in the distribution of the oil pools. The latter are arranged somewhat approximately in a U-shaped figure, the east arm extending on the west side of the Appalachian mountains and the west arm on the east side of the Rocky mountains. It is interesting to note that from north to south the oil pools are found in approximately younger formations along these guide lines. The oldest oil pools are of the Trenton, and are within the arms and nearest to the Precambrian nucleus. Along the east guide line the age ranges from Devonian in the north to Tertiary in the south. The California oil fields correspond to guide lines on the western side of the great synclinal and folded area along the Pacific. The oil pools mark the localities of predominant ancient coast lines and shallow basins. (C. A. Hartnagel.) 78 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Near the middle meridian line of this platform, positive and negative elements, which find their expression in the Cincinnati- Tennessee geanticline on the one hand, and the Michigan basin on the other, have considerably disturbed the original structure. But even the chart of the “ Paleozoic positive elements ” as given by Schuchert {op. cit., pi. 49) shows quite distinctly in the trends of these elements the influence of the original grain of the continent, the positive elements being roughly arranged as the arms in the letter U (see figure 4). Major Lines of Present Physiography still Influenced by Grain of Continent It seems that even the major physiographic features of the con- tinent as seen at present are still more or less controlled by the original grain of the continent. This is, of course, distinctly shown REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 79 iti the mountain systems of the east and west of the continent which are posthumous or epigonic to the original Precambrian fold- directions, or general trend-lines7^ The U-shaped system of Pre- cambrian trend-lines is, further, unmistakably preserved in the gen- eral outline of the continent. The grain reappears likewise through a long series of successive causal connections in the great water courses of the Yukon, Mackenzie, and St Lawrence rivers, as well as in the main tributaries of the Mississippi, the Missouri, and the Ohio rivers, while the Mississippi itself has found its bed in a mid-continental depression that appears already in Paleozoic time, hut does not become pronounced until Cretaceous time. Of the Great lakes, Lake Superior, “largely an original rock- basin, or perhaps a syncline” (F. B. Taylor, 1915), clearly follows the grain, even in the more southerly direction of its western arm, which is parallel to a local bend in the directions of the Precam- brian rocks ; and Lakes Erie and Ontario fall in line with the St Lawrence system. If the two last mentioned lakes are, as the glaciologists assure us, merely old river courses, overdeepened by glacial action along weaker belts of rocks, they indicate by their direction that these preglacial rivers also followed in their south- west courses the grain of the continent. It is, however, possible that they are, to some extent at least, also influenced in their direc- tion by thfe gentle folding that is observable in southern New York^® Rollin T. Chamberlain in an excellent paper on “The Significance of the Framework of the Continents,” recently published (Jour. Geol. vol. 32, no. 7, 1924, p. 545-74) has submitted good evidence for his conclusion that “ the framework of the continents is an outgrowth of the special stress conditions developed near the borders of continents.” He states : The recurrence of folding and faulting in these situations and the further development of the frame in later ages by the rise of new folded chains in general alignment with the earlier ones results; (i) from the natural recur- rence of more or less similar stress conditions, particularly in these critical border zones of great segments ; (2) from geosynclines bordering early ranges developing weak belts which later, by yielding to the stresses, localize subsequent foldings ; and (3) the influence of the earlier structural grain in determining to some extent subsequent yielding. This inference of the initiation of the folding near the borders of the continents would also seem to explain the less intensive, and sometimes less regular, folding of the Precambrian rocks observed in the interior of the continents, notably America and Africa ; as well as the distinct evidence of the presence of Alpine mountain ranges near the continental borders in Precam- brian time, as, for instance, the one just indicated by Barrell’s studies (The Nature and Environment of the Lower Cambrian Sediments of the Southern Appalachians: Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 5, vol. g, 1925, p. 1-20). Barrell infers a region of high Proterozoic Appalachians 'in the southeast of America, that pro- duced the Ocoee conglomerate, “comparable to Neocene conglomerates which flank the Himalayas.” See Kindle, in Watkins Glen-Catatonk Folio, U. S. Geol. Survey Folio. 169: 99, 1909. NEW YORK state MUSEUM 8n and that represents a weak northwestern extension of the Appala- chian folding. Also this would bring them again indirectly under the influence of the grain of the continent. Lakes Michigan and Huron are, so to speak, strike-lakes, following the subcircular strike of the weaker Silurian rocks (mainly those above the Niagaran limestone) around the Michigan basin. The location and the form of their basins are therefore due to influences reaching back to late Paleozoic time, aside from the final glacial factors (glacial erosion and damming and post glacial tilting). Conclusion It is believed by the writer that the original grain of the Pre- cambrian foundatio!i of the continent reappears in the main direc- tions of the epicontinental seas, principally of the Paleozoic era, in the present general strikes of the rock formations, and in the major physiographic features of the continent, notably its genera! outline, the mountain systems, the principal river courses and the major axes of some of the Great lakes. GLACIAL BOULDERS IN EASTERN, CENTRAL AND NORTHERN NEW YORK BY James H. C. Martens Introduction The object of the writer’s field work in the summer of 1923 was the investigation of glacial boulders in certain parts of New York, for the purpose of locating boulders of known or determinable sources to be used in a study of the directions of boulder movement by the continental ice sheet. Attention was given chiefly to boulders of igneous and metamorphic rocks, many of which have been carried long distances by the ice. Since it was of course not possible to look at boulders over any large proportion of the total area of the State in the limited time available, the work was confined to those parts where it was hoped that most could be accomplished. Boulders were examined at fre- quent intervals along the heavy dotted lines shown on the two maps of parts of the State (figures 2 and 3), and also at a few localities in Madison and Chenango counties, in southeastern New York in Dutchess county, and along the south edge of the highlands in Westchester and Putnam counties. It was thought that such an examination of boulders in somewhat widely separated regions would be more likely to lead to definite conclusions about the direc- tions of boulder transportation than would more intensive work in a small area, and would, moreover, give a better idea of the advisa- bility of continued field work along this line. Boulders of some rocks which were not easily determined in the field or which were considered to be worth detailed study, were sampled for laboratory study, but it was not necessary to take sam- ples of nearly all of the boulders observed and noted. In making the counts of boulders classification was necessarily based on the field examination. In a paper in preparation under the joint authorship of Professor A. C. Gill and the writer there will be a more detailed discussion of the boulders of the central part of the Finger lakes region, with descriptions of some of the rarer types and evidence on which the correlation of the boulder with the parent rock was established. When considering the occurrence or nonoccurrence of boulders of Figure i Figure 84 NIiW YORK STATE MUSEUM certain rocks at the different localities visited, the presence of boulders of similar rocks in the Finger lakes region, particularly the vicinity of Ithaca, will be referred to. The writer wishes to express his thanks to Professor Gill for permission to use some of this unpublished information in this report. Nature of the Deposits Containing the Boulders The progress to be made in the study of boulder dispersal in any glaciated area depends upon a number of factors, among which may be mentioned : the character and extent of the formations from which the boulders are derived ; the bed rock, the topography, the kind of glacial deposits ; and the amount of cleared and cultivated land in the area where the boulders occur. Ground moraine and recessional moraine deposits are the prin- cipal ones in which the boulders were examined. Where the fine material has been washed out from among the boulders by streams REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 85 or where the boulders have been piled into stone walls it is often possible to easily see large numbers of them within a short time. Where the morainic material has been covered by stratified deposits, boulders carried to their present position by glacier ice may be seen only where streams have cut through the overlying deposits. In the vicinity of Albany, till is exposed in the valleys of some of the small streams, while over most of the area only stratified sand and clay are in sight. Little attention was given to the composition of the gravels deposited from water near the ice front during its retreat, but in general they seem to have about the same lithologic character as the pebbles of the ground moraine in the same region. That is, material which is strictly local or derived from only a short distance away is very abundant, while pebbles from distant sources are com- paratively rare. Correlating a Glacial Boulder with Its Source In this paper the conclusions as to the p>arent mass from which boulders of a particular rock are derived are based mainly on petro- graphic similarity of the boulder with the supposed source. For ideal conditions all of the country from which the boulders have come should be known geologically ; and each rock used in studying boulder distribution should be confined to a small compact area. Boulders of unusual rocks may be most easily traced to their source because such rocks occur over small areas only and are often described more thoroughly than the more common ones. To learn much more about the ice movement and to be sure that the source decided upon is the correct one, the limits of distribution of the particular kind of boulders should be investigated and the boulder train should be traced back to its source. Where it is not practicable to do this on account of the distances involved, con- cordant results obtained from the study of several kinds of boulders in the same area will decrease the chances of serious error. Boulders versus Striae as Criteria of Glacial Movement Most of the observed glacial striae must have been made during the waning stages of the ice age when the ice front had retreated back nearly to where the striae are now found. At that time the direction of ice movement and therefore the bearing of the striae, was greatly influenced by the local topography. This is well shown by the large number of instances in which the scratches indicate 86 NEW YORK state MUSEUM that the ice followed the valleys and was deflected by the hills. Of course topography is one of the major determining factors in the movement of a continental glacier even when and where the ice has a great thickness, but under such circumstances only the large to'pographic features and not small details would need to be con- sidered. In the rather few instances in which glacial scratches are found on hill tops the scratches are of more value in showing the trend of ice movement at the height of glaciation. From the study of boulder dispersal more can be told about the general directions of movement when the glaciation was near the maximum, since probably the greater part of transportation of boulders from distant sources occurred at this stage of the ice age. Very interesting results have been obtained by the study of boulder trains from closely limited sources, over comparatively small areas. We need only refer to the boulder trains from Iron hill,^ Rhode Island, Mount Ascutney," Vermont, and the recent investigations in Finland.^ Causes of Error in Arriving at Conclusions Even when reasonable care is used there is possibility of error in drawing conclusions as to glacial motion from the distribution of boulders. Some of the boulders may have been carried part of the way by floating ice or running water. In some regions also there has been multiple glaciation and boulders may have been carried in quite different directions during successive glacial epochs, or at different stages of a single ice age. There is also possibility of error in concluding that boulders of a certain rock derived from a great distance away are absent from a certain region when in reality they are there in very small numbers. The full weight of this objection may perhaps be realized when one considers that only one or two or three boulders were found of some of the rocks for which the location of the parent mass seems best proved. It is therefore highly probable that at other localities where boulders of the same rock are present in about the same amount they might be overlooked entirely in any search which could reasonably be made. The correlation of the boulder with the source has already been discussed, but it may be mentioned in passing that there is always the possibility of another mass of exactly the same rock occurring ^ Shaler, N. S. Boulder train from Iron Hill, Rhode Island. Bui. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Univ., v. i6, ii, 1893. * Hitchcock, C. H. Geology of New Hampshire, p. 263, 1878. * Sauramo, M. Tracing of Glacial Boulders and Its Application in Pro- specting. Comm. Geol. de Finlande, Bui. 67, 1924. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 87 elsewhere, either in some place which has not been explored, or entirely covered by surficial deposits in a region which has been mapped as accurately as conditions would allow. Sources of Glacial Boulders in New York Only those sources are considered here from which boulders in the parts of the State where the writer has worked on this problem are likely to have come. This discussion does not refer to particular 88 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM boulders or definite source localities, but rather to geological forma- tions and regions. More exact localities and additional references to published descriptions on which the identifications of boulders with the parent rocks were partly based, will be given in a subsequent section of this report. For convenience the sources are fir.st classi- fied geologically and geographically as follows : Paleoaoic Sediments not much folded or metamorphosed occurring in central, western, and northern New York, the St Lawrence valley in Quebec, and parts of Ontario. Sediments folded and metamorphosed occurring in a narrow belt along the east side of New York, and a large part of Vermont and the eastern town- ships of Quebec. Volcanic and intrusive rocks of the folded Paleozoic region in the eastern townships of Quebec and in northern Vermont. Younger intrusive rocks of the Monteregian hills petrographic province in Quebec. Precambrian Metamorphosed sediments and igneous rocks, mostly volcanic, in the eastern townships of Quebec ; not always distinguishable from the Paleozoic rocks of the same region. Precambrian areas of the Adirondacks and Ontario and Quebec north of Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence river ; sediments very highly metamor- phosed ; great variety of igneous rocks. Any correlation of boulders from the large area of unmeta- morphosed Paleozoic should be based on paleontologic evidence as well as lithologic character. Under favorable conditions the geo- graphic as well as the stratigraphic position of the source could be determined from the fossils contained in the boulder. Folded and more or less metamorphosed sediments of Paleozoic age extend through Vermont, the adjacent eastern part of New York and the northward continuation of the Green mountains of Vermont into the eastern townships of Quebec. The strike of the rocks as well as of the belt as a whole changes from north to con- siderably east of north after it passes into Quebec. The most com- mon rocks are slate, sandstone, limestone or marble, and graywacke. Associated with these metamorphosed sediments in northern Ver- mont and the eastern townships of Quebec there are igneous rocks, both volcanic and intrusive. The volcanic rocks are mostly meta- morphosed to a schistose condition, and are scarcely to be distin- guished from the Precambrian volcanics of the same region. The intrusive rocks are not well enough known so that boulders of them could be separated from boulders from the north of the St Lawrence in the Precambrian areas, except in the case of a few of the more unusual varieties. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 89 The Monteregian hills are a series of denuded volcanic necks and laccoliths in southern Quebec which were so named by Professor F. D. Adams^ on account of their similarity to Mt Royal, the best known one of them. There are eight of these isolated hills which rise from the St Lawrence river plain. They have all been described petrographically in more or less detail. On account of their small extent and the occurrence of some unusual types these Monteregian rocks are especially adapted to the tracing of boulders. The main intrusive masses of all of these Monteregian hills are syenitic rocks and essexite, and they are often characterized by the presence of feldspathoid minerals. In addition to the principal rock masses composing the Monteregian hills there are smaller satellitic intrusions of a great variety of rocks, in the form of dikes and sheets. Descriptions of typical specimens of the most common rocks of each cf these Monteregian hills as well as some of the extreme varieties and contact facies have been published. The Precambrian rocks of the eastern townships otf Quebec occur in three belts or areas which have a general strike about north- northeast. In order from west to east these are : the Sutton moun- tain, the Stoke mountain, and the Lake Megantic areas. Only the Sutton mountain area will be briefly 'described, since this is the best known and the only one from which it is thought that there is much likelihood of boulders having reached New York. At the boundary between VYrmont and Quebec the outcrop of the Precambrian rocks of the Sutton mountain anticline is about 20 miles wide and its eastern edge is 10 miles west of Lake Memphrema- gog. It is the continuation into Quebec of a part of the Green moun- tains, and extends about 20 degrees east of north, with gradually decreasing width. The central part of the range is made up of gneissic, micaceous, quartzose and talcose schists. On the sides of the range there are green chloritic schistose rocks which have their best development along the western side of the range and extend from the Vermont boundary to the St Francis river in the vicinity of Richmond. The chlorite schist is believed by Ells^ to be a metamorphosed igneous rock of dioritic composition. The main belt of chloritic and dioritic rocks is 6 miles wide near the Vermont line and narrows toward the north. Copper minerals occur frequently in the green chlorite schists. The Precambrian areas of the Adirondacks and of Ontario and Quebec north of Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence River contain ^ Adams, F. D., The Monteregian Hills, a Canadian Petrographic Province. Jour, of Geol., v. 2, p. 239-81, 1903. ^ Geol. Surv. of Canada, Ann. Rep’t, v. 7, pt J, 1894. 90 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the following as the principal rocks : the Grenville series of metamorphosed sediments, including quartzites, limestone and vari- ous gneisses, with which are usually associated amphibolites ; intru- sive rocks which include the granite-syenite series, which is a really most important, and anorthosite, gabbro and diabase. The geology of these Precambrian areas is so complex that it is often not possible to tell to which of the major geologic divisions a detached boulder belongs, much less to determine the exact locality of the source. Some of the rocks such as the granites, granitic gneisses and anorthosites, have little variation over large areas, so that even if one is sure from which series of rocks a certain boulder is derived this is little help in locating the source geographically. This state- ment fhould not be taken to imply that there may not be some small rock masses in these Precambrian areas having such special characteristics that boulders from them can be traced long distances, but merely that the writer is not able to point out such areas at present. The possibility of boulders having reached New York from some of the less metamorphosed areas of Keewatin and Huronian rocks in noithern Quebec and parts of Ontario has been considered. From what has been published ^ it would seem highly probable that rocks similar to some or all of the metamorphic rocks of the eastern townships of Quebec, may occur in those areas and that boulders from them may have reached some parts of New York. The field work was not extended over a large enough area to make it possible to decide this interesting point. Counts of Boulders At several localities counts were made of the boulders exceeding a certain size, usually i foot maximum diameter, to determine the relative numbers of boulders of the different rocks present. These counts do not give even an approximation to the total composition of the till at these places, because most of the counts were made on or near bed rock so soft or so much bedded and jointed that it was broken up into small pieces and was therefore not included in suf- ficiently large amount in proportion to the harder rocks from more distant sources. The foreign boulders were sometimes counted and 1 Miller, W. G. and Knight, C. W. The Precambrian Geology of South- eastern Ontario. Ont. Bur. of Mines, v. 22, pt II, 1914. Barlow, A. E., Faribault, E. R., and Gwillim, J. C. Report on the geology and mineral resources of the Chibougamau Region, Quebec. Quebec Dep’t of Colonization, Mines and Fisheries, 1911. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 91 the more abundant, although smaller, pieces of the local rock dis- regarded, especially where the latter is shale or other thinly bedded rock, or where it is so near the surface that blocks have become de- tached by post-glacial weathering. It is believed that these counts will show somewhere nearly the relative numbers of boulders of the various rocks from distant sources, although, as stated above, not giving any idea of the large amount of local material among the smaller particles of the till. It is not to be wondered at that difficulty was encountered in classi- fying the boulders of gneisses since their origin and relations are not always apparent in some of the parent rock masses which have been carefully studied. An attempt was made in most cases to separate under the name of Grenville gneisses those whose composition and structure indicates that they are of sedimentary origin. This could not always be done consistently, however, because of the occur- rence of mixed gneisses as well as many of doubtful origin. Many gneissic boulders were classified as granitic gneiss which approximate the mineral composition of granite ; it is highly probable that these are not all gneissoid granites, but are| in part sedimentary Grenville gneisses which can not be recognized in detached boulders. Those which were assigned to the Grenville without hesitation include: gneisses with much garnet or sillimanite or both; finely foliated biotite gneisses ; gneisses approaching quartzite in composition. Local Details of Field Observations Southern Putnam and northern Westchester counties. Fa- miliarity of the writer with this region leads him to the conclusion that little can be expected from the investigation of boulders in it without using paleontologic evidence for the identification of fos- siliferous boulders or spending an unreasonable amount of time looking for boulders of igneous and metamorphic rocks for which a probable source can be located. Boulders from only short dis- tances away are of the largest sizes and on account of the resistant nature of much of the rock, make up an even larger proportion of the coarser part of the drift than the local materials do in the regions of unmetamorphosed sediments. Boulders of the slates, limestones etc. of the Taconic mountains to the north are by no means rare, but there seems to be little chance of tracing these back to closely limited sources. One small boulder of anorthosite and one of a type of gabbro like that in the Adirondacks are not of much significance because 92 NEW YORK state MUSEUM such boulders are already known to occur in southeastern New York, and these two boulders were near the mouth of Peekskill creek where they might have been carried a considerable distance by water. Most of the drift deposits in this region are loose gravels, and if typical close packed ground moraine exists it is fairly rare and of small extent. Dutchess county. The country for a few miles back from the Hudson river near New Hamburg and Wappinger Falls was examined for boulders. There are few which are not of local origin or so similar to the local rocks that any distinction would be diffi- cult. These boulders from nearby sources are mostly the Wap- pinger limestone and the slates and grits of the Hudson river series. The most common rocks from distant sources are granitic gneisses and garnet gneisses, which may have come from the Adirondacks or various places in Canada, or perhaps in part from some nearer locality such as the small area of Precambrian rocks near Pine Plains in northern Dutchess county. Boulders of such varieties of gabbro as are common in the eastern part of the Adirondacks are present in much smaller numbers but are not extremely scarce. There are also a very few boulders of gray anorthosite like that of the main body in the northeastern Adirondacks. As far as these facts go they merely support the idea that the ice moved straight south parallel to the Hudson valley and they do not give any additional information as to the movement of ice into the valley from more distant regions. Schenectady to Ballston Lake. In the vicinity of Scotia on the north of the Mohawk river, about 98 per cent of the boulders are sandstone and shale of local origin. Nearly all of the other boulders are of quartzite (Potsdam sandstone) and Grenville gneisses. The gneisses are mainly biotite garnet gneisses such as occur at many localities in the Grenville series in the Adirondacks. There are a few boulders of gabbro and anorthosite. The largest ones of any kind are scarcely a foot in diameter. Around Burnt Hills and Ballston Lake village boulders are more abundant and of larger sizes, especially in the valley to the south of this lake. In a field a few hundred feet from Ballston Lake sta- tion the kind of rock in lOO successive boulders i foot or more in diameter was noted, care being taken to avoid the selection of par- ticular kinds by counting all the boulders in a definite area. The results are shown in table i, column 2. The largest boulders at this locality are 8 or 9 feet in diameter and are of gabbro. No boulders were seen here for which it was REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 93 thought that a definite source could be located. If small pieces had been counted there would have been more of the local rock, since this easily breaks up into thin slabs. The relative proportions of the other rocks would have remained the same or nearly so. The large number of gabbro boulders and the small number of granite is rather surprising. The abundance of Grenville gneisses would be expected from the large area which this series occupies in the south- eastern Adirondacks. One mile south of Round Lake station and 4 miles west of Ballston Lake, 200 consecutive boulders along a fence were counted and the number of each kind noted with the results shown in table i, column I. It will be noted that this differs from the preceding mainly in the larger amount of Potsdam sandstone and smaller amount of gneisses and gabbro. East side of Hudson river northeast of Troy. Around the west ^nd of Tomhannock reservoir 10 miles northeast of Troy search was made for boulders but few were found except in the riprap along the shore of the reservoir, for which they had presumably been gathered from the surrounding country. Near Schaghticoke in the Hoosic valley boulders are also scarce and small. The boulders in the riprap mentioned above are mostly sandstone and slate in various stage? of metamorphism. They frequently contain quartz veins. Table i Counts of boulders in the Mohawk valley and the northeastern part of the southwestern plateau LOCALITY NUMBER I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Size of boulders I ft I ft I ft I ft ^ft f ft f ft I ft Total number counted . . . 200 100 100 200 163 242 300 135 Per cent of total number of boulders of each kind Granite 1 Granitic gneisses / 3-5 8 32 36 ■ 40 6.7 17.0 Quartz syenite 10. 0 7 13 12 ,0 2.2 Grenville gneisses 16.5 28 27 18 i 4 0.7 Amphibolite 0.5 I 3 5 2 I 4 1-5 Gabbro 45 29 8 II I 4 5 Diabase I 2 2 0.7 Anorthosite 2 I I 3 0.7 Alkali syenite 1-5 Vein quartz 0.7 Hornstone 0.3 Potsdam sandstone Hudson River shale and 390 9 8 II 56 2 13 1-5 sandstone Unclassified sandstone and 22.5 14 limestone 3-5 3 6 4 2.2 Oneida conglomerate. . . . 1.3 66.0 I One mile south of Round Lake station, elevation 240; river formation. bed rock is Hudson 94 NEW YORK state MUSEUM 2 Ballston Lake village, elevation 300; bed rock is Hudson river formation. 3 Two miles east of Johnstown, elevation 880; bed rock is Hudson river formation. 4 Two miles southwest of Johnstown, elevation 540; bed rock is Hudson river formation. 5 One half mile west of Altamont, elevation 800 ; bed rock is Hudson river formation (not included in the count). 6 Four miles northwest of Cobleskill, elevation 1400; bed rock is Hamilton formation. 7 Two miles northeast of Edmeston, elevation 1600; bed rock is Hamilton formation. 8 Clinton, elevation 700; bed rock is Clinton formation. They may have come from anywhere in a large area to the north and northeast. One essexite boulder at Tomhannock reservoir and one boulder of nephelite syenite at Schaghticoke hill are doubtless from some of the Monteregian hills in Quebec. The essexite may be from either Shefford mountain or Mount Johnson, the rocks of both of which it closely resembles, while the nephelite syenite does not agree exactly with any description which could be found. Ballston Spa to Amsterdam. From Ballston Spa to the west and southwest for the first 5 miles the general composition of the larger boulders is much the same as at Ballston Lake. The gab- bro, quartzite, Grenville gneisses and syenitic and granitic gneis- ses are the only kinds other than the local rocks that are at all abundant. Within 5 or 6 miles to the north and northeast of Amsterdam, the rocks just mentioned are abundant as boulders, in addition to the local rock which is limestone. Anorthosite boulders are much scarcer than might be expected in this region. In a length of stone wall made from stone removed in clearing the fields there were counted fifty-five boulders of gabbro, four of anorthosite, and four of diabase, other kinds being disregarded. A boulder of essexite from Mount Johnson was found 3 miles northeast of Amsterdam. Tribes Hill to Johnstown. Another comparison of the relative abundance of anorthosite and gabbro boulders was made 3J/2 miles northwest of Tribes Hill where, in a 200 foot length of stone wall there are twenty-five gabbro and six anorthosite boulders. A count of one hundred boulders i foot or more in diameter along a fence at 800 feet elevation 2 miles east of Johnstown, along the north bound- ary of the Fonda quadrangle, and a count of two hundred boulders along a fence 2 miles southwest of Johnstown, gave the results shown in table i, columns 3 and 4 respectively. At these two localities only about 5 miles apart in an east-west direction the coarse part of the drift is seen to be of approximately REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 95 the same composition, as one might expect. None of the boulders seen is of rocks which are known to be confined to a small area in place, so they are of little value in telling anything about glacial movement. Probably all of the igneous and metamorphic rocks are from the Adirondacks and not from any more distant Precambrian area. Altamont to Gallupville. Boulders other than the local lime- stones and sandstone are not very abundant in this district but where the fields have been cleared such boulders are easily examined since their round shape keeps them from being built into the wails and causes them to be laid on top. Quartzite, gneisses and gabbro are the commonest kinds of rock found in the boulders from dis- tant sources. For the results of a count of boulders near Altamont see table i, column 5. Along Fox creek between West Berne and Gallupville there are banlcs of till containing many striated boulders, but nearly all are of the local rocks. Schoharie to Central Bridge to Cobleskill. Around here boulders of igneous and metamorphic rocks seem to be more abund- ant than along Fox creek a few miles to the east. The largest are not over 5 feet in diameter. Boulders of gabbro are more abundant than near Ithaca, although the actual number of all kinds of boulders is less per unit area near Schoharie. Along the lower part of Cripplebush creek 2 miles north of Central Bridge, Schoharie county, boulders of gabbro are by actual count S times as numerous as those of anorthosite and average about the same size. Four miles northwest of Cobleskill a count of boulders other than the local sediments was made with the results shown in table i, column 6. Shale an'd limestone boulders from within a few miles make up about half of the boulders more than a foot in diameter and a much larger proportion of the smaller fragments. In this case no distinction was made between the various granites, granitic gneisses, and other gneisses but there are few if any boulders of true massive granite. Richmondville to Schenevus to Oneonta. North of Richmond- ville between there and South Valley the common gneisses and quartzite were the only rocks noticed in the boulders transported from a distance. The greater part of the field stone is made up of flat slabs of the local rock. In Beards Hollow near Richmondville, in a distance of about one-half mile along the creek bed there are eight anorthosite and fourteen gabbro boulders. Along the valley of Schenevus creek and Susquehanna river from Schenevus to Oneonta boulders are scarce and none of those seen 96 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM needs especial notice here. The same applies to the parts of the main tributary valleys which were examined in this vicinity. , Oneonta to Clinton. In passing in a general northerly direction from Oneonta, through Morris, Edmeston, New Berlin, Sherburne, Garrettsville, West Burlington, Waterville and Deansboro, to Clinton, boulders were not seen in abundance except in the fields 2 miles northeast of Edmeston, and along Big creek between Water- ville and Deansboro where they are washed out of what appears to be a stratified coarse gravel deposit. Two miles northeast of Ed- meston a count of three hundred boulders along a fence on the ground moraine was made with the results shown in table i, column 7. The local shale and gray and brownish gray sandstone, which break up into small flat pieces, were not included in the count. At Clinton on the hill east of the town a count of boulders was made with the results shown in table i, column 8. Two boulders of alkali syenite were also found here and there is little doubt that they both came from somewhere in the Monteregian hills. Here also the slabs of grayish and brownish fine grained sandstone and shale could not be counted on account of the way in which they break up into small pieces which really make up a large part of the surface deposit. So few boulders other than the Oneida conglomerate were seen that definite conclusions can hardly be drawn as to the relative abundance of the different kinds in making comparisons with other localities. Madison and Chenango counties. Observations of very limited extent in Madison county and northern Chenango county did not result in finding any locality where boulders from distant sources were abundant enough to make possible an estimate of the per- centages of the different kinds or to make it likely that boulders of many of the rarer kinds would be found. A few boulders of coarse gray anorthosite were noted in this region and one boulder of camptonite was found at New Woodstock. This scarcity of foreign lx)ulders is in agreement with Brigham’s^ description of the glacial deposits. St Lawrence Plain. Vicinity of Clayton and Alexandria Bay. In the fields 10 miles south-southeast of Clayton boulders are abund- ant and many varieties from a large number of different sources are represented. The bed rock is Lowville limestone. A count of boulders above i foot in diameter in a length of 100 feet of wall gave the results shown in table 2, column i. Other rocks of which 1 Brigham, A. P., Drift Boulders between the Mohawk and Susquehanna Rivers. Amer. Jour. Sci., v. 49, p. 213-28, 1895. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 97 one or more boulders were seen at this locality but not in this particular length of wall include essexite, tinguaite and camptonite from the Monteregian province and chlorite schist which is thought to be from the folded region of the eastern townships of Quebec. Several of the anorthosite boulders are of a reddish variety which is not known to occur in the Adirondacks. This color is not common in anorthosites but is like some parts of the Morin anorthosite to the north of Montreal, as shown by specimens in the Cornell University collections. Counts of boulders were also made at two localities which are respectively 6 miles and 9 miles east-northeast of Clayton. The results are shown in table 2, column 2 and 3 respectively. Both of these counts were made on ground moraine. The close agree- ment of these two counts at two localities only three miles apart indicates that such counts really do approximate closely the relative abundance of boulders of the different rocks. Table 2 Counts of boulders in the St Lawrence valley LOCALITY NUMBER Size of boulders I ft I ft I ft I ft I ft 3 ft I ft Total number counted 152 140 142 169 203 66 288 Per cent of total n itmhcr of bou Idcrs of each kind Granite 16.4 15.8 8.4 8.9 18.2 28.8 14 3 Granitic gneisses 21 .0 27.8 27.4 22.5 18.2 13-6 18.4 Grenville gneisses and schists . . . 10 5 50 4-9 1.8 5.4 6.0 31 Amphibolite 4.0 0.7 I -4 2.3 4-4 17 Gabbro 2.6 1.8 1-5 4-5 03 Norite, foliated 3-3 Diabase 2.2 I -4 1.8 Anorthosite 13.8 0.7 0.7 II .2 4-4 25-7 Gray wacke I -3 5-9 Milky quartz with chlorite 0.3 Essexite 0-7 Alkali syenite 1-7 Camptonite 0.3 Tinguaite 0.3 Potsdam sandstone 30.2 53-3 55-6 9-5 330 6.0 34-4 Dolomite and sandy dolomite, Theresa, Tribes Hill, and Og- densburg formations 40.3 14-3 12. 1 17.7 1 Ten miles south-southeast of Clayton, elevation 400; bed rock is Lowville limestone; boulders of it not counted. 2 Six miles east-northeast of Clayton, elevation 300; bed rock is Potsdam sandstone. 3 Nine miles east-northeast of Qayton, elevation 300; bed rock is Potsdam sandstone. 4 Seven miles southwest of Ogdensburg, elevation 300; bed rock is Theresa formation. 4 98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 5 Two miles south of Ogdensburg, elevation 280 to 300 ; bed rock is Ogdens- burg formation. 6 Five miles northeast of Ogdensburg, elevation 300 ; bed rock is Ogdens- burg formation. 7 Ten miles east-southeast of Ogdensburg, elevation 340; bed rock is Tribes Hill formation. Vicinity of Ogdensburg. A large number of boulders were examined near Ogdensburg and counts were made at four localities with the results shown in table 2, columns 4 to 7. The count 5 miles northeast of Ogdensburg is not strictly comparable with the others because only boulders of larger size (3 feet or more) were counted and the number counted was smaller. The most apparent variation other than those due to the change in the bed rock is the absence of anorthosite and the larger number of boulders of gray- wacke and Monteregian rocks at the locality farthest to the southeast of the river. A few boulders recognizable as from the Monteregian intrusives were found near where the count was made 5 miles north- east of Ogdensburg. These include two boulders of alnoite from Isle Cadieux or St Monique, Quebec, one boulder of sodalite syenite and others which will be mentioned in the section on petrography. Petrography of Boulders Only a few of the kinds of rock occurring as boulders have been selected for petrographic description. For the most part these belong to two classes : rocks whose known or probable source is limited to a comparatively small area, and rocks of unusual types with sources unknown. Boulders of the more common rocks, such as the Grenville gneisses, and the Precambrian granites and quartz syenites, are not described since these rocks have such a wide dis- tribution in place that the source of any particular boulder can not be even approximately determined. Anorthosite. Since these rocks are of very simple composition it will not be necessary to describe them at any length. In common with all anorthosite they consist chiefly of labradorite with small amounts of augite or hypersthene, or both, and occasionally a little magnetite and garnet. The different varieties occurring as boulders differ chiefly in the color of the feldspar and in the size of grain. The massive coarse to medium-grained varieties have light to dark gray or reddish brown feldspar, sometimes with greenish parts; the varieties with finely granulated feldspar are light greenish gray with dark streaks of pyroxene. All of these varieties occur rather abundantly as boulders in the vicinity of Clayton and Ogdensburg, REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 99 and much farthei' to the south near Ithaca, but boulders of the reddish anorthosite were not found either along the Mohawk valley or in the higher country to the south of it although the gray varieties are fairly common. All or nearly all the anorthosite boulders of northern and western New York are believed to be from Quebec, and for the most part from the Morin anorthosite area north of Montreal. Ebenezer Emmons ^ considered that the anorthosite boulders near the St Law- rence river and Lake Ontario must have come from some locality in Canada because these boulders are absent or very scarce along the west si'de of the Adirondacks in the area intervening between the Essex county anorthosite and the places where they are found abundantly. The Morin and Saguenay anorthosite areas were not known at that time. Gabbro. Many varieties of gabbro and the closely related rock, diabase, were seen in boulders, but it was not found possible to assign any of these to definite sources, nor was it noticed that there was any difference in the kinds occurring in the drift at widely separated localities. The rather frequent occurrence of a variety in which the feldspar is colored an intense green by minute spinel inclusions is mentioned in passing. Varieties with a nearly uniform dark color are more common. Alkali syenite. A boulder at Clinton is composed of a rather coarse-grained nearly white rock, containing as the principal mineral microperthite in thick tabular crystals up to 15 mm in great- est diameter. It is apparently about half untwinned feldspar and half albite with very fine twinning, but they are in a fine irregular intergrowth. Its refractive indices indicate that the untwinned feldspar is not pure orthoclase, but soda microcline (anorthoclase) . There is about 5 per cent of oligoclase, and small amounts of aegerite- augite, greenish brown hornblende, magnetite, and apatite. In Professor Johannsen’s^ quantitative modal classification it is a syenite with symbol 2210, near orthosyenite with symbol 229. It is similar to the “nordmarkite” of Shefford and Brome mountains, Quebec, described by Dresser® and is believed to be from one or Natural History of New York. Geology. Second Geological District, p. 33, 1842. ® Johannsen, Albert. Essentials for the Microscopic Determination of Rock Forming Minerals and Rocks, p. 40-52. ® Dresser, J. A. Report on the Geology and Petrography of Shefford Mountain, Quebec. Geol. Surv. of Canada. Ann. Rep’t, v. 13, 1902, pt L. Dresser, J. A. Report on the Geology and Petrography of Brome Mountain, Quebec. Geol. Surv. of Canada. Ann. Rep’t, v. 16, 196, pt G. ioo NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the other of these two mountains. Another boulder at the same locality resembles this one but differs slightly in that it contains i or 2 per cent of quartz, and that there is a coarser and more regular intergrowth of the feldspars in the microperthite. A boulder of a ratber coarse-grained light colored syenitic rock 10 miles east-southeast of Ogdensburg has the same mineral com- position as the pulaskite of Mount Johnson, Quebec, but differs slightly in texture from the specimens of the Mount Johnson rock which have been seen by the writer, so the correlation can not be considered satisfactory. Its high content of feldspar, and the character of the accessory minerals place it with the Motiteregian syenites rather than any of the Precambrian rocks. Nephelite-syenite. A single boulder of nephelite-syenite was found lo miles east-southeast of Ogdensburg. It is a light colored rock of medium grain and consists chiefly of orthoclase and nephelite with scarcely more than 5 per cent of aegerite-augite and small amounts of sphene, magnetite, and purple fluorite. The nephelite does not amount to more than 10 or 15 per cent of the rock. This boulder is not referable to any definite locality as source, but is evidently from the Monteregian Province and may be an extreme phase of the Brome Mountain nordmarkite, some parts of which contain a little nephelite. Sodalite syenite. A boulder one foot in diameter, of a coarse- grained massive rock consisting of sodalite and alkali feldspars as the essential constituents was found 5 miles northeast of Ogdens- burg. The feldspar is in flat tabular crystals up to i cm in diameter, and the sodalite, which is of a light bluish gray color, fills in the spaces between tbe feldspar, and is present in much smaller amount. Microscopic examination shows that the feldspar is microperthite and albite with the former in excess. The sodalite has a refractive index of 1.482, indicating that it is sodalite proper rather than some other mineral of the sodalite group. The estimated mineral com- position of the rock is : alkali feldspars 70 per cent, sodalite 25 per cent, accessory constituents 5 per cent, including sphene, dark brown biotite, cancrinite, aegerite-augite, pyrite, and secondary calcite. In Johannsen’s classification it is 1118, leuco-albite-sodalite-syenite. If all of the soda feldspar were in separate crystals, there would prob- ably be more albite than orthoclase and the rock would be classed as the corresponding variety of sodalite-syenodiorite rather than syenite. It seems probable that this boulder is from one of the Monteregian hills, but on account of the absence of nephelite it fails: to agree with any of the published descriptions. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 lOI Essexite. In the description of the Monteregian hills the investi- gators extended the application of the name “essexite” to rocks differing greatly in mineral composition from those to which the name was originally applied. The Monteregian rocks which have been called essexite are of very diverse types, some approaching anorthosite, some theralite, and some pyroxenite, while the greater part of the rocks which have been classed as essexite are one variety or another of diorite or gabbro. In spite of the great differences in the total composition, however, there are all gradations from one variety to another, and there are certain peculiarities of texture and of the properties of certain minerals, such as the pyroxenes and amphiboles, which persist through a wide range of composition, so that it can not be denied that the extension of the name serves a useful purpose in showing the relationship of rocks which have a common origin and pass into each other by insensible degrees. In the discussion of the petrographic character of the boulders the name is therefore used in the same broad sense as it was used by O’Neilk and others who have written on the petrography of the Monteregian hills. The following points of difference are useful in distinguishing boulders of essexite from the Adirondack gabbros and other gabbros and norites of the Precambrian areas : 1 Complete absence of hypersthene and garnet from the essexite. The former is nearly always and the latter frequently present in the Precambrian gabbro. 2 The feldspar of the essexite is white or nearly so, and is free from small inclusions. That in the gabbro is full of small inclusions, which color it light to dark gray or greenish, and less often reddish or purplish. 3 The gabbro is often highly granulated and the minerals occur in bunches of very fine grain. The essexites sometimes show evidence of slight deformation subsequent to crystallization, in the wavy extinction of the feldspar crystals, but never show fine granu- lation like the gabbro. 4 Small to moderate amounts of feldspathoids (nephelite and sodalite) are present in much of the essexite, but never occur in the gabbro. 5 Apatite occurs more abundantly and in larger crystals in the essexite than in the gabbro. 1 O’Neill, J. J. St Hilaire (Beloeil) and Rougemont Mountains, Quebec. Geol. Surv. of Canada Memoir 43, 1914. Contains bibliography on the Monteregian hills. 102 NEW YORK state MUSEUM The most noticeable megascopic difference is the much lighter color of the essexite for the same amount of mafic constituents. This is due partly to the lighter color of the feldspar and partly to the coarser grain of the essexite. The essexite boulders may be divided into two groups : ( i ) those in which the plagioclase is oligoclase to andesine, and, (2) those in which the plagioclase is labradorite to bytownite. It should not be understood, however, that all those in each of these classes are otherwise exactly alike, although on account of the small number of boulders found they naturally show less variation than does the rock in place. In all of these essexite boulders the feldspar makes up two-thirds or more of the rock so that the coarser varieties are rather light colored. Since boulders of yamaskite have been found and the varieties of essexite high in dark minerals are intermediate between yamaskite and the more feldspathic essexites, it is to be expected that some of the other varieties would be found, and they actually have been found around Ithaca where more thorough search for the rarer boulders has l^een made than in the areas dealt with particularly in this report. The list of the essexite boulders found, with their probable sources, follows : Calcic variety with plagioclase labradorite to bytownite Locality of boulder Source 8 miles east of Og'densburg St Bruno or St Hilaire mountain, Quebec 5 miles northeast of Ogdensburg St Bruno or St Hilaire mountain, Quebec Sodic variety with plagioclase oligoclase to andesine 10 miles south-southeast of Clayton 4 miles southwest of Canton 10 miles east-southeast of Ogdens- burg 2 miles south of Schaghticoke 3 miles northeast of Amsterdam ShefYord mountain or Mount Johnson, Quebec Shefford mountain or Mount Johnson, Quebec Shefford mountain or Mount Johnson, Quebec Shefford mountain or Mount Johnson, Quebec Mount Johnson, Quebec In Johannsen’s classification the two boulders of essexite with the more calcic plagioclase would be 2316, or feldspathoid-bearing gab- bro, since they contain a small amount of a mineral of the sodalite group. The essexite with the more sodic plagioclase would be 2216, or feldspathoid-bearing diorite, since they contain small amounts of either nephelite or sodalite, with oligoclase or andesine as the only feldspar. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 103 The boulder from near Amsterdam in particular is very similar to the Mount Johnson essexite. On account of the occurrence of . essexite in several of the Monteregian hills, and the variability of the rock in each of the hills where it does occur, it is not possible to state any more closely from which of the hills the boulders listed have come. Mount Royal can be eliminated as a source for these particular boulders because the essexite of it is all darker colored, and is often scarcely half feldspar. Detailed petrographic descriptions of the boulders will not be given but it may be said that no essential difference could be found between them and the rocks of the Monteregian hills to which they are referred. The comparison was made with specimens in the case of Mount Johnson and Mount Royal only, the published reports on the others being used. The correlation is based not only on general similarity of appearance and composition of the rocks but also on the occurrence of like varieties of certain minerals and on agreement in the details of texture. Yamaskite. This is a dark colored, medium to coarse-grained massive rock which contains augite as the principal constituent, with subordinate amounts of anorthite and sometimes olivine and ilmenite. The three boulders of this rock which were found in northern New York do not differ enough to require individual description. The localities are, respectively: 10 miles east-southeast of Ogdensburg, 8 miles east of Ogdensburg, and 3 miles southwest of Canton. The estimated mineral composition of the boulder at the last men- tioned locality is augite 75 per cent, olivine 10 per cent, bytownite 8 per cent, other minerals 7 per cent. It is a mela-calcigabbro, 3312, near 3412, since the plagioclase is near the anorthite end of bytownite. Strictly speaking this does not come within the definition of yamaskite given by Young, ^ who said the feldspar should be anorthite. Although he did not state the limit on the amount of albite which the plagioclase might contain and still be called anorthite, he prob- ably placed it higher than the 5 per cent limit used here. The augite in this rock is more coarsely crystalline than the other minerals, the grains averaging about 8 mm in diameter. In thin section the augite is slightly pleochroic from light brown or pinkish brown to light greenish yellow. Some of the crystals are twinned and some show zonal structure. The plagioclase is in small crystals compared with the augite and occurs in bunches of several crystals filling in the interstices between the augite. These appear as white ^ Geol. Surv. of Canada, Ann. Rep’t, v. 16, pt. H, p. 31, 1906. 104 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM specks in the hand specimen. The olivine occurs in anhedra! grains, and is partially altered to serpentine and a carbonate mineral. Small amounts of brown hornblende are present, usually surrounding the augite, but apparently as a magmatic mineral rather than as a later alteration product. Small amounts of magnetite or ilmenite, and pyrrhotite are present. There is no apatite observable in thin section. These boulders check very well with the yamaskite of Mount Yamaska and Rougemont in southern Quebec, but are dififerent from any rock which is known to occur in the Prccambrian areas to the north. The analysis and description of essexite of St Bruno moun- tain' suggest that some varieties of it may be similar to the yamas- kites, but quantitative estimates of mineral composition are not available for the St Bruno rocks. Tinguaite, variety no. i. Boulders of tinguaite which agree exactly with occurrences of this rock in place in Montreal, were found at the following localities : lo miles south-southeast of Clay- ton, 21/2 miles south-southwest of Hammond (two boulders), and 5 miles northeast of Ogdensburg. The tinguaite of the one-foot boulder at the last named locality is selected for description because it is freest from alteration, but differs little otherwise from the boulders at the other localities. This is a fine-grained greenish gray rock, with phenocrysts of oligoclase (near albite), sodalite, yellow sphene, and aegerite-augite, up to 2 or 3 mm in diameter. Phenocrysts are much subordinate to the groundmass, in which the minerals can only be recognized microscopically on account of the fine grain. The essential minerals of the rock are orthoclase, nephelite, aegerite, and oligoclase. Sphene, aegerite-augite, albite and a mineral of the sodalite group are present in small amount. The orthoclase, which is the most abundant mineral, occurs in relatively thick tabular crystals^ mostly from 0.5 to 2.0 mm in greatest diameter, and incloses many short, stout hexagonal prisms of nephelite and long, slender aegerite crystals. The pyroxene phenocrysts are lighter green and have larger extinction angles than the smaller crystals and therefore con- tain less of the acmite molecule. In its texture and mineral com- position this rock can not be distinguished from tinguaite specimens from Quick’s quarry in the city of Montreal. Its symbol is 2218, corresponding to the plutonic rock nephelite syenite. It is far from the center point of both the order and the family, since the plagioclase 1 Dresser, J. A. Geol. Surv. of Canada, Memoir 7. Geology of St Bruno Mountain, p. 14-17. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 lOS contains little more than 5 per cent of anorthite and the total feldspar is little more than 5 per cent plagioclase. Tinguaite, variety no. 2. Another boulder of tinguaite of a different variety, which was found 5 miles northeast of Ogdensburg, has a mineral composition, by volume, estimated to be as follows : Orthoclase and microperthite 30 P^r cent Plagioclase, albite to oligoclase, many crystals zonal 30 per cent Sodalite 8 per cent Nephelite 10 per cent Aegerite 20 per cent Cancrinite V2 per cent Magnetite V2 per cent Pyrite little Sphene little Phenocrysts, which range up to about 6 mm in diameter, make up about 30 or 40 per cent of the rock. They are orthoclase, plagio- clase, aegerite, white to faintly bluish sodalite, and pinkish nephelite. The texture is cumulophyric, that is, the phenocrysts occur in bunches rather than uniformly distributed. The groundmass with grains about o.oi to o.io mm in diameter consists of potash feld- spar, oligoclase and aegerite with very small amounts of the other minerals mentioned above. The aegerite occurs in irregular grains as well as in the slender prismatic crystals which are the more usual mode of occurrence in porphyritic rocks. Nothing was found in the published descriptions which checks exactly with this boulder, but it is probably from one of the smaller of the Monteregian intrusive masses or perhaps a contact phase of one of the main syenite areas. It is similar to the nephelite-sodalite- syenite of St Hilaire mountain, described by J. J. O’Neill,^ but differs from it in that there is less sodalite and nephelite and no eudialite in the boulder. In Johannsen’s classification it is near the boundary of 2219 and 2218, but probably in 2219 since there seems to be a slight excess of plagioclase over potash feldspar. It might therefore be called a sodalite-nephelite-syenodiorite. Tinguaite, variety no. 3. A three-foot boulder of nephelite-free tinguaite was found 10 miles east-southeast of Ogdensburg. This is a porphyritic rock with light colored phenocrysts of orthoclase up to 10 mm in diameter, very sparingly distributed through a greenish gray groundmass made up mostly of grains from o.i to 1 .0 mm in diameter. Microscopic examination shows that the pheno- crysts contain some albite in perthitic intergrowth with the orthoclase but are not uniform in this respect, and that the groundmass con- ^ O’Neill, J. J. St Hilaire (Beloeil) and Rougemont Mountains, Quebec. Gcol. Surv. of Canada. Memoir 43, p. 38. io6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM sists of oligoclase, orthoclase and aegerite, with small amounts of sodalite and astrophyllite. It was not possible to estimate accurately the relative amounts of orthoclase and oligoclase but there is some- what less of the oligoclase than the potash feldspars, including micro- perthite. The rock is classified as 2214, or sodalite bearing syenite. The aegerite is in slender prismatic crystals bounded by (no) and (100) with terminal faces lacking or poorly developed. The largest ones are about i.o by 0.2 mm but they are mostly much smaller. The optical orientation, Zac=3®, strong pleochroism in green and yellow, and refractive index /3=i.79 indicate that this pyroxene has a composition approaching closely that of the pure acmite molecule, NaFe (5103)2- There is scarcely i per cent of the astrophyllite. Since the crystals of it are only a few tenths of a millimeter in diameter they are seen with difficulty in the hand specimen as specks of brown color and bright luster. In the thin section the astrophyllite is seen to occur scattered through the rock in single euhedral crystals and aggregates of several crystals. It has good cleavage in one direction, and extinction parallel to the cleavage and parallel to or symmetrical with the crystal faces indicates that it is orthorhombic. It is biaxial and positive, with X perpendicular to the cleavage and Y and Z in the cleavage plane. All sections show some pleochroism, but it is .strongest in those across the cleavage. The colors are X, orange- yellow. Y slightly darker yellow than Z, and Z pale lemon-yellow. The refractive indices are, °^=i.58 estimated from birefringence and Y, p=i.yoo±.oo^, Y=i.730±.oo8. The birefringence is about .050. These properties agree very satisfactorily with those of astrophyllite from other localities. Sphene which is so common an accessory mineral in alkali syenites and the related rocks, is entirely lacking in this rock, all of the titanium apparently having been used up in aegerite and astrophyllite. Camptonite and monchiquite. These are considered as being the .same rock since the distinction based on the existence of the partly glassy groundmass in monchiquite is an unimportant one and difficult to apply on account of the usual altered condition of this part of the rock. They all contain more than 50 per cent of mafites and therefore belong to class 3 of the quantitative modal classifica- tion. Specimens from two boulders of this general type of rock from 10 miles south-southeast of Clayton and 2)/2 miles south- southwest of Hammond, were studied microscopically. The one from the latter locality shows very abundant black phenocrysts of augite and hornblende in a dark gray groundmass. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 107 The largest crystals are about i cm in diameter, but they are mostly much smaller. Microscopic examination shows that there is about 50 per cent of augite, which is in idiomorphic crystals of all sizes from the largest phenocrysts down to nearly as small as can be dis- tinguished with the microscope. The augite is slightly pleochroic from yellowish brown to purplish brown. There is about 10 per cent of brown hornblende which occurs only as phenocrysts. There is a small amount of biotite with dark rims. Small octahedra of magnetite are aibundant. Around the dark minerals which are almost entirely in idiomorphic crystals there is a colorless material of low refractive index which is partly isotropic and partly weakly doubly refracting. This makes up nearly 30 per cent of the rock and is probably glass with some fine-grained nephelite or feldspar. Calcite is abundant as a secondary mineral in both the phenocrysts and groundmass. The rock can not be accurately classified because the nature of the leucocratic constituents is not known. The other boulder differs from this one chiefly in that it contains no hornblende and more augite. It has some analcite in cavities with calcite. Neither these two nor any other boulders of these basic porphyritic rocks which the writer has found contain more than a very small amount of green augite such as Professor Kemp' found very abundantly in the camptonite and monchiquite dikes of the Lake Champlain region. The augite is rather of a purplish to brownish color and pleochroic, corresponding to titanium augite. The most probable source for these boulders is regarded as being around Montreal, because dikes of these rocks are most abundant there. Similar rocks also occur around some of the other Monte- regian hills to the east of Montreal. Professor B. K. Emerson® has described boulders of a ix)rphyritic rock of this general type, occurring on Canandaigua lake. Alnoite. Two boulders of this rare rock, differing slightly from each other, were found about 5 miles northeast of Ogdensburg. The rock of the first boulder, which is the coarser grained, shows in the hand specimen poikilitic biotite crystals of dark brown color and bright luster, up to 8 mm in diameter. The rest of the rock is very finegrained and appears nearly black in mass. 1 Kemp, J. F. and Marsters, V. F. The Trap Dikes of the Lake Champlain Region. U. S. G. S. Bui. 107, 1893. ® Emerson, B. K. Note upon Two Boulders of a Very Basic Eruptive Rock from the West Shore of Canandaigua Lake ; and their Contact Phenomena upon the Trenton Limestone. 46th Ann. Rep’t N. Y. State Mus., p. 251-55. 1892. 108 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In thin section the rock is seen to consist of olivine, melilite, biotite, and augite as the essential constituents, with a few per cent each of apatite, magnetite, and perofskite as accessory original minerals and small amounts of secondary calcite and bluish chlorite. In Johannsen’s classification its symbol is 3125, or alnoite, since it contains between 50 and 95 per cent mafites, and the quarfeloids are all melilite. The melilite is mostly not in distinct crystals because it was about the last thing to crystallize, but some crystals of it flattened parallel 10 (.001) occur as inclusions in the biotite. The olivine is of two kinds, chrysolite or ordinary olivine, and monticellite, the Ca,Mg olivine, as in the alnoite at Isle Cadieux, which was described by N. L. Bo wen, ^ Considering the two kinds of olivine together they make up about one-half of the rock. The monticellite is distinguished from the chrysolite, which it closely resembles, by its negative optical character and lower double refrac- tion. The monticellite occurs mostly in irregular grains, while the chrysolite is often in euhedral crystals, some of which have a partial or complete rim of monticellite in optical continuity with them. The biotite is a faintly colored variety, in thin sections pale brown with a slightly greenish tinge. The crystals are of very irregular shape, are much larger than those of the other minerals, and are full of inclusions of olivine, perofskite etc. The augite is light yellow in thin section. For the most part it has irregular boundaries. Several adjacent inclusions of augite in biotite have cleavage parallel, extinguish together, and have the same double refraction, indicating that they are similarly oriented although appearing entirely separated in the thin section. Bowen’s interpretation of a similar structure in the Isle Cadieux alnoite is that it is due to the reaction of a residual liquid on the augite with formation of biotite during the later stages of the crystallization of the rock. The distribution of the augite in the rock is irregular but as nearly as can be estimated there is 5 to 10 per cent of it. Both the magnetite and perofskite occur in small disseminated octahedra as primary minerals. Magnetite of secondary origin formed by the alteration of the chrysolite is also present. The apatite is in slender elongated crystals with basal parting. The presence of calcite indicates a moderate amount of alteration of the lime-bearing minerals, especially melilite, with which it is closely associated. ^ Bowen, N. L. Genetic Features of Alnoitic Rocks at Isle Cadieux, Quebec. Amer. Jour. Sci. (5) v. 3, 1922, p. 1-34. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1924 IO9 The other alnoite boulder from the same locality as the one just described is finer grained and fresher, showing an unusually small amount of alteration for a rock of this type. It also contains the poikilitic biotites in crystals up to 3 mm in diameter. It consists of chrysolite, melilite, biotite, magnetite and perofskite and has the symbol 3125. Monticellite may be present in small amount but was not positively identified. The biotite has a refractive index Y=i.6io±oo5 and the melitite 0)=: 1.640 ±005, which check with the corresponding data on the minerals of the Isle Cadieux alnoite. The boulder of augite-bearing monticellite alnoite agrees in all respects with a variety of the Isle Cadieux rock as described by Bowen. Not only are they alike in their unusual mineral composi- tion, but the order of formation as indicated by the shapes and relationships of the crystals is the same for the two rocks. The corrosion of the augite crystals surrounded by biotite, and the rims of monticellite on chrysolite are especially characteristic. The finer grained boulder with slightly more simple mineral composition is similar to another variety of the Isle Cadieux alnoite, but is also like that described by Stansfield^ which occurs at St Monique, 25 miles to the north of Isle Cadieux. These two boulders are confidently regarded as having come from the immediate vicinity of one or the other of these two outcrops. Graywacke. Certain boulders of fragmental rocks, showing evi- dence of dynamic metamorphism, are classed as graywacke rather than sandstone because of the large amount of chloritic and sericitic cementing material around the angular sand grains which indicates that the original sediment contained complex grains, probably of shale or slate, in addition to the grains of quartz and other pure minerals. As an example the rock of a two foot boulder 10 miles south-southeast of Clayton, will be described. This is a greenish gray rock showing megascopically quartz grains up to to 2 or 3 mm in diameter in a fine slightly schistose matrix. Microscopic examination shows highly angular grains averaging about 0.5 mm in diameter. The fragmental material is about 80 per cent quartz and 20 per cent plagioclase. There are a few pieces of sphene, magnetite and graphite. The recrystallized matrix or cement is composed of calcite, chlorite and sericite. That the rock has suffered deformation is indicated by the parallel structure developed by the platy minerals and by the wavy extinction of many of the quartz and feldspar grains. 1 Stansfield, J. An extension of the Monteregian Province, Geological Magazine, v. LX, 1Q2^, p. 433-.';.'?. I TO NEW YORK state MUSEUM Boulders of rocks similar to this were found wherever search was made in northern New York, as indicated on the map (figure 3). They were seen in greatest abundance about half way between Ogdensburg and Canton. These boulders are regarded as originating in the eastern townships of Quebec. Professor F. D. Adams^ has described under the name of feldspathic graywacke specimens from several localities in the eastern townships, which closely resemble these boulders in structure as well as in mineral composition. Geologic maps of this region are not sufficiently detailed to show the limits of distribution of the graywacke, but the belt of Cambrian rocks extending northeast on the west side of the Sutton mountain anticline is regarded as the most probable source of these boulders. Chlorite schist. A boulder of chlorite schist 10 miles south- southeast of Clayton is a fine-grained green rock with poor cleavage. It has some small cavities stained with limonite. Microscopic exam- ination shows that the average grain size is about o.oi mm. The estimated mineral composition is chlorite 70 per cent, epidote 18 per cent, quartz 10 per cent, specular hematite 2 per cent. Chlorite schist is reported by R. W. Ells^ as being one of the principal rocks of the Sutton mountain anticline in the eastern townships in southern Quebec. Some of the specimens of schistose rocks from the eastern townships, described by Professor F. D. Adams, are rich in chlorite, but contain also actinolite. Professor J. A. Bancroft® also reports chlorite schist and mentions the occurrence in it of copper ore and veins containing milky quartz and siderite. While it is relatively narrow, the folded belt containing these rocks continues a long distance in the direction of strike and it might be expected that similar rocks should occur far to the .south of the eastern townships along the same belt. A boulder of milky quartz with fragments of fine-grained chlorite schist, and iron stained cavities where siderite has presumably weathered out, was found 10 miles southeast of Ogdensburg. A similar boulder of milky quartz with chlorite was found 3 miles south of Altamont. This contains also siderite, partly weathered to limonite, and a little chalcopyrite partly weathered to limonite and ’ malachite. Several boulders of similar composition have been found in the vicinity of Ithaca, much farther from the belt of rocks where lAdams, F. D., Geol. Surv. of Canada. Rep't 1880-81-82-83, pt. A. p. 8-23. ^ Ells, R. W. Report on the Southwest Sheet of the Eastern Townships. Map (Quebec) Geol. Surv. of Canada, Ann. Rep’t, v. 7, pt. J, p. 66, 1896. ® Bancroft, J. A. Report on the Copper Deposits of the Eastern I'ownships of the Province of Quebec. Quebec Dep’t of Colonization, Mines and Fisheries. 1915. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 111 they are supposed to have originated. It is likely that the boulder at Altamont came from some locality farther to the south than those in northern New York and around Ithaca. Indications of Lines of Glacial Motion Based on Location of Boulders In general, the conclusions reached from the occurrence of boulders whose source is fairly well fixed do not conflict with the previously held ideas in regard to the direction of ice movement in New York and the adjacent j:>arts of Canada and Vermont, nor do they make these ideas much more specific. A possible exception to this state- ment is discussed below in connection with the supjx)sed eastern townships boulders. The abundance of Canadian boulders in the Finger lakes region compared to farther east directly south of the Adirondacks, may be considered as evidence of the ‘weakness of the ice current over the Adirondacks, and also as favoring the idea that little or no ice that came around the Adirondacks reached the region of Otsego county and the adjacent parts. Of course the absolute numbers of boulders of all kinds in these respective regions needs to be considered and, since boulders are much more abundant around the south ends of the Finger lakes than in the parts of Otsego county visited, it should be necessary to look at many more boulders in the latter area than has been done, before concluding that Canadian boulders are entirely absent. The one essexite boulder near Amsterdam, believed to be from Alount Johnson, Quebec, should be especially noticed as being evi- dence that ice from somewhat east of north in southern Quebec, reached this locality. There is nothing to show whether it came nearly straight, or whether it followed the main valleys. The boulders in the Hudson valley indicate southward movement along the valley, although little field work was done in this region. The very small number of recognizable Canadian boulders found near the Hudson suggests that the ice currents moving into the Hudson-Champlain valley from the north were comparatively weak, and that a large part of the ice which reached the vicinity of Albany, for example, was due to heavy precipitation in northeastern New York and northern Vermont. The scarcity of Canadian boulders may' be m'ore apparent than real, however, since in this region the Monteregian rocks were the only ones of Canadian origin that we really hoped to distinguish from those from other localities. 112 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM That ice moved southwestward in the St Lawrence valley between Montreal and Lake Ontario is probably not disputed by anyone. Drumlins, the shapes of glacially eroded rocks, and glacial scratches all indicate this and the distribution of boulders checks it up in a general way, although over much of the part of northern New York that has been mapped geologically near the St Lawrence the bearing of the scratches is not so far west of south as the course of the valley itself, and as the line of motion indicated by the boulders. The occurrence in the vicinity of Clayton and Ogdensburg, of boulders of chlorite schist and greenish graywacke or feldspathic sandstone from the Sutton mountain range of the eastern townships of Quebec, brings up the interesting question of to what extent con- tinental glaciation was effective in southern Quebec, and especially the eastern townships region north of Vermont. That these boulders actually came from the eastern townships would seem to be indicated by the fact that not only they, but also boulders from some of the more easterly ones of the Monteregian hills become more abundant 8 or lo miles southeast of the St Lawrence in the vicinity of Ogdensburg than within a mile or two of the river, and that there is a corresponding decrease in boulders derived from north of the St Lawrence, especially anorthosite boulders. According to R. W. Ells^ any glaciation of which evidence remains in the eastern townships, or rather more particularly the region about Sutton mountain, was of a purely local nature, and the direction of motion was northwest as indicated by scratches and by boulders of serpentine and diorite from Or ford mountain. Ells lays stress upon the control of ice movement by topographic features in this local glaciation, especially in the valley of St Francis River. It seems reasonable to suppose that the Sutton mountain range with a maxi- mum elevation of about 3000 feet supported local glaciers after the ice in the lower part of the St Lawrence valley had entirely melted or had become so thin that it would not move much. Ells, however, states that in this area he could find no evidence that it had ever been covered by a continental ice sheet. For the country farther to the east Chalmers* is even more explicit in referring all of the glacial phenomena to local glaciers moving northward on the slope toward the St Lawrence. 1 Ells, R. W. Report on the Southwest Sheet of the Eastern Townships Map (Quebec) Geol. Surv. of Canada, Ann. Rep’t, v. 7, pt. J, p. 85-86, i8g6. 2 Chalmers, R. On the Glacial Lake St Lawrence of Professor Warren Upham, Amer. Jour. Sci. v. 49, p. 273-75, 1895. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 • II3 The ice perhaps moved northwest from the higher part of the eastern townships during a large part of the glacial period, and may have encountered at some stage relatively stagnant ice in the St Lawrence valley which had either accumulated in place from snowfall or had come from the Laurentian highlands a short dis- tance to the north. Under such conditions boulders from the eastern townships might easily have become incorporated in the ice in the valley at some distance above the bottom by pushing of the ice from one direction over that from the other. Then at some later stage in the ice age when the ice was thicker the boulders which had already been carried a short distance to the northwest would have been carried much farther to the southwest by ice from the Laurentian highlands, and ice accumulated in place moving up the St Lawrence valley, and spreading out into the valley of Lake Ontario and the country to the south. On the other hand, it seems barely possible that previous to the development of local glaciers in the eastern townships, at least the west side of the Sutton mountain range was covered by ice which was a part of the Labradorian ice sheet and which was moving some- what west of south. Anorthosite boulders are not so numerous as might be expected in the Mohawk valley, in the Helderberg mountains, or the northeastern part of the southwestern plateau physiographic province. The boulders which do occur in these areas are from Ine main area of anorthosite in the eastern Adirondacks. Somewhere in central New 'York the boulder train from the Morin anorthosite overlaps that from the Adirondacks. Most of the anorthosite boulders in northern and western New York are believed to be from the Morin area north of Montreal, but some may be from still more distant sources. As far as the distribution of the boulders of the Morin anorthosite is known, they indicate a direction of movement from southwest to south-southwest from the source, essentially in agreement with the other data, but the limits of the boulder train from this source have not been mapped. The anorthosites are all so much alike that it is usually difficult to tell from the petrographic character of a boulder, from which area it is derived. Limits of Distribution of Boulders of Particular Kinds of Rock It was hoped to be able to show and discuss in some detail the areal distribution of boulders of a few rocks the limits of whose possible sources are well known. The information available is still so incomplete, however, that it is considered best to wait until more 1 14 ■ new YORK STATE MUSEUM is known as to the occurrence of boulders between the sources and the localities where they were found by the writer. Mount Johnson in southern Quebec would appear to be an eminently suitable one from which to study the dispersal of boulders, on account of its small area and the easily recognizable character of the rocks which compose it. Boulders as Evidence of Glacial Erosion Distant transport of boulders from a very small source and their distribution over a large area even though very scarce is an evidence that a large amount of erosion must have been caused by the glacier. A knowledge of the size and frequency of occurrence of the par- ticular kind of boulders in the different parts of the area in which they occur would furnish a basis for an approximate estimate of the actual amount of material removed, but of course it would be difficult to estimate the total amount of the rock in the glacial deposit even if the amount on the surface were known with a fair degree of accuracy. General Conclusions and Evaluation of Results Enough work has not yet been done in the northeastern United States thoroughly to test out the possibilities of the study of boulder dispersal as a part of the science of glacial geology. As the bed rock formations from which the boulders are derived become better known and detailed maps of glacial deposits are made for more areas, the conditions for boulder investigation will be greatly improved. On account of the large areas under consideration and the difficulty of one person being familiar with all classes of rocks which are found as boulders, contributions on this subject may necessarily be frag- mentary. If it seems that from one month’s field work we have obtained little in the way of positive results, this does not necessarily indicate that by these methods valuable contributions may not be made to glacial geology, but rather that more extensive and perhaps more detailed field observations will need to be made and interpreted. By the correlation of observations by different persons on boulders at different localities perhaps more could be accomplished than by one person attempting to study directly all of a large area. Little has yet been done in New York toward a study of the com- position and sources of the morainic deposits although much has been done in the mapping of glacial deposits from their external form and general structure. Where boulders are abundant a deter- mination of the kinds present may be considered a contribution to REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 II5 regional petrography and mineralogy. Knowledge of the occurrence of boulders of rocks or minerals far from where they are found in place should be of value to students of mineralogy and petrography in this State. Location and description of boulders of types for which no probable source can be found may lead to the discovery of masses of these rocks which have been overlooked or which occur in unmapped regions. In addition to the study of boulders as a means of determination of the directions of glacial motion, other lines of research on glacial boulders were suggested either by this work or the reading in connection with the preparation of this report ; some of these will be specifically mentioned, without claiming that any of them involve new ideas. It might be of interest to make a quantitative study of the com- position of the ground moraine, recessional moraines and other glacial deposits in the same region. In some instances the differences between the kinds of boulders in these different types of deposits have been remarked upon in a general way but it is thought that a more exact study would add greatly to our knowledge of glacial erosion and of the way in which material is carried by the ice. The vertical distribution of materials from different sources in sections of morainic deposits may be worthy of further investigation. Sauramo^ reports that in some of the moraines in Finland the boulders of the different rocks from the bottom to the top of the section are in a general way in the same order as their respective sources, as one goes back in the direction from which the ice came. If there is a tendency for the boulders to be so arranged, we might expect that there would be more mixing of the upper and lower parts at many other places than in the part of Finland referred to, where the relief is comparatively low. It seems to the writer that there is more to, be done in the study of the shapes of boulders, in relation to the kind of deposit, the position in the deposit, the kind of rock of which the boulder is com- posed, and the distance of the boulder from the source. More detailed investigation of the variation in size of boulders with dis- tance from the source is also suggested in this connection. Renewed attention is attracted to glacial boulders as an aid in prospecting by the recent work in northern Europe which has been reviewed by Sauramo.^ If the conditions for the examination of boulders were as favorable as in Finland, it is believed that elacial boulders would be of great value in prospecting in northern Ontario 1 Sauramo, M. Tracing of Glacial Boulders and Its Application in Pros- pecting. Comm. Geol. de Finlande, Bui. 67, 1924. Il6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and Quebec. Under present conditions, however, boulders can only be examined readily in thoroughly burned areas and along river banks. The transported boulders and smaller fragments of fossiliferous rocks which are found throughout practically all of New York would need to be investigated by a paleontologist familiar with the Paleozoic of New York and southern Canada. Brigham' investigated the boulders of sedimentary rocks between the Mohawk and Susque- hanna rivers, but only considered the dispersal of boulders from a definite ledge in the case of the Oriskany sandstone at Oriskany Falls. Summary Field work of about a month in central and northern New York followed by laboratory examination of specimens collected and searching of the literature, has resulted in finding only a few boulders and those all from the Monteregian province, for which the source could be located within a few miles or less ; for some others, as the anorthosites of the Adirondack and Morin areas and the graywacke and chlorite schist of the eastern townships, the general region of the source can be pointed out ; while still others, such as many of the granites and gneisses, may have come from any one of a number of very widely separated areas, some of which are of large size. Petrographic descriptions of some of the boulders are given and attention is called to the Monteregian hills as sources from which boulders may be traced. So far the indications as to directions of glacial motion derived by the writer from boulder dispersal are general and suggestive rather than specific and demonstrative. ' Brigham, A. P. Drift Boulders Between the Mohawk and Susquehanna Rivers. Amer. Jour. Sci. v. 49, p. 213, 228, 1895. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I 924 117 MODERN IDEAS ON AMERICAN STRATIGRAPHY AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY BY DR GuSTAF T. TrOEDSSON Geological Institute, Stockholm It is certainly not a mere accident that the present high status of the American stratigraphy is contemporaneous with the mining of the immense natural products in the sedimentai'y formations of America. The wide distribution of the sediments, the easily acces- sible sections, the large scale mining of natural products, the num- berless drillings, etc., have furnished American geologists with an abundance of observations, beyond comparison in any other country of the world. Furthermore the absence of national boundaries in America allows anybody to study the main features of a large con- tinent of rather simple structure, “ the type continent ” of Dana, while the European geologist has to rely mainly upon his own national part of the broken European borderland of the Eurasian continent. In fact it is no wonder that America having these advantages has become the leading country in stratigraphy as well as in paleo- geography. A paleontologist from a country upon the Fenno- scandian Shield — like the present writer — will of course be pleased to feel the obvious interest shown in Scandinavian stratigraphy in America, particularly by the State Geological Surveys. But this is as logical as the fact that America has produced the founders of modern paleogeography. It is true, however, that the modern American views have been very little followed in Europe. This is perhaps due to the science itself ; the results attained by a geologist are not in the same degree applicable in other parts of the world as in the case of most branches of natural science. Therefore, new ideas in geologj^ need a long time to get through. For the time immediately behind us we have also to take into consideration the isolating period of the World War. In spite of this the scientific connections across the Atlantic ocean are not what they could be or ought to be. This is the reason why I have tried to give a brief account of the principles now ruling in American stratigraphy and paleo- geography, mainly by aid of experiences from a journey through the eastern and some other parts of the United States from July 1921 to January 1922. During this travel, for which I am deeply indebted to the American-Scandinavian Foundation, I had the ii8 NEW YORK state MUSEUM invaluable favor of being guided in the field and the museums by several of the leading geologists and paleontologists of America to whom I desire to express my thanks. Above all I wish to men- tion Professors Schuchert of Yale and Raymond of Harvard, Doctors Ulrich and Bassler of the National Museum, Washington, D. C., Doctors A. F. Foerste, Dayton, Ohio, R. Ruedemann, Albany, N. Y., and J. A. Udden, Austin, Texas. This paper was originally , written and printed in Swedish^ in order to draw attention to those ideas that seem to be of special interest to our own stratigraphy. In translating the paper into English I have summarized the reviewing part but added some notes on Swedish geology. In the year 1902 the first fundamental principles concerning American paleogeography were established by Ulrich and Schuchert in “Paleozoic Seas and Barriers in Eastern North America,” a paper, prepared and printed for the annual report of Director John M. Clarke, and at his request. These principles have been developed further by the same authors, to some degree in diverse directions. The important papers published by T. C. Chamberlin, Schuchert, Ulrich, Willis,^ and others, on diastrophism and paleogeography in the years around ,1910, show us that entirely new paleogeographic and stratigraphic methods, foreign to European science, had begun to develop and have in part been accepted. Among the most noteworthy of these papers are Ulrich’s Revision of the Paleozoic Systems and Schu chert’s Paleogeography of North America. These complete each other exceedingly well and give a good idea of the actual problems in American historical geology of today. As alluded to above, there is perhaps no science where the opin- ions are so diverse as in geology, depending upon the kind of facts and methods bearing on this science, the different kinds of experi- ence of students, as well as the great difficulty of getting experience wide enough to form a judgment on every question. Concerning 1 Troedsson, G. Nyare asikter inom pale’ogeografisk och stratigrafisk forskning i Nordamerika. Tekniska Larov. i Malmo, arsredogorelse 1923-24. Malmo 1924. 2 Chamberlin, T. C. Diastrophism as the ultimate basis of correlation. Jour. Geol. v. XVII. Chicago IQ09. Schuchert, C. Paleogeography of North America. Bui. GeoL. Soc. America, v. 20. New York 1910. Ulrich, E. O. Revision of the Paleozoic systems. Bui. Geol. Soc. America. V. 22. 1911. ■ _ - • • ■ ■ Willis, Bailey. Paleogeographic maps of North America. Jour. Geol. V. 17. Chicago 1909. Principles of paleogeography. Science. N. S. 31. New York 1910. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 Itg especially the Lower Paleozoic formations, we know that they have their most complete development in the Eastern United States. Therefore, the interest devoted to American stratigraphy by stratigraphers in other parts of the world will, of course, be attractive to students with especially wide knowledge in this field. Ulrich’s Revision is founded upon an immense first-hand experi- ence. But we have also to bear in mind that this experience has been procured from a limited part of the world; the universality of the ideas and theories met with in the Revision has not yet been proved ; this concerns above all Ulrich’s revised classification. The discovery of breaks in apparently complete successions has given us a new fundamental criterion in stratigraphy. But it is a method that has to be used with discretion. It has shown its scientific value through numberless observations in America by many stratigraphers. And there is perhaps nobody who has given such prominence to it as Ulrich, when stating that “the accessible depositional sequence at whatever locality and however obscure the breaks, is always incomplete. The more complete the stratigraphic record the more numerous the hiatuses; the fewer the breaks the greater their average time values.” ® Already the first stratigraphers in England have indicated hiatuses between the systems and in the rest of Europe we know many breaks of this kind. The ruling opinion is, however, that breaks are angular unconformities or at least indicated by basal conglomerates. Neither in Scandinavia nor in Germany is there any single name for disconformity. “ Dis- kordans ” is always angular, “ konkordans ” is a simple contact without hiatus. During recent years the idea of conform- able hiatuses has obtained increasing attention through the influence of the American science. During my travel in the United States I had occasion to visit some of the most familiar localities, for instance those at Waldron, Ind., Louisville, Ky., and Buffalo, N. Y. Concerning the disconformity between the Silurian and the Devonian coral limestones at Beargrass quarry at Louisville I must admit that it would have escaped my attention entirely, if I had not known about it beforehand. And yet important parts of the Silurian and Devonian are there lacking. Ever since the important erosional power of mountain streams has been generally recognized, the students of geology and physical geography have been inclined to overestimate the amount of erosion in general. Contrary to this, Ulrich maintains a distinction between •'’Ulrich, E. O. The Ordovician- Silurian boundary. C. R. XII. Congr. Geol. Int. 1913. Ottawa 1914, p. 598. 120 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the erosion in positive and negative areas. I should be inclined to suggest that Ulrich has really been one of the first to prove the possibility of nonerosion in negative areas. An illustration like the Fernvale, a thin Ordovician limestone formation, that has remained practically intact through whole geological periods, ought to become impressed on the mind as well as the well-known transporting powers of the mountain rivers. The theory of slight erosion constitutes a key to modern paleogeography : for areas without deposits during a certain period are normally looked upon as land areas. The oldest stratigraphic criterion the fauna, has been much dis- puted. On the one hand, Ulrich has restricted its original dominant character in stratigraphy ; on the other, however, it has gained more importance in paleogeography. As a rule a hiatus is indicated by a marked faunal break. This, again, is caused by the fact that the four seas around North America have given rise to as many faunal realms : the transgression from one sea with its fauna has succeeded a transgression from another sea with an entirely different fauna. Repeated transgressions from one realm, or recurrent faunas, are often, but not always, intercalated with beds carrying fossils from another realm, on account of the tilting of the continent. The most striking case of recurrence is the Spergen Hill fauna which appears four or perhaps six times within one or two periods (Ulrich). There are probably few things, however, which have caused more discus- sion in geology than the recurrent faunas. It would carry us too far to review the different opinions. Ulrich, for instance, denies entirely the possibility of different faunas in the same Paleozoic basin, thus rejecting the common view ruling among geologists since Forbes’ studies of the distribution of the recent fauna along the coasts of Great Britain. I wonder if not still more detailed studies of the recent bottom fauna in the ocean coast regions would let us learn the real relation between the different faunal assemblages. Such studies have been made in late years by Swedish and Danish zoologists in the Skagerrack, the Cattegat, the Sound and in the Baltic sea. The distribution of the bottom fauna in these regions depends mainly upon depth, temperature and other physical condi- tions of the water but very little up>on the bottom material. The different faunal provinces form narrow or broad bands along the coast and a central zone with the animals of the deepest water. Every zone has distinct leading or index forms ; sometimes two sta- tions a few hundred feet apart do not show any species in common. The zones of the Baltic sea are very few and correspond to the shore zones of the more open waters of the Cattegat and Skagerrack. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 I2I Because most of these results have not yet been published I can not go further into detail. Whether these facts will affect the theory of recurrence it is not yet possible to determine. The possibility of recurrent faunas renders the faunistic correla- tions much more uncertain. Ulrich claims, however, that every re- currence has brought about new variations in the organisms and these variations can also be recognized but only by the most careful discrimination in the stuffy of the fossils. “ If paleontological cor- relations have sometimes proved erroneous or imperfect, the fault has not lain with the fossils, but with the paleontologist who en- deavored to interpret their testimony. Studied in minutest detail and determined and matched as critically as possible, the fossils tell the story both truly and fully.”* It is evident, however, that this method demands much of the paleontologist and, as a rule, it will not give absolute clearness in difficult questions. Ulrich also lays much stress upon physical evidence, for instance the presence of dis- conformities etc., and, above all, diastrophic criteria are decisive according to him ; “ Diastrophism, in its broadest sense, affords the only means of finally attaining a reasonably accurate and syste- matically constructed classification.”® The theory of diastrophism had its origin in Europe, it is true, but in America it has been developed to a stratigraphic cri- terion, thanks to works by Willis, Chamberlin, Ulrich, and others. Recently it has, however, been severely criticized by Shepard.® Diastrophism as a stratigraphic criterion is founded upon the idea of permanency as to the distribution of the positive and negative ele- ments of a continent. These are conditions closely connected with paleogeography, as it has been elaborated by Ulrich and Schuchert. And because their methods of paleogeography have been very little tried in Europe, the question of diastrophism has not gained much attention except in connection with the theory of great crustal move- ments. The above mentioned stratigraphic criteria afford the main basis for modern paleogeography. The paleogeographic maps published by Schuchert, Ulrich, and Willis are indeed very different, at least in details. This is, however, not remarkable because of the different * Ulrich, E. O. Mississippian series in western Kentucky. Pt. 2, p. 191, Kentucky Geol. Surv. 1917. ® Correlation by Displacements of the Strandline and the Function and Proper Use of Fossils in Correlation. Bui. Geol. Soc. America, v. 27. 1916, p. 467. ® Shepard, F. P. To Question the Theory of Periodic Diastrophism. Jour. Geol. V. XXXI. Chicago, 1923. 122 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM stress laid upon different premises. Ulrich, for instance, pays more attention to the diastrophic movements than do geologists in general. We have also to l)ear in mind that the paleogeography is still in its early development, and we have to reckon with its eminently uncertain character, but in spite of this the results hitherto obtained give excellent promise for the future. After the publication of Seas and Barriers, the next important step forward in paleogeography is marked by Schuchert’s eminent work Paleogeography of North America,'^ which apparently belongs to those American geological papers of recent time that have received attention in Europe. Finally, Schuchert has by his Sites and Nature of North American Geosyn- clines given paleogeography a central place in modern geology. It is not at all the intention of the writer to take a definite position with reference to the discussion of these questions now going on in America. For us in Europe the matter is rather how to direct atten- tion to the possibilities which eventually are to be found in the views of the stratigraphical problems that have gradually been advanced in America. In America where disconformities, stratigraphic over- laps, recurrent faunas, etc. are well-known facts, the main debate deals with the interpretation of the individual cases, thus being on another level than in Europe where most geologists do not yet take all these criteria into consideration. Again it is evident that bringing these new methods to Europe will furnish new proofs for or against them, and thus help to solve one of the most difficult problems in geology : the reconstruction of the ancient continents. In deciding how to apply the above-mentioned ideas in strati • graphy and paleog'eography to studies in other parts of the world, I believe that a region like the Scandinavian-^Baltic part of Europe ought to become eminently valuable for comparisons. The Lower Paleozoic of this region belongs to the most thoroughly studied series of strata in the world and, furthermore, this part of Europe shows in its main tectonic features great similarities to America : it has a nucleus of Archean (Fennoscandia) surrounded by Paleozoic and younger beds. The value of comparison with this region has early been recognized in America. Thus, BassleU has studied the Baltic ^ Bui. Geol. Soc. America, v. 34, 1923. Presidential address. ® Bassler, R. S. The Early Paleozoic Bryozoa of the Baltic Provinces. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bui. 77. Washington 1911. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 I23 Paleozoic Bryozoa. Reymond,® Twenhofel/® and Grabau^^ have vis- ited the region and published their opinions of the stratigraphy with comparisons with America (1916), and -finally Ulrich and Ruede- mann have travelled through some of the main Paleozoic districts of Sweden (1922). Most of our literature, however, is evidently not accessible to the majority of students because it is principally written in Scandinavian languages/' The main features of the Fennoscandian region have already been shown to American readers by the Norwegian geologist O. Holte- dahl/® From Scotland the Caledonian Geosyncline extended during Cambro-Silurian time along the western part of the Scandinavian peninsula, Spitsbergen, and the northernmost part of Greenland. To the west of this geosyncline lay an unstable Atlantic land-area, ■to the east the stable Archean region, the Baltic shield, the most positive part of which was Finland. I should rather suggest that 'this positive region extended to the southern end of the present Sweden ; but this southern part was divided into smaller ones by troughs running E-W or, farther to the south, SE-NW. It has been recorded in recent years that some synclines with Cambro- Silurian remains in eastern South Sweden as well as the surrounding horsts were established already in Subjotnian (early Algonkian) time.^^ Even the details in fracturing, such as the breaking up of the anticlines into smaller segments, were worked out in Subjotnian time. And even more these segments are still easily recognizable ; they have of course been eroded on their surfaces, but the summit of each segment forms an even plain which is part of the Subjotnian land surface. This land surface is about the same as that of Sub- cambrian age ; as a common name the “ Precambrian landsurface ” has been proposed. In the Subjotnian syncline of Ostergotland — 9 Raymond, B. E. The Correlation of the Ordovician Strata of the Baltic Basin with those of Eastern North America. Bui. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Coll. V. LVI. no. 3. Cambridge, Mass. 1916. Twenhofel, W. H. The Silurian and High Ordovician Strata of Esthonia, Russia. Bui. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Coll. v. LVI. no. 3. Cambridge, Mass. 1916. Grabau, A. W. Comparison of American and European Lower Ordovician Formations. Bui. Geol. Soc. America, v. 27. 1916. The Paleozoic formations of Sweden are treated by J. C. Moberg in Historical-Stratigraphical review of the Silurian of Sweden. Sveriges geol. unders. Ser. C. Nr. 229. Stockholm 1911. This book contains also the main bibliography on the subject up to 1910. 19 Holtedahl, O. Paleogeography and Diastrophism in the Atlantic- Arctic Region during Paleozoic Time. Amer. Jour. Sci. Ser. 4. v. XLIX. 1920. 1^ Asklund, B. Bruchspaltenbildungen im siidostlichen Ostergotland nebst einer Uebersicht der geologischen Stellung der Bruchspalten Siidostschwedens. Geol. For. i Sthlm Forh. 1923. 124 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM as well as in other regions with Cambro-Silurian deposits — the sedimentary rocks have been removed by erosion from great areas. Their originally wide extent is indicated by the appearance of Cam- brian sandstone dykes. In such areas the Archean surface of today is even and identical with that below the Lower Cambrian sandstone. Hogbom has shown that the average Post-Silurian erosion of these parts of the Subcambrian crystalline ground has hardly surpassed a few meters of thickness of rock. The Lower Paleozoic transgressions in South Sweden have come partly from the west, partly from the east; and several of the eastern transgressions, which have not always reached the western provinces, have extended from the north far to the south into the geosyncline and left deposits in northern Sweden and southern Norway. The western transgressions again have invaded the geosyncline from the south and, as a rule, not reached beyond the Baltic region. In recording the different transgressions I can not go far into detail. At Hardeberga, near Lund, province of Scania, the most complete Lower Cambrian succession in Scandinavia has been recorded. Nevertheless there are at least two breaks in the uppermost layers, none of which corresponds to the boundary between Lower and Middle Cambrian. The section is from above down: 1 Alum shale belonging to Middle Cambrian. 2 Calcareous and argillaceous sand- stone 0.35m 3 Highly calcareous sandstone with basal phosphatic conglomerate . . o . 1 1 m Zone of Acrothele b e 1 1 a p u n c- t a t a Walcott Disconformity (sharp and clear) 4 Limestone of shell fragments 5 Calcareous sandstone with well- worn large quartz grains ; pebbles of phosphatic sandstone, some- times more than 50 mm in diameter, in the basal layers .... Disconformity 0.18 ml Zone ofEllipso- c e p h a 1 u s and j Strenuella 0.50 m j 6 Fine-grained sandstone. A few meters down in this sandstone the zone of Schmidtiellus Torelli Moberg, H y o 1 i - thus De Geeri Holm, and Obolella Mobergi Wal- cott have been found. Hogbom, A. G. unci Ahlstrbm, N. G. Ubcr die .subkambrische Landflache am Fusse vom Kinnekulle. Bui. Geol. Inst. Ups. XIX. Uppsala 1924. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I924 125 A still older zone, that of Discinella Holsti, has not yet been met with in Scania. This is the oldest Scandinavian fossil- bearing horizon and has been recorded in the Mjosen district of Norway and in the Baltic region. It is probable that the above-mentioned transgressions have come from the east, or from the north in Norway, and there are no positive facts for any marine connection between Scandinavia and England in Lower Cambrian time. This condition ruled perhaps during the oldest Middle Cambrian time (zone of Paradoxides olandicus). But then the western transgressions became dominant during Middle and Upper Cambrian (Paradoxides and Olenus shales) and Lower Ordovician time. The Dictyograptus fauna invaded this region from the west and so did the Ceratopyge fauna. The laitter was, according to Grabau^* of Siberian or Pacific origin. This might be right, but a few forms have ancestors in the Swedish Upper Cambrian and there is good evidence for this fauna having entered at least the south Scandinavian area from the west ; we have for instance to remember its wide distribution in western Europe and the more complete development of the transgressing part of the Ceratopyge shales in the Oslo district of Norway than in Sweden. The remaining Ordovician succession has occasioned much trouble. There are shales with graptolites in Scania and in regions bounding the Caledonian geosyncline, while limestones pre- dominate in the main Ordovician districts of Sweden. These lime- stones are closely connected vvrith the Ordovician series in Esthonia ; the shales, however, correspond exceedingly well with the English Ordovician. The ruling theory is that these shales and limestones have been laid down in one continuous basin. But in many cases it has been impossible to correlate the beds. The introduction by Raymond, Grabau, and others, of the hiatus element into the Baltic- Scandinavian succession has no doubt shown how to solve the problems. I am convinced that future field work will prove the presence of disconformities in many places where faunal breaks long have been known. Of remarkable hiatuses there is for instance the one embracing most of the Middle and Upper Cambrian in the Baltic provinces, the widespread but not yet recorded in all Scan- dinavia Cambro-Ordovician disconformity, probably corresponding to the Ozarkian formation of America, the disconformity between the Chasmops and the Trinucleus beds. etc. Recurrent faunas have probably also been found. The Leptaena limestone of Dalarne has, on account of its fauna which shows Op. cit. 126 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM much resemblance to that of the Borkholm beds of Esthonia, been placed at the top of the Ordovician (Richmond), above the Tri- nucleus shale. In recent years, however, observations have been made which suggest a position below this shale and even a dis- conformity between the limestone reefs and the Trinucleus shale above them. If this be right the Leptaena limestone is to be looked upon as a reef facies in the Chasmops limestone. Such a position would indeed correspond better with the place given by English stratigraphers to the Kildare and Keisley limestones in Great Britain and Ireland. Many problems could be mentioned which remain unsolved in spite of good observations and which seem to be explained rather well only if we assume the presence of discon foi*mities and the possibility of recurrences. Since we now know that there are dis- conformities in our sections we have to look out for them still more. This will perhaps bring our Lower Paleozoic series into better accord- ance with that of North America. And above all it will afford a safe basis for paleogeography. New York State Museum John M. 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Since 1901 these reports have been issued as bulletins. Descriptions and illustrations of edible, poisonous and unwholesome fungi of New York have also been published in volumes i and 3 of the 48th U894) museum report and in volume I of the 49th (1895), sist (1897), 52d (1898), S4th (1900), 5Sth (1901), in volume 4 of the S6th (1902), in volume 2 of the S7th (1903), in volume 4 of the 58th (1904), in volume 2 of the S9th (1905), in volume i of the 60th (1906), in volume 2 of the 6ist (1907). bad (1908), 63d (i909)t 6.4^h (1910), 65th (1911). V. 2 of the 66th U9I2) reports. The descriptions and illustrations of edible and unwholesome species contained in the 49th, sist and 52d reports have been revised and rearranged, and, combined with others more recently prepared, constitute Museum Memoir 4. Museum bulletins 1887-date. 8vo. (i) geology, economic geology, paleontol- ogy, mineralogy; (2) general zoology, archaeology, miscellaneous; (3) botany; (4) entomology. 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The divisions to which bulletins belong are as follows: I Zoology a Botany 3 Economic Geology 4 Mineralogy 5 Entomology 6 “ 7 Economic Geology 8 Botany 9 Zoology 10 Economic Geology II “ * 12 * * 13 Entomology 14 Geology I 5 Economic Geology 16 Archeology 17 Economic Geology 18 Archeology 19 Geology 10 Entomology a I Geology a a Archeology • 3 Entomology *4 „ 45 Botany t6 Entomology 47 a8 Botany 49 Zoology 30 Economic Geology 3 1 Entomology 34 Archeology 33 Zoology 34 Geology 35 Economic Geology 36 Entomology 37 „ * 38 Zoology 39 Paleontology 40 Zoology 41 Archeology 44 Geology 43 Zoology 44 Economic Geology 45 Geology and Paleontology 46 Entomology 48 Geology 49 Paleontology 50 Archeology 51 Zoology fa Paleontology 13 Entomology 34 Botany 15 Archeology 36 Geology 57 Entomology 58 Mineralogy 59 Entomology 60 Zoology _ 61 Economic Geology 6a Miscellaneous 63 Geology 64 Entomology 65 Paleontology 66 Miscellaneous 67 Botany 68 Entomology 69 Paleontology 70 Mineralogy 71 Zoology 7 a Entomology 73 Archeology 74 Entomology 75 Botany 76 Entomology 77 Geology 78 Archeology 79 Entomology 80 Paleontology 81 Geology 8a • 8s Economic Geology 86 Entomology 87 Archeology 68 Zoology 89 Archeology 90 Paleontology 91 Zoology 9a Geology, and Paleontology 93 Economic Geology 94 Botany 95 Geology 96 97 Entomology 98 Mineralogy 99 Geology too Economic Geology loi Geology loa Economic Geology 103 Entomology 104 “ 105 Botany 106 Geology 107 Geology and Paleontology 108 Archeology 109 Entomology no * III Geology iia Economic Geology 113 Archeology 114 Geology 115 “ 1 16 Botany H7 ^Archeology ii8^Geology 1 19 Economic Geology 120 * * lai Director's report for 1907 laa Botany 133 Economic Geology 124 Entomology 135 Archeology 136 Geology 137 laS * 129 Entomology 130 Zoology 131 Botany 13a Economic Geology 133 Director’s report for 1908 134 Entomology 135 Geology 136 Entomology 137 Geology 138 139 Botany 140 Director’s report for 1909 141 Entomology 14a Economic Geology 143 * * 144 Archeology 14s Geology 146 * 147 Entomology 148 Geology 149 Director's report for ipie 150 Botany 151 Economic Geology 15a Geology 153 * 154 * 155 Entomology 156 157 Botany 158 Director’s report for ipii 159 Geology 160 “ 161 Economic Geology 163 Geology 163 Archeology 164 Director’s report for 1912 165 Entomology 166 Economic Geology 167 Botany 16S Geology 169 * 170 • 171 * 17a • 173 Dhector'i report (or 1913 174 Bcoaomic Geology t75 Entomology 176 Botany 177 Director’s report for 1914 178 Economic Geology 179 Botany 180 Entomology 181 Economic Geology 182 Geology 183 184 Archeology 18s Geology 186 Entomology 187 Director’s report for 1913 188 Botany 189 Paleontology 190 Economic Geology 1 91 Geology 192 * 193 * 194 Entomology 195 Geology 196 Director's report for 1916 197 Botany Bulletins are also found with the annual reports of the museum as follows: BulUlin Report Bulletin Report Bulletin Report Bulletin Report 12-15 48, V. I 85 S8, V. 2 131, 132 62, V. 2 192 70. V. I 16, 17 SO, V. I 86 S8, V. 5 133 62, V. I 193 70, V. 1 18, 19 51, V. I 87-89 S8, V. 4 134 62, V. 2 194 70. V. 2 20-25 52, V. I 90 S8. V. 3 133 63, V. I 19s 70, V. I 26-31 S3, V, I 91 S8, V. 4 136 63, V. 2 196 70. V. I 3S-34 34. V. I 92 S8. V. 3 137. 138 63, V. I 197 70. V. 2 35, 36 54. V. 2 93 58, V. 2 139 63, V. 2 198 70, V. 2 37-44 54, V. 3 94 S8. V. 4 140 63, V. I 199 70. V. 2 43-48 54. V. 4 93. 96 S8, V. I 141-43 63, V. 2 200 71. V. 2 49-34 55 97 S8, V. 5 144 64, V. 2 201 71, V. I 33 36, V. 4 98. 99 39. V. 2 143. 146 64, V. I 202 71, V. 2 S6 56, V. I 100 59. V. I 147. 148 64, V. 2 203-4 71, V. l 57 S6. V. 3 lOI 39. V. 2 149 64, V. I 205-6 71. V. 2 58 56, V. I 102 39, V. I 130-54 64, V. 2 207-8 71. V. I 59, 60 56, V. 3 IO3-S 39, V. 2 133-57 65, V. 2 61 56, V. I 106 39. V. I 158-60 65, V. I Memoir 62 56, V. 4 107 60, V. 2 161 65. V. 2 2 49. V. 3, and 50, V. 2 63 S6, V. 2 108 60, V. 3 162 6s. V. I 3. 4 33. V. 2 64 S6, V. 3 109, 110 60, V. I 163 66, V. 2 3. 6 57. V. 3 65 56, V. 2 111 60, V. 2 164 66, V. I 7 37. V. 4 66, 67 56. V. 4 112 60, V. I 163-67 66, V. 2 8, pt I 59. V. 3 68 56, V. 3 113 60, V. 3 168-70 66, V. I 8, pt 2 39. V. 4 60 56, V. 2 114 60. V. I 171-76 67 9. pt I 60, V. 4 70, 71 S7, V. I, pt 1 IIS 60, V. 2 177-80 68 9. pt 2 62, V. 4 72 57, V. I, pt 2 116 60, V. I 181 69, V, 2 10 60, V. 5 73 57. V. 2 II7 60, V. 3 182, 183 69, V. I II 61, V. 3 74 57. V. 1, pt 2 II8 60, V. I 184 69, V. 2 12. pt 1 63. V. 3 73 57. V. 2 I 19-21 61, V. I 185 69, V. I 12. pt 2 66, V. 3 76 57, V. I, pt 2 122 61, V. 2 186 6g, V. 2 13 63. V. 4 77 57. V. I, pt I 123 61, V. I 187 69, V. I 14, V. 1 6s, V. 3 78 37, V. 2 124 61, V. 2 188 69, V, 2 I4» V. 2 6s. V. 4 79 57. V. I, pt 2 123 62, V. 3 189 69, V. I IS, V. I 72, V. a 80 57. V. 1, pt I 126-28 62, V. I igo 69, V. 2 IS. V. 2 72, V. 3 81, 82 S8, V. 3 129 62, V. 2 J91 70. V. 1 83, 84 S8. V. I 130 62, V. 3 The 6gures at the beginning of each entry in the following list indicate its number as a museum bulletin. Geology and Paleontology. 14 Kemp, J. F. Geology of Moriah and West- port Townships, Essex Co., N. Y., with notes on the iron mines. 38p. il. 7pl. 2 maps. Sept. 1895. Free. 19 Merrill, F. J. H. Guide to the Study of the Geological Collections of the New York State Museum. i64p. iigpl. map. Nov. 1898. Out of print. 21 Kemp, J. F. Geology of the Lake Placid Region. 24p. ipl. map. Sept. 1898. Out of print. 14 Cumings, E. R. Lower Silurian System of Eastern Montgomery County: Prosser, C. S. Notes on the Stratigraphy of Mohawk Valley and Sara- toga County, N. Y. 74p. I4pl. map. May 1900. 15c. 39 Clarke, J. M.; Simpson, G. B. & Loomis, F. B. Paleontologic Papers i. 72p. il. i6pl. Oct. 1900. 15c. Contents: Clarice, J. M. A Remarkable Occurrence of Orthocerai in the Oneonta Bedi of the Chenango Valley, N. Y. — — Paropionema cr^tophya; a Peculiar Echinoderra from the IntMn'eecenf-zone (Portage Beds) of Western New York. Dictyonine Hexactinellid Sponges from the Upper Devonic of New York. — The Water Biscuit of Scmaw Island, Canandaigua Lake, N. Y. SimpMn, G. B. Preliminary Descriptions of New Genera of Paleozoic Rugose Corals. Loomis, P. B. Siluric Fungi from Western New York. PUBLICATIONS 198 Entomology 199 Economic Geology 200 Entomology 201 Economic Geology 202 Entomology 203-204 Economic Geology 203-206 Botany 207-208 Director's report for 1917. 209-210 Geology 211-212 “ 2 13-214 “ 213-216 “ 217-2:8 Geology 219-220 Director’s report of 1918 221-222 Paleontology 223-224 Economic Geology 225-226 Geology 227-228 Director’s report for 1919 229-230 Geology 231-232 Entomology 129 233-234 Botany 233-236 Archeology 237-238 , 239-240 Director s report for 1920-21 241-242 Paleontology 243-2^ Botany 245-246 Geology 247-248 Entomology 249-250 Economic Geology 251 Director’s report for 1922 252 21oology 253 Director’s report for 1923 254 Botany 255 Geology 256 Geology 257 Entomology 258 Paleontology 259 Geology 260 Director’s report for 1924 251 Geology 262 Paleontology 263 Economic geology 130 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 42 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Hudson River Beds near Albany and Their Taxo- nomic Equivalents. ii6p. 2pl. map. Apr. 1901. 25c. 45 Grabau, A. W. Geology and Paleontology of Niagara Falls and Vicinity. 286p. il. i8pl. map. Apr. 1901. Out of print. 48 Woodworth, J. B. Pleistocene Geology of Nassau County and Borough of Queens. 58p. il. 8pl. map. Dec. 1901. Out of print. 49 Ruedemann, Rudolf; Clarke, J. M. & Wood, Elvira. Paleontologic Papers 2, 240P. I3pl. Dec. 1901. Out of print. Contents; Ruedemann, Rudolf. Trenton Conglomerate of Rysedorph Hill. Clarke, J. M. Limestones of Central and Western New York Interbedded with Bitumi- nous Shales of the Marcellus Stage. Wood. Elvira. Marcellus Limestones of Lancaster, Erie Co., N. Y. Clarke, J. M. New Agelacrinites. ’ Value of Amnigenia as an Indicator of Fresh- water Deposits during the Devopic of New York, Ireland and the Rhineland 52 Clarke, J. M. Report of the State Paleontologist 1901. 28op. il. lopl. map, I tab. July 1902. 40c. 56 Merrill, F. J. H. Description of the State Geologic Map of 1901, 42p. 2 maps, tab. Nov. 1902. Out of print. 63 Clarke, J. M. & Luther, D. D. Stratigraphy of Canandaigua and Naples Quadrangles. 78p. map. June 1904. 25c. 65 Clarke, J. M. Catalogue of Type Specimens of Paleozoic Fossils in the ; New York State Museum. 848P. May 1903. $1.20, cloth. 69 Report of the State Paleontologist 1902. 464P. 52pl. 7 maps. Nov. 1903. $1, cloth. 77 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Vicinity of Little Falls, Herkimer Co. 98p. il. I5pl. 2 maps. Jan. 1905. 30c. 80 Clarke, J. M. Report of the State Paleontologist 1903. 396p. 29pl. . 2 maps. Feb. 1905, 85c, cloth. 81 Clarke, J. M. & Luther, D. D. Watkins and Elmira Quadrangles. 32p. , map. Mar. 1905. 25c. 82 Geologic Map of the TuUy Quadrangle. 4op. map. Apr, 1905. 20c. 83 Woodworth, J. B. Pleistocene Geology of the Mooers Quadrangle. 62p. 25pl. map. June 1905. 25c. 84 Ancient Water Levels of the Champlain and Hudson Valleys. 2o6p. il. iipl. 18 maps. July 1905. 45c. 90 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Cephalopoda of Beekmantown and Chazy For- mations of Champlain Basin. 224p. il. 38pl. May 1906. 75c, cloth. 92 Grabau, A. W. Guide to the Geology and Paleontology of the Schoharie Region. 3i4p. il. 26pl. map. Apr. 1906. Out of print. 95 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Northern Adirondack Region. l88p. I5pl. 3 maps. Sept. 1905. Out of print. 96 Ogilvie, 1. H. Geology of the Paradox Lake Quadrangle. 54p. il. I7pl. map. Dec. 1905. Out of print 99 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Buffalo Quadrangle. 32p. map. May 1906. 20c. loi Geology of the Penn Yan-Hammondsport Quadrangles. 28p. map. July 1906. Out of print. 106 Fairchild, H. L. Glacial Waters in the Erie Basin. 88p. I4pl. 9 maps. Fpb. 1907. Out of print. 107 Woodworth, J. B.; Hartnagel, C. A.; Whitlock, H. P.; Hudson, G. H.; Clarke, J. M.; White, David & Berkey, C. P. Geological Papers. 388p. 54pl.miap. . May 1907. goc, cloth. Contents: Woodworth, J. B. Postglacial Faults of Eastern New York. Hartnagel, U- .A.. . Stratigraphic Relations of the Oneida Conglomerate. ^ Uptier Sriuric and Lower Devohic Formations of the Skunnemunk Mountain Region. Whitlock, Hi P. Minerals from Lyon Mountain. Clinton Co. Hudson, G. H. On Some Pelmatozoa from the Chazy Limestone of New York. Clarke, Some New Devonic Fossils. _ ' , ^ ^ An TfiVeresting Style of Sand-filled Vein. Eurypterus Shales of the Shawangunk Mountains in Eastern New York. White, Ugvid. A Remarkable Fossil Tree Trunk from the Middle Devonic of New York. , Berkey, C. 'P. Structural and Stratigraphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the High- PUBLICATIONS I3I III Fairchild, H. L. Drumlins of New York. 6op. aSpl. 19 maps. July 1907. Out of print. 1 14 Hartnagel, C. A. Geologic Map of the Rochester and Ontario Beach Quadrangles. 36p. map. Aug. 1907. 20c. 115 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Long Lake Quadrangle. 88p. 20pl. map. Sept. 1907. 25c. 118 Clarke, J. M. & Luther, D. D. Geologic Maps and Descriptions of the Portage and Nunda Quadrangles including a map of Letchworth Park. 5op. i6pl. 4 maps. Jan. 1908. 35c. 126 Miller, W. J. Geology of the Remsen Quadrangle. 54p. il. iipl. map, Jan. 1909. 25c. 127 Fairchild, H. L. Glacial Waters in Central New York. 64p. 27pl. 15 maps. Mar. 1909. Out of print. 128 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Geneva-Ovid Quadrangles. 44p. map. Apr. 1909. 20C. 135 Miller, W. J. Geology of the Port Leyden Quadrangle, Lewis County, N. Y. 62p. il. iipl. map. Jan. 1910. 25c. 137 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Aubum-Genoa Quadrangles. 36p. map.- Mar. 1910. 20C. 138 Kemp, J. F. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. Geology of the Elizabethtown’ and Port Henry Quadrangles. I76p. il. 20pl. 3 maps. Apr. 1910. Gut of print. 145 Cushing, H. P.; Fairchild, H. L.; Ruedemann, Rudolf & Smyth, C. H. Geology of the Thousand Islands Region. I94p. il. 62pl. 6 maps. Dec. 1910. 75c. 146 Berkey, C. P. Geologic Features and Problems of the New York City (Catskill) Aqueduct. 286p. il. 38pl. maps. Feb. 1911. 75c; $1, doth. 148 Gordon, C. E. Geology of the Poughkeepsie Quadrangle. I22p. il.. 26pl. map. Apr. 1911. 30c. 152 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Honeoye-Wayland Quadrangles. 30p. map. Oct. 1911. 20c. 153 Miller, William J. Geology of the Broadalbin Quadrangle, Fulton- Saratoga Counties, New York. 66p. il. 8pl. map. Dec. 1911. 25c. 154 Stoller, James H. Glacial Geology of the Schenectady Quadrangle. 44p. 9pl. map. Dec. 1911. 20c. 159 Kemp, James F. The Mineral Springs of Saratoga. 8op. il. 3pl. Apr. 1912. 15c. 160 Fairchild, H. L. Glacial Waters in the Black and Mohawk Valleys. 48p. il. 8pl. 14 maps. May 1912. 50c. 162 Ruedemann, Rudolf. The Lower Siluric Shales of the Mohawk Valley. i.52p. il. I5pl. Aug. 1912. 35c. 168 Miller, William J. Geological History of New York State. i3op. 43pl, 10 maps. Dec. 1913. Out of print. For revised edition see Bulletin 255. 169 Cushing, H. P. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. Geology of Saratoga Springs and Vicinity. I78p. il. 2opl. map. Feb. 1914. 40c. 170 Miller, William J. Geology of the North Creek Quadrangle, pop. il. i4pl. Feb. 1914. 25c. 1 71 Hopkins, T. C. The Geology of the Syracuse Quadrangle. 8op. il. 20pl. map. July 1914. 25c. 172 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Attica and Depew Quadrangles. 32p. map. Aug. 1914. 15c. 182 Miller, William J. The Geology of the Lake Pleasant Quadrangle. 56p. il. lopl. map. Feb. 1916. 25c. 183 Stoller, James H. Glacial Geology of the Saratoga Quadrangle. 5op. il. I2pl. map. Mar. i, 1916. 25c. 185 Martin, James C. The Precambrian Rocks of the Canton Quadrangle. ii2p. il. 2opl. map. May i, 1916. 30c. 189 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Paleontologic Contributions from the New York State Museum. 225p. il. 36pl. Sept. 1916. 50c. 191 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Vicinity of Ogdensburg. 64P. il. 6pl. map. Nov. 1916. 25c. 192 Miller, William J. Geology of the Blue Mountain Quadrangle. 68p. il. iipl. map. Dec. 1916. Out of print. 193 The Adirondack Mountains. 97p. il 30pl. 2 maps. Jan. 1917. 35c. 132 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 195 Fairchild, H. L. Postglacial Features of the Upper Hudson Valley. 22p map. Mar. i, 1917. 25c. 209-210 — — Pleistocene Marine Submergence of the Hudson, Champlain and St Lawrence Valleys. 75p. il. 25pl. maps. May-June 1918. 50c. 211-212 Miller, W. J. Geology of the Lake Placid Quadrangle. i04p. il. 23 pi. map. July-Aug. 1918. 35c. 213-214 Geology of the Schroon Lake Quadrangle. I02p. il. i4pl. map. Sept.-Oct. 1918. 35c. 215-216 Stoller, J. H. Glacial Geology of the Cohoes Quadrangle. 49p. il. 2pl. map. Nov.-Dee. 1919. 25c. ii7-2i8 Chadwick, George H. Paleozoic Rocks of the Canton Quadrangle. 6op. il. I2pl. map. Jan.-Feb. 1919. 35c. 221-222 Clarke, John M. Organic Dependence and Disease. Their origin and significance. rr3p. il. iipl. $1. 225-226 Berkey, C. P. & Rice, Marion. Geology of the West Point Quadrangle. 152P. 56pl. map. Sept.-Oct. 1919. 75c. 229-230 Kemp, James F. Geology of the Mount Marcy Quadrangle. 86p. 25pl. map. Jan.-Feb. 1920. 75c. 241-242 Hartnagel, C. A. & Bishop, S. C. The Mastodons, Mammoths and Other Pleistocene Mammals of New York State, iiop. il. 25pl. Jan.- Feb. 1921. 50C. 245-246 Miller, W. J. Geology of the Luzerne Quadrangle. 66p. il. iipl. map. May-June 1921. 65c. 255 Geological History of New York State. r48p. il. 43pl. 10 maps. Nov. 1924. Revision of Bulletin 168. 75c. 256 Fairchild, H. L. Evolution of the Susquehanna River. 99p. il. iqpl 25 maps. January 1925. 75c. 258 Ruedemann, R. The Utica and Lorraine Formations of New York, Pt I. i8op. il. 7pl. May 1925. 259 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Gouverneur Quadrangle. p. il. iqpl. June 1925. 261 Kemp, James F. & Ailing, H. L. Geology of the Ausable Quadrangle. I28p. il. I2pl. June 1925. 262 Ruedemann, R. The Utica and Lorraine Formations of New York, Pt 2. i68p. il. i3pl. June 1925. Miller, W. J. Geology of the Lyon Mountain Quadrangle. Prepared. Crosby, W. O. Geology of Long Island. In preparation. Luther, D. D. Geology of the Phelps Quadrangle. In preparation. Geology of the Eden-Silver Creek Quadrangles. Prepared. — — Geology of the Brockport-Hamlin and Albion-Oak Orchard Quadrangles. Prepared. Geology of the Medina-Ridgeway and Lockport-Olcott Quadrangles. Prepared. Geology of the Caledonia-Batavia Quadrangles. Prepared. Smyth, C. H., jr & Buddington, A. F. Geology of the Lake Bonaparte Quad- rangle. Prepared. Miller, W. J. Geology of the Russell Quadrangle. Prepared. Geology of the Gloversville Quadrangle. Prepared. Cooke, J. H. Surface Geology of the Albany-Berne Quadrangles. Prepared. Buddington, A. F. Geolog}^ of the Lowville Quadrangle. Prepared. Geology of the Lake Bonaparte Quadrangle. Prepared. Holzwasser, F. Geology of the Newburgh Quadrangle. Prepared. Economic Geology. 3 Smock, J. C. Building Stone in the State of New York- I54p. Mar. 1888. 30c. 7 First Report on the Iron Mines and Iron Ore Districts in the State of New York. 78p. map. June 1889. 25c. 10 Building Stone in New York. 21 op. map, tab. Sept. 1890. 40c. 11 Merrill, F. J. H. Salt and Gypsum Industries of New York. 94p. I2pl. 2 maps, II tab. Apr. 1893. 50c. 12 Ries, Heinrich. Clay Industries of New York. I74p. il. ipl. map. Mar. 1895. 30c. 15 Merrill, F. J. H. Mineral Resources of New York. 2409. 2 maps. Sept. 1895. 50c. 17 Road Materials and Road Building in New York. S2p. I4pL 2 maps. Oct. 1897. 15c. PUBLICATIONS 133 30 Orton, Edward. Petroleum and Natural Gas in New York. I36p. il. 3 maps. Nov. 1899. Out of print. 35 Ries, Heinrich. Clays of New York; Their Properties and Uies. 456p i4opl. map. June 1900. Out of print. 44 Lime and Cement Industries of New York; Eckel, E. C. Chapters on the Cement Industry. 332p. loipl. 2 maps. Dec. 1901. 85c, cloth. 61 Dickinson, H. T. Quarries of Bluestone and Other Sandstones in New York. Ii4p. i8pl. 2 maps. Mar. 1903. 35c. 85 Rafter, G. W. Hydrology of New York State. 9029. il. 44pl. 5 maps . May 1905. $1.50, cloth. 93 Newland, D. H. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York. 789. July 1905. Out of print. 100 McCourt, W. E. Fire Tests of Some New York Building Stones. 40p. 26pl. Feb. 1906. 15c. 102 Newland, D. H. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1905. l62p. June 1906. Out of print. 112 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1906. 82p. July 1907. Out of print. iig & Kemp, J, F. Geology of the Adirondack Magnetic Iron Ore with a Report on the MineviUe-Port Henry Mine Group. 184P. I4pl. 8 maps. Apr. 1908. 35c. X20 Newland, D. H. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1907. 82p. July 1908. 15c. 123 & Hartnagel, C. A. Iron Ores of the Clinton Formation in New York State. 76p. il. I4pl. 3 maps. Nov. 1908. 25c. 132 Newland, D. H. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1908. 98p. July 1909. 15c. 142 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York for 1909. 98p. Aug. 1910. 15c. 143 Gypsum Deposits of New York. 94p. 2opl. 4 maps. Oct. 1910. Out of print. 151 MiningandQuarry Industry of New York 1910. 82p. Junei9ii. 15c. 161 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 191 1. ii4p. July 1912. 20c. 166 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1912. Ii4p. Aug. 1913. 20c. 174 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1913. iiip. Dec. 1914. 20c. 178 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1914. 88p. Nov. 1915. 15c. 181 The Quarry Materials of New York. 2i2p. 34pl. Jan. 1916. 40c. 190 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1915. 92p. Oct. 1916. 15c. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1916 (see Mus. Bui. 196). 199 Ailing, Harold L. The Adirondack Graphite Deposits. I50p. il. July i, 1917. 30C. 201 Smyth, C. H., jr. Genesis of the Zinc Ores of the Edwards District, St Lawrence county, N. Y. 32p. i2pl. Sept, i, 1917. 20c. 203-204 Colony, R. J. High Grade Silica Materials for Glass, Refractories and Abrasives. 3ip. il. Nov.-Dee. 1917. 15c. 223-224 Newland, D. H. The Mineral Resources of the State of New York. 315P. il. 3 maps. July-August 1919. 50c. 249-250 Colony, R. J. The Magnetite Iron Deposits of Southeastern New York. i6ip. il. I5pl. maps. Sept.-Oct. 1921. 50c. 263 Nevin, C. M. Albany Molding Sands of the Hudson Valley. 8op. il. June 1925. Mineralogy. 4 Nason, F. L. Some New York Minerals and Their Localities. 2^. I pi. Aug. 1888. Free. 58 Whitlock, H. P. Guide to the Mineralogic Collections of the New York State Museum. i5op. il. 39pl. ii models. Sept. 1902. 40c. 70 New York Mineral Localities, iiop. Oct. 1903. 20c. 98 Contributions from the Mineralogic Laboratory. 38p. 7pl. Dec. 1905. Out of print. Zoology. 1 Marshall, W. B. Preliminary List of New York Unionidae. 20p. Mar. 1892. Free. 9 Beaks of Unionidae Inhabiting the Vidnity of Albany, N. Y. 309. ipl. Aug. 1890. Free. 134 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 2g Miller, G. S., jr. Preliminary List of New York Mammals. I24p. Oct. 1899. Out of print. 33 Farr, M. S. Check List of New York Birds. 224P. Apr. 1900. 25c. 38 Miller, G. S., jr. Key to the Land Mammals of Northeastern North America. io6p. Oct. 1900. 15c. 40 Simpson, G. B. Anatomy and Physiology of Polygyra albolabris and Limax maximus and Embryology of Limax maximus. 82p. 28pl. Oct. 1901 25c. 43 Kellogg, J. L. Clam and Scallop Industries of New York. 36p. 2pl. map. Apr. 1901. Free. 51 Eckel, E. C. & Paulmier, F. C. Catalogue of Reptiles and Batrachians of New York. 64p. il. ipl. Apr. 1902. Out of print. Eckel, K. C. Serpents of Northeastern United States. Paulmier, F. C. Lizards, Tortoises and Batrachians of New York. 60 Bean, T. H. Catalogue of the Fishes of New York. 784P. Feb. 1903. $1, cloth. 71 Kellogg, J. L. Feeding Habits and Growth of Venus mercenaria. 30p. 4pl. Sept. 1903. Free. 88 Letson, Elizabeth J. Check List of the Mollusca of New York. ii6p. May 1905. 20C. 91 Paulmier, F. C. Higher Crustacea of New York City. 78p. il. June 1905. 20C. 130 Shufeldt, R. W. Osteology of Birds. 382p. il. 26pl. May 1909. 50c. 252 Bishop, S. C. A Revision of the Pisauridae of the United States. 140P. il. 37pl. Mav T924. 75c. Crosby, C. R. & Bishop, S. C. Studies in New York Spiders. In press. Entomology. 5 Lintner, J. A. White Grub of the May Beetle. 34p. il. Nov. 1888. Free. 6 Cut- worms. 38p. il. Nov. 1888. Free. 13 San Jos6 Scale and Some Destructive Insects of New York State. 54p. 7pl. Apr. 1895. 15c. 20 Felt, E. P. Elrn Leaf Beetle in New York State. 46p. il. 5pl. June 1898. Free. Set S7. 23 14th Report of the State Entomologist 1898. 1509. il, 9pl. Dec. 1898. Out of print. 24 Memorial of the Life and Entomologic Work of J. A. Lintner Ph.D. State Entomologist 1874-98; Index to Entomologist’s Reports 1-13. 3i6p. I pi. Oct. 1899. 35c. Supplement to 14th report of the State Entomologist. 26 Collection, Preservation and Distribution of New York Insects, 36p.il. Apr. 1899. Out of print. 27 Shade Tree Pests in New York State. 26p. il. 5pl. May 1899. Out of print. 31 15th Report of the State Entomologist 1899. I28p. June 1900. 15c. 36 i6th Report of the State Entomologist 1900. ii8p. i6pl. Mar. 1901. 25c. 37 Catalogue of Some of the More Important Injurious and Beneficial Insects of New York State. 54p. il. Sept. 1900. Out of print. 46 Scale Insects of Importance and a List of the Species in New York State. 94p. il. I5pl. June 1901. 25c. 47 Needham, J. G & Betten, Cornelius. Aquatic Insects in the Adiron- dacks. 234p. il. 36pl. Sept. 1901. 45c. 53 Felt, E. P. 17th Report of the State Entomologist 1901. 232P. il. 6pl. Aug. 1902. Out of print. 57 Elm Leaf Beetle in New York State. 46p. il. 8pl. Aug. 1902. Out of print. This is a revision of Bulletin 20 containing the more essential facts observed since that was prepared. 59 Grapevine Root Worm. 40p. 6pl. Dec. 1902. 15c. See 72. 64 — ; — i8th Report of the State Entomologist 1902. iiop. 6pl, May 1903. 20c. PUBLICATIONS 135 ®8 Needham, J. G. & others. Aquatic Insects ir. New York. 322p. 57pl Aug. 1903. 80c, doth. 7a Felt, E. P. Grapevine Root Worm. sSp. I3pl. Nov. 1903. 20c. Thif is s revision of Bulletin S9 containing the more essential facts observed since that was prepared. 74 & Joutel, L. H. Monograph of the Genus Saperda. 88p. I4pl. June 1904. Out of print. 76 Felt, E. P. 19th Report of the State Entomologist 1903. i5op. 4pL 1904. 15c. 79 Mosquitos or Culicidae of New York. i64p. il. 57pl. tab. Oct. 1904. Out of print. 86 Needham, J. G. fif others. May Flies and Midges of New York. 352p. il. 37pl. June 1905. Out of print. 97 Felt, E. P, 20th Report of the State Entomologist 1904. 246P. il. iqpl. Nov. 1905. Out of pri^. 103 Gipsy and Brown Tail Moths. 44p. lopl. July 1906. Out of print. 104 2ist Report of the State Entomologist 1905. I44p. lopl. Aug. 1906. 25c, 109 Tussock Moth and Elm Leaf Beetle. 34p. 8pl. Mar. 1907. Out of print. no 22d Report of the State Entomologist 1906. I52p. 3pl. June 1907. 25c. 124 23d Report of the State Entomologist 1907. 542p. il. 44pl. Oct. 1908. Out of print. 129 Control of Household Insects. 48p. il. May 1909. Out of print. 134 24th Report of the State Entomologist 1908. 2o8p. il. I7pl- Sept. 1909. 35c. 136 Control of Flies and Other Household Insects. 56p. il. Feb. 1910. 15c. Thii is a revision of Bulletin izg containing the more essential facts observed since that was prepared. 141 Felt, E. P. 25th Report of the State Entomologist 1909. I78p. il. 22pl. July 1910. 35c. 147 26th Report of the State Entomologist 1910. i82p. il. 35pl. Mar. 1911. 35c. E5S 27th Report of the State Entomologist 1911. I98p. il. 27pl. Jan. 1912. 40c. 156 Elm Leaf Beetle and White-Marked Tussock Moth. 35p. 8pl. Jan. 1912. 20c. 165 28th Report of the State Entomologist 1912. 266p. I4pl. July 1913. 40c. 175 29th Report of the State Entomologist 1913. 258P. i6pl. April 1915. Out of print. 180 30th Report of the State Entomologist 1914. 336p. il. iqpl. Jan. 1916. 50c. 186 31st Report of the State Entomologist 1915. 2i5p. il. i8pl. June I, 1916. Out of print. 194 Household and Camp Insects. 84p. il. Feb. i, 1917. Out of print. 198 32d Report of the State Entomologist 1916. 276p. il. 8pl. June i, 1917. 40c. 200 Key to American Insect Galls. 3iop. il. i6pl. August 1917. Out of print. 202 33d Report of the State Entomologist 1917. 240P. il. I2pl. 35c. 231-232 34th Report of the State Entomologist for 1918. 288p. il. 20c. 247-248 35th Report of the State Entomologist for 1921. I29p. il. July- August 1921. 40c. 257 • — ^ — Key to Gall Midges. 239P. il. 8pl. February 1925. 75c. Botany. 2 Peck, C. H. Contributions to the Botany of the State of New York. 72p. 2pl. May 1887. 20c. 8 Boleti of the United States. 98p. Sept. 1889. Out of print. 25 Report of the State Botanist 1898. 76p. 5pl. Oct. 1899. Out of p int. 28 Plants of North Elba. 2o6p. map. June 1899. 20c. 136 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 54 Peck, C. H. Report of the State Botanist 1901. sSp. 7pl. Nov. 1902. 40c. 67 Report of the State Botanist 1902. 75 Report of the State Botanist 1903. 94 Report of the State Botanist 1904. 105 Report of the State Botanist 1905. 1 16 Report of the State Botanist 1906. 122 Report of the State Botanist 1907. 131 Report of the State Botanist 1908. 139 Report of the State Botanist 1909. 150 Report of the State Botanist 1910. 157 Report of the State Botanist 1911. 167 Report of the State Botanist 1912. 176 Report of the State Botanist 1913. 179 Report of the State Botanist 1914. 188 ” " - - - I96p. 5pl. May 1903. 50c, . 7op. 4pl. 1904. 40C. 6op. lopl. July 1905. 40C. io8p. I2pl. Aug. 1906. 50C. i2op. 6 pi. July 1907. 35c. I78p. 5pl. Aug. 1908. 40C. 202p. 4pl. July 1909. 40C. ii6p. lOpl. May 1910. 45c. loop. 5pl. May 1911. 30c. I40p. 9pl. Mar. 1912. 35c. I38p. 4pl. Sept. 1913. 30c. 78p. I7pl. June 1915. 20c. io8p. ipl. Dec. 1915. 20c. Report of the State Botanist 1915. Ti8p. il. 4pl. Aug. 1. House, H. D. 1916. 30C. 197 Report of the State Botanist 1916. I22p. iipl. May i, 1917. 30c. 205-206 Report of the State Botanist 1917. 169P. 23pl. Jan.-Feb. 1918. Old of print. Report of the State Botanist for 1918 published in the annual report of the Director for 1918 (Mus. Bui. 219-220). 233-234 — —Report of the State Botanist for 1919. 73p. ipl. May-June 1920. 243-244 Report of the State Botanist for 1921. 98p. March-April 1921. 254 Annotated List of the Ferns and Flowering Plants of New York State. 759p. September 1924. 75c. — ■ — Report of the State Botanist for 1924. In press. Archeology. 16 Beauchamp, W. M. Aboriginal Chipped of New York. 86p. 23pl. Oct. 1897. Out of print. 18 22 32 ) 41 35Pl- i 25c. ! 1900. [ 28pl. Stone Implements Aborigines. I04P Polished Stone Articles Used by the New York Nov. 1897. 25c. Earthenware of the New York Aborigines. 78p. 33pl. Oct. 1898 50 Aboriginal Occupation of New York. I90p. i6pl. 2 maps. Mar 30C. Wampum and Shell Articles Used by New York Indians. i66p Mar. 1901. Out of print. Horn and Bone Implements of the New York Indians. Mar. 1902. Out of print. 55 Metallic Implements of the New York Indians. 94p. 1902. Out of print. 73 Metallic Ornaments of the New York Indians. I22p. 1903. Out of print. 78 History of the New York Iroquois. Out of print. 87 Perch Lake Mounds. ii2p. 43pl. June 38pl. 37pl- Dec. 34op. I7pl. map. Feb. 1905 84p. i2pl. Apr. 1905. 20c. Aboriginal Use of Wood in New York. I90p. 35pl. June 1905 Out of print. 108 Aboriginal Place Names of New York. 336p. May 1907. Out of print. 1 13 Civil, Religious and Mourning Councils and Ceremonies of Adop- tion. ii8p. 7pl. June 1907. 25c. 1 17 Parker, A. C. An Erie Indian Village and Burial Site. I02p. 38pl. Dec. 1907. 30C. 125 Converse, H. M. & Parker, A. C. Iroquois Myths and Legends. I96p. il. I ipl. Dec. 1908. 50C. 144 Parker, A. C. Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants. I20p. il. 3ipl. Nov. 1910. Out of print. 163 The Code of Handsome Lake. I44p. 23pl. Nov. 1912. 25c. 184 The Constitution of the Five Nations. I58p. 8pl. April i, 1916. 30c. 235-236 The Archeologic History of the State of New York. Part i. 47op. I42pl. July-August 1920. 237-238 The Archeologic History of the State of New York. Part 2. 272P. 92pl. Sept.-Oct. 1920. $1.75 for parts I & 2. PUBLICATIONS 137 Miscellaneous. 62 Merrill, F. J. H. Directory of Natural History Museums in United States and Canada. 236P. Apr. 1903. 30c. 66 Ellis, Mary. Index to Publications of the New York State Natural History Survey and New York State Museum 1837-1902. 4i8p. June I903- 75c. cloth. New York State Defense Council Bulletin No. i. Report on the Pyrite and Pyrrhotite Veins in Jefferson and St Lawrence Counties, New York, by A. F. Buddington. 4op. il. Nov. 1917. Free. New York State Defense Council Bulletin No. 2. The Zinc-Pyrite Deposits of the Edwards District, New York, by David H. Newland. p.72, il. Nov. 1917. Out of print. Museum memoirs 1889-date. 4to. 1 Beecher, C. E. & Clarke, J. M. Development of Some Silurian Brachi- opoda. 96p. 8pl. Oct. 1889. $1. 2 Hall, James & Clarke, J. M. Paleozoic Reticulate Sponges. 35op. il. 70pl. 1898. $2, cloth. 3 Clarke, J. M. The Oriskany Fauna of Becraft Mountain, Columbia Co,, N. Y. I28p. 9pl. Oct. 1900. 80C. 4 Peck, C. H. N. Y. Edible Fungi, 1895-99. io6p. 25pl. Nov. 1900. 75c. This includes revised descriptions and illustrations of fungi reported in the 49th, 51st and 52d reports of the State Botanist. 5 Clarke, J. M. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. Guelph Formation and Fauna of New York State. ig6p. 2ipl. July 1903. $i .50, cloth. 6 Clarke, J. M. Naples Fauna in Western New York. 268p. 26pl. map. 1904. $2, cloth. 7 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Graptolites of New York. Pt i Graptolites of the Lower Beds. 350p. I7pl. Feb. 1905. $1.50, cloth. 8 Felt, E. P. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees, v. i. 4600. il. 48pl. Feb. 1906. $2.50, cloth; v. 2. 548p. il. 22pl. Feb. 1907. $2, cloth. $4 for the two volumes. 9 Clarke, J. M. Early Devonic of New York and Eastern North America. Pt I. 366p. il. 7opl. 5 maps. Mar. 1908. $2.50, cloth; Pt 2. 25op. il. 369). 4 maps. Sept. 1909. $2, cloth. 10 Eastman, C. R. The Devonic Fishes of the New York Formations 36p. I5pl. 1907. $1.25, cloth. 11 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Graptolites of New York. Pt 2 Graptolites of the Higher Beds. 584P. il. 3ipl. 2 tab. Apr. 1908. $2.50, cloth. 12 Eaton, E. H. Birds of New York. v. i. 50ip. il. 42pl. Apr. 1910. V. 2, 7i9p. il. 64pl. July 1914. 2d edition. $6 for the two volumes, plus postage, weight 15 pounds, sold in sets only. 13 Whitlock, H. P. Calcites of New York. i9op. il. 27pl. Oct. 1910. $1, cloth. 14 Clarke, J. M. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. The Eurypterida of New York. v. i. Text. 440p. il. v. 2 Plates. i88p. 88pl. Dec. 1912. $4, cloth. 15 House, Homer D. Wild Flowers of New York. v. i. i85p. I43pl. ik: v. 2. I77p. I2ipl. il. 1918. $7.00 for the two volumes, postage paid within New York State only. Mailing weight 14 pounds. 264 colored plates in portfolio. $2.50 + postage (mailing weight 5 pounds). 16 Goldring, W. Monograph of the Devonian Crinoids of New York. 670 p. il. 6opl. 1923. $5. Pilsbry, H. L. Monograph of the Land and Fresh Water Mollusca of the State of New York. In preparation. Natural History of New York. 30V. il. pi. maps. 4to. Albany 1842-94. DIVISION I ZOOLOGY. De Kay, James E. Zoology of New York; or. The New York Fauna; comprising detailed descriptions of all the animals hitherto observed within the State of New York with brief notices of those occasionally found near its borders, and accompanied by appropri- ate illustrations. 5V. il. pi. maps. sq. 4to. Albany 1842-44. Out of print Historical introduction to the series by Gov. W. H. Seward. I78p. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 13^ T. I pti Mammalia. 131 + 46p. 33pl. 1842. 300 copies with hand-colored plates. V. 2 pt2 Birds. I2 + 38op. I4ipl. 1844. Colored plates. V. 3 pt3 Reptiles and Amphibia. 7 + 98p. pt4 Fishes. 15 + 41 3p. 1842 pt3-4 bound together. ▼. 4 Plates to accompany v. 3. Reptiles and Amphibia. 23pl. Fishea 79pl. 1842. 300 copies with hand-colored plates. 5 pt5 Mollusca. 4 + 271P. 4opl. pt6 Crustacea. 7op. 139!. 1843-44, Hand-colored plates; pts-6 bound together. DIVISION 2 BOTANY. Torrey, John. Flora of the State of New York; com- prising full descriptions of all the indigenous and naturalized plants hith- erto discovered in the State, with remarks on their economical and medical properties. 2v. il. pi. sq. 4to. Albany 1843. Out of print. V. I Flora of the State of New York. 12 -f- 484P. 72pl. 1843. 300 copies with hand-colored plates. V. 2 Flora of the State of New York. 572p. 89pl. 1843. 300 copies with hand-colored plates. DIVISION 3 MINERALOGY. Beck, Lewis C. Mineralogy of New York; com- prising detailed descriptions of the minerals hitherto found in the State of New York, and notices of their uses in the arts and agriculture, il. pi. sq. 4to. Albany 1842. Out of print. V. I pti Economical Mineralogy. pt2 Descriptive Mineralogy. 24 + 536p. 1842. 8 plates additional to those printed as part of the text. DIVISION 4 GEOLOGY. Mather, W. W.; Emmons, Ebenezer; Vanuxem, Lard- ner & Hall, James. Geology of New York. 4V. il. pi. sq. qto. Albany 1842-43. Out of print. V. I pti Mather, W. W. First Geological District. 37 + 653P. 46pl. 1843' V. 2 pt2 Emmons, Ebenezer. Second Geological District. 10 -F 437P I7pl. 1842. V 3 pt3 Vanuxem, Lardner. Third Geological District. 3o6p. 1842. V 4 pt4 Hall, James. Fourth Geological District. 22 683p. I9pl. map. 1843. DIVISION 5 AGRICULTURE. Emmons, Ebenezer. Agriculture of New York; comprising an account of the classification, composition and distribution of the soils and rocks and the natural waters of the different geological formations, together with a condensed view of the meteorology and agri- cultural productions of the State. 5V. il. pi. sq. qto. Albany 1846-54. Out of print. V. I Soils of the State, Their Composition and Distribution, ii -f- 37ip. 2ipl- 1846. V. 2 Analysis of Soils, Plants, Cereals etc. 8 343 -t- 469. 42pl. 1849. With hand-colored plates. V. 3 Fruits etc. 8 + 34op. 1851. V. 4 Plates to accompany v. 3. 95pl. 1851. Hand-colored. V. 5 Insects Injurious to Agriculture. 8 -p 272p. 5opl. 1854. With hand-colored plates. DIVISION 6 PALEONTOLOGY. Hall, James. Paleontology of New York. 8v il. pi. sq. 4to. Albany 1847-94. Bound in cloth. V. I Organic Remains of the Lower Division of the New York System. 23 + 338P 99pi- 1847. Out of print. V. Organic Remains of Lower Middle Division of the New York System - + 362p. I04pl. 1852. Out of print. 3 Organic Remains of the Lower Helderberg Group and the Oriskany Sandstone, pti text. 12 + 532p. 1859. [$3.50] pt i42pl. 1861. [$2.50] PUBLICATIONS 139 T. 4 Fossil Brachiopoda of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung Groups, ii + 1 + 428P. 69p!. 1867. $2.50. V. 5 pti Lamellibranchiata i. Monomyaria of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton and Chemung Groups. 18 + 268p. 45pl. 1884. $2.50. Lamellibranchiata 2. Dimyaria of the Upper Helderberg, Ham* ilton. Portage and Chemung Groups. 62 + 293P. 5ipl. 1885. $2.50. pt2 Gasteropoda, Pteropoda and Cephalopoda of the Upper Helder- berg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung Groups. 2V. 1879. v. i, text. *5 + 4?2P-: V. 2. i2opl. $2.50 for 2v. & Simpson, George B. v. 6 Corals and Bryozoa of the Lower and Up- per Helderberg and Hamilton Groups. 24 -f- 298p. 67pl. 1887. $2.50. & Clarke, John M. v. 7 Trilobites and Other Crustacea of the Oris- kany. Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage, Chemung and Catskill Groups. 64 + 236p. 46pT. 1888. Cont. supplement to v. 5, pt2. Petro- poda. Cephalopoda and Annelida. 42p. i8pl. 1888. $2.50. & Clarke, John M. v. 8 pti. Introduction to the Study of the Genera of the Paleozoic Brachiopoda. 16 -f- 367P. 44pl. 1892. $2.50. & Clarke, John M. v. 8 pt2 Paleozoic Brachiopoda. 16 -}- 394p. 64pl. 1894. $2.50. Out of print. Catalogue of the Cabinet of Natural History of the State of New York and of the Historical and Antiquarian Collection annexed thereto. 242P. 8vo. 1853. Out of print. Handbooks 1893-date. New York State Museum. 52p. il. 1902. Out of print. Outlines history and work of the museum with list of staff 1902. Paleontology. I2p. 1899. Out of print. Brief outline of State Museum work in paleontology under heads: Definition; Relation to biology; Relation to stratigraphy; History of paleontology in New York. Guide to Excursions in the Fossiliferous Rocks of New York. I24p. 1899 Out of print. Itineraries of 32 trips covering nearly the entire series of Paleozoic rocks, prepared specially for the use of teachers and students desiring to acquaint themselves more intimately with ths classic rocks of this State. Entomology. i6p. 1899. Out of print. Economic Geology. ,^4p. 1904. Out of print. Insecticides and Fimgicides. 2op. 1909. Out of print. Classification of New York Series of Geologic Formations. 32p. 1903. C of print. Revised edition, gfip. 1912. Free. Guides Guide to the Mineral Collections, prepared by Herbert P. Whitlock, p. 45. 191 Free. Guide to the Collections of General Geology and Economic Geology, prepared by Robert W. Jones, p. 31. 1917. Free. Guide to the Paleontological Collections, prepared by Rudolf Ruedemann, p. 35. il. 1916. Out of print. Geologic maps. Merrill, F. J. H. Economic and Geologic Map of the State of New York; issued as part of Museum Bulletin 15 and 48th Museum Report, V. I. 59 x67 cm. 1894. Scale 14 miles to i inch. 15c. Map of the State of New York Showing the Location of Quarries of Stone Used for Building and Road Metal. 1897. Out of print. Map of the State of New York Showing the Distribution of the Rocks Most Useful for Road Metal. 1897. Out of print. Geologic Map of New York. 1901. Scale 5 miles to i inch. In atlai form $2. Separate sheets of this map are available at 50c each, as follows: Ontario West Finger Lakes Delaware Niagara Long Island Adirondack South western St Lawrence Hudson Mohawk Ontario East Central Lower Hudson (Note) The Ontario West and Ontario East are not colored as they have no surface geology The lower Hudson sheet, geologically color^, comprises Rockland, Orange, Dutchess Putnam, Westchester, New York, Richmond, Kings, Queens and Nassau counties, and parts ot Sullivan, Ulster and Suffolk counties; also northeastara New Jersey and part of western Connecticut. 140 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM — ^ Map of New York Showing the Surface Configuration and Water Sheds^ 1901. Scale 12 miles to i inch. Out of print. Map of the State of New York Showing the Location of Its Economic Deposits. 1904. Scale 12 miles to i inch. 15c. Geologic maps on the United States Geological Survey topographic base> Scale I in. = i m. Those marked with an asterisk have also been pub- lished separately. Albany county. 1898. Out of print. Area around Lake Placid. 1898. Vicinity of Frankfort Hill [parts of Herkimer and Oneida counties]. 1899. Rockland county. 1899. Amsterdam quadrangle. 1900. ‘Parts of Albany and Rensselaer counties. 1901. Out of print. ‘Niagara river. 1901. 25c. Part of Clinton county. 1901. Oyster Bay and Hempstead quadrangles on Long Island. 1901. Portions of Clinton and Essex counties. 1902. Part of town of Northumberland, Saratoga co. 1903. Union Springs, Cayuga county and vicinity. 1903. ‘Clean quadrangle. 1903. Out of print. ‘Becraft Mt with 2 sheets of sections. (Scale i in. = 5 m.) 1903. 2cc. ‘Canandaigua-Naples quadrangles. 1904. 20c. ‘Little Falls quadrangle. 1905. Free. ‘Watkins-Elmira quadrangles. 1905. 20c. ‘Tully quadrangle. 1905. Out of print. ‘Salamanca quadrangle. 1905. Out of print. ‘Mooers quadrangle. 1905. Out of print. Paradox Lake quadrangle. 1905. ‘Buffalo quadrangle. 1906. Out of print. ‘Penn Yan-Hammondsport quadrangles. 1906. 20c. ‘Rochester and Ontario Beach quadrangles. 1907. 20c. ‘Long Lake quadrangle. 1907. Out of print. ‘Nunda-Portage quadrangles. 1908. 20c. ‘Remsen quadrangle. 1908. Free. ‘Geneva-Ovid quadrangles. 1909. 20c. ‘Port Leyden quadrangle. 1910. Free. ‘Auburn-Genoa quadrangles. 1910. 20c. ‘Elizabethtown and Port Henry quadrangles. 1910. 15c. •Alexandria Bay quadrangle. 1910. Free. ‘Cape Vincent quadrangle. 1910. Free. ‘Clayton quadrangle. 1910. Free. ‘Grindstone quadrangle. 1910. Free. ‘Theresa quadrangle. 1910. Out of print. ‘Poughkeepsie quadrangle. 1911. Out of print. ‘Honeoye-Wayland quadrangles. 1911. 20c. ‘Broadalbin quadrangle. 1911. Free. ‘Schenectady quadrangle 1911. Out of print ‘Saratoga-Schuylerville quadrangles. 1914. Out of print. ‘North Creek quadrangle. 1914. Free. ‘Syracuse quadrangle. 1914. Free. •Attica-Depew quadrangles. 1914. 20c. ‘Lake Pleasant quadrangle. 1916. Free. •Saratoga quadrangle. 1916. Free. •Canton quadrangle. 1916. Free. •Brier Hill, Ogdensburg and Red Mills quadrangles. 1916. 15c. ‘Blue Mountain quadrangle. 1916. Out of print. ‘Glens Falls, Saratoga, Schuylerville, Schenectady and Cohoes quadrangles. 1917. 20c. Lake Placid quadrangle. 1919. Out of print. Schroon Lake quadrangle. 1919. Out of print. Cohoes quadrangle. 1920. Out of print. Canton quadrangle. 1920. Out of print. ‘West Point quadrangle. 1921. Free. ‘Moimt Marcy quad.mngle. J921. Free. INDEX Alkali syenite, 99 Alnoite, 107 Anorthosite, 98 Appalachian air-barrier, 38 Apple and thorn skeletonizer, 47 Archaeology, 57 Barnacles, how did the barnacles start, 44 Bat bedbug, 50 Bertie lagoon, 17 Birch leaf miner, 49 Birch leaf skeletonizer, 49 Bishop, Sherman C., quoted, 43 ; Zoology, 54; Singing spiders, 65 Botany, 62 Boulders, Glacial boulders in eastern, central and northern New York, 81 Camptonite, 106 Chlorite schist, no Clark reservation, 8 Clay materials, 18 Cobleskill coral reefs, 17 Colony, R. J., Field work in the Schunemunk region during 1924, 22 Cryptozoon Ledge, 8 Earth movements in New York, 12 Eel and salmon, strangely contrasting habits, 41 Entomology, 46 Essexite, loi European corn borer, 48 Falkland islands, collection of fossils from, 32 Eelt, E. P., Entomology, 46 Flint Mine Hill, 8 Fly in the eye, 38 Fossils, what killed the fossils, 32 Gabbro, 99 Garnet, 19 Geology, ii ; Fundamental lines of North American geologic structure, 71 Gilboa forest exhibit, 7 Gipsy moth, 48 Glacial boulders, in eastern, central and northern New York, 81 Glacial ice in New York, thickness, 31 Goldring, Winifred, supervision of Gilboa forest exhibit, 26; account of sea-lilies of New York rocks, 31 Gravel, 20 Graywacke, 109 Gypsum, 18 Hartnagel, C. A., Industrial geology, 18 House, Homer D., Botany, 62 Humming bird, trapped by a spider, 34 Industrial geology, iS Insects in the human body, 49 Iron ore, 19 Kirkham, Stanton D., quoted, 36 Lady beetle, fifteen-spotted, 51 Leaf feeders, 47 Legislative support, ii Lord, Edward R., acknowledgments to, 8 Lorraine group, 23 t Martens, James H. C., Glacial boulders in eastern, central and northern New York, 81 Mineral waters, 20 Molding sand, 20, 21 Mollusca, unexhibited collections, 8 Monchiquite, 106 Mountain-making, 12 Museum Association, 9, 10 Museum exhibitions, lack of space, 7 Museum notes, 27 Museum reservations, 8 [141I 142 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Natural cement, i8 Natural gas, 19 Natural gas survey, 20 Nephelite-syenite, 100 New' York State Museum Associa- tion, 10 Palaeotropism, 43 Paleogeography, American, moderii ideas on, 117 Paleontology, 23 Parker, Arthur C., Archaeology, 57 Parks, 8 Petroleum, 19; first discovery in America, 28 Portland cement, 18 Publications, ii Reservations see Museum reserva tions Rock deformations, ii Ruedemann, Rudolf, observations on mountain-making, 12; Fundamental lines of North x\merican geologic structure, 71 Salmon, The Atlantic salmon, 42 Salmon and eel, strangely contrasting habits, 41 Salt, 19 Salt problem, 15 Sand and gravel, 20 Schoharie creek. New York City de- capitates, 29 Schunemunk region, field w’ork in, during 1924, II, 22 Sea-lilies of the New' York rocks, 30 Shawangunk mountains, why the Shawangunk mountains are peculiar, 30 Slate, 19 Society, how society began, 45 Sodalite syenite, 100 Spider monster, 39 Spiders, humming-bird trapped by, 34 ; more aerial engineering, 36 ; singing spiders, 65 Staff, constant exodus of, ii Stark's Knob, S Stone, 19 Stratigraphy, American, modern ideas on, 1 17 Susquehanna river, how the Susque- hanna lost its head, 29 Talc, 19 Tinguaite, 104, 105 Troedsson, Dr Gustaf T., Modern ideas on American stratigraphy and paleogeography, 117 Unexhibited collections, 8 Utica formation, 23 Winds and the dissemination of in- sects, 50 Yamaskite, 103 Zinc, 19 Zoology, 54 -.1 ^ : s < f ♦ ‘A* ■ > f’. ■ ) s .:4 JT.Jl •;& rT- ’ '•.^ ^ ''• '\-J -'*■••' .*s '"' r' ■^V' s?- ./.?f4 ■■ ' -fJ W-.w^ -T'i »y*. i ?■ ■; - r;:^. fe: 'M . >3/