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FEBRUARY, 1882.] ; | [No. 1, Vol. I. THE Huse eu \ ¢j}, i , NEW ZEALAND | im ‘DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY. ueregen Fs Ps a al ad asl Nad Neh ag ™ Yudicio perpende : et st tubr vera videntur _, Dede manus; aut st falsum est, adcingere contra. Pll Pedal Tle Piatt del Fidel Cle ide leh deb dal Ld og) Aunts Introduction What is an acthaske P Dek Fr. Ww. ae Cantebaly College. Hints on the collection and preservation of Coleoptera. Capt. T. Broun, Aveutana A Visit to the Weka Pass Rock-paintings.. W. M, MASKELL Christchurch On the preservation of Invertebrata. Prof, Ai es PARKER, University of Otago i ot es ae es see British ecocialion’“Répon a the Chanute of the British Association on the manner in which Rudimentary Science should be taught, and how Ex- aminations should be held therein in Elementary Schools ... On a Common New Zealand Pycnogonid, ee with a Translation of heuhert S Key to the Genera be ae i HF iss Af sof The Genera of Holothuridea | ‘New Zealand Micro-Lepidoptera ( hisetoiee a New Zealand Copepoda of the “ eee ‘a Pace? « General Notes— ... Sek The University of New ‘Zealand—On the Occurrence of Piciaoeytie "aphylla_ xg (Lindley) in New Zealand—New Zealand Sytematists and Collectors—Recent Papers on Mollusca—Micro- scopic Preparation of Copepoda — On Mimulus Radicans — “ Knowledge” — Recent additions to the Crustacean Fauna, Meetings of Societies New Zealand Institute—Wellington Philosophical " Society-——Auckland Institute—Philosophical Institute of Canterbury—Otago Institute—Hawke’s Bay Philosophical Institute—Dunedin Naturalists’ Field Ciub, / _ Correspondence eee eee eee ese eee aoe Mea ane eee PRICE, 2s.; ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, 10s. Dunedin, D.%.; | J. WILKIE & Co., PUBLISHERS, PRINCES STREET. 2I 25, 28 30 32 35 40 44 48 Seere Sinn, ~ apie Vae< ee NG ee te ee te Te en OP erie tea i; Sa Ep a8 A : ae of ( L/r corks CfA. — AP CA eerie PCE ee, NEW ZEALAND OURNAL oF SCIENCE. DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY. Fudicio perpende : et st tabi vera videntuy Dede manus : aut si falsum est, adcingeve contra. OO ME 1. 1882 - 1883. DUNEDIN, N.Z.: 3. WILKIE & CO, PRINCES STREET. DUNEDIN’: PRINTED BY JOHN MACKAY MORAY PLACE. CSS INDEX. =) Senay See Adenochilus gracilis - - - = 9h, 127 Agriculture, School of, Lincoln - - 514 Annelida, On methods of studying the - - 305 Armstrong, J. B.—Fertilisation of red clover - 500 Arthur, W.—Notes on the Salmon Disease in the Tweed and other rivers, &c. - - 347 Auckland Institute - - 45, 195; 230, ois 336, 481 Australian Museum, Report of - 212 Balfour, The late Prof. F. M. - - 265, 383 Beetles, Habits of - - - - 516 Biology in our Arts Curriculum 97 Blanchard, E.—Proofs of the pubeidence of a Southern Continent - - - 251 Blowpipe Tests - - - 384 Botanical Criticisms - - - 182, 266 Botrychium lunaria : - 335 Broun, T.—Hints on the collection and a of Coleoptera - : 9; 49 —Remarks on the Bicone of New Zealand - 150 ——_— Additions to the New Zealand Coleoptera 215, 287, 367, 430, 487 Buchanan, J.—Botanical Criticisms by Mr. rok in the N.Z. Inst. Trans. - 182 Caddis-worm and fly, A marine - - 213, 307, 315 Campbell Island, Geological and Zoological relations of - 259 Canterbury Philosophical Society - 46, 144, 186,232,277, 338, 425» 474s 522, 575 Caprellina novee-zelandize - 179 Carpenter, W. Lant.—Science To minnee tian in Bigmen. tary Schools - . - 560 Celmisia ramulosa - 182 Cheeseman, T. F.—On some Witherta Rae ie plate stations - - 202 Chilton, C.—Recent views on the Trilobites - - 205 Cilio- flagellata, Recent researches on the III Coleoptera, Additionstothe NewZealand 21 5 287, 3: 33, 367, 430, any ——_——-—Change of nomenclature of Habits of - - - | ee IV. INDEX. Coleoptera, Hints on the collection and preservation of - 9, 49 ———Remarks on the Histeride of New Zealand 150 Collectors, Systematists and 41, 69, 173 Cook, Prof.—An Observatory for New Zealand 247 Copepoda of the Challenger Expedition - - 635, 117 — —_———Miicroscopic preparation of - Ras 24 Crustacea of New Zealand, The stalk-eyed_ - - 263,337 N. Z. Idoteide - : - 332, 5% Dactylanthus taylori - - - - 464 Darwin, Charles—Obituary notice - : 133 Desmidiz, Abstract of Dare on - . 322 Dixon's Patent Gas Ee = 469 Doris, A new : - 572 Dunedin Naturalists’ Field Club- = - 48, 143,236 Earthquake disturbances in North Canterbury - 176 ———Whatisan .- - - | 3 Earthworms in New Zealand~ - - - 243 ——_—___——- Synopsis of the genera of - : 585 Entomological Notes . - - 94 Euphrasia repens - : - 127 Fereday, R. W.—Fertilisation of Red Clover - 515 Ferns, New Zealand - : Se 128, 143, 176, 286 Fertilisation of Red Clover - $00) 515 Filhol, M. H.—Geological and Zoological “relations of Campbell Island - - 259 Fishes, Rare : - - 465 Flora of New Zealand - - - 72 —__—_—____ __—_——_ Recent additions to the : 387 Flowers and folk-lore - - - 129 Forbes, The late Prof. W. A. - - - 518 Fossil Plants” - - - 141 Fragmenta Phytographie Australix - - 179 Geology, On the progress of - . 395 Goyen, P.—‘“'A great mathematical agro : 95 —————“‘ Man before metals ” 416 Green, Rev. W. S.—A journey pea the New Zealand Glaciers - - - 443 Haast, Prof. J. von.—“ Weka-Pass rock paintings ” 165, 270 A5Z522 SC8 Bee aie progress of Geology - 395 —_— Humanism and Realism . 539 Haeckel on Education - ; : 334 Hairworms, New Zealand - - 790 Hamilton, A.—A new fresh-water hydrozoon . 41g Has the deep ocean ever been dry land? 406 Haswell, W. A.—On methods of studying the Annelida 305 ———— Marine Caddis-worms - - 318 Hauroto, Atripto Lake - | . 11g Hawke’s Bay Philosophical Society : 47; 188, 271 Helms, R.—A Maori rat at Greymouth - - 466 Remarkable Pigeons : - 516 INDEX. V. Helms, R.—Habits of Beetles - - 7 516 Hollyford Valley, Exploration of the - - 459, 536 Holothuridea, The genera of - - 30 Huia eggs - - - 262 Humanism and Realism - - 539 Hutton, Prof. F. W.—What is an earthquake i ? - 3 _ ———— Additions to the Molluscan Fauna of New Zealand - : 69, 96 set Biology in our Arts Curriculum 97 —__——_--— Zoological Geography - 195 —————___—_——_———- Weka-Pass rock paintings 245 ———___—_—————The Stalk-eyed Gematadea of New Zealand 263 Has the deep oceanever been diylandi ? 406 Hydrozoon, A new fresh-water . - 419 Idotea elongata - - - : 517 Invertebrata, On the preservation of - - 21 Kirk, T.—Mr. Buchanan’s Criticisms ° 266 Recent additions to the New Zealand Flora 387 Kirk, T. W.—Huia eggs - - - 262 Knightia, On the fertilisation of - - 173 Knowledge - - . - 43 Larentiide, New Zealand - 359 Lendenfeld, Dr. R. v—An expedition to the Southern Alps 504, 558 Lignite or brown coal in blast furnaces - 154, 176 Linnean Society of New South Wales - (238, 273; 280; 342, 390, 423, 485, 532, 574 Marattia fraxinea - 420 Maskell, W.M.—A visit to the Weka Pass ack paintings 12, 52 — New Zealand Desmidiz - 322 McKay, A.—Exploration of the Hollyford Valley - 530 McLachlan, R.—On a Marine Caddis-fly from New Zealand 307 Meyrick, E. “New Zealand Micro- ene gant 36, 159, 208 Mimulus radicans”~ - : 43 Mineralogical Notation - : - 24.4 Mollusca, Recent papers on - - 41,70 Additions to the New Geaead - 69, 96 —- Descriptions of - - 169, 213 of the Challenger Expedition - 305 353, 441 Montgomery, A.—Some fossil plants - - 141 Moths, Change of nomenclature of two 71 Mueller, Baron F. v.—Plurality % Cedednes in ‘aes genus Persoonia - - | LES: Myriapoda (a request) - : - 48 Naultinus sylvestris - - : - 177 Nests of the yellow-breasted Tit - - 334 Newman, A. K.—A New Zealand Association of Science 145 New Genland Institute - ar iaey 44, 422 ——____—_________ Transactions ae the - - 178, 468 Nitella, Endosmotic movements in 3 : 333 VI. INDEX. Notes and Queries - - - : 246 Notornis, On the skeleton of - : 181 A new species of : . 571 Observatory for New Zealand 247 Otago Institute 47, 78, 143, 185, 234 341, 301, 478, 520, 579 Oysters, Artificial rearing of = 455 Parker, Prof. T. J.—On the preservation of Invertebrata 21 a Recent researcheson the Cilio-flagellata III —_—__—_——_——— On the skeleton of Notornis - 181 ———_____—_—_———The late Prof. F. M. Balfour - , 265 —_——_—— Science ogee in schools : 384 Patella solandri - : 213 Paulin, R.—A trip to Lake Hauroto - - 11g Peripatus - : : 518, 573 Persoonia, Plurality of cotyledons i in the genus - 115 Petrie, D.—Some effects of the rabbit pest - 412 Pigeons, Remarkable - : 516 Plant Stations, On some hitherto ‘unrecorded - 202 Pleurosigma, A new - - - - 69 Podocerus validus - 517 Preservation of botanical and other scientific collections - 382 Pterostylis aphylla in New Zealand, Occurrence of - 40 Purdie, A.—Entomological Notes - - 94 New Zealand Larentiide - ; 359 Pycnogonid, On a common New Zealand~ - - 28 ——__———A, of the “‘ Challenger ” Expedition - 170 Rabbit Pest, Some effects of the - - - 412 Rat at Greymouth, A Maori - : 466 REVIEWS :— ‘“‘ A great mathematical question,” by T. Wakelin - 95,143 “Catalogue of the Australian Stalk and eeciaiariys: Crustacea,” by W. A. Haswell - 180 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 1881 - - 241 ‘* Man before metals,” by M. Joly - 416 “The Fertilisation of Flowers,” by H. Miller - 569 Rock Paintings, The Weka Pass 12, 52, 165, 244, 245, 270 Roseby, Rev. Dr.—A plea for the Stars 63 Royal Society of New South Wales 189, 237, 272, 342, 482, 519, 575 Salmon Disease in the Tweed and other rivers ; 347 Saprinus predator, Habitat of - 213 Science in Elementary Schools (Brit. Assoc. report) : 25 A New Zealand Association of - 145 — Teaching in Schools 3 - 1945 311, 384, a” Demonstration in Schools - 560 Screw Power, Formula for - - - 421 Sertularians, List of New Zealand - - 7O Sheep eating thistle heads - ea - 383, 422 Southern Alps, An expedition tothe - - 504, 558 Continent, Proots of the subsidence of a - 250 — -——Science Record - - - 72 INDEX. VII. Southland Institute = 77, 188, 236, 285, 423, 482 Spiders and Mites. Clasping organs in male - 253 ———Sexual differencesin - : - 467, 515 Sponge, New Zealand fresh-water : - 383, 572 Stack, Rev. J. W.—The Weka Pass rock pounangs - 245 Stars, A plea for the : 63 Stipa setacea: is it indigenous in New Ferland ? - 335 Systematists and Collectors - 41,60, 8775-240 Thistles and their uses : 466 Thomson, Geo. M.—Ona common NewZealand Pycnogonid 28 Charles Darwin - - ere ScienceteachinginourSecondarySchools 311 ———‘' The Fertilisation of Flowers” - 569 Tidal Waves - - 513, 572 Timber, Machine for testing the strength of - “ 573 Tongariro, Eruption of — - - . 421 Trilobites, Recent views on the - : . 205 Transit of Venus - 325 Tunner, Prof. von. —Ontheu: use of Lignite in the blast furnace 154 University of New Zealand - - : 40 Science Examinations - 139 ——— Honours in Science : 177 Urquhart, A. T.—Earthworms in New Zealand - 243 Veronica derwentiz - - . 469 Walker, Death of Prof. - - 421 Weka Pass rock paintings - aw T Os a 165, 244, 245, 270 Wellington Philosophical Society AA 72, 227,397. 521 570 Wilmot, E.—Exploration of the Hollyford valley - 459 Windmill, Mr. J. T. Thomson’s new - 286 Zoological Geography - - 195 THE NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF SCLENCE. ——————E No. Vol..1.—JANUARY, 1882. ———-g—__——. INTRODUCTION. HE publication of a Magazine in the interests of Science, in so young a community as that of New Zealand, may be looked upon by many as premature, and it may be considered that the enterprise entered upon with this number is destined to that failure which attends so many efforts put forth in advance of the time. But no one interested in the spread of scientific knowledge, and, in particular, no one working at any branch of scientific study, will deny that great advantages may result from such a publication, if well conducted, ard that it may prove an efficient means of advancing scientific work and culture in our midst. The want of some closer and more frequent means of communication between our scientific men than is furnished by. our excellent annual volume of Institute Transactions, has often been expressed, but no one seems to have considered the time sufficiently ripe tor attempting to fill the existing gap. Former attempts, too, at periodical literature, both here and in the Australian Colonies, have not been of a sufficiently encouraging nature to tempt others into the field. Indeed it was not till last year, when the “Southern Science Record” was started in Mel- bourne, that anything like a successful attempt was made to supply the want. That journal, however, is almost exclusively Australian, so that so far as New Zealand science matters are concerned, we are still im statu quo ante. There are many ways in which such a journal as this may prove both of special and general use. In the first place, workers in all parts ot the Colony will be enabled to know what others are doing, and will thus be able to avoid clashing with one 2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. another, and also materially to help one another by interchange of ideas and by suggestions. Anyone reading an original contri- bution for publication (in due course) in the ‘“‘ Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,” will also secure priority of publication for names, descriptions, &c., by sending an abstract to our columns, Articles in English or Foreign periodicals which deal with New Zealand scientific matters, or which are of general interest and value, will be reproduced either whole or in a condensed form. This in itself will prove an important branch of our work, as it is only in a few of the more important centres of population that current scientific literature is accessible to those who take an interest in it. Again, there are many persons who devote the tew spare hours of a busy lite to scientific pursuits, and who in the course of their researches accumulate a considerable amount of valuable information, but they shrink from publishing what they consider their fragmentary knowledge in our recognised channel for scientific work. But they need no longer hesitate to communi- cate the knowledge thus acquired, however fragmentary it may be. Indeed, it is hoped that such amateur workers—and there is a considerable number of them in the Colony—will freely avail themselves of the facilities now offered to them, and will make the “Notes” of this journal one of its most interesting and valuable features. Our columns will be open to all who desire to communi- cate or obtain information on scientific subjects. It is hoped that the Secretaries of all scientific societies in the Colony will aid by forwarding notices of their meetings, together with abstracts of original papers read at them, to the Editor. And if all those interested in the cause of science will give their assistance to the publication now commenced, there need be little fear for its immediate and lasting success. Finally, it may be well to add that the animating spirit shits has led to the publication of THe NEw ZEALAND JOURNAL OF SciENCE is solely the desire of spreading knowledge, and of en- couraging the search for truth. It is hoped that it will be always carried on ina similarly genuine spirit, and so we adopt for our motto, and as our standard for guidance, the old but true words of Lucretius— Fudicio perpende : et si tibi vera videntur Dede manus : aut st falsum est, adcingere contra. EARTHQUAKES. 3 WHAT 15 AN EARTHQUAKE? =O BY PROFESSOR F. W. HUTTON. ———— What are earthquakes? Where do they come from? How are they caused? These are questions which may interest many people in New Zealand, although we cannot, at present, see that any useful result is likely to follow from an investigation of earthquake phenomena. However, on this point no one can dogmatize. In no case have the practical results which followed from a scientific discovery been foreseen, and, perhaps, in no case has an important scientific discovery been made bya person who was looking only for practical results. The ancient philosophers were ridiculed for poring over the various figures presented when a cone was cut in different directions, and yet the practical ap- plication of astronomy to navigation was one of the results of their studies. The patient investigation of minute forms of life, which followed immediately on the invention of the microscope, was undertaken without any idea of its being useful; and yet nearly all our sanitary arrangements are based on the discovery that disease and living germs are intimately connected. The in- vention of the steam-engine seems at first sight to be an excep- tion; but it is not so, for it was only a practical application of the law of the expansion of gases. Watt discovered nothing new: but it occurred to him how a very useful combination of things already known might be made. It is a mistake to call the invention of the steam-engine a scientific discovery ; a his- tory of science might, and should, pass it by unnoticed, but it forms a very important era in the history of industrial art. We certainly cannot expect to be able to prevent earthquakes, but neither can we prevent storms; yet every civilised Government spends money in the investigation of meteorological phenomena, with the hope that it may be possible to foretell the weather. And would it not be as useful to be able to foretell earthquakes? And is it impossible to do this? He would indeed be but a half- hearted philosopher who could harbour such a thought for an instant. But, to return to the question at the head of the paper, “What is an earthquake ?”? When a heavily-laden waggon jum- bles along a rough street, the room of the house we sit in shakes. A tremor has been communicated from the wheels of the waggon to the walls of the house. An earthquake has happened; none the less a true earthquake because it has originated, as we say, 4 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. artificially. It will be worth our while to examine with some care what takes place in the ground while the waggon is passing over it. In the first place, the fact of the walls of the house shaking shows that the ground on which the foundations rested must have moved, and this movement must have been the result of a horizontal pressure passing through the particles of earth from the centre of the road to the house. But the direction of the blows of the wheel on the ground, as it passed over the rough stones, must have been vertical ; consequently, the vertical concussion of the wheel on the ground must have started a series of movements in the earth particles which radiated outward in all directions from the point of concussion. In the second place, the wheels of the waggon would, probably, leave a mark behind them, unless the road were very hard (as, for instance, if it were paved). That is to say, some of the particles moved by the con- cussion of the wheel would not have returned into their original position when the pressure was removed. But the foundations of the house would be found to retain exactly the position they _ had before the concussion; consequently, the earth-particles under the house must have moved in a horizontal direction, and, by virtue of the elasticity of the mass, returned once more into their original position. From these considerations we see that the wheels of the waggon must have compressed the particles below them. Some escaped the compression, by being moved on one side, where they remained; others, unable to do this, com- pressed all the particles surrounding them; and these in their turn compressed the next row, and soon. The sudden impact of the wheel would make the compression much more severe than if it were due to the mere weight of the waggon, and the moment the impact was over, the elasticity of the compressed particles would enable them to recover their former position. Thus, a wave of movement would spread in all directions from the wheel ; each particle being moved directly outward from the wheel by compression, and returning into its place again by elasticity. This is a true earthquake wave, which is defined by Mr. Mallet as “a wave of elastic compression traversing the sub- stance of the earth.” Now, it is necessary to notice carefully that there are two kinds of movement in an earthquake wave. First, there is the movement of each particle as it travels forward and back again into its place. The rate of this movement is called the velocity of shock. Secondly, there is the movement communicated by one particle to another, or, in other words, the speed with which the wave moves outward. If all the particles were perfectly rigid and absolutely in contact, all would move together ; but this is never the case, and a certain amount of time is lost in transmitting the movement from one particle to another, which will vary according to the elasticity of the particles and their distance apart (the wave travelling much faster in a solid elastic rock than it would in loose sand or clay). The rate of movement of the wave outward is called the velocity of transit. The dis- EARTHQUAKES. 5 tance each particle moves from its original position is called the amplitude of the wave. A familiar illustration will perhaps make these terms clearer. If a number of billiard balls are placed in a line so that they touch one another, and another ball is made to roll gently up and strike the first in the line, a wave of elastic compression will be transmitted through the line, and the last ball will move off. The time between the first ball being struck and the movement of the last one will be, when reduced to feet per second, the velocity of transit of the wave ; while the velocity of the moving ball, also reduced to feet per second, will be the velocity of shock. It is evident that the velocity of transit must always greatly exceed the velocity of shock. Let us now examine the effects of earthquake shocks on buildings. It is plain that when the velocity of transit is very great, the whole of the foundations of a building will practically move at the same time, and if the walls are firmly bound to- gether, but little harm will be done. This is always the case when an earthquake wave traverses large masses of compact ~ rock ; but when the wave passes into beds of loose soil or shingle, the velocity of transit is very much reduced, and the damage done to buildings is proportionately increased. But the velocity of transit only determines whether the whole building moves to- gether or whether different parts of it move at different times— it has nothing to do with the actual movement itself. This de- pends upon—(1) the velocity of shock, (2) the direction of the shock, and (3) the amplitude of the wave. Of course, the greater the velocity of shock, the greater is the destructive power of an earthquake, and it can only be guarded against by making build- ings low and with light roofs. But the damage done by an earth- quake depends very much on the direction of the shock, whether it be vertical or nearly horizontal—z.e., its direction in altitude ; and from what point of the compass it ccmes—z.e,, its direction in azimuth. On the one hand, the nearer the shock approaches to the horizontal, the greater will be its overturning power ; while on the other hand, the nearer it approaches the horizontal, the greater will be the distance of the centre of impulse of the earthquake wave, and consequently the less will be the velocity of shock. Theoretically it can be shown that the destructive effect of an earthquake wave will be greatest when its angle of emergence from the earth is about 50deg. The direction of the wave in azimuth is a very important consideration, for a wall built in the direction of the wave would stand, while one at right angles to it would be overthrown. The best position for a house would be one in which a corner faced the direction of the wave. It is evident that the amplitude of the wave is another very important point ; for a small movement, however rapid, might not be so destructive as a larger movement with a less velocity. Now, in compact rocks, where the whole mass is bound together, the amplitude is small, but it is much increased when the ground is loose and incoherent ; consequently, earthquakes are almost always more severely felt on alluvial plains than on solid rock, 6 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. while mines are the most secure places of all. The most dan- gerous place for a building is near an escarpment, or bank, that runs at right angles to the earthquake wave. Here the rock, whether it be solid or not, is unsupported on one side, and _ then, if the force of the impulse is sufficient to overcome the cohesion of the particles of rock, fissures will be formed and landslips will take place. All these effects can be experimentally illustrated by the row of billiard balls. If the balls are in close contact, and a die is placed on the top of each, then, when the row of balls is gently struck by another ball, all the dice will remain in their places ex- cept that on the last ball, and, perhaps, on the one next to it. But if there is a slight interval between each ball, then each die will be overthrown. The unsupported rock which fissures, or falls down with the earthquake shock, answers to the last ball of the row, which flies off when the first is struck. In every town subject to earthquake it is very important that accurate observa- tions should be made of the direction the principal waves take, and that cuttings should as much as possible, be made in the same direction. The second question, “ Where do earthquakes come from ?” that is, what is the geographical position of the centre of impulse, and-how deep is it situated below the surface? will require a different answer for each country ; and, so far as New Zealand is concerned, the necessary observations for settling these points . have not yet been commenced. The shocks on Mount Vesuvius are regularly recorded by Prof. Palmieri; and the occurrence of an earthquake in Switzerland, in December, 1879, has induced that scientific little country to make preparations for recording all future shocks. But Japan has now taken the premier position in earthquake enquiries. A Seismological Society was formed in April, 1880, “to collect and systemize facts which are in any way connected with earthquakes and volcanoes ;” and we learn from the address of Prof. Milne that valuable work has been already done. Fifteen seismometers, on the pendulum type, are distri- buted in the district round Tokio and Yokohama, in the telegraph offices, and these are all connected with clocks regulated by Tokio time, so that all the elements necessary to determine the position of the centre of impulse, the velocities of shock and transit, and the amplitude of the wave, will be recorded. Experi- ments have also shown that for small shocks the simple seismo- meters of columns of different sizes are of little use, owing to the mechanical difficulty of getting the base of a small column perfectly flat and perfectly at right angles to its axis. Heavy pendulums work better; but the new system of vibrating springs seems to promise the best results with regard to velocity and amplitude of shock. Any answer to the third question, “How are earthquakes caused ?” must for a long time be purely speculative, EARTHQUAKES. 7 The first theory as to the cause of earthquakes which attained to any importance is that of the Rev. J. Michell, who published it in 1760. By this theory earth-waves are supposed to be generated by movements of the liquid interior of the earth. “ They are,” says the author, “ like folds in a shaken carpet.” Few geologists, if any, now accept this theory, for it is founded on erroneous ideas as to the nature of the interior of the earth. It has sometimes been advanced that the cause of the shock is the sudden flashing into steam of superheated water as it cooled down. Messrs Volger and Morh think that some of the smaller earthquakes may be accounted for by the falling in of the roofs of caves, which have been formed by rock salt or limestone, having been dissolved and removed by water. The late Mr Poulett Scrope supposed that they are due to the sudden rupture of rocks, caused by contraction or expansion. Mr Mallet, our greatest authority on the subject, thinks that this could only give rise to weak shocks, and that the larger shocks are due to the crushing of rocks by the cooling and contraction of the earth’s crust. A study of the geographical distribution of earthquakes shows that they are, to a large extent, connected with volcanic eruptions. - Those countries whichcontain active volcanoes are far more subject to earthquakes than any others, although the most violent earth- quakes arenotinthe immediate neighbourhood of thevolcaniccone, but several degrees away from it. There are, however, many coun- tries in which earthquakes occur, and which do not contain any volcanoes. Such are the plains of Holland and Prussia, of the Indus and Cutch. Indeed, no district in the world appears to be altogether exempt ; even in Egypt earthquakes were felt in Janu- ary, 1740. The existence of extinct volcanoes does not appear to increase the number of earthquakes in a district. The times at which earthquakes occur are very irregular, and subject to great variations. During the Roman Empire, Antioch was shaken almost every year. Then followed a long period of repose lasting nearly 300 years, and since that time the shocks have been as violent as ever. Earthquakes occur at all times of the day and at all seasons of the year, but Mr Mallet, froma © study of nearly 7000 recorded shocks, thinks that they are rather more common at the winter solstice. He says, however, that his tables show a decided periodicity in large eartthquakes, the max- imum being in the middle of each century, with a second epoch, rather less powerful, toward the close of the century. These facts show, as might be expected, that earthquakes are not due to cosmical causes, the varying positions of the sun and moon having, perhaps, not so much influence as they have on the weather, and we seem almost driven to choose between explosions of gas and splitting of rock for the cause. Perhaps both may be vere caus@, but there are some reasons for giving preference to the latter, All large earthquakes are followed, and are very often preceded by several minor shocks, which gradually get smaller and smaller, This is just what we should expect in the rupture 8 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. of a rock in which the tension had been gradually increased, but we cannot well imagine a large explosion being followed by several smaller ones. Again, the movements of the land which often accompany earthquakes are not in the least like the move- ments caused by the explosion of a mine, but are much more probably due to the movements of the rocks which would often necessarily follow the rupture. In order to make this appear more plain, a possible hypothesis as to the origin of the earthquakes in New Zealand may be ha- zarded. It was shown in an article published in the Vew Zealand Magazine for October, 1877, that there are three principal seismic regions in New Zealand, Ist. in the neighbourhood of Cook’s Straits; 2nd, in the Hot Lake district, north west of Lake Taupo; and 3rd in Otago. The strongest and most widely-spread earthquakes occur in the first region, while all those in the second region are small and local. Now there is some geological evi- dence, not undisputed however, to show that the elevation of New Zealand has been much more rapid in the centre of the North Island, and in the southern and central portion of the South Island than in the neighbourhood of Cook’s Straits, where, indeed, as at Nelson, there may have been depression. If this is really the case, then the forces at work on this part of the earth’s crust must be gradually folding up the rocks of New Zealand into a flattened M, the central depression of which lies in Cook’s Straits. In this way tensions might be produced at each of the three bends, the relief of which, by fracture causes the earth- quakes. The central region of bending, under Cook’s Straits, would lie deeper than the other two, and would thus account for the earthquakes of this region being more severe than those of any other part of New Zealand. But whether this hypothesis be correct or not, if the earthquakes of New Zealand are caused by fractures taking place in the underlying rocks, which fractures temporarily relieve the gradually accumulating tensions, it is evident that they belong to a part of the mechanism of the earth which is not likely to change soon; that, however quiet things may appear on the surface, changes are taking e place below which must, gradually but surely, lead to a repetition of the same effects ; but after how long an interval no one can say. Whether these earthquakes are or are not caused by fractures of the rocks could Sea be determined ay observation. Note.—A description by an eye-witness ‘oe late Hon. H. S. Chapman) of the earthquake that took place in Wellington in 1848 will be found in the Westminster Review for July 1849. A record of the principal phenomena connected with the earthquake of 1855 will be found in Sir C, Lyell’s ‘‘ Principles of Geology.” PRESERVATION OF COLEOPTERA. 9 fMINTS ON THE /;COLLECTION AND PRESER- Ve PON OF COLEOPTERA. ———-(qVcTcT-- BY CAPTAIN THOMAS BROUN, M.ES. ETC. (soe ee Inquiries having been frequently made as to the best methods of capturing and preserving beetles, I have been induced to offer a few suggestions which, if acted upon, will ensure success. The predaceous ground-beetles, classed as Carabid@, may be found from the sea beach to the line of perpetual snow. The Cicindele, popularly termed tiger-beetles, frequent spots exposed to the sun, are exceedingly active, and sometimes difficult to overtake—with the exception of such genera as Amarotypus, Demetrida, Scopodes, &c., which occur under bark and on the trunks of trees ; the Caradide prefer stones, logs, tussocks, &c., for concealment during the day. The finer species usually affect hilly regions, and may often be found in numbers by turning over logs in the forest clearings as well as in grass fields ; tus- socks also harbour many. These should be cut down and up- rooted in order to obtain satisfactory results. The Staphylinide, often gregarious, will be found almost any- where. Our largest species (Staphylinus oculatus) is a carrion- beetle, and is not above such work as the removal of human excrement. Occasionally, numbers of the smaller Homalde may be secured by cutting down such plants as Areca sapida, whilst others venture to the edges of streams, and even as far as the loose drift and 4/gc just beyond reach of the tides. The members of such groups as the Wzt7dulide, Trogositide, Colydudee, Rhysodide, Cucujide, and Cryptophagide inhabit old wood in a state of decay and the foliage and parasiticjplants of living trees. The Lucanide are generally to be met with in logs, some- times below them, and in fern-roots, but they very rarely fre- quent leaves of inflorescence. The MWelolonthide are chiefly nocturnal, and can be taken off plants of all kinds, even introduced apple trees ; but the pretty Pyronota festiva often abounds on Leptospermum exposed to the full power of the sun. The £/ateride are essentially wood-feeders in the larval state, but many, if not nearly all, may be obtained from flowering shrubs, branches of trees, and amongst decaying vegetable mat- ter on the ground ; the latter being the true habitat of the curious genus Amphiplatys. The Tenebrionide are exceedingly diverse in habit, some IO JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. genera being common under stones and logs, whilst others are seldom found away from the inflorescence of the indigenous vege- tation. Under the term Curculionidee (weevils) appear a host of plant- feeding species, very variable in size, form, and coloration. Our largest one has been found on the blades and near the roots of spear-grass (Aciphyllum), and I have no doubt that a thorough search of the peculiar plants forming that genus will bring to light many other interesting beetles, more especially if the decay- ing rubbish and roots be shaken into an umbrella or over a sheet of brown paper. The greater number may be taken off trees, ferns, and flowering shrubs, though a few can only be found on the ground below vegetable matter; the curious genus Geophilus being an example of the last-mentioned peculiarity as to habit, and I believe all the species of 7vachyphleus occur under similar conditions. The insects belonging to the genus Rhyncodes are but seldom found except in logs, whilst the species of Cecyropa, according to my experience, are never found beyond the loose shell sand occasionally seen along our coasts, and, under such circumstances, are extremely difficult to detect. The family distinguished by the name Longicornes pass most part of their existence in wood, their presence being frequently discovered by large or small holes on its surface; and if collectors will go to the trouble of cutting up logs infested by them, they will be astonished at the wholesale destruction these beetles are capable of effecting within a comparatively short time, whilst the labour bestowed will be rewarded by specimens of the finest species we possess. The Phytophaga—great pests to our agriculturalists, particu- larly the genus Col/aspis—abound on many plants, and often in- vade orchards in vast numbers. A few peculiar and highly interesting forms are, however, excessively rare, and, in my opinion, cannot be charged with depredations on any useful plant. Having indicated the usual haunts of the order, I shall now proceed to afford some information as to the means usually em- ployed by one desirous of getting up a collection ; but, before doing so, it should be intimated that he ought to have higher and nobler aims than the mere accumulation of specimens for the cabinet. The study of multifarious forms and their exact adap- tation to peculiar modes of life, the injury insects inflict or the benefits they confer, tend to afford the student some insight into the marvellous designs of the Creator. The discovery of species, especially if of extraordinary structure or abnormal habit, and the making known in a complete manner the entomological fauna of such an isolated country, materially aid in the solution of difficult scientific problems. The healthful exercise, mental as well as physical, is most beneficial, and does not involve any considerable outlay ; whilst the result, I venture to assert, will far outweigh any necessary pecuniary sacrifice. The implements required by the Coleopterist are few and PRESERVATION OF COLEOPTERA. it simple. Perhaps the most important is a good stout alpaca umbrella, which should be used in this way :—On arrival at the collecting ground it should be opened, inverted, and held in such a position that the insects, shaken or dislodged off plants by being beaten with a stick three or four feet long, fall into the net thus formed. When thus caught, they must be immediately secured, the larger ones being transferred to a wzde-mouthed bottle containing bruised laurel leaves, or, if these cannot be ob- tained, some sawdust and two or three lumps of cyanide of potassium (poison). On returning home, the beetles should be picked out by emptying the whole contents on a sheet of paper; but if they are to be sent away to be named, they ought to be placed in another bottle, containing some bruised or chopped up laurel leaves, because, when so treated, they keep in good con- dition for three or four weeks, and so relaxed that the mouth and limbs of each insect can be easily opened out for examina- tion. The smaller insects should be taken out of the umbrella and put into a separate bottle. I find a camomile-pill bottle the most useful for that purpose, it fits easily into the waistcoat pocket ; but the cork should be perforated so that a stout quill two or three inches in length may pass through it and project, in order to form a tube or scoop. The mouth of the quill is placed over an insect, the bottle inclined upwards, and it slides down, It will be evident that without some killing mixture the insects would soon destroy one another when in the bottle; saw-dust will not answer the purpose very well, as it occasions a great deal of subsequent labour when picking them out, besides which it is almost certain, in the hands of an inexperienced collector, to re- sult in the loss of many of the more minute species, and, more- over, most of them will be covered with the fine dust which will tenaciously adhere and be extremely difficult to remove after- wards. I find the best plan is to use bruised laurel, and I in- variably manage matters thus :—For such a bottle, I take three or four leaves, hold them flat on the side of an axe laid on the floor, and with the back of a tomahawk or hammer pound away along the edges of the leaves until they are reduced to a pulp, this is then rammed into the bottle with a pencil until the top of the pulp forms a tolerably smooth surface. The insects can thus be almost instantly killed, will be quite clean, soft and easily manipulated. The process may seem rather formidable at first sight, but with a little practice the operator will easily prepare such a collecting bottle in ten minutes, the pulp remains good for a fortnight, and, if not strong enough after that, one bruised leaf will make it so; but it must be borne in mind that the pulp should be renewed at least once a month. For dealing with logs, a tomahawk is required ; it should fit into a leathern case, and be secured by a belt round the waist. Some localities are more favourable than others. If possible, a clearing in the forest should be selected, but even a pathway will suffice, provided there is room enough to open the umbrella. All the native plants, half-rotten branches of trees, and even I2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, rushes, should be beaten. The loose bark should be stripped off trees and logs, and carefully examined, so that the destroyers may be found. In conclusion, I may add that Iam always willing to exa- mine collections sent to me for that purpose, and will return a named specimen of each species to the collector within a month or so. The preservation of insects will be dealt with in the fol- lowing number of this journal. A VISIT TO THE WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. > BY W. M. MASKELL, <> —_———— Everybody in the colony has heard of the Weka Pass Rock- Paintings. Known for several years to a few people, these curious works of art were first brought under general notice in the presidential address of Dr. von Haast to the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, in 1877 (Transactions N.Z. Institute, vol. X., p. 44). Since then speculation has been freely indulged in concerning them. Some attribute them to the Maoris; some to an earlier race of aborigines ; some to Cingalese or Tamil sailors, cast away in New Zealand ; one authority to Buddhist mission- aries endeavouring to enlighten the Maori mind; and a great many to European shepherds, shearers, or drovers. From time to time also it has been stated that different Europeans, settlers of various classes, have declared themselves the actual authors of the paintings. Dr. von Haast, in his address, expresses the hope that members of the Institute would aid in the elucida- tion of the question, “ which may throw considerable light upon the pre-historic inhabitants of these fair islands.” And it was with a view to some such assistance, ever so slight, that during the first week in November, 1881, pretty generally holiday time, a party of nine, almost all members of the Institute, proceeded to the Weka Pass to inspect the rock-paintings. Nothing could have been fairer or more promising than the weather of Friday morning, November 11, and, indeed, the promise was well kept during the two days of our trip. A punc- tual muster brought seven of us to the station for the early morning train for Amberley ; the other two were “ collected” at a a wayside station. All told, the party formed a very fair repre- sentative body. Art and archeology, commercial, legal, and mathematical acumen, scientific and classical research, found -WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. 13 their embodiment in some one or other amongst us; so that we had the means not only of extracting from the journey the neces- sary holiday enjoyment, but of procuring, to a great extent, a sufficiently fair guide to correct judgment on the paintings them- selves. During the time occupied in reaching Amberley there was plenty of opportunity for inspection of the country passed through; and, without now desiring to run into uncalled-for ecstacies, it may be safely said that on such a morning no settler in New Zealand need require excuse for feeling proud of the work done and the results achieved, level and tame as the plains might appear to eyes accustomed to the more varied beauties of hill and vale ; there was a richness in the very flatness of the country, a wealth of deep green vegetation, a suggestion of full garners and fat herds in the closely packed farms and homesteads, a thorough air of agricultural prosperity in all that the eye rested on, that could not but gladden the heart. To borrow the words of a colonial poet “from the top of the Port Hills, : in wide expansion spreads the myriad-coloured plain, Dusky woodlands, emerald meadows, laughing fields of waving grain. Far away the shadowy mountains run their dim mysterious ring, Till the huge Kaikoura, towering, wears his snow-crown as their king. Yes, indeed, the land is fair, and memory, swiftly glancing back Through the vista of the years as o’er some half-forgotten track, Sees the stages of its progress ; sees how, each old mark effaced, Less than half a life-time’s span has made a garden of the waste.”’ Arriving at Amberley, we found a four-horse coach, specially engaged, waiting to carry us on the sixteen miles or so to our destination. Amberley, a prosperous little village, where, seven or eight years ago, there could be seen nothing but tusssocks and sheep, is the present terminus of the northern railway; at least the line is finished to the Waipara River, some six miles further, but only goods trains run thereon at present. From the Wai- para therailway cuttings arebeing made through the Weka Pass to Waikari, and the opening of this line is supposed to be fixed for January, 1882. At Waikari (the northern extremity of the Pass) the railway, for the present, stops dead at a collection of half a dozen shanties and a public house; in the more or less immediate vicinity of which are, I believe, several thousand acres of land under crop, but these are not visible from the “hotel.” Whether the Government will for some years to come carry the railway farther north, I cannot say ; but the proposed West Coast Rail- way scheme will, if effected, soon connect Waikari, Amberley, and Christchurch with the rich goldfields and timber forests of Westland. But these are matters with which our excursion party nothing todo. Two things, however, formed the subject of much comment amongst some of our number. One was the absence of, and the urgent necessity for, extensive plantations in the district north of Amberley. The whole of the northern portion of Canterbury suffers greatly from the dryness of its climate. When a north-westerly wind blows, as it does, off and on, half the year, the clouds are seen rigidly confined to the hill ranges and 14 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, pouring down there quantities of rain which, wasted in the moun- tains, would be a godsend on the plain. Around Christchurch, for several miles, the country is getting very well timbered, and I believe it to be a well-established fact that in this region the droughts are much less severe and the nor’-westers less blasting than formerly. About Amberley, and further north, trees are the exception rather than the rule, the climate is dry and parching, the winds hot and fierce. If every farmer would put in a few trees, no matter of what kind, it is probable that a beneficial change would be effected. At present one sees field after field, hundred acres after hundred acres—wheat, oats, grass, with’ scarcely a tree here and there—green enough perhaps in early spring, but parched and brown as soon as the summer heats come on, and totally without protection from the blast of the nor’- wester. The other point was the unfortunate policy which threw into the hands of one man, for a mere pittance, scores of thousands of acres of magnificent land, of which he makes no use beneficial to any one but himself. This error was perpetrated before Canterbury had control of her lands, but the effect has been lasting. And, as we travelled through mile after mile of this gentleman’s property, disgust found constant expression in the wish that nature, or some other power, would ere long deprive the owner of this magnificent expanse of the faculty of conserving a desert where thousands of willing farmers might settle in produc- tive homesteads. But I must hasten on. Leaving Amberley shortly after nine, we reached the Waikari “ Hotel” about noon. At once hungry nature asserted her claims, and a clamorous demand for food produced a substantial and excellent luncheon, to which the long journey of fifty miles and the clear fresh air made us do ample justice. One of our party, who had previously visited the rock- paintings, stated that they were situated a couple of miles from the Waikari. Leaving, therefore, our coach at the “hotel,” we instructed the driver to wait a few hours there, and then to pick us up at the entrance of the pass on our return from the paintings, our purpose being to dine and sleep at another inn about the middle of the Pass. Strolling away past the cuttings of the rail- way and the busy hum of the numerous navvies at work, we turned off the high road close to a farm house, taking a by-road through. the hills to what. is called. the. “ Basin. Farm.” This, “basin; : situated about a mile to the westward of the Pass itself, is cut off from it by a low rampart of hills, through which the Weka Creek, giving its name to the Pass, has cut its way in a gorge of lime- stone. The basin, indeed, which encloses the head waters of the creek (small swampy springs) gives one at first sight an idea that it was originally, or at least that it once contained, a small lake : but Iam notgeologist enough to say whether it did so or not. Speaking roughly, I should say that the area of the basin may be about 1,500 or 2,000 acres. Our road rose over the low rampart, and turning to the north-west led towards the homestead. But before reaching this we came at about the lowest portion of the basin, WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. 15 to the springs of the Weka Creek, and looked down the some- what steepish gorge which it has cut through the rampart. The hills around are studded with limestone rocks projecting in all conceivable forms, but our eyes at once perceived two of these evidently answering to the term “rock-shelter ;” for, sloping gently from the surface, their broad tops have been flattened and weathered, and the under surface has been, by some agency or other (I suppose water) hollowed out. Passing the smaller of these, our guide led us to the larger, on the hollow under side of which we found the rock-paintings of which we were in search. Much disappointment did the first view of the locality of the paint- ings cause ; for it was abundantly clear that, whatever their nature or origin, whatever their interest, ethnological or archeological, ar- tistic or quaint, their future existence is almost certainly extremely limited. The rock on which they are painted does not rise per- pendicularly from the ground to its roof, but slopes back a little first. The owner of the land has taken advantage of the “shelter” to convert it into a cow house. ‘The floor is covered with straw; the cattle make themselves at home in it; the milkers probably occupy their leisure moments in defacing the “paintings;” and between the rubbings of the cows, the scratchings ot the labourers, and also, perhaps, of visitors, and general dirt and neglect, probably a few years more will entirely obliterate the whole affair. We spent a good long while examining the curious designs visible on the hollow surface of the rock shelter, and forming speculations as to their nature and origin. The first thing that struck us was the extraordinary number of them. From the plate given by Dr. von Haast in the “ Transactions,” it might be imagined that the “ paintings” were not numerous ; and although, in a phrase of his address here and there, he mentions that the rock is covered with them, yet he does not, I think, give any clear idea of the immense crowd of designs visible. In point of fact, the whole shelter wall, some sixty feet long and eight feet high, is covered with a labyrinth of drawings in black and red (the former very greatly predominating), mingled together, crossing each other, tangled up so inextricably that very careful and minute scrutiny would be required to unravel them. The scaling of the rock itself, and the constant rubbings and defacements to which it has been subjected, render it now a task of enormous difficulty to clearly decipher the paintings ; but even when they existed in their primitive freshness, I imagince there must have been a good deal of confusion for the spectators. It occured to one or two amongst us that one means of decid- ing the question which had been raised as to the European or aboriginal authorship of the paintings might be found in an analysis of the pigment in which they were executed. For this purpose a few chips of the surface, carefully selected from spots already crumbling of their own accord, were taken away. It was not until after our return to Christchurch that I found in Dr. von Haast’s address a statement that “the paint consists of Kokowai 16 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. (red oxide of iron), of which the present aborigines of New Zea- land still make extensive use, and of some fatty substance such as fish-oil, or perhaps some oily bird-fat.” From the phrase used it would appear that Dr. von Haast had already procured an analysis of the pigment. I defer, for the moment, an account of the conclusions at which we, collectively or individually, arrived respecting these paintings, in order to complete the narrative portion of my work. After a pretty close inspection of the rock-shelter and its orna- mentation, above and below, we proceeded to the gorge above mentioned, where the creek cuts its-way through the rampart, examining as we went every rock giving indication ofa “ shelter.” At the upper extremity of the gorge, just below the springs, occurred the smaller shelter of which I spoke just now. And here again (it was some three or four hundred yards from the larger one) we found other specimens of painting. The “shelter ” itself consisted only of the hollow under a moderate sized rock or boulder. It was only about eight or ten feet long and two or three high, so that it was necessary to creep or crawl underneath to get near the painted surface. Here and there were only a few “paintings;” two or three, in black pigment, fairly distinguish- able and evidently similar to those in the large shelter, and one or two red patches which might be anything. The member of our party who had previously visited the place stated that when he first saw this shelter the earth and grass filled it much more than when we were there; sheep, probably, had trodden down or eaten the grass and pressed down the earth to its present level ; indeed, small locks of wool adhered to the wall. Having thoroughly examined this spot and seeing no more indications of rock shelters in the vicinity, we turned our steps to the high road, where our coach soon picked us up. About sunset we reached the Weka Pass Inn, where the landlord, pre- viously instructed of the probable ravenous appetites of the party, provided a capital finish to the day’s work in the shape of an excellent dinner. During the evening the natural subject of con- versation was the origin and meaning of the paintings, and these weae discussed in all their bearings as long as time allowed. I should have observed that as our party included individuals of many varied inclinations, the day’s proceedings had not been confined merely to one object. The entomologist kept a sharp lookout for /epidoptera, and during the evening was continually popping out to inspect the trees in the garden “sugared” for his victims. Ferns were gathered whenever fair specimens were found. The conchologist searched in every direction for land and water shells ; the microscopical section dived into every pool for diatoms, desmids, or any other prey procurable. A good night’s rest and a capital breakfast fitted us for the next day’s proceedings. This time we devoted ourselves to more general wanderings, and splitting up into parties explored in various directions—some on the hills, some in the valleys. “Our artist,” vagabondizing alone, discovered in a branch creek a lovely WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. Ly little limestone gorge, almost subterranean. A wandering party chancing to come within “ cooey” of him were drawn to the spot, and recognising at once the fitness of time and place, seized the opportunity to bathe. The clear little stream, winding between precipitous cliffs some 30 or 40 feet high, clothed here and there with bushes, though in some places scarcely five feet apart, formed deep and limpid pools, inviting a plunge. Quickly stripping, we frolicked in the wave, whilst “our artist” sketched the varied aspect of the gorge. One of the party incautiously venturing to the outlet, found himself on his return to the inn exhibited in the sketch book under the form of Venus Anadyo- mene, an unwonted character, though familiar enough, perhaps, in the classical studies to which he is addicted. Returning to the inn and recruiting exhausted nature with lunch, we remounted our coach and returned to Amberley. The evening train carried us back to Christchurch, which we reached at eight in the evening. I think it was thefeelingof every one of about the party that the trip from first to last had been successful. We had been favoured with weather so perfect that it could not be surpassed ; we had found civility and comfort everywhere ; we had seen what we went up to see, and had been satisfied ; and I believe that there was a unanimous opinion amongst us that no hitch of any kind had occurred to mar the enjoyment of our two days’ excursion. It remains to indicate briefly the conclusions to which our examination of the Rock-paintings led us, collectively or individu- ally. It may be well first to give a concise summary of the theories which, as far as I am aware, have been formed concern- ing them. Ist. The Maories attribute them toa mythical anterior race— Negapuhi, according to Dr. von Haast; Te Kahui Tipua, according to the Rev. Mr. Stack (Trans. Vol. X). 2nd, Dr von Haast inclines to the belief that they are the work of shipwrecked Indian sailors serving as slaves among the primeval savages anterior to the Maori arrival here (/0). 3rd. The Rev. Mr. Pargiter, of Ceylon, traces a similarity between the paintings and ancient Tamil characters (/d). 4th. Mr. Mackenzie Cameron, of Sydney, ascribes them to Budd- hist missionaries desirous of propagating their faith (Trans, Vol. XI). 5th. The settlers generally appear to have an idea that they are the work of Europeans, idle shepherds or shearers daubing the rock with the raddle intended for their masters’ sheep. 6th. One or two persons (Europeans) have asserted that they are the actual authors of the designs. Clearly there is a wide range for choice here, between the mythical Ngapuhi and the nineteenth century shearer ; and, with the exception of the 6th, it is evident that all the opinions ex- pressed have not gone beyond the domain of pure theory. As far as our own views are concerned, I may at once elimi- i8 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. nate the first of the above ideas. We had no opportunity (and I imagine very little power if opportunity had been given) of extracting a conclusion from Maori traditions. Besides, as the Maoris evidently confine themselves really to the statement that their own ancestors did zo¢ do the paintings, and envelope the true authors as far as they can in the thickest mythical mists, it is clear that their views, taken at the very best, are no more than negative, and useless for practical purposes. Any man can say, “T did wot do it,” or, “ My grandfather did zo¢ do it ;” but if he goes on to found a statement of facts upon a dream or a fairy tale, there is an end of him as a practical witness. Passing, for a time, over the next three theories, we come to the view held by many people, and actually asserted by some, that the paintings are of European workmanship. And I think I am correct in stating that our examination of the locality, of the rock itself, and the paintings, led us to the unanimous opinion that this view is totally incorrect. Whoever may have been the artists, they were, as we thought, undoubtedly not European shepherds, shearers or sheep drovers. In the first place, the locality is away from the road, and although, doubtless, twenty or thirty years ago the Weka Pass was not traversed by a good metalled high road, yet even then a drover, to take his sheep through the “ Basin,” would, as it seems, have deliberately left an evidently easy track to wander causelessly over high hills and steep gullies. Secondly, the paintings are in more places than one in the “ Basin ;” and it is to the last degree unlikely that a shepherd or a shearer should have amused himself by wandering about with a raddle pot, and a brush of lamp black to daub the rocks with unmeaning scrawls for pure mischief, especially con- fining himself to obscure over-hanging semi-caverns. Thirdly, the paintings (especially those in black pigment) are in immense numbers on the large shelter, as I said just now. So that our artistic shearer or drover must absolutely have spent, not only the hours of a single evening, or two evenings, in his eccentric work, but must have devoted himself to his task for days together. Fourthly, there does not seem to be the remotest resemblance in these paintings, black or red, to anything which the imagination of an uneducated European would have led him to daub on the rock, with one single exception, the queer object called a hat in Dr. von Haasts’ plate, Transactions, Vol. X. Puttingall these things together, and adding the evident “ weathered” appearance and crumbling surface of the rock, we came, I believe, to the unanimous opinion that the fifth theory which I have mentioned is clearly erroneous, and that the sixth (which is not a theory, but an assertion) is as mythical as the Ngapuhi. Having rejected European authorship, the next question arising was the antiquity of the designs. And here we found ourselves necessarily without any sure guide. Dr. von Haast appears to lay considerable stress upon the “scaling” of the rock surface. But it is obvious that this can in no sense what- ever be taken as anything more than the merest indication. WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. I9 And as for the Maori traditions, or absence of tradition, their statements about their ancestors, fabulous monsters and so on, it is not uncommon, I think, to find that different theorists have a way of twisting these traditions pretty well in any direction they please (as for instance in the case of the Moa), and that there is no help to be gained from them when we get beyond a certain lapse of time. Practically, beyond say a hundred years, we fall into regions of fable with Maori traditions. And I think that the general opinion of our party on the point of the antiquity of the paintings was simply this, that whilst they undoubtedly are older than European settlement here, they may have been exe- cuted at any period previous to that; and that is all that can be said. I am bound to confess that, having so far (as I believe) expressed the views which our party were able to arrive at in common, I am not in a position to give anything more as the result of unanimous or greatly preponderating judgment; for the time at our disposal for discussion did not permit us to collect, as it were, the suffrages of the whole party upon the question, “ Who did execute the paintings?” If I should be supposed to hint here that in any reasonable space of time (unless direct evidence should be forthcoming) such a decision could be reached, I should be sorry. For the question would rather seem to be one calculated to exercise the wits of many men for a very considerable time. All I mean to convey is that we, as a party, could not even approach a definite judgment on the point. Many diverse opinions were expressed individually ; none were collectively adopted. One view, which undoubtedly seems to possess elements of possibility, was put forward by our archeological member. The large shelter, as I said above, was formed by a long flattish lime- stone rock sloping from the ground upwards, as a book might be raised from a table on one of its edges. The top formed a tolerably level platform, about twenty-five or thirty yards long and half-a-dozen wide. In front of this, facing the hollowed- out shelter, the grassy slope of the “Basin” rose towards the rampart above mentioned, about thirty yards away ; this slope forming a hill perhaps two or three hundred feet above the rock, and slightly curving round it. The theory propounded was that the rock had been used in past times as a natural stage, pulpit, or stand for oratory on occasions of large public gatherings, the audience being seated on the slope. Certainly no place could be better adapted for the purpose. One of our number, to test the effect of sound, went away some little distance on the slope, and thence could hear with the greatest of ease every word spoken from the top of the rock. It is well known that the Maori orators, when making speeches, were in the habit of running rapidly up and down for short distances, jerking out their forcible sentences ; and no better place for these declama- tory gymnastics could be found than the rock in question. What would seem to lend some colour to this theory is the fact 30 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, that the “Basin” appears to afford none of the inducements required for ordinary Maori occupation. ‘There is no eel stream handy (at least nearer than the Pass itself) ; there are even no cabbage trees. So that, it is contended, unless the Natives made use of the place for solemn public gatherings, one does not see, in common language, what the deuce they went there for. As for shelter from the weather, they could have found that in other places in the Pass itself, nearer to eels and other congenial food. Upon this theory, then, the paintings them- selves would have been the work of Natives in connection with some of their public gatherings, or else may have been the employment of idle individuals in the intervals of oratory, or while waiting for the chiefs to open the business. It should be mentioned also that several of our number recognised, or thought that they recognised, different “ages” in the paintings. Dr. von Haast states in his address (Trans. Vol. X., p. 45) that the black designs “are not contemporaneous with the red ones” because “ they pass, not only indiscriminately over them, but many of them were only painted after the rock had already scaled off under the red ones ;” and again, p. 51, he says that they pass “indiscriminately over the red ones as well as over each other.” It appeared to many of us that the paint- ings might be divided into three classes. First, the red designs, all seemingly of one type. Secondly, black designs simply out- lined. Thirdly, black designs with the whole outline filled up with pigment, not shaded, but evenly spread. The theory adopted by some of our number was that the red ones were the oldest, or to use the phrase adopted, “really archaic”; that the filled-up black ones, looking as if daubed on with the thumb, were less ancient ; that the black outlines were the most modern of the three. Of the intervals between each no opinion was, I think, formed. Having now, I believe, given a fair exposition of the views of our party as a whole, and of individual sections of it, I may be allowed, perhaps, to state what is my own opinion upon these paintings, and to examine the theories which have been publicly put forth concerning them. (To be continued.) PRESERVATION OF INVERTEBRATA. 21 ON THE PRESERVATION OF INVERTEBRATA. ee BY PROF. 1. JEFFERY- PARKER, —————— With the exception of those Invertebrata which can be satis- factorily preserved in the dry state—notably insects—the only thoroughly good permanent preservative is alcohol—the only one, that is, which preserves both internal and external structures with the minimum amount of alteration. I have italicized the word “permanent” in the foregoing sentence, because it is often of advantage to place a given specimen in alcohol only after previous treatment with some other preservative. Into alcohol, however, it should be sooner or later placed, and there retained ; and it is important to remember that the alcohol should be strong—undiluted rectified or methylated spirit. Anyone making a collection of hydrozoa, worms, molluscs, &c., must therefore be prepared for a considerable expenditure of alcohol, undue economy in this respect always resulting in flabby, half-rotten specimens, and complete waste of time and trouble. Besides alcohol, the following are the chief requisites :— 1. Picric acid, used in the form of a cold saturated solution. 2. Chromic acid, used as a 0.5 per cent. solution. 3. Potassium bichromate, a 1 per cent. solution. 4. Osmic acid, a I per cent. solution. (This must be kept ina dark place. It is advisable to cover the bottle containing it with black paint or paper.) Be reetic acid. 6. Corrosive sublimate. 7. Glycerine. 8. A number of bottles of various sizes. Wide-mouthed bottles are, in nearly all cases, the best—z.g , the ‘‘ Preston Salts” bottles sold by druggists, pickle bottles, &c. A few ointment pots—small, shallow porcelain vessels with lids, are also useful. g. A ‘lifter,’ for transferring small and delicate organisms, which cannot be touched with the fingers, from one vessel to another. A very convenient form is made by flattening out about three-quarters of an inch of the end of a piece of stout copver wire, and then bending the flattened portion upon the remainder, at an angle of about 100° to 120°. In collecting marine invertebrata, it is advisable to take vessels of different sizes; for instance, a common tin “billy” for large objects, and a few well-corked wide-mouthed bottles for small organisms. It is a good plan to take at least one bottle full of picric acid or potassium bichromate solution, and to place therein immediately any particularly delicate 22 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. animals, such as the oceanic hydrozoa which are occzsionally found on these coasts, and which do not readily bear transport. By far the majority of specimens may, however, be taken home in vessels of sea-water. The water should be changed occasionally during the day, and always immediately before leaving the shore. It is advisable, whenever practicable, to take a separate vessel of sea-water, and to renew that in the collecting bottles immediately on reaching home. A similar procedure will of course answer for fresh-water collecting. For terrestrial forms, match-boxes, &c., may con- veniently take the place of bottles. A very good collector’s companion for ordinary walks is a common waterproof sponge- bag, which answers admirably for either marine, fresh-water, or land organisms. The work of preservation should be begun as soon as possible after reaching home; a night’s sojourn in the collecting vessels will cause the death of many of the more important specimens. The following hints for preservation of various invertebrata are founded partly on my own experiments, partly on notes furnished to me by Prof. Haddon, of Dublin, of the methods used at the Zoological Station at Naples :— SPONGES.—For ordinary purposes, place at once in al- cohol. For the preparation of microscopic specimens showing the constituent cells, take a small piece of the sponge, not larger than the end of one’s finger, and place it in a small vessel (e.¢., a wine-glass), containing just enough sea-water to cover the specimen. Add a few drops of osmic acid, cover the vessel, and allow it to stand zz a dark place for 24 hours, then rinse with a little alcohol to get rid of the acid, and place in alcohol for permanent preservation. HyDROID PoLyps (Sertularians and Campanularians).— Ascertain by examination with a low power that the specimen is actually living and has expanded polypites. Transfer quickly from the sea-water to pot. bichrom. solution: this kills the poly- pites in an extended condition. Keep in the bichromate for 24 hours, then transfer to alcohol 50 p.c. for 24 hours, then to alcohol 75 p.c. for the same time, and finally to strong alcohol. By this treatment with alcohol of gradually increasing strength, shrinkage is greatly diminished, the specimen being at the same time thoroughly hardened. Instead of the bichromate, the polypites may be allowed to ex- pand in a small quantity of sea water and a little boiling water added to kill them ; then place in picric acid solution for 2 or 3 hours, and finally treat withalcohol as above(Huxley and Martin). In both cases the alcohol should be changed until it is no longer discoloured by the bichromate or picric acid. MEDUS&, SIPHONOHORA (Portuguese Man-of-War, &c.), AND CTENOPHORA.—Place eitherin potassium bichromate for 24 hours, or in chromic or picric acid for 2 or 3 hours; or place in the smallest possible quantity of sea water, and add a few drops of osmic acid. This latter plan produces the most beautiful speci- PRESERVATION OF INVERTEBRATA. 23 mens. Afterwards treat as above with alcohol of gradually in- creasing strength. Professor Hutton tells us that he has made a very successful preparation of a Medusa, retaining the natural colour, in the following way :—Make a mixture of I part of glycerine and 2 of water, and add a little alum and saltpetre. Dilute some of this fluid in a jar with an equal volume of water, and place the specimen in the diluted liquid. When the Medusa hassunk tothe bottom, add, little by little, more of the stronger fluid until it reaches the proportion of about 1 of glycerine and 3 of water. Probably this method, or some modification of it, will be tound to be of wide application to many delicate organisms, as glycerine often preserves animal colours in a very perfect man- ner, alcohol, chromic and picric acids, &c., completely discharging them. For histological purposes, however, this method would probably be of little value. ACTINZOA.—It is very difficult to kill sea-anemones in the expanded condition. One method is to invert over a specimen expanded in sea water a tumbler or beaker, and then to pass up into the air space above the water fumes of tobacco, through a bent glass tube. Another plan is to stupify slowly by adding alcohol or potassium bichromate, drop by drop, to the water containing the specimen. When quite dead treat with chromic or picric acid for about 3 hours,and afterwards with alcohol as above. ECHINODERMATA (Starfish, sea-urchins, &c.).—Alcohol, about 70 per cent, for a day or two; then strong alcohol, changed once or twice in the case of large specimens. In the case of large sea-urchins, a small hole should first be made in the test with a file, so as to allow the spirit to penetrate to the inside. Chromic or picric acids are not applicable in this case, because of their decalcifying properties, thatis, unlessthe specimensarewanted for section cutting, in which case they should be placed in a com- paratively large quantity of chromic acid until all the carbonate of lime is dissolved out, and then transferred to alcohol, which must be changed several times. I find, however, that the small Flolothurian Chirodota of Dunedin Harbour is best preserved by placing it alive into picric acid, and removing as soon as it ts dead into alcohol. This does not give the weak acid time to dissolve the spicules to any appreciable extent. TURBELLARIA (Planarians, &c.).—Place alive into “ Lang’s fluid,” made of 100 parts of water, 15 of corrosive sublimate, and 4 of concentrated acetic acid; in half-an-hour transfer to 70 per cent. alcohol; change several times, and finally place in strong alcohol. ANNELIDA.—Picric acid or potassium bichromate, fol- lowed by alcohol of gradually increasing strength. PoLyzoa.—Alcohol 70 per cent. for a day or two, and then strong aclohol. , CRUSTACEA.—For large specimens with calcified exoskeleton (crabs, crayfish), use strong alcohol if it is desired to preserve the internal structure. If wanted only for the exoskeleton, place in equal parts of glycerine and water containing a little alum and corrosive sublimate, first removing as much as possible of the soft parts through small apertures made in the joint-membranes. 24 JOURNAL OF. SCIENCE. It is usually sufficient if the liver, reproductive organs, &c., are removed through an aperture made in the membrane which unites the carapace withthe abdomen. After 3 to 5 days remove from the glycerine fluid, allow to drain thoroughly, and after some days paint over with a thinnish size made from isinglass or gelatine. This method retains, to a great extent, the natural colour and flexibility. For the smaller and uncalcified speci- mens (shrimps, amphipods, &c.), use picric acid, followed as usual by alcohol ; or, if specially good specimens are desired, place in the smallest possible quantity of water and add a few drops of osmic acid. When the specimen has acquired a light brown colour (the time will vary according to the strength of the acid) transfer to weak alcohol, changing several times and gradually increasing the strength. Microscopic crustacea may often be beautifully preserved in the same way, the whole operation being conducted, if possible, on a slide under the microscope. They may then be mounted either in glycerineorin Canadabalsam. INSECTS (including larve) MYRIAPODA AND ARACHNIDA.— For internal structure, picric or chromic acid for 2-3 hours, fol- lowed by alcohol. For external characters the glycerine method may be found useful in some cases, but I have not made sufficient experiments in this direction to speak with certainty. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.—Alcohol, of about 70 per cent., for a day, then strong alcohol. Specimens may be killed in the expanded condition by placing them in hot water, or in vinegar ; but these methods do not always succeed. GASTEROPODA.—Here again there seems to be nothing better than weak followed by strong alcohol. The larger the specimen the greater should be the quantity of alcohol, and in very bulky species, such as the black sea-slug Parmophorus of these coasts, it is advisable to make an incision through the mantle, so as to allow the spirit to make its way immediately among the viscera. For killing Gasteropods in the expanded condition different methods must be employed, according to circumstances. For Nudibranchs (Doris, &c.), allow to expand in a small vessel of sea water, and add potassium bichromate solution, little by little, with a pipette. The fluid gradually diffuses into the water, and if care is taken not to transfer the animal to spirit until it is quite dead, very good specimens may be obtained. The Pulmonata are best killed by placing them in a tumbler or other vessel with a straight rim, quite full of water, and then placing a plate over it. The point is to ensure entire immer- sion. It takes many hours to kill snails, slugs, &c., in this way, but they almost invariably die in a fully extended condition. Here again care must be taken that the animals are quite dead before being placed in alcohol, as otherwise they will contract. CEPHALOPODA.—Make an incision into the mantle, and place in alcohol. In the case of large specimens, or if several small specimens are placed together in a jar, it is unnecessary to use weak spirit first ; otherwise, as in other cases, this is advisable. TUNICATA.—Picric acid or potassium bichromate, fol- lowed by alcohol ot gradually increasing strength. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. a REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION ON THE MANNER IN WHICH RUDIMENTARY SCIENCE SHOULD BE TAUGHT, AND HOW EXAMINATIONS SHOULD BE HELD THEREIN IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. (Extracted from Nature, of 22nd Sept., 1881, p. 488). Rudimentary Science is taught in Public Elementary Schools in the form of—I. Object lessons ; II. Class subjects under article 19, C.I., of the New Code; III. Specific subjects under Schedule 4 of the same Code; IV. Science subjects preparatory to entering classes in connection with Science School. I. Object lessons are attempted in a large number of infant schools, and in some instances are very effective in developing the perceptive powers and intelligence of the children; but in other cases they are too formal, and left too much to the junior teachers. In boys’ and girls’ schools they frequently appear upon the time-table, especially where, as in the schools of the London Board, they are looked upon as a necessary part of the instruction; but they are generally given in an unsystematic, and often in an unsatisfactory manner. II. The teaching of science as a class subject under the Code only commenced last October, and thus no examinations have yet been held under it. Natural history, physical geography, natural philosophy, &c., are mentioned in Article 19, c. I, and it is stated that the instruction should be given “ through reading lessons, illustrated, if necessary, by maps, diagrams, specimens, &c.”; but the teachers are limited to two subjects, and the old subjects—grammar, history, geography, and needlework—natu- rally retain their place in the great majority of the schools. Suitable reading-books for these rudimentary subjects have scarcely come into existence. III. The specific subjects of the fourth schedule include mechanics, animal physiology, physical geography, botany, and domestic economy; but only two subjects may be taken (or three if the child has passed Standard VI.); and the schedule also includes English Literature, Mathematics, Latin, French, and German. Literature is a general favourite, and domestic economy is obligatory in girls’ schools if any specific subject is taken at all; so that the chance of any of the others being introduced is very much diminished. It must also be remem- bered that these subjects are only allowed to be taught to children in the Fourth Standard and upwards; while only about one-fifth of the children in the boys’ andegirls’ schools are to be 26 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. found at present in these standards. According to the Report of the Committee of Council for examination recently issued, there were 476,761 children presented for examination in these standards, of whom the following numbers only were examined in the science subjects :— Mechanics 7% ip Bs aes at 2,109 Animal Physiology =O as a eae Physical Geography .. ie sas . 345288 Botany . a bee a ts: 1,853 Domestic Economy aus 50,797 Out of 489 boys’ and girls’ departments ee the London School Board, the specific science subjects were taken up as follows during the year 1880 :— Mechanics in ae 4 departments Animal Physiology | i Pi NOS 55 Physical Geography fy OES Re) = Botany a s beh 9 Domestic Economy ae 172 “ Mr. Hance, of the Liverpool School ea has favoured us with an account of the systematic scientific instruction which is given in the Board schools of that town by a special science staff. The subject selected for the boys is mechanics, as defined in the new Code, with a considerable development in the direction of elementary physics. It has been in operation since 1877, and the results for the year 1880-81 are given in the following table :— Year Number Number Percentage 1880-81. presented. passed. of passes. Stage I. ie 797 ea 442 ve 55-46 sage #25 398 aS 261 ck 65.59 Ee ail vl eo ipa 122 os 82 aut 67.21 Total Vai a 785 a 59.6 Domestic eeonomy is also taught to the girls in a similar manner. In Birmingham 1200 scholars are receiving scientific instruction in the schools of the Board, and it is stated that the teachers uniformly find that “it added interest to the work of the school, that the children were eager to be present, and that the lessons were enjoyed, and were in fact giving new life to the schools.” The Board have found the results so satisfactory that they are now furnishing their newest school with a laboratory and lecture-room. IV. As to science-teaching which does not fall under the provisions of the new Code, it is not probable that any large amount is attempted. In Manchester, however, the Board gives instruction to 404 children, all of whom have passed Standard VI, the highest ordinary standard, in the following subjects :— physiology, acoustics, light and heat, magnetism and electricity, chemistry, practical chemistry, botany. This teaching is illus- trated by means of good apparatus, &c. and has had a very beneficial effect upon the science and art classes of the town. When it is considered that the provisions of the Code naturally BRITISH ASSOCIATION REPORT. 27 form, in almost all cases, the extreme limit of what will be _ attempted in the schools, it is important that they should be placed as high as possible. This will be a great advantage to the stronger schools, and no disadvantage to the weaker ones, as the higher branches of science-teaching will of course be op- tional. Your committee have therefore arrived at the following conclusions :— I. As to olject lessons—That it is very desirable that Her Majesty’s Inspectors should take object lessons into account in estimating the teaching given in an infant school, and that they should examine the classes in the graded schools wherever object lessons are given. II. As ¢o class subjects —That the teaching of such subjects as natural history, physical geography, natural philosophy, &c., should not necessarily be “through reading lessons,” as oral lessons “illustrated by maps, diagrams, specimens, &c.,” are undoubtedly better when given by a teacher duly qualified to handle these subjects. They are of opinion also that it will be desirable to allow a larger number of class subjects to be taken up in any particular school, and to give in such case a propor- tionately increased grant. III. As to specific science subjects—That a knowledge of the facts of nature is an essential part of the education of every child, and that it should be given continuously during the whole of school life, from the baby class to the highest standard. Of course, in early years this teaching will be very rudimentary ; but by developing the child’s powers of perception and com- parison it will prepare it for a gradual extension of such knowledge. They consider also that the early teaching must be very general, while the later may be more specific. They think, however, that the science subjects as given in Schedule IV. are fairly open to objection, as being somewhat too ambitious in their nomenclature and in their scope, and that they ought not to be attempted unless the child has had a previous training in natural knowledge before entering the fourth standard. Thus the specific scientific subjects ought not to be distinct, as they practically are at present, from the previous teaching; greater latitude of choice might be allowed in. them ; and while they should not afford technical instruction, they should prepare the way for any technical classes or schools into which the children may subsequently enter. In regard to domestic economy, they are of opinion that most of the points embraced in the schedule would be useful to boys as well as to girls. IV. As to examinations—That in the appointment of Her Majesty’s Inspectors some knowledge of natural science should be considered as absolutely necessary ; that in examining the children they should direct their inquiries so as to elicit, not so much their knowledge of special facts as their intelligent acquaintance with the world of nature around them; and that this may be much better done by oral examination than by paper work. 28 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, ON A COMMON NEW ZEALAND PYCNOGONID, TOGETHER WITH A TRANSLATION OF SEM- PER’'S., KEY »- TO. THE GENERA. | | (From Verhandl, der Physik-Medicin Gesellschaft in Wiirzburg, VII Band, Pp. 274, 1874.) <> No one in New Zealand seems to have made the attempt to collect and examine the curious animals constituting the order Pycnogonide, and no doubt one of the reasons is that there is little or no literature on the subject accessible to the majority of readers. The earlier information is condensed into a small com- pass in M. Edwards’ “ Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés ” which brings it down to 1840. Since that date the only original English papers dealing with the systematic arrangement of the order have been communicated by Goodsir, Gosse, and Hodge, and frequently in very out-of-the-way publications. Hesse’s papers in the “ Annales des Sciences Naturelles ” are of question- able value, while Griibe’s are difficult to obtain, being scattered throughout several German publications. Lastly, Kroyer’s valu- able contributions to the knowlegde of this subject are still more inaccessible to English readers. It was therefore a great step towards smoothing the way for future systematists, when Karl Semper, in 1874, published his researches under the title “ Ueber Pycnogonidenand ithrein Hydroiden-schmarotzenden Larvenform” in the Wiirzburg journal. This communication deals chiefly with development, but appended to it is a classification and summary of all the known species, together with the complete bibliography on the subject. Hodge, in the Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. (in 1864), states the whole number of British species at 32, belonging to 8 genera. Semper in 1874, gives 55 species (8 of which are doubtful), belonging to 11 genera, as the total known. Since the publication of his paper many more species have been added, chiefly as the results of deep sea dredgings, and these bring up the number probably to 100 or more. Dr. Dohrn’s magnificent monograph, lately issued, brings our infor- mation up to the latest date. I have frequently come across a Pycnogonid while collecting crustacea in rock-pools along the coast near Dunedin and Sum- ner, and have dredged it in great numbers in Otago Harbour among sertularians. _I have also specimens from Oamaru, gathered by Mr. D. Petrie. |Our species is Ammothea pycno- gonides (Nob.) a European form which systematists and writers of zoological manuals have adopted as typical of the order. It is described and figured by de Quatrefages in the Ann. des Sc. Nat., Ser. III. Vol. IV., p. 71—PIl. I (1845), and the figure is re- NEW ZEALAND PYCNOGONID. 29 produced in Huxley’s “Anatomy of the Invertebrates,” p. 384. From the journal in question J have translated the following de- scription, which may be of service to collectors and students of Natural History :— AMMOTHEA PYCNOGONIDES, NOB, “Head short, thick, and not distinguishable from the thorax, The rostrum or beak irregularly lanceolate, terminating in an obtuse point, thick, and two-thirds of the length of the body. Footjaws small, short, and hardly reaching beyond the middle of the trunk. The palpi on the other hand extend beyond the mouth. The transverse diameter of the thorax is almost equal to its antero-posterior diameter. First articulation of the limbs very difficult to distinguish from the thorax. Oculi- ferous tubercle rounded and slightly swollen; it is quite smooth, whereas the thorax bears numerous hairs and some strong spines. The palpi and legs are equally hairy, the three last articulations of the latter armed with strong spines.” CLASSIFICATION OF PYCNOGONID (AFTER SEMPER). (ORDER PANTOPODA.) Fam. I.- PYCNOGONIDE (PROPER). Antenne (Kieferfiihler*) wanting. Genus I.—Pycnogonum, 4rinnich.—Antennze and palpi wanting; ovaries I0- jointed ; metamorphosis complete. », 1J.—Phoxichilus, 17. Zdwards (Latreille),—Antennz and palpi wanting ; ovaries 7-jointed ; metamorphosis ? ,, I1I].—Pasithoé, Goodstr (Endeis, hillippz).—Antenne wanting; palpi 7-joited ; ovaries g-jointed ; metamorphosis ? Fam. II.—ACHELIDE. Antenne present, but simple—not chelate. Genus IV.—Achelia, Modge.—Antennz 2-jointed; palpi 8-jointed; ovaries g-jointed ; metamorphosis complete. as V.—Zetes, Kréyer.—Antenne without claws, 3-jointed ; palpi 1o-jointed ; ovaries 10-jointed ; metamorphosis complete. 3 », WI.—Pariboea, Philippi.iAntennz without claws, 2-jointed; palpi 5- jointed ; ovaries 9-jointed ; metamorphosis ? Fam. III.L—NYMPHONID. Antenne 3-jointed, chelate. Genus VII.—Pallene, Yohnston.—Palpi wanting ; ovaries 10-I1-jointed, wanting in the males; metamorphosis abbreviated. », WIII.—Phoxichilidium, 47, dw. (Orithyia, Yohknston).—Palpi wanting; ovaries 5-jointed ; metamorphosis complete ; larvz living in Polyps (Coryne, Hydractinia). » IX.—Pephredo, Goodsir (? Phanodemus, Costa).—Palpi 3-jointed ; ovaries g-jointed ; metamorphosis ? . X.—Ammothea, Leach.—Palpi 8-9-jointed; ovaries g-jointed; meta- morphosis ? », %1,—Nymphon, /abr.—Palpi 5-jointed ; ovaries 9-jointed ; metamorphosis complete. GEO. M. THOMSON, * It is still an open question what terms should be applied to the three short anterior pairs of appendages. I shall therefore call them antenna, palps, and ovaries, as they are termed by Semper, but am doubtful of the correctness of this application of terms, 30 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. THE GENERA OF HOLOTHURIDEA. <> ~—— (Translated from Dr. C. Semper’s ‘‘ Reisen im Archipelder Philippinen (Holo- thurien),”” by Professor F, W. Hutton.) ORDER I.—APEUMONA. No respiratory tree nor proper cloaca ; ambulacral system wanting. Tentacles lineal, feathered, or digitate. Family I.—Synaptide. Tentacles feathered, or digitate. No radiating vessels in the skin. Bands of peduncled, ciliated, cups on the mesentery. Calcareous dermal plates in the form of anchors or wheels, very different from other Holothurians. Genus Syzapta.—Vermiform, with anchors in the skin, and 10 to 25 digitate or feathered tentacles. Genus Avxapta—Vermiform, thin. Tentacles small, finely feathered. Closely covered with fine papilla. Entirely without wheels or anchors. Genus Chirodota—Vermiform. Tentacles scutiform or digi- tate. Papille in the skin, with wheel-like plates. Genus Syzaptula—Like Synapta, but viviparous. Genus Myriotrochus—Skin smooth, with large, stalked, simple wheel-plates, which are not, as in chzrodota, in groups in a bladder. Genus Rhabdomolgus.—Ten ciliated tentacles. No calcareous plates. Pelagic? | Family [1 —Eupyrgide. No feet. Closely covered with calcareous scales. Fifteen simply digitate tentacles. Genus Lupyrgus.—Characters of the family. Family I1I1.—Oncinolabide. Like Synaptidz, but with small feet. Genus Oncinolabes—Characters of family. ORDER I].—PNEUMONOPHORA. A respiratory tree opening into the cloaca. Family [—Molpadide. No feet. With or without water-vessels in the skin. Ten- tacles cylindrical, digitate, or scutiform. Genus Haplodactyla—Tentacles 15 or 16, cylindrical; skin smooth. Genus Molpadia.—Tentacles 12 to 15, digitate at the end. THE GENERA OF HOLOTHURIDEA. ai Genus Liosoma.—Tentacles 12, scutiform. Body cylindrical, short. Genus Caudina.—Tentacles 12, digitately divided at the end. Body strongly contracted behind. Skin very rough, with numer- ous calcareous plates. Genus Echinosoma.—Tentacles 12, stump-like. Body ascidian- like. Skin covered with large calcareous scales, which may carry a centre spine. Genus Ambolus—Tentacles 15, stump-like. Csophageal calcareous ring wanting. Family I1.—Dendrochirote. Feet- and lung-bearing Holothurians, with a completely de- veloped _ambulacral system, and tree-like branching tentacles. Five muscles which spring from the circum-cesophageal plates, go through the whole cavity of the body. Sub-family [.—Stichopoda. The small feet of the ambulacra arranged in well-marked rows ; the interambulacral areas almost always without any feet. Genus Cucumaria—tIn all the five ambulacra similarly formed feet stand in several rows; some species have them on the interambulacral areas. Body generally sub-pentagonal. Tentacles 10, frequently with two smaller ones, which conform to the middle radius of the trivium. Genus Oczus.—The ambulacra, at least upon the back, with only a single row of widely-separated feet. Tentacles 10, irregularly branched, the two middle central ones smaller than the others. Large calcareous plates in the skin. Genus Colochirus——The feet of the ventral surface in three clearly separated rows ; upon the back only ambulacral papille. The two middle tentacles of the ventral side smaller than the remaining eight. Anus with or without calcareous teeth. Genus Echinocucumis.—Feet in five rows. Ten dissimilar, branching tentacles. Skin covered with long spiny calcareous scales, Sub-family Gastropoda. Feet arranged in well-marked rows upon the clearly-defined ventral area. No feet on the back. Calcareous plates in the form of large scales. Genus Psolus.—Characters of the sub-family. Sub-family Sporadipoda. Feet surrounding the whole body evenly, rarely or never _ showing an arrangement into rows. Genus 7Zyone—Tentacles 10, of which two on the ventral side are smaller. Feet more or less densely scattered over the whole body, but occasionally an indication of rows can be seen. Anus with or without calcareous teeth. Genus 7/yontdium—Tentacles 20. Five large pairs alter- nating with five small ones. The small feet are sometimes quite 32 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. close, sometimes more scattered, and are then arranged in radiating rows. Genus Orcila.—Tentacles 10 to 20, of which five simple ones are alternately smaller. Anus toothless. Feet distributed evenly over the whole body. Genus Phyllophorus—Tentacles 12 to 16, within which is a circle of 5 or 6 much smaller ones. Genus Stereoderma—Body covered with simple feet, which on the right or left side of the ventral area are in a double row. Anus toothless. Tentacles 10, the two middle on the ventral side smaller. Genus Hemicrepis—Back, and anterior and posterior portions of the ventral surface with warts, upon which are feet. Ventral area densely covered with feet. Tentacles 12. Family Aspidochirote. Feet- and lung-bearing Holothurians, with a well-developed ambulacral system, and scutiform tentacles. Retractor muscle of gullet wanting. Generally a single bundle of reproductive follicles on the left of the mesentery. Genus Stichopus—Tentacles 18 to 20. Body four-angled. Ambulacral papillae standing upon warts, which are often arranged in longitudinal rows. Ventral surface flat, generally with three distinct longitudinal rows of feet. Two bundles of reproductive follicles on the mesentery. Genus Mzulleria—Tentacles 20 to 25. Back convex, with the ambulacral papilla standing more or less closely together. Ventral surface flat with very numerous feet, which are some- times arranged in rows. Anus with five calcareous teeth. Genus Lalidodemas—Tentacles 20, Feet arranged in five double longitudinal rows. Genus Asfidochir—Tentacles 12. Feet in five rows, but absent in front. Respiratory tree divided into five. . Genus Holothuria—Tentacles 20. Feet generally not in rows. Anus round or radiate, without calcareous teeth. NEW ZEALAND MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA. (ABSTRACT,) es A The following species of Micro-lepidoptera from New Zealand are described by Mr. E. Meyrick in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, vols. 5 and 6 :— TINEINA. GENUS GRACILARIA, Z. Head smooth; no ocelli; tongue long. Antenne as long or longer than fore-wings, slender, filiform. Maxillary palpi eS a Se eee es NEW ZEALAND MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA. 33 rather long, filiform. Labial palpi moderately long, ascending, arched, slender, cylindrical; second joint smooth, sometimes loosely scaled beneath, terminal joint nearly as long as second. Fore-wings elongate, very narrow, parallel-sided, costa bent at apex or evenly pointed. Hind-wings very narrowly lanccolate, much narrower than fore-wings, cilia thrice or four times as broad. Abdomen elongate, slender. Legs long, slender; middle tibia: often much thickened with scales. Fore-wings with 12 or II veins, 5 branches to costa, no secondary cell, I simple. Hind-wings with from 8 to 6 veins, 3 and 5 sometimes being obsolete; 5 and 6 stalked, cell open. All the species are elegant, and some of great beauty ; when at rest they sit with the forepart much raised, and the two anterior pairs of legs, which are often elegantly marked, con- spicuously displayed. ‘They are somewhat retired in habit, and may often be easiest found at rest on fences. The larvze are fourteen-legged, slender, always mining in leaves when young; afterwards many of the European and American species construct hollow cones for habitations, by rolling up pieces of the leaves they feed on; others remain miners all their life. All the Australian species, with the larve of which I am acquainted, are miners throughout life ; nor have I ever seen indications of the familiar cones of this genus in Australia. The mining larve usually leave the mine in order to form their cocoon. 1. G. adelina, Meyrick (l.c., vol. 5, p. 142)—Head and thorax ochreous, reddish with violet reflections, face snow-white. Maxillary palpi whitish, externally ochreous, reddish. Labial palpi reddish-ochreous, white at base, lower half of terminal joint externally purple-fuscous. Antenne longer than fore- wings, pale reddish-ochreous, annulated with dark fuscous. Abdomen fuscous-grey, pale ochreous at base, beneath metallic- yellow. Legs pale ochreous ; anterior tibize blackish ; middle tibiz very much thickened, deep reddish suffused with violet black. Fore-wings deep reddish-ochreous with violet reflections, with a very broad, pale metallic-yellow costal band, covering more than half the breadth of wing, and extending almost from base to apex ; the ground colour sends a conical projection into this band before middle, cutting half through it, and midway between this and base is a much shorter, obtuse projection, both suffused with deep cobalt-blue ; the lower % of the reddish- ochreous inner-marginal portion is marked from base to apex with regular transverse strigule of brilliant deep cobalt-blue, appearing black in some lights; cilia reddish-ochreous round apex, thence dark fuscous-grey. Hind wings and cilia dark fuscous-grey. Male and female, length 6 lines. This magnificent species is unsurpassed in the elegance and intensity of its colouring. I took one pair in dense swampy forest in January, near Hamilton, on the Waikato. It seems to be nearly allied to the North American G. violacella, Clem., and G. blandella, Clem: 34 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 2. G. wethalota, Meyrick (lc. vol. 5, p. 143).—Head glossy dark grey, face paler. Labial palpi whitish, apex of second joint and a subapical ring of terminal joint black. Antenne longer than tore-wings, grey-whitish, with evanescent fuscous annulations. Thorax and abdomen dark-fuscous grey. Legs whitish, tarsal joints suffused with pale fuscous, except an apical ring, anterior and middle tibiz not thickened, suffused with fuscous above. Fore-wings unicolorous, dark, glossy, slaty-grey, with one or two pale scales at apex; cilia dark fuscous, with three obscure blackish lines round apex, and a whitish hook. Hind-wings and cilia dark fuscous-grey. Male, length 4% lines, One specimen beaten from forest near Dunedin, in January. 3. G. ethela Meyrick (Le, vol. 5, p. 152)—Head yellow on crown, crimson behind, face snow-white with a pale crimson-pink spot on each side. Maxillary palpi white, lower % externally pale crimson. Labial palpi white, second joint externally crim- son, beneath fringed with a few lcose hairs. Antennz much longer than fore-wings, pale greyish-ochreous, basal joint yellow. Thorax yellow, anterior margin broadly crimson, and with a small crimson spot behind. Abdomen pale greyish-ochreous, Legs yellowish-white, tarsi with very slender blackish rings at apex of joints, anterior and middle tibize slightly thickened, crimson-fuscous at apex, and with two slender dark fuscous rings. Fore-wings pale yellow, deeper along inner margin, with a bright crimson irregular-edged undulating central streak from base to apex, connected with inner margin by four perpendicular half-fasciz, one close to base, the others at 4%, %, and 3, and expanding abruptly at apex into a large apical spot; at the base this streak reaches costa, and at % from base is again connected with it by a perpendicular spot ; beyond this on costa are two small crimson strigule ; central streak in parts margined above with black ; parallel to its upper edge, and immediately above it, is a waved, black, longitudinal line, extending from midway between third and fourth inner-marginal spot to midway between fourth and apical spot ;- apical spot pure crimson, containing a circular black spot above centre, above which the colour becomes brownish-ochreous and is margined on costa with black; lower half of apical spot filled up with a sharp wedge-shaped snow- white spot, the base of which is yellow, and separated from the rest by a crimson line; cilia yellow round apex, containing a blackish hook, crimson below apical spot, thence pale crimson- grey. Hind-wings dull pale purple-crimson, costal cilia grey, rest suffused with pale crimson. Male and female, length 5%- 534 lines, Var, A.—A\l the crimson markings replaced by dull fuscous. I took seven very perfect specimens (six typical, one of the variety) amidst dense growth in the swampy virgin forest near Hamilton, on the Waikato, in January, mostly under tree-ferns. 4. G. atllomacha, Meyrick (l.c., vol. 5, p. 158)—Head and palpi snow-white, labial palpi with apex of second joint and a. subapical ring of terminal joint black. Antenne longer than ~ NEW ZEALAND COPEPODA. 35 fore-wings, white. Thorax snow-white, with a small black shoulder spot. Abdomen dark fuscous, beneath with white rings and white towards apex. Legs white, tarsi with three black rings, anterior tibize black, middle tibiz hardly thickened, apical half black. Fore-wings white, with coarsely scaled fuscous-black markings; a cloudy, central, longitudinal streak from near base to disc above anal angle, connecting obscurely with seven oblique costal and five oblique dorsal streaks ; costa blackish at base; first and second costal streaks thick, hardly oblique, meeting first and second dorsal streaks ; third slender, very short, not reaching central streak; fourth strong, from middle of costa; fifth slender, short ; sixth thick, black, very oblique, uniting with the small fifth dorsal on anal angle; fourth dorsal, thick before middle; seventh costal slender, produced nearly to hind-margin ; apical spot black, large, round, cloudy; cilia white round apex, dark fuscous at anal angle, with two black lines and a short black apical hook, thence fuscous-grey. Hind- wings fuscous-grey, cilia paler. Male, length 3% lines. One specimen from forest growth at Wellington, in January. (To be continued.) NEW ZEALAND COPEPODA OF THE “ CHAL- LENGER” EXPEDITION. Extracted from G. S. Brady’s Monograph of this group. a FAMILY I.—CYPRIDA. Genus Paracypris (G. O. Sars). Shell smooth, compact, elongated. Anterior antennz 7- jointed, beset with rather short sete; posterior stout, terminat- ing in 4 strong curved claws; ante-penultimate joint bearing at its base a pedicellated hyaline vesicle. Mandibles terminating in 5 or 6 long teeth, and bearing a 4-jointed palp, from the basal joint of which springs a narrow branchial appendage. External lobe or palp of the first pair of maxillz linear, not much broader than the rest. Second pair of maxilla provided with a branchial appendage, the palp elongated, conical, and inarticulate. Last pair of feet similar to the first in form and size; both pairs 5- jointed, and terminating in a long curved claw, the last pair armed also with a short seta, which is directed upwards. Post- abdominal rami large, armed at the extremity with 2 strong curved claws, and a short slender seta ; the posterior margin also bears 2 long sete ; one eye. 36 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 1. Paracypris polita. G. O. Sars.—Seen from the side, the ca- pace is elongated, siliquose or sub-triangalar; greatest height at the anterior third, and equal to more than % of the length. An- terior extremity evenly rounded, posterior much attenuated, pointed. Dorsal margin arched in front, and sloping steeply behind ; ventral concave along the greater portion of its length. Seen from above, it is much compressed, oval, not quite 4 times as long as broad, greatest breadth in front of the middle; ex- tremities obtusely pointed. End view oval. Shell smooth and polished, almost destitute of hairs ; colour yellowish white. The sete of the anterior antenne are nearly equal in length to the 6 preceding joints, sixth joint being longer than the rest. The ante-penultimate joint has at its inner apical angle 2 sete ; and from its basal portion springs a fine tubular filament, which ends in a pyriform sacorvesicle. The post-abdominal rami are gently curved, the exterior claw somewhat longer than the other. Male unknown. Length 1-22nd in., height 1-55th in. (The specimens found in Wellington harbour are only doubt- fully referred to this species). (A common North European species. Also found fossil in glacial deposits of Norway and Scotland). Genus Phlyctenophora, (G. S. Brady). Carapace elongated, not higher in front than behind ; shell smooth, and usually more or less ornamented with dark coloured blotches or striz. Anterior antennz 7-jointed, beset with mo- derately long and slender sete ; posterior 4-jointed, stout, ending in 4 strong curved claws ; second joint bearing a stalked hyaline vesicle and a brush of short setae. Mandible strongly toothed at the apex, bearing a 4-jointed palp, which is destitute of a bran- chial appendage (?). First pair of maxilla divided into 4 linear setiferous segments, and having at the base a branchial plate bearing 6 sete ; second pair 4-jointed (?), flexuous, provided with a moveable hinge between the second and third joints ; terminal claw long, reflexed against the limb. Postabdominal rami well de- veloped, bearing two strong terminal claws. Spermatic gland of the male cylindrical, beset with a spiral of delicate setose filaments, 1. Phlyctenophora Zealandica, G. S. Brady.—Carapace elon- gated, compressed ; seen from the side, subsiliquose ; greatest height in the middle, equal to less than ¥% the length; anterior extremity well rounded, posterior narrowed, and ending in a subacute angle near the ventral surface; dorsal margin well arched, and continued in an unbroken curve to the infero-posteal angle, ventral margin slightly sinuated in the middle ; seen from above, the outline is ovate, widest in the middle, and tapering only slightly to the broadly-rounded extremities ; width and height about equal ; end view sub-circular, rather narrowed and angular below. Shell-surface smooth, whitish, marked with a few irregular strigz of a blackish hue, and on the ventral surface with a broad longitudinal and transversely striated squamous band. Length, 1-26th in. NEW ZEALAND COPEPODA. a7 Also found at Port Jackson, Australia, in a depth of 2-10 fathoms ; and in‘Humboldt Bay, New Guinea, in 37 fathoms. Genus Aglaia (G. S. Brady). Shell smooth and polished, of about equal height before and behind, compressed, subcylindrical. Anterior antenne 7-jointed, beset with short, stout sete ; posterior robust, and bearing at the apex of each joint several strong curved sete ; furnished also with a very small hyaline vesicle, and on the penultimate joint with a lash of very short sete. Mandibles slender, divided at the extremity into about 5 blunt teeth, and furnished with a large, narrow, branchial palp. First pair of jaws divided into 4 elongated segments, and bearing a distinct branchial appen- dage; second pair flexuous, 4-jointed, last joint armed with 3 ‘setae, one of which is very long, and finely pectinate on its inner margin. Postabdominal rami moderately robust, bearing 2 curved terminal claws, one seta on the anterior, and 2 on the posterior margin. Testis disposed round the body of the animal; mucous gland of the male elongated, and composed of 7 series of whorled filaments. 1. Aglaia clavata, G. S. Brady.—Shell elongated, reniform ; seen from the side rather lower in front than behind, height greatest in the middle, and equal to less than half the length, extremities well rounded, dorsal margin gently arched, ventral slightly sinuated in the middle ; seen from above, the outline is subclavate, widest behind the middle, tapering very gradually towards the front, and scarcely at all behind; anterior extremity very obtusely pointed, posterior broadly rounded ; width and height nearly equal; end view circular; shell-surface perfectly smooth. Length, 1-45th inch. Genus Macrocypris (G. S. Brady). Carapace elongated, attenuated at the extremities ; valves unequal, the right larger than the left, and overlapping dorsally ; hinge-line flexuous. Surface of the shell smooth, polished, and destitute of hairs. Antennze short and robust; anterior 7-jointed, tapering to the apex, bearing numerous short sete; posterior 5-jointed, last 2 joints very short; terminal claws elongated ; second joint bearing a bundle of short 2-articulate sete. Mandibles large, dilated, and armed with 6 or 7 strong teeth ; palp elongated, 4-jointed, and provided with a branchial appendage. The first pair of jaws have an unusually small, subovate branchial plate, and the external segment is narrow, and not larger than the rest ; second pair destitute of a branchial appendage ; palp in the female large and subpediform, 4-jointed, the last joint armed with 3 claws; in the male, very robust and subcheliform. First pair ot feet much elongated, 5-jointed, last joint armed with 1 or 2 long curved claws; second pair very different, covered entirely by the shell, 5-jointed, terminal claw very long and recurved. Postabdominal rami rudimentary, forming 2 small simple appendages attached to the posterior 38 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. part of the abdomen. Noeye. Male smaller than the female; copulative organs large; spermatic glands long and narrow; the lateral filaments apparently not arranged in a verticillate manner. 1. Macrocypris tumida, G. S. Brady.—Shell oblong, tumid, subovate; seen laterally the anterior extremity is broadly rounded, the posterior obliquely rounded, produced, and obscurely angular below; dorsal margin boldly and evenly arched, highest in the middle; ventral straight; height equal to half the length; seen from above the outline is broadly ovate, widest in the middle, and tapering very slightly towards the extremities, which are broadly rounded; the an- terior slightly mucronate, width equal to the height ; end view nearly circular. Shell-surface smooth. Length 1-16th inch. Also got in Royal Sound, Kerguellen Island, in 28 fathoms, FAMILY IJ.—CYTHERID. ‘Genus Cythere (Miller). (Characters shortly given in Trans, N.Z. Inst., Vol. XI., p. 254.) 1. Cythere murryana, G. S. Brady.—Carapace of the female, as seen from the side, oblong, subquadrangular, scarcely higher in front than behind, height equal to half the length, anterior extremity rounded, posterior narrower, subtruncated, and rather angular, the lower angle rounded: off; dorsal margin nearly straight, but towards the hinder end, suddenly depressed and excavated ; ventral margin sinuated in the middle, and turned upwards behind ; seen from above the outline is subovate, width nearly equal to the height, sides slightly curved and nearly parallel, extremities obtusely rounded ; end view subhexagonal, with obtusely rounded angles. Surface marked with numerous closely-set small angular excavations. Length 1-62nd inch. 2. Cythere scabrocuneata, G. S Brady.—Shell compressed, ovate-oblong in its dorsal aspect, and having all its margins very uneven ; seen from the side, the shape of the female shell is that of a long triangle with the apex behind; all the margins, but especially the dorsal, denticulated or jagged, highest in front; the dorsal and ventral margins gently curved and converging equally to the pointed posterior extremity ; seen from above the outline is ovate, twice as long as broad, and widest near the middle, extremities broad and rounded off, lateral margins curved and converging rather more abruptly behind than in front. Shell-surface rough, with prominent nodules and scattered ill- defined ridges. Length 1-33rd inch. The shell of the male isa good deal narrower and longer. ; (Also found in Bass’ Straits, in 38-40 fathoms, and in the Inland Sea, Japan, in 15 fathoms.) Genus Cytheropteron (G. O. Sars). Valves mostly subrhomboidal, tumid, unequal, and different in shape, the right valve more or less overlapping the left on the NEW ZEALAND COPEPODA. 39 dorsal margin; surfaces of the shell variously sculptured, punc- tate, papillose, reticulated, or transversely rugose; ventral surface produced laterally into a prominent, rounded or spinous ala ; posterior margin produced into a more or less distinct but obtuse beak ; hinge formed by 2 small terminal teeth on the right, and by a minutely crenated median bar on the left valve. Muscle- spots usually 4, linear-oblong, arranged in an obliquely transverse row just above the middle of the ventral margin. Anterior- antenne shortly setiferous, and composed of 5 joints; the pen- ultimate joint elongated, and bearing on the middle of the anterior margin 2 hairs; posterior antennz distinctly 5-jointed, flagellum long. Mandibles of moderate size; palp 3-jointed, branchial appendage bearing 2 very small sete. Terminal lobes of first pair of maxilla long or narrow ; branchial plate bearing on its external margin two non-ciliated setz, which are directed downwards, and arise from a separate lobe. Feet long and slender, with slender terminal claws. Abdomen ending in a long, narrow process ; postabdominal lobes bearing 3 short hairs. Copulative organs of the male armed behind with 3 spiniform processes, one of which is 3-furcate; eyes wanting. 1. Cytheropteron wellingtoniense, G. L. Brady.—Shell, seen from the side, flexuous in outline, subrhomboidal, highest in the middle, height equal to nearly two-thirds of length, anterior extremity depressed, rounded off, posterior wider, looking obliquely downward, produced in the middle into ashort, broad, and obtuse beak, dorsal margin boldly and evenly rounded, ventral convex, sinuated in front and behind the middle; seen from above, the outline is subovate, widest behind the middle, where the latter alz project only very slightly ; from this point the lateral margins slope with a gentle curve towards the anterior extremity, which is obtuse and slightly mucronate, more abruptly and almost in a straight line to the hinder extremity, which is acuminate ; width equal to the height ; the end view is equilaterally triangular, the angles rounded, and the lateral margins rather boldly curved, ventral line nearly straight. The shell is almost smooth, but marked on parts of its surface with closely set minute puncta, the ventral surface is indented longtitudinally along the median line, and bears also a few curved striz-; the lateral alze are curved, scarcely angular, and but slightly prominent. Length 1-43rd inch. (To be continued.) 40 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. GENERAL’) NOTES. wae THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW ZEALAND.—The two seats in the Senate rendered vacant by the death of the Rev. Wm. Johnstone and the retirement of the Rev. Dr. Stuart, have been filled up by the appointment of the Rev. W. Salmond, D.D., Professor of Theology in the Otago Presbyterian Theological College ; and of Prof. Macgregor, Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy in Otago University. The present position of Science subjects in the examinations of the University is somewhat unsatisfactory to teachers and students alike, and it is to be hoped that the matter will receive further consideration at the forthcoming meeting of the Senate. There is not yet a sufficient amount of scientific leaven in the present constitution of the Senate, but it is to be hoped that what there is will succeed in leavening the whole. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PTEROSTYLIS APHYLLA (LIND- LEY) IN NEW ZEALAND.—Last summer Mr. Sidney Fulton, of Outram, discovered an orchid on the Lee Stream Flat, which he could not refer to any known New Zealand species. Specimens were forwarded to Mr. Petrie and my- self, but were too far past flowering to enable us to identify them. This season the same ground has been searched earlier, and the plant has been obtained in flower by the same indefatigable collector, and we are thus enabled to add another species to our New Zealand flora. The new species is Pterostylis aphylla, Lindl., hitherto only found in Tasmania, but closely allied to the Australian P. parviflora. It is the most in- conspicuous species ofthe genus, and belongs toasection hitherto not represented in this Colony; all our other species have a single flower on the scape, while this bears several in a raceme. The pedicels of the individual flowers are peculiarly twisted, so as to bring some of the flowers face to face, while others follow each other up in a most remarkable manner, all but the terminal one facing towards the rachis. This peculiarity is referred to in Bentham’s Fl. Austr., vol VI., p. 361, where the plant is shortly described. The following is the description of our New Zealand speci- mens :—Leaves in radical rosettes, 4%—¥% inch long, ovate, sub- acute or obtuse, shortly petiolate, distinctly reticulated, withering at the time of flowering. Scape, 2—4 inches high, with 1—4 flowers, often furnished below with 2 or 3 empty bracts; flowers greenish-brown in colour. Galea about 3 lines long, much in- curved at the sub-acute tip, lower lip broad, almost obtuse at the apex, which is divided into two short lobes, which do not project GENERAL NOTES. 41 beyond the apex of the galla. Labellum short, obtuse, with a short, undivided, and rounded basal appendage. Wing of the column broad, nearly square, produced downwards in a short, rounded lobe. NEW ZEALAND SYSTEMATISTS AND COLLECTORS.—A good deal of valuable assistance to those working at systematic zoology and botany can be rendered by persons who have not themselves sufficient time to devote to such work, but who are willing to undertake the task of collecting. It requires, besides, very slight scientific knowledge to commence the making of col- lections, and the acquisition of special knowledge and the taste for it grow by observation. Much good work has already been done in this direction by various members of the Dunedin Naturalists’ Field Club, and this is a line of usefulness which such clubs may well seek to follow out more fully. We shall therefore be glad if systematists working out any particular group of animals or plants, or who are willing to name collections for those who will forward them, will communicate the fact to our columns, as they may thus be enabled to obtain specimens from all parts of the Colony. The following gentle- men are desirous of obtaining specimens of the particular groups named, and we would ask our subscribers to aid them to the extent of their ability :— Prof. Hutton, Christchurch—Land Shells (preserved in spirit). Mr. F. F. Cheeseman, Auckland—Nudibranchiate Molluscs (preserved in spirit. Collectors are requested to note the colour, size, shape, &c., of the specimens | while they are still alive), Capt. Broun, Auckland —Coleoptera (see his article in the current number). Mr. Chas. Chilton, Christchurch—Crustacea. Mr. G, M. Thomson, Dunedin—-Lower Crustacea, Entomostraca, &c. We hope in future numbers to publish the names of other workers, and trust that members of Field Clubs and others will take the hint. —— RECENT PAPERS ON MOLLUSCA (By Prof. F. W. Hutton).— On a New Genius of Rissotne.—This paper describes a new genus, for which the name Dardamia is proposed, intermediate between Larleeia and Rzssoine, having the shell and simple opercular lobe of the former, combined with an operculum much like that of the latter. One species is described, D. oltvacea from Lyttelton. On the FHydrobiine of New Zealand—The different species of molluscs inhabiting the fresh and brackish waters of New Zealand, and belonging to this sub-family, are all shown to belong to the same genus Potamopyrgus. The eight species mentioned in Prof. Hutton’s “Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca,” are reduced to three—viz., P. cumingiana, P. corolla, and P. antipoda. A new species is also added—P. pupoides— from the brackish water of the Heathcote estuary. It is a very small species, with an oblong shell of only four whorls. The dentition, as well as the shells, of the different species are figured 42 JOURNAL: OF SCIENCE. THE FERNS AND FERN ALLIES OF NEW ZEALAND is the title of a work recently brought out by Messrs Wise, Caffin & Co., of Dunedin, and George Robertson of Melbourne. As the author is the editor of this journal, it is not intended to do more in these columns than mention the fact of its publication. The book has been very nicely got up by the publishers, and is illus- trated by lithographed plates showing the characters of all the genera. MICROSCOPIC PREPARATION OF COPEPODA.—The following mode of preserving these little crustaceans is given by C. F. Giesler (in American Nat. for Sept. 1881, p. 690) :—Place the living specimens in alcohol, and leave them for some little time till they become yellowish coloured. Then pour off the alcohol, and macerate for one day in a mixture consisting of a strong solution of pure carmine in concentrated ammonia and a little glycerine. Then wash the staining liquid gradually off, first with water and then with alcohol, and preserve in glycerine for examination. I use the following method myself:—I kill the animals by placing them in a little clear water, and gradually adding elycerine-water (1 part glycerine to 2 parts distilled water). The water is drawn off after they are quite dead, and replaced by a little glycerine-water, to which pure glycerine is slowly added. They may be kept in this for an indefinite length of time, and when wanted as permanent preparations, may be mounted in > glycerine jelly. I have some preparations made four years ago after this manner, in which the natural colours and appearance of the animals are beautifully preserved. As a general rule animals preserved in glycerine become rather more transparent than in their natural condition. G.M.T. ON MIMULUS RADICANS.—This pretty little plant grows abundantly on the Lea Stream Flat in Otago, from which loca- lity I have received numerous specimens from Mr. S. Fulton, of Outram. In most of these the flowers were of very abnormal struc- ture, and many were evidently compounded of two or even three flowers aggregated into one. In those of the most normal form the two lips are very distinct, the upper purple, narrow-oblong in form, and bi-lobed ; the lower widely 3-lobed, and with a wide band formed of 3 rows of brownish-yellow hairs leading down to the honey cavity. The lamellate stigma stands straight up against the upper lip, with its flat lobes facing the opening of the flower, and underneath it are the four stamens, their filaments being greatly curved together and forming two arches in the back of the flower. Each flower has a single bract on the peduncle. As in all the species of the genus the lobes of the stigma are irri- table ; those examined by me took nearly a minute to close after ~ being touched, but they had been gathered some hours. Usually they close completely in from 10 to 20 seconds after irritation, GENERAL NOTES. 43 and even more rapidly if the irritation is continuous, as when they are touched repeatedly with a fine brush. All the flowers were very fragrant. In the most abnormal flower examined, at least two flowers had become merged together, forming an irre- gularly cup-shaped flower about 34 inchin diameter. The calyx was hemispherical, and had 14 lobes of irregular sizes; the corolla showed 10 lobes, readily distinguishable as the two white lower lips, each irregularly 3-lobed and facing one another, and provided with the usual bands of hairs; and the 2 upper lips, one purple and entire, the other 3-lobed, the large central lobe being white, but without a honey guide. The stamens were 12 in number, arranged without any regularity round the base of the corolla, while the stigmas were 2 in number, facing one another, and opposite the upper lips. Lastly, the two bracts on the somewhat flattened peduncle showed that apparently only two flowers had become aggregated. The most surprising feature of all the flowers was that not one was strictly normal in form, while most were absolutely monstrous. “ KNOWLEDGE.’ —This is the title of a new weekly magazine devoted to science, and brought out under the editorship of Mr. R. A. Proctor. The aim of the publication is professedly “to bring the truths, discoveries, and inventions of science before the public in simple but correct terms—to be, in fact, the minister and interpreter of science for those who have not time to master technicalities.” In addition to the articles, papers and reviews which constitute the usual pabulum furnished by science peric- dicals, the new magazine is to contain a mathematical section, and columns for whist and chess, regarded as scientific games. Judging from the opening number, the physical sciences will be chiefly represented, and no doubt astronomical subjects will re- ceive a very full share of attention. The magazine is on quite a different footing from any other scientific publication, and its low price ought to ensure it a wide circulation, while the name of its eminent editor is a guarantee of the quality and accuracy of the information which it is intended to disseminate. RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE CRUSTACEAN FAUNA.—It is gratifying to be able to record the advent of a new worker in this branch of science, Mr. Chas. Chilton, B.A., of Canterbury College. This gentleman has contributed two valuable papers to the Canterbury Philosophical Society, of which short abstracts are appended. The occurence of subterranean Crustacea is very remarkable, and would lead to the conclusion that there must be _ areas of water at no great depth in the Canterbury ains Mr Geo. M. Thomson has also been doing further work in the same line, and at a meeting of the Otago Institute on 22nd. November, read a paper describing several new species. An abstract of these papers is appended :— 44 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. ‘¢ Additions to the New Zealand Custacea,” (read October 7, 1881) by Chas, Chilton, B. A.—In this paper the following Crustacea were described :—Hymenicus marmoratus sp. noy., a small crab common in Lyttelton Harbour, but apparently hitherto undescribed. Allied to A. varius. Elamena (?) lacustris sp. nov., a resi: water crab from Lake Pupuke, Auckland. Doubtfully referred to Zlamena, Anthura flagellata sp, nov., an Isopod, a single specimen of which was obtained from Lyttelton Harbour. JMicrodentopus maculatus, Thomson. An animal resembling this species in everything but the gnathopoda, was hence described as the male. It resembles but is distinct from Aora typica. **On some Subterranean Crustacea,’”’ (read November 3rd, 1881) by Chas, Chilton, B.A.—The Crustacea described in this paper were all obtained from a pump at Eyreton, North Canterbury. ‘There are 4 species, 1 Isopod and 3 Amphi- poda, They are all destitute of eyes. The Isopod, Cruregus fontanus, nov. gen. et. sp., is remarkable for the absence of the last pair of thoracic legs. The Amphi- poda are Callivpe subterranea, sp. nov. Of this the female is very common, but the male is rare. Cvrangonyx compactus, sp.nov. A species of this genus is found in in wells in England. Gammarus fragilis, sp.nov. This species is rather rarely found, but is larger in size than the others. Since. writiug the paper I have found that the animal I have described is a female. ‘« Additions to the Crustacean Fauna of New Zealand,”’ (read 22nd November, 1881) by Geo. M. Thomson, F.L.S.—Ten species are described in this paper as follows :—(1) Squzlla tridentata, n. sp., allied to S. indefensa, T. H. Kirk. (2) Paranthura costana, Bates, a species originally described as from the British seas. (3) Anonyx corpulentus, n. sp., near the Greenland A. holbdliz, and (4) A. exiguus, Stimpson, originally described from Eastern N. America. (5) Phoxus batet, Has- well, an Australian species. (6) Polycheria obtusa, n. sp., near the Australian P. tenuipes. (7) Leucothoe trailit, n. sp., near the N. American L. grandimanus. (8) Moera quadrimanus, Dana., a Fijian form, and (9) M. etrzez, n. sp. (10) A remarkable form ot Amphipod for which a distinct genus, /phigenta, is proposed, under the name J/. ¢ypica. The general form is like Zcéllius, Dana, but it is even more [sopod-like. ‘The most of the species are from Stewart’s Island, a few from Otago Harbour. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. —$—— -<- —_—_—_ NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. A meeting ot the Governors was held in the Colonial Museum, Wellington, on toth November, His Excellency the Governor (president) in the chair. The chief business was the making of arrangements for the publication of the ensuing volume of the “‘ Transactions.” Up to date fifty original papers, accompanied by forty plates, had been received, and more were expected, as some of the societies had not ended tor the season. The forthcoming volume promises to be a most interesting one. Dr. Newman’s proposal that the meetings of the Institute should be held at the chief places in the colony —after the tashion of the British Association—lapsed. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 22nd October.—Dr. Hector (president) in the chair. New members—Messrs. Williamson and C. Gillespie. Papers—1. Notes on the Mineralogy of New Zealand, by MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 45 S. H. Cox, F.G.S. (This paper, which dealt with the ores ot arsenic, antimony, tellurium, and bismuth, was the second of a series on the same subject.) Dr. Hector in commenting ‘on the paper, pointed out the similarity of the mineral deposits of the Thames and Coromandel districts to those of the Comstock in America, and of Schemnitz in Hungary. He considered from the nature of the rocks and associated minerals, that there was reason to expect that as mining works were carried on to greater perfection, a somewhat similar developement might take place atthe Thames. He also pointed out that the minerals found on the West Coast occur under condi tions and in a formation similar tu those at Gympie Creek in Queensland. 2. Mr. Romilly gave an account of a recent inspection of some of the less-known islands of Western Polynesia, and exhibited several hundred objects illustrative of the domestic life and mode of warfare ot the islanders. He pointed out that Mr. Wallace was in error in supposing that the natives at Astrolabe Bay (New Guinea) were to be distinguished as a race that did not use bows and arrows, or manufacture pottery. The latter he had seen the women making; and he produced specimens both ot pots and ot powertul bows and arrows, the latter with bamboo tips, which he had obtained there.. In reply to a question by Mr. Chapman, the author stated that the natives of the interior ot the islands were smaller, and darker-coloured; also better armed, especially with stone weapons, than the Coast natives, with whom they were continually at war; but each seemed to maintain their own districts. His Excellency Sir Arthur Gordon commented on the fact that while the natives of each little group of islands, even when quite ciose, produced objects having distinctive and peculiar characters, still there was an extraordinary similarity between those trom localities furthest apart. This he attributed, not to the common origin of the natives who designed the objects, but to the gradual developement of similar designs under similar circum- stances, and he instanced the identical form of the stone axes ot the prehistoric period in Europe with those of recent manufacture in New Zealand, and also the similarity of earthen pots made in _ Fiji with those made by the natives in the Amazons. MUCKLAND INSTITULE. 3rd October.—T. Peacock, Esq. (president) in the chair. New members—Mr. A. Bull and Capt. Thomas. Papers—1. Ancient Swiss Lake Dwellings, by Neil Heath. 2. On the Flora of the Nelson Provincial District, by T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. | 3. Recent advances in Photography, by Josiah Martin, F.G.S, 14th November.—T. Peacock, Esq., (president) in the chair. New members—Kev. D. W. Runciman, Capt. Fidler, Messrs. H. N. Garland, W. H. Grace, Jas. Haslett, W. C. Kensington, G. _W. Williams, and G. S. Smith. Papers—1. On New Species ot Coleoptera, by Capt. T. Broun. This paper described 40 new species, 46 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 2. The occurence of the Australian Dollar-Bird (Eurys- tomus pacificus, G. R. Gray) in New Zealand, by T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. A_ single specimen, the first recorded as occurring in this Colony, was exhibited. It was shot near the Manukau Heads by Mr. Cowan, and trom all appear- ance was wild, and had not escaped from captivity. The bird is of local occurrence in its native habitat, New South Wales, and is purely insectivorous, and is said by Dr. Gould to feed principally on coleoptera. The specimen, when shot, was found to have its crop distended with coleoptera. It had no doubt strayed from Australia, and managed to cross the 1300 miles ot sea which separates New Zealand from New South Wales. 3. On various subjects, by Jas. Barber, C.E. A short paper, bearing the above title, and dealing briefly with two or three matters of interest. 4. Percentage of Citric Acid in Limes grown in Auckland, by J. A. Pond. The general results of an examination and comparison of limes brought from the Pacific Islands and of those grown in Auckland, showed that the latter had a very much larger per- centage of acid than was yielded by limes from any other locality, amounting to 8.13 per cent. This result led the author to think that a large industry would yet be established in the district tor the growth of limes, and the preparation from them ot citric acid. 5. A translation of the myth ot the Maui trom the best Maori sources, by Judge Maning. 6. On the Shores of the Unknown, by A. E. Mackechnie. CANTERBURY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. October 13th.—Protessor J. von Haast, in the chair. Mr. C. H. Bridges was elected a member. The tollowing papers were read :— 1. On Vertical Triangulations, by Mr. C. W. Adams; 2. On Fresh Water Bivalve Shells of New Zealand, by Pro- fessor F..W. Hutton. , 3. Additions to New Zealand Crustacean Fauna, by Mr. C. Chilton, B.A. (see Notes, page 43.) 4. On the preparation of spontaneously inflammable Phos- : phine, and on a new form ot Burette, by Mr. T. A. Mollett. 5. Remarks on the carved-stone bird, named Korotangi by the Maories, now in the possession ot Major Wilson, by Protessor J. von Haast. | 6. On a new species ot Pleuyssigma, by Mr. John Inglis. Mr, W. Maskell exhibited living specimens of the large scale- insect Icevya purchasi, which has recently found its way into New Zea- land. ‘This insect threatens to do extensive damage to wattles (Acacia sp.) unless some means can be devised to stop its ravages. November 3rd.— Annual Meeting, Protessor J. von Haast in the chair. Messrs. D. Blair, F. Barkas, B. K. S. Lawrence, and the Rev. J. Buller, were elected members. Office-bearers for the ensuing session were then elected as follows :—President : Professor J, von Haast, Ph.D., F.G.S. ; Vice: ° Presidents: Professor F. W. Hutton and Mr. R. W. Fereday ; Hon. Treasurer: Mr. W. M. Maskell; Hon. Secretary: Mr. Geo. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 47 Gray; Council (in addition to the foregoing): Messrs. T. Crook, T.S.Lambert. and H.R. Webb; Auditors: Messrs. C. R. Blakiston and W. D. Carruthers. The following resolution was agreed to—‘‘ That all sums received tor lite subscriptions shall be invested in the names ot two or three trustees, who shall be members of the Institute, to be appointed by the Council, and the interest only arising from such investment shall be applied to the uses ot the Institute.” The tollowing papers were then read—1. On some subterra- nean crustacea, by Mr. C. Chilton, B.A. (see Notes, page 43). 2. On the New Zealand Hydrobiine, by Protessor F. W Hutton, (see Notes, page 41). 3. On anew genus of Rissoinz, by Protessor F. W. Hutton (see Notes, page 41). The Annual Report was then read, of which the tollowing is an abstract :—Nine ordinary meetings and one special meeting have been held, at which twenty-eight papers were read. These were contributed by thirteen members, and comprise fourteen on zoology, nine on miscellaneous subjects, three on botany, and two on chemistry. Six lectures were also delivered. Sixteen members have been elected, making the number at present on the books 165. : The donations comprise 22 works to the library, and three valuable type collections of microscopic objects, viz., Polyzoa, by Professor Hutton; N.Z. Coccide and N.Z. Desmidiz, both by Mr. W. M. Maskell. The microscopical section has held an average of two meetings per month since the beginning of the session, and at these a large number of interesting exhibits have been made. The balance-sheet shows that the annual receipts amounted to £ 193 14s. 3d. and the expenditure to £168 gs. 1d., leaving a balance in hand of £25 5s. 2d. OTAGO. INSTITUTE. November 22nd—G, M. Thomson, Esq. (president) in the chair. Papets—1. On a new.Carex, by D.: Petrie, M.A. This species was gathered by Messrs. Petrie and Thomson in Paterson Inlet, Stewart’s Island. The author has named it C. longiculmis ; it is allied to, but quite distinct from C. trifida. 2. Additions to the crustacean fauna of New Zealand, by Geo. M. Thomson (see Notes, page 43). 3. Taieri floods and their prevention, by W. Arthur, C. E. ' The author advocates the erection of a dam on the Upper Taieri at the outlet of the river Styx, and considers that this will suffice to keep back sufficient storm water to enable the river to be easily retained within its banks in the lower Taieri Plain. HAW KE’S BAY, PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY: October toth.—The Bishop of Waiapu (president) ir the chair. The chief business was the reading of an exhaustive paper by the Hon. Secretary, Mr. W. Colenso, ‘‘On the fine perception of colours possessed by the ancient Maories,” being a reply to Mr. 48 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Stack’s paper ‘‘On the colour-sense of the Maori,” published in the 12th Volume of the Institute Transactions. An animated discussion ensued. A number of ancient Maori articles, some said to be souvenirs of Capt. Cook, were exhibited by Mr Loche. November 14th.—The Bishop of Waiapu (president) in the chair. Papers.—:. A description of some New Zealand plants; 2. A description of some New Zealand shells, both by the Hon. Secretary, Mr. W. Colenso, F.L.S. Among a large number of exhibits laid on the table were several N.Z, insects, large land shells from the northern parts of the Island, and two fossil teeth (Mammalian) obtained from a great depth in sinking an artesian well, DUNEDIN NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB. The spring meetings of this Club have not been so well attended as usual, but the individual members have qeen doing good work, particularly in the department of entomology. Six meetings have been held, and excursions made to the various localities in the neighbourhood ‘of Dunedin. Three plants not hitherto found in the district must now be included in the Club’s lists, viz., Cotula australis, Hook, J., and Polycarpon tetvaphyllum, L. (introduced), both of which occur abundantly at Purakanui; and the rare Ptevostylis aphylia, Lindley, found by Mr. S. Fulton near Outram. Two considerable collections of spiders have been made, and the members would be glad to hear of anyone working out this group. CORRESPONDENCE. —— =~} —————— A REQUEST. (To the Editor N.Z. JoURNAL OF SCIENCE. ) Sir,—Mr. T. D. Gibson Carmichael, of Castlecraig, Dolphing- ton, Scotland, is studying the Myriapoda, and wishes to work up those of New Zealand. I should be much obliged to anyone who will send them to me to be transmitted to him. They should be preserved in alcohol, not dried, and each bottle should have on it the locality where the collection was made, and the name of the collector. or transmission by post the spirit may be poured off, and a piece of rag, or blotting-paper, damped in spirit, put in the bottle.—I am, &c., FW... Hhuriom Christchurch, January 16, 1882. - O R 2 A L E : Hn a Binocul at Wicroscope QUITE NRW & IN EXCELLENT ORDER, CONSISTING OF | Beck's Pies Best Binocular Stand, with Concentric Rotating Stage, Iris Diaphragm, Graduated Draw Tube, Stage Forceps ; 4 Pairs Eye-pieces Ce Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and a single No. 4 and No. 5); 4 Objectives (viz. 2 in., 3 in., “four-tenth in., and one-fifth in.) ; Achromatic Condenser, with Revolving Diaphragm, Stops, Aperture from 25° to 802, ete. ; Opal, blue and dimmed | Glasses for moderating the light; Parabolic Illuminator; Large Bull’s-eye | “Condensing Lens, on Stand ; Eye-piece Micrometer, with Jackson’s Adjust- ing Serew; Stage Micrometer; Wollaston’s Camera lucida; Quadruple Nose- ' ‘Piece ; ; Serew Compressorium ; Glass Trough, with Wedge and Spring. i ] : ie 2 The whole packed in two Handsome Mahogany Cases, Price - £65. s coast here £80). \ ALSO, ny ENGLISH: MADE PLAIN wICROSCOPE ey: With 38 Powers, rack as and accessory apparatus, in plain case. Price - £7. S33 a os Beck's ce oe sissy Single lacie Complete, with two single and two Coddington pike in Strong Mahogany Case. _ Price - £5 ie be AppLy, A.B, 3 ‘ Care Messrs. J. WILKIE and Co., PRINCES STREET, DUNEDIN. ak WILKIE & cO., Bovkstes a — DUNEDIN. es uf 7 SP tice, Marae Nd ala oh ; ROE tap aseats oes Dame err cis eR Re ek Pa ee A Ss 2 Ges ah udicro perpende : et st tibt vera videntur . . AS ae er) y hi i j ff 4 Dede: manus | aut st feast est, adcingere contra. = al ede ; ; ; aon ek a ee Se \ ' ‘ : ; : ‘6 4 a ‘ aE ee als tae an . poh cx 4 ee CONTENTS: stg 2 hs Es a Pon Riga ge SEs ' M : ; ritgn ‘ ie. f ery tig nies Pepe Cape T. BROUN, Adebinna< del ag : 49 ka Pass Rock- “paintings. — Ww. M. MASKELL, Chpstehurels Lert 52 is : Rev. THos. Rosray, Le LD. Dunedin elie yicd Wed etry a Sasus Gee | see : eee eee ‘ er oa a J 69 fans, Gaiteetods in the Meet of a Wile ioe atists—List of N. ent Papers” on Mollus . Ze Hair-worms—Change of Nomenclature of Two Moths tS eS hilus Graci’ aot The Southern Science Record ”»—New Zealand Fiora, Wee eT WAL Seis gton Philos caph ical. ie ere aetutes-cap Institute te (residenia address i rie 1 of the New Zealand Flora”), AES ‘ ‘4 * t * t 4 = z eS “ a-“ey, (ote Aa , Sete Sr ne Sl a y- 7 ~ a cele GE ey eg halen Oe eg ce Cea haat sek steke, Guo ware = ose ¥ } be evr . 7 : *u 4 \. > . = ¢ Te < ae a ie — ho i = J ae ee eae a rv ¥342,/ ~ 5 ty a? ey ., . Swat nag A cue ay > ~ "ae sate ee. pre: Bre Ne IES ene rigete eS AMS Sere “eee ioe ‘ og eg — ba Be _ a . w= a ~ oat . i # ' 4 . t 4 \ ‘ » : ¥" it t 44 %5 ei nt “ t Lon ae < bf 7 B a ‘2 \ b. : é v ra mt a = % * o ee Po vas 3 9 4 fh y JOHN. ¥ PLAC! i, ee ar = 7 BES ORA q ny a a y * ‘ 4 ~ ae d i 2 fee ‘ ¥ ? ¥ a haa # * ¥ am er I 4 r7 b a? ¥ hi 4 A y * ba } 7 4 s ¥ Hf ¥ ' 4 Tn fe SS Ed 1 C : ¥ ‘ I iy r . > ; } 4 ye re TI is xs ve , ’ f " ea » a 2 + ie y ae . y 4 ny sap) FEA ¥ : { f P % t - > ¢ ? cay q ¢ ' r § ‘ A , soe ‘ ‘ ed ‘4 RIN “te ‘ 4 aun oy ‘ ten 4 id s 7 hy Pa = aa ¥ * i K i ¥ ’ i] ¢ . ay a ; j \ te “\* i. £ i] \ al “i * 2 . ‘ ™ — ee eal en 7 na ea a - S % > = ~ - ~ - - - need ph seer pee aN naar ae DG . bie fe ite ee Dae ee ' d = 4 ty wad tore Laake. eo poe = = a . m Patel Saco" FBS gi tim eae Saf = EF gitar: Figg A POM e ue A Sag ES el et Pa 2 z a eres as, lo x shy s > day & o< Ort = — Cie ae : > s > a a ie — ate .s ‘ oe Bi . ~ a - a “, ‘ - a ea 5 oe ka nll . » MEY bape” Site nee ~~ E ie "iad be : -.- 5 eoee A) ab us ie ye > => bem ss™ +. SS ee, ee ate hy et ae ee fee * 32 c=. ei Ae - je + mee ~ ell, on i. were ye > . > - ; ny _ - Salem one ete... ? a. >. = 7 x a CF wets . ; ¥ ; wae et - are A, weigh 2 neal —— * , é ~ at es dh Tie ai 5 ai tes exe Sp 0 ad - tee - ‘ ~ m ~ Ae «Mee. eS io res ite Pr..2 ws es it ante he RA ict > 9 “wip , Se. oe a Tr ee ae rah > =“ new ones : ne ae ~ : omy iy ord tia < > ee ariceaiie pa ae ~ . * J ‘ yp ae me a ° ak a 9 2" “4 _—* rv 3 —_ oa ond oS ok ies ae ——=+ ~.< ™) Sas mn 7 Y a - - > S “ a a Se oe aay yd - 7 = 4 ag S io a, eee ey a. iy ae . * a a. 2 hy - em a Pa ae a 2 ~~ ye is 3 ae ee & . : es Fe Bae ee) ~ . i + a oc Qebe » “ 9 5 > nama 4 : . or | oe ee eee oe Fis ines A ae + ot a> i ie et ne eer = ee es ee nd er > %,. = ma ' he eee a tae, - i ae a ee hn aa eo oe 72 THE NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. —__—_q—______ No. 2., Vol. l—APRIL, 1882. ee HINTS ON THE PRESERVATION OF COLEOPTERA* —_ <> —_ BY CAPTAIN THOMAS BROUN, M.E,S., ETC. eres pe ns PART IT, In a former article an attempt was made to show how beetles might be captured; in the present one I propose dealing with the somewhat difficult matter of permanent preservation. The insects having been caught must, first of all (in the case of such as are to be pinned) be thoroughly dried. In order that this may be effectually done it will be necessary to procure or make what is termed a setting-house. Its outside measurements are—height, 12 inches; breadth, 8 inches; depth, 5 inches. The sides should have five equidistant grooves in each, into which the setting-boards slide. These ought to be made of old cigar-boxes, should have two or three sheets of cork tacked or glued on each, and then be covered with thin white paper. The two or three boards nearest the bottom may be entire, but the others should form two or three separate slides. The door and back are best made of finely-perforated zinc with wooden frames, so as to per- mit the free circulation of air. Into this receptacle all beetles should be placed as soon as they are pinned or mounted on card- board ; they ought to be kept there for a fortnight, and if the setting-house be placed in a verandah during dry breezy weather, the result will be more satisfactory. When quite dry the insects should be removed to the cabinet, or what are called store-boxes may be substituted. A well made insect-cabinet is a costly affair, ~ * Continued from page 12. 50 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. but is not absolutely necessary ; the store-boxes can be obtained from a natural history dealer at a moderate cost. (I think Mr. EK. W. Janson, 35, Little Russell Street, London, W.C., would supply what is needed for about 3s. each, and which, though desti- tuteof glass covers, will withordinary care keep a collection in tole- rably good order). They can be arranged on a shelf like books, and if preferred they can be made so as to resemble books ; the boxes, however, will become more expensive when covered with cloth and lettered. Many collectors imagine that camphor pro- vides security against mites, the pests of naturalists. I would not recommend anyone to rely upon it alone ; no doubt it is use- ful, and if carefully attended to might go a long way towards keeping up an atmosphere inimical to such mischievous little creatures. A better plan is to immerse each insect in a bath of corrosive sublimate diluted to the required extent with alcohol. In order ‘to find out the proper proportions, take a common glossy black beetle, and drop a little of the solution upon it with a small brush ; when dry, notice if a slight film or silvery spot be formed, and if so add more alcohol; try again and again until no depo- sit can be seen when the beetle dries. I treat all my beetles in that way ; but, in addition, take care to keep a piece of sponge saturated with spirits of turpentine in every tray or bot. Beetles should be pinned through the right wing-case (elytron) in such a way that the point will pass through between the middle and hind legs ; but those that are fragile or too small for that opera- tion, should be mounted on slips of card-board. If it be desired to have a representative collection of the indigenous coleoptera that scarcely anyone would look at twice, stick the beetles on a piece of pointed cardboard with gum-arabic ; but if it be wished to get up a collection that can be referred to and examined with delight, and prove a source of pleasure to every lover of nature, the slovenly practice alluded to must be eschewed, and skill and unwearied assiduity take its place. The larger beetles when pinned may be secured to the setting- boards, care being taken that the pin does not project more than Y inch beyond the under side of the insect ; the limbs can then be placed in the desired positions, and be held there by means of small pins. In a week these small pins can be removed, and the insect pushed as far up on the pin as may be necessary. The manipulation of the minute species is much more diffi- cult, and if the insects have not been kept amongst bruised lau- rel, it will be almost impossible to move the legs, antenne, etc., without breaking them. I set out mine by means of a very fine needle stuck into a handle about three inches in length, or some- times with a fine camel-hair brush. The insect must be kept steady with a pair of small pliers held in the left hand ; it must be turned over on its back, and as the limbs are too small to be easily seen, a watchmaker’s glass should be used. When pro- perly expanded the beetle should be reversed, lifted up, and placed on the cardboard by damping one of the fingers. The first essay, most likely, will end in failure; practice alone will PRESERVATION OF COLEOPTERA. 51 give the required proficiency. The best kind of cardboard for the purpose is “ Bristol.” It should be cut into convenient slips, large enough for a row of six or seven insects. The beetles can be separated by a pair of small scissors as soon as the gum is quite dry, and the sides and ends having had all superfluous card- board cut away, each insect can be labelled and placed in the setting-house to dry. Many collectors mount their specimens with gum-arabic only. It is objectionable, because when dry it leaves a certain amount of gloss. A much better plan is to use a mixture of gum-traga- canth and gum-arabic. After a good deal of experience, I can recommend the following method for the preparation of the mixture. Take a small wide-mouthed bottle with glass stopper, put into it a small clear piece of gum-tragacanth about the size of the finger-nail, and just cover it with clear water; in a few hours add a teaspoonful of water, and next morning a similar quantity, do the same the following day; by that time the gum will have absorbed all the water and become much swollen and soft, but if it appear too dry a little more water may be poured on it, and then, but not till the third day, it may be well stirred. It should then be so thick that none would come out of the bottle when turned on its side, and in that state would be unsuitable for mounting insects ; but by adding two or three pieces of gum- arabic, and stirring them well, the mixture will become some- what liquified and just of the right consistency. If the two sorts of gum are put into the bottle at once, covered with water, and frequently stirred, the gum-tragacanth will only partially dissolve and form very minute lumps, which will appear unsightly and seriously interfere with the setting-out of small beetles. The mixture will keep in good condition for a month or more, but it is better to make a small quantity only and renew it before it can become mouldy. Before the specimens are placed in the cabinet or store-boxes, they should be cleaned with a camel-hair brush dipped into benzine, and if mould should appear subsequently they should be again treated in the same way. Enough I hope has been written to enable any intelligent in- dividual to find and preserve a sufficient number of beetles to form a tolerably good collection. I am well aware that many little details as to capture and manipulation have been omitted, but experience and perseverance will supply their place much better than written directions. If complete instructions for the finding of beetles had been written, a detailed history of the modes of life of every group, and indeed of very many genera and species must have been given, and in the case of setting-out a similar course must have been pursued with reference to struc- ture. 52 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. A VISIT TO WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS.* ae ee EE BY W. M. MASKELL, ESQ. PART II, I believe that no apology is necessary for an attempt to throw light upon the origin of these curious paintings, nor do I think that any harm is likely to result from the addition of yet ano- ther theory to those already put forth. From the conflict of many opinions probability at least may be expected to emerge ; and if the aboriginal history of these islands is worth knowing at all, it deserves a thorough examination and conscientious enquiry from many points of view. I confess to a suspicion that in this matter, let theories be absurd or theories be probable, we shall never get beyond theory. In the absence of documents and records such as, for example, men put in the cavities of founda- tion stones of a building, nobody is ever likely to know for certain who executed the Weka Pass paintings, any more than we know who carved the Lion Gate of Mycene, or the palaces of Palenque. At the same time, no good purpose would appear to be served by leaving the question always in the ground, cir- cumscribed by a few suppositions, none of which seem to possess when fully examined the elements of probability. This being the case, I shall venture to suggest a theory of my own, which may or may not, as the event will show, have valid claims to credence. But it is requisite first to investigate the speculations already put forth. Of these speculations the only two which can be said to possess any scientific character at all are that of Professor von Haast in the 10th, and that of Mr. Mackenzie Cameron in the 11th volumes of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute. In the former the author inclines to the belief that the “ paint- ings” may be the work of some Oriental sailors, cast away in New Zealand, made slaves by the natives, and employing their leisure time in decorating the rocks; and the precise locality from which these sailors came is supposed to be Ceylon or Southern India. Mr. Mackenzie Cameron, on the other hand, considers them as the work of Buddhist missionaries who, starting from the north of India, have (according to him) propagated. their doctrines and symbols all over the continents of Europe and Asia, and may therefore (he says) be fairly believed to have evangelised New Zealand. It may at once be remarked that there is a main point of si- milarity between these two theories, namely that they both make out the “paintings” to be Oriental and Indian (whether southern or northern), * Continued from page 20, WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. 53 There is no need, as remarked in the first portion of this pa- per, to refer to the Maori traditions, or absence of traditions on this subject. I think experience has shown that scientific men who have formed a theory find little difficulty in twisting Maori traditions any way they please. Some, for example, hold that the moa has been extinct for untold ages, and lightly and airily discard or adopt Maori tradition as they please, setting no value on it if it happens to be somewhat strong against them, or at- tempting to refer it to some ostrich or cassowary in distant islands if they cannot get rid of it altogether. Whether the cas- sowary ever inhabited any island whence the Maoris could have travelled, I cannot precisely say, and the point has been a little neglected I think in moa controversies. But, totally apart from the absence or presence of Maori traditions as to these paintings, the question remains whether in a matter of so small importance to them it is worth while laying any stress upon their opinion. The moa was, of course, an object of the very highest importance to whatever race of people were living here with it, and one can very easily understand that it would occupy an exceedingly high place in their songs, legends, histories, etc. But aset of coloured daubs, on an obscure rock hidden away ina secluded valley, even supposing that at the time of their first execution they could at- tract attention, would very soon pass out of the minds of a race of savages who had many other more important matters—war, fishing, feasts—to think about. So that, in all probability fifty years or so after the first appearance of the paintings, the natives (who can scarcely be credited with archeological tastes) would have forgotten all about their origin. And then the natural re- sult would follow. MHistorical truth having been lost, legend— that is to say, confession of ignorance—would take its place, When a Maori, or any other savage, ascribes anything to mythi- cal ancestors, fabled gods, monsters, etc., that simply means, to my mind, that he knows nothing whatever about it, and being disinclined to say straight out that he does not know, he takes refuge in legendary fog. I by no means desire to undervalue native tradition, provided it ascribe anything to ordinary human ancestors and their agency ; but when it comes to ogres, Te Ka- hui Tipua, monsters, Nga-puhi, and such like, I take it that all this simply means, “we don’t know anything about it; we have forgotten the whole affair.” A native gentleman of the name of Mataiha seems, from Dr. von Haast’s account, to set down the paintings as the work of the Nga-puhi, a mythical archaic race, from which I should be inclined to say that Mr. Mataiha’s opi- nion may be set aside as possessing no value whatever; and he is stated to be “ the best living authority on Maori traditions in the South Island.” ‘ Lest I should be misrepresented on this point, it is necessary to observe here clearly that it is not Maori tradition as a whole which I would depreciate, but Maori tradition in particular. Nobody, I suppose, would deny the enormous value in many ways of the legends, genealogies, histories (if they can be so 54 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. called) of aboriginal races. And probably the Maori tradition of the existence of “ Nga-puhi” and similar bygone people em- bodies many germs of truth over-laid with fiction. All I mean to say is that the ascription of such works as the “ paintings ” to “ Nga-puhi,” or to any mythical personages, should be placed on the same footing as the ascription of rings on the grass to the fairies—that is, taken simply as confession of ignorance, and set aside accordingly. Coming, then, to the two theories’ above-mentioned, I shall take first that of Mr. Cameron. I find that Dr. von Haast (Trans. Vol. XI. p. 157) calls it an “important ” communication, which “opens up quite a new field for research into the early history of these islands, and goes far to prove the great antiquity of the paintings in question.” And the Rev. Mr. Stack, in Vol. XII., calls it extremely interesting, and expresses great reluct- ance at having to differ from it. If these encomia were directed merely to the aspect of Mr. Cameron’s paper as a specimen of intellectual ingenuity, of the faculty of elaborating strings of words from nothing, one could only smile and pass on. _Unfor- tunately, they probably mean more than this. And in the interests of true science in this Colony, in the desire for truth and calm enquiry, in the desire also that our annual transactions should be a credit to New Zealand, I feel bound to express regret that so feeble, ill-considered a production should have been per- mitted to appear in print in the eleventh volume. I donot know Mr. Cameron ; I have never heard of him (perhaps to my shame) before the publication of his paper. What may be his claims to be considered an authority on archeology I cannot say. But if they are to be measured, as probably they are, by the paper in question, it becomes very doubtful how far they are of any value; for, ingenious as they may be, if it is put forth with a semblance of great learning and an affectation of recondite knowledge, and yet turns out upon examination to be founded upon a basis of patent and easily avoided error, respect for the author’s in- genuity can scarcely make up for wonder (if nothing more) at his want of care and industry. I do not propose to enter into any discussion as to Mr. Cameron’s ideas of the missionary proclivities of the Buddhists, their travels to the extreme west of Europe, their amalgamation with the Phoenicians, their carvings on stone at Aberdeen and Dingwall, and so on. On such questions as these, controversy would be endless, tiresome, and useless; and, of course, one would have to consider a little previously a question which Mr. Cameron quietly begs, the antiquity of Buddhism. I am aware that, by even suggesting that the great Gautama himself was not as ancient by several centuries as is popularly supposed, I should open up a controversial field of illimitable extent, into which there is not the least need to enter now; nor need I comment upon Mr. Cameron’s statement that Ezekiel means by “The Isles of the Sea” the chain which begins with Sumatra and ends with New Zealand. Whether the sea has any other isles, whether WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. se Ezekiel knew anything about Sumatra, whether there is a “chain” from Sumatra to New Zealand any more than to Tahiti, and such like questions, should all be discussed before touching this statement; but the moment Ezekiel is dragged in, there is an end to all reasonable discussion. However, the main fault of Mr. Cameron’s paper lies, not in his scriptural and_ historical eccentricities, but in the following sentences :—“ We have clear philological testimony that the serfent-race of India in early times obtained a foothold in New Zealand. This will be further brought out below.” The words are emphatic—“ clear philolo- gical testimony.” And how does Mr. Cameron bring out his - evidence? By etymologically considering the Maori names— Te Kahui Tipua and Nga-puhi, the two mythical races alluded to apewe.4% be,’.he, says, isthe definite. particle “the;’. “ Kahui Tipua,” the deceitful, wicked dog-race; “nga,” from the Sanskrit Pasea.. serpent ;. and “puht,” from,“ pub,” race... It) appears further that the dog-race‘is Burmese, and the serpent-race Indian, and no explanation is vouchsafed as to the manner in which these two serpent-races joined together to colonise New Zealand. But, anyhow, a person professing to use philological arguments ought at least to know his parts of speech. Allowing that “te” equals “the,” it is obvious that if “ Kahui Tipua” means “ deceit- ful dog-race,” the first thing to be clear about would be, which word meant “deceitful,” and which word “dog-race.” Yet Mr. Cameron quietly remarks that he “should wish to know which is the adjective!” What, I wonder, would be the fate of the un- happy schoolboy who should venture to construe “ bonus puer ”— “puer,” the good ; “bonus,” boy? In Scott’s inimitable “ Anti- quary,” Mr. Oldbuck is represented as establishing an ancient Roman encampment at the Kaim of Kinprunes, on the authority of Claudian’s line—“ [le Caledoniis posuit qui castra pruints.” But not even in the exuberance of his humour did Scott venture to depict his philological antiquary as founding his claim upon accidental similarity, careless of thesimplestrudimentsof grammar. It has been reserved for Sydney to produce, and for New Zealand to enshrine in print a philologist who is not ashamed to confess high ignorance of the accidence of the language which he selects for his experiments. What possible value can anybody be dis- posed to place on a theory based upon so flimsy a foundation ? Mr. Cameron concludes his paper with the peculiar remark, “ If furnished with the necessary philological and ethnological materials | might be able to indicate the early history of your island.” Probably any person, if furnished with “the necessary material,’ might be enabled to do such a thing; yet, I doubt whether Mr. Cameron, unless condescending to the study of the, rudiments of grammar, could satisfactorily accomplish the task. I have written strongly upon this matter, and it may perhaps be thought that in so doing I have stepped beyond legitimate controversy, more especially with regard to an author unknown to myself, and indeed a stranger to this country generally. But there are times when some plain speaking is desirable, A gen- 56 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, tleman who is commonly reputed to be a high authority upon native questions in the south of New Zealand, has called Mr. Cameron’s production “extremely interesting.” A Fellow of the Royal Society terms it “important,” and “opening anew field ;” it was read at a meeting of a Philosophical Institute ; it has been published in the annual volume of the New Zealand “ Transac- tions ;” and it has remained for two years in that volume unanswered, uncontroverted, and a specimen ‘to all the world of the philological work done in the Southern Seas. Is it therefore too much to say that its appearance, coupled with the praises lavished on it, is the reverse of creditable to the New Zealand Institute and to the cause of science in this Colony? Passing to the theory of Dr. von Haast, I think that there is a great difference noticeable. Mr. Cameron, trying to float in the clouds without sufficient machinery, falls into an abyss of absur- dity. Dr. von Haast, whether his theory be right or wrong, at least has endeavoured to examine the ground pretty closely, and to support himself by actual observation. Still Iam obliged to say that there does seem to be in his paper (Trans. Vol. X., p. 44, etc.) evidence of his having unwittingly begun his reasoning trom, as it were, the wrong end. It seems as if, having made up _ his mind (from previous studies) on the antiquity of the native races, he has endeavoured to make the paintings fit in with his preconception, rather than to use them as premises to lead him to aconclusion. Satisfied, as I believe he is, that a very ancient race existed in these islands before the Maori, and exter- minated, ages ago, the moa, he appears to have accepted at the first blush the rock paintings as additional evidence on the same side, and to have commenced by asking himself the ques- tion—“ How can I make these fit in with my other conclusions ?” A curious proof of this is, I think, afforded by a sentence or two of his paper. He says, p. 45, that “The paint consists of Kokowai (red oxide of iron), of which the present aborigines of New Zealand make still extensive use, and of some fatty sub- stance ;” and on page 51-53, describing the contents (all com- prised in a depth of 1ft. 2in.) of the earthen floor under the shelter, he gives no instance of any implements being found differing from those used by the Maoris. The presence of fragments of moa bones he does, indeed, take as a proof that the paintings were anterior to Maori occupation; but this is evidently only a part, or a consequence, of his preconceived theory men- tioned just now. In fact, ignoring altogether the Maori paint and Maori implements, he assumes the existence on the spot of an anterior race, who left no traces whatever of their habitation there. This strikes me as being much the same as if a man, find- ing a basket of carpenter’s tools, should at once conclude in his mind that they must have belonged to a shoemaker; or, as if Roman utensils found under the Roman Wall in England should be taken as proof that the wall was built by the Caledonians. Postponing for awhile an examination of Dr. von Haast’s explanation of particular figures, I must refer to what is really WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. 57 the main part of his theory, namely—that the paintings are the work of Cingalese sailors, cast away in New Zealand long ages ago. It is by no means my wish to impute to this idea any of that absurdity which distinguishes that of Mr. Cameron, because, undoubtedly, considering that we have known this country only for a little over a century, sailors might have been wrecked on its shores a thousand times over, coming from every conceivable country, in past times. And ifthe Maoris themselves came here over the sea from other lands, I see no reason why Cingalese or any other sailors might not have done so likewise. But, of course, before accepting any such idea it would be necessary to settle a few preliminary questions. First, are, or were, the Cingalese given to long voyages? Next, what sort of vessels had they to stand a journey as far as New Zealand? Again, what are the prevailing winds between Ceylon and here? And soon. Without desiring to settle any of these questions now, I think that they, and others, ought to be a little considered before . we yield ourselves up to the Cingalee theory. And then, also, a troublesome question would still remain: why on earth should these shipwrecked mariners employ themselves in daubing the Weka Pass Rock (and that rock alone) with characters so peculiarly meaningless ? But Dr. von Haast appeals to the Tamil bell found in the North Island. There is, of course, no reason why, because this bell is in the north, the rock paintings should have been done by Tamil sailors in the south ; at least I fail to see the connection. Still, undoubtedly, the bell is a “ crux” to some extent ; that is, it is evidence that it came to New Zealand from Ceylon; but it yet remains to be shown how it came. Where was it found? How deep was it buried? Whodug it up? Is there absolutely no evidence whatever of its arrival? I cannot answer these questions; but whatever their answer, I see no connection between the bell and the paintings. Dr. von Haast, p. 47, says, “in comparing the peculiar figures with the writing on that bell, I was at once struck by the marked resemblance between both.” Certainly, people do see remarkable resemblances sometimes ; but I would defy any unprejudiced person to compare the plate given by Dr. von Haast of the rock paintings, or the originals themselves, or Mr. Cousins’ copies of them (in the Canterbury Museum), with the inscription on Mr. Colenso’s bell, and say that there is the faintest likeness observable. That, somehow or other, various objects have at different times anterior to English occupation reached New Zealand from other lands is, I suppose, indubitable. There is this bell for example; there is the curious stone bird obtained by Major Wilson ; and there are probably others. But need we go back to the depths of antiquity to account for them, or hunt up Buddhist missionaries, Cingalese castaways, or Kahui Tipua, to father them on? Setting aside chances of gales driving canoes or proas hundreds of miles, do we know how many European ships touched at New Zealand since Vasco doubled the Cape of 58 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Good Hope? Tasman we know of; Marion, D’Urville, Cook, we know of; La Pérouse we may bring within conjecture. But how many more may have been here and left no record ? From 1497, the year when the ships of Portugal first drove before the westerly winds of the Indian Ocean, to 1769, the year when Cook landed in New Zealand, surely there is scope, and to spare, for visits by scores of European ships which might, or might not, have carried men willing to keep records of their journey ; which might or might not have been lost afterwards ; which might or might not have left, or lost by stealing, various articles and implements. A fair illustration comes to my hand here. Ina book entitled »“ The»Discoveries..of. Prince. Henry aby cea Major, of the British Museum, is found amongst other maps one which the author calls “the Dauphin’s map,’ and which was executed for the use of the heir of France in the year 1530. In this map the northern, and parts of the western and eastern coasts of Australia, are very distinctly laid down; also there is a large island shown, which (I believe) ought to be taken for New Cale- donia. Furthermore, on p. 298 of the book, Mr. Major says— “It should be mentioned that New Zealand is also shown by these early maps to have been then discovered.” Who could have been these discoverers ? Who, almost alone, about the year 1530, ploughed the waters of the South Indian and Southern Pacific Oceans ? Certainly the Portuguese ; and an interesting connection between them and the Tamil bell might easily be found, in the fact that the chief Portuguese settlement in the east was Goa, on the south-western shore of India. Itis a simpler and more likely means of accounting for the Tamil bell, to my mind, to suppose that a Portuguese ship, one of many cruising about the Eastern seas, touched at New Zealand and there lost this bell, than to assume the travels of a Cingalese vessel, none of which has been known at any other time to have ventured so far to sea. Nothing can be more reasonable than to suppose that a Tamil bell might be on a ship of Portugal, whose sailors must have been in constant communication with Ceylon and Southern India; few things less probable than a journey to New Zealand by Tamil sailors in their miserable craft. I am wandering somewhat from my particular subject; but as this Tamil bell was brought into discussion by Dr. von Haast in connection with the rock paintings, I have ventured to throw out the suggestion just made, not as desiring to found a theory thereon, but as a hint which somebody may perhaps be inclined to follow out. Indeed, as I remarked just now, there seems to me to be not the very faintest resemblance between the figures on the Weka Pass Rock and the inscription of the bell. And this brings me to consider a little the particular interpretation of the figures given in Dr. von Haast’s paper; a question on which I have only space to say a word or two. In so doing, I must refer readers to the plate given in Vol. X. of the Transac- tions of the New Zealand Institute, as I am unable to give illus- trations here, WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. ye) There are a few of Dr. von Haast’s statements which, I think, require some correction. First, on p. 45, referring to the dl/ack paintings which, he says, “pass indiscriminately over” the red ones, hecallsthem “ofa more primitive nature.’ Howa work over- lying another can be more “ primitive ” than it, is scarcely intelli- gible, if the word refers to the age of the two. And if “ primi- tive” is used in reference to the style of art, meaning “rude” or “inferior,” then an opinion is expressed which probably few persons viewing the originals will agree with. In point of fact, the best (so to speak) resemblances to natural objects which can be discovered in the paintings are found in the black ones. And I think that Dr. von Haast has fallen into a slight error in ne- electing, as he seems to have done, these black figures, which are in immense numbers all over the rocks, but which he passes by with scarcely acomment. The four sitting quadrupeds, of which he gives in his plate only an obscure figure of one pair, without a reference number and hardly noticeable, are really almost the most conspicuous of all, and are very much less “ primitive” in design than the red nondescripts on which he lays stress. And the figures of which he gives a few examples at the top of his plate, also unnumbered and scarcely referred to in his paper, are in hundreds on the rock, perfectly recognisable, clearly represen- tations of men intermingled with tridents and other implements, and are by no means, as compared with the red ones, such rude designs as he considers them. mean, On p. 47, he says, “it is clear that there is some method in the arrangement which at once strikes the eye as remarkable.” I fancy that in this phrase he refers only to the red paintings; but, in any case, probably the first impression upon the beholder is exactly the reverse, namely that there is no “arrangement” whatever, the black and the red figures being daubed on anyhow and anywhere. On the same page, “Only two representations of man can be recognised.” On the contrary, human figures are, as I said just now, in hundreds. So much for a few of the general statements in Dr. von Haast’s paper. Coming to particular objects, I find one difficulty in dealing with these, from the fact that at the time of our visit to the rock the paintings were by no means clear in outline. Whether they were very much better in 1876, when Mr. Cousins appears to have copied them, I do not know ; anyhow, his draw- ings show somewhat distinct outlines which, in the case of the red paintings, are scarcely to be found now. Assuming, however, that greater clearness was at that time available, and that the copies are sufficiently accurate in a general way, there are some parts of Dr. von Haast’s interpretation which appear to be some- what far-fetched. My references are to the figures of his plate in Vol. X. Nos. 1and 3 may fairly be considered as figures of whales, though it is not quite clear why the first should be said to be “ diving,” or the second as differing from the first in having . two heads. Why No. 4 should be considered a “snake” it is not 60 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. easy to say ; and this figure is one of those whose outline on the rock is so indistinct that it may be called anything; but the “ protruding tongue ” is perhaps a stretch of fancy leading to the neglect of the obvious suggestion (if animal it is) that it might mean simply aneel. No. g is said to be either a moa or a cassowary ; might it not with equal likelihood, if a bird at all, be a seagull ora weka? This figure is also very indistinct at the present day. No. 11 is called “a taniwha,’ whilst No. 8 is only “a dog.” If both represent quadrupeds, why not reverse the interpretation? No. 10 is “evidently a weapon, and might, being close to the bird, indicate the manner in which the latter was killed during the chase ;” an interpretation strained with a vengeance! No. 17, in the plate, is incomplete, at least as com- pared with Mr. Cousins’ original drawing (in the Canterbury Museum), where a stream of smoke is made to issue from the cup-shaped top. Has there not been here also a little stretching of fancy, considering that the “smoke” may be due only to the scaling of the rock-surface? No. 14 is, without doubt, one of the most extraordinary and puzzling of all the paintings; Dr. von Haast calls it (as indeed it looks) a hat; Mr. Cameron says that 'it means a Buddhist temple. Without stopping to decide this, or to examine the succeeding figures, which may or may not represent what Dr. von Haast considers them to mean, I pass on to No. 27, which is said to depict a “huge snake-like animal, . probably a Tuna tuoro,” a mythical monstereel. [imagine that the reason for this is the extraordinary length of the animal, and the fact that an obscure little figure, supposed to be a man running away, is placed before it. This “man,” it may be said, is extremely indistinct at present, and in any case might with equal probability be considered as running away from No. 25, But the question arises—why is No. 27 a “huge” animal, a “monster?” There can be but one reason, the size of the paint- ing; but in that case there would seem to be some defect in logic. The size of a drawing has nothing to do with the size of its object. The Jupiter of Phidias was many feet high, the Colossus of Rhodes was much higher ;. was the latter an indication that Apollo was greater than Jove? And if size goes for anything, why should not No. 29, the “man” be as probably a “dwarf” as No. 27-is a “monster?” Or, again, take No. 9, the supposed “moa ;” this is not so large as the “man,” No. 29, but it would scarcely be conceded that moas stood no higher than the average of men. I would not lay stress upon this point were it not that Dr. von Haast uses the size of this figure, No. 27, asa peg whereon to hang a deduction that the authors of these paintings were Indian, and desired to represent to their native masters “ huge snakes or crocodiles.” In pursuance of this idea, he further says that “ Nos. 23 and 25 might be crocodiles, No. 27 a boa constrictor.” It is worth while, too, to remark that this No. 27 is.five times as long as No. 1, supposed to represent a sperm whale ! I need not now refer to a number of small complicated , WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. 61 figures which Dr. von Haast considers so remarkably like the inscription on the Tamil bell, having already stated that I fail to see the faintest resemblance between the two. At the same time it may be freely confessed that such figures as Nos. 6, 13, 16, 21, may be compared by persons of different idiosyncrasies to any number of various objects—No. 6, say, to a feather in perspec- tive, or a pen, or possibly a flying bat, or a cabbage leaf, and so on. A great deal in such enquiries depends upon the first prin- ciple—the point of view chosen. No, 21a (the right-hand figure of the pair) instead of resembling a Tamil letter, has, to my mind, something of the appearance of a restored pterodactyl in geological books. But speculation on these points would be endless and probably unprofitable. On the whole, then, the theory propounded by Dr. von Haast, whilst it is very evidently the result of much care and thorough desire to rest on actual evidence, and in this contrasts in a most favourable manner with the vagaries of Mr. Mackenzie Cameron, does not seem to embody entirely satisfactory conclusions ; there is even a suspicion about it of an effort to prop up, as it were, some former theories. It is by no means my province to set up a dogmatic opinion of my own on the subject, yet I think there is sufficient importance in these rock paintings to warrant the full examination of them and the contribution from any observer of the results of his enquiry. My own opinion (which is submitted solely in the desire for truth) is a very unpretending one. It is founded upon what I believe to be, in such matters as these, an axiom of the highest consequence, although by no means universally followed out. The golden rule in discussing such subjects as the rock paintings ought to be this—that unless very plain and circumstantial evidence to the contrary be forth- coming, the simplest and most patent solution should be accepted. I illustrate my meaning again by the basket of tools which I mentioned above. A set of carpenter’s tools found on the high road ought, unless there be some collateral circumstances pointing distinctly in another direction, to be assumed to be or to have been the property of a carpenter, and not of a shoemaker or a tailor. And so also in the case of the rock paintings; the paint is Maori, the implements and relics found under the ground are Maori, the natives in the vicinity have for generations been Maori. Therefore, unless some distinct and clear evidence to the contrary be forthcoming, the simplest, straightest, and most natural conclusion is that the paintings also are Maori. To attribute them to fabulous Kahui Tipua is nonsense; to hunt up shadowy Buddhist missionaries on the strength of bad grammar isridiculous; towandertoadistanceafter castaway Cingalese sailors is a waste of time and energy. No reasonable traveller seeing a high road leading straight to his journey’s end, would willingly leave it to scramble devious over swamps and crags; and the same should be the case in this instance. My belief is, then, that the rock paintings of the Weka Pass are simply the work of some Maori artist or artists, not necessarily 62 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. done at any one time, by no means of any great antiquity, and without any particular collective meaning. Maoris, like all savages, are only children in many things. A school boy will cover a wall with all sorts of scrawls and figures, some large, some small, in whatever colours and pigments happen to be at his hand. Sometimes one can detect resemblances to natural objects, sometimes no likeness can be made out. Sitting the other evening in a schoolroom during a public lecture, I found the desk before me covered all over with schoolboy work. Amongst other devices a huge cow (at least it had four legs and two horns) sprawled all over the desk, and just between two of the legs was a figure evidently designed for a human being. It did not occur to me that the artist had meant the quadruped for a gigantic or fabulous monster, merely because it was so much larger than the man. I take it that the Maoris of old time were, in matters of art, nothing better than the ordinary school- boy, and that their daubs on the Weka Pass Rock, done with red paint when they had no black, and with black paint when they had no red, were simply on a par with the multifarious scrawls with which boys naturally decorate any surface handy to them. I am aware that there is one reply which may be made to this, that the “paintings ” are not in the ordinary style of Maori art, and that Mr Stack (Transactions Vol. X., p. 55) speaks of them as of “far greater antiquity ” than Maori work. But, first, even Mr Stack only attributes them to the Ngati mamoe, who, as far as I can make out, seem to have lived here no more than two or three hundred years ago. Secondly, is it possible to compare Dr. von Haast’s figure No.1 (the diving sperm whale) or his No. 3, with the figure from South Canterbury given in the same plate by Mr Stack, without seeing a very close resemblance thereto, except that in one case there is mere outline and in the other parallel lines? Thirdly, supposing even great diversity of style, that need not entail diversity of race any more than the “ oraffiti”” of Pompeii are evidence of a race of artists different from those who painted the Villa of Diomed, any more than the “artists of the valentines in our shop windows just now need be of different race from Mr Millais or Mr Leighton.” My paper is already too long, and I need do no more than conclude with the expression of my belief that these “paintings” are nothing more and nothing less than a set of daubs on the rock, the work of ordinary native draughtsmen, scrawled as children scrawl on walls or desks, and entirely destitute of any symbolic meaning, whether of Buddhistic, Indian, or other exotic character. P.S.—I find that, in the first portion of my paper, when en- deavouring to give an account of the different opinions expressed by members of our party on the antiquity of the rock paintings, I omitted to mention one which is, I think, of considerable importance. I have said that Dr. von Haast, in his address, lays a good deal of stress upon the scaling, or weathering of the rock, A PLEA FOR THE STARS. 63 surface, and in one place he remarks that the black figures have in several instances been painted on spots where the rock has scaled away “under the red” figures. The phrase used conveys theimpression that the scaling has taken place after the red figures were painted. But it was the opinion of some of our party (con- versant with geological evidences) that this statement requires some modification, for they found instances where the red designs had evidently been painted over spots where scaling had already taken place. In point of fact the paintings are scarcely any- where laid on the surface of the rock itself; they rest on a coat- ing of stalagmite covering the rock, and it is this stalagmite which has scaled off. It is evident that, if this opinion is correct, the “scaling” cannot, in any sense, be used as an argument in favour of the antiquity of the paintings. In my first part I have alluded to it as, at the best, only an extremely weak and vague sort of evidence, but, on the hypothesis just mentioned, it becomes an argument in favour of the (comparatively) modern rather than archaic execution of the paintings. I did not myself hear, at the time, the expression of opinion which I have just mentioned ; nor did I myself notice the geo- logical evidence in question, and so it was omitted in my paper. It has since been brought under my notice by members of the party. Ak ihe POR THE SPARS, ee BYOREV. “PHOS: ROSEBY, “GE,.D: ——_———__. In the pages of a scientific periodical so largely occupied with discussion of the structure and life history of varied forms of animal and vegetable life, and whose fedal note is hardly ever struck except at the words sfecies nova, it will not do to say any- thing in depreciation of Biology. And yet there are other sciences which might well claim a share of the attentions now almost engrossed by the youngest sister of the family ; and it is on behalf of one of them—an elder sister indeed, but not less fair—that I am desirous of putting ina plea. I refer to Astronomy. Foronewelleducated man who is able to tell the story of Gamma Virginis, 1 suppose there are a score in our community who know the life history of Volvox Globator, and fifty who can identify the various species of Hymenophyllum. Yet of all physical studies there is none whose objects are _ more beautiful in themselves than those of astronomy ; none fur- nishing more ample scope for the exercise of the scientific spirit, or whose facts have more readily admitted the modern scientific interpretation ; while the majestic scale of the subject, its colos- 64 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. sal proportions, give it an elevation and sublimity all its own. Its time-periods seem, rather, like hours on the dial-plate of eternity. The spaces of its immensity are confounded, practically, with infinity itself. In view of all this it is remarkable how few people take more than a superficial interest in the subject. Even the circles and apparent motions of the celestial sphere, simple as they are, and ever open to observation, are to most people unknown and unin- telligible, The planets are unrecognised. Beyond a knowledge of one or two conspicuous constellations—not always certainly or steadily known—these “flowers of the sky” have to most no more meaning or interest than the “ yellow primrose ” to the soul of Peter Bell. It is astonishing how few people accurately know even the Southern Cross. Its appearance in any new position seems always an occasion of bewilderment. One of the best educated men I know was recently trying to point it out to me in the constellation of Canzs Majyor—a mistake something like looking for illustrations of the anatomy of Invertebrates in the body of a barrel-organ ! I have spoken of the prevalence of biological study. I have ventured to suggest that some of the enthusiasm with which it is pursued might be advantageously diverted—raised, in fact, from earth to heaven. Yet I am conscious that to put biology in antithesis to astronomy, is to do an injustice to, both. The two sciences have so close a connection, that the intermediate subject of Geology may be said to be common property. The cosmical aspects of geology belong to the science of astronomy. Nay more. It is remarkable that one of thegreat puzzles of geology— the problem of glacial periods—finds its solution in some of the great rhythmical movements of the solar system. The point is one of so much interest, and is so well fitted to conciliate the rival claims of the two lines of study, that Iam tempted to tell the whole story. The Earth’s orbit, its revolution round the sun, is at present nearly circular. Not quite, however, for its ellipticity is such that, during our (southern) winter, we are about three million miles farther from the sun than during our summer. This slight dif- ference of distance does not itself make any sensible difference in the temperature between north and south ; but it has an effect on the length of the seasons, through one of the great laws of orbital motion, and in that way has a quite appreciable effect on the temperature. It makes the cold period of the year in the southern hemisphere nearly eight days longer than the warm period ; and correspondingly, of course, it makes the warm period in the northern hemispherenearly eight days longer thanthe cold period. And such a difference has a sensible effect on tem- perature. It probably accounts for the greater collection of ice around the South Pole. In consequence of the precession of the equinoxes, this condition is subject to a gradual change, which, in the course of about 10,500 years reverses the inequa- lities of temperature above described. Ten thousand yearshence , A PLEA FOR THE STARS. 65 it will be the northern hemisphere which will have more cold, and the southern less. This difference of temperature is a conspicuous, or at least quite appreciable, fact even now when the Earth’s orbit is nearly circular. But the Earth’s orbit is continually oscillating within certain limits of eccentricity, and the more eccentric the orbit the more conspicuous becomes this difference of temperature. The eccen- tricity of the orbit at present is only .o16 ; but 250,000 years ago—I quote the figures of Croll’s interesting computation— it was .0258; and 210,000 years ago—the last epoch of maximum eccentricity — it reached the ratio .0575 —a fraction which represents an appreciably elongated ellipse—an ellipse so elongated that (by Kepler’s Law of “equal areas in equal times”) the difference between the length of the period of cold and the period of warmth in each year would amount, in each hemisphere, in alternate cycles of 10,500 years, to a con- siderable portion of the year. Suppose the difference amounted, as a certain epoch, to three weeks—a term quite within the maximum limit—how enormous must be the effect of such a disparity. Give the northern hemisphere, for some thousands of years in succession, three weeks more winter, and three weeks less summer than at present, and its temperature would become so reduced as easily to account for all the phenomena of what is called the glacial epoch. I have been tempted into this digression for the purpose of showing how much closer is the connection than might at first be supposed between astronomy and biology. The instance may also stand as an illustration of the general interest of the subject under review. But I am happy to avail myself of a New Zealand publica- tion to set forth—beyond the general interest of the subject— the special attractions of astronomy for ourselves ; for ourselves, I mean, as living in the southern hemisphere. In view of the rich field of observation open to us, far exceed- ing in profusion, and in telescopic interest, that of our brethren in the northern hemisphere, it is lamentable to see how little scientific curiosity has been excited concerning it, and how little has yet been done. Take the latest edition of Proctor’s Atlas. It was constructed fornorthern observers, yet there is no southern atlas to take its place, and the student is compelled to use, as his very best available aid to the topography of the stars, a publication which he is obliged to read upside down. Not only so; the atlas, it is true, was not constructed to meet our requirements, and it is therefore unfair to complain, from our point of view, of its defects. But its defects, in the southern region, are of the most glaring character. Scores of interesting objects, all within the reach of instruments of moderate power, and all faithfully recorded by Sir John Herschel in his “Cape” observations, are conspicuous by their absence. So with the splendid manual of Mr. Edward Crossley. Some fifty, perhaps, of the better known 66 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. double stars of the southern region are noted ; but for every one thus indicated ten are “nowhere.” Yet nearly half a century has elapsed since the date of Sir John Herschel’s Cape observations. Lxoriare aliquis / The field is rich beyond expression. The grandest binary system in the heavens, having the additional interest of being the nearest of the stars, A/pha Centauri, is invisible to English ob- servers. —_—__—_— WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 11th February.—The annual general meeting was held at the Museum; Dr. Hector, president, in the chair. New members: Messrs. J. Reid and Charles Monaghan. The Secretary, Mr. Gore, read the annual report of the Society for 1881, which stated that seven meetings had been held since the meeting in February, 1880. The average attendance ot members had been greater than during the previous years, and papers had been read on the following subjects :— GEOLOGY. 1. ‘©On the Sand Dunes in the Wellington District,” by Mr. T. L. Travers. . MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 73 a.4° On ‘Tin, Ore at, Reefton,’” by Dr., Hector. 3. **On the Mineralogy of New Zealand,” by Mr. S. H. Cox. 4.“ On the Extinction of the Moa,” by Mr. C,H. Field. 5. ‘On the Deposit of Moa Bones at Motanau,” by Mr. A. M‘Kay. 6. “On New Fossil Shells of New Zealand,” by Mr. T. W. Kirk. 7.-On Solar Heat;,’, by Mr. J... C..Crawfond. ZOOLOGY. 8. “On the Lung Worm in Sheep,” by Mr. J. Buchanan. g. “On Marine Planarians, or Leaf Worms,” by Mr. T. W. Kirk. to. ‘‘On the Notornis,” by Dr. Buller. 11. ‘* Description of Hybrid Bird Specimens,” by Dr. Buller. 12. ‘On the Sea Trout (Salmo Trutta) in Nelson Harbour,” ny Dr..Hector. 13. “‘On New Recent Shells of New Zealand,” (2 papers) by Mr.) W. Kirk. ua, §*On Some New Cuttle Fish,” by. Mr, T. W.. Kirk. 15. “On Sertularians, collected in Wellington,” by Mr. T. W. Kirk. 16. ‘*On Abnormal Coloured Specimens of Kakapo,” by Mr. ey. Kirk, BOTANY. 17. ‘*On New Species of Plants in the South Island,” by Mr. J. Buchanan. 18. ‘*On the Alpine Plants of Otago,” by Mr. J. Buchanan. Ig “On the Abnormal Growth:of New Zealand Flax,” by Rev. P. Walsh. 20. ‘On New Plants, Tararu, etc.,” by Mr. J]. Buchanan. eee “On Michen’ Dyes)” by Mr. W.. Levin. CHEMISTRY. 22. ‘*On Supposed Paraffin at Waipa,” by Mr. W. Skey. 23. ‘On Poisonous Quality in the Brachyglottts vepandi,” by Mr. W. Skey. 24. ‘“‘ Description of a Visit to Islands of Polynesia, with Specimens,” by Mr. Romilly. 25. ‘On the Extinction of the Maori Race,” by Dr. Newman. 26. **On Circular Motion,” by Mr. T. Wakelin. 27. ‘*On the Rabbit Nuisance, with Remedies,” by Mr. H. Tryon. A summary of the proceedings, with extracts from the papers, had appeared immediately after each meeting in the Southern Science Record, which was published in Melbourne, and this extended the interest in the work of the Society outside New Zealand. The papers had all been forwarded to the manager of the ‘“‘ New Zealand Insti- tute,” with a view to their publication in the forthcoming volume of “Transactions.” Sixteen additional members had been elected during the year, making a total at the present time of 303 members on the roll. Twenty-four volumes, besides many periodicals and pamphlets, had been added to the library, and a large number of the latter had been recently bound. From the statement of receipts 74 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. and expenditure submitted by the Treasurer, it appeared that there was a credit balance of £75 15s in the bank. The report and balance-sheet were adopted, and the following gentlemen were elected officers for the ensuing year, the names having been submitted to the meeting by the Council :—President, ‘Mr. W.T. L. Travers, F.R.S.; Vice-Presidents, Hon. J. R. Johnson and Dr. Buller, C.M G., F R.S.; Council—Dr. Newman, J. P. Max- well, N. Govett, M. Chapman, Dr. Hector, L. H. Cox, T. King; Secretary and Treasurer—R. B. Gore; Auditor—Oliver Wake- field ; Librarian—T. W. Kirk. The President stated that the substitution of Mr. Wakefield for Mr, Ballantyne, as auditor, was in consequence of Mr. Ballan- tyne having resigned. A vote of thanks was accorded Mr. Ballantyne for his services as auditor to the Society. Dr. Hector said it was usual for the Presidents during some portion of their tenure of office to address the Society upon its general work, or upon some special subject. The last two Presi- dents had each delivered a more complete address than he could hope to make to them that evening, for he had been taken by surprise by the early date of the meeting; but at the same time there were some remarks he would like to make before they proceeded to the business of the ordinary meeting. He thought, from the report just read, that the Society might be congratulated upon the work done during the past year. It had not been brilliant work, and they had missed the lectures of previous years on special subjects interesting and instructive. This had been the case chiefly because the hall had been required for other purposes, and their meetings could not be held regularly. It was also a difficult matter to get good lecturers. He trusted before next year that one of the great drawbacks to making these lectures attractive would be removed, and that the lime-light apparatus would be ready. Everything was now almost completed, so that in a very short time it would be possible to make the illustrations of the lectures visible to all present. Great improvements had been effected in the Library arrangements, and Mr. Kirk had been appointed Librarian, and would be responsible for the books of the Society. They had now a really very excellent library of 5000 volumes, and the catalogue was available in manuscript for the use of members. In connection with the Museum, it had always seemed to him to be a great drawback that there had not been more scope given for rendering the large collection and library more available for the purposes of direct tuition, but he might say that arrangements were now in course of formation by which lectures would be carried on in connection with the College. Collegians who desired to study these subjects would, under the arrangements he contemplated being given effect to, be able to attend classes at the Museum and Library, which would be con- ducted by competent persons. He hoped these classes might be open to members of the Society, and to such of the general public as desired such a course of study. With reference to the work of the past year, it had been chiefly the reading of papers. This kind of work required the co-operation of members residing in different parts of the Colony, in order that the results might be useful. In this connection he might particularly refer to the paper . eee eer ttSs—S—s”S—S—”—e MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. oy by Mr. Buchanan on “‘ Some diseases of sheep and cattle in New Zealand.” These diseases were propagated by the development of certain minute forms of animal life, and the symptoms ought to be studied by the different flock-owners in the Colony, and the results communicated to the Society, or to some person engaged in these investigations, for the purpose of comparing results. The progress of these diseases had been studied to a remarkable degree of late. As had been stated in one of these papers, there were already signs of our acquiring the means of warding off these diseases, and protecting animals from their inroads in the same way as we now—very imperfectly here—protected the community from the attacks of smallpox. This important matter was well worth the attention of all members of the Society who took an interest in scientific researches which had a direct bearing upon the welfare of the human race. With reference to smallpox, the apathy displayed as to the best means of protecting ourselves from the scourge appeared to him to be almost criminal. We were naturally protected against the incursion of a vast number of diseases, but an outbreak of smallpox here would be disastrous, In the first place, comparatively few of the people of New Zealand realised the horrible nature of this disease, and vaccination was a matter in which a very partial interest was taken. If the matter were brought more prominently before the public by proper means, aided by compulsory vaccination, he thought it quite possible that we might get rid of the necessity for the quarantine system. We might then take our chance of the small number of cases which might occur in the community. There had been a great cry raised of late in favour of what was called animal vaccination—that was, vaccination with lymph taken direct from the calf, instead of with lymph taken from the arm of an infant. In his opinion there was a good deal of misapprehension in this matter. Vaccination was really sowing the seed of smallpox in the system in the same way that carrots or turnips were sown in a garden.- These germs of disease lost power by passing through a certain diluting process ; and some time ago a proposition was made to dilute the virus with milk. There was no doubt that lymph could be passed through a calf and then used; but in any case everything depended on having pure seed. Those who advocated animal vaccination must take care that the body of the animal selected did not contain the seeds of other diseases; and those who were in favour of human vaccination said that their dread of other diseases arose from careless vaccination, and the taking of lymph from the arms of unhealthy children. In both cases it was necessary to take great care that the seeds of any other form of disease were not intro- duced by vaccination; and for his part he did not see any difference in the risk attending arm-to-arm vaccination and what was called animal vaccination. The Government had been put to great expense in providing the means of vaccination, and it was to be hoped that an unreasonable prejudice against it would not exist much longer. He had been led to make these observations be- cause he had been thinking the subject over a great deal of late. It was a subject open to much discussion and calm thought, for the purpose of getting rid of the cobwebs of prejudice which sur- _rounded it in the public mind. Another interesting paper is one by Mr. Travers upon the effects of certain floods. In arranging 76 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. the papers of the ‘ Transactions” for the printer, he found that a valuable paper was read before the Otago Institute by Mr. Arthur on a similar subject, and both opened up a question of great importance and interest. Mr. Arthur had shown that storms could be gauged in such a manner that we could ascertain what amount of moisture was likely to be deposited upon a certain area of country. Advantage might be taken of this knowledge to erect dams to hold the quantity of water that might fall within a given time. These dams might be placed in favourable positions for trapping the water and allowing it to flow slowly to the sea, thus preventing the damage done by floods. Every person could find time to take the reading of a rain gauge, and by a comparison of results much valuable information might be thus gathered. He would like to see a far greater interest taken in the matter. Not long ago Professor Stokes, one of the secretaries of the Royal Institution, read a remarkable paper on the effect of electrical storms caused by revolving currents of air which passed over distant parts of the earth’s surface possessing extremes of temperature. He (Dr. Hector) thought we might be on the brink of discovering some link between these electrical storms and earthquakes, but to solve this question would necessitate a much more complete equipment in our observatories than we possessed at present. We must take some more accurate means of recording the passage of earthquake shocks, their duration and locality. In the matter of zoological work the past year would be known as the Notorms year. This bird was once supposed to be extinct with the moa, but now it was to be hoped that more specimens would soon be available for their inspection and study. He might mention that Dr. Buller’s new manual of the ‘ Birds of New Zealand” was now through the press. The last sheets had been corrected, and the work would, in a few days, be in the hands of the public. In botanical work the Society had placed on record some very interesting discoveries, most of which had been in relation to the alpine flora of New Zealand. ‘They had now gota very complete collection of live plants from the mountain ranges, specimens of which had been distributed by the Government to the different gardens in the Colony. They had also just received a very complete collection from Stewart Island. The most valu- able series of observations commenced by the late Mr. Ludlam had not been carried out, and no one had yet taken the matter up. These observations were in connection with the budding and fruiting of various kinds of plants. Much valuable information might be obtained in this manner, and might prevent us making mistakes in the introduction of forest and other trees. After some further remarks, Dr. Hector concluded by thanking the members of the Society for the manner in which they had supported him during his term of office as President. An ordinary meeting of the Society was then held for the reading and discussion of several papers, the first of which was by Mr. Victor Falkner, ‘‘On a Fundamental Error in Dynamics, the Theory of Gravitation, and the Nebular Hypothesis.” The paper was illustrated with diagrams and apparatus, but the latter did not work in a satisfactory manner, owing to the insufficient height of the hall. The paper dealt with Newton’s explanation of Kepler’s laws, and that part of the nebular hypothesis that hinges in it. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. Th The writer contended that dynamics was essentially an experi- mental and inductive science, and that little reliance could Be’ placed on the’ results of ‘deduction im it ’He’ argued that such an important problem as that involved in the Newtonian theory should never have been accepted as proved without experimental demonstration. After entering tully upon Newton’s theory and labours, Mr. Falkner stated that the accepted hypotheses assumed that the path of a body propelled in free space by an impulse, or travelling tangentially at uniform velocity, and attracted to a centre with a force varying inversely as the square of its distance from that centre, is an ellipse of which the attracting centre is in one focus (or a similar conic section), and an orbit similar to the planetary and cometary. This assumption he denied, and affirmed that the path of a body subject to an impulse, or its equivalent, moving in free space, and subject to any central force, is such a figure that the attracting point is in its centre, or at the intersection of its axes, The paper was listened to with interest, and after it had been read, Mr. M. Chapman contended that the matter was not one that could be dealt with by experiment, but must be dealt with by mathematical investigation. He could not believe in Mr, Falkner’s results for a single instant. The Chairman expressed a hope that Mr. Falkner would not upset the ‘‘ Nautical Almanack.” It was resolved, owing to the lateness of the hour, that the other papers should be taken as read. They were, ‘“‘ New Cuttle Fish,” by Mr. Kirk; ‘‘ List of Sertularians, collected in Wel- lington,” by Mr. Kirk; ‘“‘Capture of a Californian Salmon,” by Dr. Hector; ‘‘ Fossil Cetaceans,” by Dr. Hector; ‘“‘ New System of Telegraphic Weather Reports,” by Dr. Hector. A number of interesting exhibits were brought under the notice of members. Among them were specimens of New Zealand crows, showing abnormal colouring ; New Zealand sponges, pre- sented by Mr. J. A. Smith, of Napier; specimens of coal from Coal Creek; specimens of quartz from Landon’s Reef, Colling- wood Ranges; Welcome Mine, Reefton; Fiery Cross, and Just in Time Mines, Reefton; and Alpine Mine, Lyell; a certificate of the First Order of Merit awarded at the Melbourne Exhibition to the Colonial Museum for exhibits of flax and hemp; the silver seal for the Colony of New Zealand, defaced by Her Majesty in Council, and presented to the Museum by the Colonial Secretary. Dr. Hector said that some of the sponges would have a very considerable commercial value, as it had been ascertained that sponges could be propagated. SOU LELLAN.D ANSDLLY LE. ANNUAL MEETING, 31st January.—J. T. Thomson, Esq., president, in the chair, The following annual report was read:—During the year 19 new members were elected; the total membership is now 55, and of these one, Mr. George Joachim, is a life member. The Council considered it due to Mr. Joachim to elect him to life-membership for his handsome present of 18 vols. of the ‘Monthly Micro- scopical Journal.” These volumes are very elegantly bound, and 78 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. constitute a valuable addition to the Institute’s library. In accordance with Rule 7, £30 has been voted for new books, and a cabinet of mineralogical and geological specimens During the year six meetings were held, and eight papers read, which were as follow :— 1. “A Source of Water Supply for Invercargill,” by Mr. Cuthbertson. 2. ‘‘ Buddhistic Philosophy,” by the President, Mr. J. 'T. Thomson. 3. ‘‘ Habits of Bees,” by the Rev. J. Paterson. 4. ‘ Formation of Lake Wakatipu,” by Mr. Stuart. 5. ‘On the Conversion and Civilisation of the Maoris,” by the Rev. Mr. Wohlers. 6. ‘* The Importance of Forestry,” by Mr. M‘Arthur. 7. * Co-operation,” by Mr. Cuthbertson. 8. ‘“ Burns,” by Mr. Mehaffey. Considering the youth of this Society, the Council thinks that a fair amount of work has been done. The officers for the current year were then elected. Mr. J.T. Thomson was re-elected President, Mr. W. S. Hamilton was elected Vice-President, the Treasurer (Mr. J.C. Thomson) and Secretary (Mr P. Goyen) werere-elected, and Dr. Galbraith, and Messrs. Denniston, Scardrett, Robertson and Mehaffey were elected members of Council. OTAGO INSTITUTE. 31st January.—The annual meeting was held in the Museum, Dunedin, the President, Mr. Geo. M. Thomson, F.L.S., in the chair. Mr. D. Cosgrove was elected a member. Prof, Parker, the Secretary, read the following report :— ‘‘ During the present session seven meetings have been held, including the present annual meeting. Nine original papers have been read—four on geological, three on botanical, and two on engineering and surveying subjects. At two meetings lectures were delivered—one by Dr. W. Haacke, on ‘ The Development of Medusa’; the other by Mr. R. Jones, on ‘ Electric Lighting.’ - Five new members have joined the Institute during the year, bring- ing up the total number of names on the roll to 223. A deduction will, however, have to be made from this number, as several mem- bers have their subscriptions two years and upwards in arrear, and have therefore, strictly speaking, severed their connection with the Institute. The number of important books purchased during the year has been so considerable as to necessitate a re-arrangement of the library, which is now in progress. The Council desire to emphasise the fact, which seems to be largely lost sight of, that free use of the library is one of the privileges of membership. The receipts for the year, including a balance of £12 8s. from last year, amount to £202 6s. 8d. The expenditure, amounting to £186 2s. sd., includes £68 gs. 6d. for paying off overdraft from the Union Bank of Australia. The usual payment to the Museum has, how- ever, still to be made, and will have to be added to the year’s expenditure. There is at present a clear balance in hand of £15 18s. 3d., besides which the reserve fund in the Post Office Savings Bank now amounts to £159 Ios. 8d.” MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES, 79 The election of office-bearers tor the ensuing session was then held, and resulted as follows:— President, Mr. W. Arthur, C.E. ; Vice Presidents, Messrs Geo. M. Thomson, and Geo. Joa- chim; Hon. Sec., Prof. Parker; Hon. Treas., Mr. D. Petrie, M.A.; Auditor, Mr. D. Brent, M.A.; Council—His Lordship the Bishop of Dunedin, Rev. Thos. Roseby, LL.D., Messrs Montgomery, Blair, and Gillies, Professurs Scott and Brown. Mr. Thomson, the retiring President, then delivered the fol- lowing address :— Among the many questions of interest which offer themselves for solution to the botanist, none possess more fascination than those dealing with the geographical distribution of plants; and if this is so in other parts of the world, it is doubly so in New Zea- land, where the existing conditions are almost unique. The pre- sent distribution of our flora leads up to a wider and far more interesting question, viz., its origin, and the investigation ot this brings under review many collateral subjects, among which may be considered the tormer land connections existing between what is now New Zealand and other parts of the world. The main question cannot be considered alone, but must be taken in conjunction with the origin and distribution of our fauna, and with the great geological changes which have been effected in past times, and which have brought about in our time a distri- bution of land and water very different trom that which existed at the end ot the Secondary or commencement of the Tertiary period. But it would be almost impossible in the limits of a single ad- dress to discuss the subject in all its aspects, and I shall therefore confine myself to a small portion only ot it, stating in the first place what has been written on this topic, and then pointing out some ot the interesting facts which an examination of it reveals. Every naturalist who has visited New Zealand has had his attention drawn to the many remarkable features of its fauna and flora, but Sir Joseph Hooker, Prof. F. W. Hutton, and Mr. Wal- lace are the only writers whose works I am acquainted with who have attempted to solve the problems presented to them. - The first-named botanist, in the introduction to the Flora Nove Zealandiz, has summarised the information at his disposal in a masterly essay, which forms the basis of our knowledge as to the distribution of the flora. But he has not sought to trace the origin of our species, more directly confining himself to their affinities and to their occurrence in other countries, but -not seeking to solve the question as to how they have found their way here. Between the publication of the Fl. Nove Zealandiz (in 1853) and the issue of the Handbook (in 1867) about 200 species of flowering plants were added to the Flora; while up to date about 150 more species have been added, bringing the total up to 1085 species. More close and accurate investigations of many of our local botanists are the means of continually adding to this list. Still the general conclusions arrived atin the Fl. Nov. Zeal. have not been materially altered by recent discoveries. Sir Joseph Hooker was struck by the preponderance of Australian types among those plants which he found to be common both to New Zealand and other countries of the world. Nearly one fourth of these plants were Australian, nearly one. eighth South American, and one-tenth common to both Australia 80 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. and South America. Of the remainder, about one-twelfth were shown to be European, and one-sixteenth Antarctic. When we find similar plants in two widely-separated parts of the globe, we are naturally led to consider how they have reached these distant localities ; and if no satisfactory solution of the question is afforded by an examination of their structural means of dis- persion, we are further tempted to speculate on the former land connections which have existed. The preponderance of Australian vlants in New Zealand is not to be accounted for by proximity alone, as the wide extent of sea which separates the countries forms the most effectual of all barriers to the migration of the majority of plants. Sir J. Hooker points out that no theory of transport of the forms common to the two regions will account for the absence of ‘“ the Eucalypti and other Myrtacee, of the whole immense genus of Acacia, and of its numerous Australian con- geners,” for the absence of Casuarina, Callitris, Dilleniacew, &c., and the rarity of such large Australian orders as Proteacew, Rutacee, and Stylidiee. Nor will any theory of variation account for these facts. And he continues :—‘ Considering that Eucalypti (Myrtacee) form the most prevalent forest feature over the greater part of South and East Australia, rivalled by the Leguminose alone, and that both these Orders (the latter especially) are admirably adapted constitutionally for transport, and that the species are not par- ticularly local or scarce, and grow well wherever sown, the fact of their absence from New Zealand cannot be too strongly pressed on the attention of the botanical geographer, for it is the main cause of the difference between the floras of these two great masses of land being much greater than that between any two equally large continuous ones on the face of the globe.” Read in the light of our accumulated knowledge, the following remark is of interest :—‘* New Zealand, however, does not appear wholly as a satellite of Australia in all the genera common to both, for of several there are but few species in Australia, which hence shares the peculiarities of New Zealand, rather than New Zealand those of Australia.” That is to say, that he saw that those plants which occur both in Australia and New Zealand had not neces- sarily all passed from the former to the latter country, but that in many cases the opposite had occurred. After describing the affinities existing between the plants of New Zealand and those of South America, Europe, and the Antarctic regions respectively, and further pointing out some remarkable Pacific Island peculi- arities in our flora, Hooker concludes by stating that the existing botanical relationships ‘‘ cannot be accounted for by any theory of transport or variation,” but that they are ‘agreeable to the hypothesis of all being members of a once more extensive flora which has been broken up by geological and climatic causes.” Leaving out of account minor speculations on this subject, we may next consider the second writer named, who deals—although indirectly—with the question. Professor Hutton’s theory,* deduced from the distribution of the struthious birds in the Southern Hemisphere, is, that there formerly existed a great ‘“‘ Antarctic continent stretching from *“*On the Geographical Relations of the N,Z. Fauna,” by Capt. F. W. Hutton. N.Z. Inst. frans,, vol. V., p. 227. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 8I Australia through New Zealand to South America, and perhaps on to South Africa. This continent must have sunk, and Australia, New Zealand, South America, and South Africa must have remained isolated from one another long enough to allow of the great differences observable between the birds of each country being brought about. Subsequently New Zealand must have formed part of a smaller continent, not connected either with Australia or South America, over which the moa roamed. ‘This must have been followed by a long insular period, ending in another continent still disconnected from Australia and South America, which continent again sank and New Zealand assumed somewhat of its present form.” It is of course assumed that this former extensive Antarctic continent existed at a date anterior to the first occurrence of mammals either in Australia or South America; and conse- quently that all subsequent immigrants from Australia, or from the islands lying to the north, must have found ‘their way across the intervening expanses of ocean. Prof. Hutton recognises many of the difficulties in the way of this theory, as, for example, the occurrence of grass-birds (Sphenwacus) in both Australia and New Zealand, and the existence of the genus Ocydvomus (woodhens, &c.) in New Zealand, Lord Howe’s Island, and New Caledonia, as the birds of both these genera are almost, or quite, unable to fly. The examination of our fresh-water fish leads him to the conclusions, ‘ either that our connection with Australia was later than with South America, or that in the old continent New Zealand and Australia were inhabited by one, and South America by another species ” of the grayling family. ‘‘ The fresh-water fish also prove that our connection with the Chatham and Auckland Islands was much later than with Australia.” And then he goes on to say:—‘ The distribution of Anguilla lativostris, which is not found nearer than China (and of A. obscura, a closely allied species, which occurs in the Fiji Islands), adds its testimony to that of Lotella and Ditvema (other species named by him), of a former connection with that part of the world not by way of Australia ; and we shall find that this remarkable connection with China and the Indian Archipelago, thus dimly shadowed out by the fishes, gets stronger and stronger as we review the invertebrate animals.” The examination of these lower forms leads to the same general conclusion—a strong relationship, on one hand, with Australia, and a similar, but distinct, relationship with islands and countries to the north. In summarising the facts of the geographical distribution of the fauna, the following results are arrived at by him:—1. “A continental period during which South America, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa were all connected, although it is not necessary that all should have been connected at the same time; but New Zealand must have been isolated from all before the spread of mammals, and from that time to the present it has never been completely submerged. This continent was inhabited by struthious birds,” &c., &c. 2. After a period of subsidence, a second continent came into existence, ‘stretching from New Zealand to Lord Howe’s Island and New Caledonia, and extending for an unknown distance into Polynesia, but certainly not so far as the Sandwich Islands.” And 82 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. while this continent was connected with China, either directly or by a chain of islands, it must have been cut off from the New Hebrides by a strait. 3. ‘Subsidence again followed, and New Zealand was reduced for a long time to a number of islands, upon many of which the moa lived.” This supposition is necessary to account for the number of species of Dinornis which formerly existed, as the birds must have been “isolated from one another for a sufficiently long period to allow of specific changes being brought about.” 4. Elevation ensued, the isolated islands became connected together into one large island, which was not however connected with Polynesia, and over which the various species of moa roamed. And lastly, 5. By a process of subsidence the islands assumed something of their present form. This theory is a most ingenious one, and is well worked out, and had available information been at hand as to the depth of the circumjacent seas, no doubt many of the conclusions arrived at would have been modified. The geological evidences are adduced in support of it, and though the distribution of the flora is not critically gone into, certain remarkable facts of the distribution of genera such as Eucalyptus, Stilbocarpa, Metrosideros, and others are brought forward by way of corroboration. Some four years after the publication of Prof. Hutton’s paper, Mr. A. R. Wallace’s great work on the ‘ Geographical Distri- bution of Animals” came out, in which due consideration is given to the question of the origin of the New Zealand fauna, and to the discussion of Prof. Hutton’s views. Mr. Wallace, in this work, does not agree with the idea that there was a former great antarctic land connection, but believes that there was a great southward extension of land, perhaps considerably beyond the Macquaries, and that this being within the range of floating ice during the colder epochs, and within easy reach of the antarctic continent during the warm periods, there arose “that inter- change of genera and species with South America which forms one of the characteristic features of the natural history of New Zealand.” Prof. Hutton’s theory is primarily based on the distribution of the struthious birds, but Mr. Wallace is of opinion that the ancestral struthious type probably once spread over the larger portion of the globe, and that as higher forms, particularly of the carnivora, became developed, it was exterminated every- where except in those regions where it was free from their attacks, and that in these regions it developed into special forms adapted to surrounding conditions. ‘This conclusion is supported ‘“ and rendered almost certain by the discovery of remains of this order in Europe in Eocene deposits, and by the occurrence of an ostrich among the fossils of the Siwalik Hills.” While considering that no other form of animal inhabiting New Zealand requires a land connection with distant countries to account for its presence, Mr. Wailace concludes, in accordance with principles well established in an earlier part of his work, that the existence is demonstrated of an extensive tract of land in the vicinity of Australia, Polynesia, and the antarctic conti- nent, without having been actually connected with any of these | MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 83 countries since the period when mammalia had peopled all the great continents. Last year the issue of Mr. Wallace’s most interesting work on “ Island Life” added another contribution to our knowledge of the question under discussion, and the three chapters devoted to New Zealand put the problems very clearly before us. ——_ Argyrophenga antipodum— Egg whitish yellow, of a trun- cated barrel shape, and fluted ; attached by the end. Larva, on leaving the egg, whitish-yellow, tapering to its anal segment. Chrysophanus salusttus—About November, caught a female on the common dock (Rumex obtusifolius). She laid a single egg ona dock leaf. In January, last year, I found a female ovipositing on plants of sorrel (Rumex acetosella). The eggs were laid singly on the undersides of the leaves, during bright sunshine. Egg of a delicate light blue, hemispherical, pitted. The pits were hexagonal or pentagonal, and reticulated inside. Nyctemera annulata—Egegs found in November and De- cember, sometimes on the underside of leaves, sometimes on wood or stones. Egg light yellow, shining, hemispherical. When magnified, slight rounded projections are seen on the surface. Laid side by side in groups, from twenty to seventy together. The caterpillar feeds commonly on the introduced groundsel (Seneczo vulgaris), sometimes on a large Erechtites. Its original food may be Senecio lautus, for I have found many very fine specimens on it. Porina variolaris—Egegs small, white, and spherical. [pana leptomera—Caterpillar large, cylindrical, looping in habit. Colour whitish-grey, similar to that of the moth. Found feeding on Rzbes sanguineus (common flowering currant). Chrysalis, reddish-brown, with a point at the tip of the abdomen, enclosed in an oval earthen cocoon. Agrotis suffusa—Egegs laid in January, side by side, in small groups. Egg small, whitish, hemispherical, and fluted. Cater- pillars feed on grass, and were full-grown about March or April. They were a little over an inch in length, of a dark earthy grey, with the dorsal area lighter ; a narrow light dorsal line edged with black; on each side of this a line of black dots; small black lateral tubercles ; spiracles dashed with whitish. Under- side of a bluish leaden colour; hind margin of head. sharply emarginate ; indications of chitinous plates on the second seg- ment. Chrysalis, very light brown, subterranean; it was placed in an oval cavity, but I found no trace of a cocoon. Mecynu polygonatlis—Caterpillar feeds on Sophora tetraptera. In December, I found both eggs and young larve on the under- sides of its leaflets. Eggs, overlapping scales, forming an unbroken whitish mass, Caterpillar, when full grown, about seven-eighths of an inch in length; ground colour a curious olive green, showing as a broad dorsal stripe ; in each segment there are six subdorsal raised patches of a glossy black, three on each side ; in the third and fourth segments the two anterior . a <— REVIEW. 95 patches are divided and touched with white ; in the succeeding segments the patches are further touched with white, and fre- quently ocellated with this colour ; below those groups of black are yellow streaks; lateral stripe white ; a row of black tubercles, bearing hairs, runs along the edge of the underside ; underside greenish ; white hairs on the back; head light brown, with a dark triangular patch, having a white mark at its base; mandibles dark ; ten pro-legs ; cococns formed at the top of their cage, of white silk ; chrysalis, light yellowish brown. Boarmia attracta—A female caught about the end of March laid a number of eggs. Eggs oval, bluish-green, slightly de- pressed, with regular hexagonal reticulations. The larve were brownish red, with a white lateral stripe. I could not find any plant they would eat. Cidaria simtlata—In December a female laid about thirty eggs. Eggs oblong, smooth, green, scattered singly and gene- rally laid on their side. They turn red before hatching. Helastia Sp—Caterpillar looping, green, about two-fifths of an inch long ; an indistinct dorsal and subdorsal stripe of darker green; underside green, with a light ventral stripe; head yellowish. Formed small rough earthen cocoons on the surface of the earth. The food plant is Wyoporum laetum. REVIEW. “A GREAT MATHEMATICAL QUESTION.” By T. Wakelin, B.A. In this little pamphlet there are about 15 pages of matter, and of these about seven consist of extracts from Whewell, Stewart, and others. We have read it through very carefully, and have to confess that we cannot see that the author has made any addition to our knowledge of kinetics. The tract appears to us to have grown out of a want of appreciation on the part of the author of the distinction between momentum, kinetic energy, and work done. Take the following passage as an example of the confusion of work done with energy of motion. Speaking of the work done by raising a ball a certain number of feet, Mr. Wakelin says: “If the ball weighed 10 pounds, and had risen to a height of 800 feet, 8000 foot-pounds of work would have been done in lifting the ball to the height stated. Now, it is found that, if the velocity of the ball had been doubled, it would have risen, not to double, but to four times the height ; and if the velocity had been trebled, it would have risen, not to treble, but to nine times the height, and soon. The work done then by the moving cannon ball will vary, not simply as the velocity, but as the square of the velocity.” It is hardly necessary for us to say that the work done has nothing what- ever to do with the guzckness with which it is done. Work done is simply mass multiplied with height, irrespective altogether of 96 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, rate. Of course, the energy (ze. the capacity to do work) of the cannon ball will vary as the square of the velocity. Further on the author appears to prove that the force of gravity does more work in one unit of time than in another, and then that it does not, and finally sums up thus: “It will be seen therefore that the distance through which a body falls during the time of falling is not a measure of the work of the force of gravity during that time.” Of course not ; and we do not know that this is affirmed by anyone. During the third second, for example, a body falls through 80 feet, and of this only 16 feet is due to the force of gravity acting during that second—a fact well known to all physicists; but how this can mean “that the ordinary measure of the kinetic energy of a mass in motion is erroneous,” we cannot at all see. We presume the aptness of the title of the tract depends entirely upon this. = PGi CORRESPONDENCE. a (To the Editor N.Z, JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.) S1r,—During a visit to Auckland last December, I took the opportunity, by leave of Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, of re-examining the specimen of Voluta kirki (mihi) in the Museum, and came to the conclusion that it was V. flavicans (Gmelin), which is found at New Caledonia, &c. The specimen has been a very long time in the Museum collection, and has seen many changes in curators ; no doubt it has got by accident among the New Zealand shells, and really came from some of the Pacific Islands. The same may, I think, be said with reference to Witra obscura (mihi), Cyprewa punctata, Marginella vittata (mihi), and Raeta perspicua (mihi),all of which are founded on one or two dead speci- mens in the Colonial Museum, from the Bay of Islands. Conus Zealandicus (mihi), in the same collection, and from the same locality, is undoubtedly C. aplustre (Reeve), and I quite agree with Mr. Justice Gillies, that it cannot be considered as a New Zealand shell. I should put in the same category Adamsia typica, Fasctolaria trapezium, Risella melanostoma, Philippia lutea, and Thalotia conica. Great caution should be shown in admitting a species, common in other countries, into our list ; it should only be done when either living specimens have been obtained, or when dead shells have been found in such quanti- ties, and in such various places, as to exclude the possibility of their having been dropped. I myself, in company with Mr. C. Traile, once found on the beach at Maketu a specimen of JZztra episcopalis, but neither of us supposed that it was a New Zealand shell.—I am, &c., F. W. HUTTON, Christchurch, 16th February, 1882. J . | t 7 : j ! ue NEW & IN BXCELLENT C ORDER, Hee CONSISTING Oi iy heed "Price | "£65. PN st here £80). ie in Dla case, Hee eae ak Price” - a. f Lh 4 A sac, fill Faaey aud and two i Canlaon Lenses, Bis | is ue : an Resid ara re i Ta eye | . ei * + LA ‘ t f a? > Y care TYR j ‘rp ro , ~ ve me i wae ; cae Le 4 cei) ih ee Ww ‘ vy * / : ‘ ‘ Te x Mg y % 1 es y 2 ( , f } i y 7 , e 4 us i van yeas ; el Pe hee : Meh absent wey ers 18 Ny APPLY, A Bay $$$ =: J. WILKIE & CO. Booksellers and Stationers DUNEDIN. - nt a SBP ro vn» en et [Vol. I., No. 3 THE NEW ZEALAND _ DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY. Peele del oil ie ae hel LT : Sudicio perpende : et st tibt vera videntur “Le eee Dede manus : aut si falsum est, adcingere contra. Cel leh a lab Pda Tl bal Tah Des tld Te CONTENTS : FBlolsey i in our Arts Curriculum. Prof. F. W. Hutton ne Beal Gates ae ‘oe i . “Recent Researches on the Cilio-Flagellata, Prof. T. J. PARKER Ae igi ty SS) 93) Bs. -lurality of Cotyledons in the Genus Persoonia. Baron F. von MUELLER, F.R.S., ae 115 New Zealand Copepoda of the ‘‘ Challenger” Expedition (Abstract) —... Leap Tay pA Trip ioe eke Hauroto Mr ROBRRT PAULING ik 8 eh le ce kee FIG ” General Notes—... Seed ha Couse pages Cikee aa obs Ca ROLE Adenochilus Gide —Hughrasia Repens—Change of Nomen dishard of N.Z Beetles—Notes oe on N.Z, Ferns—Flowers and FolkeLore—Publications received—Errata, C arles Darwin... cil Tee re a Sovmats pan af i ie: ew Zealand Micro-Lepidoptera (Abstract) seat ot Sea eres sth MER OWS, axl Nt wa BI w Zealand University Science Examinations acy ae Seeb hiteve a Yak NS orrespondence rage eee eee e . s eee eee 142 ; Some Fossil Plants—“ A ews MathuniGesl Question aN EW Zea’a and Ferns, c MJ etings of Societies— ove oe geo. ace eee see 143 Otago Institute and Dunedin Naturalists? Field Club—Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, | _ PRICE, 2s.; ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, 10s. Dunedin, TA, Re : $; WILKIE & Co., PUBLISHERS, PRINCES STREET. RR ta StS me 6 a ea _ ¥ ae Shed ap tne } P08 Re ad rea whe a we Cpete ip awa Subscribers to the N. Z. Fournal of Science are respect- fully requested to forward their Subscriptions for the current. _. year to Messrs. J. Wilkie & Co. ‘ ites . e ‘ vers ® =? * yt o , ‘ " -yoqear EE sawiraee ine etn as i , « pe 1 - &. due aantods 4a3t ocihit ee aca adatana bs i Wh ee ea ae ae eee at r 1 xd Bo * A Sey ea Sr Ve = ag e a . “ a = is fs ; ‘ \ ‘ ee 4 Ww o rs . ? i - qt m “Wy - - = A yl « a ‘ ‘ ’ ce MIi\7- Ui a =| 7S fit \ xe nee Be ae Sxetcu Map oF ‘ = LAKE HAUROTO se ne See Ha [astraitive of trip to SW Lake Dist by fait Deuilin Tin 1662 AZ MES Seale 8 miles—Ilinch. 7a Pacrete Ocean PACIFIC Nore Bush line terminates about 8200 above Sea Level W.T Pereivak Lith. Vol. I., No. 3, MAY, 1882. ] BIOLOGY IN OUR ARTS CURRICULUM.* es BY -b. W. HLULTON, PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY. ——$—$—_ +> —__——. Undoubtedly we live in an age of educational unrest. From all sides we hear conflicting opinions as to how much, or how little, of the knowledge acquired during the last century should find a place in the general education of to-day, and as to how far a student’s acquaintance with that knowledge can be ascer- tained and appraised by examination. I am very far indeed from thinking that this unrest is a misfortune ; on the contrary, Meclieve it to be a great benefit. Harmony, unfortunately, always implies stagnation, conflict is necessary for progress; and I have no doubt but that in the struggle for existence between these conflicting opinions, those best adapted to the aC circumstances will survive. In the discussion, the place of biology in education ha received a considerable amount of attention from both the theoretical and practical sides. Its value as a mental discipline, when properly taught, was fully demonstrated by Professor Parker in his admirable address last year to the Otago Uni- versity, and the practical value of biology to agriculture and to medicine has been explained by Professor Huxley in lectures, and in his address to the International Medical Congress held in London last August. I cannot, of course, hope to add any- thing to your knowledge of the subject from these points of view, but there is another aspect of biology which, so far as I know, has not yet been brought into the discussion, and which, consequently, I have thought may interest you for an hour this evening—lI allude to the practical value of biology in an Arts curriculum. I shall endeavour to explain to you the importance of this study in politics and in ethics; and I shall do so by demonstrating the constant action in all human affairs of the principle of selection, which, as you know, is one of the leading principles of biology. The enunciation of the principle of selection is simple. It is that, among two or more competing individuals the worst adapted to the circumstances will be the first to succumb. This, you will say, sounds like a truism—and no doubt it is a truism,— but, combined with the laws of inheritance and variation, it _ brings about most important results. Now, it is necessary at the * The opening address for 1882 at the Canterbury College, University of New Zealand, 98 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. outset to get a clear idea of what selection can do, and what it cannot do; for this is a point very commonly misunderstood, and incorrect ideas on the subject have made some people reject the principle altogether. If there are a number of competing individuals, differing slightly from each other, and No compound of this earthly ball Is like another all in all,* then the principle of selection will determine which of those individuals shall live to propagate its kind, and which shall die out. But selection has no power if the individuals are not com- peting, and it is in no way concerned with the origin of the differences ; the differences must be there before selection can act. Those individuals which are best adapted to the circum- stances will survive, and, by the law of inheritance, the chances are in favour of the offspring inheriting the difference that caused their parents to survive. If we take a sufficiently large number of cases, the probability of inheriting this differ- ence becomes a certainty. If now these offspring again differ among themselves in the same way that their parents differed, selection will again pick out those in which the difference—or variation, as it is usually called—is most favourable ; and these selected individuals will, in their turn, hand the variation down to their offspring in a better form than they originally received it. Selection, therefore, in combination with inheritance and variation, is cumulative in its action; but it is important to notice that it is cumulative only by selecting the best varieties of each generation; it is inno way a cause of the variations themselves. An illustration will perhaps make my meaning clearer. Take the evolution of the eye. Suppose that in a number of eyeless animals the nerve of some portion of the skin of one individual was slightly sensitive to light, and thus, being able to distinguish day from night, it had an advantage over other indi- viduals in escaping its enemies. This individual will be one of those that survive on the principle of selection, and in the next generation there will be, by the law of inheritance, several indi- viduals endowed with the same power of distinguishing day frem night. These, in their turn, will survive, and at. last all tke individuals of the species will have the same faculty. This will be the result of selection, but selection did not make the nerve of the first individual sensitive to light, and it is powerless to improve the nerves of the offspring ; what it can do is to bring all the individuals up to the level of the best. If, however, an improved variety appears, the improvement is at once made permanent, and diffused through the species by the action of selection; but selection itself, I repeat, cannot originate nor improve. How variations arise we are profoundly ignorant. To sup- * Tennyson, BIOLOGY IN OUR ARTS CURRICULUM. 99 pose, with the late G. H. Lewes and Dr. Roux, that there is an intercellular struggle going on in the tissues, and consequently an intercellular selection that causes variations in the organs, is merely to shift the difficulty one step backward, and by no means to explain the cause of the variations. To say, as some do, that variations arise by chance, is only another way of saying we cannot explain them. To say that no two individuals, or no two cells, are exposed to exactly the same conditions, and that, therefore, variations must arise—or, in other words, that all variations are caused directly by external conditions—is to draw an inference for which there is no proof, and one that is appa- rently contradicted by a large array of facts of different kinds. No doubt external agencies have some direct effect in producing individual variation, but it is doubtful whether these variations are ever transmitted, and in almost every case it is impossible to feel sure that a variation supposed to be due to direct external action is not in reality due to selection. It would be more than rash, it would be foolish, to assert that we can never know more than we do now on the subject, but we may safely say that at present we know next to nothing. When we try to investigate the cause, or causes, of variability, we are confronted with nothing but difficulties, and we have no firm ground from whence to meet them. But starting from the ascertained fact, that numberless variations are constantly arising, we can explain by the principle of selection how these variations accumulate in different directions, until in time the most diverse organisms are produced. It is well known that in countries like Europe, long settled by civilised man, the total number of individual animals remains about the same, although many are born each year. Evidently this is due to the fact that the district is only capable of fur- » nishing food for a certain number, and when that number is reached no further increase can take place. It follows frcm this, that in each year as many individuals must die as are born; and as most animals and plants produce annually more than two young, it also follows that during each year the number of individuals that must perish is greater than the number that can survive. As therefore the supply of food is limited, there must always be, between all animals and plants, a severe competition for existence, a struggle to survive at the expense of neighbours. The individuals that die will usually be those that are least adapted for living—either for procuring food, or for escaping enemies. Useful variations will tend to increase, and succeeding generations will diverge more and more from the original stock. This is due to what is called natural selection. But there is another mode of selection which also causes each succeeding generation to diverge more and more from the original stock. This is best seen in the artificial selection by man of the plants and animals he has domesticated. Artificial selection may be either methodical, as when a man endeavours, by breeding from chosen individuals, to modify a breed 100 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. according to some predetermined standard; or it may be unconscious, as when the owner of a flock simply kills off the: worst or wildest individuals without any thought of altering the breed. Unconscious artificial selection is not confined to human actions, but is also found among plants and animals. The difference between natural and artificial selection must be clearly comprehended, for, as we shall see, both are important factors in the study of politics. Natural selection is a selection taking place, as it were, by and among the individuals themselves ; it is an internal principle, and may be called zztrinsic selection. Artificial selection, on the other hand, is an arbitrary selection from outside, and may be called ertrinsic selection. The great variety we find among wild flowers is due to both forms of selection combined—the intrinsic selection among the plants themselves, and the unconscious extrinsic selection of the insects that fertilise them. In garden flowers we see -the result of methodical extrinsic selection by man. Another point, very important for you to notice, is that the principle of selection does not necessarily lead to improvement. If we consider a limited district, such as an island, it is plain that in course of time, if the conditions of life remain constant, an almost exact equilibrium between the different plants and animals inhabiting it will be attained. The principle of natural selection, always acting in the direction of perfect mutual adap- tation, will in time bring it about; and then, as no further modifications would be beneficial, none will be preserved—the organisms will remain stationary. But this stationary character, you must observe, only obtains while the conditions of life remain the same; if any change takes place, the adaptations can no longer be perfect, and further modifications will be bene- ' ficial. If the change is such that the conditions of life become ‘harder, then the organisms must become more specialised ; they must, as we call it, progress. But if, on the other hand, the change is such that the conditions of life become easier, the effect will be just the opposite—the organs will become more generalised, and the organisms will degenerate. I will illustrate this by an example. Suppose an island to be inhabited by hares, which are preyed upon by sheep-dogs, and that an equi- librium in speed has been arrived at by which both main- tain their relative numbers. If now greyhounds are intreduced it is evident that the conditions of life with regard to the hares will be harder, and as only the fleetest will escape, all the hares on the island, in the course of some generations, will become fleeter—that is, more specialised. But suppose that, instead of greyhounds having been introduced, all the sheep-dogs were removed, so that there were no dogs at all on the island, it is evident that the conditions of life would now: be easier; the fleet would have no advantage over the slow, and the whole race would, to some extent, lose their special characteristic of swift- ness—they would degenerate. Under different circumstances, sometimes physical structure, BIOLOGY IN OUR: ARTS CURRICULUM. IO! sometimes mental characteristics, may have the greater import- ance. Sometimes the cunning of the fox, sometimes the speed of the antelope may be more advantageous. Among animals physical structure is usually of more importance than superior mental powers, but in human societies mental capacity gets more and more powerful as civilisation advances ; and we must there- fore be prepared, when passing from the lower animals to man, to find the principle of selection considerably modified. The principle remains the same, and its action remains the same, but with man it acts chiefly in another sphere—the sphere of mind. An additional complication also arises. Among the lower ani- mals selection only acts through utility, that is through those conditions which tend to the physical well-being of the individual. But man is essentially gregarious, held together by the bond of sympathy ; sympathy is as necessary to him as utility, and con- sequently selection will act as powerfully through the one agent as through the other. By the action of selection through utility intelligence has been raised into intellect ; by the action of selec- tion through sympathy with our tellowmen, the moral sense has been developed, and ethical systems formed ; through our sympathy with nature imagination has given birth to art ; and our zesthetic faculties have been evolved by selection through the necessity for amusement, caused by the restless activity of the brain. Let me explain very briefly how the more important of these things have come about. Either from transmission, or from early association, every man has a number of opinions common to the nation and to the class in life to which he belongs, which he may call his inherited opinions; but as his reasoning powers develop, these opinions are subject to variation. The variations may be owing to origi- nal ideas arising in his mind we know not how, like the varia- tions of structure in animals ;* or they may be due to education, that is, to coming into contact with other minds, either person- ally or through books; and it must be noticed that, unlike struc- tural variations, these mental variations may be produced at any time in a man’s life, and may or may not remain constant. Physical transmission is not necessary ; mental transmission from mind to mind diffuses a variation rapidly through all the © individuals, and consequently it is not necessary for the action of selection that the originator of an improved mental variation should have any bodily offspring. When mental variations compete with one another selection constantly acts on them through the agency either of utility or of sympathy. When some member of a tribe, who was more in- genious than the rest, invented or improved a weapon or a snare, he would be imitated by the whole tribe. The tribe that con- tained the most ingenious men would have. better means of obtaining food, and of defending itself; it would therefore in- * The analogy between the origin of ideas and the origin of variations in struc- ture is remarkable, aud well worth investigating. 102 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, crease more rapidly than others, and the intellectual faculties of the dominant tribes would gradually improve by competition. The love of praise, and the dread of blame, would be developed by the power of sympathy. The members of a tribe would unite in praising conduct which seemed to be lucky or for the general good, and in blaming that which seemed to be unlucky or evil.* A man who sacrificed himself for the good of his tribe would excite by his example the wish for glory in others, and glory would in time ripen into the idea of duty. With expanding intellect, and greater experience, other and higher virtues, such as temperance and veracity, would become esteemed, and by the action of selection they would be more and more practised ; and so the moral faculties would also gradually improve. The principle of selection, we must remember, is everywhere present ; we cannot escape from its action. Just as each par- ticle of matter is constantly under the sway of gravitation, so each thought, as soon as it has left the brain of the thinker, comes under the sway of selection. Fortunately most thoughts are smothered at once; but a few, which are adapted to the sur- roundings, spread far and wide, become dominant, and bend the variable minds of men to them. The opinions that spread must be adapted to the spirit of the times, but it does not follow that they are necessarily progressive ; it is unhappily true that retro- gressive opinions have frequently become dominant; but in the long run, if competition continue and sufficient time be allowed, we may expect that progressive opinions will prevail. Carlyle truly remarks that “everything goes by wager of battle in this world ; strength, well understood, is the measure of all worth. Give a thing time ; if it can succeed it is a right thing.” In politics we have the principle of selection personified in the government which selects one set of opinions and makes it rule over the others; and this gives us the key of the science of history. I will explain. Montesquieu divides all governments into (1) Republics, in which the whole ora part of the people have the supreme power; (2) Monarchies, in which a_ single person governs by fixed and established laws; and (3) Despotisms, in which a single person directs everything according to his own will and caprice. This classification is crude, but it will serve my present purpose. In a democratic republic, with a free press and universal sufferage, we have the type of govern- ment by intrinsic selection; everyone may freely express his opinion, and that set of opinions which can secure the greatest number of adherents wins the day. In an hereditary despotism, where, owing to accident of birth, one individual has power to force his private opinions on the rest of the nation, we have the type of government by extrinsic selection. Between the two are many intermediate forms—the aristocratic republic, the limited monarchy, the absolute monarchy, and the elective des- potism, in numberless variety. Now we learn from biology that * Darwin, BIOLOGY IN OUR ARTS CURRICULUM. 103 two things are necessary for securing the continued existence of a group of animals; one is strength to resist enemies, the other flexibility of organisation, the power of adaptation to changing circumstances. [use the word strength in a wide sehse; there is strength in isolation, as well as in combination, and there is strength in insignificance. Ifa tribe of lions were to invade a country the mice would not suffer much, but the deer and oxen might be exterminated. But strength alone is not sufficient, flexibility of organisation is perhaps even more important. If, when the conditions of existence are changing, a group of ani- mals has an organisation so inflexible as to be incapable of vari- ation—and animals are very differently constituted in this respect —it will necessarily be supplanted by some other group of a more yielding nature; and the same holds true with nations, but here the changes in the conditions of existence are toa large extent mental. If mere strength were all that was required for the preservation of a nation, then autocratic government would be the best, for government by discussion is not favourable for conducting war; but strength alone will not suffice, a flexible organisation, as Burke taught long ago, is equally necessary for duration of life. How then is a nation to secure a flexible constitution ? Evidently by adopting some form of government by intrinsic selection, which can respond readily to any change in national feeling. A despot, no matter how benevolent his intentions may be, has no sufficient means of finding out the wishes of the people over whom he rules, for how could he “ expose himself to feel what wretches feel?” * and if he could ascertain their wishes he would have great difficulty in carrying them into effect, as he must always rule through an army, which might not like the changes. Unless intrinsic selection is thoroughly carried out, there must always be the danger of the governing body mis- understanding the desires of the majority. In Sir G. C. Lewis’ “Dialogue on the best form of government,’ Aristocraticus is made to say: “ The Corn Laws were part of a policy which was established on patriotic grounds, and which was at one time sincerely believed, even by enlightened men, to be beneficial to the entire community.” Democraticus ought to have answered : “ In this case, as in many others, the ‘ignorant many’ have proved wiser than the ‘enlightened few.*” Despotism may succeed very well for a time, and is indeed indispensable in the earlier and more warlike stages of human society ; but when the condi- tions of existence change, all despotisms, being unable to accommodate themselves to the changes, must sooner or later succumb, either to internal or external pressure: they will pass away, and will be known only as political fossils of strange and uncouth form. And what is true of nations is true of all human institutions and organisations—a flexible constitution is necessary for continued existence. * King Lear, TO4 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Man must always have been a social animal, and his most powerful desires in early times would be the preservation of the common property of the tribe, and the spoliation of neighbouring tribes. To accomplish this the members of a tribe must work together ; obedience is of the highest value, quarrelsome tribes could not cohere, every individual must work for the same end ; the tribe is an army, and a chief would be naturally selected by consent of the majority. No division of power could be allowed, the chief must not have one opinion, the priest another; the priest and the chief must be one.* In time the desire for private property would arise; this would produce custom within the tribe, custom would develop into law, and this again would give rise to the desire for individual liberty of action. But while it was war a /’outrance this desire must be suppressed on pain of extermination, for liberty of action is not compatible with military superiority. Under these circumstances a despotism is the best form of government ; variations in opinion are dangerous, and must be stamped out. The main virtues are courage, strength, and obedience; but these would nourish the moral qualities of truthfulness, mercy, and self-denial. As the desire for accumulating wealth grew stronger the rising spirit of industry, and consequent increasing dislike to a military life, would favour the formation of a standing army for the main- tenance of the power of the despot, and the tribe, now swollen to a nation, would become locked in an inflexible rule. But in certain favoured places, where tribes are isolated, and consequently where protection against other tribes was not of such paramount importance, the desire for personal liberty would increase more rapidly, despotism would be more enfeebled, or perhaps would never arise, and the government would be carried on by discussion. These naturally protected districts might be backward in the art of war, but they would contain the germs of a principle destined to overthrow despotism, and ensure the progress of mankind. Nations inhabiting rich, warm countries, which produced abundance of food, would be envied by their neighbours, and consequently they could never afford to give up despotism ; for if they did so they would certainly be conquered . by foreign nations whose customs they abhorred. But nations living in the bleak north, on land of which no one wished to deprive them, would develop government by discussion ; the struggle for life against unkindly nature would strengthen the body, and government by discussion would invigorate the intellect. In warmer climes man gets physically and mentally enervated, and living under a despotism he becomes intellectually listless. So the northern nations would be constantly breaking in upon the southern nations, sometimes even conquering them, changing perhaps under the new conditions to despotisms, and then themselves degenerating. On the other hand the better organisation for war given by despotism, and the greater popu- * Bagehot. BIOLOGY IN OUR ARTS CURRICULUM. 105 lation of the rich countries, might sometimes enable the southern nations to over-run for a time the northern ones; and so numerous complications would arise, not by chance, but by the operation of divine laws. It follows from these considerations that by the principle of selection an isolated nation will develop governmentby discussion ; but if, either by the approach of other nations, or by improve- ments in the means of communication, the isolation should cease, the nation will either become itself a despotism, or it will be conquered by a despotism. In all despotisms extrinsic selection will check or destroy variation ; and just as an animal with an unyielding organisation remains unprogressive, and always liable to extinction when the conditions of existence change, so a despotic state may advance toa certain point, and must then remain stationary; while a nation with representative govern- ment will be highly variable, and will continue to progress if it remains unconquered. Such is an outline of the theory of history as deduced from the principle of selection. Turgot was, perhaps, the first to demonstrate that history is nota series ‘of cycles, but a single continuous progression ; and if Hume had known the principle of selection he would, I think, have founded a science of politics ; history would have been clear to him instead of, to use his own expression, “an inscrutable enigma.” But it is to the late Mr. Walter Bagehot that we owe the enunciation of the fertile principle, that discussion is to ideas what the struggle for existence is to corporeal entities, and that the best ideas are naturally selected under a government by discussion: you will find it ably developed in his “ Physics and Politics.’* It is not my place to apply this theory to the facts of history. I merely bring it forward to show you how politics and political history can be explained by the principle of selection. No doubt the evolution of society by means of this principle has always been going on, but it has been going on unconsciously ; we are now conscious of it, and hope, by the introduction of methodical intrinsic selection, hitherto unknown, to direct its movements. We stand at the turning point of a long series of ages; for just as man is dis- tinguished from the lower animals by the possession of self- consciousness, so are the times before us to be distinguished from the times gone past. A new light has fallen upon us, and that light has come from the study of biology. “I question,” says Professor Jevons, “whether any scientific works which have appeared since the ‘ Principia’ of Newton, are comparable in importance with those of Darwin and Spencer, revolutionising as they do all our views of the origin of bodily, mental, moral, and social phenomena.” And Mr. Leslie Stephens also says, “ Mr. Darwin’s observations upon breeds of pigeons have had a reaction upon the structure of European society.”’{ As the atomic theory * International Scientific Series, Vol. II. + ‘* Principles of Science.” ~ ‘* History of English thought in the Eighteenth Century.”’ 106 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. could never have been arrived at by a study of the complicated: organic molecule, neither could a knowledge of the principle of selection have been arrived at by a study of the complicated phenomena of sociology ; it was in biology alone that it could be detected, and it is to biology that we must turn for the proofs of its power. But there is another theory of history which I must not pass over, as it also is supposed to be founded on biological data. The curious analogy that undoubtedly exists between a state, or social organism, as it has been called, and an animal, or indivi- dual organism, has been commented on by many writers ever since the days of Plato and Aristotle. The tissues of which an animal is built up are composed of cells, or units of organisation; and these units of organisation are supposed to represent the individuals which compose the state or nation. As the cells constantly die and are replaced, so do the individual human beings, while the nation lives on. A nation exhibits the pheno- mena of growth, structure, and function, like those of an individual body,* and in development both pass through changes which are not permanent. The governing or controlling power is supposed to represent the nervous system; the trading or distributing body to represent the vascular system, and so on. On the strength of this analogy many inferences have been drawn. The heart has been likened to the metropolis, and an overgrown metropolis is therefore said to be a disease. Because all parts of the body obey the mandates of the brain, imperialism, or at any rate centralization, has been advocated as the best form of government. As individuals have a limited period of existence, so also must it be with nations. This is the leading idea of Vico’s “Scienza Nuova,” and we see it again in Lord Macaulay’s celebrated New Zealander sitting on the ruins of London bridge. But the analogy is incomplete and misleading. Human beings are not so different from one another as are the various cells of which one of the higher animals is built up, and nothing can make them so different. In these animals each cell can only play its own part ; but we know from experience that in a state a mancan pass from a working member to be a controlling member, and often acts as efficiently as if he had always been a controlling member. Sancho Panza truly says, “ As to governing well, the main point, in my mind, is to make a good beginning ; and that being done, who knows but that by the time I have been fifteen days a governor, my fingers may get so nimble in the office that they will tickle it off better than the drudgery I was bred to in the field.” Indeed, it would not be difficult to find in this analogy as many discrepancies as likenesses. What, for instance, in the organisation of an animal answers to the professions of theology, medicine, or law? What to prisons and reformatories ? How is it that in the individual, * Herbert Spencer. BIOLOGY IN OUR ARTS CURRICULUM. 107 one cell does not try to usurp the functions of another cell? How is it that one organ is never of opinion that another organ has too much power? How is it that one cell does not loaf on the industry of others, but each does its own work honestly? It is of no use to say that the social organism is young, and that all these things will disappear in time, because then we should have to compare the social organism of to-day with an individual lower in the scale than any now existing, and all the beautiful analogies of nerves and vessels would disappear. The fallacy of the analogy, as a guide to political science, is indeed so apparent when we compare a highly differentiated nation like India with the much less differentiated one of the United States of America, that Iam surprised it should have been adopted by the writer of an article on the “Science of History” in the Westminster Review for January of last year. This writer proceeds to investi- gate what he calls the “physiology of history” under numerous heads, in which he thinks he has dissected and examined a “social organism” as a biologist would dissect and examine an animal; but, in my opinion, he has only given new names to old things, and has not advanced science much. The term “social organism” is not, I think, a happy one, because it is misleading. What is meant to be understood by this term is not so much a single organism as a number of groups of organisms, each group occupying a separate locality, -and differing from one of the organs that make up an individual, in that it is more or less self-supporting, and capable of forming a new “social organism.” The social groups, or communities, as I should prefer to call them, more nearly resemble what we call species ; while the nation, which may consist of one or more communities, might represent the political genus, and might include extinct as well as existing communities. For example, the various communities of England in the fifteenth century may be said to be extinct, and to be represented by the communities of England, the United States, and the Colonies at the present day. It is the business of the science of history to explain why those communities became extinct, and how the present ones were developed ; and asa help towards a scientific solution of the problem, I may point out that the action of selection on each individual, through his external physical surroundings, is the chief determinant of the character of the community, whether, for instance, it shall be commercial, agricultural, pastoral, or manufacturing, as was dimly seen by Montesquieu and Buckle. The action of selection on society at large determines the course of politics and the spread of religious opinions. National character is due to-both, together with the inherited effects of selection on former generations. But you may say, some of the best historians have denied the possibility of a science of history. That is true, but those historians have not studied biology, and without a knowledge of biology it is impossible to construct a science of history. Let us examine these objections. Mr. Freeman says that there can 108 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. be no science of history because we cannot be sure of our data. No doubt the evidence on which history rests is often confused and contradictory, and has sometimes been intentionally falsified, but the main facts are certain enough. And are not the facts often confused and contradictory in natural science? Have we not even falsifications in nature? The resemblance of a whale to a fish deceived even the great Linnzus, and the resemblance of the eye of the cuttle-fish to that of a vertebrate has misled later naturalists. The inversion of strata has often misled geologists, and all the phenomena of mimetic resemblances are in a sense falsifications. Intentional deception may be more difficult to detect, but ifit had not been possible to detect forgeries we should not know that any had been committed. That the science of history is difficult will be allowed, but that does not make it impossible. Mr. Froude believes that there can be no science of history, because human beings have free-will. He says, “When natural causes are liable to be set asideand neutralised by what is called volition, the word science is out of place.” But in all sciences one cause may be neutralised by another, and volition is, as we have seen, the cause of mental variations, without which selection could not act. A science of history can exist without a know- ledge of the origin of ideas, although, of course, without that knowledge it would be incomplete. This, indeed, was pointed out by Kant a hundred years ago, although he could not explain it. ‘“ Whatsoever difference,” he says, “there may be in our notions of freedom of the will, metaphysically considered, it is evident that the manifestations of that will, viz., human actions, are as much under the control of universal laws of nature as any other physical phenomena.’* We might as well say that there can be no science of biology, because structural variation obeys no known law. No doubt it makes prediction very difficult, or even impossible, except in a general way, but it does not follow that there is no science of biology. The idea that the power of prediction is essential to a science was originated by Compte, as a corollary from the Positive Philosophy, and it has been widely accepted by unscientific men without much consideration. But if this be taken as a test, science will be reduced to those por- tions of astronomy and physics which are capable of being treated deductively by mathematical analysis. The astronomer cannot predict the appearance of comets; the physicist cannot predict the rate of expansion by heat of an untried substance ; the chemist cannot predict the properties of a new compound ; the geologist cannot predict the future physical geography of the earth ; but, as Mr. J. S. Mill says, “ We must remember that a degree of knowledge far short of the power of prediction is often of much practical value. There may be great power of influencing phenomena with a very imperfect knowledge of the causes by which they are in any given instance determined. It * 66 Idea of Universal History,” translated by De Quincey. BIOLOGY IN OUR ARTS CURRICULUM. 109 is enough that we know that certain means have a tendency to produce a certain effect, and that others have a tendency to frustrate it.’* If this is the amount of knowledge required to form a science, then certainly there is a science of history. Much as I admire Professor Jevons’ “ Principles of Science,” I must object to this one sentence—“ A science of history, in the true sense of the term, is an absurd notion.” I object to it because by many people it will be taken to imply that a science of history isimpossible. Such, however, is not, I think, the meaning of Professor Jevons, because he continues as follows :—‘ A nation is not a mere sum of individuals whom we can treat by the method of averages; it is an organic whole, held together by ties of infinite complexity. Each individual acts and reacts upon his own smaller or greater circle of friends ; and those who acquire a public position exert an influence on much larger sections of the nation. There will always be a few great leaders of exceptional genius or opportunities, the unaccountable phases of whose opinions and inclinations sway the whole body, even when they are least aware of it. From time to time arise critical positions, battles, delicate negotiations, internal disturbances, in which the slightest incidents may profoundly change the course of history. A rainy day may hinder a forced march, and change _the course of a campaign; a few injudicious words in a dispatch may irritate the national pride; the accidental discharge of a gun may precipitate a collision, the effects of which may last for centuries. It is said that the history of Europe at one moment depended upon the question whether the look-out man on Nelson’s vessel would or would not descry a ship of Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt which was passing not far off. In human affairs then, the smallest effects may produce the greatest results; and in such circumstances the real application of scientific methods is out of the question.” I have given this long quotation because I wish you to have the case fairly put before you. From it I gather that Professor Jevons’ words are directed against the application to history of the doctrine of averages as advocated by Buckle, and he means, I think, that human affairs are too complicated to allow of results being often predicted ; but this, as I have already said, is very different fron denying the possibility of a science of history. If I throw a glass bottle on the ground, I can safely predict that it will be broken ; but, notwithstanding the perfec- tion of the science of mechanics, no man can predict into how many pieces it will be broken. And the same with history: we may safely predict that the Turk will not rule long in Europe, although it is impossible to predict in detail the events which will turn him out. Asa case of a verified prediction in history, I may remind you that at the commencement of the campaign of 1806 between France and Prussia, Jomini predicted that a decisive battle would be fought in the neighbourhood of Jena, * «System of Logic,” 110 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, and he was right. No biologist would deny that great results may proceed from small causes ; but all would certainly object to the deduction that therefore “a science of biology in the true sense of the term is an absurd notion.” This discussion is, I hope, sufficient to show that although the science of history is exceedingly difficult and complicated, it differs only in degree, not in kind, from the other inductive sciences. You ask why I am so interested in a science of history? What have I to do with it? I answer : History isa part of sociology, and sociology is but a branch of biology. It is the natural history of man, and must be approached through the study of biology. That sociology is dependent on biology was first definitely suggested by Auguste Compte, but he wrote before the principal laws of biology had been discovered ; he thought that the idea of continuous progress was peculiar to sociology, and consequently he failed to see the true connection between the two. It is to Mr Herbert Spencer that we are indebted for making this connection clear. He has shown that a preliminary study of biology is essential to the student of sociology, “ partly as familiarizing the mind with the cardinal ideas of continuity, complexity, and contingency of causation in clearer and more various ways than do other concrete sciences, and partly as familiarising the mind with the cardinal idea of fructifying causa- . tion (2.2. cumulative action), which the other concrete sciences do not present at all,’* but which is common to biology and sociology. He points out that “the human being is at once the terminal problem of biology and the initial factor of sociology.” As man is modifiable by surrounding conditions, it is necessary that the sociologist should acquaint himself with the laws of modification to which organised beings in general conform ; and he concludes by saying that “the effect to be looked for from the study of biology is that of giving strength and clearness to convictions otherwise feeble and vague.’ It might be thought that a knowledge of the principles of biology, unaccompanied by a knowledge of the facts upon which these principles rest, is sufficient for the student of sociology ; but this would be a great error. The principle of selection, although capable of being very simply stated, is in its action extremely complicated ; yet a thorough knowledge of it is essential to the historian as a guide to the kind of facts which are to be looked for, and as a means of estimating the relative importance of each. Without a firm conviction of the truth of the principle you are applying you will hardly surmount the difficulties that lie in your way, and you will perhaps abandon your problem in despair, doubting the possibility of a solution. This knowledge can only be got in one way—that is, by going through a practical course of biology. If you trust to book knowledge alone you will falter at every step. You must ob- serve for yourself in order to understand the difficulty of ob- * “Study of Sociology,” International Scientific Series, Vol. V. RESEARCHES ON THE CILIO-FLAGELLATA, ELE serving accurately, and the still greater difficulty of interpreting correctly your observations when made. You may depend upon it, that, without a personal knowledge at first hand of facts, you can never weigh the value of evidence ; you can never tell whether a statement may be relied on, or whether it is founded on doubtful or insufficient observations ; you can never feel sure that the argument for or against a theory is not special pleading—that is, whether adverse evidence has not been sup- pressed. But if you begin by obtaining a broad basis of facts from personal observation, you will readily acquire a complete grasp of principles, and you will then be able to take them out of their own immediate subject and apply them with success to the higher study of sociology. Sosure am I of this that I feel confident the day is not far distant when a knowledge of the principle of selection will be considered indispensable for the historian, the statesman, the theologian, and the journalist—for all indeed who aspire to guide their fellow men; and biology will then take its place as a necessary part in every curriculum of Arts. RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE CILIO- PREAGEELATSA. ee es BY, EROL.. Ce [EP ERRY PARKER. — OS This interesting group of Infusoria has lately received the attention of a Danish zoologist, Mr. R. S. Bergh, who publishes an elaborate monograph on the subject in the last number of Gegenbaur’s “ Morphologisches Jahrbuch.”* The Cilio-flagellata are intermediate in characters between the flagellate and the ciliate Infusoria. Like the Flagellata, they possess, as their chief organ of locomotion, a long whip-lash- like cilium or flagellum, in addition to which they are provided, like the Ciliata, with ordinary small vibratile cilia, usually restricted to an incomplete annular band round the body. The form of the body is always bilaterally asymmetrical ; that is, there is a clear distinction between dorsal and ventral aspects, anterior and posterior ends, and right and left sides ; but the two latter never resemble one another perfectly, the body being divisible into two unequal and dissimilar portions by a median vertical plane. The variations in the form of the body are very great ; it may be compressed from before backwards, or from above downwards, or from side to side, and may be pro- *R.S. Bergh, ‘‘Der Organismus der Cililoflagellaten, eine phylogenstiche Studie.” Morph. Jahrb., Bd. VII., 2 Heft, pp. 177-288, pl. xii-xvi. 112 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. duced into remarkable horn-like processes, which are charac- teristic of particular genera. Except in three genera, the body is provided with an exoskeleton, in the form of a membrane, which may be either structureless or variously ornamented. On the ventral aspect there is, in such genera, either a large aperture or a longitudinal slit in the membrane, through which the protoplasm comes into direct contact with the exterior. There is also usually a transverse groove through apertures in which the cilia are protruded. But the point of chief interest in the skeleton is its chemical composition. Bergh has succeeded in proving, by numerous chemical tests applied. to a large number of species, that the membrane consists of cellulose, or at any rate of some very similar carbo-hydrate. This, I believe, is the first time that cellulose has been actually demonstrated in the cell-wall of the Protozoa; the only case in which that substance has hitherto been known in the animal kingdom being that of the Tunicata. Equally important are the results of the investigation of the contained protoplasm of these organisms. It is usually divided into ectoplasm and entoplasm, the latter of which is found to con- tain chlorophyll,diatomin (the yellowish-brown colouring matter of diatoms), and starch. Chenophyll is already known to occur in many animals of widely-separated groups, starch has hitherto been proved to exist only in the green Turbellarians, and diatomin has never before been known out of the vegetable kingdom. Professor Huxley says, speaking of the differences between animals and plants,* “The most characteristic morphological peculiarity of the plant is the investment of each of its com- ponent cells by a sac, the walls of which contain cellulose or some closely analogous compound ; and the most characteristic physiological peculiarity of the plant is its power of manufac- turing protein from chemical compounds of a less complex nature. The most characteristic morphological peculiarity of the animal is the absence of any such cellulose investment. The most characteristic physiological peculiarity of the animal is its want of power to manufacture protein out of simpler com- pounds.” It will be seen that both these distinctions break down in the case of the cilio-flagellata; their cell-wall is proved—as Huxley suggested might be the case, in a note to the passage just quoted—to be practically identical with that of plants, and the presence of starch proves clearly that the chlorophyll has the same function as that of plants, the decomposition of the car- bonic acid in the surrounding medium. Bergh, indeed, believes that in many genera the nutrition is entirely like that of a plant, and that no solid nutriment is ever taken up; and great weight must be attached to an opinion founded on so many * « Anatomy of Invert. Animals,” p. 45. RESEARCHES ON THE CILIO-FLAGELLATA. 113 careful observations, though I must confess that the ventral aperture in the test becomes somewhat inexplicable if it is not to be looked upon as an ingestive area. Still, there can be no doubt that if the cilio-flagellata were an isolated group, Bergh’s researches would oblige us to consider many of them as indubitable plants, and it is only comparative morphology which forbids this view of their affinities. They are so closely allied, on the one hand, to the Flagellata, many of which possess the most undoubted animal characteristics, and on the other, to the Ciliata, which no one would dream of considering as plants, that their systematic position must remain unaltered, and they must simply be taken as another and very striking instance of the impossibility of drawing anything like a hard and fast line between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. As to the systematic arrangement of the group, Bergh dividesit into two families, one of which—the A dinzda—contains a single new genus and species, Prorocentrum micans ; while the other—the Dzuzfera—contains three sub-families and eleven genera. | Prorocentrum, discovered by Bergh, is interesting as forming the nearest ally of the group to the flagellata. It has an oval compressed body, with both flagellum and cilia at the anterior end, and possesses neither transverse nor longitudinal grooves. Its membrane consists of two valve-like moieties. Among the Duzuzfera, the first sub-family, Dzxophyida approaches most nearly to Adinzda, having the transverse groove near the anterior end. The second sub-family, Perzdinida, contains the typical genera, Perzdinium, Glenodinium, Ceratium, &c., and is distinguished by having the transverse groove about the middle of the body. The third and last sub-family, Gymnodinida, contains three genera, distinguished by the entire absence of a membrane. It is these naked genera which approach, in a remarkable way, to the ciliata. One species of Gymnodinium, for instance, exhibits in the ectoplasm the curious muscle-like myophan- striz so characteristic of Paramecium, Spirostomum, and other ciliate forms. The curious Polykrikos was considered by UI- janin as a turbellarian larva, and by Biitschli was placed among the Ciliata, in spite of its long flagellum. Bergh considers it as a true cilio-flagellate, distinguished by having several, instead of one, transverse ciliated grooves. It is also re- markable for possessing trichocysts, which, as figured by Bergh, have the closest resemblance to the thread-cells of Ccelenterata. : I cannot but think it a matter for regret that Bergh should be so permeated with “ Haeckelismus” as to adopt the custom of calling his classification a phylogeny. The method of showing affinities by genealogical trees or other diagrams is a convenient and commendable one, but to call a natural arrange- ment of a group, based upon the study of recent forms only, a phylogeny, is a misuse of language, and gives a fallacious, i14 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. appearance of certainty to what is, at the best, only well-founded conjecture. One point of great interest in regard to several of the genera is their excessive variability. Bergh’s object having been to make a thorough investigation of the group, and not merely to discover new species, he has paid great attention to the varieties of each species, and has succeeded in showing, as Car- penter, W. K. Parker, and Rupert Jones, did for the foraminifera, and Haeckel for sponges, that each species consists of a “‘ form- cycle” of individuals, differing so much that the extremes of the series would be ranked, without hesitation, as distinct species, if the intermediate steps were unknown. It is from some such form as Gymnodinium that Bergh con- siders the Ciliata to have been derived, the Peritricha (Vorticella, &c.) being, according to him, the oldest and least modified sub- division of the group. The interesting genus J/esodinium is in many ways intermediate between the cilio-flagellata and the peritricha. It has an equatorial band of cilia situated in a transverse furrow, but it is devoid of a flagellum, and possesses a mouth and temporary anus. From the position of the mouth, Bergh considers that the anterior pole of a ciliate answers to the posterior pole of a cilio-flagellate, or flagellate- infusor. One theory of more general interest is advanced, namely, that the flagellata are the most primitive of Protozoa, and “ forma starting point from which the Noctilucz, the Rhizopoda, the Cilio-flagellata, and through these the Peritricha, have developed.” The main argument for this view is that so many of the Rhizo- poda begin life as mastigopods or flagellate forms. One cannot but think, however, that this is making too much of embryo- logical evidence. A priorz, it entirely seems more likely that a flagellum should have arisen as a differentiated pseudopod, than that a pseudopod should have arisen as a degenerated flagellum ; but the evidence is altogether too scanty for any very consistent theory to be built upon it. At present, it seems to me to be impossible to say whether the myxopod or the mastigopod should be considered as phylogenetically the older ; and I think, therefore, that the following scheme, devised for my last year’s lectures, expresses the relationships of the groups of Protozoa as correctly as the evidence now at our disposal will enable us to do :— RADIOLARIA, FORAMINIFERA Euchitonia, &c. CILIATAS a TENTACULIFERA LOBOSA HELIOZOA (Arcella, &c.) | Actinomonas © Lieberkiihnia yt CIL1O-FLAGELLATA PROTOPLASTA — Mastigamoeba — FLAGELLATA (Ameeba, &c,) GREGARINIDA, : PLURALITY OF COTYLEDONS IN GENUS PERSOONIA. I15 The monera of Haeckel are not included in this scheme, but as these can hardly be considered, without further investigation, to form a natural assemblage, since they are united upon a single negative character, I think it best to leave them out of consideration for the present. PRURALITY -OF COTYLEDONS IN-> THE GENUS PERSOONIA. ne BY BARON F. VON MUELLER, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S. —— <> —___. The foundation to comparative carpology as a branch of botanic science was laid by Dr. Joseph Gaertner in his ever- memorable work, “ De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum,” 1788- 1791. In continuing these important literary labours of his ' illustrious parent, Dr. Carl Gaertner gave in his “ Supplementum Carpologiz, Centuria Secunda,’ anno 1807, at pages 219 and 220, and on plate 220, the description of a new genus, which, on account of an embryo with five cotyledons, he named Penta- dactylon; but Mr. Bentham was able, througk comparison with the collections of Sir Joseph Banks, from whom the younger Gaertner had his material, to identify the Pentadactylon angusti- folium with Persoonia linearis, of Andrews. Independently, long since I had established for another species of Persoonia—namely, P. Chamaepeuce, an embryo with six cotyledonar segments (Plants of Victoria, plate LXIX., then considered identical with P. Caleyi). But although already R. Brown, in 1809 (Transac- tions of the Linn. Soc., X., 160), indicated for the genus “ cotyle- dons saepius plures” (reiterated by Baillon “ Histoire des Plantes,” Proteacées 396); and although Meissner, when describing all species known in 1856 (Decandolle, prodr. XIV., 329-343), took notice in the generic character also of the frequent occurrence of 3-5 cotyledons, yet the extent of this kind of aberration has never yet been traced through the very many specific forms of the genus. This investigation, long ago intended by me, but post- poned for want of sufficient material, has been carried out to some extent now. It possesses particular interest, not only for specific diagnosis, but also for its general application to morpho- logy, in as much as a pleio-cotyledonar embryo is known only in very few genera beyond those of the Conifer. Thus in Pinus the embryo segments number from 3-15 ; in Callitris, Biotia and Juniperus, 2-3; in Cupressus, 2-4; in Taxodium, 4-9 (vide Parlatore in D.C., prodr. XVI., part II., anno 1864). The Lor- anthaceze, so closely allied to the Proteaceew—if we assume the floral envelope of the latter, as also in Santalacez, to be petaloid, 116 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. and the calyx reduced (as in the Rutaceous genera Diplolaena and Asterolasia) to exiguity—yield 2-4 cotyledons in Loranthus and Nuytsia, a fact, as regards the latter genus, first noticed by Mr. James Drummond (in Hooker’s Journal II., 346). In these cases, as in that of Persoonia, the plurality of cotyledons is normal, not as in Phaseolus, Prunus, Quercus, and some other genera, merely abnormal (vzde Bot. Zeitung, 1869, p. 875 ; Sachs, Lehrbuch der Botanik, 4 Aufl. 608). In the species of Persoonia with more than two cotyledons, the segments of the embryo cannot be traced into two sets; contrarily as in many Coniferze, so also in Persoonia, the cotyledons, as regards size and also shape, are quite or nearly alike to each other, and not rarely odd in number; whereas in merely lobed cotyledons, such as Schizopetalon, Howittia, Amsinckia, and many other genera, and even some species of Eucalyptus produce, the lobes are always traceable to two cotyledonar elements. Again, as in Coniferze so also in Persoonia, the number of embryo segments ranges only within specific definite limits. The fruits of various Persoonias exhibit in reference to size, shape, outward colour, thickness of the puta- men, and consistence of pulp, some peculiarities available in various instances for diagnosis. Several species ripen two seeds. A thin stratum of peripheric albumen is in some species more or less developed and separable from the endopleura. The hypogynous glands of P. diadena (F. von Mueller, “ Fragm., Phytogr., Austral. X., 46) are reduced to two; the putamen is grossly resinous-porous in P. rvevoluta. But on this occasion I intend to-deal with the embryo merely. This organ is obovate or ellipsoid, with always conical base, the radicle is exceedingly short, and the cotyledons, when more than two, show a width regulated by their number and space afforded them in the embryonic body. While addressing New Zealand naturalists in the first instance, I may remark, that the only species there—namely, Persoonia Toro—presents mostly 3, rarely 2 or 4, cotyledons, so far as I have ascertained from dissecting a considerable number of fruits, kindly procured for me by Mr. Cheeseman, of Auckland. As the fruit of this outlying species seems not described, I subjoin notes thereon. Persoonia Loro.—Drupe—7-g9 lines long; ellipsoid-ovate— very rarely globular, seemingly in age becoming blackish outside ; pulp (to be re-examined in a fresh state) not so remarkably tena- cious as in many other species ; putamen—thick, bony, bilocular, and not rarely maturing two seeds; embryo—2-3 lines long, about 1 line broad. The following are the results obtained for other species from more or less extensive dissections of embryos, so far as fruits were accessible to me, those of many species being entirely unknown, or were not available in full ripeness :— Cotyledons in Species of Persoonia—P. ferruginea, 2; P. con- fertiflora, 2; P. elliptica, 2; P. longifolia, 2; P. Toro, 3, rarely 2 i ie a oo. eS ee NEW ZEALAND COPEPODA. DT? or 4; P. arborea, 3; P. dillwynoides, 3-4; P.-nutans, 3-5; P. cunnii, 4; P. media, 4; P. lanceolata, 4-5; P. juniperina, 4-6, rarely 3; P. linearis, 4-6; P. myrtilloides, 4-6; P. rigida, 5; P pinifolia, 5-6; P. falcata, 5-7; P. hirsuta, 5-8; P. Chamaepeuce, 6; P. tenuifolia, 7; P. brachystylis, 7; P. quinquenervis, 7-8 ; P. teretifolia, 7-8. Of the 61 well marked species of this genus hitherto on record, I was thus able to examine 23 as regards embryonic structure; but of P. brachystylis, P. elliptica, P. media, P. gunnii, P. rigida, and P. tenuifolia, only single fruits were accessible to me. As out of the above mentioned 23 species only four proved dicotyledonar, it may be fairly assumed that in the genus as a whole the pluricotyledonar embryo by far prepon- derates. In P. ferruginea, P. confertiflora, P. elliptica, and P longifolia, the number of cotyledons seems never to exceed two ;' but of P. longifolia I had only two ripe fruits, both of these moreover showing the embryo arcuate-curved ; whether this curious deviation from the normal type is to be regarded as the normal state, or an accidental deformity, must be decided by future enquiries. Fora large portion of the material from New South Wales, utilized for this essay, | am indebted to Ch. Moore, Esq., and the Rev. Dr. Woolls. Melbourne, February, 1882. BEW. ZEALAND COPEPODA OF THE “ CHAL- igh N Gi RE PIs T ELON & Extracted from G. S. Brady’s Monograph of this group, —_<__.. —__ FAMILY II].—CYTHERID (Continued). Genus Sclerochilus (G. O. Sars). Valves elongated, very hard, especially towards the margins ; surface smooth and shining, ornamented with minute scattered papilla. Hinge-joint formed by a projecting median crest of the left valve. Muscle-spots linear, sub-parallel, arranged in an oblique oval patch below the centre of the valve. Antenne robust; the anterior bearing on each side of its second joint a single seta, its last 5 joints successively smaller, and bear- ing numerous long sete; posterior antenne larger than the anterior, 5-jointed, flagellum very long and slender. Poison-glands very large, and divided into several lobes. Mouth produced, conical; labrum strongly toothed. Mandibles small, teeth numerous and sharp; palp narrow, indistinctly 3-jointed, and having a distinct branchial appendage. Terminal lobes of the * Continued from page 12. 118 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. first pair of jaws partly wanting; branchial plate narrow, almost lanceolate, and beset with numerous sete on the outer and inner margins. Feet short and robust, second and third joints bearing in front a sharp seta; first pair armed with a single strong spine at the apex of the basal joint. Post-abdominal lobes larger than usual, forming 2 broad 2-lobed lamine, each bearing 5 sete. Eye single. 1. Sclerochilus contortus, Norman,—Carapace, as seen from the side, elongated, bean-shaped, higher behind than in front, height equal to about half the length ; extremities well-rounded, dorsal margin boldly arched, inferior deeply sinuated in front of the middle ; seen from above, compressed, ovate, extremities acutely pointed, width scarcely equal to one-third of the length ; end view ovate, rounded above, pointed below. Shell perfectly smooth, Length, 1-33rd inch. Also found off Kerguelen Island in 20-50 fathoms; off Heard Island in 75 fathoms. Common on the Atlantic shores of Europe, and north to Spitzbergen ; also in the post-tertiary beds of Great Britain, Ireland, Norway, and North America. SECTION—PLATYCOPA. FAMILY III.—CYTHERELLID& (G. O. Sars.) Valves unequal, very thick and calcareous, not notched in front. Antennae very large, the anterior many-jointed and geniculated at the base; posterior broad and flattened, 2-branched like the feet of the Copepoda. Mandibles very small, with a large pectinato-setose palp. Three pairs of hinder limbs, scarcely pediform ; 2 anterior pairs branchial, the others rudimentary. Abdomen terminating in 2 very small, narrow, and spiniferous laminz. Ova and embryos borne beneath the shell of the female. Genus Cytherella (Jones). Valves elongated, flattened, thick and hard, very unequal ; the right much larger than the left, overlapping throughout the whole circumference, and presenting round the entire inner margin a distinct groove, into which the valve of the opposite side is received. Muscle-spots arranged in a curved pinnate series on an oblong, obliquely-placed depression near the centre of the shell, the depression appearing internally as an elevation. Spots 12-16 in number, linear-oblong in shape, and increasing in size toward the ventral margin. Anterior antenne very large, shortly setose or spiniferous, 7-jointed, the first 2 joints larger than the rest, and forming between them a distinct geniculation ; posterior antennee composed of a large, broad, 2-articulate, and geniculate basal portion, from which arise 2 flattened unequal branches, one 2-articulate, the other 3-articu- late, both beset with very numerous long sete. Labrum large, subglobose, giving out in front a short subtriangular process, Mandibles very weak, strongly inflexed at the lower extremity, A TRIP.TO LAKE »HAUROTO. I19 which is obliquely truncate, and set in a pectinate manner with slender teeth ; palp large and elongated, almost straight, bearing on its inner side very numerous long, pectinately-arranged sete, which stretch backwards as in the feet of the Sidide. First pair of jaws bearing at the base a very large branchial plate, which is beset with numerous ciliated marginal sete, incisive portion divided into 3 setiferous lobes; palp very large, scarcely articulated ; the posterior margin slightly lobated, inner margin pectinately setose, like the mandibular -palp, but smaller, Second pair of jaws membranaceous, bearing, like the preceding pair, a branchial plate, but smaller and narrower ; distal portion subovate, beset with a few ciliated sete, and in the male furnished with a very large and_ strongly hatchet-shaped appendage adapted for prehension. Third pair of jaws, in the female, rudimentary, forming a simple setiferous lobe; in the male, strong, distinctly jointed, and subcheliform. Abdomen beset behind with several bundles of long sete for supporting the ova. Postabdominal lamine narrow, slightly dilated at the apex, and armed before and behind with several marginal sete or spines. Copulative organs of the male very large and narrow. 1. Cytherella polita, G. S. Brady.—Shell of the female, as seen from the side, subelliptical, height equal to about % of the length ; extremities nearly equal and well-rounded, dorsal margin forming a regular flattened arch, ventral nearly straight ; seen from above, the outline is ovate-cuneate, widest near the hinder extremity, obtusely pointed in front, broadly rounded behind, width equal to half the length ; end view broadly oval. Surface of the shell perfectly smooth and polished. Length 1-31 inch. 7 (Also found in West Indies and mouthof Rio de la Plata, in 13 fathoms.) All the species described in this paper were obtained during the stay of the “Challenger” in Wellington Harbour. eee OUP AK E PAU ROTO ({ilustrated by accompanying sketch-map). SCO OO BY) MR. ROBT. PAULIN. es Very few residents in, or visitors to New Zealand, have heard of the lake described in this paper; and yet most of those who are acquainted with the map of the South Island know that in its south-west corner is a sort of terra incognita, containing among other problematical places a lake, usually named Howloko, 120 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. The latter name is evidently incorrect, there being no “1” in the Maori language; while the right name, “ Hauroto,” is very expressive in its meaning. It is derived from two Maori words “hau,” windy, and “voto,” a lake or shut-in place ; and has been very appropriately named. The Maories, as a rule, have pithy and expressive denominations for localities. There are many corners of New Zealand as yet unvisited by the surveyor, the sportsman, the follower of science, or the tourist. What treasures nature may have hidden in these locali- ties are quite unknown. Huge mountain peaks, some of them covered with perpetual snows, have been viewed from a distance; but the lakes and valleys their ranges may enclose, the mineral veins which may permeate their rugged masses, the treasures of animal and vegetable life to be found on their lonely heights and bush-covered valleys, have yet to be ascertained by the perse- verance of the explorer. Any man who could settle in a new land in sight of unex- plored mountain ranges, by the banks perhaps of a river fed from their ever-melting, but never melted snows, and never experience a longing to visit them, must be sadly in want of a doctor or a schoolmaster. The wish to know all about the land we live in ought to be strong in the hearts of all colonists. Unfortunately, as a matter of fact, the majority of people, even in this land of travelled men and women, could not describe from personal observation the whole features of the country within a radius of ten miles from their own homes. There are, however, many of the vigorous youth and manhood of New Zealand who every year could get away for a few weeks’ exploration; and it might be well if such would form an Explorers’ Association. They might elect a president in each centre of population, whose duty it would be to suggest certain localities for exploration, and to indicate the nature of the search, scientific or otherwise, which it would be desirable to undertake. Such an Association, by systematic working under able direction, might every year gather a lot of useful information. The central country of the North Island, lying to the south of Lake Taupo, and the south-west corner of the South Island, are about the two least known portions of New Zealand. Not only was this fact a potent reason in inducing us to take a trip to Hauroto; but there were numerous collateral temptations which helped to lure us from the comforts of civilisation to rough it for a little in the bush. There was just a possibility of coming across a JVofornis ; kakapos and kiwis were known to occur ; there was a geographical question to settle as to the size, shape, and lie of this lake, and the probable occurrence of sheep-country was hinted at by enquiring friends ; there might be an available through route to the West Coast Sounds; quartz reefs and mineral veins were dreamed of ; and, to sum up, there were sure to be new finds for the botanical and zoological collector. Who that had a fortnight’s holiday looming ahead could devise a more suitable way of occupying it than in taking a trip to such a spot, " oe Tee nagacé ° (A gatag ee lal, Te PT ee a Pa ee A TRIP TO LAKE HAUROTO. 121 where it was to be hoped few or no human beings had been before us ? Our party was three in number; one of whom was to be res- ponsible for the geographical and geological observations, while the other two represented botany and zoology respectively. All the necessary paraphernalia for scientific work was provided, and great results were anticipated. The large share of bad weather met with, marred these results however, to a great extent. Hauroto is about eighty-six miles from Invercargill by the only available route, and about thirty from Clifden Station, on the Waiau. The latter place is an easy day’s journey from Invercargill, as the rail to Otautau leaves only about twenty- four miles of good road to be traversed. Clifden Station stands on the terraced west bank of the Waiau, which, from being confined here within a rocky channel only about a hundred yards wide, runs with a swift current (apparently about eight miles an hour), and is very deep. What an enormous amount of power nature has here at present unutilised by man! The time will no doubt come when inven- tion will turn to account the immense force available in New Zealand’s many and rapid rivers, when numerous industries will spring up along their—at present—uninhabited banks. The large isolated masses of limestone rock, which stand like islands on the level river terraces in the vicinity of the station, constitute a peculiar landscape feature. They are appa- rently portions of the adjacent and underlying limestone formation, from which perhaps they have been isolated by past action of the river. The garden at Clifden Station, placed under the shelter of one of these island cliffs, testifies to the wonderful richness and warmth of the soil—fruit of all ordinary kinds come to the greatest perfection, including standard peaches, mulberries, &c. Our trip really commenced at Clifden Station, and here we had been led to expect we could engage a couple of experienced bush hands to relieve us of the labour of pitching tent, cooking, and carrying swags. Unfortunately for us, none were to be had, which meant also the want of dogs, as none of the dogs on the station would have followed perfect strangers. For bush travelling dogs are almost a necessity, as, without them, neither kiwis nor kakapos can be had, and the traveller is frequently dependent on these nocturnal birds for food. As one result of our having no dogs, we got none of these birds, and perhaps failed to get our Votornis for the same reason, though this latter is an open question. We got a considerable amount of assist- ance at the outset of the trip, by engaging a man and pack- horse to take us as far as the lake, but the want of working hands afterwards seriously affected the results of our expedition, as it takes a great deal of time even to do the minimum of cooking, baking, and swagging incidental to moving about. A flower must needs be very rare or beautiful before one will stop to pick it up with a 7olb, swag on his unaccustomed shoulders, 122 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. and a landscape must be beautiful indeed before the “ poor, wandering one,” so burdened, will deign to look up at it. Our first day’s journey was a pleasant ramble up the valley of the Lill-burn. The track was good, over open and level country, and the weather fine, and we camped for the night by a hut about sixteen miles from the station, named by the shepherds, as an inscription informed us, “The Palace of Misery.” On the present occasion we could not see the force of the name ; but on the return journey, having occasion to occupy the same comfortable quarters on a night when the south- westerly gales suggested “ dissolved icebergs” to the geographical (and poetical) member of the party, we realised the satire of its appellation. Next day the difficulties of the way commenced, as the first two miles took us over rather swampy ground, obstructed by an almost impenetrable scrub of bog pine, after which the track led through the bush for twelve or thirteen miles. Some two years ago the enterprising proprietors of Clifden Station tried the experiment of occupying some of the Princess country to the west of Hauroto with sheep, and to aid in the work of supervision this track was cut, and a boat taken through to the lake. This latter work alone was accomplished by the aid of a bullock team and sledge, in 11 days. At the time of our trip (January of this year) the track was in tolerable order, though rather soft, but the bridges had disappeared from nearly all the creeks, and had to be replaced. The road was certainly not one for horses, and though the plucky little animal which carried our pack got through and gained the honour of being the first equine quadruped which had ever reached the lake, still the experiment was too dangerous a one to be repeated. If the pack was taken off once it was taken off a score of times, in order to enable its carrier to get over “soft” places, besides which it “came off” itself, without requiring to be taken, several times in the course of the journey, owing to the struggles of the horse in unexpectedly soft spots. It was with a feeling of relief, therefore, that we found ourselves at nightfall on the shore of the lake, after more than eleven hours of steady travelling. The track passes at one part over a saddle of Goldie’s Hill, at an elevation of about 1100 feet (taken by barometer) above sea- level, while we computed the lake to lie at an elevation of about 750 feet. The bush through which we had travelled consisted almost exclusively of Birch (Fagus menziesit and fF. solandrt), with a very sparse sprinkling of Rimu and Totara. On the Lill-burn side there was a considerable undergrowth, including large patches of Gleitchenia cnnninghami, but in the denser forest the ground was carpeted chiefly with Aymenophyllum multifidum and dzvalve, together with numerous mosses and Hepatice, while the pretty little orchids, Caladenia minor and Adenochilus gracilis peeped from out the green moss, and were interspersed with lovely tufts of little white violets (V. filicauls). Overhead * A TRIP TO, LAKE AAUROTO. 123 the trees were loaded with great bunches of scarlet-flowered mistletoe (Loranthus colensot), which was replaced on the shores of the lake by the yellow-flowered ZL. flavidus. Our long day’s journey enabled us to enjoy the night’s rest, though serenaded by a few more-porks and kiwis.. The cry of the latter is an “eerie” sound when first heard, though not nearly so alarming as the ghostly cry of the kakapo. The portion of the lake reached by this track is a beautiful little bay, nearly semi-circular in form, and fringed with beaches of white sand, and this opens out to an almost circular larger bay, about two miles in diameter. The view from the boat hut is more beautiful than grand, the surrounding hills being of moderate height and of soft, rounded outlines, while the rugged mountain masses to the westward are toned down by distance, and the gentle undulations of their foreground. Altogether it is a charming spot, sheltered from the gales which almost daily lash the main lake into foam, and will most probably be the site of a prettily situated village or town, when population becomes denser. The water is comparatively shallow, and apparently well fitted to support trout or salmon in large numbers. We might have enjoyed the beauties of this spot had all our zsthetic faculties not been utterly blinded by sand-flies. We were all experienced—or thought we were—in the ways of these little demons; but their numbers, the virulence of their bites, and their unceasing devotion to us, made life almost unbearable. What do sand-flies and mosquitoes live on when they have no unfortunate people to bite? And how do they know to attack the “human form divine”? The latter question is worth the consideration of the evolutionist. Our first work on reaching the lake was the getting of the boat into something like condition to carry us. This took us nearly two days, as every rivet had to be ham- mered up, and all the seams caulked, before she would float. This accomplished, we started early on the fifth morning of our trip, and pulled out of the bay into the main lake. This bay is almost shut off from the rest of the lake by an island, which so nearly approaches the main shore on its northern side, as to leave a narrow passage not more than 20 yards wide. On pass- ing through this,a wild and beautiful bit of lake scenery bursts on the view. Along the margin of the lake the mountains rise precipitously to between 4000 and 5000 feet, and so scaured and steep are their sides, that one wonders how the bush manages to exist. There are no gentle slopes, nor shelving bays ; no rivers; but for more than two thousand feet above the water, only dark bush, with an occasional rocky face protruding. Above the sombre green, a perfect chaos of rocky peaks, some of them bare, some flecked with snow, rise in every direction, and numerous streams, fed from their lonely heights, plunge down their sides, forming cascades which fall thundering down into the deep waters below. The whole upper arm of the lake is of this wildly picturesque character, and, like the West Coast fiords, seems 124 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, to have been once the bed of a mighty glacier ; the southern arm seems to tone down to a somewhat softer outline, and probably is marked by an old moraine, through which the waters of the lake have cut a channel for themselves. We had not long emerged on the main lake when the wind, which daily troubles its surface, began to freshen, and compelled us to take shelter in the only sort of bay visible, where a con- siderable stretch of level land had been formed by the debris of a large creek. Here we pitched camp and were compelled to stay for a day and a half, as the wind raised so high a sea that progress was impossible. Traces of rabbits were so abundant that we named the stream Rabbit Creek, and it is a tribute to the marvellous powers of spreading possessed by these animals, that they were the only introduced things visible, all the vegeta- tion even being apparently indigenous. The sand and rocks here, as at every point touched at along the lake, appear to be composed of syenite or syenitic gneiss, but we failed to find signs of any distinct quartz reefs, though quartz pebbles were abundant. As soon as the weather calmed we made a start again—our seventh day out—and took the precaution of being away by daylight, when several hours of quiet may be usually depended upon. A few hours pulling brought us to the head of the lake, A small stream flows in here, which has its source about six miles from its outlet, at the junction of the Princess and Billow Mountains. The upper part of the lake fora few miles is very narrow, barely a mile wide, and serpentine in form, a gloomy sheet of water, saddened on every side by a three thousand feet rocky wall, draped with its sombre mantle of green. The water, too, is dark as Erebus, and altogether it is an ugly spot to get caught in in a squall, as frequently for stretches of more than a mile there is not a gap in the unbroken wall into which one might thrust the nose of a boat. Pulling round the head, we landed at a very little bay on ‘its S.W. side, close by a cascade, and at the foot of the only spur of the Princess Mountains which seemed at all surmountable. Being rather tired we contented ourselves with a sort of recon- naissance survey of the ground, climbing about a thousand feet through the bush, and we repented afterwards we had not per- severed, as the fine weather only lasted one day. Next morning broke wet and windy, but our time and supply of provisions being limited, it became a question of “now or never,” so we started for the mountain tops. Not only was the ground obstructed with thick bush, but it was excessively steep and razor-ridged; not a difficult track to follow when ascending, but positively dangerous to come down, owing to the precipices on either side. Everything was dripping, and when we emerged from the bush at an elevation of about 3200 feet above the sea level we were in a “pulpy” condition, feeling rather washed out. The rest of the way was comparatively easy, but for the fierce wind and torrents of rain and sleet, which chilled us to the mar- A TRIP TO LAKE HAUROTO. 125 row. At an elevation of 3800 feet we came on the first snow- beds, and we continued on to the top of the ridge, here some 4400 feet high. - At this point we seemed to be on the edge of a rocky plateau, which rose to the westward about 800 feet higher, and was broken with wild, deep hollows filled with tarns and boulders. The driving mist, however, rendered further pro- gress dangerous, and prevented our making out the very features to see which we had come this length. Two shepherds on the Waiau runs explored this country from the southern end of the lake some two years ago, and from one of them we learned that the heads of Lakes Hauroto and Potiritiri were only about five miles apart. This may be accepted as a full measurement, as shepherds’ distances are usually much over the mark, as we found out. But the weather was too thick for our making out anything, and this was all the more disheartening, as we had hoped to see the head of Preservation Inlet, or at least the lie of the country towards it, as we were probably only about twelve ‘miles from it. ~. Our return journey was an unpleasant one. The stormy nature of the weather showing signs of increasing rather than abating, we resolved to make a run for our boat harbour if possible, and soaking as we were, struck camp as soon as we got to the foot of the mountains, and started down the lake an hour before sun- set. Meanwhile the rain increased, and as the darkness came on a very angry sea came tumbling along after us, and threatened to swamp our crazy boat. So the first little stretch of land was run for, and here, on a sloping bank barely big enough to hold us and our boat, and under old flood-marks, with an inaccessible background of precipice, we spent a thoroughly uncomfortable night, and waited for daylight. As soon as possible next day we launched again, and pulling with a will, partly to keep ourselves from being cramped, but chiefly to get out of the angry waste of waters, got through the narrow passage which led to our haven of rest, just as a furious gale burst on us. Had we been half an hour later we should have been collared. We were fortunate in getting back when we did, as the stormy weather continued for three days, and the mountains were covered with snow down to the bush-line. The rest of this day was spent at the boat hut recovering from our drenching, and preparing for our return tramp; and two more days saw us back to Clifden, fully prepared to appreciate the blessings of civilization. : The trip took exactky ten days ; but had we known more of the geography of the lake before starting, we might, with fine weather, have done all we did in seven. "And now as to results, the standard by which everything new is measured in this utilitarian age. _ Botanically we did very little. We found some plants at the head of the lake not hitherto considered very common, but made no new discoveries. In the bush the most of the vegetation was similar to that found on the West Coast Sounds, Panax lineare being the only plant new to us, 126 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. There was also a good deal of a health-like plant, but not in flower, which was probably Archeria traversiz ; but this is a doubtful identification. On some of the more open faces and landslips at the head of the lake, there grew a Phormium, very different in appearance from the ordinary P. texax, but shewing neither flowers nor fruit. Out on the open ground at 3500 to 4500 feet elevation, a considerable quantity of Ranunculus lyallit displayed its masses of magnificent snow-white blossoms, rivalled, however, by numerous other beautiful white flowered plants. Of Celmisias six species were collected, viz.—C. discolor, verbascifolia, longifolia, larvicifolia, sessiliflova, and the rare C. vamulosa. Ourisia cespitosa and glandulusa were common ; and two or three specimens of the very handsome O. macrocarpa were obtained. Apparently also we got Euphrasia revoluta ; but this also was a doubtful iden- tification. Donatia nove-zealandie and Helophyllum clavigerum were common. These were about the only plants gathered. One result of our trip is that we now know pretty well the geography of this lake and the surrounding country, as far as it can be laid down by the prismatic compass without the aid of strict measurements. The lake at its widest part is about three miles across, and taking its north-west arm as twelve miles long, is probably a little over twenty miles in extremc length. In most maps of New Zealand, a dotted line is usually to be foundconnecting the Patupo, or Big River, on the South Coast, with the probable outlet of Hauroto ; but according to the reports of those shepherds and prospectors who have traversed the district, the Patupo river is only a narrow arm of the sea which runs inland, fiord-like, for six or seven miles (probably about three, true measurement), and comes to an abrupt termination in the mountains, while the rivers which flow out of Hauroto and Poti- ritiri enter the sea between the Patupo and the Waiau. There is absolutely no country for settlement to the west of Hauroto until Preservation Inlet is reached. The bush is unbroken up to 3500 feet, or nearly so, and above that the land is not even good summer country. It might support red deer ; but not sheep. One thing that struck us all on our trip was the extraordinary scarcity of animal life. A few kakas and pigeons were seen, the latter only where the Kowai trees (Sophora tetvaptera) grew. Of other birds the only species not found about the east of Otago were the crows (Glaucopsis cinevea)and crested grebe(Podiceps cristatus). Even ducks were scarce, and as has been said already, we got neither kiwis nor kakapos for want of a dog to hunt them. Hauroto may become populated at no distant date, for were a passable road made to it and a little clearing done round its eastern bay, it would offer one of the most charming retreats which New Zealand’s many lakes can offer. But its sandflies must be reduced in numbers first. Though the track to the lake from the Waiau goes over rather broken and high ground, there is no need for a road to follow this. By keeping up the Lill-burn to its source, the crossing of an almost imperceptible saddle would bring one out at the north-east corner of the little ——""= Poise A TRIP TO LAKE HAUROTO. 127 bay. The present track to the lake is only a portion of a longer one which leads over the Hump to the south end of Hauroto. When the attempt was made some two or three years ago to take up the Princess country as a sheep-run, the sheep were driven round by the mouth of the Waiau, along the shore of Te-wae-wae Bay, and up by a ridge passing to the south end of the Hump to the foot of the lake, where a species of bridge had been erected.. Except at the extreme ends of the lake, there is not a single accessible ridge by which the Princess Mountains may be climbed ; their sides are in most places as steep as the roof of a house. This lake offers one of the shortest routes to the West Coast Sounds, as a passable road could probably be made to its head from the head of Preservation Inlet. We could not judge this for ourselves, but the two shepherds who had preceded us appeared to think a trudge through to the Inlet as quite a feasible undertaking. Along. the west bank of the Waiau there is a considerable amount of good country for settlement, and the valley of the Lill-burn itself could support a large agricultural population, as the land is tolerably level and backed by low hills. The bush also, though not very heavy, would yield abundance of valuable timber. But unfortunately, from the eastern end of Hauroto, where any road from the Waiau would terminate, to the head of fie dake, there is not an acre of level greund, so that boats or steamers could alone make the connection. We hope to see Hauroto again on some future occasion, but trust that when the time comes we may be able to do the trip in a less primitive but more comfortable manner. * GENERAL NOLES. > ADENOCHILUS GRACILIS, Hook, f—The occurrence of this plant in the south-west corner of the South Island was noted in the last issue of the journal. Mr. T. F. Cheeseman informs us that he found it growing plentifully in the Buller Valley, Nel- son, also in several localities about Wangapeka and Mount Owen, but that it is rare and local in Auckland Province. EUPHRASIA REPENS, Hook, f—This rare plant was obtained about three years ago in a peat bog on the top of Maungatua (22 miles from Dunedin), by Mr. Geo. M. Thomson, but though the locality has been often searched since, it could not be again found. It has recently, however, been met with near the same spot by Mr. S. W. Fulton. It differs in several important 128 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, respects from alpine forms of 4. aztarctica, which were found growing near it. These differences are shown conspicuously in the following tabular form :— E. repens, £, antazctica. Leayes ... ... Quite flat With recurved margins Flowers ... ... Very distinctly proterogynous; Proterandrous style long, stigmatiferous towards its apex, withering when the anther-cells are opening. Calyx... . Nearly glabrous Covered with glandular hairs Corolla ... .... Tube long, purplish brown Tube rather short, whitish, with without, with prominent faint yellowish lower lip yellow lines within Capsule (unripe) Oval, very hairy, remaining Broadly obovoid, notched at the enclosed in the base of the apex, glabrous, protruded out calyx, which elongates as of the very short persistent it ripens, calyx tube. CHANGE OF NOMENCLATURE OF N. Z. BEETLES.—Capt. Broun reports the following alterations in the above :—The generic names, Cyclomorpha, Xenocera, Geophilus, Pachyodon, Pachypeza, Stenopus, and Pachycephala, published in Parts I. and II. of the Manual of New Zealand Coleoptera, having been used previously by naturalists in other parts of the world, or being too near other genera, the following are substituted ; the insects, therefore, will now bear the names applied below :— No, 1165—Melanochroa politula No. 785—Geochus inzequalis 5, 1205—Xenogonus pullus yy D2 30—Ri ye politus 99 1200— 5 furcus », 1240—Phorostichus linearis :» 1207— dy versutus », 1295—Dermothrius sanguineus 55 1208— plagiatus 5, 1173-—Udorus piceus », 1209— > ambiguus », 1312—Inosomus rufopiceus 55 620— 5 notatus ,, 1166—Priatelus optandus, instead of 39 621— “4 granulatus ‘¢ Priateles ”’ », 622— 7 sericeus. The specific name “ puncticollis” belongs to an American insect, Colaspis puncticollis. No. 1092 will therefore become Colaspis punctulicollis.” ) NOTES ON NEW ZEALAND FERNS.—The following notes are compiled from information received from Mr. H. C. Field, of Wanganui, who has for many years studied the ferns of this country :— Polypodium nove-zelandie (Baker)—This fern was originally found by Mr. H. A. Field in March, 1876, in the forest-country west of Ruapehu, and specimens were sent home shortly after to the Royal Herbarium at Kew. It was not, however, till the fol- lowing year that receipt of them was acknowledged, and in the meantime Mr. Cheeseman had also found the same species on Pirongia, and sent specimens to Kew. But it was from Mr. Field’s specimens, which were first received by Mr. Baker, that the original description was drawn up. This fern seems to be confined to the forest country lying to the west*of Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Taupo Lake, its northern limit being apparently GENERAL NOTES. 129 at or near Pirongia and Karioi; while its southern one is the Waitieka stream, a tributary of the Wangaehu, flowing into that river from its western side, about twenty miles south-west of the summit of Ruapehu. In fact, it appears to grow only in the birch forest of which that stream forms the southern boundary. In the same way, in travelling westwards from Murimotu to the Wanganui river, it abounds in the birch forest, but disappears directly one crosses the Waione stream, which separates the birch forest from the ordinary New Zealand bush. It is not invariably found only on rotten logs, but also grows on the trunks of birch and other trees, and among the moss and dead leaves on the ground; it appears always to require thick moss as a protection to its roots. Dicksonia lanata and Lomaria vulcamca appear in the same way in the birch forest only, while Todea superba, Polypodium australe, and Hymenophyllum pulcherrimum and bivalve become suddenly plentiful. In regard to the vertical distribution of ferns in the same district, Mr. Field also communicates the following remarks. The maximum elevations at which certain ferns occur are as follow :—Adiantum diaphanum, 3-400ft.; A. fuluum, 1oooft.; A. affine, 2000ft.; Lindsaya viridis, 500ft.; Pterts macilenta, 1oooft. ; P. scaberula, 1500ft. Again Lomaria alpina, Lindsaya linearis, and Ophtoglossum vulgatum, which, near the coast, are only found sparingly in moist and thoroughly sheltered spots among tall manuka scrub, grow abundantly, though in stunted form, among the grass on the sandy soil of the Murimotu Plains, where they are exposed to fierce solar heat and violent winds ; but plants brought from Murimotu will not bear exposure near the coast. Nephrodium thelypteris occurs in Sphagnum swamps all along the north side of Cook Straits, though rarely; but has not been found in similar swamps at any altitude greater than about 300ft., though Gleichenia circinata and dicarpa, which generally accompany it, are found certainly up to 3000ft. above sea level. Of local forms, Adiantum formosum abounds all around Palmerston north, in the valleys of the Manawatu, Oroua, and Pohangina. The sandy alluvium on the banks of the Manawatu suits it so well that fronds five feet high, with 50 to 60 branches, and over 1000 pinnules are common. Hypolepis millefolium, an alpine form, is reported to occur at Moutoa, near Foxton, at only a few feet above sea level ; while Lygodium articulatum, a northern torm, has been found at Rangitikei. FLOWERS AND FoLK-LoRE.—At the distribution of prizes to the succesful candidates in the botanical examinations held recently in Sydney by Mr. C. Moore, F.L.S., Dr. Geo. Bennet, F.L.S., delivered an interesting address to the students, from which we make the following extracts :—“ With regard to the intelligence and observation of the aborigines of Australia with regard to flowers, the Australian blacks on the coast are expert fishermen, and are aware of the season of particular kinds of fish 130 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. by the blooming of certain plants; for instance, when the brilliant | flowers of the waratah, or native tulip, appear, it is an indication to them that the sole is to be found on the sandbanks about Botany Bay and Cook’s River. According, also, to the flowering of other trees and shrubs, the time is known to them for the advent of the mullet, king fish, schnapper, gurnet, &c., and that they will be found in the bays and harbours of the coast. In civilised England they also consider certain periodical occurrences of nature in flowersasguidestoanglingand other rural occupations. When the alder buds are developed the fishermen consider the eels leave their winter haunts. When the wheat blossoms, the angler considers the perch will bite readily. The flowering of certain plants in England is also associated with particulars days and festivals. For instance, St. George’s Day is associated with the bluebell ; the guelder rose, or snowball tree (Viburnum), with Whitsuntide ; and the flowering of the elder (Sambucus nigra), with sheep shearing. The mulberry (Morus nigra), both in England and New South Wales, is a very shy tree, and when its foliage is fully developed we may regard the summer season as established ; then the gardener in England considers he may safely place his exotics in the open air, without sustaining any injury from cold. The sunflower (Helianthus) is becoming, from its utility, much cultivated in New South Wales. The large species was brought by the Spaniards from Peru, where it was consecrated to the sun worship ; and the virgins of the sun, when officiating in the temple, were crowned with the flowers, wearing some on their breasts and holding others in their hands, which was described as a spectacle of imposing grandeur. I mention the sunflower to relate that, from all the beautiful flowering plants introduced and naturalised in New South Wales, the sun- flower is the only one selected by the aborigines for cultivation, probably from its rapid growth, the little care it requires, or more likely from the large size and splendid appearance of the flower. At Moruya and other districts in New South Wales, it is highly prized by the aborigines. They procure the seeds and plant them when located for some time near their gunyahs or huts, and are delighted, with true esthetic taste, to behold the development of the splendid flowers. The aborigines carefully preserve the seeds, but they make no further use of them than to grow their favourite flowers the next year. I will detain you a little longer to direct your attention to a very interesting subject, that of folk lore of trees and flowers, with a brief account of three which came under my immediate observation, and of which specimens are before you. The first is the Samphire (Chrithmum), which is confined to the rocky sea shore. The etymology of this plant is somewhat curious. It was formerly written sampier, a corruption of St. Pierre, and by the Italians, herba di San Pietro. Thus a plant properly called rock cress, from its growing in the crevices of rocks, came to be known as Peter’s cress (the name Peter meaning a rock), The change to St. Peter’s herb was an easy one, the prefix being wr aS © DA Bi Bee GENERAL NOTES. 131 dropped, San Pietro became sampier, and from that samphire. The next to engage your attention is the Iron Wood tree (A/esua jferrea), one of the most beautiful trees in Ceylon, whether adorned by its splendid masses of young foliage, at first of a delicate pink hue, changing to a deep blood colour, or covered with its blosoms like white roses, with ivory white petals, and deep golden coloured stamens, which possess a delicious perfume, and have been placed by the Hindus in the quiver of Camadeva, the Indian Cupid. In the Sanscrit poem called Naishadba, there is a wild but elegant couplet, where the poem compares the white corolla of the Mesua, from which the bees were scattering the pollen of the numerous gold-coloured anthers to an alabaster wheel, on which Camadeva was whetting his arrows, while sparks of fire were dispersed in every direction, These flowers are pre- sented as New Year’s gifts by the Burmese, accompanied with wishes for “a happy new year.’ And the tree itself is much venerated by them, as it is recorded in the Buddhist scriptures that Aramaitriya, the coming Buddh, and the fifth and last of the present dispensation, will enter upon divine life while musing beneath its hallowed shade. In Ceylon the tree is planted by the priests near every Buddhist temple, and it is said to be for for the sake of its flowers, with which they decorate the images of Buddha. The flowers present a singular contrast with the deep crimson of the young foliage and the dark green above and silvery colour underneath of the old leaves. The seeds of the Mesua ferrea are like chestnuts in size, form, and colour, and also in character, so that they are eaten as a dessert fruit. This is mimicry, as the tree belongs to the same family as the gamboge and mangosteen, while the true chestnut is classed with the oaks. The last I shall have to notice is the Bo Tree (Ficus religiosa) under whose shade Gautama attained perfect knowledge ; it is dedicated to him, and every preceding Buddha had also an appropriate tree. The next and last Buddha will attain supreme intelligence under the MWesua ferrea, the beautiful Iron Wood tree. A cutting of the original Bo tree is said to have been taken from Burmah to Ceylon 245 years before Christ and planted at Anuradhapura. The cutting was brought by the daughter of King Asoka, who followed her brother to Ceylon, where he had preceded her a few years as the first Buddhist missionary to that island. The tree which sprang from this cut- ting still exists at the place where it was planted, and is the oldest known tree in the world, its age being now 2123 years. Its age is not like other ancient trees—a matter of conjecture, but a subject of record ; its conservancy has been an object of solicitude to successive dynasties, and the story ofits vicissitudes has been preserved in a series of continuous chronicles, amongst the most authentic that have been handed down by mankind. Its green old age would almost seem to verify the prophecy pro- nounced when it was planted, that ‘it would flourish and be green for ever. | Gautama’s Bo tree is said to have sprung miraculously from the earth at the moment of his birth, and js i32 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. supposed to have stood in the centre of the world. The word Bo, or bodi as it is called by the Burmese, means wisdom, knowledge, and Bishop Bigaudet thinks ‘It may not be out of the limits of possibility to suppose that it is a remnant of the tradition of the tree of knowledge that occupied the centre of the Garden of Eden.’ Sit Emerson Tennent says, ‘When the King of Magadha, in compliance with the request of the sovereign of Ceylon, was willing to send him a portion of that sanctified tree to be planted at Anuradhapura, he was deterred by the _ reflection that “it cannot be meet to lop it with any weapon ;” but, under the instruction of the high priest, using vermilion in a gold pencil, he made a streak on the branch, which, “severing itself, hovered over the mouth of a vase filled with scented oil,” into which it struck its roots and descended. Taking the legend as a sacred law, the Budhist priests to the present day religiously object to “lop it with any weapon,” and are contented to collect any leaves which, severing themselves, may chance to fall to the ground. These are regarded as treasures by the pilgrims, who carry them away to the remotest parts of the island.’ The other Bo trees which are found in the vicinity of every temple in Ceylon, are said to be all derived from the parent tree at Anu- radhapura ; but they have been propagated by seeds, the priests adhering in this respect to the precedent recorded in the Maha- wanso when Mihindso himself, ‘taking up a fruit as it fell, gave it to the king to plant.’ During a visit to the large temple of Killarni, near Colombo, Ceylon, I observed in the enclosure near the Dagoba a very magnificent Bo tree. It is said to bea scion from the very ancient tree at Anuradhapura, and is cal- culated to be 500 years old. It is held in high veneration, and the lower branches were covered with votive offerings of old rags, but in the space round the tree the offerings were of fresh and charming flowers. I was very desirous of procuring some of the leaves of this tree, but I saw an evident disinclination of the priests to gratify my wish, although they were very attentive, giving us the milk of the king cocoanut to drink, and would accept of no gratuity ; but, after some hesitation and delay, the — high priest gave me a few, but they were evidently fallen leaves, and I do not consider I should have obtained these had not an influential resident in Colombo been with me. I have often watched the tremulous motion of the leaves of the Bo tree when there was no wind stirring, as if some invisible agency was at work. It is similar to that of the aspen tree (Populus tremula), the trembling poplar. The Buddhists say that out of respect to their great Sage, the leaves of the Bo tree have always an apparent movement, whether there is any wind stirring or not; and the Syrians say that the Saviour’s cross was made of aspen, and the leaves have trembled ever since in commemoration of the event. But, unfortunately for this tradition, the aspen is a native of Britain, and there the wood is only used for making arrows. CHARLES DARWIN. 133 THE Editor has to acknowledge receipt of the following publications :— Catalogue of the Library of the Auckland Institute and Museum, Report of the Auckland Institute and Museum for 1881-1882. Papers and Proceedings, and Report of the Royal Society of Tasmania for 1880, Catalogue of the Australian Stalk and Sessile-eyed Crustacea, by Wm. A. Haswell, M.A., B.Sc, (from the author). Transactions and Proceedings, and Report of the Royal Society of South Australia (Vol. IV.) tor 1880-81. Journal of the Microscopical Society of Victoria, Vol. I, No. 4, Vol. II, No. 1. ERRATA.—In Dr. Roseby’s paper, at p. 68, substitute ‘“ Car- lyle” for “Carty,” at line 36. In noteon “ Adenochilus gracilis,” at p. 71, ninth line from the bottom of the page, “ south- eastern ” should read “ south-western.” CHARLES DARWIN, [BORN, FEBRUARY, 1809; DIED, APRIL, 1882.] _ Ss The home telegrams of this morning inform us in New Zealand that the greatest naturalist of the present century has just passed away. A pre-eminently busy and useful life has just come to its close in a ripe old age. For more than half-a-cen- tury Charles Darwin has devoted all his great energies to the search for scientific truth, and up to within a short period of his death was still working with unwearied assiduity at his self- imposed labours. Gifted with great natural powers, which received the best direction and cultivation that skilful training could give, and furnished with that large provision of the things of this life which completely placed him beyond the harassing and engrossing cares of having to provide for the daily wants of himself and his family, he was yet troubled continually with a “thorn in the flesh,’ which must often have rendered all work extremely painful and irksome. Though he lived far beyond the average span of human existence, he was for the greater part of his life far from being a strong man, and his compara- tively feeble health, and constantly-recurring illnesses, must have been a hindrance to all kinds of work, such as, in men of less determination and method, would have proved almost in- superable. Darwin has achieved what few men have done before him— he has revolutionised much of our knowledge and modes of thought, and has given an enormous impetus to every branch of science. Did his reputation rest on his earlier works alone, it would have been placed on a high and firm foundation. To take one example only :—his two monographs on the recent and fossil Cirripedia alone are such masterly essays in practical 134 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. zoology and paleontology that it seems almost as if he had left nothing for his successors to do, as far as these groups are concerned. But his later works have so completely eclipsed his earlier, that many perhaps who have read some of the former are ignorant of the fact that Darwin had a world-wide scientific reputation before he brought out his great philosophical works. His greatest work, the “Origin of Species,” published when he was just 50 years old, has proved, to use the words of Prof. Allmann, “a key to the order and hidden forces of the world of life.’ More than twenty years of almost continuous work and thought were devoted to the elaboration of the theory contained in it; and, fearful lest his tenure of life would prove insufficient for the completion of his task, he published his treatise in 1859, modestly terming it “this abstract.” The gist of the theory, with which his name will always remain associated, is contained in these concluding words of the introductory chapter :— “ Although much remains obscure, and will long remain obscure, I can entertain no doubt, after the most deliberate study and dispassionate judgment of which I am capable, that the view which most naturalists until recently entertained, and which I formerly entertained—namely, that each species has been independently created—is erroneous. Iam fully convinced that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species. Furthermore, I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the most important, but not the exclusive, means of modification.” | Darwin claimed no new discovery ; he elaborated, and pre- sented in a lucid, concise, and convincing manner the theories already shadowed forth by his predecessors. His own grand- father (Erasmus Darwin), Lamarck, the anonymous author of the “Vestiges of Creation,’ Owen, A. R. Wallace, I. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, and Herbert Spencer, had all advanced similar hypotheses, and paved the way by their researches. But all were before their time. Public opinion “cared for none of these things,” and their theories appeared to have been thrown into the limbo of forgetfulness, when, at the touch of the magician’s wand, they were vivified again. It is marvellous what great insight Darwin brought to bear in his researches. Problems which seemed inscrutable were explained in the simplest con- ceivable manner, and people wondered how they could have failed to find them out for themselves. Matters which appeared most irrelevant to the subjects under discussion were shown to have a close connection with them, and the applications of the theory were made to every branch of science. There was no fear ever shown by the author as to how far his theory would extend, and where it would land him. He was prepared to take the inevitable consequences, believing that, as far as it would explain that “mystery of mysteries,’ the origin of species, it CHARLES DARWIN. . igh would be safe to follow it. What was true in it he knew would stand, and could not be shaken, and what was false no one would more readily thfow over than he would himself. There was no lack of opponents to the new theory. Con- temporary criticisms show that while many were convinced at once of its satisfactory nature, som2 were dubious, and many at once opposed themselves. Every form of argument, and even abuse and vituperation, were hurled at it; but it has stood, not greatly altered from its original form, and is at the present day accepted as a doctrine of science by nearly all biologists. Inthe concluding chapter of the “ Origin of Species,” Darwin used the following memorable words :— “ Although I am fully convinced of the truth of the views given in this volume under the form of an abstract, I by no means expect to convince experienced naturalists whose minds are stocked with a multitude of facts all viewed, during a long course of years, from a point of view directly opposite to mine. . . Anyone whose disposition leads him to attach more we eight to unexplained difficulties than to the explanation ofa certain number of facts, will certainly reject the theory. A few naturalists, endowed with much flexibility of mind, and who have already begun to doubt the immutability of species, may be influenced by this volume ; but I look with confidence to the future,—to young and rising naturalists, who will be able to view both sides of the question with impartiality. Whoever is led to believe that species are mutable, will do good service by con- scientiously expressing his conviction; for thus only can the load of prejudice by which this subject is overwhelmed be removed.” His predictions have been more than realised. In England and America, in Germany more than anywhere else, throughout all communities where scientific men are to be found, his views have in the main been adopted. France, strange to say, showed the most determined resistance to the new doctrine, for there (and particularly in Paris) the influence of the Cuvierian school has acted like a wet blanket, stifling all free inquiry that was not in accordance with the teachings of the Institute, and France, as a consequence, has contributed very little to biological science during the last twenty years. All Darwin's later works—and they are many in number and monumental in character—bear more or less directly on the elucidation of the theory promulgated in the “ Origin of Species.” _ Every circumstance, howeves trivial, furnished matter to this end, every detail was studied, and the keenest power of observa- tion—a hereditary trait strongly developed in the Darwin family —was brought to bear on the subject. The marvellous industry which accumulated, sorted, and used this material to such excel- lent purpose has been the wonder of all who have studied his works. The feature, however, which impresses itself most strongly on his readers is his singular candour, and his zealous search after the true explanation of every question which presented 136 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. itself to his mind. His hypothesesand theories werenever obtruded in a crude undigested form, nor did he ever show strong partizan- ship. In advancing an opinion every argument was adduced in support of it, but at the same time the weak places were pointed out, and all the objections to be urged against it were considered. There is a total absence of dogmatic assertion in all his state- ments. Darwin seemed to be little troubled by all the savage attacks which were made against him and his theories. He was con- scious in himself of a sincere longing after truth, and had the satisfaction of feeling that his work was bearing fruit a hundred- fold. His view of life and of the Creator of life was a far grander one than any which it subverted, and he has been one of the greatest contributors to that freedom of thought which now characterizes true men of science. In the “Principia” of Isaac Newton, and the “ Origin of Species” of Charles Darwin, England has had the honour of leading and revolutionising the whole scientific world. GEO. M. THOMSON. APRIL 22nd, 1882. NEW ZEALAND MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA.* (ABSTRACT.) ———_<——_—_—_—_. The following species of Micro-lepidoptera from New Zealand are described by Mr. E. Meyrick in the “ Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales,” vols. 5 and 6 :— GENUS SIMAETHIS, Leach. Head smooth, with ocelli; tongue strong. Antennz about half as long as fore-wings, filiform, ciliated in male. No maxillary palpi. Labial palpi moderately long, recurved, second joint beneath, with rough scales, often forming a small apical projection; terminal joint compressed, rather shorter than second, blunt. Fore-wings broadly-triangular, apex somewhat produced, hind-margin slightly oblique. Hind-wings broader than fore-wings, triangular, cilia short. Abdomen short, stout. Legs short, brpadly compressed, tibiz densely scaled. Fore wings with 12 veins; no secondary cell; 1 furcate at base. Hind-wings with 8 veins; 7 and 8 remote, 3 and 4 sometimes stalked or coincident. Larva 16-legged, active, living in a web within a drawn- * Continued from page 35. NEW ZEALAND MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA. 137 together leaf; pupa in a firm white cocoon. In repose, the imago rests with the fore-wings slightly raised and partially expanded, so as not to entirely conceal the hind-wings. 1. S. combinatana, Walker (Brit. Mus. Cat., 456; lc. vol. 5, p. 213)—Head and thorax deep ochreous-brown, with a few white scales. Palpi white at base, second joint clothed with four whorls of black white-tipped scales, terminal joint black with three slender white rings. Antenne black, annulated with white, with long ciliations in male. Abdomen blackish, with a few whitish scales. Legs dark fuscous, thickly irrorated with whitish, tarsi with indistinct whitish rings, posterior tibiz clothed with dense hair-scales. Fore-wings slightly dilated, hind-margin distinctly waved; blackish-fuscous, tinged with reddish-brown on costa beyond middle, and within each pair of transverse lines; some purple-whitish scales irregularly arranged trans- versely near base ; four transverse cloudy lines of purple-whitish scales arranged in pairs, and starting from small white costal spots ; first pair from % of costa to ¥% of inner margin, rather curved outwards, irregularly toothed ; second pair from % of costa to just before anal angle, angulated outwards beneath costa, but indistinct and irregular; a streak of purple-whitish scales from apex, very near, but not on hind-margin, reaching to middle,a second similar streak from middle of hind-margin, imme- diately beyond end of first, continued along hind-margin, not extending to anal angle; cilia dark fuscous, containing a cloudy white basal spot above and another below middle of hind-margin. Hind-wings rather narrow, hind-margin strongly sinuate below middle, anal angle prominent ; dark fuscous, broadly blackish along hind-margin, with two rather short cloudy parallel streaks of blue-whitish scales, one nearly along hind-margin at anal angle, the other immediately above it; cilia white on the hind- marginal sinuation, becoming gradually smoky-fuscous towards apex, and on anal angle, black at base throughout. Male, length 6% lines. Two males taken among forest growth at Wellington, flying towards sunset, in January. GENUS CHOREUTIS, Hb. Head smooth ; with ocelli; tongue strong. Antenne about half as long as fore-wings, filiform, ciliated in male. No maxil- lary palpi. Labial palpi moderately long, recurved, second joint beneath with long dense projecting bristles ; terminal joint slen- der, pointed. Fore-wings broadly triangular, hind-margin straight. Hind-wings broader than fore-wings, triangular, cilia very short. Abdomen short, stout. Legs short, broadly com- pressed, posterior tibiz densely scaled. Fore-wings with 12 veins ; no secondary cell; 1 furcate at base. Hind-wings with 8 . 7 and 8 remote; 3 and 4 sometimes stalked or coinci- ent. In habits the species resemble Szmaéthis, and the imago holds the fore-wings slightly raised in the same manner, 138 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Larva 16-legged, living in a web between drawn together leaves, Pupa in a firm cocoon. 1. C. bjyerkandrella, Thub, l.c. vol. 5, p. 215. Head grey, face tinged with yellow. Palpi white, second joint grey on side with two black rings before apex, beneath with long blackish and white diverging bristles, terminal joint blackish. Antenne black, annulated with white, with moderate ciliations in the male. Thorax yellowish-ferruginous, with five longitudinal metallic erey-silvery lines. Abdomen black, with silvery-white rings. Legs white, tibiz with central and apical black bands, tarsi with four black bands. Fore-wings moderately dilated, apex and hind-margin rounded ; dark fuscous, basal third yellowish-ferru- ginous, except on margins and a central longitudinal streak ; two short metallic-silvery streaks from base along the costal margin and central streak ; two cloudy whitish transverse bands, first from % of costa to % of inner-margin, rather curved out- wards, furcate on inner-margin; second from % of costa to before anal angulated outwards above middle ; the space between these is irregularly sprinkled with whitish scales; two round black blotches immediately preceding second band, one on inner margin, the other below middle, each containing an elongate metallic purple-silvery mark, that in the upper one being 3- pointed ; several other metallic purple-silvery markings, consist- ing of an elongate mark on inner margin of second band above middle, a small costal spot between the two bands, an elongate mark on hind-margin below middle, preceded by an elongate black blotch, a spot on costa immediately beyond second band, and an elongate mark round apex; cilia dark grey, with a pale line in middle and another before tips, tips white round apex. Hind wings dark fuscous, blackish towards apex, with a white elongate spot on disc beyond middle, parallel to hind margin, and sometimes another less distinct white spot above it on costa: cilia blackish, with two white lines. Maleand female, length 4-5 lines. | The species occur in Europe, S. Africa, S. America, and Australia. In New Zealand I met with it on the swampy thistle- crown plains at Hamilton, on the Waikato, in immense profusion, swarming on the thistle blossoms in the sunshine, in January. In Europe the larva feeds on /zz/a ; probably in other parts of the world it is not restricted from other Composite ; in New Zealand at least it must certainly feed on thistle. (To be continued ) N. Z. UNIVERSITY SCIENCE EXAMINATIONS. 139 NEW ZEALAND UNIVERSITY SCIENCE EXAMINATIONS. ee [As the University authorities do not publish the science papers set for B.A. Matriculation and Seniorand Junior Scholarship examin- ations, it has been decided to reproduce them in this Journal, as it is believed they will prove of use to teachers and students alike. —Ed.] B.A. PASS EXAMINATION, 188r, ZOoLoGy. Examiner: Prof. H. ALLEYNE NicHoLson, M.D. 1. Indicate the chief methods in which animals become “‘ com- pound,” and define the terms “‘ zoéid”’ and “ individual.” -2. Give the general characters of the Tape-worms (Teniada or Cestoidea), and indicate the principal forms which infest man either in their adult or their immature condition. 3. Describe the structure of an Ameba, and indicate.the methods in which locomotion, the taking in of food, and reproduc- tion are effected. 4. Give the general characters of the Apteryx, mentioning the group of birds to which it belongs, and enumerating the other living types of the same order. Mention any extinct allies of the A pteryx which may be known to you. 5: Describe the dental apparatus of a Viperine Snake. 6. What are the principal characters of the Perissodactyle Ungulates? Mention the existing genera of Perissodactyles. 7. To what order of the Mammalia would you reter the Kangaroo (Macropus)? Mention some of its more striking anat- omical peculiarities. 8. Refer to its proper class and sub-kingdom an animal with the following characters :—Body segmented, nerve system in the form of a double ventral gangliated chain; heart a dorsal tube ; breathing organs in the form of tracheze; no wings; one pair of antenne; thorax and abdomen not distinct from one another ; each segment behind the head carrying one pair of jointed appendages. : BOTANY. Examiner: Prof. H. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, M.D. rt, What are ‘‘ stomata,” and in what parts of a plant are they ordinarily developed? Describe their general structure, and point out what function they discharge. 2. Describe the general structure and mode of growth of an endogenous stem. 3. Describe the characters respectively of ‘‘punctated” or Mdiscigerous” tissue, of “pitted” tissue, and of ‘ scalariform”’ tissue; and indicate the special groups of plants in which the first and last of these are characteristically developed. 140 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 4. Distinguish between an ‘‘epiphyte”’ and a “parasite,” giving examples ot each. 5. Distinguish between ‘‘simple” and “compound” leaves ; and explain what is meant by “perfoliate,” ‘ connate,” and ‘‘ peltate”’ leaves. 6. Give briefly the general characters of the Ferns (Filices), mentioning characteristic examples ot the order which occur in New Zealand. 7. Explain how pollen is formed, and give a short account of the general structure of pollen grains, and ot the part which they play in the process of reproduction. 8. What do you understand by a ‘ cone,” and what is its structure? Mention some trees known to you which produce cones. GEOLOGY. Examiner: Prof. H. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, M.D. 1. What is the chemical composition of quartz, and what are its principal crystalline forms? Mention some of its more striking varieties. 2, What do you understand by “chemically formed,” and what by ‘organically formed” rocks? Mention some of the more important rocks included under these heads. 3. What is an “amygdaloid”? Explain clearly its mode of production. 4. Give a brief account of the distribution of areas of active volcanic energy at the present day, and state what you consider should be regarded as the exciting causes of volcanic eruptions, 5. Explain the terms “dip,” “strike,” hade.” 6. What are the principal subdivisions of the Carboniferous rocks, and what is the general lithological character of the Car. boniferous series ? Mention the chief coal-producing ccuntries. 7. Explain how rock-salt comes to be accumulated in quantity in the crust of the earth, and mention the chief geological horizons at which extensive deposits ot salt are found. 8. Give the geological range of the following fossils :—Tri- lobites, Graptolites, Ammonites, Sigillana, Cephalaspis, and Ichthyosaurus. PHySIOLoGyY.* Examiner; Prof. H. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, M.D. 1. Describe the stomach of Man or of any Mammal, giving an account of its different coats, and of the special digestive glands with which it is provided. 2. Briefly describe the minute structure, chemical composition, and vital properties of voluntary muscle. 3. Explain the general phenomena of the assimilation of new matter by the animal organism, and the simultaneous retrograde metamorphosis and destruction of previously existing tissue. Indicate an essential difference between the assimilative powers of animals and plants. 4. What do you understand by a “ proximate principle”? Enumerate the chief proximate principles of the animal body. * No candidates presented themselves, CORRESPONDENCE. I41 5. Describe the structure of nerve-cells and nerve-fibres, state what is meant by a motor, and what by a sensitive nerve, and distinguish between sensation and perception. 6. Define reflex action, and give examples of actions of this nature. 7. Describe the minute structure of cartilage, and give a general account of the way in which cartilage is converted into bone. 8. What is the pulse, and how is it produced ? CORRESPONDENCE. <_<} —____. SOME FOSSIL PLANTS. (To the Editor N.Z, JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.) S1r,—Allow me to call the attention of geologists and others to a locality very rich in fossil plants, but as yet visited by compa- ratively few persons. The place was pointed out to me by Professor Black, who has known of it for some time, and with the kind help of Mr. Gardiner, of Pukerau, I was able to visit it, and get a good many specimens. The fossils occur in a bed of quartzite about five miles from the Pukerau railway station. A large landslip has laid bare the side of a hill for about a mile. The fossiliferous bed is very thin, perhaps only four feet in thickness where it is cut across by the slip, and is quite on the surtace of the ground. Beneath it there is a thick layer of brown sand, hardly firm enough to be called stone, and, as tar as I could see, destitute of fossils. Towards the east end of the landslip the stone is rich in fossil wood, and here there are very few prints of leaves; but the quantity of wood is astonishing. After the stone has hardened round the wood, the latter appears in many cases to have weathered out, leaving cavities in the stone. The large mass of stone lying on the face of the hill has, from this cause, the appearance of a huge sponge, so full is it of cavities. Towards the centre of theslip the stone is comparatively free from wood, and is very rich in leaves, and fruits, and small twigs. It would hence appear that the light leaves and twigs have been in some way sorted out from the heavier wood. The leaves and pieces of wood lie at all angles in the stone, and it seems likely that they were deposited under water and covered with sand. As no shells have yet been found in the stone, it is probable that deposition took place under fresh water. Decomposition of so much organic matter must have produced a great quantity of carbonic acid; and it is known that carbonic acid can decompose silicates. It is probable that the hardening of the sand into stone is due to soluble silica produced in this way. To the same cause may be ascribed the whiteness of the quartzite and its very high percentage ot silica. In less than two hours Mr. Gardiner and I obtained a sackful of specimens. The vegetation must have consisted mostly of 142 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. dicgtyledonous plants; but I obtained several specimens of monocotyledonous plants belonging to, perhaps, two species. I got some eight different sorts of leaves. One of these leaves appears to be identical with that of the Broadleaf (Griselinia lucida). ‘Two or three species of pine were also probably present. One specimen I obtained had a leaf very like that of the Yellow Pine. I was successful in obtaining several specimens of fruits of three or four different kinds. : Any geologist visiting this place will find it necessary to pro- vide himself with a heavy sledge hammer, as the stone is exceed- ingly hard, and the blocks are large. Hoping that some geologist will make a study of this locality.—I am, &c., A, MONTGOMERY. “A GREAT MATHEMATICAL QUESTION.” (To the Editor N.Z. JoURNAL OF SCIENCE.) Si1r,—I beg to thank you sincerely for your review of my pamphlet. That I should be accused of not understanding what ‘energy’ is consideved to be is the last thing that I should have thought anyone could bring against me after reading my pamphlet. The approval of a journal like what I hope the New Zealand JOURNAL OF SCIENCE will be is what I earnestly desire. Will you kindly allow me a brief notice of your review, that I may set myself right with your readers and with the writer of the review, whose good opinion I value. On the first page, first line, I say, ‘‘ There are two measures of force” (if “‘energy” can be called “‘force’’), and on the next page I state as follows :—‘‘ Taking the very same ball, it is asserted that (a) the momentum varies simply as the velocity varies, while (0) the kinetic energy of the same moving ball varies as the square of the velocity.” I do not think it can be said, therefore, that I have ‘‘ confused” momentum with energy. I think the reviewer did not gather in the full meaning of Professor Stewart’s remarks, which will be found much amplified in his work on the ‘Conservation of Energy.” I however lay great stress on the explicit statement of Professor Garnett (page 8 of pamphlet) in his article on “‘ Energy ’”’ in the ‘‘ Encyclopedia Britannica,” ninth edition:—‘‘ Energy may be defined as the power of doing work.” The unit of work is a pound weight raised to the height of a foot. It is asserted that the time may be neglected (pages 11 and 12 of the pamphlet). Ifa pound mass be projected so as to rise to a certain height against the force of gravity, it is asserted that the energy of the mass, moving with the initial velocity it had, is measured by the height to which it rose—the amount of work done,—just as if the force of gravity were so many feet thick. If the same mass be lifted, no matter how slowly, to the same height, it is asserted that no more work is done against the force of gravity, though the force of gravity acted for a much longer time on the mass in the second case than in the first. Ifa steam engine acted for any time, at any rate, the work done would be proportional to the time, the rate being uniform. Let the pound mass have an initial velocity of 128 feet per second. To what height would it have risen in a second if the . — ee ee ee ee are MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 143 force of gravity had not acted? The first law of motion says 128 feet. The force of gravity, however, does act. How high, then, does the mass rise? 112 teet. What, then, was the “ work” of the force of gravity? It stopped the mass from rising the 16 feet additional ; it would have risen if gravity had not acted. This then is all the work the force of gravity does in the jst second, and not 112 foot pounds as the text-books assert it does in negative work.—I am, &c., T. WAKELIN, B.A. Greytown, March 31, 1882. NEW ZEALAND FERNS. (To the Editor N.Z. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.) Sir,—In my work on ‘‘ Ferns and Fern Allies of New Zea-. land,’ I have unaccountably fallen into the error (at p. 31) of making Mr. Kirk state that Dicksonia fibvosa, Colenso, is a variety of D. squavvosa, Swartz, and I quote his remark on the subject (N. Z. Inst. Trans., vol. X., app. p. 43). A reference to Mr. Kirk’s paper will show that he places it under D. antarctica, Lab. I do not know how I can have made such a slip. I have to apologise to Mr. Kirk tor the mis-statement.—I am, &c., Geo. M. THomson. MEE CLINGS OF SOCIETIES. —_ <+—_— eeaGcO INSTITUTE AND DUNEDIN NATURALISTS’ : PLD CrhUB, 28th March.—The session was opened by a conversational meeting, at which numerous interesting exhibits were shown. Geo, M. Thomson, Esq., Vice-President, was in the chair. New Members.—Messrs. Robt. Jones, James Henry, and Wm. A. Dickson. Besides a considerable number of microscopes,. including several dissecting instruments, the following objects were ex- hibited, amongst others :— (1) A fine collection, most beautifully preserved, of marine Invertebrates, prepared at the Zoological Station, Naples. (2) A large and valuable collection of Foraminifera, received from Prof. W. K. Parker, F.R.S., Royal College of Surgeons, London. (3) Casts of Plesiosaurus, Ichthyosaurus, Pterodactyl, Iguanodon, Labyrinthodon, Machairodus, Hipparion, and Engis and Neanderthal skulls; together with a number of new speci- mens from the Otago Museum. All the above were shown by Prof. Parker. 144 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Prof. Scott exhibited a number of anatomical preparations and apparatus. Mr. F. R. Chapman showed Graptolites from the Victorian primary rocks. Mr. A. Montgomery exhibited fossil plants in chert from Waipahi. Collections of Coleoptera and Lepidoptera, made in the neighbourhood of Dunedin, were exhibited by Messrs. S. W. Fulton and P. Fulton respectively. There was a large attendance of members and their friends. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. 6th April.-The second ordinary meeting was held, the Presi- dent, Prof. von Haast in the chair. New member.—Mr. E. Meyrick. Papers.—(1) ‘‘ Notes on a skeleton of the hump-backed whale, Megaptera lalandu (Nove Zelandie), Gray,’ by Prof. J. von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S. The author describes in this paper the complete skeleton of the New Zealand Humpback Whale, of which hitherto portions were only known. It was named by the late Dr. Gray trom an earbone alone. Although small differences appear in the osteology of the New Zealand specimen when com- pared with drawings and descriptions of M. Lalandii (the Hump- back Whale ot the Cape of Good Hope), described and figured by Van Beneder and Gervais in their Ostéographie des Cétaceés, there is, according to the author, no doubt that the New Zealand specimen is identical with the former, and that thus Megaptera Novee-Zcelandice has to be abolished. Drawings of the sternum - and scapula are added in illustrations. 2. ‘On the Silt Deposit at Lyttelton,” by Professor Hutton. This paper drew attention to a section made by cutting back the hill to form a site for the Lyttelton Dock, which showed that the silt deposit was here distinctly stratified, and dipped 15deg. N.E. The author was of opinion that this stratification could not be explained on the theory of the sub-aerial origin of the deposit, as advocated by Dr. von Haast. The stratification can be seen from the steamer pier in Lyttelton Harbour. 3. ‘Additions to the Isopodan Fauna of New Zealand,” by Charles Chilton, B.A. In this paper two species were added to the New Zealand Isopoda :—(1) Apseudes timaruvia, sp. nov., from Timaru. This species was described at some length, and nume- rous figures were given of its different parts. It hasan appendage to the second maxilla somewhat like that of Tanais, which may — perform the same function, for the pleopoda are small, and do not ~ look like respiratory organs. (2) Philougrea vosea, Koch.—A Euro- pean species, specimens of which were found at Christchurch, and also at Eyreton. Perhaps introduced from England. oe tLe - ; is iy t 1s : ETAL » = am gba | = = Oo my | , me Bont « ‘ . | ; es Free me i. | a) ae it | : “ | ? i ’ ; a : +, ~ e [No. 4, Vol. I. THE ZEALAND at Ag : DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF a? ORE AND. APPLIED. SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY. 3 RINT th Tee | Fudicio perpende - et st fbi vera videntur meted Dede manus : aut si falsum est, adcingere contra. LENNON _ conrents: | Meraiaie ebeNibeje sie ics of New. ara een T. abot, M. ES is he woe er hGO PEbhs> ite or Brown Coal in the Blast Furnace. ‘Prof, VON TUNNER = 54 ; Lepidoptera Bie sa en eyet dae eae amet he aM n Mr. W. M. Maskell’s Paper, Gntitaled ‘A Visit to Weka ‘ intings.” _ JuLtus von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S: Bi sApae 5) some Mollusks omitted from Prof. Hutton’ s ‘‘ Manual of the New ae : . eee ose eee tee see ee ~wdee ns 169 ‘ ¥ cn gonida ee the “ Challenger” Expedition — Wega a iced eat LO isation 0 of eRe VIB: CbaetebeT oo ee Me yen en DR is aes 5 soo eee oom eee eee sea eee oe ; 176 5 sity” gre ht in Science—New Zealand Past a A Sanden Sylvestris— | eee of the New Zealand Institute ?—Fragmenta Phytographie Australie— q ci iety of Victoria—Caprellina Nova-Zealandiz, gue of the Australian Stalk- and nae Crustacea (Diets tor: . Ha of, M. A, B.Sc, ; kaecdiae: Ghiewd os 2 ne aha Boe eo. é F : ¥ Rotandeoneircice of Celmisia ee alls 5 some Botanical Criticisms the x Trans N.Z, Institute.” kee A bi are Paes see eae ees eee ees fee 185, te —Philosophical Graticute of Canterbury—Hawke’s Bay Philosophical Institute— i stitute—Royal poy of New South Wao Institute, — te. ae Wanedin, D.%.: hee rtape, WILKIE & Co. PUBLISHERS, PRINCES STREET. * es : eo Se er S | eal eet JOR a ag KU AS 4 asters yc SO aa, ee Pn . Pal ah Se Ak B® ne? wate Sse See mm of a cD, Serenata Me boys Piet, > 4 we tna et ee ee ee “Th tne, tpg hee RS Gale alt gins ~a 2 _ | mgt. aie. same pan ht: ~ Oe I me a pe’ he heey he, Fe, ee is Met ete Sf gp ¢ ae a4 Om nae pn ae = wr “ . wie, , ee ee i ye ee Agar © 1 a > =p a ow, * 4 7" > 5 fe ag, ee | Lp ey pew D- maps + < ore heirs shi> Baad: a a Ein Tm 8 : ~ FO nts PRS om + cage reniae | oe b- - io - ‘ waa ¢ mr En See i owt “ ae Cae ear Leak : aol ; > 4 . * 3 > cs ibe rvs es ee One gel eo memeien! way = ee qh ie Vol. I., No. 4, JUNE, 1882. ] A NEW ZEALAND ASSOCIATION OF SCIENCE. uy 2k petal 5 BY A. K. NEWMAN, ESQ., M.B., M.R.C.P. peek heh The marked success achieved by the British Association of Science has led to the successful foundation of kindred insti- tutions among most civilised nations. In the United States, France, Germany, and Scandinavia, they flourish. This process of aggregation has indeed gone still further, for these national meetings have been followed by international gatherings. There have been meetings, such as the International Geographical meetings, where representatives from the most distant countries assembled, each bringing his special knowledge to be assimilated with the common stock. This was followed by a great Inter- national Medical Congress, which met in London, and was a brilliant achievement. Everywhere in the scientific world are evidences abundant as to the value of such associations and such gatherings, and nowhere is there trace of harm. In the body political a like result obtains. In New Zealand, our bankrupt isolated provinces have been abolished and replaced by a flourishing united form of government. Our philosophical societies, each struggling hard, each doing good work, would do still better work if united ; and such an association would fairly hold its own against like associations, and would make a respectable appearance in the scientific world. Until recently the existence of such a body was quite impossible in this colony, but now that rail and steam have made means of com- munication frequent and easy, the welding process is simple—it merely needs a beginning. If the effort were made, success would certainly follow. All that is required is the willing co-operation of the various societies. When the British Associ- ation first met it was ridiculed by all the newspapers, now it is a. mighty help in the advancement of science. There are now so many workers in the colony that, if a fair percentage assembled, Meewould suffice to ensure success. I believe that a sufficient number would attend. A _ carefully-selected committee of Management, consisting of one representative from each Philo- sophical Society, could draw up rules and a plan of manage- ment, which could not fail to be successful. As a model, they might choose the British Association. The New Zealand Association should be peripatetic, holding its meetings in the chief towns. Any member of any Philosophical Society should be a member of the Association. It should be governed by a president, vice-presidents, and a committee elected by the mem- bers. A week would be long enough for the sittings of this Scientific parliament. Its meetings should be held in spring, 146 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. summer, or autumn, and might be simultaneous with those of the University Senate, and held in the same town. Perhaps, however, it would be better to hold it at a time when the University professors and all other teachers would be at liberty to attend. 3 The advantages of such an association would be very many and very great. It would bring together the many scientific. workers in the colony; it would make them friendly; would elicit many discussions ; would teach each man his position. It would let the workers know their position better, would teach them often what had been done, what was being done, and what was left for the future. These annual meetings would also do vast good by removing some of the narrow-mindedness and priggishness inseparable from all isolated workers. The reading of papers: the results of the work of a few would stimulate many to hard work. There would arise that best of stimulants —a keen competition; and progress would follow. Not only would scientific students profit, but also the general public. The curse of our present system is that in each society there are only some half-dozen active workers who read many papers and take an active part in the discussions. The public grow ‘ weary of attending the meeting where, year after year, they. listen to the same speakers; and there arises the feeling in their minds which led, ages ago, to the statement that a prophet is not without honour save in his own country, and among his own kin. One obvious benefit of these meetings would be a renewed interest in science by the public. A Dunedin public, wearied a little perchance of their own scientists, would willingly go to hear new voices from Wellington and Auckland and else- where, and certainly these other people would crowd to listen to a strange preacher. The annual address by the president, and the meeting of the Association, would attract the attention of the papers, and thereby be brought more closely home to the people. | Medical men in the colony might form an Association, which should be a branch of the larger one—a section, such as the Geological or Botanical. This section would certainly give strength and size to the Association. Many medical men would take an interest in it, and would attend the meetings of the Association, who otherwise would not go for a mere love of general science. The Association. might further strengthen itself by a Social Science section, thereby attracting another class of workers. To be a success, the Association would have to open wide its doors to all classes of thinkers and workers. The engineers and surveyors would have a section to themselves, — In social science, there might be an educational subsection. The Association might, I think, do more than this. It might found a kind of order of merit, like the F.R.S.at Home. Tog make it a real honour, the number to be distributed yearly should be limited to 1 or 3. The keen desire to obtain the right to use the magic letters F.R.S. at Home is productive of a ] A N. Z. ASSOCIATION OF SCIENCE. 147 very large amount of good work. Original research might fur- ther be encouraged by the giving of a yearly medal, like the Copley, Royal, or Rumford. All such honours should be given sparingly, and with most jealous care, in order to maintain their high prestige. Such prizes would stimulate a large number of workers, both young and old. Not a few scientific workers are apt to despise all such aids to science, but every man of the world will agree as to their utility. For centuries all scientific workers were believed to practice the black art, to have sold themselves to the Devil ; and, though this feeling has almost entirely died out, it still lingers ina modified form in the belief so common among the multitude that science is something very mysterious, very weird, and always incomprehensible. Unfortunately this feeling was largely fostered by a class of men who delight to maintain this incom- prehensibility, by the use of an extravagantly technical phrase- ology. Sometimes this was pure matter of habit, but very often it was the child of pure affectation and conceit. Men who had little to say liked to make that little seem much by clothing it in the longest, most uncouth terms they could find, so that the public became thoroughly averse to reading any scientific work. It is only recently that efforts have been successfully made to popularise science, and chief among these is the greatest of all modern scientific workers. In his “ Voyage of the ‘Beagle,’” “Origin of Species,” “Descent of Man,” and in all his works down to his latest on earthworms, Mr. Darwin has clothed the highest generalisations and the purest science in words and phrases so simple that the most unlearned can easily understand and take pleasure therein. Hehas been followed by Huxley, with his humourous, clear, incisive writing ; by Tyndall in a masterly prose, and by Proctor in the freest and easiest manner. These men and many others have done a vast amount of good, alto- gether outside the actual scientific contents of their books, by teaching the people that science iss not an incomprehensible mystery, but is really very simple and very easily understood. Unfortunately this old spirit of eclecticism still lives in the _ breasts of many scientific workers; they hate all attempts at. “popularising ” science, and deem all such efforts as degrading, as ruinous to science, and altogether worthy of contempt. These men like to think that their work is special, select, and cavaire tothe general. They have a feeling akin to that which ruled the old Egyptian priests, who had a special high-class religion, with carefully guarded rites, for themselves, whilst they had another religion and other ceremonials for the common herd. I feel sure there is very little danger to fear from popularising science, which after all only means that we put thoughts into language which every one who runs may read. I think this absurd dread of “ popularising ” science has done and is still doing a great deal of harm. JI am a constant attend- ant at the meetings of the Wellington Philosophical Society, and I have read many accounts of the meetings of its kindred 148 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, societies, and everywhere I find the same thing—dreary papers, thoughts clothed in most scientific technical phraseology,a scanty audience which soon looks weary and grows restless and inatten- tive; the result being that the public in each town care little or no- thing for science. When in England I have frequently attended lectures at the Royal, the London, and other institutions,and there I saw quite a different plan adopted. For instance, suppose that Prof. Huxley is the lecturer, the theatre is crowded with an audience very little better scientifically educated than those at our Philosophical meetings ; yet instead of seeing weary, list- less faces and yawning featurss, with the clearest signs of blankest bewilderment written on their faces, we there see an audience listening eagerly, and evidently deeply interested from start to finish. The cause of the difference is simple. The Pro- fessor’s plan is easy and successful. He works for months or years before making some discovery. The result achieved, he writes a most learned monograph, couched in the most sesqui- pedalian words, and the most technical of technical phraseology to ensure scientific exactness; and this monograph, incomprehen- sible everywhere except to similar skilled workers, is printed in the Transactions of the Royal Society for future reference and guidance. It is acceptable to all specialists, and there fulfils one of its missions. When, however, the Professor lectures to a mixed audience, he prepares very different material. He drapes his discovery in plain yet eloquent words, he leaves out all the dreary details, and all the unintelligible phraseology ; he lightens his subject by various pleasant methods, and at the end of his lecture the audience understands a vast deal more than it would have done had he read through every word of his lengthy essay. All the people go away pleased, they feel they have learnt some- thing, they think and talk over the subject, they tell the dis- coveries to their friends, and they go to the next lecture. Many workers in this colony seem to despise this plan, and sneeringly suggest that it is merely a phase of hinting, and fiercely maintain that it is contemptible and calculated to ruin science. The public hate to sit listening to a prosy stammering man, who reads in dullest tones a paper couched in such terms that they really do not understand three consecutive sentences. People loathe these dull unintelligible monographs, but very many thoroughly enjoy hearing “the fairy tales of science and the long results of time.” Ina New Zealand audience the number of people who know anything of a special science is very limited, yet in one evening they hear a paper on the “Fossils of the Amuri,” on the “ Botany of Ruapehu,” on the “Simplest Con- tinuous Manifoldness of Finite Space of Two Dimensions,” and an article on the “ Hydration of Silicates.” All this hotch-potch is served up to them in the rawest terms; it is not cooked to make it easy for their digestion, and the result is disgust and WeCariness. If the Association is to be a success it must be managed on broad grounds. It must be governed by a committee of workers, . } A N. Z. ASSOCIATION OF SCIENCE. 149 and not of great names. Every man on the cammittee should be chosen because of his known capacity as an organiser and worker, and no man should be on it merely because he isa “ Sir ” or an M.L.C. or M.H.R., or a luminary of the Church guileless of all scientific work. The Association should be very broad in its aims, embracing all workers, and shutting out no one. The Council should be elected by ballot. The meetings of the Asso- ciation should be so governed as to be of interest to all. Very much benefit would often follow if it were agreed, as is often done in the medical societies in London, that some expert should read a paper on a topic of great general interest at the time, and be followed by a list of speakers, all bringing their special knowledge to bear on the subject. Take for instance such sub- jects as “ The Whence of the Maori,” read by its author and dis- cussed in turn by such men as Colenso, Fenton, Manning, Locke, fonn White, |Haast, Hector, Stack, and .others; or, “The Resources of the Colony,” by Dr. Hector, and its discussion by other leading experts. In the special discussions at the Patho- logical and Clinical Societies in London, this plan is frequently productive.of good, and leads to a real advance in our knowledge. It shows each worker on what varied lines others are working, and the bringing together of these varied plans corrects many errors, and leads to the breaking of fresh ground. . Another way in which such an Association might do good would be the publication of a journal, which should be the special organ of all scientific workers. The British Medical Journal some years since began as a small weekly sheet, the mouth-piece of the small Medical Association. It owed something as the years rolled on to the help of the Association, but this it has fully repaid in every sense. It now is the accredited organ of an Association numbering many thousands, and has been of much service to the profession. Such a paper would be of ser- vice to a large class of people who have little bits of special knowledge and make little discoveries of interest, yet not suffi- ciently large, perhaps, to form a monograph for publication in the over-crowded “ Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.” As the “ Transactions” appear only once a year there is a long interregum, and some monthly journal is needed to fill the blank. In conclusion, after looking at the subject in all its lights, I see nothing impracticable, or any actually serious difficulties in the way of forming such an association. If, during this winter, the various Philosophical Societies would discuss the matter, and would send their written opinions to each other, and if they would unite, I feel sure that a meeting early next year would crown their efforts with success. In starting anything of this kind it is very easy to conjure up a host of difficulties, and there are those who delight in sodoing ; but if members resolve to overlook difficulties, they would soon vanish. Perhaps the best way after all will be for someone to take the initiative step, and as “everyone’s business is no one’s business,” I will test the feeling of the Wellington Society directly after the publication of this 150 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, article; and then if each of the other societies will discuss the matter and send their answers to our secretary, a conclusive reply could easily be obtained to the question whether the societies think the time has come when a New Zealand Associa- tion of Science should be formed. REMARKS ON THE HISTERIDA OF NEW ZEALAND. BY CAPT. T.i1 BROUN,. M.E.S: As the exponents of this coleopterous family display habits somewhat at variance with preconceived notions, I have thought that a brief record of such observations as I have been able to - make may prove interesting to naturalists, who, perhaps, are apt to infer the mode of life of a New Zealand insect from what is known regarding similar or nearly related species found else- where. Our species vary in size from quarter of an inch to two- thirds of a line. They are of different forms, one or two being almost quadrate, whilst others are nearly hemispherical. All are hard polished insects which, when disturbed, contract the limbs so as to simulate death. The greater number are almost wholly black ; two only form exceptions to the rule. Before proceeding further, it may be as well to state that the European members of the group generally affect the excrement of cattle, their decomposing remains, or such like pabulum. The species at the head of our list, Platysoma cognatum, was discovered by Mr. T. Lawson and me, amongst decaying vege- table matter in the Domain at Auckland, and has not, I believe, been found elsewhere. The habits of A/zster cinnamoneus must remain in obscurity for the present, because no one, so far as I know, has been fortunate enough to find even a solitary example of it since the time of its description, many years ago. Epierus sylvanus and E£. purus occur in the forests adjacent to Whangarei Harbour, generally remote from human _habita- tions, and invariably on logs or amongst decaying leaves, woody fibre, etc. Sternaula szealandicus, the largest species we have, and moreover belonging to a genus peculiar to Madagascar, was first met with by me at Tairua some years ago, or, more correctly, one visited me, sedately marching into my house with the appa- rent intention of enriching my collection—at all events, such was the result. On one occasion, many months afterwards, whilst out in the woods, I came across a huge prostrate tree, dry, but quite rotten, which had obviously been tenanted by hundreds of this beetle, which, it was evident, had passed THE HISTERID/ OF NEW ZEALAND. I51 through all its metamorphoses in the wood; nevertheless my inquisitive friend remained my only capture, all I then saw being mere fragments of the once perfect insects. In the course of a couple of years I had removed to Whangarei Heads, and having chosen a suitable ravine for future research, proceeded to cut down an Areca sapida, for the express purpose of examining its inhabitants. I need not advert to the success met with as regards Cossonide, etc., as these have nothing to do with the subject of this memoir; but I must mention that the whole of the tree was carefully utilised as traps for coleoptera. The bole was cut into short lengths for convenience in turning over, and the pieces rolled into shady spots, whilst the leaves were systematically placed in layers just beyond the sun’s rays. Ina few days afterwards I returned to the place, and on that, as on almost every other visit, I found one or more of this species, which, it must be apparent, had been attracted by the exudations, or had actually been living on the plant itself. I have not heard of its being found under other circumstances ; but I make a practice of felling one of these palms in different localities, and having allowed a few days to elapse, never look in vain for this species. Abreus vividulus, a rather brightly coloured little beetle, has been seen at one place only, a flat alluvial delta at Tairua, occasionally flooded, and at such times thinly covered with sandy soil and debris. I caught about a dozen individuals at various times, but although the dung of cattle was abundant, and the remains of a pig hard by, not one approached either. Another representative of this genus, A. Lrount, so named by Mr. G. Lewis, is the smallest of our Histeridz, and seems to be excessively rare, as I have been unable to detect more than two or three specimens. These were taken off a moss-covered log in the neighbourhood of Whangarei Harbour. A number of specimens in my cabinet, derived from various sources, remain nondescript ; all that can be asserted concerning them just now is that none can be termed carrion-feeders. We now arrive at the genus whose members exhibit modes of existence demanding close investigation—at any rate, with the exception of Saprinus punctulipennis, and perhaps S. latipes. The former was found in the forest at Tairua, the latter at Wellington, both phytophagous. I shall give an account of S. /epidulus first, reserving the most important species to conclude with. Mr. P. Stewart- Sandager sent me a specimen he had found at Lyall Bay, Wellington. I needed no information as to its habitat, as, when describing it, I detected minute pieces of shell-sand on the underside of its body. It is, structurally, closely allied to the following species. Saprinus pedator, an extraordinary little creature, so far as structure is concerned, particularly on account of its retractile ventral segments and coarsely sculptured, strongly developed, hind legs, more nearly resembling those of a Pericoptus or 152 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Brullea than any other insect, was discovered on the sea beach at Tairua. My first specimen was captured on the wing in the act of trying to effect its escape from some Algz I had turned over in December, 1875. On the oth of the following month I took four more from a decaying fish that had been cast ashore, and then lay embedded amongst sea-weeds. I was ata loss to determine whether these four had congregated to feast on the fish, or had been the original occupants of the heap, so I resolved on a thorough search. I travelled over miles of the shore at different times, carefully examined every stranded fish and dead bird, everything in short in the shape of carrion, but in vain, not a single individual could be found. I did, however, secure another specimen amongst Algeze. The result would seem to indicate a purely littoral habit, with Algz as the natural food ; and, if corroborative evidence were necessary, it would be found in the fact of the capture of several individuals near Cape Saunders by T. Chalmers, Esq., of Dunedin. Our last species, Saprinus pseudocyaneus, occurs, I think, throughout New Zealand; but, notwithstanding that, I have seen very few specimens. I may here intimate that, as a rule, truly indigenous coleoptera are rather scarce individually, and, in many cases, appear to decrease in number; whilst, on the other hand, imported insects thrive exceedingly well when suitable food happens to be available. Saprinus rotundatus, which I found in an Auckland bone-mill, is one instance ; and, if we desire more, we need only examine grain, the droppings of cattle, and hawthorn hedges. I daresay most people will give me credit for “keeping my eyes open” during my exploration in the bush, so when I state that, during the comparatively long period of ten years, I failed to find a single example of Saprinus pseudocyaneus in the forests, or amongst vegetable matter of any kind, it may be taken for granted that the species never lived there. I obtained my first two or three specimens on a dead animal at Tairua, and all those subsequently taken were found under precisely similar conditions, though in widely separated localities, but in no instance near the forests. I afterwards received two or three from Wellington, where they had been regaling them- selves on carrion ; and more recently I asked Mr. S. W. Fulton, of Outram, to be kind enough to send me such beetles as he could find on the carcasses of sheep on his run. This gentle- man, ever ready to assist me, soon forwarded a miscellaneous collection, including, as I expected, either one or two of SS. pseudocyaneus. These facts seem to prove conclusively that this beetle could not exist without animal matter. If we now pause to think, several problems will present themselves for solution. First of all the question arises, “ Did Saprinus pseudocyaneus in past ages live in the primeval forests, and afterwards desert them on the advent of the Maories or the introduction of quadrupeds?” If we answer in the affirmative, we must admit that the total change of life thus at ae = ee eS oe oe OF oe) oe THE HISTERIDA OF NEW ZEALAND. 153 implied on the part of an animal actuated solely by instinct is most extraordinary, if not quite without precedent. [| appre- hend no such reply from naturalists, though others may venture even further. It may be suggested that the Dinornis provided subsistence for it, possibly, but it must have been a very pre- carious means of livelihood. I consider it extremely doubtful, if not altogether inadmissible. Had such been the case, we may feel sure that one or more of the skilful investigators—men accus- tomed to deal with scientific difficult problems, who carefully examined the remains of the moa in different localities—would not have overlooked the presence of the hard and glossy shells of this beetle. I think we are justified in assuming that it had nothing to do with the moa. Perhaps we may be reminded of the much-talked-of New Zealand rat! Well, I can have no objection to that, but I scarcely think anyone will seriously credit our only known quadruped with the preservation of our Saprinus from the fate which has overtaken the moa and rat alike. It has not to my knowledge been found upon stranded fish, nor on birds, either native or foreign. Here established data come to an end, so we are compelled to substitute what may be con- sidered little better than mere conjecture in order to arrive at some definite conclusion. My theory may be thus expressed :—The insect did not originally inhabit our forests, and consequently did not abruptly abandon its normal state of existence for another and altogether different one, neither has it been miraculously spared from extinction. The beetle, in my humble opinion, accompanied the Maories in their migrations to these islands, and may therefore be looked upon as an importation from abroad. Now, if this point be conceded, we may await with confidence the ultimate decision as to which of the many surmises regarding the original habitat of the Maori is the true one. We know very well that many of the islands lying between Asia and Australia have been but little frequented by Europeans, more rarely have they been explored by experienced naturalists, and it cannot be asserted that their entomological faunz have been at all exhaustively studied ; so we need not be surprised at the absence of any record of the presence of Saprinus pseudocyaneus in such an extensive area. This, however, seems certain, if the beetle in question be found to exist on any of these islands, we, or our posterity, will be enabled to indicate the exact spot or spots from whence the Maoris migrated with as much certainty as if there had been living eye-witnesses, or indisputable written evidence, to testify to the embarkation. Lake Takapuna, Auckland, 5th May, 1882. 154 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. ON THE USE OF LIGNITE OR BROWN COAL IN THE BLAST, PURNACE, ————_— > ——_ BY PROF. VON TUNNER, LEOBEN, AUSTRIA. : os (Read before the fron and Steel Institute at its Autumn Meeting, October, 1881.) In undertaking, by request, to write a paper for the next meeting of the Institute upon the experiments that have been carried out in Austria for the production of pig iron with lignite or brown coal, I will, at the outset, for the purpose of showing what had formerly been done to solve this problem, take the liberty of calling attention to an article of my own contained in the twenty-first volume of the “ Mining and Metallurgical Year- Book for 1873,” pages 52-66. Asa supplement to that article I have remarked ina small drochure,* that probably from one- fourth to one-third of the coke made could be supplied by the newer brown coal dried in a kiln, or by the older brown coal in its raw state, whereby 100 parts of coke would need to be supplied by 160 parts of brown coal. As appears in the article above mentioned, the application of the newer brown coal, uncoked, for the production of pig-iron was under consideration as far back as the year 1806 in Styria; but not until forty years afterwards was attention to the subject revived, and it was then approached in several directions. The Imperial Ministry at Vienna had specially taken the matter up, as is expressly shown by concessions to several leaseholders and companies, on the 3rd January, 1871, No. 3365. The earlier existing Metallurgical Association for Upper Styria determined to undertake experiments on a large scale, because all the experi-. ments previously made, separately and on a small scale, had led to no decisive result. But all the efforts for bringing together the means necessary for these experiments were in vain, which is all the more easily accounted for because no fixed programme was drawn up as to how, when, and under whose management the experiments were to be conducted. Different works in the meantime continued to carry out isolated experiments, partly with the newer brown coal coked under pressure and with steam (in blast furnace No. 2, at Vordernberg, at Koflach, etc.) and partly with brown coal of better quality (at Zeltweg, Pravali, and Kalan), and, simultaneously, with the application of charcoal or the coke of good black coal, and they attained therewith more or less favourable results. | But none of these results were satis- factory to the “ Mining and Metallurgical Association of Styria and Carinthia,” which therefore on the 6th of June, 1880, passed a fresh resolution resolving to take up the subject once more, and appointing for that purpose a committee, which, among _ * The Future of the Austrian Iron Trade, especially the pti sag of Pig Iron,” Vienna, 1869, page Io, = ON THE USE OF LIGNITE IN THE BLAST FURNACE. 155 others, included the Professor of Metallurgy in the School of Mines, Herr Franz Kupelwieser. From this committee, up to the present time, only one state- ment has emanated, that being an article from Professer Kupel- wieser, entitled “Studies on the Application of Brown Coal to the Production of Pig Iron,” which is contained in the last num- ber of the “ Journal of the Mining and Metallurgical Association of Styria and Carinthia,” pages 260-271.* The author himself * In this paper Professor Kupelwieser, after reviewing the various experiments made to utilise brown coal in the blast furnace, remarks that it appears to him to be necessary in order to the production of pig iron with brown coal, to consider care- fully the effect of temperature on that description of fuel in the blast furnace. Brown coal and lignite contain so much water and so many elements which escape in gase- ous form, that the quantity of heat remaining is thereby substantia]ly diminished, The single particles of this diminished volume not being adequate, explosions (sprunge) occur, which cause the larger pieces to disintegrate. When the brown coal is dense and of conchoidal fracture, it generally remains in pieces of a parallelo- piped form, sharp-edged and hard, the external appearance being very similar to anthracite. These pieces, generally but a few cubic centimetres in size (I cubic centimetre = 0°061 English cubic inch) are hard, solid, and somewhat friable. For successful working, such pieces should be kept somewhat larger, whereby a great adyantage would be gained, Lignite, which shows a woody texture, separates in blisters in consequence of the heat, and then gives off thin, hard and dense slices, which are also much smaller in size. This tendency to split into bits is less apparent in knotty pieces, because in them the fibres are so folded together that when they explode the component parts mechanically hold themselves better together. On a closer consideration of their action in the blast furnace it appears doubtful, according to Professor Kupelwieser, whether the smelting column becomes so much the more dense as the materials of the charge are more finely granulated. Ifa given furnace is worked with coked fuel, the height of the furnace and the pressure of blast continuing the same, the size of the grain of the material of the charge becomes gradually smaller, and the expansion of the gases in the furnace in a similiar ratio becomes greater and greater. But if the other conditions remain the same, with the rising of the expanding gases, the quantity of blast carried into the furnace would continually become smaller, and the production would go down till it reached the limit at which the burning of the fuel would altogether cease, and would appear to be completely stopped. This phenomenon will always appear as soon as the size of the grain of the fuel, the ore, and the slag is so small that the blast appears unable to effect a uniform distribution through the smelting column. In these conditions it appears to be a matter of indifference whether charcoal, coke, or coked brown coal in small pieces be applied as fuel to powder-like ore and slags. The difficulty in working a blast furnace with brown coal consists, therefore, in the right selection of the coal to be used; the difficulty is not in respect of the change in the condition of the fuel brought about by the chemical composition of the charge, but is to be sought in the size of the grain and in the density produced in the strata of the smelting column. It thus appears very clearly that the working of the blast furnace with brown coal alone, or with coke produced from brown coal, would be found practicable if by some means the smelting column could be kept sufficiently loose, if the dense com- pression of the smelting column could be prevented; or if in the coking of brown coal means were found of producing pieces of cohesive coke of larger size, or of making the small pieces of coked brown coal into briquettes, in such a way that the briquettes would not split into pieces in the heat. é As means which appear under these conditions calculated to give the greatest possible production of pig iron with brown coal as fuel, or the coke produced from it, the Professor specifies the following as prominent :— Ist. In order to keep the smelting column less dense, a stronger pressure of blast should be applied. There would be of course, under circumstances in other respects alike, an increased expansion along with the pressure of the blast, whereby apart of the smelting column would be supported, and be consequently loosened. 2nd. Another way of lessening the density of the smelting column might be sought by changing, in part at least, the size of the grain of the material charged, 3rd, The formation of the blast furnace would have a great influence on the possibility of using much brown coal. 156 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, remarks, however, that he could scarcely, under the circum- stances, describe himself as bringing forward anything absolutely new, or indeed any immediately practicable proposal to be directly carried out ; and therefore he merely states, and in part endeavours to answer, the two following questions :— ist. Is the production of pig iron with brown coal (lignite), from a theoretic point of view, possible or not ? 2nd. Is the production of pig iron with brown coal practically workable or not ? To the first of these questions the answer returned was that the application of raw as well as of coked brown coal to blast furnace working was by no means impossible, and> there remained therefore nothing more to be added on that point. As regards the second question, it was perfectly evident that the difficulty of working the blast furnace with brown coal, so far as the selection of coal to be used was concerned, was to be found in the largeness of the grain and the consequent density of the burden of the smelting column ; and in considering this difficulty the Professor thought his attention should be confined to ascertaining what method appeared most likely to supply a great part of the production of pig iron with brown coal used as fuel, or the coke extracted from the brown coal. The Pro- fessor accordingly confined himself to the application of brown coal to the production of pig iron; that is, to the composition of a mixed charge (one-fourth to three-fourths brown coal, with three-fourths to one-fourth coke), whereby notable results have been already obtained in Austro-Hungary, and he remarked very truly that a still higher degree of success should have been obtained if the price of brown ‘coal there were not so high as to be a drawback. To the record of the proceedings, proposals, and experi- ments hitherto made in Austro-Hungary relative to the applica- tion of brown coal to the production of pig iron, and the results thereby obtained, as published by Herr Kupelwieser, I desire to add the following facts :— With the exception of Kalan, nowhere hitherto has the blast furnace been worked with brown coal exclusively ; and even in Kalan, under the management of a gentleman well known in metallurgical circles (Herr Massenez, the general manager at Horde), it answered only for a short time, and not without all sorts of interruptions in the working. Moreover, in every in- stance these experiments had hitherto been made in the old standing blast furnaces, which were constructed for working with charcoal or coke, and without any regard to the special qualities of the brown coal so used. With the mixed charge, also, very good results have sometimes been obtained when — using the old blast furnaces; and some of the results might have been still better, if only a stronger blast had been at com- mand, such as would be necessary to succeed in the working of a furnace charged with anthracite, for the anthracite likewise has, more or less, the undesirable property of bursting in pieces — ON THE USE OF LIGNITE IN THE BLAST FURNACE. 157 when heated. Not only, however, is the mixed charge in itself merely a makeshift, but the results obtained by it have been very varied. The reasons why the results until now obtained by the mixed charge, in the different places named, and with different varieties of brown coal, were so unequal, lay not so much in the more or less adequate character of the furnace and blast, as in the quality of the brown coal brought for this purpose to the places in question. There existed, in fact, a great dis- similarity in the composition and properties of the brown coal employed. Although, obviously, brown coal, very rich in sulphur and ash, should nowhere be used for this purpose, yet there is to be found in grades of inferior quality, by heating, and partly even by drying, a great difference in the tendency to burst. It is known that the property of containing more or less water is decisive (not indeed altogether, as anthracite shows, but still to a large extent) for the bursting in brown coal; in some lignites it is, in fact, 30 per cent. as compared with less than 10 per cent. water in the better kinds of brown coal. Moreover, some brown coals, even some lignites, are saturated by resin or bitu- men to such an extent that if not purposely dried (dacken) it oozes out more or less. There is in this respect an essential difference not only in the geological formation of the brown coal, but in different seams of one and the same formation ; and even in different strips (strezfex) of the same seams, this great differ- ence is to be found. Before brown coal, therefore, is tried for blast furnace purposes, there should be a close examination of its composition and qualities. With the 9 to 10 per cent. of water contained in the coal of Fohnsdorf and Leoben, the mixed charge with only one-third of brown coal could have been continued till now without any serious interruption, whereby pieces of coal not less in size than one’s hand were selected, and, of course, the iron ore, mostly of a smaller size of grain, made no obstruction. In Kalan, on the other hand, where the brown coal was worked to the extent of 60 or 70 per cent., and, as already observed, was worked under Mr. Massenez’ management for a short time exclusively, these good results could only have been obtained in this way : the coal, although occurring in a formation there termed Tertiary, is yet less liable to burst in that part of the seam, and had first been partly coked (half carbonised), the small thereby formed being afterwards separated. With a careful examination and selection of the coal at his command, the present general mana- ger at Kalan, Herr Em. Heyrowsky, hoped to succeed in work- ing the blast furnace by the exclusive use of the coal found there, and thus to obtain much more favourable results than had been accomplished in the experiments at Zeltweg, likewise under the same gentleman’s superintendence. It would scarcely be necessary, then, to have shown that with fuel which for the working of the blast furnace should be good, the working of a cupola furnace must be much more easily 158 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. accomplished, as in the latter the process of reduction altogether ceases, and there is but little slag to deal with. I here repeat what I have previously said, that the first practical experiments should have been made with coal, and in a cupola instead of a blast furnace, because the interruptions occurring in the working of cupola furnaces are under control, and are incomparably shorter and less costly than those of the blast furnace. Never- theless, such coal should not be used in the cupola furnace for the production of pig iron, but only when pig iron is re-melted, and not till this more simple operation is successful, and experi- ence has been gained of the action of the coal, should it be extended to the complicated operations of the blast furnace. Although the coking of the raw brown coal (lignite) under high pressure, with or without superheated steam, prevents to some extent the bursting of the single pieces of crushed coal, yet it appears that the greater cost of this application is not covered by the better yield thereby obtained from the larger pieces of coal; therefore this method, which was tried in Juden- burg, Koflach, and Verdernberg, has been given up. The state- » ment that useful coke is obtained by the mixture of very poor with richer coals has been proved at Creuzot in France, where about equal parts of the two sorts of coal were mixed in the coke oven. It is for that reason generally held that the small of the brown coking coal, mixed with good coking coal, should furnish good coke for the blast furnace, while the somewhat larger pieces of the brown coking coal might be used direct ; but if this method is to be attended with economical results, the account must show the prices according to the local circum- stances. In the foregoing I have remarked that in the experiments hitherto carried on, the special properties of brown coal were. not taken into account, while everywhere the construction of the furnace used has been intended for the consumption of charcoal or coke. As worthy of special notice for experimenting with the use of brown coal, the construction of the furnace at Queny- veans was pointed out by me in the above-mentioned volume of the “ Mining and Metallurgical Year-Book” for 1873, at pages 56-58, and the manipulation to be followed was also described. In the construction of the blast furnace, the stalk above the boshes, instead of rising directly upwards, as usually is the case appeared to be divided vertically into two equal parts, which turned to the right and to the left. One of these halves (which stands not quite horizontal but obliquely, and is provided with peculiar shafts at the top) is for the coking and preparation of brown coal, and the other for the wersting and preparation of the iron ore and the requisite flux. The burden of the red hot coke of brown coal and the red hot ore consequently first meet at the level of the boshes, z.e., nearly at the end of the first third of the stack of a furnace of the height elsewhere used. By this means important advantages in favour of the possibility of working with raw brown coal should be obtained, among which ~ NEW ZEALAND MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA. 159 the smaller pressure on the light, friable brown coal coked, the lighter rising of the gases in the dense but low smelting column, and the possibility of more readily overcoming occasional inter- ruption, ought to be especially pointed out. Whilst I must refer you for the details of the matter to the book already men- tioned, I must leave it to the future, and to greater experience in the working of the blast, to determine whether this suggestion should come into everyday use.* * Professer Kupelwieser remarks that the practicability of the reduction of iron ore by brown coal has been shown by the experiments of Chenot and Blair. The difficulty arises in continuing the operation when sponge iron is produced; and the question then obtrudes itself whether this part of the work would not be suitably carried on in a small furnace with coked fuel, such as in a Siemens furnace as Blair tried to doit. In conclusion he thinks it best, under the present conditions, to urge not so much the application of brown coal alone, as the possibility of the combined use of brown coal in working the blast fnarnace, as he previously suggested in the year 1876 (vol. xxi. p. 253 of the ‘‘ Austrian Journal’), and the combined use of the blast furnace process with the Bessemer process, in certain cases in combination with the Martin process (vol. xxviii. No. 1 of 1880) in order by this combination to unite the shortest and most economical way for the production of wrought iron, NEW ZEALAND MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA.* (ABSTRACT,) ee GENUS GLYPHIPTERYX, 0. Head smooth, with ocelli; tongue moderate. Antennz much shorter than fore-wings, slender, filiform, pubescent, or very shortly ciliated in males. No maxillary palpi. Labial palpi rather short, thick, arched; second joint laterally com- pressed, often roughly scaled beneath ; terminal joint as long as second, pointed. Fore wings elongate, variable in breadth, hind- margin often indented, oblique, apex rounded, often produced. Hind wings varying from ovate to lanceolate, narrower than fore wings, cilia rather narrower or broader. Abdomen rather elongate. Legs rather short, smoothly scaled. Fore wings with 12 veins ; secondary cell indicated ; 7 and 8 separate ; 1 simple, or more or less furcate at base. Hind wings with 8 veins; 3 and 4 from posterior angle of cell, sometimes short stalked. The genus may always be recognised by the short palpi clothed with whorls of scales, and metallic transverse markings. All the species have the same habit of alternately raising and depressing their wings when at rest, as though fanning them- selves. They are sun-loving insects, and fly especially in the afternoon towards sunset, in grassy places. The larvee are 16-legged, rather stout, and feed principally on the seeds of grasses and allied plants, except one European species on Sedum. I have not yet succeeded in finding the * Continued from page 138. 160 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. larve of any Australian species, but from the habits of the imago, I have little doubt that all will be found to feed in the seed-heads of different species of grass and sedge. 1. G. triselena, Meyrick, l.c. vol. 5, p. 234.—Head and thorax dark fuscous. Palpi white at base, second joint with two flat- tened whorls of black white-tipped scales, terminal joint black with two white rings. Antenne dark fuscous. Abdomen very long, whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous, anterior tarsi with obsolete fuscous bands at the base of joints. Fore-wings elongate, narrowed posteriorly, hind-margin slightly indented below apex ; pale golden-bronze; an obscure transverse whitish spot on inner margin near base; three silvery-white, obscurely dark-margined transverse fascie ; first from 44 of costa obliquely outwards, angulated in middle, to inner margin before middle ; second and third straight, parallel, nearly perpendicular to costa, before and beyond middle ; from third below middle proceeds a rather narrow longitudinal black band, bent downwards to anal angle, thence continued along lower half of hind-margin, contain- ing 4 golden metallic spots in a row; the space between this and costa is filled by 6 longitudinal ochreous-whitish lines, partially confluent or separated by narrow black interspaces ; 2 oblique nearly parallel silvery-white sub-apical streaks from costa immediately before apex to hind margin above middle, becoming white in the grey costal cilia ; some dark, metallic-grey scales at apex ; cilia whitish, basal third within a fuscous line closed with pale golden-bronze scales, except where a white in- dentation meets anterior sub-apical line. Hind-wings pale grey, cilia whitish-grey, Male, length 4% lines. Two males taken in January on the bare dry grassy volcanic hills near Christchurch. 2. G. euastera, Meyrick, l.c., vol. 5, p. 236.—Head, antenna, and thorax dark fuscous. Palpi whitish at base, second joint with two whorls of dark fuscous white-tipped scales, terminal joints black with two white rings. Abdomen blackish-fuscous, beneath silvery-whitish. Legs dark fuscous, middle and poste- rior tibize with white central and apical rings, all tarsi with white rings at apex of joints. Fore-wings elongate, very slightly dilated, hind-margin indented beneath apex ; basal and apical thirds dark fuscous, densely strewn with whitish scales, central third bronzy-ferruginous, more or less broadly suffused with dark fuscous on costa and inner margin; a white oblique costal streak at %, reaching middle, ending in a leaden metallic spot ; an indistinct white spot on inner margin near base; two out- wardly curved steel-blue metallic fascie, ending in white spots on both margins, first hardly before, second beyond middle ; beyond these are three white spots on costa, the first two giving rise to obsolete metallic streaks, the last sub-apical, sending a steel-blue metallic streak to hind-margin below apex ; a blackish spot on apex ; cilia whitish, fuscous-gray at apex and anal angle, basal half separated by a strong dark fuscous line, and clothed towards base with ferruginous scales, except where a wedge- NEW ZEALAND MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA. 161 shaped dark-margined white indentation meets the sub-apical streak. Hind-wings and cilia dark fuscous-grey. Male and female; length 34%4-3% lines. Distinct from all others in the Australian region through the absence of both the black discal streak and the apical hook, as well as by the contrast of the central ferruginous third with the rest of the fore-wings and the steel-blue markings. Five specimens taken on the dry grassy volcanic hills near Christchurch, in January. 3. G. asteronota, Meyrick, l.c., vol. 5, p. 240.—Head, thorax and antennz dark fuscous. Palpi whitish, with obsolete darker rings (?). Abdomen dark fuscous, apex whitish. Legs dark fuscous, middle and posterior tibiz with whitish central and apical bands, all tarsi with broad whitish rings at apex of joints. Fore-wings somewhat dilated, hind-margin rather strongly sinuate beneath apex; dark fuscous; two conspicuous clear white semilunate spots on inner margin, reaching half across wing, first near base, second slightly beyond middle, both out- wardly oblique, their apices curved towards apex of wing; six slender oblique white streaks from costa; first at 14 ; second hardly before middle, not reaching half across wing; third uniting with a similar streak from anal angle to form an out- wardly curved transversed fascia; fourth short; fifth and sixth small, wedge-shaped, close before apex ; some irregular silvery- white scales above anal angle beyond the transverse fascia ; cilia grey (?), basal half separated by a black line and clothed with dark fuscous scales, except on a wedge-shaped black-margined indentation a little below apex, containing a whitish spot (?). Hind-wings and cilia dark fuscous-grey. Male and female ; length 3% lines. Two specimens, in rather impérfect condition, taken at Auckland, flying over damp grass on a shady bank, in _ January. , 4. G. tocheera, Meyrick, l.c., vol. 5, p. 243.—Head and thorax dark bronzy-grey. Palpi whitish at base, second joint with two appressed whorls of fuscous whitish-tipped scales, terminal joint dark fuscous with two white rings. Antennz dark fuscous. Abdomen elongate, dark fuscous. Legs ochreous-grey, tarsal joints basally slightly suffused with darker. Fore-wings narrow, hardly dilated, hind-margin sinuate beneath apex; dull grey, slightly tinged with bronze; 1 dorsal and 5 costal slender rather obscure white streaks, anteriorly margined with dark fuscous- grey; first costal in middle, second from before 34, both very oblique, not reaching half across wing; dorsal from just before anal angle very oblique, apex almost reaching extremity of second costal; third, fourth, and fifth costal streaks acutely wedge-shaped, short, almost wholly on costal cilia; a silvery white metallic spot on middle of hind-margin ; a clear round black apical spot, cilia whitish, towards anal angle dark fuscous- grey, with a strong sharp black apical hook, and with basal half separated by a black line and dark fuscous-grey, except on a 162 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. whitish wedge-shaped indentation below apex, whence proceeds a sharp black sub-apical hook. Hind-wings and cilia dark fus- cous-erey. Male and female, length 4-434 lines. Four specimens taken on rushes (Fwucus) in swampy places in January, at Dunedin and Christchurch. 5. G. acrothecta, Meyrick, lc. vol. 5, p. 244.—Head and thorax dark bronzy- grey. Palpi white at base, second joint with two short oblique whorls of black white- tipped scales, terminal joint black with two oblique white rings and white above towards apex. Antenne dark fuscous. Abdomen elongate, blackish- grey with white rings, apex white. Legs dark fuscous, posterior and middle tibize with white central and apical bands, tarsi with obsolete whitish rings at apex of joints, posterior tarsi with a clear white ring at apex of basal joint, and two apical joints wholly white. Fore-wings narrow, elongate, not dilated ; hind- margin sinuate beneath apex; dull pale grey, suffused with brownish on disc and inner margin; 6 rather obscure white, an- teriorly blackish margined, oblique costal streaks ; first at 4% reaching to middle, partially black-margined posteriorly as well ; second in middle, not reaching half across wing ; third to sixth short, mostly on costal cilia, each silvery-metallic at apex; a black oblique streak from middle of inner margin, leading to an obscure whitish anteriorly black-margined spot below apex of first costal streak, a faint whitish spot on anal angle, preceded by a short curved black streak, two silvery-metallic spots on disc, beneath ‘extremities ‘of second and third costal streaks, sometimes united with them; a rather large conical silvery- metallic black-margined spot on hind-margin below apex ; cilia whitish, with a sharp black apical hook, fuscous-grey towards anal angle, basal half separated by a black line and fuscous-grey, except where a whitish black-margined indentation meets the — small silvery-metallic sub-apical spot. Hind-wings and cilia dark fuscous-grey. | Male; length 4%-5 lines. Not nearly allied to any described species. The markings have a peculiar confused appearance; the black dorsal streak — from centre of inner margin is caused by the suffusion and dis- — appearance of the accompanying white streak. Six males taken on the dry grassy volcanic hills near Christchurch, in January. 6. G. astrapea, Meyrick, |.c., vol. 5, p.245.—Head and thorax brilliant metallic coppery-bronze, face dark fuscous. Palpi with second joint clothed with three whorls of black very narrowly white-tipped scales, te:minal joint black with an oblique white lateral line. Antenne dark fuscous. Abdomen blackish fus- cous, apex ochreous-white. Legs dark bronzy-fuscous, middle and posterior tibia with obscure slender whitish central and apical rings, tarsi with obscure white rings at apex of joints, two apical joints of posterior tarsi wholly white. Fore-wings moder- — ately broad, somewhat dilated, hind-margin sinuate below apex; — brilliant metallic coppery- -bronze, with violet-silvery metallic NEW ZEALAND MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA. 163 obscurely dark-margined markings ; a short oblique streak from costa before middle; a rather irregular outwardly curved fascia from beyond middle of costa to anal angle; a rather short oblique streak from 34 of costa, opposite extremity of which is a triangu- lar spot on hind-margin below middle ; two small spots on costa before apex, second produced as a curved streak to hind margin below apex; cilia whitish towards apex, blackish-fuscous towards anal angle, with a black apical hook, and intersected by a strong black line, obliterated at anal angle, and where a white black- margined indentation meets the sub-apical streak. Hind-wings and cilia blackish-fuscous. Male, length 5 % lines, This and the succeeding species are very handsome insects, not coming very near any others, but very closely allied together. G. astrapea is distinguished by the total absence of the longi- tudinal streak from base, and by the complete fascia beyond middle; in other respects it is extremely similar. One male taken flying in the sun in a grassy swamp near Cambridge (Waikato), in January. 7. G. transversella, Walker, l.c., vol. 5, —p. 246.—Head and thorax brilliant metallic-bronze, face dark fuscous. Palpi yellowish at base, second joint with three whorls of black white- tipped scales, terminal joint black with a white lateral line. Antenne dark fuscous. Abdomen in male dark bronzy-fuscous, beneath silvery-white ; in female blackish, apex whitish. Legs dark bronzy-fuscous, tarsi with whitish rings at apex of joints, posterior tibiz with white central and apical rings, posterior tarsi with two apical joints wholly white. Fore-wings mode- rately broad, somewhat dilated, hind-margin sinuate below apex; brilliant metallic coppery-bronze, with golden-silvery metallic obscurely dark-margined markings ; an indistinct paler bronzy- _ yellowish central longitudinal streak from base to beyond middle, broadest posteriorly, attenuated at base ; a short oblique streak from costa before middle, and oblique streak from costa beyond middle, and a rather oblique streak from anal angle, which are not united, apex of dorsal streak lying beyond apex of costal; a rather short oblique streak from 34 of costa, opposite the extremity of which is a triangular spot on hind-margin below middle; two small spots on costa before apex, second produced as a curved streak to hind-margin below ‘apex; cilia whitish towards apex, dark fuscous towards anal angle, with a black apical hook, basal half, except towards anal angle, separated by a black line and clothed with bronzy scales, except where a white black-margined indentation meets the sub-apical streak. Hind-wings and cilia blackish-fuscous. Male and female ; length 514-6 lines. Very nearly allied to G. astrapea, but slightly less brilliant, and characterised by the paler central streak from base, and the costal and dorsal streaks beyond middle not being united into a fascia. Eight specimens taken flying gently in the shade over a damp grassy sheltered bank near Auckland, in January. 164 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, GENUS PHRYGANOSTOLA, Meyrick. Head smooth; with ocelli; tongue moderate. Antenne about half as long as fore-wings, filiform, very shortly ciliated in — male. No maxillary palpi. Labial palpi rather short, thick, — arched ; second joint clothed with long loose projecting hairs beneath, forming a broad tuft; terminal joints short, acute. Fore-wings elongate, variable in breadth, apex produced, hind- margin indented, very oblique. Hind-wings lanceolate or ovate- lanceolate, narrower than fore-wings, pointed, cilia about as broad. Abdomen elongate, slender. Legs moderate, smoothly scaled. Fore-wings with 12 separate veins ; secondary cell indicated ; 1 simple or furcate at base. Hind-wings with 8 veins; 3 and 4 from posterior angle of cell. The imagos have the habit of fanning themselves when at — rest, and frequent the shade rather than the sunshine. The larve _ are at present unknown. . 1, P. oxrymachoera, Meyrick, l.c., vol. 5, p. 251.—Head whitish. . Thorax whitish, sometimes suffused with fuscous. Palpi white, — second joint with two fuscous-grey rings beneath, with a long loose projecting tuft of white hairs, mixed with a few fuscous- erey. Antenne dark fuscous..* Abdomen very “elongates especially in female, varying from pale-ochreous to dark fuscous- grey, with whitish rings. Legs fuscous-grey or ochreous-grey, posterior tibize white at apex ; all tarsi fuscous or dark fuscous with white rings at apex of joints. Fore-wings elongate, narrow, hardly dilated, dull fuscous, sometimes suffused with whitish along costa, with white dark-margined markings; a broad streak along inner margin from basetobeyond middle,thenceattenuated and directed obliquely upwards, ending on middle of disc at ¥% from base; 8 rather short oblique costal streaks, none reaching half across wing, first at 4%, produced along costa towards base, all some- times rendered obsolete by a general white suffusion of the costa; a rather short oblique streak from anal angle, ending in a bright silvery-metallic spot on disc; a small silvery-metallic spot on hind. margin below middle ; cilia white, with a black apical hook, and intersected by a strong black line, except where a white black-margined indentation meets hind-margin beneath apex. Hind-wings fuscous-grey, cilia whitish. Male and female, length 43(-534 lines. ; Remarkable from its lanceolate wings and very elongate abdomen. Six specimens taken on the dry grassy volcanic hills near Christchurch, in January. i og! achlyoessa, Meyrick, l.c., vol. 5., p. 252.—Head and thorax whitish-grey. Palpi whitish-grey mixed with dark fus- cous, second joint beneath with a long loose projecting fringe of hairs. Antenne dark fuscous. Abdomen elongate, dark fuscous. Legs pale ochreous-grey. Fore-wings elongate, narrow, hind-~ margin strongly sinuate below apex; pale whitish-grey, faintly strigulated transversely with darker ; a few solitary black scales tending to be arranged longitudinally on fold and lower median WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. 165 vein ; cilia whitish, with an obscure dark fuscous apical hook, basal % separated by a blackish line and dark smoky grey. Hind-wings and cilia fuscous-grey. Male, length 5% lines. An inconspicuous narrow-winged almost unicolorous species. One male taken flying at dusk on a bare grassy hill near Wel- lington, in January. A FEW REMARKS ON MR. W. M. MASKELL’S PAPER, INTITULED, “A VISIT TO WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS.” a BY JULIUS VON HAAST, PH. D., F.R.S. epree gee 09h | Mr. Maskell, in Nos. I. and II. of the New Zealand JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, has favoured us with his views on the Weka Pass Rock-paintings, gathered during a short excursion to that locality. I would not have taken any notice of these, evidently hasty impressions, had not Mr. Maskell accused me that, instead of striving to advance the truth and the knowledge of the former inhabitants of these Islands, I had only “endeavoured to make these paintings fit in with my preconceptions on the antiquity of the native races.”* I must repel this insinuation as totally un- deserved and uncalled for. Mr. Maskell thinks it absurd that I should have compared some of the peculiar characters with Tamil letters, like those on Mr. Colenso’s bronze bell; but he does not give sufficient weight to the opinion of the Rev. Mr. Pargitter (quoted in my paper), who lived for a long time in Ceylon as a missionary, and who testifies as to the similarity of these characters to Tamil compound letters.+ During a discussion, after some notes of mine on the same subject had been read before the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain in August, 1878, one of the speakers, Mr. Wal- house, testified that there was certainly some faint resemblance. with the Chalukuja characters of the rock inscriptions of the sixth and seventh centuries, so that my suggestion was, after all, not so far-fetched as Mr. Maskell wishes to make it. I shall now say a few words about Mr. Cameron, who was good enough to give us his views on the rock- -paintings. I have nothing whatever to do with his etymological views as to the meaning of the Maori words, as I am not competent to judge how far that gentleman is right or wrong in his explanations ; however, although I must confess that I could not follow his conclusions, I still maintain that Mr. Cameron’s views on the rock-paintings deserve all the attention I gave them, and, even considered as a mere suggestion, are not to be put aside as * « New Zealand JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,” page 56. t ‘‘ Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, ” page 54. 166 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. absurd, as Mr. Maskell, in his usual light and airy manner, wishes to do. If these rock-paintings were made by Buddhist missionaries or not is quite immaterial, but that Mr. Cameron’s statement of similar characters and paintings having been found in other countries is correct has been amply confirmed by several of the speakers at the above-mentioned meeting of the Anthropological Institute of London. Mr Moggridge observed “ That one of the figures, No. 17, was the same as one which had been seen on rocks 6900 feet above the sea level, in the North-west corner of Italy. It is probable that if we knew how to read them they might convey important information, since the same signs occur in different combinations, just as the letters of our alphabet recur in different combinations to form words.”* After reading the discussion on my paper as printed in that journal, any unbiassed observer might be still more convinced that the attempted explanation of these rock paintings by Mr. Cameron and others opens up quite a new field for research into the early history of these Islands. Mr. Maskell thinks that I have fallen into a slight error in not having copied more of the black figures, as he considers them less rude designs than the red ones. I can only repeat my for- mer statement that we (Mr. Cousins and myself) selected the most remarkable of these black designs, one of each kind, which to any unbiassed mind will show their more rude characters. In fact they are more like the work of children or child-like savages, and can certainly not be compared with the figures and cha- racters in red. When visiting the locality at the end of May of this year, I found to my great sorrow that vandalism had been hard at work, not only to deface many of the red paintings, but actually to add some black ones, and some of the red ones had been obliterated with black paint. It is terrible to think that, at the end of the nineteenth century, men who can write their own names should consider it a great deed to scratch the proof of their imbecility upon the rock-shelter, and thus destroy the paintings which for ages had been respected by a so-called in- ferior savage race. I do not intend to go into Mr. Maskell’s criticism of my views as to the meaning of the different drawings, but will only show how very little his own descriptions can be depended upon. He says :—“ No. 17 in the plate is incomplete, at least as compared with Mr. Cousins’ original drawing (in the Canterbury Museum), where a stream of smoke is made to issue from the cup-shaped top. Has there not been here also a little stretching of fancy, considering that the smoke may be due to the scaling of the rock?’ Now for the facts. In the first instance, everybody who honestly has compared Mr. Cousins’ drawings with the originals must testify to his conscientious accuracy (Ae certainly had no theories or fancies). When Mr. * Journal of the Anthropological Institute, August, 1878, page 16. WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. 167 Cousins drew the vessel or instrument, No. 17, it had clearly and visibly smoke rising therefrom, as seen by every visitor for some time after the discovery of the paintings; but. as it appears Mr. Maskell did not see it, and therefore boldly suggests that the surface of the rock must have scaled off. Before visiting the place a few weeks ago, I really believed that such a thing could have taken place in the meantime, although it appeared to me most improbable. However, I was not a little astonished to find that some visitor had actually painted some black over the red, but that, nevertheless, the red smoke could still be seen through the recent vandalism. And that is the loose way in which my reviewer ventures statements! Mr. Maskell’s explana- tions of geological points are just as unfortunate. He says “that the paintings are scarcely anywhere laid on the surface of the rock itself; they rest on a coating of stalagmite covering the rock, and it is this stalagmite which has scaled off.” This is simply nonsense. In the first place, the rock is perfectly dry, and no stalagmite has ever been found here, but the weathering of the rock has caused this peculiar scaling of the surface so well known to geologists. So Mr. Maskell must have totally mis- understood “some of our party conversant with geological evidence.” Moreover, in his first page (15) he speaks “of the scaling of the rock itself,” so that since that was written he must have changed his mind. However, Mr. Maskell’s observation on page 63 is quite correct, that some of the red paintings have been executed after some scaling of the rock had already taken place. This, of course, is not to be wondered at, if we look at the age of the rock-shelter from a geological point of view. A long time must certainly have elapsed since the creek or brook, to the former existence of which the rock-shelter owes its origin, ceased to flow there, and consequently a great deal of weathering or rock scaling has taken place before the spot was visited by human beings. Another point in Mr Maskell’s reasoning could not fail to strike me as utterly fallacious. In speaking of the red oxide of iron with which the oldest and principal paintings are executed, I used the Maori designation, Kokowai, as best known in the Colony. So Mr. Maskell concludes therefrom that the paintings must be made by Maoris of the present day. Had I used the English expression, “reddle,” he might just as well have taken this as a proof that they were made by Englishmen. In order not to be misunderstood, I wish once more to state (although I have done so again and again in various publications) that I have never denied that the Maoris of the present day are the suc- cessors of a former race or of former races inhabiting New Zealand. I only maintain (basing my views on geological evidence) that, long before the so-called Hawaiki immigration, New Zealand had been inhabited by a race having some Melanesian affinities, as proved by craniological researches. There are many more inaccuracies of a similar character to which I might draw the attention of the readers of this journal, but a few only will be sufficient to show that Mr. Maskell has either not read with any 168 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. close attention what has been written on the subject under review, or totally misunderstood the points at issue. On page 59 he observes that, whilst I state that only two representations of man can be recognised, human figures are in hundreds. I only was then speaking of the ved paintings, but afterwards observed, on page 51 of the “Transactions of New Zealand,” vol. X., that by far the greatest part of the d/ack paintings represent the human figure, and I offered at the same time a description of them. Mr. Maskell speaks lightly of the Maori traditions concerning these paintings, although in other cases, he thinks, they are of some value; but he forgets to point out that the Maori traditions are remarkably in accord with the character and antiquity of the paintings. The Parihika (Opihi) speci- mens are attributed to the younger Ngatimamoe, whilst those of the Waikari to the older tribe or race, the Ngapuhi—an uncon- scious confirmation of the evidence before us. Mr. Maskell — gives us his belief, “that the rock-paintings are simply the work of some Maori artist or artists, not necessarily done at any one time, by no means of any great antiquity, and without any particular collective meaning.” In fact, he compares them with | the scrawls and figures of schoolboys. He does not bring one single palpable reason to support this belief, and which we have therefore to take for what it is worth. Now let us see what Mr. Maskell says on the very point, in the first part of his paper, on page 30 :—“ The theory adopted by some of our number was, that the red ones were the oldest, or, to use the phrase adopted, ‘ really archaic’; that the filled up black ones, looking as if daubed on with the thumb, were less ancient, and that the black outlines were the most modern of the three.” Has my reviewer ever seen other Maori paintings? Are those of the Weka Pass rock shelter similar to them? And in what way do they prove to be of similar origin? I fear very much Mr. Maskell does not know any others, and only hazards some statements without any proof. For instance, where are the scrolls so characteristic of Maori art, to which the Rev. J. W. Stack has drawn attention? Moreover, Mr. Maskell does not account for the very curious, and to my mind conclusive, fact, that none of the Weka Pass drawings are indecent, while Maori drawings and carvings invariably are. Coming to the question asked by Mr. Maskell on page 57, whether the prevailing winds between Ceylon and here would ~ allow Cingalese vessels to reach New Zealand ? he answers his own question on the very next page :—“ From 1497, the year when the ships of Portugal first drove before the westerly winds — of the Indian Ocean, to 1769, the year when Cook landed in New Zealand, surely there is scope and to spare for scores of — European ships, . . . . which might or might not have left, or lost by. stealing, various articles and implements.” = One might suppose that these westerly winds propelling European ships to New Zealand were also strong enough to DESCRIPTION OF SOME MOLLUSKS. 169 bring Cingalese, Indian, or Malay ships to our shores. In one word, the whole series of arguments brought forward by Mr. Maskell shows conclusively that he has neither studied the paintings in question with that care and attention they deserve, so as to entitle him to speak with authority upon them, nor that he has read and digested what others have written about them ; and so I can only refer the reader to what still remains of the original paintings, or otherwise to Mr. Cousins’ careful copies, in order that he may judge for himself. Finally, I may express my gratification in finding that Mr. Maskell and the rest of his party unanimously repudiated the absurd theory at one time current, that the paintings were the work of European shepherds and stock-drivers. It is now my turn to make merry of those who have often compared me to Jonathan Oldbuck, in Sir Walter Scott’s “ Antiquary,” to whom even then I might have Roped in Huss’s well-known sentence, “ O saucta simplicitas.” DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME MOLLUSKS OMITTED moon PROM HULTIONS “MANUAL OF THE NEW ZEALAND MOLLUSCA., 1880.” ——< Trochus pruninus, Gould (“Otia Conch.” p. 55).—Testa solidula, elevata, ovato-conica, levis, nitida, prunina, lineis capillaceis numerosis cincta: spira anfr. 7 convexiusculis, ul- timo subangulato ; sutura profunda; apertura subcircularis ; ‘columella rotundata, alba anticé roseo-tincta, subsinuosa: interior margaritacea, vivide iridescens. Alt. 7%, lat. 7-10ths poll. Hab. Auckland Island. (I expect Gould means Islands.) This peculiarly coloured species has the form, thickness, and ap- pearanceofthedelicatelylineated specimens of Lzttorinaangultfera. Patella lactuosa, Gould (“ Otia Conch.,” p. 8)—Testa obliqué conica, crassa, vertice eccentrica, obscure olivacea, interdum san tincta, costis majoribus ad 12 rotundatis, scabrosis, pallidis, minoribus quibusdam interjectis: apertura ovalis; margine crenulato ; facies interna livida, reflexionibus succineis micans ; limbo fasciis fuscis et albidis inequalibus alternantibus radiato. Long. 1%, lat. 1, alt. % poll. Hab. New Zealand. Patella wWluminata, Gould (“Otia Conch.” p. 7).—Testa inequilateralis, ovato-conica, fuliginosa, maculis sparsis flavidis translucidis illuminata, creberrimeé radiatim costellata ; apertura Ovata; facies interna nigro-picea, sericeo splendens; fundo flavido. Long. 1%, lat. 1%, alt. 3-5ths poll. Hab., Auckland Islands. In shape like P. argentea, with the interior of P. tramoserica. It may be the young of what is figured by Quoy as P. granularis. Bmax fuiiginosus, Gould (“Otia Conch.,” p. 223).—L. abbreviatus, corpulentus, acute carinatus, fuliginosus, sulcis 170 | JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. remotis obliquis reticulatis, areolis reticulatis ; clypeo ovali, postice latiori, foramine pulmonali postico; capite parvo; ten- taculis brevibus, ad apicem ferrugineis. Long. 2.5 poll. Bay of Islands, New Zealand, among turnips.—Dr. Pickering. Characterised by its sooty colour. Dr. P. has no doubt that it is a native species. Unio watkarense, Colenso (Tasmanian Fournal of Science, 1844. “Memorandum of an Excursion in New Zealand,’ p. 37).—Shell oblong or oblong-ovate, concentrically and irregularly sulcated, sub-diaphanous, inflated ; anterior side produced, ob- tuse, slightly compressed ; posterior slope keeled, sharp; base slightly depressed ; umbones decorticated flattish, much worn ; primary tooth large, crested ; epidermis strong, overlapping at margin, wrinkled on anterior slope ; colour brownish-yellow on posterior side, shading into dusky green on anterior, with alternate light coloured lateral stripes ; 3% inches broad (sic), 2¥% inches long. Hab., Waikare Lake, mountains, interior of the North Island. NEW ZEALAND , PYCNOGONIDA,, ORE “CHALLENGER” EXPEDITION —_< Among the numerous specimens of Pycnogonida obtained during the last voyage of the “Challenger,” and which were handed over for examination and description to Dr. P. Hoek, of Leiden University, only three species were got in the New Zealand seas,and theseatconsiderabledepths. No littoral forms appear to have been gathered while the “ Challenger” was in Wellington Harbour. Two of these species belong to the genus Wymphon of Fabricius, but the third is a remarkable form, which Dr. Hoek places in a new genus Oorhynchus. The generic description of Nymphon is taken from M. Edwards’ “ Histoire Naturelle des — Crustaces,” vol. iii, p. 532. GENUS NYMPHON, fade. Body slender. Head (proboscis) cylindrical and obtuse at the extremity, First thoracic segment much longer than the others, and bearing on the middle of the upper surface a tubercle furnished with 4 small smooth eyes. Abdomen conical, amalga- mated with the last thoracic segment. Mandibles (fates michoires) one pair, terminated by an elongated claw, and carry- ing at their base a palp of 4 joints, inserted at the anterior extremity of the first thoracic segment. Four pairs of ambula- tory feet, very long and slender ; their 6th joint much elongated; terminal claw small; penultimate joint furnished at the extremity with two claw-like spines. Accessory feet (in the female) much more slender than the others, borne on the lower part of the ~ first body-segment, below the first pair of feet, and serving to support the eggs. 1. Mymphon longicoxa, Hoek (lc. p. 58; Pl. IL, figs 1-5; Pl eS ae ee ee ee ee eee ee ee NEW ZEALAND PYCNOGONIDA. 171 XV., figs. 8, 9).-Body smooth, very slender ; the lateral processes with large intervals between them. Proboscis large, one-third the length of the body; mouth triangular, not very large. Cephalothoracic segment as long as proboscis. Eyes small but distinct, oculiferous tubercle rounded. Mandibles very long, basal joint longer than rostrum, second joint also very long ; immoveable claw curved more strongly than the moveable one, furnished with large spines, which reach almost to the extremity; moveable claw furnished with smaller spines, except at the smooth extremity ; mandibles smooth. Palpi very slender, longer than rostrum; second joint very much longer than the third, fourth and fifth almost equal, latter with small hairs. Ovigerous legs of the mature male are characteristic; the fifth joint is very long and curved, divided into two by a rudimentary articulation and strongly swollen at the extremity; the sixth joint, also curved, makes an angle with the fifth ; four last joints small, and often bent so as to form a spiral ; the first joints are smooth, but the sixth is furnished with numerous hairs, and has on the upper surface rows of curiously-shaped knobs; the four last joints bear respectively 13, 8, 7, and 6 denticulated spines. The ovigerous leg of the mature female is almost quite straight ; the fourth and fifth joints are not so dissimilar as in the male; the denticulated spines on the four last joints are 19, 12, 10, and 9 in number, and the sixth joint has none of the characteristic knobs. Legs about four times as long as body; the second joint in the males four times as long as first, a little shorter in females, but somewhat swollen at the extremity ; sixth joint the longest, being about one and a-half times as long as the fifth; first tarsal joint shorter than the second, the claw almost as long as the first joint; auxiliary claws wanting. Genital openings of the females very large, and found on each leg; of the male smaller, and found only on the three hinder pairs. Length of body, 10-12 mm. ; of legs, 38-46 mm. Fflabitat same as next. Dr. Hoek observes, “I believe this species with its rudimen- tary eyes to form the transition from the shallow-water species to the true deep-sea species. _ 2. Nymphon compactum, Hoek. (lc. p. 41; Pl. IL, figs. 6-8 ; Pl. XV., fig. 10).—Body stout, sparsely hairy; proboscis thick and swollen a little in the middle, and again at the extremity ; length about one-third of the length of the body. Cephalo- thoracic segment short, swollen anteriorly, constricted in the middle. Eyes obsolete, the oculiferous tubercle represented by a blunt knob. Abdomen long. Lateral processes of the body small, furnished with long hairs. Mandibles long, first joint a little curved, and much longer than the proboscis; at the ventral side this joint shows feebly an articulation near the base; second joint shorter, but furnished with very long claws, Which are curved at the.extremity, and both are armed with almost the same number of spines. Palpi much longer than the proboscis ; 2nd joint the longest, then follow in order of length 172 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and Ist; which is the shortest of all; hairs most numerous on the three last joints. Ovigerous legs tolerably long and stout, one and a-third times as long as body ;?the 4th, 5th, and 6th joints being nearly the same length. The four last joints are about the same length ;. claw slender, and about % as long as lasr joint. First three joints almost entirely smooth, 4th with a row of hairs at the end; 5th and 6th furnished with numerous spines ; last four joints with hairs only at the distal extremity. The spines of the four last joints are of a very irregular shape, and their numbers are respectively 10, 8, 5, 7. Spines of the claw not very strong. Legs three times as long as the body (36 mm. in a body of 12 mm.) ; 2nd joint longer than Ist and 3rd, and swollen; 4th joint also very considerably swollen (with the ovaries), 5th and 6th joints of nearly the same length, a little longer than the 4th; of the two tarsal joints, which are together nearly % the length of the 6th joint; the Ist is longer than the 2nd ; claw half the length of the 2nd tarsal joint, auxiliary claws wanting; 4th joint of the leg sparsely hairy, 5th a little more so, 6th very hairy, and shows some strong spines at the extremity; the tarsal joints covered with very minute hairs. Genital openings large and easily seen. Habitat—Dredged in lat. 40° 28’ S., long. 177° 43’ E., from a depth of 1100 fathoms. GENUS OORHYNCHUS, Hoek. Proboscis ovate, inserted ventrally on the cephalothorax at a considerable distance from the front margin. Mandibles rudi- mentary ; palpi 9-jointed. Ovigerous legs 10-jointed, the four last jointsnotfurnished with one ormore rows of denticulate spines. The following is the only species :— 1. Oorhynchus aucklandie, Hoek. (lc. p. 59, Pl. VIL, figs. 1-7).—Cephalothoracic segment short, but very broad, furnished at the front with a long cylindrical oculiferous tubercle, which projects horizontally beyond the extremity of the proboscis ; eyes four, two placed dorsally, two smaller ventrally. Cephalo- thorax armed at the corners with curiously-shaped spines, also projecting forwards, and bearing a couple of long hairs placed on small knobs above the attachment of the first pair of legs. Similar pairs of hairs on their spines also on the two following thoracic segments on the dorsal surface; rest of the body entirely smooth. Three thoracic segments small, lateral pro- cesses separated by small intervals. Abdomen very long, one and a-half times as long as proboscis, furnished on both sides with a row of projecting hairs. Proboscis ovate, bearing a small triangular mouth surrounded by slightly swollen lips. Mandibles represented by I-jointed robust club-shaped bodies, placed at the front margin of the cephalothorax, on both sides of the oculiferous tubercle ; covered all round with strong hairs projecting at right angles. Palpi 9g-jointed, placed close to and on both sides of the proboscis ; first joint very short, second — NOFES "ON THE FERTILISASION OF KNIGHTIA. 173 longest of all, third short, fourth almost as long as the second and bent at an angle with the others; fifth very short, four last subequal ; all furnished with strong hairs. Ovigerous legs strongly curved, not quite as long as body without the abdomen. Legs strong and very hairy ; first three joints small, subequal ; fourth twice as long as third, bearing a tubular process on the dorsal surface beyond the middle; fifth and sixth joints very long, subequal, very slender ; first tarsal joint extremely small, second long and distinctly curved; claw scythe-shaped, auxiliary claws wanting; all the joints furnished with long and strong hairs, standing at right angles. Only one specimen of this remarkable species was obtained by the dredge from a depth of 700 fathoms in lat. 37° 34’ S., iene. 179 22’ E. NOTES ON THE FERTILISATION OF KNIGHTIA. ————_>—_—__ BY T. F. CHEESEMAN, ESQ. ee Se Mr. Bentham, in a suggestive paper on the styles of the Australian Pyroteacea printed in the Journal of the Linnean Society (Botany vol. 13, p.58), has pointed out that in nearly all the species the anthers open while the flower is unexpanded, and discharge their pollen on an enclosed portion of the style, usually, though incorrectly, described as the stigma. The case is thus strictly analogous with what takes place in Composite, with this difference—that in Composite the stigmatic surface is always on the inner face of the two arms of the style, which remain in contact until some little time after the floret has ex- panded. So that, although the outside of the style may be at first thickly covered with pollen, yet it is all brushed off by the visits of insects or removed by other means before the style- branches separate. There is thus little danger of the pollen from any particular floret reaching the stigma belonging to it, anda much greater chance is afforded of cross-fertilisation taking place. In Protéace@,as Mr. Bentham remarks, the style is undivided, and the stigma is always external, although generally minute. It therefore happens that in many of the Australian genera special contrivances are required to prevent the flower’s own pollen from reaching the stigma. Some of these contrivances are so remark- able that it has long been a matter of surprise to me that no Australian botanist has fully examined them, and explained the different modes of fertilisation dependent on their action; more especially as a cursory inspection of the few species cultivated in our gardens has shown me that Mr. Bentham has by no means described all the curious adaptations that exist. In New Zealand we have only two representatives of Pro- eacea, the well-known Rewa-rewa tree (Knightia excelsa) and the Toro (Persoonia toro). With the fertilisation of the latter plant 174 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. I am not fully acquainted, but in neither species do we find modifications of structure so remarkable as those described by Mr. Bentham among the Australian forms, and probably both agree in possessing a comparatively simple mode of fertilisa- tion. The curious inflorescence of Kuightia is familiar to most settlers in the northern portion of the Colony. The flowers, which are of a bright red-brown colour, and very conspicuous, are arranged in pairs on stout lateral racemes, 2 to 4 inches long, each raceme containing from 40 to 80 flowers, or even more. Before expansion the perianth is cylindrical in shape, slightly swollen at the base, and then contracted, but again gradually thickened toward the extremity. It is about 1% inch long, and is externally everywhere covered with a dense velvety tomentum. In the young bud there is no appearance of segments, but some time before expansion the top of the tube splits into four minute teeth, the apex of the style showing between. Later on the seg- ments come apart at the base of the perianth, and by degrees the separation extends higher up. For a long time, however, they firmly cohere in the upper swollen part of the tube, and the final separation always takes place suddenly and elastically, the four segments each coiling up into a tight spiral band, which is — packed away at the very base of the flower. The fully matured _ racemes show, therefore, little more than a brush of long styles projecting from a mass of twisted perianth-segments, and present a very different appearance to those in the bud state, so much so that I have had both brought to me as the flowers of two distinct plants! The anthers are four in number, sessile towards the top of the perianth lobes, and in the bud form a ring round the upper part of the style, to which they are closely applied. The style is over an inch in length, rather slender at the base, but much swollen in its upper half, forming a lengthened club-shaped termination usually considered as the stigma; but the true stigmatic surface appears to be minute, and situated in a little depression towards the summit. At the base of the flower are four rounded glands, secreting an abundance of nectar, which slowly exudes from them, and usually surrounds the base of the ovary. The flowers have a strong and very peculiar odour,a ~ single raceme being quite sufficient to unpleasantly scent a close ~ room. If a flower bud is examined just prior to expansion, it will be noticed that the anthers have opened down their inner face ~ and deposited the whole of their pollen on the moist surface of the thickened portion of the style, on which it forms four little ridges. After the opening of the flower and coiling up of the perianth-segments, the pollen is thus left exposed on the surface of the style. This looks like a simple case of self-fertilisation, but a little examination proves that the stigmatic surface is not — mature until some time after the flowers open, and that before it — is in a receptive condition the pollen has all been removed. Some — means must therefore exist by which the pollen is regularly NOTES: ON THE FERTILISATION OF KNIGHTIA. 175 transferred from the younger to the older flowers. It is natural to assume that this is done through the agency of insects, especially as the great abundance of honey induces many to visit the flowers. But in most cases they simply crawl Bipeut between the styles, and. never’ touch either the pollen or stigma elevated far above them. It appears to me that large insects only could aid in the work of fertilisa- tion ; and even among these the nocturnal or crepuscular moths could be of little service,.as the styles are far enough apart to allow of their proboscides being inserted without touching. Possibly some of the larger Diptera or Coleoptera, as well as the honey-bee (which is a regular visitant), may be of use; but the conclusion I have arrived at is that the flowers are principally adapted for fertilisation by honey-feeding birds such as the Tui (Prosthemadera) and Korimako (Axthornis). That the former bird regularly frequents the flowers I have repeatedly noticed ; and old and observant residents, who were well acquainted with the habits of the Korimako before its disappearance from the northern forests, all agree in stating that it was equally ready to take advantage of the luscious supply of honey offered by the plant. The exact mode of fertilisation hardly needs describing ; it is obvious that the bird, in thrusting its head between the styles of a recently-expanded raceme, must dust the feathers of the forehead and throat with pollen, and that when it visited flowers in a more advanced stage, the pollen would be rubbed off on the style, and probably smeared over the stigma. It is now well-established that, from causes that have hitherto eluded our research, undoubted advantages are possessed by cross-fertilised over self-fertilised plants; and an excellent argument in favour of this view may be inferred from the case of Kuightia. We find that the structure and arrangement of the parts of the flower are such that the style and stigma are actually embedded forsome time in a mass of pollen, so that no one can doubt that if self-fertilisation had been the preferable mode, it might have been obtained with certainty, and with a minimum expenditure of force. But instead of this we see a number of contrivances all pointing in the opposite direction. The ripening of the stigma is delayed, and its size reduced, in order that there may be no risk of contamination by pollen from the same flower; the summit of the style is enlarged to form a suitable stage on which the pollen may be presented to the visitors, to whom the task of transferring it from flower to flower is entrusted; the perianth segments are coiled up and removed from their path; and a suitable attraction is afforded in the abundant supply of nectar. Surely these contrivances would not be provided if some great advan- ee were not expected in return. -To my mind, cases similar to those of Awzghitza—and they are probably numerous enough—afford additional proof of the truth of Mr. Darwin’s well-known aphorism—*“ That ‘Nature tells us, in the most em- phatic manner, that she abhors perpetual self-fertilisation.” 176 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. GENERAL NOTES. —— EARTHQUAKE DISTURBANCES IN NORTH CANTERBURY.— We are indebted to Mr. J. D. Enys for some interesting in- formation respecting the results of the earthquake of December 5th, 1881, as recorded from three different localities in the Canterbury provincial district. The first instance was recorded by Mr. Carson, manager of the Grasmere Station, near the Cass river. About two hours after the earthquake shock (10.30 a.m.) he noticed, in passing a small lake called Lake Sarah, that at a distance of about two or three chains from the bank, mounds of water were thrown up to’ a height of 4 to 5 feet. Two hours later they were still in action. The lake is situated at the foot of a sugar-loaf hill of considerable height, and is placed at an elevation of two or three hundred feet above the Waimakariri. The formation in which it occurs is said to be an ancient one, but nothing more definite is stated. Mr. Enys communicated his information about this remarkable disturbance to the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, in a paper read at its February meeting. The second instance is from Banks Peninsula, on the south- western slopes of Mount Herbert, over Little River.. Here, a few days after the earthquake, a mound of eartk vas thrown up, and steam issued for some time. The clay ana soil also in the mound were found to be burnt. Lastly, at a place called the Ram paddock, situated near Oxford, and about ten miles north of Waimakariri river, some springs several feet in depth were completely dried up. At the same time a new spring, described as possessing a smell which makes the immediate locality unapproachable, has broken out. The whole country in the neighbourhood of the Ram paddock is also said to be continually on the move. At Castle Hill, the chimneys were destroyed, and articles on shelves running east and west, and facing to the north, were thrown inwards into the rooms. THE USE OF LIGNITE IN THE BLAST FURNACE.—We are indebted to the courtesy of the Editor of “ Nature” for a copy of the paper on the above subject, by Prof. von Tiinner. The article is one which has a practical interest to us in New Zealand, where lignite is abundant, and no apology to our readers is needed for its insertion in these columns. FERNS.—We omitted to notice in our last issue that Mr. H. C. Field, of Wanganui, will be glad to name any collections of ferns entrusted to him for that purpose. We come across so many misnamed specimens among the ordinary fern-collectors’ sets, that it is as well to know those persons who are able to name correctly. GENERAL NOTES. | 177 UNIVERSITY HONOURS IN SCIENCE.—It will be gratifying to all in New Zealand interested in scientific work, and to the friends of Mr. Chas. Chilton, of Canterbury College, in particular, to learn that he passed his Honours Examination in Biology very successfully. - The examiner, Professor H. Alleyne Nichol- son, of St. Andrews, remarks on the research papers sent in by Mr. Chilton :—“ Three excellently worked out and well illustrated memoirs, showing a wide knowledge of the subject dealt with, both as regards * the ecient descriptions and the literature of the subject.” NEW ZEALAND SYSTEMATISTS.—We have much pleasure imadding to our lists the name /of -Mr. Richard Wm. _Fereday, solicitor, of Christchurch, and member of the Entomo- logical Society of London, as a worker on New Zealand Micro- Lepidoptera. Mr. Fereday’s contributions to our knowledge of this branch of science have been very numerous and valuable, as the pages of the New Zealand Institute Transactions testify. Any persons sending collections of moths and butterflies to Mr. Fereday, are requested to append date and place of capture. NAULTINUS SYLVESTRIS, Awller—In January, 1880, Dr. Buller described to the Wellington Philosophical Society a curious example of assimilative colouring which had come under his notice in the case of a tree-lizard, Naultinus sylvestris (Maori, Pirirewa), the reptile being brown with -yellow spots, thus resembling a common lichen (see New Zealand Institute Trans- actions, vol xiii, p. 419). Two other cases have lately come within my own cognizance. The one is that of a Pirirewa, which I caught several weeks ago in the Upper Wangaehu Valley, and which I sent down alive to a friend in Wanganui, who keeps such things as pets. Besides the ordinary markings, the reptile has along each side of its body five large patches of bright golden green, and its tail is of a silver-grey colour. I do not know whether this last marking arises from its having cast its tail at some time, and produced another, for though the change in the marking is quite sharply defined, the tail is, if anything, longer than ordinary. At first I thought the creature was a new variety, as its eyes were surrounded by rings of fiery red. Dr. Buller, however, on seeing it, found that this glowing appearance arose from masses of parasites, which it seems infest that portion of the Pirirewa. The other was a similar lizard which Mr. T. Adamson caught about the same time at Murimotu, and which was of a silvery- white colour, but with red eyes similar to mine. Mr. Adamson put the animal alive into a jar, intending to give it to some per- son who took interest in such matters. Ina few days, however, when he went to show it to a friend, he found it had vanished, and on enquiry it turned out that the Maoris, who are terrified at lizards, and who were afraid to visit the house while the rep- tile was there, had persuaded one of his family to let it go. This dread of lizards in the Maori race is very curious, as it seems to 178 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. be more than a mere superstition. I have seen a leading chief who had distinguished himself in many fights, bleed at the nose, scream, and become quite convulsed at the sight of a little brown lizard which ran across the path in front of him. His nose bled till he nearly fainted. H.C: rae: “ TRANSACTIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.’—The fourteenth annual volume has made its appearance this year at an earlier date than usual. While the letter-press is quite up to the usual standard, the number of plates is largely in excess of the average. This is chiefly owing to Mr. Buchanan’s excellent series of Jithographed plates illustrative of our Alpine Flora ; these make the volume most interesting and valuable to the botanist. With the exception of these, and of one by Prof. Parker, illustrative of the skeleton. of Votornzs, all the other plates have been photo-lithographed. It is a pity, when con- siderable trouble has been taken in the preparation of drawings, that better reproductions of them cannot be had. While aware of the limited means at the disposal of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute, we think it ought to be distinctly made known to the writers of papers that their drawings are to be photo-lithographed. They would then be spared the trouble of attempting to give some finish to their work. Considerable additions to our knowledge of the Fauna have been made during the year, chiefly in the Mollusca, Crustacea, and Insecta. The latter certainly do not figure much in the volume under notice, but it must be remembered that a@// Capt. Broun’s papers on the Coleoptera have been separately pub- lished, and also that all the hitherto described species of Diptera, Orthoptera, and Hymenoptera, were separately catalogued by Prof. Hutton, and published during the current season. In Botanical work, the usual activity is manifested in the description of new species, and in the addition of forms hitherto foreign to our Flora. Probably no colony of recent growth has had its phanerogamic flora so well worked out as New Zealand; and, though much still remains to be done, it will be more of a critical nature in future. An article on the flora of the Nelson district is valuable, as extending the knowledge of plant distri- bution in a hitherto almost neglected part of the colony. It is gratifying also to see that the microscopists are coming forward with papers on Diatomacez and fresh water Algze. There is here a wide field for those workers who cannot devote the time requisite for long-continued researches. It is matter for regret that so very little original work is dete among us in Chemistry. A few short, but useful, papers are to be found in this volume of “ Transactions,” but nothing hails from either of our University laboratories. Considering what a vast amount of research lies before anyone entering on this domain ot science, it is certainly remarkable that so few seem to take it up as a study. In the geological portion of the volume is a valuable paper by Mr. Cox on “ The Mineralogy of New Zealand,” which summarises the information on the subject ; 4 a ee ee a a ae GENERAL NOTES. 179 up to date. It is a pity however that the formule of the minerals given are not written like any other chemical formula, for while 2 Fe,O, + 3 H,0O is readily understood by every tyro in chemical symbolism—z2 Fe + 3 H is not. Besides, if the dot stands for oxygen, then 4 is certainly an incorrect formula for water. However, this is a trifling fault in an otherwise excellent paper. About a fifth of the whole volume is occupied with papers on the Maori race, many of them of great value. Some of these would have been none the worse of condensation, and the volume as a whole would thus have been improved. We think that a very valuable addition might be made to the annual volume in the form of an Appendix, mentioning all scientific papers dealing with New Zealand matters which have appeared in foreign journals during the year. Such a list would be very useful for reference. In conclusion, we would congratulate Dr. Hector and his staff on the general excellence of the work which they have published. ee ED. FRAGMENTA PHYTOGRAPHIZ AUSTRALIA. — The ith volume of this valuable publication has been forwarded to us by the learned author, Baron F. von. Mueller. In addition to fasci- culi 88 to 93 of the Fragmenta, containing numerous descriptions and notes of Australian flowering plants and ferns, there are several supplements dealing with lower Cryptogams. These include lists of the (1) Algz by Sonder, (2) Characeze by Braun, (3) Mosses by Hampe, (4) Hepatice by Gottsche, (5) Lichens by Krempelhuber, and (6) Fungi by M. C. Cooke. ED. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SOME IGNEOUS DYKES OF NORTH GIPPSLAND.—The fourth number of the Journal of the Microscopical Society of Victoria contains an article on the “Microscopic Structure of some Igneous Dykes of North Gipps- — land,” by Mr. Howitt, which will be read with interest by all mineralogists, while Mr. Wooster has a valuable contribution to entomology entitled “How the Lerp Crystal Palace is built.” The other articles are taken up with mounting and cleaning of slides, etc., and are hardly up to par for a journal of the kind. CAPRELLINA NOVA-ZEALANDIA, G. WZ. Thomson.—From a letter received from Dr. Mayer, of the Zoological Station, Naples, who has been recently engaged in working out the Caprellidz, we learn that this singular crustacean has been already described by Nicolet as Caprella longicollis, from the coasts of Chili. This is not, however, C. longicollis of Lucas, described in the British Museum catalogue of Amphipoda (p. 362) as occurring in Algeria, as the latter is a true Caprella. Dr. Mayer retains for our species the generic name of Caprellina, but alters the specific name to Nicolet’s. In the form of the mouth-organs, the branchiz (kzemer) and abdomen, Caprellina somewhat resembles Leach’s genus Proto. ED. 180 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. REV ee wi “CATALOGUE OF THE AUSTRALIAN STALK- AND SESSILE- EYED CRUSTACEA,” by William A. Haswell, M.A., B. Sc. It is not many years ago since the remark used frequently to be made in this Colony that the Australians were much behind hand in the matter of scientific work. Leaving out of account the excellent work done by those who had scientific appoint- ments under Governments or endowed boards, it was certainly a matter of comment that comparatively little was done in the same line by private individuals. The idea here was that the Australian climate was too hot for most people, and that all the superfluous energy and enthusiasm were distilled out of them. Whether the reproach ever justly attached or not, it cannot be affirmed atall now. There has been of late an extraordinary increase of scientific activity in all the Australian Colonies, and wide as the field to be worked out is, it will not be many years —at the present rate of things—before the zoology and botany of the great island-continent are well known. One of the latest and most important contributions to this knowledge has just been made by the publication of Mr. Has- well’s catalogue of the Australian Crustacea-Malacostraca, by the trustees of the Australian Museum. It is essentially a compilation of all the known literature on the subject, and includes all Mr. Haswell’s recent additions, already contributed by him to the “ Transactions of the Linnean Society of New South Wales.” The work is similar in general appearance and get-up to “Mier’s Catalogue of New Zealand Crustacea,” but forms a much bulkier volume. It is illustrated by four litho- graphed plates, with figures of new species. A very excellent feature is an introductory chapter explaining the structure of typical animals of the various groups, and this is illustrated very clearly by fairly-well-executed woodcuts. By means of these the merest tyro may make himself acquainted with the external structure of these animals. A glance over the contents of the volume shows that 5 38 species have been catalogued and described. Of these some 335 have been previously described, chiefly in the scientific records of voyages, while no less than 203 have been added to the list by Mr. Haswell’s industry as a systematist. Ofthis last number 53 belong. to the Grachyura or True Crabs, 17 to the Axomoura (Hermit, Porcelain Crabs, etc.), and 12 to the Macroura or Prawn family. These three orders, forming (with the Stomatopoda) the large division of Podophthalmata or Stalk-eyed Crustaceans—are now probably fairly-well known as far as the eastern portions of Australia are concerned. The division includes all the large Crustaceans which were naturally collected by voyagers and travellers, while the smaller forms were comparatively neglected and were consequently but little known until very recently. , x ee —e — ————————————— ee __ CORRESPONDENCE. I8t Of 148 species of the Edriophthalmata or Sessile-eyed Crus- taceans in the catalogue, only 27 were previously recorded, so that Mr. Haswell has added a total of 121 to this division, viz :— 977 sp. of Amphipoda (Sandhoppers, &c.), 27 sp. of Lsopoda (Wood-lice, Slaters, &c.), and 17 sp. of Axtsopoda. Notwith- standing the large additions made by Mr Haswell to our know- ledge of these groups, it is impossible to believe that anything like a complete record of this branch of the fauna is yet before us. But an excellent start has been made by the publication of this catalogue, and collectors will now be enabled to work up their finds in all parts of Australia, which previously could not be done owing to the want of available literature. Only a portion of the whole vast coast-line and of its surround- ing seas has yet been examined, and it may be antici- pated that a comparison of the forms occurring on the East and West Coasts respectively will reveal some remarkable facts of distribution. This question of the distribution of the Crustacea has been but little worked out as yet, but as the material accumulates it will no doubt receive more attention. It is to be hoped that the intention of the trustees of the Australian Museum, as expressed in the preface of this work, will be carried out, and that the volume now before us will prove to be only the first of a series dealing with the systematic geology of Australia. GEO. M. THOMSON. CORRESPONDENCE. LOO ON THE SKELETON: OF NOTORNIS. (To the Editor N.Z. JOURNAL OF SCIFNCE.) SIR,—Will you allow me space to make one or two additions to my paper on the skeleton of Mofornis, which appears in the new volume of the “Transactions of the New Zealand Insti- tute.” Mr. T. Francis Hankinson has favoured me with particulars as to the capture of the Te Anau specimen, which I intended to publish in the form of a postscript to my paper... I find, how- ever, that this is unnecessary, as the whole story is told by Dr. Buller in his paper on the skin of WVotornzs, also in the new volume of “ Transactions.” Since my paper was printed I have found that Mr. Wallace, in “Island Life,” speaks strongly in favour of the hypothesis that the Ratitaz are descended from ancestors capable of flight. I ought to have mentioned that the Dromcognathe (Tinamous) are probably the nearest living representatives of these hypo- thetical Proto-Carinate. I have lately seen Captain Hutton’s paper on Cabalus modestus (“ Trans. N. Z. Inst.” vol. VI., p. 108). Judging from the figures which accompany the paper, I can only wonder that 182 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. the generic distinctness of Cabalus from Rallus was ever called in question. Both sternum and shoulder-girdle are markedly ocydromine. The coraco-scapular angle is stated by Hutton to be a right angle; from the figure it appears to be considerably more—dquite as large, indeed, as in the Weka.—I am, etc., T. JEFFERY PARKER. Otago University Museum, Ist June, 1882. OCCURRENCE OF CELMISIA RAMULOSA. S1R,—In his interesting paper, “A Trip to Lake Hauroto,” Mr. Paulin refers to Celmtsia ramulosa as being rare. ‘This plant does not appear to be so rare as generally supposed, and its area of distribution is certainly tolerably large. It was dis- covered on the mountains near Dusky Bay by Dr. Hector and Mr. Buchanan; is now reported by Mr. Paulin as growing on the mountains lying between the Waiau and the West Coast ; has been found on Mount Pisa by Mr. Petrie ; and on Mount Cardrona by myself—I am, etc., P. GOYEN. Invercargill, 3rd June. [A plant very similar to this Hauroto species was gathered on Mount Peel, Nelson Province, by Mr. T. F. Cheeseman. That gentleman sent specimens to Sir J. D. Hooker, who con- siders it a new species, and intends to describe and figure it in “Tcones Plantarum.” Mr. Cheeseman’s plant is, however, larger in all its parts than Mr. Paulin’s—ED.] ON SOME BOTANICAL CRITICISMS BY MR. KIRK IN THE: TRANS. SZ INSTITUTE Str,—The establishment of a bi-monthly Science Journal in New Zealand meets a long-felt want, not only in the more fre- quent opportunities given for the publication of original work, but also for criticism, for the latter will always prove a valuable aid to science when fairly used. The following notes on certain criticisms by Mr. Kirk in the last two volumes of the “ Trans. N.Z. Institute’ would, if held over till the publication of the next volume of that work, have proved out of time, and this is the only plea that I can urge for asking space for the present aper. , etoniae with the earliest of Mr. Kirk’s criticisms in the “Trans. N.Z. Institute,” vol. XIII., page 85, will be found the following under the head of Agrostis muscosa, n.s. :—“In the ‘Handbook of the N.Z. Flora’ this species is confused with Agrostis subulata (Hook, fil) Fl. Ant. c. liiii Buchanan has fallen into the same error in his ‘Indigenous Grasses of N.Z.’” From the above remark it is evident that Mr. Kirk has missed the intention of Hooker to abandon this antarctic grass as a species, having proved it to be only a variety of Agrostis muelleri, — CORRESPONDENCE. 183 (Benth). The specific name subulata being thus open to use was adapted in the “ Handbook N.Z. Flora” as Agrostis canina var. subulata. The existence of varieties in the “ Handbook of the N.Z. Grasses” being objectionable, this little grass was then raised to the rank of a species under the name of 4 gvostis subulata, Unfortunately the hand-book had then gone to press, and the name only was altered, the irrelevant remarks below the specific description being entirely overlooked. The species, however, being correctly described, the name Agrostis subulata (Buch,) takes precedence of Agvostis muscosa (Kirk) by priority of time. im Vol. X1V.“-Trans. N.Z. Institute,” page 378, under the head Triodia, n.s., will be found the following :—“In his ‘ Indi- genous Grasses of N.Z. Buchanan has wrongly referred Mr, Petrie’s plant to Danthoma pauciflora (R. Brown), but it is clearlya Trisdia.” If Mr Kirk will examine this grass again, he will find that the flowering glume is not 3-toothed as in Triodia, but only 2-toothed, and with a very minute awn between the teeth; all species of Tviodia have the generic 3 teeth equal in size. Again the description given by Mr. Kirk of Danthoma pauciflora as having drooping many-flowered panicles is exaggerated, and incon- sistent with Bentham’s description of the species and name, “ paucifiova.” There is also nothing improbable in any grass becoming reduced in all its parts under the influence of a severe mountain climate, in fact Festuca duriuscula is often found in sub- alpine situations in New Zealand very small in size, and with the flowers reduced to one or two spikelets. But Mr. Kirk’s crowning mistake with this grass is his assertion that Danthonia paucifilova never has the lodicules ciliate; on the contrary, this is the best generic character in Danthoma, and never absent. foe ol, XTV..“ Trans. N.Z. Institute,” page 385, will be found under Heirochloe alpina (Roem. and Schultes) var. sub-mutica a gross blunder on my part pointed out, in mistaking the genus Hievochloe for Danthonia. I can offer no better excuse for such an error than a lapse of the reasoning faculties—a not infrequent occurrence with scientific writers,—and which may be accepted for some other writers’ conclusions, unless they can credit them to bad microscopes. However, this psychological phenomenon of the mind is not peculiar to botanists, as it is also shadowed forth sometimes in learned treatises on Maori cave paintings, as well as in other abstruse subjects scattered through the litera- ture of all scientific nations. The next criticism of Mr. Kirk’s will be found under the head of Stzpa setacea, R. Brown, “Trans. N. Z. Institute,” vol. XIV., page 386, where he says :—‘“ Stipa petriet, of Buchanan’s ‘Indigenous Grasses of New Zealand,’ must be referred to this species, as not improbably it is merely naturalised in Otago, and has no claim to be considered indigenous.” While Mr. Kirk ignores this grass as a new species, he has probably never seen a specimen of it. The grass referred to by him is no doubt Stpa setacea, Br., as I have also specimens of that grass from Mr. Petrie ; but I have also received from the same gentleman a distinctly 184 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. different grass, much larger, and with flowers entirely setaceous, while it differs in form, as shown in the illustrations to the folio edition of the “ New Zealand Grasses.” This grass I have named Stipa petriet. Mr. Kirk calls Stipa setacea (R. Br.), an introduced grass ; but it surely can put in as strong a claim as an indigene as Stipa macrantha (Cav), better known in New Zealand as Strep- tachne vamoissima (Trin.), which Mr. Kirk has declared an indigene. In the article, “New Zealand Olives,” vol. XIV., page 378, under this title, will be found the following by Mr. Kirk :—“On the other hand, Olea Cunninghamit is the Santalum Cunninghamii of Buchanan’s list of Wellington plants, and its wood has been distributed from the Colonial Museum under the name of Santalum.” Tf this doubtful statement could have proved credi- table to the Museum it would not have been mentioned, and at the time referred to—i12 years ago—Mr. Kirk knew as little about our native olives as Buchanan did, neither flowers nor fruit of any of the species having then been seen, and the whole of them being only known by the name Maire. In vol. XIV., page 387, occurs the following :—“ Stilbocarpa polaris (Dcne. and Planche). I have been much interested in observing three specimens from the Auckland Islands, cultivated in the Wellington Botanic Gardens, side by side with a strong specimen from Stewart Island. Two have entirely lost their characters, and exactly resemble the latter. There is no differ- ence in the inflorescence of plants from the two habitats, and both alike give off strong scions.” It is difficult to believe that any unprejudiced observer could write this. They are no doubt most distinct species, as shown by flowers, fruit, and leaves ; and Mr. Armstrong, in describing the Stewart Island plant as a new species, has only done what any observant botanist would have done under the circumstances. There is only one other of Mr. Kirk’s criticisms that I shall notice, in vol. XIV. “Trans. N. Z. Institute,” page 388, under the title of “ Plants from Campbell Island ”:—“ Poa foliosa (Hook, fil). The typical form recorded by Buchanan in his ‘ Hand- book of the New Zealand Grasses, from the Snares and Chatham Islands, in the latter case incorrectly, Festuca scopana, which is omitted from his list of Chatham Island plants, having been mistaken for it.” This is a mysterious statement, for in no part of, thes” Handbook” can I find the least reference to this grass or any of its varieties as being found in the Chatham — Islands. How then could it have been mistaken for Festuca scoparia? All the grasses in the Chatham Islands collected by — Travers were named by Baron von Mueller; and if Festuca — scoparia was not in his, list it had not been collected. In conclusion, Mr. Kirk cannot complain that the “ Handbook of the New Zealand Grasses” has not afforded him a good field for criticism ; but that it may not have proved so satisfactory to himself as he expected can only be regretted.—I am, etc, Wellington, June 26. | JOHN BUCHANAN. EE a ee MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 185 Mee NGS Or SOCIETIES. See OE 2OLAGO.INSTELU LE. gth May, 1882.—W. Arthur, Esq., president, in the chair. New member—Capt. Scott, R.N. The President announced that the Council had made arrange- ments for the delivery during the session of three or more short courses of lectures on scientific and literary subjects. These courses would consist of not less than two, nor more than four, lectures; and, while members of the Institute would be admitted free, it was intended to issue tickets to the general public at a very low price, viz., either 2s. 6d. or 5s. for the course. A syllabus of each course would be printed and given away with the tickets. The first course, to be delivered in June, would be by Prof. Parker, on ‘‘ Fermentation and Putrefaction.”’ | Papers—(1) ‘“‘ Macquarrie Island, its Fauna and Flora,” by Prof. J. H. Scott.—The paper began with a general description of the island. It is hilly, and entirely destitute of trees or shrubs. The sea elephant is found on its beaches during a great part of the year. Its appearance and habits were described. There are four varieties of penguins on the island, as well as other sea-birds, A small and a large rail are also found, and parroquets, the same as the New Zealand species, occur in great numbers. Ten species of flowering plants were collected. These all occur in New Zea- land, or in the Auckland or Campbell Islands, with the exception of the Azorella selago, which is found in Kerguelen Land. The Pleuvophylium crimferum and the Stilbocarpa polaris are the commonest of the flowering plants. The mosses and lichens are fairly numerous, (2.) “New Zealand Copepoda,” paper 1, by Geo, M. Thomson. —This is intended to be the first of a series of papers descriptive of this group of crustacea. The author describes 10 species, of which Harpacticus chelifer (Miller), Idya furcata (Baird), Scutellidium tisboides (Claus) and Acantiophorus scutatus (Brady and Robertson) are well known in the European seas. Amymome clausii and Povrcel- lidium fuluum are new species of genera also foundin Europe. The tollowing belong to perfectly new forms, for which distinct genera are proposed :—Duarthrodes, a genus allied to Canthocamptus, but differing markedly in the torm and structure of the first pair of feet ; Boeckia, belonging to the Calanide ; Comostoma, one of the Artotrogide, but differing from any known form in the peculiar cone-like structure of the mouth-siphon; and lastly Xouthous, a form resembling in general anatomy the Harpacticide, but having no visible median eye, and in place of it two widely-separated blood-red lateral eyes ; the integument is of a dark opaque brown, except above these eyes, where it becomes colourless and trans- parent. Boechia trnarticulata is a fresh-water form, and was collected by Mr C. Chilton in gravel-pits in Canterbury ; all the rest were obtained by the author in Otago Harbour by the use of the dredge. Microscopic preparations of several of the forms were exhibited. (3.) “ Connection of the air-bladder with the auditory organs iu the red cod,” by Prof. T. J. Parker.—The following is a brief 186 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, summary of the structural veculiarities described in this paper :— The anterior end of the air-bladder fits closely against the hinder wall of the skull, and is produced outwards into paired pouches which are in contact with the thin skin beneath the oper- culum and in front of the shoulder-girdle. On each side of the hinder surface of the skull, immediately beneath the foramen for the exit of the vagus, is a large space closed by a thin lamina, partly membranous, partly bony. Thislamina forms the pattition wall of the auditory capsule, and is bathed internally by perilymph while externally the wall of the air-bladder is closely applied to it. Sonorous vibrations striking on the thin skin beneath the opercu- lum will be transmitted to the air in the air-bladder, thence to the thin lamine, and thence to the organ of hearing. The sub-vper- cular skin thus functions as a tympanic membrane, the bony lamine as a fenestra ovalis. Similar arrangements have been described in other fishes, but have not previously been observed in the Gadidz. The paper was illustrated and the structure per- fectly explained by a dis-articulating piccieton and prepared dissec- tions of the fish. PHILOSOPHICAL MNS Tw Te OF CANTERBURY. 4th May, 1882.—Prof. Hutton, vice-president, in the chair. A number of papers, etc., presented to the Society were laid on the table by the Secretary. The following papers were read :— (1) ‘‘ Descriptions of New Zealand Micro-Lepidoptera (I.) by E. Meyrick, B.A. Monograph of the Crambide, with criticisms on previous writers, and remarks on affinities of New Zealand fauna ; Phycidee and Galleride noted as wholly absent. Thinasotia leucophthalma, n. sp.—Brown, with two dark dentate transverse lines, a small transverse white discal spot, and some black basal marks. Christchurch. Scenoploca, n.g.—Allied to Thinasotia, but palpi tufted, and female with abbreviated wings. Scen. petvaula, n. sp.— Grey, with some blackish suffused spots, two pale blackish-margined transverse lines, and a small trans- verse white discal spot. Larva on lichens. Christchurch. Cryptomima, n g.—Allied to Thinasotia, but fore-wings with raised — tufts of scales. Crypt. acevella (Walk.)—Christchurch and Dunedin. Diptychophora pyrsophanes, n. sp.—Dark fuscous, with hind-margin ~ ochreous, and one costal and two dorsal small yellow spots. Wel- lington to Lake Wakatipu. Dipt. chrysochyta, n. sp.—Yellowish-ochreous, partly suffused — with brownish, with two strongly-curved double dark fuscous transverse lines, and a discal spot, half white, half metallic-grey. Auckland. Dipt. astrosema, n. sp.—Light ochreous-brown, with two dark transverse lines, a white blotch towards base, a white trifid discal spot, and several smaller white spots. South Island. ; Dipt. lepidella (Walk.)--Christchurch to Lake Wakatipu. Dift. leucoxantha, n. sp.—Ochreous-orange, with a vite discal, spot, and hind-wings white. Lake Wakatipu. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 187 Dipt. metallifera (Butl.)—Probably from Mount Hutt. Inpt. auriscriptella (Walk.)—Wellington, Christchurch. Dipt. helioctypa, n. sp.—Ochreous-fuscous, with a whitish- ochreous patch towards base, a second on costa, a third along hind-margin, two dark transverse lines, and a white discal spot ; hind-wings dark fuscous. Lake Wakatipu. Dipt. elaina, n. sp.—Grey, slightly greenish, with two dark den- tate transverse lines, and a very small black discal spot. Larva on moss. Cambridge to Dunedin. Crambus acthonellus, n. sb.—Deep ochreous-brown, with a central longitudinal white streak; hind-wings dark fuscous, Mount Hutt. Cr. corvuptus (Butl.)—Mount Hutt. Cr. vamosellus (Dbld.)—Very common everywhere. Cr. angustipenms, Z.—Christchurch. Cr. dicrenellus, n. sp.—Light greyish-brown, somewhat brassy, with a central white streak, and costa white almost to base; head white. Mount Hutt. Cr. haplotomus, n. sb.—Greyish-ochreous, with a central streak, and costal edge almost to base white, and seven black dots on hind-margin ; “head ochreous. Lake Wakatipu. Cr. calliyrhous, n. sp,—Greyish ochreous, with a central sttenle® costal edge, and upper veins posteriorly white; head white. Christchurch. Cr. simplex (Butl.)—Canterbury. Cr. siviellus, n. sp.—Dark brown, with a.central streak and costal streak, silvery-white ; head white. Hamilton. CP: apicellus, Z.—Hamilton to Christchurch. Cr. vitellus (Dbid.)—Very common everywhere ; very variable. Cr. flexuosellus (Dbld.)—Very common everywhere. Or. tuhualis (Feld.)—Wellington to Christchurch. Cr. cyclopicus, . sb.—Grey, with two double dentate dark trans- verse lines, and an ocelloid ring, often obsolete. Christchurch, Lake Guyon. Cr. harpophorus, u. sb.—Grey, with a slender suffused whitish streak from base to beyond middle, with a hook beneath in middle broadly margined beneath with dark grey. Lake Wakatipu. Cr. strigosus (Butl.)—Christchurch and Mount Hutt. Cr. xanthogrammus, n. sb.— Whitish, with a spot towards base, two slender irregular transverse fasciz, and hind-margin dark fuscous-grey, and two slender bright ferruginous longitudinal streaks. Lake Coleridge. Cr. sabulosellus (Walk.), Cv. votuellus (Feld), and Cv. trivirgatus (Feld.) belong to a different family. 2.) “On a new species of Stauroneis,” by Jno. Inglis, Esq. Stauroneis Hutiomi, n. sp.—Frustule. Front view: Oblong, with a marked depression at the line of suture; length rather more than six times its breadth. Side view, with three inflations on both Sides, those at each end slightly less than those in the middle ; valve narrowing towards the ends, which are obtuse. Stauvos linear, dilated towards the margin of valve, reaching the margin. Length, .oo8 of an inch. Habitat (recent), fresh water at Nga Pari, Fernside; fossil at Lake Sumner, Onehunga. This | ‘interesting diatom was found in a fossil condition about 10 years ago by Professor Hutton, who figured, but did not describe it. It has therefore been named S. hutton, 188 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Mr. C. Chilton proposed the following resolution, which, after some discussion, was agreed to—‘‘ That this Society desires to place on record its high appreciation of the great services that have been rendered to science by the late Mr. Charles Darwin, and its deep sense of the loss that science has sustained through his death.” Mr. W. M. Maskell, whose views on the development theory are wholly opposed to those of the world-renowned and lately deceased naturalist, could not agree with the resolution, though he fully appreciated the labours of Dr. Darwin outside of his theory. ist June.—W. M. Maskell, Esq., in the chair. Several donations of books were laid on the table. Papers—(1.) ‘On the New Zealand Siphonariide,” by Prof. F. W. Hutton, This paper described the shell and animal of all the species of Siphonaria and Gadinia known to inhabit New Zealand. Figures are given of the dentition, reproductive and alimentary systems, and of the jaws. The following species are recognised :— Siphonaria obliquata, Sowerby.—From Dunedin to Wellington ; and at the Chatham Islands. Siphonaria australis, Quoy and Gaimard.—From Dunedin to Cook Straits. Siphonaria zealandica, Quoy and Gaimard.—From Auckland to Banks’ Peninsula. | Siphonaria redimiculum, Reeve.—Auckland Islands. Gadinia nivea, Hutton.—East coast of Otago. HAWKE'S. BAY PHILOSOPHICAL ‘INSTR 8th May, 1882.—The first ordinary meeting of the Session was he!d ; Dr. Spencer, vice-president, in the chair. The only paper read was one by the Hon. Secretary, Mr. Colenso, ‘‘On the large number of species and genera of ferns found in a small given area in the 70-mile Bush.” Several interest- ing specimens illustrative of the paper were exhibited. The Hon. Secretary also gave a brief address to the memory of Dr Darwin, an early hon. member of the N.Z. Institute, whose acquaintance Mr Colenso had made in 1835, when Dr Darwin and Admiral Fitzroy were together in New Zealand, in H.M.S. “Beagle,” A number of entomological exhibits, including the larve of a species of Myrmeleon (Ant-lion) believed to be new to science, were also made by Mr Colenso, t2th June.—Dr. Spencer, Vice-president, in the chair. Papers—(1)‘‘ Descriptions of New Ferns belonging tothe genera Cyathea, Dicksonia and Hymenophyllum, collected in the 70-mile Bush,” and (2) “On the hackneyed quotation of Macauley’s ‘ New — Zealander’ ”’; both by W. Colenso, Esq., F.L.S., the Hon. Secretary. The previous paper was accompanied by specimens and illus- — trations of allied ferns. In the second paper the author pointed out that the simile was by no means an uncommon one, and as something very like it had been used by several authors who had MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 189 preceded Macauley—notably Kirke White, Volney, Shelley, and Billiardiere—it was probable that he was indebted to them for the idea. Mr. Colenso also exhibited specimens of a new: species of Gunnera, allied to G. scabra of Chili. SOUTHLAND INSTITULE. gth May, 1882.—J. T. Thomson, Esq., president, in the chair. Papers—(1.) ‘‘On the work done by the New Zealand Insti- fite, by the President. This paper gave an account'of the writers who had. contributed most of the articles published annually by the Institute, and of the subjects discussed. In con- cluding it, the author paid a high compliment to Mr. P. Goyen, the secretary of the local Society, whom he spoke of as an enthusiastic and indefatigable worker. (2.) “On the formation of certain quartz pebbles,’ by Mr. Hamilton. In this paper the author sought to account for the pebbles which are so plentifully found in the neighbourhood of Invercargill, which he considered were not brought down from the hills of the interior, nor were they to be looked upon as the remains of hills which might once perhaps have existed where the pebbles are now found. He advanced the theory that they were formed from ancient forests: the carbon of the buried timber escaping by oxidation, and its place being taken by silica brought down by solution in water. This siliceous matter gradually hardened into stone, bearing marks in many cases of the woody tissues which it had replaced. Specimens were shown in corrobo- ration of the theory, some showing the woody tissue only partially altered. In the discussion which ensued, the President dissented from the theory propounded, while Mr. Goyen suggested that the pebbles could possibly be formed from the siliceous matter con- tained in the wood itself. 3rd June.—J. T. Thomson, Esq., president, in the chair. Papers—(1.) ‘On Forestry,’ by Mr. D. M‘Arthur. The author detailed chiefly the history of the plantations made by the Dukes of Athol in Scotland, and dealt with the suitability of the Larch as a forest tree, and as one which would thrive in Southland. ee Holk-lore,”*by Mr. J..G. Smith. Two new members were elected, and Mr. Carswell and the Rey. Mr. Fairclough were appointed members of the Council. ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. May 3rd, 1882.—Annual Meeting. H.C. Russell, Esq., presi- dent, in the chair. From the annual report we extract the following:—The number of new members elected during the year was 46, and the total number of members on 30th April, 1882, was 475. The Clarke medal for the year 1882 was awarded to James Dwight Dana, LL.D., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in Yale College, Newhaven, U.S.A., in recognition of his eminent work as a naturalist, and especially in reference to his geological and other labours in Australia when with the United States Exploring 190 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Expedition round the world in 1839. During the year the Society received 645 volumes and pamphlets as donations, and presented 531 volumes to various kindred societies. The Council subscribed . to 39 scientific journals and publications; and in all spent the sum of £206 19s. upon the library. During the year 8 meetings were held, at which 13 papers were read, and three of the sections held regular monthly meetings. The mortgage upon the Society’s building was reduced from £2000 to £1500, and the amount now standing to the credit of the building fund is £35 12s. 3d. The sum of £48 18s, was handed over to the Biological Laboratory, Watson’s Bay. The receipts for the year were £1048 os. 3d., and the expendi- ture was £987 7s. 1od., leaving a balance in the bank ot £60 12s. 5d. The sum of £218 2s. 3d. stands as a fixed deposit to the credit of the Clarke Memorial Fund in the Oriental Bank. The election of office-bearers for the ensuing year resulted as follows :—President, Mr. Chr. Rolleston, C.M.G.; vice-presidents, Messrs. Robert Hunt, F.G.S., and F. N. Manning, M.D. ; hon. treasurer, Mr. H:G. A, Wright, M.R.C.S.E., and LS, bonds hon. secretaries, Professor Liversidge and Dr. Leibius ; members of council, Messrs. H. C. Russell, B.A., F.R.A.S., W. A. Dixon, F.C.S.,'C.) Ss Wilkinson,» F.G.S.,; Charles- Moore, ‘Fi: S20G ae _ Hirst, W. G. Murray. Reports from the sectional committées were read, showing that the following officers had been elected for the session :— Microscopy: Chairman, H. G. A. Wright, M.R.C.S.E.; secretary, P. R. Pedley; committee, Dr. Ewan, F. B. Kyngdon, G. D. Hirst, H. O. Walker. Medical: Chairman, Dr. P. Sydney Jones ; secretaries, Dr. H. N. MacLaurin, Thomas Evans, M.R.C.S.E. ; committee, T. C. Morgan, L.R.C.S. Edin., A. Roberts, M.R.C.S.E., ve Mackellar, G. Bedford, M.R.C.S.E., Dr. Craig Dixson, Dr. wan. The Chairman then read his annual address. [We regret that the space at our disposal will not allow us to print this interesting and exhaustive address in extenso; we must refer our readers for a full report to the files of the Sydney Morning Herald of 4th May. The full report of the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods’ paper on the ‘*Geology of the Hawkesbury Sandstone,” and of the discussion which followed, will be found in the Herald of May 11, 12, 13, 18, 22, and 23.—ED. | ; toth May, 1882.—C. Rolleston, Esq., C.M.G., president, in the chair. Papers—(1.) ‘‘On the Hawkesbury Sandstone,” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.S., F.L.S. (Abstract). This formation forms an oblong mass about 140 miles long, with a width of from — 40 to 80 miles; it constitutes much of the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, and is also conspicuous in Sydney Harbour at the Heads, and on the banks of the Hawkesbury river. A line drawn westwards from Newcastle on the N., and another from Shoalhaven on the §8., mark its approximate limits in these direc- tions; while a line N. and S. between Sofala and Goulburn les outside its western boundaries, except just near the former locality. It lies horizontally upon rocks of different age, sometimes on the coal measures, or upon Devonian or Silurian beds, It is overlaid — MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. | 191 in many places by the Wainamatta beds, and by igneous rocks. In no place is there sign of upheaval, but at the first Zigzag are numerous signs of a downcast or fault. False-bedding is the characteristic feature of the formation in nearly every portion. There are two distinct forms of stratification—one which makes the main lines of subdivision, dividing the stone into massive layers of varying thickness, the spaces between the layers being often filled with a fine-grained dust, or by red bands of ironstone ; and between these are fine lines of stratification which are mostly inclined to the horizon. The fossils are mostly composed of the roots and stems of plants. As a whole, the beds are from 800 to tooo feet thick, and contain, in addition to the plant remains, patches of shale or coal, and occasionally fishes of at least two species. From a consideration of their whole structure and con- tents, the author concludes that the formation has been formed by wind, and he inclines to the opinion that the land from which it was derived was a desert like Arabia, in which sand storms were numerous and the accumulation of dust rapid. This view is strengthened by the examination and comparison of eolian rocks in various other parts ofthe world. Theinterior of Australia is now in many parts composed of a desert region, with shifting sand hills, tresh and salt marshes and lagoons, and when the waters dry up, as often happens, fish, etc., are left entombed in the salt. The conditions, then, requisite for the formation of such a deposit as the Hawkesbury sandstone are all to be found still in Central Australia. The appearances which have been attributed to ice-action are believed by the author to be the remains of creeks and streams which flowed among the loose sandy hillocks, and exercised a great denuding action, especially when in flood. ‘The results of the essay are summarised thus :— 1. That the Hawkesbury sandstone is a wind-blown formation, interspersed with lagoons and morasses, with impure peat. 2. That there has been no upheaval, but rather a subsidence, which probably extends from the base of the range to the sea. 3. That the peculiar lamination of the beds is due to the angle at which dry sand slips and rests when blown by the wind. 4. The beds of ironstone represent vegetable matter destroyed in oxidizing the iron, and this is why so few plant remains are tound. 5. The irregular layers of the sandstone formation probably represent what was a tranquil portion of the surface for a time, on which there may have been a vegetable growth now represented by iron- stone bands. 6. The smaller gravel may be wind-blown; the larger may have been derived trom creeks. This is also the origin of the fragments of shale. The creeks have undermined them and broken them up. 7. Conglomerates may have been derived from stony deserts, such as we have in the centre of Australia. They represent all the stones of a sandhill district from which the sand has been blown away. 8. The precipitous cliffs of the Blue Mountains are the hard central cores of sandhills, the loose por- tions of which were easily blown or washed away. g. That in all respects the sandstone is like many desert formations otf the interior. 10. Thata large arid or desert region has existed in Australia in mesozoic times, while to the north and north-west there was a cretaceous sea. 11. That this desert was terminated by the outpouring of vast quantities of volcanic rock, which altered 192 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. the drainage and probably changed the climate. 12. Wehave no means of knowing the eastern limits of this ancient desert, as there has been a subsidence on that side. 13. This tormation differs but slightly trom other and more extensive aerial ones in other countries, especially in Mexico, China, Arabia, &c. 14. There is no evidence of ice-action, and all the physical features are against such a supposition. 17th May, 1882.—C. Rolleston, Esq. C.M.G., president, in the chair. This was the adjourned meeting held to discuss Mr Wood’s paper. Mr. Wilkinson, Government geologist, combated Mr. Woods’ conclusions at nearly all points. While endorsing the author’s description of the formation of blown sand deposits, he pointed out—(1) the undulating and hilly surface of blown sand areas as seen near Sydney, whereas the prominent feature of the sections exposed in the cliffs along the coast, or fringing the har- bour, or in the magnificent precipices of the Blue Mountains, was the horizontal stratification of the beds ot sandstone; (2) that Mr. Woods’ second conclusion applies equally well to the lower coal measures which occur near Wallerawang at 3000 feet above sea: level, and are full of spirifers and other marine fossil remains, and the bedding of which is nearly horizontal like that of the Hawkes- bury sandstone overlying them ; (3) the lamination or “ false bed- ing’? is not confined to eolian rocks, but is met with in almost all sedimentary formations, whether of marine or fresh water origin, and is regarded as indicative of more or less strong currents in shallow water ; (4 and 5) the beds and irregular bands of iron- stone can hardly represent old land surfaces, as they not only curve in all directions, but are sometimes vertical; most of them have been formed from the oxidation of water containing iron in solution permeating the sandstones and shales; (6) the gravels included in the sandstone beds have evidently been brought by the same currents that transported the sand, and as some of the pebbles consist of quartzite, black slate, etc., they may have been derived from the Hartley ranges, some 60 miles distant, which are the nearest formations of the character; whereas creeks traversing blown sand beds seldom traverse such a distance. (7) The con- glomerates, to satisfy Mr. Woods’ theory, must occur at the base of the series, but here they are principally found in the upper- most portions. They are plainly seen to have been deposited by aqueous agencies. (8) The horizontal arrangement of the beds, and their structure, already alluded to, are against the idea of the precipitous cliffs of the Blue Mountains being the hard central cores of sandhills. (9g, 10, and 11.) The conclusions arrived at by Mr. Woods are also disputed; while 12 and 13 are passed over. In regard to the last of Mr. Woods’ conclusions, it. is pointed out that the signs of ground-ice are present—e.g., the sandstones lying immediately above the thin beds of shale which occur frequently enclose angular boulders, which have been torn up from the underlying beds and embedded in a very confused manner in the sand and rounded pebbles brought by the transporting currents. The angular form and mode of occur- rence of these bouldeys of soft shale evidently show that the shale beds have been disturbed by moving ice, and this opinion is shared in by Prof. J. von Haast, director of the Canterbury Museum, N.Z. — MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 193 Professors Stephens and Liversidge commented at considerable length on the paper, after which the author replied to Mr. Wilkin- son's objections seviatim. (We must again refer our readers to the Sydney Morning Herald for a tull report of this most interesting discussion.) AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. May 29th, 1882.—E. A. Mackechnie, Esq., president, in the chair. New Members elected—Messrs. R. Anderson, J. Banks, R. Prowmine,C. E. Bourne, M.A., F. E, Compton, J. M. Dargaville, fein. IN: Giblin; E, W. Hanmer, Aj G. Horton, A. EB. Isaacs, Dr. Kenderdine, Dr. Kidd, Messrs. A. H.: Nathan, J. M. Shera, Geb; Stone, W. Thorne, and FH. J. Wickens. 1, The President delivered his inaugural address. He briefly sketched the progress of the Institute during the past year. He then proceeded to enquire into the aims and conditions of scientific progress, and its supposéd antagonism to religion, endeavouring to show—(1) Every advance in science enlarges our conception of the universe. (2) The scientific mind is, in a great measure, a religious mind. (3) Scientific speculation is not science. Reference was also made to the gifts of Mr. T. Russell, Dr, Campbell, Mr. Mackelvie, and others toward the promotion of art, and the requirements of an art gallery and hbrary. 2. ‘‘On some recent additions to the New Zealand Flora,” by Weeeseneeseman, | .1L.S. The tollowing new species were de- scribed :—(1) Cotula linearifolia, allied to C. pyvethnifolia, Hk. f., in the structure of its flower-heads, but differing from it and from all the known New Zealand species in having narrow linear entire leaves. Hab., Wairau Mountains, Nelson; alt., 3000-4000 feet. (2) Veronica Cheesmamt, Benth. (Hk. f., in ‘‘Icones Plantarum,” t. 1366). Belonging to the same division of the genus as V. canescens, but a larger, densely-tufted plant, with lobulate or pinnatifid leaves and calyx lobes, and small white flowers. Hab., summit of Gordon’s Nob., and on the Raylan Mountains, Nelson; alt., 4000-5500 feet. (3) Cavex devia, allied to C. testacea, but amply differing in habit; glumes and utricle. Abundant in mountain districts in Nelson ; alt., 2000-4000 feet. 3. ‘‘ Additions to the Geodephaga of New Zealand,” by Capt. T. Broun. In this paper Capt. Broun named and fully described 24 new species of carnivorous ground beetles, or Geodephaga. Of this number 12 had been collected in Otago by Messrs. S. W. Fulton and T. Chalmer, 5 had been brought from Nelson by Mr. T, F. Cheeseman, and the remainder had been collected in the North Island by Messrs. P. G. Sandager, W. D. Campbell, and the author. The finest specimen was stated to be Tvichosternus opulentus, discovered in the Wangapeka Valley, Nelson, by Mr. Cheeseman, but several of Mr. Fulton’s captures in Otago were nearly equally noteworthy. Capt. Broun stated that. nearly all the larger and finer species of the group are inhababitants of the Southern portions of the colony, those found in the North Island being much less conspicuous, and those from Auckland province the poorest of all. He considered, however, that future explora- tions in the mountainous interior of the North Island may possibly 194 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, modify this statement. Much has still to be ascertained respecting the geographical distribution of the species. The general im- pression is that they have singularly narrow ranges, but facts 4 have recently been collected which prove that this is not always the case. : EDITORIAL QUERIES. ea EE SCIENCE TEACHING IN SCHOOLS. The Editor of the N.Z. JouRNAL oF SciENCE would be glad to receive answers to the following queries, together with any other information bearing on the subject, from all teachers engaged in the teaching of Science in New Zealand Schools :— 1. What science subjects are taught in the School ? z. What is the number of pupils receiving such instruction, and what is their average age and status in the school ? 3. How much time is devoted to each subject ? 4. Are the subjects taught practically? And what provision exists in the School in the way of apparatus, &c. ? 5. Is there any Museum attached to the School? How is it supported ? 6. Is any special class-room set apart for such teaching? 7 FOR SALE, SEVERAL /#MICROSCOPES+ By various Makers, SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND DISSECTING, re et J. WILKIE # CO, ° Booksellers and Stattoners, 40, PRINCES STREET, DUNEDIN. Ss > %. 7 f 4 = 4 . » « ian ' it'os ae ae Sy eae STREET NOI 4. Toad ~ ey er, < SR ng” gan, SE afta ig) naga ee ; | 2] # he : « 7 f ’ i ‘ : a ¥ , A “A. yA « vate + o> 5 4 / +; A ay ies “oy | 3 } + 3 a ’ d y 5 j * # j . yay + f : % o ” _ "ths \ ‘ * * Pg adh Ae RETAIL : iq 3 ; ir - ‘ L-3 ¥ 5 li, a ee a ; f _, = 21am. 2 x shh ere iy ee i * ~~ be P p ™~ * » _— aan SESE Te Med PET i ga ae . id et i * : =" y ‘ ase ‘ ; . 7 a w ra ee ys ent a ow 5 a Wie 5 Ls v tasted: Ep entero ‘ne ; ‘tin me ' +4 ” o 4g > : Pa. tn Aula cae ; mm > je FE ree “ et. P st - : . Re at i iar 7 > . ~ 2 ~ cad , = ‘ Oe TS a See ep ad, rr Oe 8 ee ae Pee el ae y [No. 5, Vol. I. THE NEW ZEALAND DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY. VASO ead dad I ed el eff Yudicio perpende : et st tibt vera videntur — ena Dede manus: aut si falsum est, adcingere contra. Boe ; PNET al Ne gt eh CONTENTS : a PAGE Zoological Geography. Prof FF. W. Hurroy. a he es AP wee 195 On some hitherto Unrecorded Plant Stations, T. F, CHEESEMAN, F.L.S. paPA2O2 ‘ecent Views on the Trilobites. CHAS. CHILTON, B.A. 0 sv es eh COR New Zealand Micro-Lepidoptera LON sh Ghod dae Seve easy haya penal ts ugh 208 =) G eneral Notes— . eee eee see eoe eee eee a eee eee ees 212 she _ Australian Museum, Sydney—Habitat of Saprinus Pedator—Clasping Organs in Male Spiders - and Mites—A Marine Caddis-worm—On Patella Solandri (Colenso). ( n the New Zealand Carabide Capt. T, Broun, M.E.S., ... Be ere, I 5 prtings of Societies— ... Se aye Bee ad ae Ss As Me ey, Wellington Philosophical Society—Auckland Institute—Philosophical Institute of Canterbury— Otago Institute—Southland Institute—Dunedin Naturalists’ Field Club—Royal Society of wan ity South estate agi Society of New South Wale orrespondence - Po Viaswir6 sth ow ; oa eas i a bs. 243 ' _-Earth-worms in New Zealand—A Reply—The Weka Pass Rock-paintin oe New Zealand Moths. tes and Queries bse ges eee eee eee eee ese f eee ees eee 246 PRICE, 2s.;5 ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, 10s. r Dunn, .z.: J. WILKIE & Co., PUBLISHERS, PRINCES STREET. ee ferent ne ey at ee ay eS z+ a a= Y a mpi te P <¢ Rie Ser ee : eee RE " lh tate : Sa? ot phen s Ti ae Vol. I., No.5, SEPTEMBER, 1882.1 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. ee bY RROK. hast W.. LULTON. —_—_- That different countries and different seas are inhabited by different kinds of animals has been known for centuries, but it is only during the last fifty years that naturalists have been able to form correct notions about the geographical limits of the various faunas, and so lay the foundations of a true zoological geography. In discussing the subject the question at once arises—Have the different groups of animals the same geographical limits, or must we record separately the distribution of each? But this question cannot as yet be answered. Mr. Wallace, who has done so much for this branch of natural history, is of opinion that the regions founded on the distribution of the birds and mammals must apply to all classes of animals, and says “ it is certainly not convenient or instructive to have a distinct set of regions established for each class or order in the animal and vegetable kingdom.” If this opinion should turn out to be true, it will simplify matters very much, but it seems quite possible that some of the lower orders of animals, which must have been widely. spread during the mesozoic era, may have different areas of distribution from those of the higher orders, which only came into existence in the cai- nozoic era. Mr. Wallace also ignores altogether the marine pro- vinces, which necessarily supplement the land regions and differ from them considerably. So different, indeed, are the land and marine districts, that it will be necessary to consider them sepa- rately ; and, as far more attention has been given to the distri- bution of terrestrial animals than to those inhabiting the sea, it will be better to begin with the land regions. Passing over the earlier attempts of Buffon, Fabricius, Latreille, Kirby, and Prichard, which, although valuable as establishing the fact that a zoological geography was possible, are of little use to us now, we come to Mr. W. Swainson, who, in 1835, pro- posed to divide the land into five provinces, each inhabited by a distinct variety of the human race, as well as by different animals ; but at the same time saying that his provinces did not admit of accurate definition.* | His provinces were the follow- ing :—1. European or Caucasian, including Europe, Asia Minor,and the shores of the Mediterranean. 2. Asiatic or Mongolian, com- prising Asia east of the Ural Mountains, as far south as Java and Sumatra. 3. American, both North and South America. 4. Ethiopian or African, comprising Africa south of the Desert of * Treatise on the Geography and Classification of Animals.—Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia, i96 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Sahara; and 5. Australian or Malay, including not only Aus- tralia, but also the Indian Archipelago south of Java, New Guinea, and Polynesia. Dr. Prichard, in the fourth edition of his “ Reseaches into the Physical History of Mankind,” published in 1851, proposed nine zoological provinces, some of which he subdivided. His remarks are rather confused, but the following seem to be his divisions :—1. Arctic America, Europe and Asia. 2. Temperate North America, Europe and Asia. 3. Intertropical and south temperate America. 4. Intertropical and south temperate Africa. 5. Tropical Asia and India. 6. Indian Archipelago. 7. Polynesia, including New Guinea and New Zealand. 8. Australia. 9. The southern extremities of America and Africa.* Dr. Sclater, in 1857, from a study of the distribution of birds, divided the land into six regions, which were afterwards shewn by Dr. Gunther to hold good for reptiles, and by Mr. Wallace to hold good for mammals. These regions are—1. Palearctic Region, comprising Europe, North Africa to the Sahara, and all Asia, except South Arabia, India, and South China. 2, A¢thio- pian Region, including Africa south of the Sahara and South Arabia. 3. /udian or Oriental Region, including India, South China, and the Indian Archipelago as far south as Borneo and Java. 4. Australian Region, including Australia, the Indian Archipelago from Celebes and Lombok, New Guinea, Polynesia, and New Zealand. 5. WVeotropical Region, comprising South America, the West Indies, and tropical North America. 6, Nearctic Region, comprising all extra-tropical North America. In 1866 Mr Andrew Murray proposed to unite together the Palearctic and Nearctic Regions, and also the Ethiopian and Indian Regions, thus reducing them to four. In 1868 Professor Huxley pointed out that the Pal arctic, Nearctic, Ethiopian, and Indian Regions were closely related to each other, and proposed that they should be united into an Arctogzea; and also that New Zealand should be detached from the Australian region on — account of its great peculiarities, its extreme isolation, and its being the remains of a more extensive land, and should be made into a Novozelanian region ; this latter suggestion being adopted by Dr. Sclater in 1874. Mr. Wallace, however, in his valuable “Geographical Distribution of Animals,” published in 1876, rejects all these innovations, and goes back to Dr. Sclater’s original six regions as the most natural and useful. It appears, therefore, that naturalists agree pretty well as to- where the boundary line between districts should be drawn, so far as mammalia, birds, and reptiles are concerned, but they differ as to how these districts should be grouped into regions and sub-regions. oe In his “ Introduction to the Study of Fishes,” published in 1880, Dr. Gunther arrives at the conclusion that although Dr. Sclater’s regions do very well for the fresh-water fishes, their dis-— * These appear to be already included in 3 and 4. ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 197 tribution is decidedly in favour of Professor Huxley’s grouping of the regions into north and south—that is into Arctogza and Notogzea—rather than Dr. Sclater’s grouping of them into old and new worlds—that is into Palezogzea and Neogza—and that Tasmania, Patagonia, and New Zealand ought to form one region. Perhaps the best compromise between existing opinions would be the following :— 1. Arctogzal Region. (a) Nearctic sub-region. (6) Palearctic sub-region. . Oriental Region. . Ethiopian Region. . Neotropical Region. . Australian Region. . Novozelanian Region. Onur BR WwW WH Mr. Wallace has shown that these regions represent very fairly the distribution of the butterflies, the carnivorous ground beetles, the stag beetles, and the lamellicorn beetles ; while the hawk moths, the Buprestride, and the longicorn beetles show several anomalies, especially in a connection between the Australian and Neotropical regions ; and the same thing is seen in the distribution of the frogs. Very little is known of the distribution of other groups of insects and of earth-worms, while the classification of the land mollusca is in such a state of confusion that we cannot.for many years know much about them. 3 To account for the resemblances between the different southern: regions, Mr. Wallace has proposed ‘a very ingenious theory. It is, that all the principal groups of animals have originated in the Arctogzal region, and have spread in wave after wave southward into Africa, India, South America, and Australia ; while the new forms constantly arriving in Arctogea have successively exterminated the older ones. Thus Australia is inhabited by the descendants of an early wave of mammalian animals which have been preserved from destruction by the Australian region having become isolated from the large masses of land to the north, and the Neotropical, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions each contain remnants of the forms which once occupied Arctogzea ; while the Novozelanian region was cut off from Australia before any mammals had travelled so far south. The large amount of paleontological evidence which Mr. Wallace has accumulated is sufficient, I think, to prove this theory for the mammalia, and perhaps even for the struthious birds; but the distribution of both the ganoid fishes and the tailed amphibians is not in accord with it ; and for other groups of animals which are found in the south, but not in the north, we have no direct proof of a southerly migration. We must therefore, in these cases, be guided by other evidence, and can hardly accept Mr. Wallace’s theory as the explanation of every case of affinity between the regions of Notogea. 198 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, We will now turn to the marineprovinces. Thepelagicanimals which live at or near the surface of the ocean are all more or less cosmopolitan. The same may be said of the inhabitants of the deep sea, for the researches of the naturalists of the “ Challenger” and other scientific expeditions have proved that the animals living 3,000 feet or more below the surface are very much the same all over the world. Consequently the deep sea forms a single, very irregularly-shaped province, and is almost as com- plete a barrier to the migration of the shallow water animals as is the land. It is therefore to the shallow waters surrounding the shores that we must look for our marine zoological districts. Mr. S. P. Woodward, in 1856, from a study of the marine mollusca, divided the ocean into the following eighteen provinces*:—1. Arctic province, containing all the northern seas from Kamtschatka and the Aleutian Islands to the North Cape, Iceland, and Newfoundland. 2. Boreal province, including the North Atlantic from Massachusetts to Iceland, the Shetland Islands, and Norway. 3. Celtic province, comprising only the British Islands, Denmark, South Sweden, and the Baltic. 4. Lusitanian province, the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean, N. W. Africa and Madeira, the Azores and Canary Islands. 5. Aralo-caspian province. 6. West African province, comprising the tropical coast of W. Africa. 7. South African province, comprising Africa outside the tropics. 8. /udo-pacific province. This most important of all the marine provinces was first indi- cated by Cuvier and Valenciennes in 1828; it extends from tropical Australia to the Yellow Sea, and from the Red Sea and E. Africa to Polynesia. 9. [With this paper Part III. of the ‘‘ List of the New Zealand Coleoptera’ is commenced, Parts I. and If. have already been issued by the Colonial Museum Department. The numbers on the margin are in continuation of those in Part II. When insects are referred to by numbers, these numbers correspond with those in Parts I. or IT.] CNEMACANTHID&. 1322. Mecodema rugicolle, sp. nov.—Lody moderately glossy, brownish-black, legs and antenne rufo-piceous ; elongate, sub- parallel. Head nearly smooth on the middle, longitudinally rugose in front, irregularly wrinkled laterally, its posterior portion covered with transversal linear impressions and punctures ; labrum broadly rounded, bearing a row of course punctures and ferruginous bristles. Pvothorax sub-depressed, its length and breadth about equal, widely rounded laterally, abruptly narrowed behind, its sides almost crenate; the surface has a distinct median groove not attaining the apex, many transversal furrows deepest near the sides, some abbreviated longitudinal strie in front, and a row of obvious punctures, with elongated ferruginous bristles proceeding from them, along the rims; the basal fovez are well defined, and placed close to the edges of the contracted part. lytra cylindrical, slightly convex, each with three rows of distant punctures on the disc, the sides and apices more coarsely and irregularly punctured ; their surface exhibits a few aciculate impressions but no distinct striae. Underside piceous ; flanks of the #vosternum punctate, those of the mesosternum similarly, but more densely impressed ; abdomen with distant shallow punctures near the sides; the “ead transversely regulose. Differs from all the other species of the genus having crenu- lated thoracic margins by the sculpture of the head and thorax, &c. Length, 11 ; breadth, 3% lines. Described from a mutilated specimen found by Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager near Taranaki. 1323. Metaglymma punctifer, n.sp.—Elongate, slightly convex, | medially narrowed, glossy black, scarcely bronzed, tarsi and antennz pitchy-black, tips of the palpi pale in colour. Head moderate, longitudinally bi-impressed in front, a little constricted _ behind, and punctured in line with the back part of the eyes; * Read before the Auckland Institute, June 13, 1881. 216 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. these latter prominent. Pvrothorax longer than broad, margined, its sides but little curved, considerably contracted behind, with somewhat obtuse but rectangular posterior angles, apex slightly arcuated, base emarginated ; the dorsal groove terminates in the curved frontal impression, basal foveze deep, close to the angles, with a few punctures extending inwards ; the disc is obsoletely striated across, and there are several setigerous punctures along the margins. FA/ytra elongate, marginated, wider behind than in front, a little rounded laterally ; each with eight rows of punc- tures, the four inner arranged in pairs, so that the interstices between them and the outer rows are broader than the others, yet not so wide as the smooth space near the side ; these punc- tures are sometimes confluent, but never form striz, the outer are more rounded and deeper than the inner, whilst the whole sculpture becomes confused apically. Underside shining black, head rugose, base and flanks of the prosternum, and most of the mesosternum, rugosely punctated, the sides of the metasternum and abdomen more or less punctured. The mentum tooth, though entire, is concave at the apex, and the terminal articula- tions of the palpi are elongate-oval but rather obtuse at the extremity. Female length, 6% ; breadth, 17% lines. One of Mr. T. Chalmer’s captures near Dunedin. 1324. Wetaglymma oblonga,n.sp.—Broad, sub-oblong, somewhat convex ; moderately shining, black, legs and antenne pitchy- red. Head nearly smooth, having only a few abbreviated longitudinal lines on the forehead, an inter-antennal and post- ocular impressions, and two or three short marks on the vertex. — Prothorax \arge, as long as broad, obtusely rounded laterally, much narrowed behind, with indistinct posterior angles ; its surface presents the usual dorsal groove, not reaching the base nor apex, some obsolete aciculate impressions, half-a-dozen punctures in the marginal channels with ferruginous hairs pro- ceeding from them; an indistinct, curved, frontal impression most visible near the anterior angles, and the basal fovez repre- sented by mere punctiform depressions. Sczztellum smooth. Llytra oblong, slightly rounded, evidently and regularly — punctate-striate, with the common smooth lateral space, inter- stices simple. Underside glossy black, with a puncture on each side of the middle of the second, third, and fourth abdominal segments. A rather broad, easily recognised species. Length, 8% ; breadth, 23 lines. I have only a single mutilated specimen, which was found on “ The Brothers,” Cook’s Strait, by Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager. LICINID. 1325. Dichrochile nttida,n.sp.—Sub-oblong, rather broad,some- what depressed ; shining black, legs pitchy-black, tips of palpi testaceous. S/ead of rather rounded outline, with prominent eyes, two inter-ocular punctures, and a deep frontal groove, and somewhat uneven near the sides! Pvrothorax transversal, sub- NEW ZEALAND CARABIDA, 217 quadrate, base and apex not truncate, its sides moderately rounded and gradually narrowed posteriorly, hind angles obtuse, lateral rims a little reflexed; the surface obsoletely striated across, the curved frontal impression scored with a number of short lines ; the basal fovez are large; the dorsal line tolerably well marked, but not reaching the apex ; two small fovez appear near the middle, and the base bears many short longitudinal grooves. L/ytra oblong, broad, narrowed towards the shoulders, obliquely sinuated behind; striate interstices nearly plane, the third bi-punctate. Legs normal. The elytra are unusually short and broad, their greatest width being in line with the posterior femora, and are but little narrowed apically; the thorax is similar to that of No. 37 as regards shape, though rather shorter, and the eyes are quite as large and prominent as in that species, far more so than in No. 40. Length, 4% ; breadth, 1 7% lines. I have lately received a specimen from Outram, where it had been found by Sydney W. Fulton, Esq. 1326. Dichrochile cinctiger, n. sp—Variegate, head, thoracic disc, andalarge spaceontheanterior half of the elytradull brownish black ; the thorax narrowly, the elytra very broadly, margined with testaceous ; femora yellowish, tibia somewhat rufescent. Flead \arge, not narrowed behind, and, with the exception of two punctures near each eye, quite unimpressed ; eyes rather small, not prominent ; labrum deeply notched but abbreviated. Pvro- thorax transversal, the apex widely, the base deeply incurved ; the sides finely marginated, rounded medially, obliquely narrowed posteriorly, hind angles blunt; the parts near the hind-angles are broadly yet slightly depressed, and not at all foveate, the discoidal furrow is moderately distinct, and its whole surface rather flat, except just at the apex. /ytra a little convex, oval, scarcely sinuated apically, feebly striated, their interstices plane, the third with two small punctures. Underside brownish-black, the coxe, sides of the prosternum, and epipleure testaceous, mentum and trophi infuscate ; abdomen a good deal contracted, so that the basal segment alone comes in contact with the sides of the elytra. A very peculiar form. The dark space on the wing-cases does not extend beyond the hind-thighs nor the fourth striz ; the median punctures are surrounded by testaceous spots, the other two are sub-apical, and there are two larger ones near the scutellum, but not outside the second striz; the broad lateral testaceous spaces are closely dotted with brown, thus giving them a punctate-striate appearance, but, in reality, the only large punctures, and these rather shallow, extend along the sides. Length, 334 ; breacath, 1% lines. One example, minus antennze and most of the legs, was picked up dead by S. W. Fulton, Esq., of Outram, Otago. ANCHOMENID2. 1327. Anchomenus haastii,n.sp.—Sub-depressed, shining black, legs pitchy-red, trophi and antenne dark red, tarsi ferruginous, 218 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Head and mandibles elongate, nearly smooth, transversely de- pressed behind ; eyes large and prominent. Prothorax small, about as long as broad, widest at the middle, from that point narrowed yet scarcely rounded anteriorly, somewhat sinuously narrowed behind ; the middle of the base truncate, but oblique near each sub-acute angle, the latter, therefore, does not touch the shoulder ; the disc, owing to the deep and broad marginal channels, and fine slightly reflexed lateral rims, appears convex, the dorsal groove and transversal striz are finely impressed. Elytra \arge, oblong, only slightly rounded laterally, and but little sinuated apically ; each has a scutellar and seven seemingly impunctate striz, and a row of shallow punctiform impressions at each side; interstices a little raised, the third bi-punctate ; the third, and fourth, and fifth, and sixth striz united before the apices. Underside pitchy-black, destitute of distinct sculpture. Legs moderately long, the four first joints of all the Zarsz super- ficially grooved. The elytra are four times the length and twice the breadth of the thorax; the posterior angles of the latter appear somewhat elevated and distant from the elytra. Length, 6; breadth, 2% lines. I have seen one male and two females. One of. the latter was sent by Professor Julius von Haast (whose name the species bears) some time ago ; the other two were found near Wellington by Mr P. Stewart- Sandager. 46. Anchomenus sandageri, n. sp.—Glossy, head and thorax black, elytra infuscate-black with paler margins, palpi, legs, and basal joint of antenne nearly fulvous, remaining joints of these latter as well as the tarsi some vhat rufescent ; underside brownish black, the four anterior coxee and posterior trochantes yellowish. Hlead oviform, nearly as wide as’ thorax, and, with the excep- tion of the usual frontal impressions and ocular punctures, quite smooth ; mandibles robust, rather short; labrum emarginate, reddish. Pvothorax about as long as broad, its sides medially rounded, but very much incurved behind the middle, so that the hind angles appear uncommonly large and prominent; it is moderately convex, and, besides the marginal groove, each side has a broad curved impression extending from the basal fovea to the middle, the basal fossee appear angulated or curved, and extend inwardly almost to the dorsal furrow, and the disc exhibits a few faint transversal striole. /ytra oval, a good deal narrowed towards the shoulders, sinuated apically ; striate, interstices nearly plane, the third tri-punctate. Legs moderate ; tarst furrowed above. The posterior contraction, sub-acute and unusually conspicuous hind angles of the thorax, which, how- ever, do not project beyond the medial line, in conjunction with oval elytra, render the species distinct. Its nearest congener, so far as general contour is concerned, is, perhaps, A. paradzlis. . Length, 4% ; breadth, 134 lines. I have named this species after Mr. P. Stewart: Sandager, — from whom I received it. A. montivagus, 1 think, will prove to be mbraky a varietal — NEW ZEALAND CARABID Ez. 219 form of A. elevatus; the former, bearing the number 46, is therefore replaced by this species. 1328. Anchomenus helmsi, n. sp. (Sharp, “ Ent. Mon. Mag.,” vol. XVIII, p. 47, July, 1881).—Sat elongatus, parum nitidus, nigro- piceus, antennis, palpis pedibusque rufo-testaceis ; prothorace parvo, lateribus postice fortiter sinuatis, angulis posterioribus rectis, basi utrinque profunde impresso; elytris sat convexis, lateribus valde curvatis, profunde striatis, prope apicem fortiter sinuatis. one.,.11 > Jat, 4:mm. Similar in appearance, and more particularly in colour, to A. otagoensis (Bates), but abundantly distinct, rather smaller, the upper surface less opaque and not so flat, the thorax shining, the elytra deeply striate. The ¢horvar is much rounded at the sides, and much constricted behind, the posterior part is quite straight, and the hind angles are abruptly marked, and quite rectangular ; the surface is not flat, but is deeply impressed on each side at the base; the mesial longitudinal channel is very distinct. lytra rather short, the sides and shoulders much curved ; the striz deep, but not punctate; the interstices are broad and but little convex, the three punctures on the third moderately distinct. There is but little difference between the male and female, even the front farsi of the former being but little dilated. Greymouth, Helms. 1329. Tropopterus marginalis, n. sp.—Shining, brownish-black, antenne, legs, trophi, and elytral margins rufescent. Head bi- sulcate at each side, the grooves not connected in front ; epistome with two punctures. /vothorax sub-quadrate, convex, rounded laterally, sinuously narrowed towards the acute, slightly pro- minent hind angles; side margins somewhat flattened posteriorly ; basal foveze broad, rather shallow, and finely punctated ; its sur- face, save a few small basal punctures and dorsal striz, unim- pressed. L/ytra convex, broadly oval, marginated, much broader than thorax, rather feebly punctate-striate, the four inner strize of each only distinct ; interstices plane, the seventh bordered by a sharp, curved carina extending from near the posterior femur to the apex, the sides bear a few punctiform impressions. The three basal joints of the aztenng are nude. Extremely like an Odpterus, but the sutural stria of the wing-case is not recurved at the apex. Allied to 7. salczcollis , of a broad, moderately convex form, having the frontal foveze separated by a broad rather than carinated interval, and the thoracic fovee not all sulciform. The elytral sculpture of 7. placens is decidedly coarser. Length, 31% ; breadth, 1% line. I have one (female) from Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager, Wellington. FERONID. 1330. Trichosternus putus,n.sp.—Colour black tinged with red and sreen, legs pitchy-black, tibize occasionally red, tarsi and antennze piceo-rufous; oblong, moderately convex. Head moderate, 220 JOURNAL OF. SCIENCE. smooth ocular orbits large and gradually narrowed behind. Prothorax sub-quadrate, widely incurved apically, base emarginate; sides rounded and sinuously narrowed towards the rectangular © posterior angles; the dorsal groove extends from the base and terminates in the frontal impression ; the basal foveze are deep, almost sulciform, but extend outwardly close to the base so as to form a transversal depression near each angle. Elytva oblong, -— punctulate-striate, interstices somewhat convex ; shoulders den- tate. This species is abundantly distinct. On examination it will be observed that the basal joint of the antennee is depressed or broadly grooved above; that the posterior tibiz terminate inwardly in a robust calcar-like process, and that the basal arti- culation of the tarsi (hind) is very mnch marae laterally, and widely furrowed underneath. Male; length, 11 lines ; breath, 4. The discovery of this ‘species at Mount Arthur is due to Messrs. T. F. Cheeseman and Fred. Combes, of Auckland. No females were obtained. 1331.7 vichosternus combesi,n.sp.—Oblong, sub-depressed ; shinide black with green and red metallic reflections, the latter hue pre- dominating, antennee and trophi dark red, femora blackish, tibiee and tarsi rather clear bright red. Head rather broad, somewhat uneven, epistome and vertex bi-punctate; eyes prominent. Prothovax sub-quadrate, transversal, rounded laterally and sinu- ously narrowed towards the posterior angles; the basal foveze are deep and rather narrow, and in addition asmaller depression occurs near each angle. Elytva oblong, their humeral angles dis- tinct, punctulate striate, interstices plane. The following are distinguishing characteristics. The first antennal joint is broadly sulcate above, and several of those which follow are peculiarly compressed at the sides; the basal joint of the posterior tarsus is long and narrow; and the elytral interstices, second, fourth, and sixth, are more or less reduced in width, particularly in the vicinity of the base. Female ; length, 11 ; breadth, 4 lines. I have named this fine insect in honour of Mr. Fred. H. Combes, of Auckland. It was found by him on Mount Arthur; but unfortunately no examples of the male were procured. 1332. Tvichosternus humeralis,n.sp.—Oblong, moderately convex, brilliant greenish black, legs and antenne rufo-piceus, tarsi red. Flead not-much narrower than thorax, smooth and somewhat contracted behind, forehead with the common impressions ; eyes prominent. Pyvothovax transversal, slightly but widely incurved in front, base obsoletely sinuated, sides distinctly marginated and obtusely rounded, moderately narrowed behind, posterior angles rectangular, not protuberant; basal fovesee large and deep, united by an impression extending from side to side, the dorsal groove attains the base and apex, the curved frontal impression — is well marked; its whole surface is evidently striated across, has two rounded impressions near the middle, and many abbreviated aciculate marks at the base and apex. Scutellum — NEW ZEALAND CARABID/#. 221 depressed, wholly striate. Elytva oblong-oval, a little wider than thorax at the middle, moderately sinuated apically ; punctate- striate, the punctures minute, interstices slightly elevated, the third with four, the seventh with six setiferous punctures, eighth smooth, the lateral sculpture irregular. Underside glossy, pitch black, and impunctate. Antennz broken, three basal articu- lations nude. Legs stout, tibial spurs rather short. When examined with the unaided eye, the transverse striole on the thorax are quite visible, whereas the thorax of each of the previously published species would exhibit an almost smooth surface ; the elytral rim forms an uninterrupted curve from the posterior sinuation to the base, but all the other species have more or less prominent (dentate) humeral angles ; this latter character is therefore distinctive. Male ; length, 10; breadth, 3% lines. My specimen was found at Hick’s Bay, East Coast, by Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager. 1333. Lvichosternus fulton, n.sp.—Oblong, slightly convex, shining, black, all the elytra and the sides and base of the thorax tinged with green, legs and antenne piceous, tarsi pitchy-red. Head moderately broad, a little inflated behind the prominent eyes, with the usual frontal impressions. Pyvothovax moderately trans- versal, broadest just before the middle, rounded laterally, nar- rowed and slightly sinuated towards the base, posterior angles rectangular but little prominent ; apex slightly but widely in- curved, the base emarginated medially; disc slightly convex, feebly lineated across, dorsal groove well marked and not abbre- viated, basal fossze deep, united by a curved impression, mar- ginal channels impunctate, a distinct puncture near each hind angle, some faint longitudinal lines in front and behind. Scufellum broadly striated at base. FElytva oblong-oval, humeral angles prominent, sides but little rounded, strongly sinuated apically ; a little convex, punctate-striate, the punctures small and not approximated, interstices slightly elevated, just perceptibly im- pressed with short transverse lines, the third with three, the seventh with five or six large punctures. Legs robust, femora clavate but not dentate. Underside glossy black, impunctate. Distinguished from No. 72 and its immediate allies in being larger, flatter, broader, and less narrowed medially and posteriorly; the head larger, thorax much less incurved apically, not ciliated at the base, a character which obtains in Nos. 65, 68, 71, 73, and T, humeralis; the elytra much less oviform, more strongly and abruptly sinuated apically, and with flatter intervals between the striae. Male; lengthg; breadth 3% lines. Named in honour of its discoverer, S. W. Fulton, Esq., Outram, Otago. 1334. Tvichosternus enysi,n.sp.—Black, nowhere zeneous, shining, legsand antennze piceous. Head large, smooth, its frontal impres- sions rather shallow, a little dilated round the eyes, these latter prominent. Pvrothovax sub-quadrate, rather deeply incurved in 222 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. front,less so behind, sides rounded,sinuously narrowed posteriorly, hind angles almost rectangular ; disc almost smooth, dorsal line abbreviated, basal foveze deep, not perceptibly united, there being only a slight impression between them, curvedly impressed in front. Scutellum striate at base. Elytva oblong, shoulders moderately dentate, sides very slightly curved, apical sinuations moderate ; slightly convex, finely punctate-striate, interstices nearly plane, the third with three, the seventh with several large punctures. Legs robust; thighs strongly inflated, the intermediate abruptly notched and grooved near the extremity, but without forming a distinct tooth below. | The structure of the middle femora allies this -species to T. difformipes, but the tibize, though stout, are simple. Male ; length, 9; breadth, 3% lines. J. D. Enys, Esq., F.G.S., transmitted a mutilated specimen from Canterbury. 1335. Holcaspis cribrale, n.sp—Elongate, slightly convex, glossy black, palpi,antenne, and legs piceo-rufous, Head of moderate size, more or less finely rugulose. Pyvothovax quadrate, very little curved laterally, and but little contracted behind, posterior angles not prominent; basal foveze deep, well-limited, and rather narrow ; the dorsal furrow terminates before attaining the base or apex, the angulated frontal impression ends near each anterior angle in a fovea-like expansion, and the surface presents numerous transversal aciculate marks. Scutellum striate. Elytva oblong, sub-parallel, shoulders tubercular; in addition to the marginal sculpture, each elytron bears seven very irregularly defined, interrupted striz, consisting sometimes of large oblong depressions united by means of very fine linear impressions, at other parts these latter are obliterated, and the cavities assume the form of punctures, the interstices also are irregular, so that the sculpture somewhat resembles basket-work; the sinuations before the apices are rather deep and abrupt, and just at that point the sculpture ends in a broad groove. Male legs robust ; posterior femora expanded, deeply excised for the reception of the trochanters, and then angulated, so that the space between that angle and the extremity forms a nearly straight line; intermediate tibie considerably dilated. Female legs more slender, Length, 9; breadth, 3 lines. Some specimens of this species, both sexes, were found under logs on Mount Arthur, by Messrs. Cheeseman and Combes. 13306. Holcaspis catenulata, n. sp.—Narrow, elongate, sub-parallel, slightly convex, glossy black, palpi and antennze blackish. Head moderate, uneven above, with prominent eyes, mandibles wrinkled. Pyvothovax but little broader than long, base incurved, slightly wider before the middle than elsewhere, regularly but not strongly rounded laterally, and gradually narrowed towards the blunt posterior angles; a little uneven, distinctly wrinkled transversely on the disc but longitudinally in front, the basal foveze deep and sulciform; dorsal line distinct, with a curved impression extending from one anterior angle to the other. NEW ZEALAND CARABID/:. 223 Scutellum striate. Elytva elongate-oblong, their sides but little curved, humeral angles scarcely protuberant, sinuated behind ; striate, having small punctures in the grooves; the sutural, third, fifth, seventh, and eighth interstices simple to beyond the middle, from thence irregular, the others more or less contracted and interrupted at uncertain intervals, all finely lineated across ; the seventh striz bear some punctiform impressions, and the margins several larger ones. Legs moderate, femora robust but not dentate. Underside pitchy-black, flanks of the sternum more or less rugee and punctate. Allied to Nos. 74 and 83, as well as to H. cribrale ; yet readily enough identified by the obtuse hind angles of the thorax and the chain-like sculpture of the alternate interstices of the elytra. Length, 8 ; breadth, 2% lines. Described from a male found by S. W. Fulton, Esq., of Outram, Otago. 1337. Cevabilia punctigera, n. sp.—Body elongate-oblong, sub-de- pressed, moderately shining, pitchy black, trophiand antenne infus- cate, legs rufo-piceous, tarsirufescent. Head short and broad, bi-sul- cate ; labrum transverse, widely, but not at all dee ply hollowed; eyes convex, prominent. Pvothovax a little longer than broad, apex nearly truncate, base considerably emarginated, sides obtusely rounded, gradually incurved posteriorly, hind angles nearly rectangular but not protruding, lateral margins entire; disc almost plane, with a distinct median groove, and two elon- gate, sulciform, basal foveze situated midway between the middle and sides. Scutellum triangular,smooth. Elytva elongate-oblong, slightly rounded laterally, feebly sinuated apically ; striate, inter- stices flat, third tri-punctate ; the strize are obsoletely punctured, and the intermediate pairs unite near theapices. Antenne longer than head and thorax conjointly, their three basal articulations destitute of pubescence. Underside black, sparingly punctured. _ The mentum, as described by Count de Castelnau, is toothless ; the mandibles are short and robust, but greatly curved and acute at the extremity ; the terminal joint of the maxillary palpi is rather longer than the penultimate and slightly obtuse at the apex ; the front tavsi have three dilated joints, triangular, but emarginate at the apex, and spongy underneath as well as hispid. Male ; length, 5% ; breadth, 2 lines, I have seen one only, much mutilated, labelled by Professor Hutton, “ Invercargill.” 1338.C.vuficorne, n.sp.—Oblong,somewhat convex, glossy, pitchy- black, antenne, palpi, and legs infuscate-red ; headrather short and broad ; frontal depressions broad, shallow, and finely lineated ; la- brum much reduced, widely incurved ; mandibles long and stout, arcuated apically ; eyes moderate, not very prominent. Pvothovax sub-quadrate, baseand apex nearly entire; sides very little rounded, gradually narrowed till near the posterior angles, where they are straight, or nearly so, the angles rectangular but not projecting ; disc nearly plane, its dorsal groove extending from the hind margin to near the apex, basal foveze elongate, quite sulciform. 224 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Elytra oblong-oval, scarcely sinuated apically ; moderately striated, the striz more or less confluent posteriorly, the four sutural only distinctly, yet rather finely punctured, interstices simple. Antenne short and stout, their three basal joints glabrous. Palpi robust, terminal articulations of all quite oval and acuminate. Legs stout ; anterior tibize somewhat dilated, intermediate externally and inwardly spinose, the posterior inwardly, and arcuated. The stout palpi (maxillary and labial), with their perfectly oval termi- nal joints pointed at the extremity, distinguish the insect. The mentum is concave but not apparently dentate. The characters do not correspond with those assigned to the genus by Castelnau, nevertheless, I must refer it to Cevabilia until the difficulties con- nected with the paucity of entomological literature and collections can be surmounted. Length, 2% ; breath, nearly 1 line. Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager recently sent me two examples, both females, from Wellington. POGONID&. 1339. Odpterus carinatus,n.sp.—Convex, oblong-oval ; moderately glossy, dark castaneous, the suture and margins of the elytra rufescent; legs fulvous; labrum, palpi, and antenneze ferruginous. Head sub-trigonal, with a groove close to each eye, and a broad irregularly formed one nearer the middle united to its fellow by means of a curved impression proceeding from the base of each mandible ; epistome bi-punctate; labrum truncate. Pvothovax longer than broad, sub-oblong, finely marginated, a little narrowed anteriorly, behind nearly straight, yet just visibly sinuated before the rectangular, but not at all projecting hind angles ; the median groove is feebly impressed, the basal foveze are large and distant from the sides, and the interval is punctate; the narrow marginal channel is separated from the basal fovea by a very evident carina extending forwards from the hind edge. Elytva broad, oviform, moderately convex, finely striate; inter- stices nearly plane, the third quadri-punctate, the sixth termi- nating in a sharp curved carina; a few distant punctiform impressions appear along the sides. The antenne reach back- wards almost to the intermediate femora, their second joint is more slender but nearly as long as the first, these two articula- tions are nude, the others pubescent. In the male the two basal joints of the anterior tarsi are strongly produced inwardly at the extremity ; the elytral striz are just perceptibly punctu- lated, the thorax rather shorter, and the whole insect darker in colour than in the other sex ; but, notwithstanding these dis- crepancies, I consider my two specimens to be the sexes of one species only. Length, 3% ; breadth, 1% lines. Collected by Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager, near Wellington. The insect No. 1145 (“ Manual of the New Zealand Coleop- tera,” part II., p.655) is a female, and must be removed trom Tropopterus So as to become known as Oépfterus patulus. NEW ZEALAND CARABID#. 225 BEMBIDIIDA. 1340. Bembidium muse, n.sp.—Convex, robust; head and thorax glossy zeneous ; elytra testaceous, their surface with three large irregularly formed fusco-zneous spaces, striae eneous; palpi, legs, and three basal articulations of the antennz testaceous yellow. Head broad, much narrowed anteriorly, fovee large, broad, and shallow ; eyes convex, very prominent. Pvrothovax obtusely rounded towards the front, gradually narrowed till within a short distance of the base, where it is considerably contracted, but straight, so that the posterior angles do not project; there are a few linear impressions behind the disc, an obvious transversal depression in line with the fovese, these latter - being very small and narrow, and situated close to the angles, its front exhibits an evident curved impression extending from one anterior angle to the other, and a shorter one behind it ; the lateral margins, distinct enough near the middle, become obso- lete in front. Elytva broadly oval, gradually narrowed pos- teriorly, punctate-striate ; interstices broad and plane, third bi-punctate ; the scutellar and three inner strize only attain the base, where the first and second become confluent, and the punctation of all is more or less obliterated beyond the hind thighs. Legs long and stout; the basal joint of the front tarsi strongly developed, oblong, and, like the following transversal one, considerably produced inwardly and hispid. Palpi robust, hirsute. Male ; length, 3 ; breadth, 1 lines. A single individual, allied to B. anchonoderum, was obtained by Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., on Mount Arthur. 1341. B. latiusculum,n.sp.—Sub-depressed, rather broad ; shining, bluish-black, occasionally somewhat bronzed, legs palpi and antennee dark piceous, tarsi pitchy-red. Head with rather deep, broad, and slightly rugulose fovez, and a distinct punctiform impression near each eye. Pvrothovax slightly convex, a good deal narrowed behind, its posterior angles nearly straight and not projecting ; the abbreviated dorsal groove is neither broad nor deep, the basal impressions are narrow and placed close to the angles, and the disc is finely wrinkled transversely. Elytva broad, but little curved laterally, nearly plane above; punctate- striate ; the sutural stria only reaches the apex, where it is recurved towards the second, the sixth and seventh become indistinct, the latter before, the former behind the posterior femur, the two inner converge toward the base, which is other- _ wise almost smooth ; interstices almost flat, the third with four, the fifth with two setigerous punctures; the oblique apical groove and scutellar stria are well-marked. Allied to B. chavile, but with a broader thorax and the elytra not attenuated apically ; the presence of four sutural punctures on each elytron, and the abbreviation of the external strize dis- tinguish it from B. maovinum. The grey hairs on the penultimate joint of the maxillary palpi, though sufficiently conspicuous, do 226 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. not appear unusually long. The basal articulation of the anterior tarsi of the male is oblong, the second prolonged inwardly. Length, 3; breadth, 1% lines. Discovered by T. F. Cheeseman, Esq., F.L.S., on Mount Arthur. PERICALIDA. 1342. Scopodes venustus, n. sp.—Body almost convex, glossy, head and thorax cupreous (zd. est. reddish), elytra silky bronzed-black, antenne and tarsi black, legs more or less eneous. Head finely striate, irregularly in front, longitudinally behind. Pvrothovax about as long as broad, cordate, the lateral margins slightly angulated near the middle, from thence narrowed till near the base, where, instead of forming the posterior angles, they bend inwardly until quite obsolete; its surface is impressed with a distinct median groove and fine transversal striz. Elytva oblong, obliquely sinuated apically, bearing shallow striz, and on each elytron three large but not deep fovee. The coppery head and thorax, the latter without trace of posterior angles, will render its identification easy. Length 234 ; breadth 1 line. One example of this charming beetle was found by T. F. Cheeseman, Esq., F.L.S., on Mount Arthur. 1343. Scopodes planus, n. sp.—Black tinged with green; slightly convex. Head rugulose in front, longitudinally striate elsewhere. Pyothovax cordiform, rather narrow, irregularly striated trans- versely, without posterior angles. Elytva oblong, obliquely sinu- ated apically, feebly striated, the four hind foveze obsolete, the basal represented by evident punctures. In form like S. venustus, the thorax narrower but with precisely similar margins; the intermediate tibize are very perceptibly flexuose; the metallic green tinges are inconstant, one tibia being green whilst the others are black. Length 234.; breadth 1 line. Mr. Cheeseman obtained one specimen on Mount Arthur. 1344. Scopodes tardus,n.sp,—/Eneous, thorax reddish, elytrainfus- cate, legs and antenne blackish. Head unevenly and finely strigose, behind longitudinally. Pvothovax rather narrow, cordate, the sides acutely angulated near the middle, from thence incurved, and again dentate before attaining the true base ; the median furrow is well defined, and the whole disc striated across. Elytva oblong, incurved before the middle, obliquely sinuated pos- teriorly ; each elytron bears three distinct punctiform foves of a bluish colour, and several indistinct interrupted striz. Quite distinct from S. fossulatus. The posterior projections of the thorax (they can hardly be termed true hind angles) are less conspicuous than in S. multipunctatus, probably its nearest ally ; the apices of the elytra are more decidedly oblique, and their strize are indicated by the difference in coloration rather than MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 227 actual impressions when viewed from behind, but can be dis- cerned when examined sideways. Length, 2% ; breadth, 1 line. Another of Mr. Cheeseman’s captures on Mount Arthur, I have seen one mutilated specimen only. 1345. Scopodes pustulatus,n.sp.—Sub-depressed, shining, head cu- preous reddish-black, elytra silky black slightly tinged with red, legs and antenne blackish. Head finely sculptured behind length- ways. Pvothovax moderately broad, laterally angulated near the middle, from that point curvedly narrowed, the margins incurved at the base without forming posterior angles ; surface finely and irregularly strigose, and with an obvious dorsal groove. Elytra broadly oblong, obliquely truncated behind, bearing shallow striz, and on each three large deep fovee. On comparing this species with S. Edwardsi, it will be noticed that the thorax is much broader and more sinuously contracted behind ; the elytra also are broader and their extremities more truncate, and on their sides, in line with the middle and hind thighs, are large, velvety-black, blister-like spots, most easily seen when looked at from behind. Length 2% by nearly 1 line. The only individual I have seen was sent to me from Wel- lington by Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager. WEE EENGS OF SOCIETIES. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 8th July, 1882—W. T. L. Travers, Esq., president, in the chair. New members—Messrs. A. S. Atkinson, J. W. Byrne, J. L. meeeeey irvine, C.E., and T. B. Kirk, B.A. Papers—(1) ‘‘On the Manufacture of Granolithic Cement,” by J. C. Crawford, Esq. The material for this manufacture was stated by the author to be abundant in New Zealand. Dr. Hector considered this a question of great importance, and the information was most valuable. We had ample material in accessible positions, and he had no doubt that in time we could ourselves manufacture all the cement and concrete we required in the colony, and of the very best kind. He instanced the blocks now largely used here, and known as O’Neill’s patent flagging, as Showing the excellent quality of this production, which was so highly thought of at the Sydney and Melbourne Exhibitions. The President endorsed these views, and remarked that he hoped in time also to see the splendid granites we had, largely used in constructive works. Dr. Newman mentioned the newly-erected cement works in Nelson, which would prove of great importance, and entirely supersede the imported article. (2) ‘*‘ Hedge-plants for New Zealand.’ 228 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. (3) “On Harvesting Crops, independent of weather, and on Entillage,” both by the same gentleman. Archdeacon Stock submitted to the Society a circular sent to him by Mr. Tebbutt, of Windsor Observatory, New South Wales, inviting assistance from New Zealand observers in systematic ‘** comet seeking.” Dr. Hector explained that Mr. Tebbutt was a most zealous worker in this branch of astronomy, and had been foremost in discovering the Southern comets. He had been requested by the Astronomical Society at Boston, who had established a corps of comet seekers, to endeavour to get information from the Southern latitudes, and hence this appeal to New Zealand. He knew that there were many amateur observers in possession of good instru- ments, who might do valuable service in this direction. It wasa pity that we had not in New Zealand a properly-equipped astro- nomical observatory placed in a suitable position, and he believed if the societies combined in an appeal to Government something might be done in this matter. He would suggest that a copy of this circular be sent to the other societies inviting co-operation in this special matter of comet-seeking, and in an endeavour to bring about the establishment of a permanent observatory. The President concurred, and said he thought such an appeal would be successful. The meeting then discussed the subject of a paper by Dr. Meldrum, on ‘‘ Weather, Health, and Forests in Mauritius,” and the President pointed out that this bore immediately on the question of forest conservation in New Zealand. He gave ashort description of the damage done by the destruction of our forests, which brought about floods of a most disastrous kind. In confirmation of this, Dr. Hutchinson, who has recently arrived from the Sandwich Islands, stated that there, in consequence of this wholesale destruction of the forests, floods had occurred doing great injury. The water rushed down the bare hills and through the valleys, and then followed a long drought, and the © ground became baked, as there was no vegetation left to hold the moisture of the previous rain. He was glad to say that the settlers had at last seen the necessity of forest conservation, and great improvement was taking place. Mr. Chapman described a brilliant triple meteor seen by him on Wednesday last. It was travelling from the south. 5th August, 1882.—W. T. L. Travers, Esq., president, in the chair, New members—Drs. Hutchison and Keyworth. Papers—(1). On the ‘‘ Thames Goldfield, and the Laws which govern the distribution of the Gold,” by Mr. S. H. Cox, F.G.S. The author alluded briefly to the geological structure of the Cape Colville peninsula, stating that the slates formed the base- ment rock ot the district, and had proved to be auriferous at one or two localities. Above this the auriferous series, consisting of submarine fragmental volcanic rocks, occurs, and overlying this again comes a series of miocene volcanic rocks, with which are interstratified thin seams of coal. With regard to the auriferous series he pointed out that the rocks were striking N.N.W., and dipping W.N.W., at an angle of one in two, and alluded to the difficulty which was experienced in determining this. He also MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES, 229 showed that the hard dioritic bands which had been generally con- sidered as dykes, were really interstratified beds. Alluding to this stratification, he illustrated by means of a section the different belts of country in which the various mines occur, the Queen of Beauty. belt being the lowest, and a sequence of auriferous belts occurring above this including the Waiotaohi, Caledonian, and Moanatairai belts, a thickness ot 4000 feet of strata being thus shown to be auriferous. He showed how auriferous leads were frequently cut off by the dioritic belts, and alluded to the action of the slides in also cutting off and heaving the gold. He stated that the strike of the auriferous reefs varied from N. 1odeg. E. to N. 80deg. E., but that the greater number approached a N.E. strike, and showed that the average strike ot the reefs had no influence on the quantity of gold, but that the successive strikes in a reef which followed a sinuous course were of the greatest im- portance, and where this strike most nearly approached N.E. the reef was the richest. The mean dip of the reets, again, was of no use in determining the value of a reef, as they ranged from vertical to nearly horizontal, but that in each reef the successive inclina- tions had to be studied, as the steeper parts were generally the richest. In conclusion he expressed the opinion that the Thames was by no means worked out, as some had asserted, but that he fully expected to hear of as rich deposits being found in the future at deep levels as have yet been got near the surface, and stated that the diamond drill would afford valuable assistance in pros- pecting. The paper was listened to with great interest, and the President pointed out the importance of having accurate scientific information bearing on our gold-mines recorded. It assisted in the search for gold, and saved unnecessary expense in prospecting. Our alluvial diggings were being worked out, but reet-mining would become a great and highly remunerative industry. Mr. J. W. A. Marchant then gave the following account (illus- trated by drawings) of the waterspout which occurred in the neighbourhood of Cook Straits on the 15th instant:—The water- spout was first seen from Lyell Bay about 1.30 p.m., and continued in sight about quarter of an hour. A squall, accompanied by - heavy rain, was passing from the westward through Cook Straits towards Cape Palliser. It was whilst engaged watching the pro- gress of the storm from the western shore of the bay that I observed the waterspout clear of the south head, bearing about S.E., and distant, perhaps, two miles on the northern verge of the storm area. It presented the appearance of a cylinder of blue-grey colour, several hundred feet in height, and of uniform diameter. It conveyed the impression that it was suspended from a mass of lowering clouds, the extremity near thesea being distinctly pointed like a crayon, resting upon a zone of elevated water in an intense state ot agitation, but the gyratory motion was not perceptible in the upper part. The column was slightly curved, being bent over towards the west, and it travelled in the opposite direction towards Fitzroy Bay, and as the movement was quickest at the base, the inclination from the perpendicular increased ; the clouds seemed to descend and assume the form usual in such cases, that of an inverted cone, whilst the vapours over the sea were drawn upward, when the waterspout appeared to fade away, the last _ ppearance of the column being that of a light-grey streak, con- 230 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. trasting remarkably with the gloomy background. No unusual sound accompanied the phenomenon; there were indications that it was not the only one formed, but the mist was too dense to enable them to be clearly discerned. The storm did not break over Lyell Bay till 3 o’clock, when there was a great downpour of hail and rain, accompanied by lightning and thunder. The points which impressed me most were the immense height, the symmetry, and the distinctness of the column, and the absence of agitation and convolution in the first stage, save at the surface of the sea. In conclusion, Mr. Marchant read an account written by the late Captain Igglesden, of waterspouts seen in the northern part of the Indian Ocean in 1836, the peculiarity of which was that they were unaccompanied by an increase of wind. The cause of such phenomena might, therefore, be due either to high upper winds, contrary winds, or electrical action. [From a different source, we learn that the waterspout was seen by another observer about ten minutes after Mr. Marchant — saw it. It was then distant about 30 miles (measured on the map), and was travelling up Palliser Bay on a N.E. course; The height of the column was estimated at 1200 feet, and its diameter about 30 feet. The observer obtained these estimates by com- parison with a range of hills of known height, behind which the lower part of the waterspout was seen to pass, and on the top of which Jarge trees stood out clearly against the sky.— Ep.] AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. June 26, 1882.—E. A. Mackechnie, Esq., president, in the chair. New members elected :—C. Cooper, A. Grey, T. Melville. Papers—(1) ‘‘ New Species of Pselaphide,” by Capt. T. Broun, M.E.S. The following new forms were fully described :—Startes sculptuvata, Bryaxis nemoralis, B. difformipes, B. calcavata, and Sagola teyricola. All of these had been collected by the author on the | Waitakerei Ranges, near Auckland, with the exception of the last mentioned, which was obtained at Tuakau, in the Lower Waikato. (2) “‘ Protective Resemblances among New Zealand Spiders,” by A. T. Urquhart. The author commenced his paper by stating that although spiders were more or less conspicuous when resting on their webs, yet when they occurred on foliage, amongst twigs, or on rocks or loose earth, there was always a general similarity of coloration between them and their surroundings. He then pro- ceeded to point out special instances of protective coloration. For instance, all the spiders found by him on the charred branches of burnt manuka (Leptospermum) were of an ashy grey colour, streaked and spotted with black, and often so closely resembled the blackened branches in colour as only to be distinguished by close observation. On the other hand the spiders collected on the living manuka were of various shades of green, brownish-green, brown or grey colours all to be found in the leaves, twigs, and bark of the tree. Similarly, spiders found on the common furze, the cabbage-tree (Cordyline), the kangaroo acacia, and on pines and eucalypti, always possessed colours harmonising with the different tints of the vegetation. Passing to species found chiefly ; j ; , } F . | ~~ e MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 231 on the ground or on rocks, the same rule was found to apply, and several special cases were briefly described, the most interesting being where the spiders not only resembled in colour the rocks on which they were found, but also mimicked the colour of the lichens growing on the rocks. (3) ‘‘ Notes on the Origin of Language,” by H. G. Seth Smith. In this paver the theories of Max. Miller and Prot. Sayce were criticised at considerable length, and the speculations that had been thrown out by thinking’ men of all views were briefly considered. (4). Mr. H. G. Seth Smith exhibited a harmonograph for pro- ducing harmonic curves. The construction of the instrument is such that a finely-pointed glass pen, placed at the junction of two - cranks proceeding from the top of two pendulums vibrating at right angles to one another, traces curves on a sheet of paper. Attention was drawn to the endless variety of curves produced by varying the length of one of the pendulums; and it was pointed out that the curves were then only symmetrical when the ratio of the times of vibration corresponded to a definite interval in music, as a third, fifth, octave, &c. In other cases asymmetrical figures were produced. July 31st, 1882.—E. A. Mackechnie, Esq., president, in the chair. New members—F. Lawry, J. Street. Papers—(1.) ‘‘ New Genera and Species of Heteromera,” by Captain T. Broun. In this paper Captain Broun fully describes twelve new species of beetles belonging to the family of Hetero- mera. our of these were considered sufficiently distinct from other forms to constitute new genera. As to their localities, three had been brought from Nelson by Mr. Cheeseman, two had been collected in Otago by Mr. Fulton, one on the Patetere plateau by Mr. W. D. Campbell, and the remainder by the author in the Auckland district. Brief remarks were made on the affinities of the species, and several structural points of interest were fully noticed. _ (2.) Description of a new species of Cardamine, by T, F. Cheese- man (C. late-siliqua,n.sp.) Allied to C. fastigiata, Hk. f., but dif- fering in the more pubescent leaves, larger flowers, and in the pods, which are nearly three times as broad as those of C. fastigiata. Habitat—Nelson Province, abundant on Mount Arthur and Mount Owen, alt. 3,500 to 5,000 feet. (3.) ‘“‘ Futher Experiments with Sorghum,” by Mr. Justice Gilles, The author gave a full account of some experiments made during the past season in the cultivation of Sorghum, and also of his attempts to produce sugar from the syrup. Samples of the sugar and treacle were exhibited. | (4.) “On the Effect of School-life on the Sight,” by B. Schwarz- bach, M.D. The changes in the functions of the visual organs, Which were more immediately developed under the influence of school life were :—(1) Decrease of the range of vision; (2) decrease of the acuteness of vision ; (3) decrease of the endurance of vision. As a rule, short-sightedness was only feebly developed in children, and with proper attention could be stayed, and often removed. The most dangerous time for such eyes-was between the ages of eight and fifteen. The visual organ was then in a state of change 232 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. and growth, and very susceptible to outer influences, the effects of which easily became settled and permanent. When children looked persistently at near and small objects, an undue pressure on the eye was produced by the accommodation muscle, as well as by the accumulation of blood caused by the stooping position so often assumed by children. The result of this was that the young scholar not only remained short-sighted, but the defects increased in proportion to the continuance of injurious influences. Short- sighted eyes should not only be guarded against overstraining, especially against evening work, but proper counter-influences against the prime causes should be instituted—such as practising the sight upon distant objects, by much out-door exercise, by school gymnastics, and by carefully guarding against that which is obnoxious to a normal development of the organ. In order to stem the tide of short-sightedness, Professor Cohn made the fol- lowing demands to the schools throughout the world—demands to which he (Dr. Schwarzbach) fully assented. For the protection ~~ of the eyes and sight of school children, it was necessary—(1) To | ; : : have a pause of fifteen minutes after every lesson of three-quarters - ofan hour; (2) to pause half an hour at 11 o’clock if the morning instructions are carried on during five hours; (3) to shorten the lessons and the tasks at home; (4) to have a reading board for testing the sight fixed in the room (if certain letters could not be distinguished at a certain distance, the pupil must rest the organ) ; (5) to introduce lessons on hygiene in all schools, colleges, and universities ; (6) every council of education should have a medical man as a member; (7) to close by law all school-rooms which are ~ badly lighted and insufficiently ventilated. It was true that short- sightedness was often hereditary, but this must not be thought to mean that the children of short-sighted parents were born short- sighted; they had only the predisposition to become so. Dr. Schwarzbach condemned the use of small print in school books, : and the existing internal arrangements in schools, which, he said, were too often made without sufficient regard tothe proper supply of light. + PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE ‘OF CANTERBURY Christchurch, 6th July, 1882.—Prof. F. W. Hutton, vice- president, in the chair. Papers—(1) ‘“‘On some points of difference between the English Crayfish (Astacus fluviatilis) and a New Zealand one (Pavanephrops setosus), by Charles Chilton, M.A. In this paper the structure of Pavanephrops setosus was described and compared with that of Astacus fluviatilis as described by Pro- fessor Huxley in ‘The Crayfish.” The specimens used for © dissection were obtained from the River Avon, Christchurch. ~ The various appendages were all fully described and figured, as well as the rostrum and the tetson. The respiratory organs are very different from those of Astacus, but nearly like those of Asia. copsis and Palinuvus. The circulatory and alimentary systems closely resemble those of Astacus ; but the Gastroliths or ‘‘ Crab’s ~ Eyes” of Pavanephrops do not appear to develop in the same way as those of Astacus. The nervous system is also much like that of — Astacus, except that each joint of the exopodite of the antennule es. P j has ee oe = | MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 24 bears only one tutt of olfactory sete, instead of two tufts as in Astacus. ‘The reproductive organs differ considerably from those of Astacus, but closely resemble those of Palinurus; and this, taken with other points, shows that Pavanephrops is more nearly allied to Palinurus than to Astacus, though much more lkeithe latter in general appearance—thus justifying Professor Huxley’s classification, in which he placed the Palinuride and the Parasticide together under the name Astyla; while the Potamobiide, Homaride, &c., together formed the Stylophova, The paper was illustrated by three plates, giving figures of the appendages and various internal organs. 3rd August, 1882._R. W. Fereday, Esq., vice-president, in the chair. Several books, &c., presented to the Society, were laid on the table. (1.) The following paper was read:—‘‘ Notes on some Branchiate Gastropoda,” by Professor F. W. Hutton. This paper contains descriptions, with figures, of the dentition of fifty-nine New Zealand marine molluscs, as well as various other notes. Covio- cella ophione (Gray), is described, and is shown to be different from the animal mentioned under this name in the “ Manual of New Yealand Mollusca,” p. 59, for which the name Lamelloria cerebvoides is proposed. LEuthvia striata (Hutton), formerly known only asa Wanganui fossil, is mentioned as living in Lyttelton Harbour. Trophon dubius (Hutton) is shown to belong to a new genus of Fuside, for which the name Tavon is proposed. Cominella maculosa (Martyn) is separated from C. testudinea (Chemnitz). Polytvopa quoyt is shown to be a-Trophon, and to be the same as P. vetiaria (Hutton). Polytvopa tristis is separated from P. scobina, and made a synonym of P. albomarginata (Deshayes). Attention is drawn to the similarities in the dentition of Nevita atvata and Chiton pellis-serpentis, indicating that the Rhipidoglossa may have sprung from the Polyplacophora. It is also pointed out that all the New Zealand species of Patella have the gills and mouth of Nacella, and that all have a small central plate on the radula. The following new species is described:—Diloma plumbea (Hutton). Shell depressed by turbinate, imperforate, rough, with a few obsolete spinal ribs; spine acute but usually eroded; colour bluish-purple, the aperture margined with a black band. In the discussion that followed, Prof. Hutton stated that, in his opinion, the dentition of the Gastropoda is of very great taxonomic value; far more so than the shell or the operculum. Like every other character, it is sometimes variable, but in most cases a knowledge of the dentition is necessary before the true position of a shell could be ascertained. (2.) Professor Hutton exhibited specimens of the rock from the Weka Pass cave, on which the paintings were drawn. These were shown under a lens, or still better under a microscope, to have a distinct coating of stalagmite, easily recognised by its texture and by the rock containing specs of a dark green mineral —glauconite,—which was absent in the stalagmitic coating. (3.) Mr. R. H. Webb asked Professor Hutton if he was satisfied that the fish caught in the Waimakariri, of which a drawing had been sent to Professor Baird in America for identification, was the 234 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. true Californian salmon. Professor Hutton replied that it was undoubtedly a Californian salmon, This fish was very easily distinguished from all the different kinds of salmon that. live in rivers running into the Atlantic, by having about 16 rays in its anal fin; whereas in all the Atlantic salmons there were never more than 11. More than a year ago Dr. Chilton, of Timaru, had sent him a description of a fish caught in a river in the south part of Canterbury, which was also a Californian salmon. OTAGO INSTITUTE. The plan of holding courses of popular lectures similar to those given in England under the Cambridge Extension Scheme is now under trial in Dunedin, and is meeting with great success. The lectures are being held on Saturday evenings, in the lecture-room of the Museum, and are open to members of the Institute; while a very small fee (2s. 6d. or 3s. per course) is charged to the general public, so as to cover merely necessary expenses. The first course was given by Prof. Parker, on the evenings of 15th, 22nd, and 2gth July, the subject being ‘‘ Fermentation and Putrefaction.” The lectures were illustrated practically by nume- rous specimens, drawings, and experiments, including a repetition of Tyndall’s celebrated experiment disproving the theory of spon- taneous generation; and the whole subject was treated ex- haustively. A detailed syllabus of the whole course was printed and distributed among the audience. Despite the wretched weather which has prevailed this winter, and which seems to have reserved its worst manifestations for successive Saturdays, the attendance at the lectures has been most encouraging, the lecture-room being filled to excess on the opening night. 15th August, 1882.—W. Arthur, Esq., president, in the chair. New members—Messrs. David Cosgrove and E. Melland. Papers—(1.) ‘‘ Notes on the New Zealand Sprat” (Clupea sprattus), by W. Arthur, Esq.,C.E. The author gave a description of this fish, taken from two specimens caught at Oamaru in May, out of a large shoal which visited the coast. The fish is of rare occurrence. Specimens were obtained in 1872 in Foveaux Straits and near Wellington, and in 1874 it was sold in some quantity in Dunedin. Since then it does not appear to have been seen on our coasts until May of this year, when a large shoal appeared near Oamaru for about a fortnight, but did not visit either Moeraki or Dunedin. An examination of the female fish led to the conclusion that it contained about 20,000,000 ova. From the minuteness and buoyancy of the ova it is inferred that, at whatever depth spawning may take place, the hatching probably occurs at the surface of the sea. The vast number of ova in this sprat is suggestive of a very high death rate, due to the species being probably the food of the seal, whale, and predatory fishes, as well as of marine birds. Its occasional occurrence on our coasts is perhaps due to variations in the ocean currents—a subject, how- ever, on which very little is known. (2.) ‘‘ Diseased Trout in Lake Wakatipu,” by W. Arthur, Esq., i Oe eT ee eee ae Oe Te ott BAe ee td MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 235 C.E. The occurrence of large trout—ranging from 2 to 15lbs. in weight—in Queenstown Bay, is familiar to visitors and residents of Queenstown. These fish, which are quiet and lazy in habit, and are apparently fat and well-fed, will not take bait. For some years past they have been subject to the attacks of a fungus, which occasionally proves fatal to the very large ones. From examination made by the author, he concludes that about 25 per cent. of the fish seen by him in the bay were fungus-spotted. The examination of a specimen weighing 74lbs., which had just suc- cumbed to the disease, showed that, while the fungus was present on a great many portions of the fish, it was particularly abundant in the mouth—from out of which it hung in tufts—and in the gills, which appeared to be eaten away by the hyphe. The fungus is believed to be Safvolegiia ferax, which is to be found on most decaying animal matter in fresh water. The disease is probably due in part to the chemical composition of the water, which is very deficient in common salt (and perhaps in oxygen), and in part to the fact that the fish have been liberated from the Town Creek, a stream so small that they cannot ascend it when the spawning season comes on. The deep waters of the lake act asa barrier on the outside, and thus the fish are confined to a very limited extent of water, and their natural functions interfered with. The only remedy suggested as being of permanent value is the providing of suitable spawning beds in the Town Creek. (3) ‘“‘ Notes on the Anatomy and Embryology of Scymnus lichia,” by Prof. T. J. Parker. The author stated that the usual range of this shark was the Mediterranean and neighbouring parts of the Atlantic, the specimen described being the first recorded beyond the normal range; it was caught at the Otago Heads. The speci- men is an adult gravid female. Attention was directed to the following points, among others:—1. The existence of a low ridge extending forwards for several inches from the anterior (pre-axial) border of the pelvic fin, and probably representing the posterior part of the ridge described by Balfour as connecting the pectoral and pelvic fins in the embryo. 2. The existence of a ‘lateral vein’ having thesame relations as that described by the author in the skate (Trans. IN 2, tast.,..vol xm) ; jit receives the veins of the pectoral and pelvic fins, and in the hinder part of its course runs in the ridge already mentioned. 3. The spiral valve is a very perfect example of the kind distinguished by the author as ‘“ type C” (Trans. Zool. Soc., 1880). It consists of 27 turns. The wall of the intestine exhibits a great thickening of the muscular coat, as described in Scyllium. 4. The oviducts have oviducal glands, the secretion of which was found in the uterus in the form of yel- -lowish shreds; the uteri are wide and their walls covered internally with vascular villi. 5. Ten embryos were found in the two uteri ; one corresponds in general form with Balfour’s stage I, but in many respects is as far advanced as L; another is intermediate between M and N; while the Sergi eaS eight correspond pretty closely with stage ee 230 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, DUNEDIN NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB: Dunedin, 25th July, 1882.—Annual meeting. S. W. Fulton, Esq., in the chair. The annual report, read by the Hon. Secretary (Mr. Geo. M. Thomson), showed that the interest in the Club had flagged considerably during the past.year. At the commencement of the” season, the attendance at the excursions was very good, but it fell off materially afterwards. The offer also of numerous prizes for collections had failed to arouse competition. Individually, however, many of the members had been doing excellent work, and many specimens had been collected (including numerous interesting novelties) of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Arachnida, Crustacea, and Myriapoda. Only four flowering plants new to the district had been found during the year, one of them (Pievo- stylis aphylla) being new to the flora of New Zealand. It was recommended that, as no complete lists of the local species belonging to the foregoing groups had yet been compiled, publica- tion of the report be postponed till next year. The following gentlemen were elected office-bearers for the ensuing season:—President, Prof. T. J. Parker, B.Sc., Lond:; Hon Secretary, Mr. T. Chalmer; “Hon. Treasurer, «Witt ose Fulton ; Committee, Messrs. D. Petrie, B.A., Geo. Joachim, s. ye Fulton, Geo. M. Thomson, F.L.S., G. Anderson, H. Webb, and F, Deans. SOUTHMELAN Di INSRIED Ge. Invercargill, July 11, 1882.—Thos. Denniston, Esq., in the chair. Paper read by Mr. J. T. Thomson, C.E., on “ Self-regulating Windmills,” illustrated by two models—the original, which had been at work for six months, and an enlarged and improved form, Between the whips two sets of sails are placed, the larger or outer swung slightly out of balance, being governed by rods by the smaller or inner set, which in turn are attached by their inner edges by rods to a boss that slides on the axis of the wheel. To this boss is attached a weight by a cord passing over a wheel (pulley). The weight is calculated to equal the pressure of a breeze of given velocity. The rods of the inner sails have the appearance and action of the ribs of an umbrella. As the wind increases the pressure overcomes that of the weight and gradu- ally drives the sails back, until in a gale they merely present their edges, and the wheel comes to a stand still. By this ingenious improvement this windmill always works uniformly, and requires no one to attend to it. By means of a tail vane the sails are always exposed to the full force of the wind, and the wheel is kept at right angles to it. In the discussion which followed, the opinions expressed by many of the engineers and mechanics present were highly favour- able, on account of its simplicity and non-liability to get out of order. It will doubtless come into considerable use ere long. Mr. Thomson has patented his invention. 8th August, 1882.—H. Carswell, Esq., in the chair. Paper—“ On the use of the training-walls in deepening Inver- MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 257 cargill Harbour,” by Mr. J. T. Thomson. In this paper it was explained that the walls, on completion, would make the channel of the same width as that of the Tyne at Newcastle. When finished they will be 2,000 feet in length, and by harrowing down channel at half-tide, a depth of 11 feet will be obtained at the town, where it is 8 feet at present. Unless the materials became too heavy it will not be necessary to dredge. On formation ot the walls on the Bushy Point Flats, a depth of 15 feet will be obtained, which is the depth at present on the bar, and sufficient to allow of vessels of moderate size coming up to the jetty. The author strongly insisted on the tidal area above the town being strictly guarded from encroachment; and as it is of considerable extent, the advantages in assisting the scour are enormous. Dunedin was pointed out as an instance of the fatal mistake made in not doing so; hence the necessity of dredging off the bar the equivalent deposited at the town by reclamation works. The author also mentioned that he had never seen the New River bar in a worse condition than it is at present—his soundings showing only 15 feet; whereas in 1858 they were 28 feet, and in 1851, by the Admiralty, 24 feet. There was a good attendance, and con- siderable discussion followed the reading of the paper. fovAln SOCIETY OF NEW: SOUTH WALES, Sydney, 14th June, 1882. | Paper—‘ Tropical Rains,” by H. C. Russell, F.R.S. The paper was compiled from rain records collected in the colony for many years. Many of these records were from private individuals (some 270 observers forwarding their rain observations), and from wide-spread localities in Australia. After a detailed description of the great rain-storm of February of this year, and a comparison of the weather with that of the same month in former years, the author suggests that some outside cause becomes effective in inducing heavy rainfalls when the earth reaches this particular part of its orbit. This cause gives rise to a sudden fall of tem- perature in the Northern Hemisphere at that period of the year, a fact which is verified by all meteorological evidence—for in- stance, in the observations of the pupils of Galileo. These observations extend from 1655 to 1670, and show that the minimum was reached on February 12, and the author had before pointed out that the same remarkable phenomenon is observable in ’ Australian registers. In searching for a cause several Continental astronomers have not hesitated to say that there is little doubt that it is the intervention between the sun and the earth of great numbers of meteors; and the celebrated M..Erman pointed out that if the well-known meteor stream through which the earth passes in August is really a flat ring of meteors—as it probably is —revolving round the sun, then it would cross the ecliptic in such a position that part of it would be interposed between the sun and the earth from the 5th to the 11th of February, and so partially eclipse the sun, cutting off from the earth his light and heat; and Mr Erman considered himself justified by his investigations into meteorological records in saying that it did do so. The author has been for some years convinced that this is the only satisfactory explanation of the fall of temperature in February, and that 238 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. there is sufficient evidence to prove that we must take the inter- vention of meteors between the earth and the sun as the cause of many of the remarkable variations in the temperature which are so unaccountable, it we ignore the effects which may be produced in this way. MEDICAL SECTION. The adjourned meeting of the Medical Section of the Royal Society was held in the society’s house on Friday evening, 16th June. The discussion on Dr. Mackellar’s paper ‘‘ On the Etiology of Typhoid Fever” was resumed, and carried on with unabated interest, seven members speaking at some length before Dr. Mackellar delivered his reply. Concerning the practical points connected with the causation of this disease, very little, if any, difference of opinion existed, and it was agreed that in the vast majority of cases contaminated water supply was answerable for spreading the infecting germ; in rarer instances the specific poison may be introduced into the system in other ways. That the possibility of the origination of typhoid fever de novo existed was not denied, but no case has yet arisen in which a careful inquiry into the circumstances surrounding it has not revealed some unsuspected channel by which the materies morbi may have been conveyed to the sufferer. Sydney, 5th July, 1882.—H. C. Russell, Esq., B.A., vice-presi- dent, in the chair. New members—Dr. C. U. Carruthers, Dr. A. Diickershoff, Dr. G. Hurst, Dr. P. H. M‘Gillivray, M.A. (Sandhurst, Victoria), Dr. E. Sinclair, Messrs. Sydney Moss, D. Porter, W. H. Rothe, H. E. Russell, and the Rev. William Webster, of Wilcannia. The Chairman exhibited a new eye-piece which he had de- signed for the observation of the transit of Venus, which afforded the observer a number of lines for reference; so that practically he was enabled to see the transit several times instead of once. This was accomplished by having microscopic lines placed in the eye-piece at fixed distances. One of these was kept tangential to the sun’s edge, and during the time that Venus passes each of the lines was to be noticed by the observer. A short paper ‘ On the Orbit of the present Comet” was read by Mr. G. Butterfield. Numerous interesting exhibits were shown by various gentle- men, including Swan, Maxim, and Fox-Lane incandescent lamps, by Mr. W. Macdonnell. The same gentleman also exhibited De la Rive’s experiment, showing the rotation of the voltaic arc round an electro-magnet. Dr. H. C. Wright exhibited one of Tolles’ erecting stereoscopic binocular eye-pieces. Mr. G. D. Hirst exhibited Abbe’s diffraction plate, and explained the phenomena of refracted images, as seen through microscopic objectives. LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Sydney, 28th June, 1882.—Dr. James C. Cox, president, in the chair, New member—Reyv. Joseph Campbell, M.A. Several donations to the Society were announced. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 239 Papers—(1) ‘“ Half Century of Plants new to South Queens- land,” Rev. C. Scortechini. This paper was to some extent a con- tinuation of a previous paper by the same author, and contained the results of further researches on the flora of that part of the country. Among the plants enumerated were many hitherto regarded as strictly tropical, while others had not previously been observed in such warm latitudes. (2) ‘Contribution to a Knowledge of the Fishes of New Guinea,” by the Hon. William Macleay, F.L.S., &c. This paper gives a list of 120 species of Percoid fishes collected by Mr. Andrew Goldie at Port Moresby and Cuppa-Cuppa, in New Guinea. They are, with few exceptions, species which have been described by Dr. Bleeker as being found on the northern shores of that island and throughout the Netherlands India Archipelago generally. The new species described are Sevvanus Goldie, Serranus magnificus, Genyoroge bidens, Mesoprion rubens, M. parvidens, M. Goldiet, Diagramma Papuense, Lethvinus aurolineatus. ‘The remainder of Mr. Goldie’s collection is to form the subject of a tuture paper. (3.) «A Monograph of the Australian Aphroditacean Annelids,” Mr. W. A. Haswell, M.A., B.Sc. The first part of the paper was occupied by an account of various points in the anatomy and physiology of the group, the chief being a description of the struc- ture of the elytra, the demonstration that the structures described by Ehlers and Williams as segmental organs are portions of the intestinal czca, and the description of a psuedohaemal system in various species of Polynoidz, in which family it had previously been supposed to be absent. The second part contained a de- _ scription of thirty-two species, most of them new, from tropical Queensland, Port Jackson, and Victoria. (4) Two papers by Mr. E. P. Ramsay, F.L.S., Curator of the Australian Museum, one containing a description of a new species of Phlogenas (P. Salamonis) and of a new species of Dicrurus (pro- posed to be called D. longivostvis), from the Solomon Islands; the other containing a description of a new species of Covis from Lord Howe's Island. Specimens of both birds, collected by Mr. John Stephen, ot Ugi, were exhibited. The Hon. W. Macleay exhibited a specimen of Chersydrus annu- latus of Gray. He said that he was indebted to Mr. De Vis, of the Queensland Museum, for this specimen, which was the first he had ever seen of the kind. It is a freshwater snake, found in the rivers of India, Sumatra, and New Guinea, but never hitherto known as an inhabitant of Australia. The present specimen came from Cairns. Dr. Thomas Dixon exhibited, under the microscope, prepara- tions made by himself of the Bacillus described by Ebert as peculiar to typhoid fever. Other preparations were exhibited showing the occurrence of germs, very like typhoid germs, in a cesspit, but the absence of any such in diarrhea. Professor W. J. Stephens exhibited a few specimens of a lost Eucalyptus which had been lately re-discovered by his brother, Mr. T. Stephens, in the immediate neighbourhood ,of Hobart. He stated that the plant (Eucalyptus cordata) had only once been seen by botanists since the expedition of d’Entrecasteaux, and then only in two isolated and remote spots. Perhaps some now present would recollect an old gum tree, near the present entrance 240 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. from the Botanical Gardens to the Garden Palace, with remarkably glaucous foliage, and papery bark like some Melaleucas. This was a specimen of Eucalyptus cordata, which must have been brought here, long since, either as a seed or asa young plant, from Tas- mania, and which survived until a short time back. At present there was no example of the plant in our collections. In closing his notice Professor Stephens expressed the hope that this re-discovery might be suggestive to collectors that their own immediate neighbourhood may probably furnish facts new or unexpected, remarking how forty years of oblivion had given a curious dignity to the otherwise not very attractive specimens that he now laid before the Society. | Other interesting exhibits were shown by Dr. W. D. C. Williams and Mr. E. P. Ramsay. Sydney, 26th July, 1882—Dr. James C. Cox, F.L.S., presi- dent, in the chair. New members of the Society—Edwin Daintrey, Sydney; Thomas R. M‘Dougall, Baan Baa, Narrabri; Edwin Haviland, Redfern; Dr. George Hurst, Oxford street. It was announced that the Council had elected Mr. Edgar A. Smith, F.ZS., of the British Museum, and Mr. Chas. W. De Vis, Curator of the - Queensland Museum, corresponding members. Several donations were announced. Papers—(t1.) ‘‘ Botanical Notes in Queensland, part 3,” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.S. This paper contained the results of the author’s observations on the Mulgrave River, with a list of the species collected by him in that district. (2.) “*On the Forage Plants indigenous to New South Wales,” by Dr. Woolls, F.L.S. The author gave an account of thé principal native plants upon which stock depend in this country, including various kinds of Salt Bush and Winter Herbage. Mr, Wilkinson observed that one valuable grass, which was not men- tioned as indigenous in Dr. Woolls’ paper, had been described by Dr. Schomburgh from South Australia, and pronounced to be one of the best fodder grasses to stand years of drought. This is Panicum spectabile, which, whether indigenous or not, has been successfully grown on the Talbragar River, fifteen miles from Dubbo, one of the hottest localities in New South Wales. The jointed stem of this grass runs along about six inches beneath the. surface of the ground. (3.) ‘* Descriptions of three new Fishes of Queensland,” by Chas. W. de Vis, B.A. The species described are—1. Oligorus Goliath, taken in Moreton Bay, a fish of gigantic size, seven feet long and two feet high; 2. Synaptura Fitzrotensis, from Rock- hampton; and 3. Engraulis Carpenterie, from the Norman River. (4.) ** Description of a species of Squill (Lysiosquilla Muersi), from Moreton Bay,” by Chas. W. De Vis, B.A. This Crustacean, which is found in Moreton Bay, differs materially from the two species of the same genus recorded in Mr. Haswell’s catalogue, which belong to Mr. Miers’ second section of the genus, while the present species agrees with his first section. (5.) ** On Cyprea citrina (Gray), from Rowley Shoals, North- West Australia,” by John Brazier, C.M.Z.S. 7 j ; r REVIEW. 241 (6.) “On a variety of Ovulum depressum, from the Loyalty Islands,” by Mr. R. C. Rossiter. .) “ Notes on the nidification of the Spoon-bill, the Heron, and the Night Heron,” by K. H. Bennett, Esq. In this paper an interesting account of visits to the breeding places of the above- mentioned birds is given. A number of interesting exhibits were shown by various gentlemen. REV EW ———_>—___. “JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, 1881,” Vol. XV. Edited by Pro- fessor A. Leversidge. inea review in a récent issue of this journal jof the’ “Cata= logue of Australian Crustacea,” lately published by the Trustees of the Australian Museum, attention was called to the immense impetus which scientific work had received of late in the sister colonies. The volume before us is another indication of this increased activity. The anniversary address of the late presi- dent, the Hon. Professor Smith, delivered on 4th May of last year, gives an interesting account of the early struggles of the Philosophical Society (the predecessor of the present Society), and of the narrow escape it had from total collapse in 1866. In that year a change in the constitution was made along with the change of name, and affairs for a time were considerably improved. It was not, however, till 1875, when the Society took possession of their new hall in Elizabeth street, and appointed Professor Liversidge and Dr. Leibius to the joint-secretaryship, that the recent increased activity began to manifest itself. A well-merited encomium is passed upon both these gentlemen for their “enlightened zeal and indefatigable labours.” The present volume contains eleven papers, all of which are valuable additions to the scientific records of Australia. Of these, Mr. H. C. Russell, Government astronomer, contributes three—viz., “The Spectrum and appearance of the recent Comet”; “Transit of Mercury, Nov. 8th, 1881”; and “New Double Stars, and measures of some of those found by Sir John Herschel.” The last-mentioned paper will be found of great value to astronomers working in the Southern Hemi- sphere, as it records the re-measurements of about 746 of Herschel’s stars—some of them many times over,—and the discovery of 350 new double stars. As Mr. Russell’s object was to re-measure all Herschel’s close stars south of 34° south declination, he points out that the number of new stars might easily have been doubled had he devoted his attention to this work, and extended his limits of observation. Many of the stars (forty-six in number) in the Cape list could not be found. Mr. Russell considers that, while some may have been over- looked from changed magnitudes and other causes, most are the 242 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. results of clerical errors in drawing up the list. The only other paper dealing strictly with astronomy is Mr. Tebbutt’s deter- mination of the orbit of the comet of 1881. A paper by the Rev. P. MacPherson on the “Astronomy of the Australian Aborigines,” is chiefly of interest to the student of Anthropology. The coincidence of certain terms used by the Australians with others of Aryan origin is pointed out, and in regard to one root argutl, some ground exists for believing that the root is the same as the Latin aguz/a. Without attempting to found any theory on such a slender basis, the author concludes that “ the root may take its place with such others as have been pointed out from time to time, and some future inquirer, on a wider basis of in- duction, may be in a position to decide how far such words are mere coincidences, or how far they prove that the ancestors of the aborigines were one with those whose descendants have spread over Asia and Europe.” Mr. W. E. Abbott’s “Notes of a Journey on the Darling” form probably the most interesting reading in the journal, as they are those of an observant traveller. His remarks on the water- supply of the Western Plains are very valuable, as they refer to a matter which is of the most vital importance to the interior of Australia. The theory advanced for the general dryness of these plains is that there are two water-systems, “one on the surface of the land, carrying away to the sea a certain part of the annual rainfall, and one underground, possibly an ancient river system, carrying off by far the larger portion.” “ When Mr. Russell first put forward the theory. of an underground drainage system to explain the great disparity between the rainfall in the watershed of the Darling and the outflow of that river, one of the difficulties which occurred to me was that if such a thing were in existence the surface rivers crossing the underground channels in all directions would in many places cut through the clay beds and form communications with the underground water, so that strong springs would be numerous in the Darling and its tributaries ; but, when one has examined the Darling and its tributaries, this difficulty disappears at once. The clay soil, which is almost perfectly impervious to water, has been deposited evenly over the whole country. There is no tilting up of the strata anywhere that I have seen which would cause the rivers to cut across and expose the edges, and the rivers themselves are little better than shallow gutters cut in the clay.” Mr. Abbott recommends the use of tube-wells to obviate the influx of mud and sand which so often chokes open _ wells in this part of Australia. Mr. W. A. Dixon contributes a short paper “On the inorganic constituents of some epiphytic ferns,” which throws a good deal of light on the sources from whence these aerial-rooted plants obtain the mineral matter present in their food. The most elaborate paper in the volume is a “ Census of the genera of plants hitherto known as indigenous to Australia,” by Baron Ferd. von Mueller. To the non-botanical reader this will CORRESPONDENCE. 243 be looked upon as a mere list of long names. It is, however, a contribution of great value, both for historical information as to the founders of the genera, and also as a reference catalogue and a bibliography combined. Bulky as the paper is, it cannot convey to any but a practical botanist an idea of the immense labour of research which must have been devoted to its prepara- tion. It forms an important and necessary appendix to the otherwise incomplete “ Flora Australiensis.” CORRESPONDENCE. —_——_<> —_. EARTH-WORMS IN NEW ZEALAND. (To the Editor N.Z, JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, ) S1rR,—Our late illustrious master, in his valuable work on “Vegetable Mould,” states (p. 146)—“ Worms appear to act in the same manner in New Zealand as in Europe ; for Prof. J. von Haast has described a section near the coast” (“Trans. N.Z. Inst.,” vol. XII, p. 152). As no further mention is made of our earth-worms, a few observations may not be without some interest. In October, 1875, I dug a trench in some newly-cleared land—a raised beach, Manukau Harbour. The section showed about 4% inches of black mould, and a horizontal layer, 1 inch thick, of burnt clay, wood ashes, small stones, and pumice, lying on brownish-green arenaceous clay. The vegetation cleared was the growth of about 30 years. A portion of the land was left undisturbed. Measurements taken a few days ago give an average of 1% inches turf, 534 inches black mould ; there was no perceptible difference in the layer of ashes. An angular block of Trachyte—about 25lbs.,—placed in May, 1875, has sunk 1 inch, allowing for the turf. After reading Darwin’s work on “V.M.,” I made some systematic estimates of the number of worms per acre; and I have taken advantage of the recent heavy rains of again making an approximate estimate. The results are considerably higher than Henson’s, and I should have hesitated to publish them had I not been in a position to prove my assertions. Henson (“V.M.,” p. 158) calculates there are 53,767 worms per acre in garden mould; about half that number in corn-fields. My estimates, founded on digging about Yy acre, and a large number of tests in various parts of the _ fields—some in pasture for upwards of 16 years—gave from 4 to 26 worms per square foot. The alluvial flats, slopes, and richer portions of the upper lands would certainly average 8 per square foot, or 348,480 per acre ; about half that number in the inferior erass lands. In uncultivated fern lands worms are scarce, but they affect the edges of swamps in considerable numbers, and contribute largely in forming the good soil generally found there, working backwards year by year up the ridges when the 244 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. conditions are favourable. Although Gilbert White and Darwin pointed out years ago that worms left their burrows, it has been maintained by some authorities that healthy worms never or rarely do so. Worms not only leave their burrows, but climb trees in search of food. I have seen them in considerable num- bers, as late as half-past seven on a warm, wet morning in June, gliding with the greatest ease about the trunks of gum trees (Eucalyptus), vigorously searching for animal matter. As the habits of our northern worms differ slightly from those of Europe, it would be of considerable interest if some ot your subscribers in the colder portions of Otago would give the average weight of dried casts, and state if worms in their districts habitually plug the mouth of their burrows ; whether the burrows and chambers are lined with other materials be- sides the usual viscid earth ; depth of them; and whether they branch, forming two chambers, in solid ground. The branching in solid eround has not been observed by Darwin, but I have met with several instances. Trusting that I have not trespassed too much on your valuable space—I am, &c., A, I. UROWsART. Karaka, Auckland. AoREPILY. S1R,—I notice in your review of the “ Trans. N.Z. Institute,” published in the last issue of the N.Z. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, that you take exception to the system of notation I have adopted in my, paper on the mineralogy of New Zealand. The notation employed has a conventional meaning amongst mineralogists, to whom my paper is addressed, as may be seen by reference to any standard work on mineralogy, such as Dana’s, Nicol’s, or Bristow’s. The instance you cite will be found on page 255 of the second edition of Nicol’s “ Mineralogy,” printed in the form I adopted and giving the equivalent in chemical notation, thus— 2Fe + 3H = [2 Fe.0,'3 H,O)-—T am, &e, eS HERBERT Cox. [We must apologise to Mr. Cox for what may appear to him unjust fault-finding in our last number. We are aware that the notation alluded to is that conventionally used among mineralo- gists, and in that sense Mr. Cox is perfectly justified in using it. What we do object to is, however, that mineralogists should employ such a notation in place of the expressive notation adopted by chemists. For one person who can at sight under- stand the former, fifty can read the latter. The very printers cannot set up mineralogical notation for want of special type, which is itself a Beet argument for its abolition ED. | THE WEKA PASS ROCK-PAINTINGS. S1R,—I believe that I am responsible for Mr. Maskell’s remark that the paintings in the Weka Pass cave “rest on a coat- CORRESPONDENCE. 245 ing of stalagmite, covering the rock,” which Dr. von Haast, in your last number, calls “simply nonsense.” This is a sweeping criticism, but I do not see much force in it, nor do I see how it can get over the indubitable and easily proved fact that the paintings ave on stalagmite. The learned doctor goes on to say, “Tn the first place the rock is perfectly dry,”’—here I would remind him that the deposition of stalagmite is due to evapora- tion, and can only take place on highly inclined surfaces, when they are sometimes wet and sometimes dry, as no doubt is the case with the wall of the cave in question ; he proceeds, “and no stalagmite has ever been found there.” With all due deference to his superior knowledge of the locality, I am bound to say that I have in my possession specimens of stalagmite which I collected myself from the identical spot, and to prove to others the truth of my statement, I will exhibit these specimens at the next meeting of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. The layer of stalagmite is about ‘o2 inch in thickness, and in one case— from another cave in the neighbourhood—a considerable thick- ness of it overlies the red paint. Dr. von Haast still procecds, “ But the weathering of the rock has caused this peculiar scaling of the surface, so well known to geologists.” I have seen a good deal of weathered limestone in different parts of the world, but I have never seen the surface scale off in this way except where covered with stalagmite ; under other circumstances the rock crumbles into powder, and the surface often becomes honey-combed. I am not surprised that Dr. von Haast failed to notice the stalagmite in his early visits to the cave, but that he should have re-examined the place after the occurrence of stalagmite had been pointed out to -him, and that he should then have denied its existence, is indeed astonishing. It is not Mr. Maskell who has “ misunderstood some of our party conversant with geological evidence,” but Dr. von Haast himself who has misunderstood the geological evidence.—I am, &c., POW. ELTON. Christchurch, 20th July, 1882. SIR,—Will you allow me to explain that my remarks on the un-Maori-like character of the Weka Pass drawings, quoted by Mr. Maskell on page 66 of the N. Z. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, were never meant to apply to all the drawings on the rock- shelter, though I omitted, in the brief note referred to, to limit their application. I ought at the time to have specified figures 4, 14, and 27, and some of the smaller designs on Mr. Cousin’s plan accompanying Dr. von Haast’s paper. I cannot believe those figures to have been the production of any unaided Maori artist. Having seen the original drawings shortly after Mr. Cousin’s visit, I think it is only fair to him to state that I was surprised to find how accurately he had copied the figures selected for illustration. 246 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. With reference to the controversy regarding the origin of these drawings, and the date of their execution, it is satisfactory to find such competent judges as Mr. Maskell and the gentlemen who accompanied him—after a careful examination of the drawings on the rocks—arriving at the conclusion that they were “undoubtedly older than European settlement here.” The Maori evidence removes them a stage further back, to a xeriod antecedent to the Ngai Tahu occupation of this island. How much older they may be remains a fair subject for specu- lation.—I am, &c., JAMES W. STACK. Duvanchelle’s Bay, August 10, 1882. NEW ZEALAND MOTHS. S1R,—My name is mentioned in No. 4, vol. I., page 177, as a worker on New Zealand Micro-lepidoptera. Since Mr. Meyrick has come to Christchurch, and so ably taken up the investigation of the New Zealand Micro-lepi- doptera, I have abandoned it for the present, and now confine myself to the AZacro-lepidoptera. I may explain, for the benefit of the uninitiated, that the Micro-lepidoptera are the very small moths, the Macro- lepidoptera being the larger moths and the butterflies. Mr. Meyrick has therefore the greater claim to contributions of the smaller moths; but I shall nevertheless be glad to receive any that may be sent me, and they shall have my attention. Will you kindly make this known in your next publication ? =) - IN} OCC RICH. WM. FEREDAY. Christchurch, August 16, 1882. NOTES AND QUERIES. As several communications have been addressed to the Editor suggesting the desirability of opening a column in the Journal under the above head, it has been resolved to offer every facility to those who may desire to ask questions on scientific subjects through this medium. As, however, it is ~ always much easier to ask than to answer questions, the Editor invites the co-operation of specialists throughout the colony, and will, as occasion offers, refer to them for replies. FOR SALE, SEVERAL _4MICROSCOPES» By various Makers, "SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND DISSECTING. J. WILKIE ® CO, Booksellers any Stationers, 40, PRINCES STREET, DUNEDIN. as ee ve A ae Hy om yen te =e oe Sa kx & es oe wn } ven . vy 7. ee >

* - oe .< i > tw - 4% <4 F) = = - - 4 7 > - « a — : » : - Ne 4 $ = as a 2 - « 7 =. - 4 » . - + 3 5 oad / a " , . “ i r 7 = ~ ~ ~~ . ; - , 4 oe NOVEMBER, 1882] - — [No. 6, Vol. I. oa ag i cl SB ies ues ~ Fh dy Rey ey a iy Sr Oe eee Pie - Sor ee SS we DEVOTED TO THE FURTHER ANCE OF _ PURE. AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY. ERE ae LIE EN Re SFudicio perpende: et st tibt vera videntur Dede manus: aut st falsum est, adcingere contra. \ Pe ak ge el ee et ae eh ae ed ss lait es CONTENTS : 3 Dhl: 4: PAGE a‘ An Observatory for ae Zealand. Prof. Cook ine way, Br: Proofs of the Subsidence of a Southern Continent ae recent Geological Epoch cf M. EMILE BLANCHARD Sitar 251 ‘ pttaeieal and Z oological Relations of Campbell 1 Tala sith the ¢ neighbouring . Be _ Southern fends: M, H. FILHOL Bi epee (6259 ae : 262 263 265 eee oe eee ee tee eee eee 266 Mr. Buchanan’s Critic! site Wicked Pass Rieck: -paintings. Meetings of Societies— Pu Rahs ts Me we wold “a fei SPL -Hawke’s Bay Philosophical Institute Royal Society of New South Wa'es— oyanean Society of Pas. 1 2 New South nates balosephical Institute of Canterbury—Auckland Institute—Southland 4 Hie Institute. . al Notes— eee Se0ae eee eee eco. eoe coe eee 286 a Mine fo Ky Thomson’s New Windmill—New Zeaiand Fern Peehaaedicl tinea’ Society of New eh j South Wales—Erratum, new wv New Zealand Coleoptera, Capt, T. Broun ae ihe: sag vosi,: 2OP PRICE, 2s.; ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, 10s. J. WILKIE & Co., PUBLISHERS, PRINCES STREET. Pa Eee Me = = oo ag ee 2 ne oy SE Fase de 5 ed Se RE ates ~~ es FS 3. es, ie an ee Shs «gee : EEF ES i: fone ie. bee i ee os PB 60.46, be 4 ~ jy ee ‘weber ah | “em < Ad ae fae Vol. I., No.6, NOVEMBER, 1882. | AN OBSERVATORY FOR NEW ZEALAND. ee OO (BY PROF. COOK, CANTERBURY COLLEGE.) CS In one of the earlier numbers of this journal an article was written by the Rev. Dr. Roseby, entitled “A Plea for the Stars.” The article pointed out some of the inducements to the study of astronomy, and suggested some of the kinds of work which might be advantageously undertaken by an amateur. It is in- deed matter for sincere regret that the study of this ennobling subject is pursued by so few, for here in the southern hemisphere much remains to be done which has already been well done for the northern hemisphere. But although the northern stars have been watched and studied for so long a time, enthusiastic ama- teurs still find plenty to engage their attention in noting their pecu- liarities and observing their movements. Here we have very few amateurs and but little enthusiasm, at least that kind of abid- ing enthusiasm which brings forth the fruit of patient work. True it is that, when Mr. Proctor was here a little while ago, everybody was for the time being very much interested in his subject; but it would appear that his numerous hearers went to be amused rather than instructed, to listen to the popular lecturer and to be astonished at the wonders which he had to relate, rather than to gain information. At any rate it is quite certain that no endur- ing interest in astronomy has ever been excited here. But though isolated individuals may do good work in cer- tain directions, astronomical science will never make much head- way in this colony until we have in it a properly equipped colonial observatory. At such an institution systematic and regular work would be done by trained observers ; work which would be out of the province of an amateur, and indeed beyond his reach. The results of the observations would be published from time to time, papers would be read by the observers before the New Zealand Institute, and in this way an interest in the subject would be excited in the minds of very many. If any of those were tempted to study the subject on their own account, and to try to apply their knowledge to the making of observa- tions for themselves, it would be to the official staff of the obser- vatory that they would naturally turn for guidance and assistance. There is not much reason in the nature of things why this colony should not be as distinguished for the pursuit of astronomy as it is for that of natural science. But every provision has been made for, and every encouragement given to, the study of natural science ; there are excellent museums at Wellington, Christ- church, and Dunedin, and at each of these places there is a certain scientific staff ; at Auckland too there is a museum, and 248 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. there may be such institutions at other places within the colony. All of these serve as active centres of intellectual life ; they spread abroad a taste for the study of natural science, and they largely furnish the means for gratifying and cultivating that taste. Any- body who is acquainted with the growth of these institutions must recognise how large a share they have had in turning the scientific attention of the people of the colony into a particular direction. The kind of work which the museums have done for natural science, we might expect that an observatory would do for astronomy. It is quite true that causes other than the one mentioned have contributed to the advancement of natural science ; a new country, and one whose flora and fauna are so peculiar as those of New Zealand, must always excite attention and have special charms for the naturalist. But have we not here also new star-fields to explore, and new constellations to examine ? It is really a very curious fact that this colony should have provided itself so well with museums, and that it should be with- out an efficient observatory. We of course expect to find both kinds of institution in the older countries of Europe. But, whatever may have been done for museums in newer countries, it is quite certain that in most of them observatories have not been forgotten. There are at least twelve in the United States, there is at least one in Canada, there is one at the Cape of Good Hope, one at Sydney, one at Melbourne, and one at Ade- laide. Thus it appears that New Zealand is the only considerable British colony without an observatory. And these colonial ob- servatories were established in the early days of their respective colonies, and they have all done signal service to the cause of astronomy. That at the Cape of Good Hope was founded in the year 1820, and it was from observations made there in 1832 and 1833 that the distance of Centauri, the nearest of the few stars whose distances have been even roughly ascertained, was deter- mined. It was to the Cape of Good Hope that Sir John Her- schel went in 1835, for the purpose of observing the southern nebule ; and it was whilst there that he closely observed the curious changes which took place in Halley’s comet after it had passed perihelion, and after it had become invisible in the north. The Sydney observatory sprang out of one which was originally founded at Paramatta, in 1821, by Sir Thomas Brisbane, who was at that time Governor of New South Wales. He furnished it with excellent instruments, and “in the same noble spirit of disinterested liberality he employed,at his own expense, two quali- fied assistants to aid him in his astronomical labours.”* From ob- servations made here, two catalogues, each containing several thou- sands of stars, were published. It was here also that Riimker, one of the assistants above alluded to, observed the return of Enke’s comet, in 1822; this was the first return of the comet after it * Grant’ History of Physical Astronomy. } | : _<) =e AN OBSERVATORY FOR NEW ZEALAND. 249 had been ascertained to be periodic, it was therefore of great importance that good observations of it should be secured, and the comet was not visible in Europe. The Melbourne observa- tory was founded in 1853, but it was not till some years later that the buildings at present in use were erected and the obser- vatory put into a thoroughly efficient state. Still it speaks well for the people of Victoria that, at a time when the gold fever was at its height, such an institution was thought of. It is worthy of remark that about the same time the Melbourne Uni- versity and the Public Library were founded. Excellent work has on several occasions been done at the Melbourne Observa- tory : notably, it was the observations there made on Mars, at his near approach to the earth in 1862, used in conjunction with those made at Greenwich, that gave the best determination which up to that time had been arrived at of the sun’s distance from the earth.. These points-in connection with these southern colonial observatories have been mentioned to show that they were established on a good footing in the early days of the colonies to which they belong, and that they have on important occasions been able to do work which could not have been fore- gone without very serious loss. Some few years ago an attempt was made in Canterbury to found an observatory, and about 4250 was collected by private subscription towards the purchase of instruments. Nothing further was done in the matter because Sir George Airy, the then Astronomer - Royal, who had been written to on the subject, threw cold water on the scheme, and:seemed to think that observatories other than the splendid institution over which he presided were not necessary. But it is abundantly evident that in his opinion he is altogether singular; the great multi- plication oi observatories in the northern hemisphere conclusively proves that. If they are necessary for the one hemisphere, they are equally so for the other; indeed it may be said that their increase in the south is indispensable to the due progress of astronomy. In the list of observatories published in the Nau- tical Almanac, out of a total of ninety-five, there are only eight in southern latitudes. And that observations in the neighbour- hood of New Zealand are often absolutely essential, is evident from the fact that England and other nations have so frequently been compelled to send parties of observers here. At the transit of Venus in December, 1874, several such parties visited us, and when a similar event happens again at the end of this year we shall again have our scientific work done for us. A few years ago when search was being made for the supposed intra- Mercurial planet Vulcan, Sir George Airy, though he had done his best to prevent the establishment of an observatory at Christ- church, did not omit to telegraph here asking that a watch for the transit of the planet might be kept. Had it not been for the existence of a sufficiently good instrument in private hands his request could not have been complied with. In Victoria and 250 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. New South Wales not only is work of this kind done at ‘the observatories as a matter of course, but when an important astronomical event occurs—-e.g. an eclipse of the sun—they are able to organise parties to occupy different stations whence it will be visible, so as to secure if possible a good observation and record of the event. - The cost of building, equipping, and maintaining an obser- vatory, though it would be small, would yet necessitate a grant of money from Parliament. The question might, therefore, be asked, ‘‘ What is the good of an observatory ; what useful work would it do?” The reply to that is that an astronomical obser- vatory is a scientific institution, and that the first object which science has in view is the discovery of truth, and not practical utility. It is quite true that the discoveries of science have, more than anything else, made this age what it is, that they have been the main cause which has procured for us so much ease and comfort ; but science does not usually disclose her secrets to those unworthy worshippers who follow her for what they can get out of her. A successful cultivator of science must do pure- hearted service. The practical applications will most certainly come, but they must not be the first object ; indeed, these appli- cations are very often not made by the discoverers of the scien- tific principles on which they depend. The history of science has shown us again and again that this is the case, and that truths patiently worked out, without any motive other than the advancement of knowledge, have ultimately yielded the most important practical results. Thus the habits and organisation of the lowest animals and plants were originally studied by naturalists merely because they were beings endowed with life, and because there was something fresh to be learned about them. Gradually it has come to be known that some of them play a very active part in causing decay and disease, and the whole world gains by the information which had previously been arrived at. In the same way the motions of the heavenly bodies have been watched with interest for thousands of years, for we have records reaching back to B.C. 2000; but it is only within comparatively recent times, since the days of Newton, that astronomy has been an exact science. Since then it has made enormous strides, and its practical applications have been of in- calculable benefit. On it we depend for all our exact ideas of time, and without astronomical observations our watches and clocks would soon be hopelessly wrong. Again, the art of navi- gation is one application of the results of astronomy ; that of accurate surveying another. Since then the practical applications of astronomy to every- day life are so important that it is the plain duty of every civilised country to aid in its advancement. This is a view of the case which is universally taken, and the result is that in most countries this science is being eagerly studied, and that observa- tories are springing up rapidly. Professor Loomis, writing in AN OBSERVATORY FOR NEW ZEALAND. 251 1870, says: “It is less than twenty-five years since the first re- _fracting telescope, exceeding those of a portable size, was im- ported into the United States, and the introduction of meridional instruments of a large class is of still more recent date.” Yet we have seen that at the present time the same country boasts not less than twelve observatories. Some of these are probably not by any means completely equipped, but others are of the first rank. Nor is it to be expected that here a perfect institu- tion could at once be called into existence, but a beginning might be made; at the same time every instrument purchased should be sufficiently good to allow of thoroughly reliable work being done with it. The instruments which are absolutely indis- pensable in an observatory are a transit circle and a good clock, but an equatorial and a second clock are only a degree less essential. Probably for £1600 all of these instruments could be purchased, together with those which would be required for systematic magnetic observations (for these latter could be con- veniently made at an astronomical observatory, and would be of great value). Nor would the cost of the necessary buildings be at all great, as only four or five rooms would be necessary ; but they would have to be substantially built, and above all the foundations of the piers for the instruments would have to be very carefully attended to. The whole cost, then, of equipping an observatory sufficiently well to enable it to do good work would be comparatively trifling, and it will not be to our credit if we allow ourselves to lie under the reproach of being behind the other British Colonies in this respect, and even behind the semi-barbarous countries of South America. PROOFS OF THE SUBSIDENCE OF A SOUTH- PiaeN CONTINENT DURING RECENT GEOLO- ec Aal EPOCHS. *BY M. EMILE BLANCHARD. (Read before 1’Academie des Sciences, Paris, 13th Feb., 1882.) During last century geographers and navigators were con- vinced of the existence of a continental region in the Southern Hemisphere, which extended between Australia and America. It was believed that the existence of this continent was indispen- sable to the equilibrium of the globe. When on the evening of 7th October, 1769, Captain Cook cast anchor in a bay of that land which had been seen by the Dutchman, Abel Tasman, one hundred and twenty-seven years before, the commander, his staff of officers, the naturalists Banks and Solander, and the astrono- mer Charles Green, standing on the deck of the celebrated ship “Endeavour,” all agitated by surprise and uncertainty, flattered * Abstract by the author in ‘‘ Comptes Rendus,” 252 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. themselves that they were at last in presence of the famous Zerra Australis incognita. If, on afterwards finding two large and a number of small islands, which together they named New Zea- land, they experienced a certain amount of disappointment, the glory of the discovery made them forget it. Captain Marion du Fresne had, in 1772, conducted two French vessels, the “ Mas- carin” and the ‘“ Marquis-de-Castries,’ to the Bay of Islands, and Crozet, the historian of the voyage and the narrator of the massacre of Marion and his convoy, had declared that New Zealand appeared to him like a large mountain which had formerly been part of a vast continent. This was the simple impression of a sailor who was gifted with observational powers. No one, it appears, has since given a thought to it. Now, how- ever, it is no longer a question of more or less correct impres- sions ; very positive ideas must lead us to results of a purely scientific character, and to strictly rigorous demonstrations. Nature herself furnishes us with abundant proofs that in recent ages of the earth, perhaps even at a period not very remote from the present, there existed a true continent in the southern por- tions of the Pacific Ocean, of which New Zealand and the small adjacent islands are the remains. 3 “On arriving in New Zealand,” says Sir Joseph Hooker, “we find ourselves surrounded by a vegetation which is almost new. In addition to this peculiar vegetation, however, plants belonging to Australia and America occur in considerable abundance.” While New Zealand was still in its original state, before being invaded by Europeans, the traveller was struck with the abundance of its ferns. His admiration was called forth by the tree-ferns (Cyathea) which crowned the summits of the hills; by the occurrence in many places of Lycopods, which are the largest among all now existing species, and the nearest allies of those which flourished in the carboniferous period ; and by a graceful palm (Areca satida) ; various plants of the lily family appeared to be characteristic of the region, such as the famous Phormium, and several species of Cordyline. In this part of the world the forests, which are now very much destroyed, have a grand appearance, which is due to the occurrence of superb coniferous trees; Red Pine and Totara (Podocarpus ferruginea and P. totara), some kinds allied to Cedars (genus Lzbocedrus), a kind of Thuja with pale foliage (Dacrydium cupressifolium) ; and under the milder climate of the northern portions of the islands, towering above all by its colos- sal proportions and distinguished by its beauty, the Kauri Pine (Dammara australis). Mingled with these occur species of Pro- teacee (Knightia), of Rhamnaceze (Pomaderris), and elegant Myrtles (Leptospermum and Metrosideros). On the west coast of the South Island the forests are chiefly composed of conifers, together with some leguminous plants (Carmichetia sp. and Sophora tetraptera), liliaceous plants (genus Elowocarpus), and Myrtles (Metrosideros lucida, etc.). In the t - : bs PROOFS OF RECENT SUBSIDENCE. 2a: central and eastern portions where the forests have been burned, there occur, in somewhat dense masses, various Veronicas and Campanulas (Wahlenbergia saxicola), Gentians of different kinds, beautiful Ranunculuses, and numerous species of Composites (Craspedia and Celmisia). _ Towards the south, and also in the Auckland and Campbell Islands, Heaths (genus Dracophyllum), Rubiaceous plants (Co- prosma), and species of Araliacee (Aralia and Panaxr) become more abundant, and Violets, Epilobiums, Euphrasias, and Gza- phalium are met with there, as well as in the Alpine zones. The Fauna of New Zealand is characteristic in the highest degree of an independent region, and is of avery peculiar nature. The insects constitute one of its most interesting features. Our first impulse is to contrast them with those of the lands most adjacent, and to compare the species with those of Tasmania and the southern portions of Australia, but the resemblances are few. We are, in fact, in a different world.. We do not meet with Australian or American species, as is the case with the plants, with the exception of three or four species of Lepidoptera. The differences also in the distribution of plants whose seeds can be carried a considerable distance, and of the animals indigenous to the soil, are very considerable, and it is necessary in our researches to take these into account. Some New Zealand insects are related to peculiar genera, which have a certain affinity with types represented either in Australia or in the islands of the Pacific* ; but the greater num- ber are allied to genera which have representatives in the nor- thern hemisphere. The insects and arachnids, on the whole, are such as occur in very temperate or even cold climates, and have in general the sombre aspect of central-European species. The most remarkable forms of the families Cerambycide and Scara- berde disappear towards the south; where, on the other hand, the weevils, and particularly the carniverous coleoptera (Cara- bide) predominate. The insects of Stewart Island, and particu- larly of the Auckland Islands, remind us in their general appearance of Scandinavian or even of Lapland species. New Zealand possesses no terrestrial mammals. The existence of an indigenous rat was formerly spoken of, but it does not occur now. Of bats there are only two species. On the other hand the birds are of the highest importance as one of the fea- tures of the fauna, and at no very remote period this importance was even greater than it is at the present day. Some species of rails and water-fowl are singularly character- istic. One of the most magnificent of these appears to be extinct _ (Notornis mantelli). The Gallide have only a single represen- tative, a quail (Coturnix Nove Zealandice ), whose early extinction appears probable. A very fine pigeon (Carpophaga Nove- Zealandic ),is characteristic of the region. The Fringillida, which *The genera Prionoplus, Coptamma, Navomorpha, Dorcadida, Xylotoles (fam. Cerambycide) ; Pyronota (fam. Scarabeide) ; Dinarida (fam, Locustide, ) 254 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. are somewhat numerous, have species which are allied to the crows, starlings, tits, honey-birds, thrushes, and especially to the warblers. The greater number of these are peculiar to the country, but many can be named which are also found in Australia or in Polynesia. One bird (Heterolocha acutivostris) is of a type quite peculiar to New Zealand, and has no near resem- blance to any other known form. In this fauna parrots of different genera occur, namely, one parroquet (Platycercus Nove-Zealandie and its variety P. auriceps) ; the nestors, birds of a very characteristic type, confined to New Zealand and Norfolk Island ; and, strangest of all the psittacide, the great nocturnal parrot (Sivigops habroptilus ). Ofthecursorial birds ( Struthionde),the apteryx with absolutely rudimentary wings and a long curved beak, is still extant. But the most remarkable New Zealand birds are now extinct ; these were allied to the ostrich and cassowary, and were as tall asa giraffe. The first inhabitants of New Zealand knew them and called them Moas; traditions have preserved the memory of these extraordinary creatures, and their name still lives in the Maori language. Some forty years ago a number of bones of these gigantic birds, collected from caverns, river-beds, and swamps, were taken to London, and from these materials Prof. R. Owen was enabled to build up the skeletons of several spe- cies, which he classed under the genera Dinornis and Palapteryx. Subsequent researches have brought to light considerable quan- tities of the bones of these birds from nearly all parts of New Zealand. From an excavation in the Glenmark swamp, near the Waipara river, in Wellington Province, Prof. Julius von Haast obtained the bones of 171 individuals. Feathers, tendons, and fragments of the skin of Dznornis have also been met with ; so that there is reason to believe that the extinction of these birds is very recent. The hope of finding living specimens of Dinornis or Palapteryx in some isolated locality still exists among naturalists. During the time that these gigantic birds were so prevalent in these lands there lived also a bird-of-prey of colossal proportions (Harpagormis moovet, Haast). The Auckland Islands appear, both by their flora and fauna, to be absolutely inseparable from the southern part of New Zea- land. In spite of its inhospitable climate, the storm-beaten Macquarrie Island is inhabited by the New Zealand parroquet. It is difficult to imagine that a bird so sedentary in its habits had ever crossed the sea, a distance of 500 or 600 miles, to alight upon one of the most desolate spots in the world. In Campbell Island, though less visited by icebergs, there are neither parrots nor any other terrestrial birds, but the vegetation offers a close resemblance to the Auckland Islands and the colder parts of New Zealand, while possessing some peculiarities of its own. We have little information regarding the life upon either Bounty or Antipodes Islands, but we know that on the latter Phoymium PROOFS OF RECENT SUBSIDENCE. 255 and some other New Zealand plants grow, and that the parroquet is also found there. With regard to the Chatham Islands, which have been more completely explored than the scattered islets lying at a greater or less distance from the main islands, the vegetation both on the low and high lands is found to be nearly identical with that of those parts of New Zealand which are situated at the same latitudes. Only two or three plants peculiar to the country are met with.* New Zealand birds abound there. Leaving out of account those species which are capable of a sustained flight, we find in the occurrence of certain other species a well-demonstrated proof of an isolation which occurred at no very distant period. One of these species which is found in the Chatham Islands is the southern rail (Ocydvomus australis), a running bird, with rudi- mentary wings. We also meet with the big night-parrot (Strigops habroptilus ), whose wings are not strong enough to enable the bird to fly. The insects which have been observed are similar to those of New Zealand. In Norfolk Island, situated about sdeg. lat. north of New Zealand, tropical forms make their appearance in the fauna and flora, and yet the resemblance between the plants and animals of these two regions is sufficiently striking. The vegetation, like that of New Zealand, is characterised by the abundance of its ferns. On its little archipelago we notice the same tree-fern (Cyathea medullaris), the same palm, the same liliaceous plants (Phormium, Cordyline australis, and Dianella intermedia), and the same pepper-trees (Piperomia urvilleana and Piper excelss). More remark- able still, we there meet with the parrots of the genus Nestor, a remarkable type of birds, and very characteristic of New Zealand. The Kermadec Islands, lying to the east of the Norfolk Islands, are still less known to us; however, a collection of their plants shows that a remarkable analogy exists in the flora of these islands with those of Norfolk Island and New Zealand. Thus all the natural phenomena go to show that New Zea- land, with the multitude of islets situated at a greater or less distance from its shores, the Auckland and Macquarrie Islands to the south-west, Chatham, Antipodes, and Bounty Islands to the east, have been separated at a recent period, at a time when the plants and animals were found associated in the conditions under which they still live upon the debris of a continent or ot a vast tract of land now, in great measure, sunk beneath the waves. Campbell Island, by turns submerged and elevated during geological epochs, was to all appearance greatly spread out towards New Zealand, and perhaps was united to it during some centuries of the present period. In this respect we should not be much longer in doubt, if the entomological fauna of New Zealand were fully studied in its relations to that of the Auck- * The Chatham Islands do not possess the Pittosporee, Metrosideros or Cordyline _ of New Zealand. 256 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. land and Stewart Islands.* On the north, Norfolk and Kerma- dec Islands appear to be equally closely related to New Zealand, if not dependent on it. As soon as all the delails of the flora and fauna of these little groups can be fully compared, certainty on these points will be arrived at. What we now know without doubt, is the existence, in recent ages of the globe, perhaps even at an epoch not very far distant from the present, of a vast land of which New Zealand and the surrounding islands are the vestiges. The conditions of the actual faunas and floras furnish positive proofs of this, and in addition to these another may be added. If we examine charts in which the depths of the sea are indicated, we must be struck with the fact that in all the maritime region which embraces those lands which we regard as the remains of a continent, the depth of the water is not very great. Beyond the limits of this region the depths are profound. The ancient Terva Australis has been submerged, but it has not been swallowed up in an abyss. Upheavals may perhaps elevate it some day, either in whole or part, above the waters. In considering the accumulations of Moa bones observed over such wide extents of country, we can figure to ourselves the enormous numbers of these gigantic birds which must have existed on the plateaux or in the plains of New Zealand, at a date doubtless not far distant. It is difficult to believe that the total destruction of these remarkable creatures was accomplished by the Maoris, who were always somewhat thinly scattered along the sea coasts of the South Island. It is almost certain that physical occurrences were the first cause of this destruction. Dispersed over a vast land, the Moas had an easy existence ; but as the land became gradually submerged, they were com- pelled to take refuge on those portions which remained. _ Under these new conditions the Moas would perish by hundreds in those localities where they were crowded together in great num- bers. The extinction of these gigantic birds furnishes thus a new proof of the submergence of the Southern Continent. At the present time a vast deal of information is still wanted concerning the floras of the small groups of islands, and in par- ticular more precise knowledge of the entomological fauna of all the smaller islands. For the further pursuit of these researches I would address a pressing appeal to the naturalists of New Zealand. In that country during the last score of years, several investigators have distinguished themselves by researches of sur- passing interest. It is by them, or by their pupils, that a com- plete exploration of the islands which surround New Zealand must be made. We must not forget that the most insignificant plants or the most pitiful-looking insects become the signs from * M. Henri Filhol, attached to the Transit of Venus expedition in 1874, having made a careful study of the soil (rocks) of Campbell Island, believes that it has been separated from New Zealand since the middle tertiary epoch. The absence of parrots and other terrestrial birds seems to justify this opinion. Other facts appear to contradict it. PROOFS OF RECENT SUBSIDENCE. 257 _ which those who set themselves to understand the history of the physical world would draw their conclusions. M. Alph. Milne Edwards, in reply to the communication of M. Em. Blanchard, made the following observations :— “New Zealand, from the point of view of its fauna, offers real analogies with certain other lands which are, however, geo- graphically very far distant; these are the Mascarene Islands.: In Mauritius, Bourbon and Rodriguez, as in New Zealand, there were formerly no terrestrial mammals, with the exception of some bats; all those which are now found there having been transported by human agencies. They had a varied population of autochthonous birds incapable of flight, among which the most remarkable were the Dodo, the Solitaire, the Giant (? /e Géant), the Blue-bird, and several species belonging to the curious type of the Ocydromide, of which our learned colleague has just been speaking. It was after a study of this ancient avi-fauna, which is absolutely extinct at the present day, that I spoke as follows in the Academy in 1867 :—‘ It is difficult to believe that islands so small, and apparently so little favourable to the pros- perity of their respective faunas, should each have been the birth- place of species which are so distinctly characterised and so different from all other existing forms. It appears to me more probable that each of the volcanic cones which constitute the nucleus of those islets now scattered over a wide extent of ocean, existed previous to the subsidence of widely-extended lands, and that each served as a final refuge for the zoological population of the circumjacent regions which in our day lie deeply sub. merged.’ Some years later, after renewed researches, I added that this fauna, while quite different from that of Madagascar, Africa, India, or of Australia, had yet such points of resemblance with the New Zealand fauna that we could not hesitate to class it among the southern faunz. It is therefore possible that it extended much further to the south, and thus the idea is sug- gested of a great land which existed in that part of the Atlantic Ocean which, at the present day, we find occupied with immense banks of marine plants known by the common name of kelp. “The absence of mammalia from any particular region does not of necessity imply that the country is one unsuitable for them to live in, but that it has been separated from the rest of the globe since before the advent of mammals. “This is what has taken place in the Mascarene Islands, in New Zealand, and many islands in Polynesia. I had the oppor- tunity of working out the idea in a long research on the fauna of the southern regions, which gained the Bordin prize in 1874 and which was analysed by our regretted colleague, M. Roulin, in a report read before the Academy. I then sought to utilize the information furnished by the study of the New Zealand fauna, to show the relations which formerly existed between this great 258 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. land and the islands, now widely separated, which surround it.* “ Chatham, Norfolk, and Lord Howe’s Islands are only the remnants of a more extended continent, and from this point of view my researches accord with those of Captain Hutton, Mr. Wallace, and those which M. Blanchard has just made known to us. There is one point, however, on which I do not agree with my learned teacher. I do not think that the Antarctic islands such as the Aucklands, Campbell, and Macquarrie have in former periods been united to New Zealand. If we find in the Auck- land Islands certain birds identical with those of the latter country, it is to be observed that they are species provided with powerful wings, such as the parroquets of the genus Cyanovamphus, which occur with almost insignificant variations of size and plumage from New Caledonia (C. sazsett:) to Macquarrie Island (C. erythrotis) ; their presence can therefore be explained by their transport across considerable extents of ocean. In the Auck- land Islands we find certain special ornithological forms which have never been described from New Zealand or elsewhere ; for example a duck and a puffin? (un Harle). None of the flight- less birds which are so characteristic of New Zealand, such as the Apteryx, Dinornis, Notornis, Ocydromus or Strigops, have ever been found either in the fossil or in the living state in the Auckland, Campbell,,- or Macquarrie Islands. “In researches on geographical zoology, very great importance must be attached to the means by which animals are enabled to find their way from one point to another, and the presence or absence of a certain species may be of far greater importance than the presence or absence of a very great number of other species. From this point of view the coefficient of importance of Ocydromus, Apteryx, or Strigops ought to be very high, while that of Parrots with long wings, or of little Passerine birds ought to remain very low. It is from considerations of this nature that I am disposed to think that the Auckland, Campbell, and Macquarrie Islands have not formed part of the New Zealand continent, to which, on the other hand, Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands on the north-west, and Chatham Island on the east, appear to have been joined.” M. E. Blanchard replied to these verbal observations as fol- fows :—“In recalling to our recollection his researches on the * He (M. A. Milne Edwards) has called attention to certain facts which appea™ to him to show that at an epoch not far distant from the present time, not only were the three portions of New Zealand in actual communication, but that regions which have since disappeared from sight united them more or less distinctly to certain islands of Polynesia; whereas no connection of this kind appears to have existed between New Zealand and Australia, America, or the ancient continents, since the period when mammalia first came into existence in these different parts of the world, (Report presented to the Acadamy, 24th November, 1874, by M. Roulin, in the name of the Commission appointed to award the Bordin prize.) t The researches made at Campbell Island by M. H. Filhol, during the Transit ot Venus Expedition, have furnished us with very complete details of the fauna of this island. PROOFS OF RECENT SUBSIDENCE. 259 extinct birds of the Mascarene Islands M. Alph. Milne Edwards treats of a subject which has no connection with that which I have brought before the Academy. I published about ten years ago a work on Madagascar, in which I compared the flora and fauna of that great island with those of other lands ; but I never conceived the idea of uniting the Mascarene Islands to Mada- gascar. It is easy to satisfy oneself on that point. “Tam astonished at the idea of a comparison between the Mascarene Islands and New Zealand. Taken as a whole, the floras and faunas of these regions are as dissimilar as it is pos- sible to imagine. There certainly exist on both birds belonging to the Ocydvomide (of very different species, however), but this is only one of those points of analogy, of which examples occur by hundreds and thousands, where certain genera are represented in parts of the world which have a totally different general cha- racter, by species more or less closely related. “ With regard to the remarks which he has made touching the distinction to be drawn between beings which are absolutely confined to the regions where they have been born and those which are furnished with active means of locomotion, I have not been behindhand in proclaiming the necessity of this distinction. The Academy can judge, even in the case before us, with what care I have endeavoured to take as characteristic forms those species which are incapable of accomplishing long voyages. With regard to the forms of life in the Auckland Islands and New Zealand, the differences are only of such a kind as are to be observed in every country which extends under latitudes where the climate changes in a very sensible degree. As regards the New Zealand parroquet, it is not very credible that bands ofa bird of this type, setting out from New Zealand should have suc- ceeded in crossing over 200 or 300 leagues of ocean in order to breed in the desolate Macquarrie Island. Besides this, certain other considerations lead to the belief that Macquarrie Island is one of the remaining vestiges of that Tevva Austvalis which has disappeared beneath the sea. There can be no doubt that all the researches which I lay claim to, and those which I hope to undertake shortly, will carry with them a triumphant confirma- tion of the facts which have already been revealed to us by manifest proofs.” GEOLOGICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL RELATIONS Sr SCAMPBELL, ISLAND WITH THE NEIGH- BOURING SOUTHERN LANDS. NOTE BY, MONS.) H.. FILHOL. SSS - (Read before l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, 27th February, 1882.) The long residence which I made in 1874 on Campbell Island, when I accompanied the expedition entrusted with the 260 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. observation of the Transit of Venus, enabled me to ascertain ina very exact manner, all the geological, botanical, and zoological features peculiar to this little southern land. The study of the collections formed at this time, and which I have now nearly brought to an end, enables me to introduce some new elements into the discussion relating to the geographical extensions which New Zealand seems to have possessed during different geolo- logical periods. In 1872, Captain Hutton, in a paper in the “ Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,” basing his observations as well on the geological structure as on the geographical distribution of the species of animals, first drew attention to a series of move- ments of elevation and depression which New Zealand had undergone. The last great continental period of this land appears to have existed, according to him, at the commencement of the pliocene, and it appears to have come to an end about the middle of that geological period. It was then, according to the learned professor of Canterbury College, that the Moas, hitherto spread abroad over the great extent of land, took refuge as it became submerged on the portions which remained above water, where they rapidly succumbed in very considerable num- bers, in consequence of the struggle for existence which arose among them. In 1873, M. A. Milne Edwards, in his work on the southern faunas, was led, on his part, to call the attention of naturalists to certain zoological facts which seemed to show that at an epoch probably not far distant from our own New Zealand was united to different islands of Polynesia. In the following year (1874), Wallace, in his work on “ The Geographical Distri- bution of Animals,” discussed Prof. Hutton’s conclusions, and was led to admit with that learned naturalist, the existence, at a geologically recent period, of a New Zealand possessing a geo- graphical extension much greater than that of the present day. At that epoch, he says, Norfolk Island on the north, the Chathams on the east, and Auckland and Macquarrie Islands on the south, were united to it. It is this great Austral land, thus acknowledged and limited by M.M. Hutton, Milne Edwards, and Wallace, of which M. Blanchard has recently taken up the study again. : Has Campbell Island ever formed part of this pliocene New Zealand continent ? This is the question which I have endeavoured to solve. In all such discussions bearing upon the probable extensions - of certain lands, one of the most important elements to ascertain is that relating to the geology of the regions studied. Campbell Island presents a structure quite peculiar. A close examination of the relations existing between the rocks which constitute it, and the micrographic study of the lavas which cover it, have led me to modify completely the opinions which I expressed im- mediately after my return, upon its geological age, which I then founded solely upon external characters, GEOLOGICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL RELATIONS. 261 Campbell Island is formed of two chief elements—viz, Ist, by a band of limestone; and, 2ndly, lavas. The limestone band is jammed between two volcanic dykes, the overflows from which have partly covered it; as a formation it is, therefore, anterior to them. This layer, the thickness of which is about 70 metres, has evidently been formed in a very deep sea. Fossils are abso- lutely wanting in it, and micrographic sections have only enabled me to note the presence of globigerina. This limestone, which is of a yellowish colour and of a very characteristic appearance, is not met with again in any part of New Zealand. Its upper surface, at those parts where it is not covered by the lava, is not overlaid by any other terrestrial deposit. Consequently the position of this calcareous layer, in relation to the eruptive pro- ducts, can only be explained in one of two different ways : either it has been carried up to the surface of the sea after having been grasped (pineée) between the volcanic dykes which enclose it ; or perhaps it corresponds to the margins of the fracture which has formed the passage for the lava. Whichever of these two suppo- sitions is admitted, it is perfectly certain that the geological age of the island, constituted as we now see it, corresponds to the epoch of the appearance of the volcanic eruptions. In order to determine the date of these eruptions, I have endeavoured to seek a point of comparison in those which have taken place in New Zealand during well-known geological periods. In the prosecution of this delicate research, M. Fouqué has very kindly given me his assistance, and in consequence the determinations made at the College de France are quite trustworthy. All the New Zealand lavas of the eocene, miocene, and commencement of the pliocene periods are absolutely different from those of Campbell Island. These last contain the mineral Anorthite, which is not met with in any other of the New Zealand eruptive products up to the geological epochs just spoken of. They are therefore much more basic. On the other hand, we know that lavas containing Anorthite have up to the present time only been found in post-pliocene formations ; for example, in Ireland, or in St. Paul and Reunion, as has recently been shown by M. Velain. It follows from this, that the limestone which the eruptions of Campbell Island have brought up, or which perhaps by its frac- ture has formed a passage for the lava, must have been formed during post-pliocene periods, that is to say, in the epoch during which New Zealand possessed its last great geographical exten- sion. It was not therefore before the very end of the pliocene that Campbell Island, as it now exists, appeared above the sur- face of the sea. Again, I would call attention to some facts which tend to show that Campbell Island has never been in connection with New Zealand. Throughout the whole extent of the three islands forming that country lizards exist, but none of their species are to be met with in Campbell Island. Similarly in none of the recent deposits of this island are the remains of moas 262 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, to be found, whereas these occupied New Zealand during the whole of its last great geographical extension. The quantity of turf which was removed in Campbell Island in consequence of our excavations (for suitable positions for the instruments used in observing the transit) was enormous, and yet no remains were ever discovered except those of seals. In addition to this, all the other New Zealand birds which either are destitute of wings or have them in an atrophied condition, such as the Apteryx, Strigops, Notornis, and Ocydromus, are absolutely wanting in Campbell Island. In the last place, I would point out that it does not possess a single terrestrial land bird. Campbell Island appears, therefore, as much from a geological as from a zoologi- cal point of view, to be a land of recent and independent origin. HUIA EGGS. SRT ROREN NOTE BY MR. T, W. KIRK, ASSISTANT IN THE COLONIAL MUSEUM, WELLINGTON. Very little is at present known of the nesting habits of the Huia (Heterolocha acutirostris), and indeed, until a few years ago its egg was quite unknown. The information now possessed is extremely meagre, and the details somewhat conflicting. It may therefore be interesting to many persons occupied with zoological studies to peruse the descriptions of several eggs sup- posed to have been produced by this interesting bird ; there are now three specimens, differing so much in form and colouring as to cause grave doubts of their identity. 1. The first example was brought to the Museum on 2oth October, 1875, by a Maori, who stated that having seen a pair of adult Huia passing in and out of a hollow tree, he had examined the hole and found the egg in question, which con- tained a young bird. Both egg and chick were submitted to Dr. Buller, who described them as follows :—“ The egg contained a young bird, apparently ready for extrusion, and both embryo and shell are now in the collection of the Colonial Museum. The egg is ovoido-conical, measuring 1°45 by 1°05 inches, and is of a pale stone-grey, irregularly .stained, freckled and speckled with purplish-grey, the markings in some places running into dark wavy lines. The chick is apparently a male; the bill being very stout, with caruncles at the angles of the mouth well deve- loped, and of a flesh-white colour. The whole of the body is bare, with the exception of what appear to be strips of coarse hair-like filaments, from one-half to three-quarters of an inch in length, and perfectly black, but which are in reality tufts of ex- tremely fine downy feathers, A strip of these filaments encircles the crown, a line passes down the course of the spine, and there is another along the outer edge of each wing and behind each thigh.’—(Trans. N.Z. Inst., VIIL, p. 192.) THE STALK-EYED CRUSTACEA OF NEW ZEALAND 263 2. On the 11th October, 1877, Dr Buller purchased from the same Maori another egg, stated by him to have been taken from the ovary of the bird. The following is Dr Buller’s descrip- tion :—‘‘ The present specimen is more elliptical in form, measur- ing 1°8 inches in length by 1'1 in its widest diameter. It is of a very delicate stone-grey, inclining to greyish-white, without any markings except at the larger end, where there are, chiefly on one side, some scattered rounded spots and dots of dark purple- grey and brown. Towards the small end there are some obso- lete specks, but over the greater portion of the surface the shell is quite plain.” 3. An ege having a beautifully fine and delicate structure, has just been presented to the Museum by Mr G. M. Hewson, who obtained it at Murimutu from the Maoris, who assured him it was the egg of the Huia. It measures 1°45 inches in length by 11 in its widest diameter, and is pure white without any trace of markings whatever. The points of difference presented by these three eggs are sufficient to cause considerable doubt as to their having been produced by the same species of bird ; and, indeed, the close re- semblance which No. 1 bears to the egg of the Kokako, and the striking similarity of the supposed Huta chick to the chicks of the Kokako, leave but little doubt that this is indeed the egg of - the last-mentioned bird and not of the Huia, and that the Maori, Mikaera, was, for the sake of gain, in this instance at least, “ treating the truth with very distant respect.” BH SlALK-EYED CRUSTACEA! OF NEW ZEALAND. BY . PROE.. Fo, We. LUTION, 2 eet ieee tani Mr. E. J. Mier’s catalogue of the Stalk- and Sessile-eyed Crustacea of New Zealand is a most admirable compilation, containing all that was known about the New Zealand Malacos- _ traca when it was published (1876) ; but it contains many species which do not really inhabit New Zealand. This, of course, was not the fault of Mr Miers; he was bound to include everything that had been reported to come from New Zealand. The fault rests on the collectors, who have mixed up localities, and so led others into error. The purification of our lists can only be done in New Zealand, and must be the work of time, because it is gene- rally necessary to hesitate long before deciding to dismiss a name which has been once introduced. A beginning, however, should be made, and as I have collected, to some extent, these animals in many parts of New Zealand, it may perhaps be per- missible for me to point out what names among the stalk-eyed crustacea should, in my opinion, be struck out of our list, or be regarded as doubtful. 264 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. The following four species may be at once dismissed, as the collector states Raffles Bay to be the locality, which is in Nor- thern Australia and not in New Zealand, viz. Lambrus nodosus, Pinnotheres laticeps, Remipes maymoratus, and Pagurus imbricatus. Also Atya pilipes is said to come from Apia, Upola, which is not in New Zealand but in the Samoan Islands. Then I think. we may safely strike out the following eleven species, introduced on the authority of the collectors of the Novara Expedition, all of which are large and conspicuous, typical forms certainly not from New Zealand—one being the land crab of the Fiji Islands. I have the less hesitation in striking out these names, because the list of New Zealand mollusca collected by the same expedition is full of mistakes. These are the species I refer to—Daira perlata, Neptunus sanguinolentus, Scylla serrata, Thalanuita dane, Heterograpsus sanguineus, Heterograpsus maculatus, Varuna litterata, Cardisoma hirtipes, Calappa hepatica, Amculus typicus, and Palemon ornatus. The following three species may also I think be omitted, Neptunus pelagicus, Grapsus pictus, and Palinurus lalandiu. I now give a list of seventeen species which I consider very doubtful, but which Iam not yet prepared to dismiss—Huema bifurcata, Hiastenus diacanthus, Pavamithvax sternocostulatus, Muicippa spinosa, Actea granulata, Leptodius nudipes, Pilumnus vespertilio, Pilum- * nopaeus servatifrons, Ozius truncatus, Neptunus sayi, Thalamita sima, Heloe- cius covdiformis, Chasmagnathus subquadratus, Chasmagnathus levis, Leto- lophus plamssimus, Leander natator, and Squilla nepa. The following possibly belong to New Zealand, but are not yet, so far as I know, represented in any collection in the colony —Leptomithvax australis, Leptodius eudorus, Eudora tetraodon, Rupellioides convexus, Nectocarcinus integrifyms, Planes minutus, Helice lucasi, Elam- ena whiter, Elamena quoyt, Phlyxia levis, Cryptodromia lateralis, Eupa- gurus cristatus, Clibanarius cruentatus, Clibanarius barbatus, Rhynchocinetes typus, Caridinia curvivostris, Virbius bifidivostris, Alpheus socialis, Alpheus nove zealandie, and Gonodactylus trispinosus. If these were taken off the list only 39 of Mr. Miers’ 95 species would remain as undoubtedly from New Zealand. To these must be added several species which have been since de- scribed in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, and the two following in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Zo- ologie, series 6, Vol. iv. (1876), viz. Tvichopatus huttont (probably the same as Halimus hectori) and Acanthophrys filholt, both of which are represented in the Otago Museum. Stenorhynchus fissifvons is also described from Auckland, New Zealand, by Mr. Haswell in the Proceedings Linn. Soc. of N.S. Wales, iii., p. 409 (18769) ; and Mr. Wood-Mason, in the Ann. Mag. of Nat. Hist., series 4, Vol. xvii, p. 263, gives New Zealand as a locality for Covoms spinosa, 5 Remains of crabs are found fossil at Wanganui, Oamaru, and perhaps other places. Harpactocarcinus tumidus (H. Woodward, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1876) is an eocene form from Double Corner, on the West Coast of the South Island. THE LATE PROFESSOR BALFOUR. 265 fie LATE PROFESSOR Fi-M. BALFOUR. wr aoe, tt 4 BY. PROF. T. JEFFERY: PARKER: ——_ <> If I had been asked two months ago to name the man whose death would be the greatest loss to biological science, J should unhesitatingly have said, Francis Balfour. Not because his was the greatest name—there are living biologists whose fame his would certainly not have surpassed, hardly, perhaps, have equalled; but because, while their work was largely, if not mainly, already done, his, we all hoped, was mainly to come, and with such results as he had achieved from twenty-two to thirty what might we not have looked for from thirty to sixty? The man who could write the “Treatise on Comparative Embryology ” in his sixth lustre, could scarcely have failed but for that terrible accident on Mont Blanc, to have made a reputation of the high- est order. As it is he has won a place by the side of Rathke, Johannes Miiller, and von Baer. What struck me most forcibly on meeting Balfour, next to the charm of his face and manner, was the singular absence of all those faults which may be summed up in the one word “voung-mannishness.” Even many years ago he had that maturity of judgment, that respect for the opinions of others without any yielding of his own convictions, which most men only acquire in middle life, if then. The wonderful completeness of his nature is in nothing better shown than in the circumstance that while en- gaged in absorbing original investigations of his own, he not only performed all the duties of a college lecturer, but guided the re- searches of his advanced pupils so systematically and so thoroughly that he would never allow a single figure to pass of which he would not give a complete account. It was this power of entering into the work of others without injury to his own which fitted him so eminently for his position at Cambridge, and which has made the first Professor of Animal Morphology co- equal with the first Trinity Przelector in Physiology* in the glory of founding a true school of biology in an English University. A glance through the bibliography of the last few years will show how varied and how important his original work has been, many of his researches marking distinct epochs in the history of embryology. His power of estimating the true value of his own and others’ work, and of forming a clear and impartial opinion on disputed questions, is shown again and again in his great work on Comparative Embryology—the first attempt at a com- plete treatise on the subject, and one of the very few thoroughly satisfactory biological text books in the English language, a book in which exhaustive knowledge of all aspects of the science * Dr. Michael Foster, 266 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. and great generalizing powers are supplemented by clear treat- ment, orderly arrangement, and judicial fairness in the discussion ofall matters of theory ; in which, further, the author has evi- dently given to the illustrations the same care he has bestowed upon the text—a rare virtue in the writer of a text-book. Those who wish to form some slight estimate of the loss his death has been to his friends and to Cambridge, should read Dr. Foster’s article in “ Nature,” or the “ British Medical Journal,” or Mr. J. W. Clark’s in the “ Academy.” I, who knew him, alas, but slightly, feel rather as if I had lost a dear friend. I never had an acquaintance whom I so desired to know intimately ; never a contemporary for whom I felt such veneration. He was almost the only man of whom I never heard a disparaging re- mark. Everyone seemed to feel that there was something in Balfour which raised him far above the men with whom he would naturally be compared. He was a man for whom another “In Memoriam” might well be written. CORRESPONDENCE. MR. BUCHANAN’S CRITICISMS. SIR,—I must request you to allow me space for a reply to the remarkable assertions of Mr. Buchanan, at p. 182 of your last issue. Agrostis muscotdes. I described this species in Vol. XIII., Trans. N.Z. Inst., p. 385, and pointed out that Mr. Buchanan had confused it with A. subulata, Hook f., a very different plant. Mr. Buchanan does not explicitly deny having fallen into this error, but states, “ it is evident that Mr. Kirk has missed the intention of Hooker to abandon this antarctic grass as a species, having proved it to be only a variety of A. mueller.’ He further adds, “the specific name subulata being thus open to use was adopted in the ‘ Hand- book of N.Z. Flora’ as Agvostis canina var. subulata.” The last sentence is substantially correct ; but most unfortunately for Mr. Buchanan’s view of the case it does not apply to A. muelleri, as his statement would lead one to believe, but to the original A. subulata. There is not the slightest evidence of any intention on the part of Sir Joseph Hooker to regard A. subulata as a variety of A. muelleri. On the contrary, the two plants are kept distinct as varieties, which may possess claim to specific rank. In fact the true A. subulata differs from A. muelleyi to a much greater ex- tent than that species differs from A. canina, It is evident that Mr. Buchanan has never seen the true A. subulata, and is not aware that it is found in the South Island. It is singular that Mr. Buchanan makes no mention of this supposed intention of Sir Joseph Hooker to regard A. subulata as CORRESPONDENCE. 267 a variety of A. muellert, either in the “ Indigenous Grasses of New Zealand ” or in the “ Manual.” Tvodia exigua. Mr Buchanan contends that this is the Danthonia paucifiora of R. Br., and consequently not a Tviodia. He asserts that “all species of Triodia have the generic 3 teeth equal in size,” and that cilated lodicules afford “the best generic character in Danthonia, and never absent.” I will only remark that both these statements are incorrect. In several species of Tviodia the teeth of the flowering glume, which I presume are those referred to by Mr. Buchanan as the “generic 3 teeth,” are very unequal, and several species of Danthonia have non-ciliated lodicules, amongst the latter D pauciflora, which it is evident Mr. Buchanan has never seen. Happily he can satisfy himself that he is mistaken in this matter with but little trouble. An excellent drawing of the true plant is given by Hooker in “ Flora Tasmannie,” t. 162. This represents a plant with keeled leaves, and a branched, nodding panicle.* The dissections show the lodicules, much larger than in our plant, of a totally different shape, and not ciliated. I may add that both flowering glume and pale differ widely from those of Triodia exigua. An examination of fresh specimens will, I doubt not, satisfy Mr. Buchanan that the supposed awn is a minute middle tooth, so that the plant must be referred to Tviodia, an opinion that was held by the late General Munro, as I am informed by the late Sir Joseph Hooker. Hierochloe alpina var. sub-mutica. Mr. Buchanan admits having figured this species in mistake for Danthonia Buchanani; but it is a matter for regret that the admission is not made in a more graceful manner. Olea Cunninghamu—Santalum Cunnnghamiz. Mr. Buchanan does not deny my statement as to his having mistaken Olea Cunninghamii for Santalum, but terms it “ doubtful.” In the Canterbury and Otago Museums he will find specimens of the Olive, mis-named Santalum, in both cases obtained from the Colonial Museum. He asserts, however, that “at the time referred to—12 years ago—Mr. Kirk knew as little about our native olives as Buchanan did, neither flowers nor fruit of any of the species having then been seen.” Had this statement been true as regards myself, Mr. Buchanan could not possibly have known it ; it is simply a gross misstatement. Not to mention that fruit and flowers of these species of olive are described in “Flora Novz-Zealandiz,” published thirty years ago, specimens of the flowers and fruit of two species were collected by me in 1863, the year of my arrival in the Colony. Even as far back as 1867, * By a clerical error ‘‘ many” was written for ‘‘few”’ in my reference to this plant, p. 379 ‘‘ Frans. N.Z. Inst.. XIV.” To this extent, but no further, Mr, Buchanan may fairly object to my description. 268 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. fifteen years ago, flowering specimens of two species collected by me on the Great Barrier Island were forwarded to the Colonial Museum, with flowering specimens of Santalum—see “ Trans. N.Z. Inst., I, pp. 148 and 151.” Some time afterwards I came to reside in Wellington (1874). Having occasion to refer to the olives in the herbarium of the Colonial Museum, I found all the species, whether in flower or fruit, mixed with each other, as well as with Santalum, and, at Mr. Buchanan’s request, arranged them cor- rectly. I mention these small personal matters with extreme reluctance, and simply because Mr. Buchanan’s reckless asser- tion leaves me no alternative. Stilbocarpa polaris. Mr. Buchanan takes exception to my statement that of three species of this plant from the Auckland Islands cultivated in the Colonial Botanic Garden, side by side with one from Stewart Island, two of the former had made a close approach to the latter, having lost the stout brown bristles on the leaves, which had become smooth instead of plaited. The fact is past dispute none the less, and is very suggestive. It will certainly not add to Mr. Buchanan’s reputation for critical ability that he considers Mr. J. B. Armstrong “only did what any observant botanist would have done” in describing the Stewart Island plant as a distinct species on characters drawn from the leaf alone, for that gentleman “had not been able to obtain either flowers or fruit.” He states that his plant has “a closed, not open, sinus,” wants the stout bristles of the Auckland Island plant, and has a terete-petiole, while the latter has a “flattened and deeply channelled petiole.” An examination of hundreds of specimens of the Stewart Island plant shows that the sinus is invariably open, except in immature leaves. The petioles are irregularly terete, while those of the Auckland Island plant, although compressed (semi-terete, “Hand Book N.Z. Flora, p. 100”), are certainly not flattened, neither are they “deeply channelled,” a faint groove only being discernible on the upper surface, rarely extending the whole length of the petiole, and sometimes obliterated entirely ; it can- not be detected in the dried specimens ; further the petioles of the young leaves are terete as in the Stewart Island plant. I have already shown that in some cases at least the stout bristles disappear under cultivation. So far as the leaves are concerned the differences are simply what might be expected from different climatal conditions. I can only express my regret that any. botanist should dream of making a new species on characters derived from organs liable to such excessive variation as the leaves of araliads, especially those of the herbaceous section. At the same time it is possible that the fruit of the Stewart Island plant may afford characters of sufficient importance to warrant its separation. During my stay on Stewart Island I examined numerous specimens of fruit in an immature condition, but unfortunately had to leave the island before mature fruit CORRESPONDENCE. 269 could be obtained. I purpose at an early date to lay before your readers the results of my observations, although confessedly imperfect. | | Stipa setacea. I referred Mr Buchanan’s S. fetriet to this species, and see not the slightest reason to alter my opinion. Mr. Petrie has kindly sent me specimens of both forms, one with a villous (not © setaceous) flowering glume which Mr. Buchanan admits to be S. setacea ;; the other differing only in the flowering glume being pubescent, and having two minute teeth at the apex. Mr. Buchanan will find that the flowering glume of S. setacea exhibits a great amount of variation in the degree of hairiness. Mr. Buchanan has misquoted what I have written upon this. He represents me as saying :—“ S. petviec of Buchanan’s Indigen- ous Grasses of New Zealand must be referred to this species, as not improbably it is merely naturalised in Otago, and has no claim to be considered indigenous.” If your readers will refer to “Trans. N.Z. Inst.,” vol. XIv., p. 386, they will see I have made _no such absurd statement, but referred S. fetvier to S. setacea, alto- gether independently of its indigenous or exotic origin, not because of it. In fact, the latter point is treated in a separate paragraph, so that it is difficult to offer any reasonable excuse for Mr Buchanan’s confusion of ideas. With regard to its nativity, I may state that Mr. Petrie recently informed me he considered it to be an introduced plant. I fail altogether to see the slightest force in Mr. Buchanan’s remark with regard to S. micrantha, as the conditions under which the two plants are found are not parallel. Poa foliosa, var. a.—Festuca scoparia. Here again Mr. Buchanan has been guilty of misquotation. Professing to quote from my short note in p. 348, Trans. xIv., he writes :—“ P. foliosa, the typical form recorded by Buchanan in his ‘ Hand-book of the N.Z. Grasses, from the Snares and Chatham Islands, in the latter incorrectly, . scoparia which is omitted from his list of Chatham Island plants, having been mistaken for it.” Your readers will scarcely believe without referring to the original, that the words in italics are inserted by Mr. Buchanan himself. He proceeds to call thisa “ mysterious statement,” and asks how then could it (Poa foliosa) have been mistaken for fF’. scoparia? ‘The mystery is entirely of his own making, for my assertion was exactly the reverse. The Festuca was mistaken for the Poa, which has not been found in the Chatham Islands. Mr. Buchanan himself showed me in the collection of Chatham Island plants in the Colonial Museum what he called Poa foliosa, but which was Festuca scoparia. The former is mentioned in his list of Chatham Island plants, while the latter is omitted, and although I have examined collections of Chatham Island plants made by Captain Gilbert Mair, Archdeacon W. H. Williams, Mr. H. T. Travers, and others, I have seen no specimens of the Poa, while the Festuca is found in nearly all. There is not the 270 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. slightest evidence to show that the Poa is found on the Chatham Islands. | Mr. Buchanan states that the Festuca is found on rocky parts of the coast of both islands, but I cannot find that it has at any time been found in the North Island. Would Mr. Buchanan kindly mention any North Island locality in which it has been collected? Small specimens of F. littoralis have been mistaken for it, but that is only found on loose sands, never on rocks. The specimens in Dr. Sinclair’s herbarium appear to have been col- lected, not at Auckland, but on the Auckland Islands by Gene- ral Bolton. Both the Poa and Festuca were reported by Mr. Buchanan as having been collected by him in the northern part of the Auck- land district, see Trans. II., p. 246, IIL, p. 173. I would suggest to Mr. Buchanan the propriety of adopting a more courteous tone in any further communication he may make. He offers as an excuse for one of his errors what he is pleased to term “a lapse of the reasoning faculties.” The fact of his being constrained to make an excuse of this kind should at least prevent him from imputing to me, even indirectly, a desire to bring discredit on the Colonial Museum, when correcting his errors, an imputation which comes from him with a peculiarly bad grace.—I am, &c., T. “KIRK. Wellington, September 15, 1882. Canterbury Museum, September 29th, 1882. SIR,—I fear Professor Hutton, in answer to his letter of July 20th in No. 5 of your jonrnal, has altogether missed the point at issue when coming to the assistance of Mr. Maskell. The sub- ject was not whether the paintings were executed on a coating of “stalagmite” or on the surface of the original rock itself, but whether that portion of the surface which had scaled and is still scaling off consisted of flakes of the rock itself, brought about by weathering as stated by me, or of a thin coating of stalagmite (according to Professor Hutton at most 1-50th of one inch in thickness) as stated by Mr. Maskell. Professor Hutton having shown his specimens of “stalagmite” | at a meeting of the Philosophical Institute on August 3rd, which, unfortunately, I was prevented from attending, I shall lay the proofs of the correctness of my statements before the next meeting by exhibiting a number of flakes brought from the locality in question ; at the same time I shall show that Profes- sor Hutton’s so-called stalagmite is only the chemically weathered surface of the rocks. There are two changes which calcareous rocks undergo, when subjected to the influence of 7 ae ‘ MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 271 weathering—one of a chemical, the other of a mechanical nature. The chemical change occurs near the surface by oxidation, and by the formation of hydrates. The mechanical effect of weather- ing—exhibited principally in the more exposed lower portion of the rock-shelter—consists in the formation of flakes from % to 14 inch in thickness, and from 2 to 12 inches in diameter, follow- ing the contours of the rock-shelter, and altogether independent of stratification. I may also be allowed to observe that Professor Hutton has misapplied the term stalagmite, because, according to the usual geological nomenclature, stalagmite is only used for that calcare- ous deposit which is found on the bottom of a cave or a similar sheltered locality from the evaporation of water, holding car- bonate of lime in solution, as stated by Professor Hutton himself on page 25 of his “Class-book of Elementary Geology ” :— “Thus water dripping from the top of limestone caves forms long icicle-like pendants called stalactites, and where the same water drops on the floor of the cave, it forms a crust called stalag- mite.” According to English custom* the expression stalactite is used in a general sense for all deposits of that nature, therefore also for a calcareous crust on the walls, for which the continental geologists use the expression, calcareous matter. However, as before observed, Professor Hutton’s so-called stalagmite is, when present, only the outermost portion of the chemically weathered darker surface of the limestone itself. In many instances, that very thin whitish outer layer does not exist, and the paintings are executed on the darker portions forming the very surface. JULIUS VON HAAST. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. —<——. BAWKE’S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. » Napier, 14th Aug.—The President, the Bishop of Waiapu, in the chair. New members—Messrs Balfour and Drennan. Papers—(1.) ‘‘ Historical Traditions of the Taupo and East Coast tribes,’ Mr. Locke. This had general reference to the Taupo Maoris, and to the people of Tuwharetoa in particular ; their ancient feuds and fightings, their genealogical descent, and consequent claims on the Taupo district. At the close, enquiries and remarks were made bearing upon it by Messrs Weber, Holder, Hamilton, and Dr. Spencer, also by the Hon. Secretary, which were replied to by Mr. Locke. Mr. Colenso read a few pertinent extracts from Mr. Montague Lubbock’s article on ‘“‘the Colour Sense” (in the April number of - the Fortnightly Review), as ably and clearly sustaining and prov- ing the practical and entire colour sense of all people, civilised and savage, and that from the most ancient times—as was brought * See Lyell's “‘ Students’ Elements of Geology ” (1871), Pr 133. 272 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, forward fully by him, Mr. Colenso, in his paper on this subject read before the society last. year, and published in the last vol. (xiv.) of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, The Hon. Secretary showed several exhibits he had received from country members, among them a specimen of a species of rail (Rallus philippensis), received from Mr. W. K. Chambers, of Poverty Bay—a kind once plentiful in New Zealand, but now approaching extinction ; a fine coal-black mouse, from a lady in the 7o-mile Bush, believed to be a variety of the common mouse, which is known to be sportive in its colouring at home; and a specimen of petrified wood from Porangahau, found 7» situ underlying a lime- stone formation. gth Oct.—Dr Spencer, Vice-President, in the chair. New members—Messrs E. B. Bendall, H. J. Gilberd, and W. cott, Papers—(1.) ‘‘ Legends and Traditions of the ancient Maoris of the East Coast and of Hawke’s Bay,” Part , by Mr Locke, (2.) ‘‘ Fresh-water Alge,” by Dr. Spencer. Some of the species described were obtained from the hot springs, flourishing in waters of 130°-136 F. (3.) ‘“* New species of plants,” by Mr Colenso, F.L.S. These included species of Carmichelia, Olearia, and Symphogyna, collected at Blenheim, by Mr F. Reader. Numerous exhibits were made by several of the members, ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW. SOUTH WALES. Sydney, 2nd August.—Mr. C. Rolleston, C.M.G., president, in the chair. New members—Rev. John Milne Curran, Mr. Haynes Lovell M.R.C.S., Mr. Mark J. Hammond, Mr. George Thos. Hankins M.R.C.S., Mr. Edward Palmer. ; The chairman read a letter from Professor James D. Dana, of Yale College, New Haven, Conn., U.S.A., acknowledging the award of the Clarke Memorial medal. The President announced that Professor Liversidge had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Mr. J. S. Chard read a paper on “ A new method of determin- ing the true North or South.” The chief feature is the employ- ment of a specially-designed plane glass diaphragm in the telescope of a theodolite, on which are drawn circles and lines intersecting the centre thereof. When these circles are made to appear on two stars situated near the south pole, as explained by Mr Chard, the centre points to the south pole. The direction of the true south and the latitude is, therefore, found almost mechanically, and saving much time when compared with the methods previously used, which required some hours calculation. The true north or south is obtained by the various surveyors em- ployed in this colony in all over 1000 times per annum, and the saving ot some hours each time should prove of great advantage. Some discussion followed, and a vote of thanks to Mr Chard was unanimously passed on the motion of Mr W. J. Conder, seconded by Mr H. C. Russell, both of whom spoke in highly eulogistic MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 273 terms of the value of the method recommended by Mr Chard. Sydney, 6th. Sept.—Mr Rolleston, C.M.G., President, in the chair. New members—Messrs. Alex. L. Cameron, Geo. N. Conlan, Geo. |. Renwick, B.A., M.B:, Rev. J.T: RobertsonjeM.A.; Geo. E. Twynam. The following resolution was unanimously adopted :—“ The members of the Royal Society of New South Wales, having heard with deep regret of the death of Charles Robert Darwin, one of their most distinguished honorary members, desire to express their sense of the loss which the whole scientific world has sustained, and -they desire that their heart-felt expression of condolence should be expressed through their president to the widow of the late distinguished naturalist,” The President then delivered an extremely interesting address entitled ‘‘ Notes on the vrogress of New South Wales during the years 1872 to 1881.’ (The full report of this valuable paper will be found in the columns of the Sydney Morning Herald of gth September.) —-= LINNEAN. SOCIETY—-OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Sydney, 30th. Aug.—Dr. James C. Cox. F.L.S., etc., President, in the chair. Papers—(1.) ‘‘ Botanical Notes on Queensland, No. 4,” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.G.S., &c. This paper contained the author’s observations on some of the Queensland species of Myrtacee, chiefly of the Eucalypti. (2) “On a Coal Plant trom Queensland,” by the Rev. {&. Tenison-Woods, F.L.S., etc. This is anaccount of a fossil species of Eguisetum found in the Ipswich coal beds, and provisionally named E. votiferwm, from the wheel-like shape of the diaphragm. No Egquisetum has previously been found in the Australian coal beds. (3.) ‘“‘ Observations on an insect injurious to the Vine,” by William Macleay, F.L.S., etc. In this paper Mr. Macleay gives some details of the habits, ‘etc., of a beetle (Orthorhinus Klugit), the larva of which had committed great injuries amongst the vines in Mr. Holroyd’s orchard, near Parramatta. Some hints are also given as to the best means of limiting their devastations. Speci- mens were shewn; also specimens ofa beetle, a true borer of family Scolytide, which has completely destroyed during the past season all the figtrees in a large orchard in the county of Cumber- land. Mr. Macleay pointed out that while the first of these cases was an instance of injury caused by an indigenous insect to an in- troduced plant, the other was, he feared, an instance of the intro- duction to the country of a foreign species belonging to the most destructive family of Xylophagous beetles. He thought that at the next meeting of the Society, he would be enabled to give some more definite information on the subject. Mr. K. H. Bennett exhibited a nest of three eggs of the ground graucalus (Pleropodocys phasianella). The nest is remarkable for its size and compactness; usually the birds build but a scanty 274 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. shallow structure of grass and cobwebs; the specimen exhibited, on the other hand, was a large structure about 1v inches in dia- meter, very deep, and composed ofa large quantity of wool, cob- webs, and gras,s closely and neatly interwoven. The eggs were three in number, of a rich asparagus-green, with indistinct dull brownish freckles and spots. Professor Stephens read the following note from Dr. Woolls relating to a grass (Panicum spcetabile) on which there had been some discussion at the preceding meeting of the Society .—‘ It is not generally known that the grass cultivated under that name is not a Panicum at all, but Andropogon Halepensis (Sibthorp), or Sorghum Halepense (Pers.). The grass was figured and described as P. spectabile some time back in the ‘‘ Sydney Illustrated News.” But its long roots, a yard in length, and as thick as a little finger, together with the white midrib mark it as Andvopogon Halepensis. Mr Bentham seems to doubt whether it is really indigenous. I have found it in an orchard at Parramatta, but believe it to have been introduced trom the north. Baron Mueller speaks highly of it as a forage plant, but recommends that it should be kept out of arable land.” Sydney, 27th Sept.—Dr. James C. Cox, F.L:S., ‘President, in the chair. It was announced that the List “of Donations received during the month, as well as the Donations themselves, had been lost in the fire at the Garden Palace. Papers—(1.) “On aresinous Plant from the Interior,” by K. H. Bennett. Specimens of the gum or resin of this plant, which Mr. Bennett described as Myoporum platycarpum, R. Br., were exhi- bited. (2.) ‘©On three new Fishes from Queensland,” by Charles W. De Vis, B.A. This paper was a description of a new genus of the Family Berycide, and a species of Homalogrystes and Scolopsis. The manuscript had been lost at the fire, but Mr. Macleay announced that he hoped to procure another copy of it in time for publication. (3.) ‘Contribution to a knowledge of the Fishes of New Guinea” No. 2, by William Macleay, F.L.S., &c. This is a con- tinuation of a list of fishes found at Port Moresby by Mr. Andrew Goldie. The first part was published in the June Proceedings. The present paper contains a record of seventy-six species, bring- ing the number in all up to 196. The new species described are Holocentvum Goldiet, Cavanx mandibularis, Cavanx ohtusiceps, Cavanx Moresbyensis, Salavias atratus, Pomacentrus analis, Glyphidodon bicolor, and Glyphidodon filamentosus. (4.) ‘Description of two Fishes lately taken in or near Port Jackson,” by William Macleay, F.L.S., &c. One of these fishes is a very ftne species ot Chilodactylus, which Mr. Macleay has named after Mr. Thomas Mulhall, Inspector of Fisheries, from whom he received it; the other is a new species of Ammotretis to which the name zonatus was given on account of a peculiarity in its marking. (5.) “On the Physical Structure and Geology of Australia,” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.L.S., &c. This paper dealt at length with all the physical features of the Continent, viz.:—its mountain systems; its inland plains, and the portions intervening MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 275 between the tableland and the sea; and its river systems. Secondly the author enumerated the formations which had been recognised in Australia, from the fundamental granite up to the recent alluvial, showing that none of the large groups of rocks which are known in other parts of the world are absent from this Continent. Re- ferences were made to the character of the fossils found, and the soils resulting from the rocks. (6.) ‘On a large cretaceous Mytilus, from the Barcoo,” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.S., &c This paper was descrip- tive of a very large tossil Mytilus (M.imgens, sp. nov.) which was found in some Mesozoic strata in Queensland, of probably Oolitic age. The paper also contained a brief reference to the collections of Mesozoic fossils made in Australia. (7.) ‘‘Notes on the inflorescence and habits of plants indige- nous in the immediate neighbourhood of Sydney,” by E. Haviland. The author gives an account of his observations on the mode of fertilisation of two species of Rutaceous Plants common in the neighbourhood of Sydney—Philotheca austvalis and Boronia pinnata. In the former species the arrangement of the parts of the flower is such as apparently to specially favour self-fertilisation, but a closer observation shews that this is rendered physiologically impossible by the maturing and discharge of the pollen of each flower before the stigma comes to maturity. A similar phenomenon was ob- served in Boronia pinnata, and the author suggests that the close opposition of the anthers to the stigma inthese species until the pollen is almost ripe, may be designed in order to prevent, to some extent, the access of light and heat, and thus retard the maturing of the stigma until the pollen of its own flower has become dis- charged. *“« Note on some Seaweeds from Port Jackson and adjacent coast,’ by E. P. Ramsay, F._L.S.—In a recent letter from our esteemed correspondent, Baron Ferd. von Mueller, that distinguished botanist has kindly given me the names of the following Alga, which I had sent him for determination, requesting me to bring under the notice of the Society, the fact that no fruiting sqecimens of Claudia bennettiana have yet been recorded. This beautiful and delicate Alga was dredged near Spectacle Island; where particular search should be made for this rare and interesting plant. And indeed the marine flora of Port Jackson and the adjacent coast is worthy of special attention and research, several new species and anew genus having been recently discovered on our shores. The following species from Bondi have been determined by Professor Agardh, of Lund, the greatest authority on Alge : Pterocladia lucida, J. Agardh, sp. nov.; Splachnidium rugosum, Greville; Lederstedtia australis, J. Agardh (nov. gen. et sp.) ; Gelidiwm' cornicum, Greville ; Plocamium augustum, J. Agardh, sp.nov. Specimens of a Laurencia and of a small Martensia, probably new, were obtained in deep water. I may also mention that a new species of Sargassum was dredged near North Head. Mr, W. A. Haswell read a note on some points in the anatomy of the Pigeons referred to by Dr. Hans Gadow ina recent paper on the anatomy of Pterocles. In this note M. Haswell redefined the Columbide myologically as birds with an expanded tensor accessorius, with the posterior belly of the latissimus dorsi some- 276 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. times absent, with the adductores brevis et longus, semi-membra- nosus, semitendinosus and accessary semitendinosus all present, with the ambiens sometimes absent, and when present having a characteristic arrangement, and with musculi lumbricales in the foot. Professor Stephens exhibited a collection of rocks and fossils illustrating the structure of the Western Coal-fields, as explained by Mr. Wilkinson in his map of Wallerawang (1877). The oldest stratified rocks, quartzites, coglomerates, and sandstones are Devonian, as shewn by characteristic fossils from Mt. Lambie and Mt. Flaherty. These are broken and tilted, often vertically, by more recent porphyries and granites, upon which, as also on the upturned edges of the Devonian strata, there rests an irregular conglomerate of earthy matter, sand and pebbles, of a dark greenish brown, which bleaches to a pale buff for about twenty feet from the surface. The pebbles are derived, as is shown by the fossils which they contain, from the older Devonian rocks, which formed not only the bottom, but also shores and islands in the carboniferous sea of this district. Many bands of shale con- taining remains of plants, as well as of sandstones containing cha- racteristic marine carboniferous fossils are intercalated in various places with this conglomerate. Above it are aluminous shales which in many places, as near Ben Bullen, have fretted away under atmospheric action. and lett the overlying rocks with very insuff- cient support. These are close-grained massive sandstones cleay- ing naturally into more or less rectangular blocks, which, owing to the decay of their foundation, are now poised on pedestals or over- hanging caverns in a very fantastic manner. In these shales are abundance of plant remains belonging to the Newcastle beds. Above the sandstone, coal seams appear at Wallerawang and to the northward, while the series is closed by the castellated wails of Hawkesbury sandstone which crest and protect the whole. Indeed, at Blackman’s Crown they are seen to rise almost ver- tically abovetheir deep Devonian foundations, displaying in a Jand- scape of extraordinary singularity and beauty, a diagram of per- haps equal interest to the geologist. The limestone two miles N.W. of Piper’s Flat varies from a black knotty rock to crystalline or even saccharoid marble. Its surface, as exposed in the quarries, has been protected from the action of running water, as is usual in limestone river beds, by deposits of gravel (partly also in all probability by various vegetable growths). Under- neath, however, the acid waters flowing freely along the joints of the rock have eroded them out into holes and passages. These have subsequently, under a diminished flow, been filled up with a pure white marl full of leaf impressions, but too brittle to allow of any specimen being obtained from the portions | now exposed. In this mar] are distributed nodules of travertine, encrusting forms which appear to be partially decomposed portions of favosites, but may turn out to be ‘only of mineral origin. A dyke of grey porphyry, with felspar crystals much decomposed runs through this limestone, and is probably the cause of its bleaching and crystallization. _ Crinoid stems, Brachiopods, and Petraia (Petraria) are seen in a fragment which has been half burnt and subsequently weathered. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 279 PeLLOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OFP-CANTERBURY. Christchurch, 7th September, 1882.—Dr. J. von Haast, F.R.S. president, in the chair. Papers—1. Descriptions of New Zealand Micro-Lepidoptera, el, by Mr. EH. Meyrick, B.A. Monograph of the Zortricina ; species mostly very variable. 57 descriptions of Walker, Felder, and Butler, referable to only 16 species. The following species were described :— Dichelia luciplagana (Walk.)—Blenheim to Dunedin. Capua semiferana (Walk.)-—-Very common everywhere. er aers plagiatana (Walk.)—Wellington to Dunedin. Larva on oak, Pyrg. zygiana, n. sp.—Reddish-brown, strigulated with leaden- grey, partially suffused with blackish, with an oblique posterior whitish streak terminating in apex. Christchurch. Adoxophyes lotinana, Nn. sp.—Light ochreous, costa and inner margin narrowly, hind margin broadly suffused with fuscous, stri- gulated with leaden-grey, with a short oblique fuscous semi-tascia from costa; cilia white. Christchurch. Larva on Arundo conspicua. Adox. conditana (Walk.)—Extremely variable; generally: com- mon. Larva on Genista. | Proselena aspistana, n. sp.— Whitish-grey, basal patch and a large costal triangle reddish-brown, dark margined. Porter’s Pass. Pros. hemionana, n. sp.—Pale ochreous, posterior three-fifths beyond an oblique line brown, darkest anteriorly. Lake Guyon. Pros. siriana (Meyr.)—Hamilton. Harmologa, n.g.—Characters of Proselena, but with a costal fold. Harm. sisyrana, n. sp.—Grey, strigulated with black, base, cen- tral fascia, and four small costal spots obscurely darker. Christ- church, Harm. oblongana, (Walk.)—Blenheim to Dunedin. Harm. zatrophana, n. sp.—KReddish-brown, mixed with grey, with a large posterior whitish blotch, spotted with ochreous. Christchurch. Harm. aenea (Butl.)—Mount Hutt and Porter’s Pass. Harm. amplexana (Z.)—Wellington to Dunedin. Oucoecia excessana (Walk.)—Very common everywhere. Larva on Panusx arboreum, and probably other plants. Cac. enoplana, n sp.— Pale dull brown, costa, outer edge of basal patch, a central fascia dilated beneath. and costal triangular spot dark fuscous, hind wings whitish. Wellington. Tortrix charactana (Meyr.)—Auckland, Christchurch. Tort. demiana, n. sp—Dark greyish fuscous, mixed with whitish, hind wings grey. South Rakaia. Tort. pictoriana (Feld.)—Lake Guyon, Porter’s Pass, Christ- church. Tort. philopoana (Meyr.)— Hamilton. Tort. leucaniana (Walk.)—Very common everywhere. Tort. aérodana (Meyr.)— Hamilton. Dipterina jactatana (Walk.)—Dunedin. Dipt. incessana (Walk.)—Auckland, Christchurch. Dipt. imbriferana (Meyr.)—Auckland, Wellington, EKurythecta robusta (Butl.)—Christchurch. Prothelymna, n. g.—Characters of Preselena, but antenne with 278 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. fascicles of long fine cilia. Proth. nephelotana, n, sp.—Greyish-ochreous, clouded with fus- cous, baSal patch and central fascia hardly darker. Christchurch. Epalxiphora acenana (Meyr )—Wellington. Aphelia lanceolana (Hb.)—Hamilton. Paedisca obliquana (Walk.)—Very common everywhere. Larva on Veronica, Lonicera, Rumex, &c. Carpocapsa pomonella (L..)—Wellington. Protithona, n. g.—Antennez entire. Fore-wings with costal told, with twelve separate veins ; hind-wings, with seven separate veins. Prot. fugitivana, n. sp.—Very small, greyish-ochreous, a discal and two diverging dorsal spots blackish, included space ochreous- white. Lake Coleridge. Strepsiceros ejectana (Walk.)—Hamilton to Christchurch. Streps. zopherana (Meyr.)—Hamilton to Dunedin. Hendecasticha aethaliana (Meyr.)—Hamilton. Exoria, n. g—Antenne entire. Fore-wings with costa simple, with twelve separate veins ; hind- wings, with seven separate veins. Exor. mochlophorana, n. sp.—Pale greyish-ochreous, an anterior and two posterior fascial, central, costal, and apical spot, dark fus- cous. South Rakaia. | Heterocrossa adreptella (Walk.)—Hamilton, Christchurch. Het. gonosemana (Meyr.)—Dunedin. Mr. Meyrick said he would be glad of any information as to whether any Manuka plants, either living or dead, had been brought to New Zealand from Australia, for if they had they might have introduced with them one or two moths. 2. Notes on the Anatomy of Struthiolaria papulosa, by Professor F. W. Hutton. This paper describes briefly the main points of the anatomy of Struthiolaria. The gill is single, with long stiff plates, and is attached to the mantle along the left side; the reproductive ele- ments pass along the floor of the pallial chamber in grooves formed by folds of skin; the penis is long, slender, and non-retractile ; there is a rudimentary respiratory siphon. Figures of the animal, the teeth, and the operculum are given. 3. Description of some new Tertiary Shells from Wanganui, by Professor F. W. Hutton, — The following are described :— Trophon expansos.—No varices, about 25 narrow spiral grooves - acer: whorl; aperture very wide, much like Purpura patens, . and J. deietite drewi.—About 22 spiral lira on the body whorl, an- terior canal well defined, which is intermediate in size between Cominella and Euthria. Odostomia sherriffi.icSubulate, with 15 smooth, flattened whorls. Trochita inflata.—Apex lateral, last whorl much inflated, giving the shell the appearance of a Natica. Anthora conica.—This species has the smooth axial cavity of A. tiarata, but is larger, more acutely conical, the granulations finer, and the basal angle much more rounded. 4. Further additions to our knowledge ot New Zealand Crus- tacea, by Mr. C. Chilton, M.A. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 279 This paper contained the following descriptions of new species, notes, &c. :— ®@ (1) Hlamena (?) lacustris (Chilton)—Of this species the male was described, and the species was placed under the genus Hymenosoma, as defined by Mr. Haswell in his “ Catalogue of the Australian Stalk and Sessile-eyed Crustacea.” (2) Scutuloidea maculata, nov. gen. et sp.—An Isopod, found at Timaru and at Lyttelton Harbour, having the posterior pair of pleopoda, consisting of a single broad squamiform plate. (3) Anthura affinis, sp. nov.—From Lyttelton Harbour. (4) Cubaris rugulosus (Miers)—Taken at Eyreton and at Oxford. As Mr. Miers has not described the antenne, they were here described and figured. (5) Philougria rosea (Koch).—This species was previously re- corded from Christchurch and Eyreton. It has since been found in the bush at Oxford, so that it can hardly have been introduced from Europe. (6) Plakarthrium typicum, nov. gen. et sp.—A peculiar Isopod with very flat body, and with the basal joints of both antenne ex- panded, and having the coxe very large. Found on brown sea- weed at Lyttelton. . (7) Limnoria segnis, sp. nov.—Close to ZL. lignorum of Europe, but not boring in wood like that species. Found on seaweed, Lyttelton Harbour. (8) Micea egregia, sp. nov.—A peculiar Amphipod, with dorsal carina. Second gnathopoda of male when fully developed chelate. Lyttelton Harbour. (9) Montagua miersit ? (Haswell).—Specimens found at Timaru and Lyttelton are doubttfully referred to the Australian species. (10) Cyproidia (?) crassa, sp. nov.—An Amphipod with very broad and deep coxe. Provisionally placed under Cyproidia. Lyttelton Harbour. (11) Moera spinosa (Haswell).—The Australian species, two specimens of which were found at Auckland. (12) Moera petriei (G. M. Thomson).—The female was described. It differs from the male in having the second pair of gnathopoda much smaller. 3 (13) Harmonia crassipes—An Australian species found at Lyttelton and Timaru. (14) Moera incerta, sp. nov.—Closely resembling but apparently distinct from several other species already described. (15) -Podocerus frequens, sp. nov.—From Lyttelton Harbour. Near to P. validus (Dana). Mr. Chilton drew attention to the great difference between the crustacean fauna of Port Lyttelton and Dunedin Harbour. Prof. Hutton said that it was the same with the marine mollusca. Oct. 5th, 1882.—Professor J. von Haast, President, in the chair. New member—Dr. Gaze. Papers—(1) ‘‘ Notes on and a new species of Subterranean Crustacea,” by Mr. Charles Chilton, M.A. The first part in the paper consisted of notes on, and additions to the previous paper (‘“‘ On some Subterranean Crustacea,” Trans. meee (inst. XIV., p. 174.) A. few specimens have been obtained from other wells in the neighbourhood, and 280 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, they are still found in the first pump although the well has been filled up. Of Cruregens fontanus more than 40 more specimens have been obtained, all with only six pairs of legs. It was shown that in all probability these subterranean crustacea were derived from a marine and not from a fresh-water fauna. The rest of the paper was taken up with the description of another Isopod from the same well—Phyreatoicus typicus, nov. gen. et sp. Body elongated, some- what laterally compressed, abdomen long, of six distinct segments. In some points it resembles the Jdotetdw, but in others approaches the Anthuride and the Tanaide. (2.) Description of new species, and notes on New Zealand Desmidieze, Mr. W. M. Maskell.* (3.) Further notes on the Rock Shelter in the Weka Pass, by Professor von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S. The main object of this paper was to prove that the partial destruction of the rock-paintings was due to the formation of lime- stone flakes, caused by mechanical weathering. A number of specimens were exhibited, both in illustration of chemical and mechanical weathering. To the former the darker layer near the surface is attributed. Professor Haast also gave a resumé of Mr George Gray’s chemical analysis of both the rock itself and the chemically weathered surface layer, to show the correctness of his views. He also maintained that Professor Hutton’s stalagmite crust was simply the outermost portion ofthe chemically weathered surface and an integral portion of it, and that the same in many instances did not exist. Mr George Gray’s chemical analysis with notes in confirmation, is added to this paper. Professor Hutton pointed out that the stalagmite formed a very thin layer, about 1-50th of an inch in thickness over the surface, and that it had the peculiar wrinkled appearance so characteristic of stalagmite; this layer, as the specimen he exhibited showed, was quite translucent, and must therefore be crystalline; conse- quently Professor Haast was wrong in saying that there was no crystalline structure on the outside. Underneath this crystalline layer was the dark layer alluded to by Professor Haast. Mr Gray’s analyses, although interesting, did not bear on the point in ques- tion, because he had taken as the outside a layer of more than a quarter of an inch in thickness, which therefore included a larger portion of rock. Professor Hutton then explained that when lime- stone weathered from frost the surface crumbled, as it was not sufficiently coherent to hold together in large thin pieces, but if the surface was coated with stalagmite this held the pieces together, and the surface then scaled off in flakes. He would ask Professor von Haast to explain how, if the changes were only in the rock itself, the paint, in one place at least, came to be covered by this outer layer? and also, if the surface of the rock never became wet, how the changes described by Mr Gray had been produced ? Professor Bickerton said that the outer portion ot the specimen analysed by Mr Gray was much harder than the inner portion. Mr Inglis pointed out that the surface of the ground above the cave was flat, and that there was a large “‘ swallow-hole ” in it. Professor Haslem said that when he visited the caves the sur- * The abstract of this paper unfortunately arrived too late for publication ; it will appear in next issue. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 281 face wasin places so wet that he could brush off water with his hand. Professor von Haast reiterated his former statements, He said that the changes noted by Mr Grey had been produced by damp air blowing into the cave. Mr Gray could not analyse the outer layer spoken of by Professor Hutton, because it did not exist ; but Protessor von Haast allowed that in another cave a layer of stalag- mite overlaid the paint. The real question was, he said, whether it was the outer layer only that had scaled off, or pieces of the rock. Professor Hutton said that if that was the question he quite agreed with Professor Haast that the rock scaled with the stalag- mite. He never supposed that the scalings were only one-fiftieth of an inch in thickness. (4.) Descriptions of New Land Shells, by Professor F. W. Hutton. Patula tapirina, n. s. (P. coma, Trans. N.Z. Inst., XIV., p. 150.)—More closely ribbed than P. coma, less closely than in P. infecta and P. buccinella; the right lip produced forward. Hab. Dunedin. : Microphysa pumila, n. s—Minute, sub-discoidal, widely umbili- cated, with distant membranous ribs; horny brown. Hab. North Canterbury (C. Chilton). Gerontia,n.g.—Like Patula, but theanimal with a mucous gland. Gerantia pantherina, n. s—Sub-discoidal, widely umbilicated, obliquely striated with membranous striz; horny brown. Diam. °37. Hab. Greymouth (R. Helms). Strobila leiodon, n. s— Minute, sub-discoidal, narrowly umbili- cated, closely ribbed; interior with seven body plaits, ten parietal plaits, and one columellar plait ; colour horny, banded with rufous. Hab. Greymouth (R. Helms). Amphidoxa cornea, n.s.— imperforate, striated, whorls 23, rounded; colour pale horny, without markings. Hab. Auckland (T. F. Cheeseman). Amphidoxa costulata, n.s.—Narrowly umbilicated; whorls 33, rounded, ciosely ribbed, and spirally striatulated; colour horny, banded with reddish. ab. Auckland (T. F. Cheeseman), Phriagnathus, n. g.—Shell conical, or turbinated, of 5 or 6 whorls; jaw papillate, imbricately folded; teeth quadrate, bicus- pid; no caudal gland. P. marginatus, n. s.—Conical, umbilicated, carinated, striated, suture margined; colour horny, banded with reddish-fulvous. Hab. Greymouth (R. Helms.) Thalassia (?) propingua, n. s.—Narrowly umbilicated, convexly conoidal, carinated, the base rounded, strongly striated; colour pale horny, with numerous narrow zig-zag bands of red, often broken up into a series of spots. Hab. Weka Pass (C. Chilton). Less acutely keeled than 7. zealandie. The generic position of the species is doubtful. Zonttes helmsti,n.s.—Narrowly umbilicated, with thin rather dis- tant ribs, whorls broader than high; colour horny brown, some- times variegated with rufous fuscous. ab. Greymouth (R. Helms.) Zonites fulminata, n.s.—Narrowly umbilicated, striated, columel- lar lip callous, reflected over the umbilicus; colour horny, with zig-zag red bands. Hab. Stewart Island (T. Kirk.) Near H. venu- lata, Pfeiff. 282 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Rhytida patula, n. s—Brown, yellowish at the apex, with numerous small longitudinal depressions and a few obsolete broad spiral grooves near the periphery. Teeth 18-0-18. Hab. Grey- mouth (R. Helms.) Rhytida citrina, n. s.—Translucent, pale yellow, irregularly indented. Teeth 17-0-17. Hab. Greymouth (R. Helms). Rhytida australis, n. s—Brown, darker in the umbilicus, irre- gularly indented, Teeth 16-0-16, Hab. Stewart Island (T. Kirk.) Testacella vagans, n. s. (Dandebardia novoseelandie, Trans. N.Z. Inst., XIV., p. 152, not of Pfeiffer)—Shell like that of 7. mauge?, but the dentition 15-0-15. Animal slate grey above, gra- dually passing into yellowish white on the sides. Hab. Auckland (T. F. Cheeseman). Leptopoma pannosa, n. s.—Small, conical, higher than broad, narrowly umbilicated, brown, covered with a dark fuscous, ragged epidermis, produced into triangular processes at the periphery, which is sub-carinated. Hab. Greymouth (R. Helms). Leptopoma calva, n. s.—Like the last, but more acute, not carinated, and the epidermis smooth. Hab. Greymouth(R. Helms). elses 19, 1882.—Professor J. von Haast in the chair. Specimens from the Weka Pass caves were pe by Pro- set Haast and Professor Hutton. . The discussion on Professor von Haast’s paper on the Weka are caves, read at the last meeting, was resumed by Professor Hutton, who said that in addition to the ocular evidence of the specimens on the table, the analysis made by Mr. Gray (see analysis attached) clearly proved that an external coating of car- bonate of lime must exist on the face of the rock. Iron carbonate was found both in the inner and outer portions, but was more abundant in the outer. This iron carbonate was derived from the decomposition of the glauconite in the rock, and as iron carbonate could not be precipitated from solution if oxygen was present (as iron peroxide must be formed), its presence in the outer portion of | the rock proved that the surface had been covered by an imper- meable layer. That this layer was carbonate of lime was also shown by the analysis, as that substance also was in excess in the outer portion. The analysis showed a slight excess, sufficient only for a very thin coating, but that was accounted for by the specimen analysed not being a typical one, it showed none of the paint, and the surface had evidently been abraded. If this incrustation had been formed by the water oozing out of the rock wall, the water must have carried out iron carbonate, and iron peroxide would have been precipitated. The analysis showed a complete absence of iron peroxide, and consequently the water, with the carbonate of lime in solution, could not have come out of the rock wall, but must have trickled over the surface from the roof; the wrinkled surface of the incrustation also showed that this was its origin. As for the name to be applied to the incrustation, Protessor Haast had said that it ought to have been called calc-sinter or stalactite. Professor Hutton quoted Dana’s ‘‘ System of Mineralogy ” (1874) as authority for applying the word stalagmite to calcareous in- crustations formed on the sides of caves by water trickling from the roof; stalactite was properly restricted to pendants hanging MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 283 from the roof. Calc-sinter might be a right term for a German to use, but in English it meant a deposit from calcareous springs, and not from rain water leaking into caves. Professor von Haast said that there was no incrustation, only a chemically weathered surface of rock, and that even this was absent in some of his specimens on the table. If there had been an incrustation it would be still forming, and would have covered the paintings. He quoted several authors to show that the proper word to use for incrustations on the sides of caves was stalactite, and not stalagmite, and that no English geologist used the word stalagmite as Professor Hutton had done. Mr. Maskell asked whether the absence of an incrustation over the paintings could not be accounted for by the supposition that the paintings were modern. Professor Cook thought that Mr. Maskell’s question required an answer. If Professor Haast had shown that the word stalac- tite might be used, he had not shown that stalagmite was incor-: Reet. Mr. Inglis thought that Professor Hutton’s explanation of the origin of the surface of the rock was the only one that had been given them. Dr. Haast had not attempted an explanation. He had seen the cave, and was confident that the rock forming its walls and roof must absorb the rain. Professor Haslam agreed with Mr. Inglis that the wall of the cave must sometimes be wet. The water running off the edge, which Dr. Haast admitted he had seen, would find its way down the surface although it was curved. There did not appear to be much difference between the words stalactite and stalagmite, and the latter certainly might be used without error, and without mis- leading other people. Professor Hutton was sorry that Dr. Haast could not see the incrustation on the rock; all those specimens which showed any trace of painting had it. It was wanting certainly in some of Dr. Haast’s specimens, but these were stones from the bottom of the cave, with a weathered surface all round. . If Dr. Haast’s idea of a chemically weathered surface was correct, how was it that these _ stones did not show it? Asa matter of fact the rock of the cave had not a chemically but a mechanically weathered surtace. Pro- fessor von. Haast had not/produced a single authority to prove the correct name to be applied to the incrustations on the sides of caves; they all mentioned only the roof or floor, about which there was no dispute. In his quotation from Nicol’s ‘ Mineralogy” about Flo-ferri and Satin-spar, the words “on the sides and floors of caverns” read by Dr. Haast after -‘ stalactite’’ were not in the book* Sir C. Lyell certainly used the word stalactitic for the cal- careous matter filling fissures, but Sir C. Lyell was notoriously lax in his use of geological terms in those books that were intended for all readers, and he was no authority on the names of rocks and minerals. Professor von. Haast said that the surtace was Sead chemi- cally weathered, and that it got harder by weathering; but this weathered surface did not always exist. The rock never got wet. He would send a specimen to a celebrated German, who would * Nicol’s ‘‘ Elements of Mineralogy,” 2nd Ed,, 1873, p. 196. 284 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. shew that it was a chemically weathered surface. It could not pass over the paintings, however great their age, because it was only a chemically weathered surface and not an incrustation. He would, if wished, on another occasion, bring many more books to prove that he was right. All that he could now say was that every statement made by Professor Hutton proved distinctly that there was no incrustation of carbonate of lime on the surface. REPORT ON THE ANALYSIS OF A SAMPLE OF LIMESTONE RECEIVED FROM PROFESSOR VON. HAAST. The specimen examined consisted of a scale or flake of a light buff limestone, on the outer surface of which there existed darker layers possessing greater density and hardness than the interior portion of the stone. The analysis was made at the request of Professor Haast, for the purpose of ascertaining whether any difference existed in the chemical composition of the two portions, more particularly in regard to the presence of stalagmite in the outer portion. The layers were carefully separated, and found on analysis to be of the tollowing composition :— No. 1—Out- No, 2—In- side side Adherent Moisture ... - oi 1°20 1°30 Organic Matter and Combined Water 1°67 1°03 Insoluble Sli, ayy 42: a ey 15°78 in Alumina... eo 1°36 96 Hydrochloric Acid ) Iron Protoxide ... “20 “66 Alumina rt 98 1°87 Soluble in Iron Carbonate ... payee hi 2"@8 Hydrochloric Acid ( Calcic Carbonate... 75°50 75°04 Magnesic Carbonate 1°13 1°54. 100'20 100°18 These results show that but little difference exists in the general composition of the two parts of this stone, other than that pro- duced by the decomposing action of weathering on the silicates present causing a rearrangement of the elements, and this is probably the cause of the greater hardness and density of the sur- face portion. (Signed) GEorRGE Gray, Analyst. Cant. Coll. Lab., Oct. 5, 1882. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. August 28th, 1882.—E,. A. Mackechnie, Esq., President, in the chair. New members—J. McLaren, P. E. Cheal, H. W. Northcroft, J. H. Jackson, T. Wells, F. R. Webb, Rev. Mr. Gulliver. Papers—(1.) ‘‘ New Genera and species ot Cwurculionde,” by Capt. T. Broun, M.E S. Three new genera and 42 new species . were described. Of these 32 had been collected in Otago, mainly _ by Messrs. Fulton and Chalmer, one in Canterbury, two in Wel- lington, and the remaining seven in Auckland. Capt. Broun stated yhat the number of Curculionidea known to exist in New Zealand MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 285 now amounted to 254, only 20 of which were known to science prior to 1875. (2.) “On the growth of the Cork Oak (Quercus suber) in the Auckland district,” by Mr. Justice Gillies. In the year 1855 the late Dr. Sinclair planted close to his house, near Symonds street, a young cork oak, received from Kew. It is now 40 feet in height, 14 feet from the ground to the first branch, with a'spread of top ot about 4o feet in diameter. For several years it has produced acornsin abundance. In 1877 it was stripped for the first time, yielding a considerable quantity of virgin cork. In February of this year it was again stripped, yielding 7olbs. weight (when dried) of good marketable cork, fit for pint corks, etc., and worth about 60s. per cwt. It will thus be seen that the trees must be 25 to 27 years old before producing any return, and then every five years may produce from 7o to roolbs of marketable cork. (3) ‘The University of New Zealand: its history, constitution, and objects,” by the Right Rev. W. G. Cowie, D.D., Bishop of Auckland. A long discussion followed the reading of this paper, in which Mr. Justice Gillies, Mr. Halcombe, Mr. Martin, Dr. Purchas, and others took part. September 25th, 1882.—E. A. Mackechnie, Esq., President, in the chair. New members—H. Eastman, W. Fidler, M.A., T. Simpson, W. P. Snow. Papers—(t1.) ‘‘ New Species of Coleoptera,” by Capt. T. Broun. Thirteen new forms were described, belonging to the families Scaphidude, Colydiude, Lathnidude, Lucande, Dascyllide, and Cisside, Seven of the species had been collected in Otago by Mr. S. W. Fulton; the remainder were from various localities in the Auck- land Provincial District. (2.) “On two new Planarians from Auckland Harbour,” by T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. Two new species belonging to the genera Thysanozoon and Eury- lepta, were fully described, and coloured drawings of them exhibited. (3.) ‘‘Shakspeare and Euphuism,” by J. Murray Moore, M.D. This paper was chiefly occupied with a criticism of John Lilly and his works, and their influence upon the literature of the reign ot Elizabeth. According to the author, this influence could be traced through many of Shakspeare’s plays. SOUTHLAND INSITUTE, 12th September, 1882.—J. T. Thomson, Esq., President, in the chair. _ A paper was read by the Secretary, communicated by Mr. T. Wakelin, of Greytown, Wellington, entitled ‘‘ The Surface Features of the Earth and Local Variations in the Force of Gravity,” in which the author contends that the earth is increasing in size by incorporation of ethereal corpuscles; that gravity is a rotational effect, and therefore as this rotation of the ethereal corpuscles is reduced, the force of gravity would be lessened, hence the differences exhibited by strata of various densities, 286 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, toth October, 1882.—J. T. Thomson, Esq., President, in the chair. A paper was read by the Rev. P. W. Fairclough on the ‘ Con- stitution of Comets,” in which the author gave a sketch of the most recent theories on the subject. The paper was illustrated by two diagrams. 17th October, 1882.—Thos. Denniston, Esq., in the chair. Under the auspices of the Institute, Mr. J. T. Thomson read extracts from a paper on ‘Capital and Labour.” There was a large attendance. The paper was printed in full in the Southland Times of 18th inst. GENERAL NOTES. > Mr. J. T. THOMSON’S NEW WIND-MILL.—A radical error was made inthe account given of this mill in the last number of the journal (p. 236). Itis there stated that “as the wind increases the pressure overcomes that of the weight, and gradually drives the sails back until in a gale they merely present their edges and the wheel comes to a stand still.” This is exactly what the wheel does not do. On the contrary, as long as the weight is attached the mill continues to revolve in the severest gales at an uniform speed, and never stops fora moment. Butif the wheel be re- moved the mill stops at once. NEW ZEALAND FERN EXCHANGE.—Mr. Chas. P, Winkel- mann, of Te Aute College, Hawkes Bay, is desirous of obtaining ferns from all parts of the Colony, and will return in exchange specimens of all species growing in Hawkes Bay district. LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.—The following extract from a circular dated Sydney, 22nd Sept. explains itself :—“ The conflagration which has this morning destroyed the Garden Palace, with all its contents, has therewith also swept away the whole property of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. Library, Correspondence, Records, Instruments, and Collections have entirely disappeared. Our loss, so far as we can estimate it in money, amounts to about £3,000, but a great portion is quite irreparable.” The loss is a colonial one, and the sympathy of all colonial scientific workers will be extended toa society which has done so much in the past. We would suggest that the societies in existence in this colony, should give practical proof of this by forwarding complete sets of all their publications to the nucleus of the new library, which will probably be at once formed. ERRATUM.—In p. 197, line 19 from the bottom, for “arriving” read “arising.” The former word completely alters the sense. "NEW ZEALAND CARABIDA. 287 THE NEW ZEALAND CARABIDA* BY CAPT. T. BROUN, M.ES. <> [The numbers on the margin are in continuation of those in Part II. When insects are referred to by numbers, these numbers correspond with those iu Parts I. or II.] ; HYDROBIIDA. 1346. Rygmodus puncticeps, n. sp.—Ovate, convex, shining ; head and thorax black, legs and basal joints of antenne slightly rufescent, club opaque, elytra greenish blue. Head narrowed anteriorly, with raised margins, densely and distinctly but not coarsely punctured ; clypeus nearly truncate. Prothovax transverse, narrowed towards the front, finely and closely punctulated, bi-foveate at base. Scwutellwm elongate, tri- angular, almost imperceptibly punctulated. /ytra convex, punctate-striate ; interstices convex, closely punctulated. Legs elongate. Underside dull black, closely and finely sculptured. Most nearly approaches A. cyaneus ; differs from it in having longer antennz, a more obviously punctured head, with three more or less distinct foveze on the vertex, more finely sculptured thorax, and the elytra, instead of presenting a nearly even slope, have deeper strize with elevated intervals. Length, 234-314 ; breadth, 1%4-13 lines. dhe insect-was found by T. F.. Cheeseman, F.LS., on. Aez- phylla lyallt, growing at an elevation of about 5000 feet, on Mount Arthur. PSELAPHID&. Gastrobothrus, n. gen.— Maxillary palpi quadri-articulate ; _ basal joint minute ; second elongate, arcuated, gradually incras- sated ; third stout, as long as broad, sub-globose; fourth large, ovate, as long as, but stouter than second. Head moderate, narrowed behind. J/andzbles robust, acute at apex, dentate in- wardly. Azzenne distant, inserted in lateral cavities in front of, but not close to the eyes; Ist joint stout; 2-9 cylindrical ; 2nd shorter than 3rd; 3-7 about equal; 8th. short, sub- quadrate, gth larger than the preceding one; 1oth distinctly larger than goth. Ayes small, prominent, coarsely facetted. Prothorax sub-globose, with a large fovea at each side, rather broader than head. “&/ytra not much longer but much broader, than thorax, considerably narrowed towards the base, deeply sinuated behind. //z2d-body broad, marginated, apical segments deflexed. Abdomen large, the intermediate segments deeply excavated, appearing quite hollow ; the inner margin of the pen- ultimate widely emarginate, the extremities forming two corneous protuberances ; apicalsegmententire. Legs stout, tibiz flexuose ; * Read before the Auckland Institute, June 11, 1881. 288 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. tarst with a minute basal joint, second and third about equal, terminated by one claw. An extraordinary insect (No. 230) is the type, which becomes Gastrobothrus abdominalis, and should precede Aryaxis. The antennal tubercles are separate, and there is a large fovea near each eye. NoTe.—Parmipalpus, p. 662. Structure of maxillary palpi should be read “Ist joint minute ; 2nd longest, slightly but widely incurved in front, almost triangularly dilated medially behind, and there setigerous; 4th about as large as the head, nearly round, somewhat truncated outwardly, with a small round notch near the back part of its outer margin; the 3rd is longer than broad, and dilated apically.” No. 245 should be placed near Yyrus mutandus, though the palpi are not quite of the orthodox pattern. Eupines, King—Body rather short, convex. Head obsoletely bi-foveolate. Prothovax smooth, not at all foveolate. Flytra without dorsal strie. Aztenne to-jointed, robust, distant at base, almost bi-clavate. Maxillary pal/gz quadri-articulate, ter- minal joint fusiform. Basal joint of the posterior tarsi short, the two last much elongated,with one claw. The above constitute the essential characteristics of Mr. King’s genus, which differs from 4ryaxis in the form of the ter- minal joints of the antennee. 1347. Eupines rudicorne,n sp.—Convex, shining, sanguine- ous, elytra and legs dilute in colour. Head sub-quadrate, quadrifoveolate. Pvrothorax rounded laterally, narrowed posteriorly, unimpressed. /ytra consider- ably longer and broader than thorax, truncated apically, each elytron with a fine sutural stria, otherwise unmarked. Hind-body convex, deflexed, sparsely pubescent, not perceptibly punctured. Antenne pubescent ; basal joint larger than the immediately fol- lowing ones; 2nd stouter than 3rd ; joints 3-6 about equal ; 7th much broader than the preceding one; 8th nearly twice the breadth of the 6th, very short, angulated inwardly ; 9th excess- ively large, produced outwardly, narrowed towards the extremity ; 10th about as large as oth, elongate-oblong. 77zdz@ flexuose. The structure of the antennee is unusual ; the first eight arti- culations form the stalk, the two terminal are, individually, nearly as long as the preceding eight conjointly, at least twice as broad, hispid, and coarsely sculptured, and, though furcate, appear cap- able of converging so as to form a massive oblong club ; the pen- ultimate terminates in an acute fulvous point, whilst the 1oth appears as if furnished with an appendage or minute apical joint. Male, length 34 ; breadth, % line. Described from a single individual communicated by Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager, of Wellington. NOTE-—No. 232 must be associated with the above so as to become Ezines clavatus. Its description appears on p. 126, ' NEW ZEALAND CARABIDA. 289 Man. N.Z. Coleop., but the aztenne are only 10-jointed, not 11 ; the error will seem pardonable when the last two joints are care- fully examined under a high magnifying power—the deep inward notch and the presence of a suture on the outside of the basal portion of the 9th joint appear to mark it off from the larger part beyond. In the description the 11th joint must stand for roth. The terminal joints may be thus characterised :—oth enormously developed, its basal portion appearing as if it formed a distinct joint, transverse, and quite twice the breadth of the 8th ; it is then strongly produced outwardly, so as to be quite six times broader than the 8th, and is deeply notched or hollowed on-the inner side; 1oth large, cordiform. 1348. Euplectus tuberigerus, n. sp.— Shining, head and thorax red, elytra and hind-body slightly infuscate, legs, antennz, and palpi fulvescent ; pubescent. Flead convex, vertex bi-foveolate, rather coarsely punctured, the middle least so. Prothorax about as long as broad, rounded laterally ; with a large fovea near each side prolonged forwards, a transversal impression near the base appearing to unite with the former, and a longitudinal cavity on the disc; its surface is less coarsely sculptured than the head, particularly on the dor- sum ; it bears some short, brassy hairs. //lytra longer and broader than thorax, their sides slightly rounded, each with an entire sutural and abbreviated striz, the latter broad at base but atten- uated at the middle ; they bear numerous short brassy hairs and seer densely but finely punctulated. zzd-body rather shorter than elytra, the three dorsal segments equal, the others more abruptly deflexed, the 3rd protuberant medially ; clothed like the elytra. Legs stout, tibia arcuated externally. Antenne pubescent, stout, as long as head and thorax ; 2nd joint as long as exposed part of the Ist; 3rd smaller than 2nd ; joints 4-8 moniliform ; 9th and ioth transverse, much larger than the pre- ceding ones; 11th, large, ovate, pointed. The chief peculiarity of this species consists in the structure of the third abdominal segment ; this is gradually raised towards the middle, thereby assuming the form of an apical protuberance. Length, 34 line; breadth, nearly ¥%. I found my specimen somewhere near Whangarei Harbour. SILPHIDA. Necrophilus, Lacord.—(Hist. des. Ins. Col. tom. I, p. 205.) Allied to Sz/pha, more particularly to Szlpha atrata, but exhibiting the following differences :— Ligula rather more emarginated. Internal lobe of the max- tlle unarmed or destitute of spines at the extremity. Pa/fz more filiform. JVandibles simple at apex. Amtennce moderate, rather stout, 3rd joint nearly always longer than the basal one, joints 2-6 sub-moniliform, 7-11 forming a club, gradually widened and serrate. Prothorax transversal, narrowed and emarginated in front, truncate at base. Intermediate core contiguous. The 290 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. four basal joints of the anterior and intermediate /¢ars7 a little dilated among the males. 1349. Necrophilus prolongatus, n. sp., Sharp—(Ent. Mon, Mag., July, 1881, p. 47.) Niger, nitidus, levigatus, antennarum bast rufescente, brotho- racis lateribus late testaceis ; elytris ad apicem attenuatis, ultra abdominis apicem prolongatis, subtiliter striatis, strits in partem prolongatum profundtoribus et fortiter punciatis. Long. 10, lat. 434mm. Antenne with the five basal joints piceo-rufous, slender, and shining, the apical five abruptly broader than the others, fuscous black, densely pubescent and opaque. ead closely and finely punctured, even in front; the clypeal suture indistinct, angulate in the middle. Thorax rather strongly transverse, the front angles extremely rounded off and indistinct, and not projecting farther forwards than the middle of the front margin; the disc sparingly and obsoletely punctured, the explanate yellow sides more distinctly punctured. /dytra rather narrow and elongate, with their apices prolonged, and the prolonged portion abruptly bent down ; they are rather finely striate, but the interstices are — somewhat convex, and the 7th is elevated at the shoulder ; the striz are provided with fine distant impressions or punctures ; on the apical, and more especially on the lateral-apical portion, the sculpture becomes deeper and coarser, so that the outer stria bears some very large deep impressions. On the under-surface it is seen that this apical portion of the wing-cases projects quite beyond the hind-body. The two individuals described are females. The species appears structurally very similar to the European and North American species of /vecrophilus, and the peculiar form and sculpture of the wing-cases would not at present justify its: being treated as a distinct genus. Greymouth, Helms. ANISOTOMID. Posterior core contiguous. Maxillary palpi not much longer than the labial. Prothorax narrowed anteriorly. Hind trochanters small, placed within the axis of the femora. Tarsi variable. Metathoracic parapleurae partly or entirely covered by the lateral margins of the elytra. . Clambus, Fisch. de Waldh.—Lacord. His. des Ins. Col., tom. LD: 222, Ligula corneous dilated towards the front, its apex rounded. Lobes of the mawille sub-equal; the inner the larger, ciliated inwardly and at the extremity ; the external filiform, very slen- der, pubescent at the apex. Labial palpi with the basal joint very short, 2nd pyriform, 3rd rather shorter, globose and acumi- nate; Ist joint of the maxillary also short, joints 2-4 globuliform, 4th pointed. Mandibles terminating in two sharp elongate hooks. Labrum very small, concealed below the clypeus, Head very broad, narrowed and obtuse in front, deflected. Antenne 9Q-arti- NEW ZEALAND CARABID/. 291 culate, basal joint stout, oviform, 2nd long and slender, 3rd about half as long as its predecessor, joints 4-7 short, 8th very robust, campanulate, 9th not so broad, ovate. Prothorax short, rounded at the base, were it equals the elytra in width, narrowed ante- riorly. Seutellum large, triangular. Elytra very convex, gradu- ally narrowed behind. Legs moderate. Hind cowe very large, lamellate, covering the femora. Tarsi four-jointed. ody globuliform, contractile, winged. 1350. Clambus domesticus, n. sp.—Conveax, sub-globose, sparsely pubescent, shining, black, legs, antennze and trophi yellowish. Head sparingly clothed with fine yellowish hairs, deflexed. Terminal joint of maxillary palpi sub-conical, acuminate. Antenne shining, basal joint robust, 2nd long and slender, cylin- —drical ; 3rd and 4th of similar form, conjointly, elongate ; joints 5-7 short, gradually dilated ; club bi-articulate, the basal joint the larger. Prothorax apparently impunctate, closely adapted to the elytra, narrowed and depressed anteriorly, its margins some- what testaceous, bearing a few excessively small grey hairs. Scutellum large, triangular. Elytra convex, curvedly narrowed and declivous posteriorly, without distinct sculpture, with numer- ous erect minute grey hairs. Underside brown, moderately glossy, finely linearly sculptured, clothed with fine pallid hairs. Length, 34; breadth, ¥% line. Caught on the windows of my house at Tairua. 1351. Clambus vestitus, n. sp. Sub-ovate, convex, moderately nitid, obviously pubescent, variegate. Head piceo-fuscous. Prothorax dark brown, the sides and base testaceous, densely but very minutely sculptured, clothed with rather long, pale, brassy hairs. Seutellum large. Elytra convex, rather long, rounded laterally and behind, densely but minutely punctated, clothed with rather long and coarse pallid hairs ; their colour dark brown, the sutural region and other large spots pale testaceous. | Length, 54 ; breadth, 36 line. Larger, less globular, and far more distinctly hirsute than the _ preceding or following species. Two found by Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager, Port Nicholson. 1352. Clambus suffusus, n sp.—Broad, obovate, convex, a good deal attenuated posteriorly ; glossy, nude above, dark brown, with the head and sometimes the thorax and the middle of the elytra rufescent, legs and antennze yellowish. : Head shining, apparently quite smooth. Prothorax very broad at the base, greatly contracted in front, without distinct sculpture. Scutellum large. Elytra large, very broad at the base, but con- siderably narrowed behind, exhibiting no distinct sculpture, but with the suture somewhat elevated posteriorly. Abdomen fuscous, clothed with rather coarse yellowish hairs. The body is unusually broad at the middle and a good deal attenuated behind. The colour is variable, one of my two speci- mens being almost wholly piceous, 292 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Length, % ; breadth, 3 line. Hab. Wellington ; coll. Mr Sandager. SYNCHITID. . 353. Ablabus brevis, n.sp.—Oblong, rather broad and convex ; rufo-piceous, clothed with pale yellow, almost griseous, scale-like sete, legs and antennez red; underside pitchy, covered with granules and fine yellow hairs. Head granulated. Prothorax broader than long, transversely convex, somewhat uneven, but without conspicuous tubercles or depressions, granulated ; sides explanate, four-lobed, the front lobe largest, the basal small and distant from the elytra. Elytra oblong, apices obliquely rounded, sides more or less dentated ; disc somewhat plane, rather uneven, apparently punctate-striate, with a distinct compressed elevation on each side of the scutel- lum, two rounded ones behind, and others nearer the sides. Legs finely hirsute. The insect has been denuded of the scale-like grayish cover- ‘ing. When just found it seems rougher, the elytra for example appearing to have four rows of tubercles, four in each, and the thorax with a medial groove-and three basal depressions. Comes near A. ornatus, but that species may be distinguished at a glance by the large black triangular space on the side of each elytron. Length, 14%; breadth ¥% line. Habitat, Tairua (Auckland). Dryptops, n. gen. — Intermediate between Tarphiomimus and Ulonotus, having the facies of the former, but differing in the less developed basal articulation of the tarsi. Maxillary palpi stout, terminal joint ovate, not acuminate. Antenne 11-articulate, basal joint stout, partially concealed from above, 2nd short, 3rd elongate, joints 4-8 sub-obconical and nearly equal ; club large three-jointed. Prothorax deeply lobed at the sides. lytra serrate laterally, their apices more or less pro- longed and somewhat divergent. Legs moderate ; tibie denticu- lated externally; ¢arsi four-jointed, the three first joints con- jointly rather shorter than the last, about equal to one another. Body sub-oblong, longitudinally elevated along the middle, its sides explanate. : 1354. Dryptops dorsalis, n. sp.—Griseous, tarsi, antenne, palpi and labrum red ; sub-oblong, transversely convex. Head granulated. Prothorax sub-cordate, its sides with deep median indentations, forming two large lobes more or less incised | along their margins ; disc considerably elevated longitudinally, broadly canaliculate, bearing two conspicuous frontal protuber- ances. lytra oblong, base tri-sinuate, lateral margins serrate, obliquely narrowed posteriorly, apices prolonged, leaving a deep sutural notch ; the dorsum raised, with a rather gradual slope from the sides, so that these latter are not at all vertical, with a row of five tubercular elevations on each side of the median groove, the basal laterally compressed and carina-like, those near NEW ZEALAND CARABIDA. 293 the posterior declivity most prominent but rounded, just beyond | these (laterally) are two others placed near the middle. Legs finely hispid, outer edge of tibiae with numerous short denticles. When denuded of the grayish sappy or scale-like matter, it will be seen that the head and thorax are irregularly granulated ; the elytra bear regular rows of granules, there being four such on the discoidal elevation, and seven on each side, of these latter the six inner form pairs, these nodules or granular elevations are glossy, and in some lights give a punctate appearance to the elytra; the interstices are brown, but the insect otherwise is almost wholly ferruginous, with short yellow sete on the more elevated parts. Length, nearly 3 lines ; breadth, 1%. I found one example on the Waitakerei Range. NOTE.—No. 325, Tarphiomimus acuminatus, belongs to this genus. 1355. Dryptops undosus, n. sp.— Uneven, sub-oblong ; pi- ceous, variegated with grayish to fuscous, setee, antennee and tarsi dark red. Head granulated, antennal orbits large. Prothorax transversal considerably contracted behind, its sides nearly flat and divided into five lobes, the anterior largest, posterior angles rectangular ; dorsum considerably raised, with three laterally compressed elevations on each side, the frontal largest and porrected ; it bears numerous granules. Elytra oblong, margins serrate, apices protuberant ; disc elevated, broadest behind, with vertical sides, granulated, with alarge basal, median and ante-apical depressions, the sides of the disc are irregularly raised, and bend inwards in such a manner as to partly isolate the hollows, all but the basal are interrupted by the raised suture, so that there appear to be five depressions instead of three; the margins terminate behind in two obvious protuberances having a large semi-circular inter- vening gap. Legs clothed with fine yellowish sete, the tibize with many denticles on their outer edge. The insect is remarkable on account of the whole disc of the elytra being abruptly elevated, the raised edges being nearly on a line with the side margins, and the posterior protuberances extending nearly as far as the apices, whilst the enclosed space seems, at first sight, one large depression. Length, 2%4-234 ; breadth, 114-134 lines. I have seen two specimens only ; one has been returned to Sydney W. Fulton, Esq., who found both at Outram, Otago. Recyntus, n. gen—Body rather short and broad, convex, tuberculate, setose. Head sub-trigonal; eyes convex, coarsely facetted ; antennal insertion at the sides in front of the eyes, prolonged as a smooth groove along the front and side of each eye. Last joint of maxillary palpi thick, obtuse. Antenne 11- articulate, basal joint stout, cylindric, 2nd also stout yet much smaller than Ist, 3rd elongate, joints 4-8 decrease in length, 8th transverse ; club distinctly three-jointed, the two basal trans- 204 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. versal, 11th joint rounded. Prothorax uneven, about as long as broad, obtusely produced in front, its sides explanate and lobed. Scutellum small. Elytra yery convex generally, sinuate at base, longer than thorax. Legs stout; ébie compressed ; tarsi four- jointed, the three basal short, the Ist rather larger than 2nd, the terminal longer than the other three conjointly ; claws well-deve- loped, thickened at base. Prosternum deeply emarginate at apex. Metasternum rather short. Abdomen with five segments, the 4th shortest, Core nearly equidistant. Allied to Syncalus, but having the intermediate and posterior legs more approximated. The explanate sides of the thorax are deeply indented so as to form obvious lobes, sometimes the hind-angle of the front lobe and the anterior of the one next to it almost meet, thus leaving an opening or hole right through the side of the thorax. 1356. Recyntus exiguus,n. sp.—Convex, short and broad, rough, pitchy-red, legs and antennee ferruginous, partially covered with yellowish setiform scales. Head immersed up to the eyes, in front depressed and of a brick-red colour, granulate ; antennal elevations not prolonged, rounded. Antenne moderate, pubescent, basal articulation red, cylindric, 2nd stout, about as long as broad, 3rd slender at base, longer than the contiguous ones, joints 4-8 decrease in length, obconical ; club large, its middle joint transverse, the terminal rounded. Prothorax transversal, convex; sides explanate, divided into four lobes, the anterior largest, forming acute front angles attaining the eyes, the 4th leaving a gap between it and the base of the elytra; disc transversely convex, grooved longi- tudinally, with three elevations on each side, the median most elevated ; bearing tubercles or granules. lytra as broad and nearly twice as long as the thorax, much elevated, but with a somewhat flattened disc, sides nearly vertical, abruptly declivous behind, lateral margins multi-dentate ; their sculpture consists of several rows of granules, causing the surface to appear rugose ; there are two prominent rounded elevations on the summit of the hind slope, and a laterally compressed one near each shoulder ; ° the humeral angles do not reach the base of the thorax ; the pale yellow squamosity is chiefly confined to the base and sides. In its natural state the insect is covered with grayish sappy matter; this conceals the true colour and sculpture, and when examined in that state, more tubercular elevations appear on the elytra. | Length, 1% ; breadth, 54 line. My specimen was found near Whangarei Harbour. NOTE.—On page 191 I pointed out that Ulonotus tuberculatus, No. 340, U. insignis, and U. salebrosus should be associated together in a distinct genus; Recyntus is enunciated for these three, and the present species, No. 340, may be considered the type. : 1357. Ooxelus clarus, n. sp.—Bright, head and thorax red, NEW ZEALAND CARABID-. 295 elytra and antennz ferruginous, legs rufo-testaceous ; clothed with fine elongate sete. Head granulated, with fine erect yellow sete. Prothorax rather broader than long, moderately and gradually narrowed towards the base, lateral margins rather broad, closely dentated and fringed with yellow sete ; granulated above, with an elon- gate dorsal depression and five others, the two near the base largest, the smallest in front of the scutellum, the remaining two before the middle. lytra oblong, sides and apex nearly ver- tical, the edges rough, like the thorax, broadly impressed near the middle ; their sculpture consists of numerous rows of coarse punctures. Antenne rather short, club well limited. Legs stout, clothed with yellow hairs. In C. robustus there is scarcely any thoracic depression ; C. dubius has a dorsal impression, and C. similis, if I am right in judging my specimer to represent that species accurately, has four or five indistinct impressions. The sete with which this species is clothed are slender, and of a bright yellow, the legs bearing hairs ; in this respect it differs from all the other species, they having fuscous sete intermingled with the greyish or pallid ones. Length, 13¢ ; breadth, % line. Hab. Parua. I have only one individual in my collection. PYCNOMERIDA. 1358. Pycnomerus rufescens, n. sp.—Nitid, red, elytra paler than thorax. Head rather coarsely but not densely punctured, with large and deep frontal fovese. Prothorax longer than broad, gradually narrowed towards the base, feebly bi-impressed on the disc and near the middle of each side, moderately coarsely and distantly punctured, but with the more elevated spaces so sparingly punc- tured as to seem nearly smooth. £lytra coarsely punctate-striate. Legs long and robust. Antenne short, their terminal joint distinctly marked off from the penultimate. Larger than P. minor ; distinguished at once by the sparsely punctate thorax, longer legs, and difference in antennal structure. Length, 134 ; breadth,.% line. My specimen was found near Whangarei Harbour. 1359. P. basalis, n sp.—Sub-parallel, shining, dark red. Head somewhat quadrate, punctate, deeply bi-foveate. Pro- thorax oblong, very gradually narrowed posteriorly, indistinctly impressed on the dorsum, moderately coarsely punctured, three linear dorsal spaces somewhat more remotely. Seutellum obso- lete. lytra elongate, oviform, coarsely punctate-striate, their humeral angles prominent. Legs stout, anterior tibie distinctly ciliated inwardly with short yellow hairs. Antenne normal, club obviously bi-articulate. With the exception of P. simpler and P. ellipticus the New Zealand species exhibit a truncate elytral base ; in the present 296 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. one the base is emarginate, with the shoulders dentate and por- rected, and consequently conspicuous. Length, 1% ; breadth nearly ¥% line. From the same locality as P. rufescens. PASSANDRIDA.—FAMILY CUCUJIPES. Jugular piece strongly developed, concealing the maxille, Ligula strongly bi-lobed among the greater number. Antenne filiform, or nearly so. Tarsi pentamerous in both sexes, the basal articulation frequently very small. Chetosoma (Westwood),—(Lacord. Hist. des Ins. Coleop. tom. IL, p. 399)—WMentum strongly transversal, considerably sloped anteriorly, rounded laterally. Projecting jugu/ar piece absent. Ligula deeply cleft, so as to form two narrow lobes, ciliated in front. Lobes of the mawille broad, ciliated at the extremity ; the external longer than the inner. Last joint of labial palpi oval, arched and obliquely truncated at apex ; that of the maxil- lary gradually thickened and obtuse at the end. Mandibles pro- minent, robust, trigonal, feebly arched apically, bi-dentate in- wardly. Labrum short, sinuated, with rounded angles. Head rather long, as broad as thorax. Eyes moderate, rounded. Antenne elongate, filiform, clothed with long hairs; basal joint short, sub-globose, 2nd very short, joints 3-10 about equal, each rather slender at base, 11th sub-ovate. Prothorax quadrate, about the same width as elytra. Hlytra elongate, parallel, humeral angles prominent. Legs moderate, femora stout ; tibie slightly and gradually dilated ; tarst with four short basal joints, ciliated below, 5th large, claws thickened at base. Body elongate, parallel, sub-depressed, clothed with rather long hairs, 1360. Chetosoma scaritides (Westw). — Parallel elongate, rather plane, shining, bearing erect longish hairs, pitchy-black, legs and four elytral spots (two basal, two apical) rufescent. Head (excluding the mandibles) quadrate, about as broad but shorter than thorax, epistome smooth, occiput closely punctured, the front with linear impressions, eyes prominent. Prothorax nearly square, slightly narrowed towards the base, marginated ; its punctures oblong, closest on the dorsum, longer and more distant on the sides, with a smooth space on each side of the middle. Scutellum oblong, smooth. lytra arcuated at base, with rows of punctures, coarsest near the sides. Sternum blackish, abdomen infuscate-red. : The above describes a specimen recently sent me by Sydney W. Fulton, Esq., Outram, Otago, and agrees with remarks appended by Lacordaire to the generic diagnosis. I have not seen Professor Westwood’s description; nearly all the other examples I have examined are almost wholly black, and some larger than the one alluded to. Length, 4; breadth, 1 line. Habitat, New Zealand (id. est., not local). NEW ZEALAND CARABID. 297 BRONTID. 1361. Parabrontes setiger, n. sp.—Elongate, depressed ; head and thorax and irregular spaces on the elytra piceous, antenne and trophi castaneous red, legs fusco-testaceous. Head longitudinally rugosely punctate, with two smooth grooves from the labrum to the occiput. Prothorax longer than broad, narrower than elytra, anterior angles protuberant and rufescent, considerably contracted behind, sides obtusely dilated after the middle ; its discoidal sculpture irrregularly rugose, the lateral granular. Scutellum transversal, blackish. ilytra elon- gate, parallel, marginated, obtusely rounded apically, transversely depressed near the middle ; coarsely punctate-striate, sides ver- tical except near the middle, the dorsum rather sharply defined from the shoulders to near the apices, but with the carina in- curved medially. The clothing consists of fine brassy sete, scarcely apparent on the thorax. When the thorax of this species is compared with that of P. silvanoides, it will be noticed that the three or four dentiform projections on the sides of the latter are quite absent, and that it is shorter and broader. The prevailing colour on the elytra is testaceous-brown. Length, nearly 2% ; breadth, nearly 3¢ lines. Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager sent me a mutilated specimen from the vicinity of Port Nicholson. LATHRIDIIDZ. 1362. Corticaria tarsalis,n.sp.—Sub-ovate, a little convex, shin- ing, sparingly clothed with long, erect grayish hairs ; variegate, chiefly reddish-brown, a considerable portion of the elytra pitchy- brown, shoulders testaceous, legs infuscate red, tarsi (save the fuscous apical joint) yellowish, two basal joints of antennz fus- co-testaceous, the others darker. Head nearly as broad as the widest part of the thorax, coarsely punctate; eyes very large and prominent. Antenne bearing dark elongate hairs; basal joint robust, swollen, 2nd smaller, joints 3-6 slender and elongate, 6-8 small ; club elongate, its two basal joints swollen at the base but abruptly narrowed (almost cylindrical) beyond, 11th joint ovate. Prothorax about as long as broad, its sides rounded, a good deal narrowed apically ; uneven, coarsely punctured, with two dorsal fovee, one behind the other, and a larger one at each side near the middle. Scutellum distinct, smooth. Elytra cordate, narrowed towards the base, slightly but broadly depressed before the middle, coarsely punctate. Legs moderate, tbie straight, the posterior not dilated apically ; tarsi two-thirds the length of the tibiz, basal joint as large as 2nd, not abreviated, the terminal stout ; claws thickened at base. Allied to Nos. 415, 419, and 420. Eyes very large, more approximated above than is usual. Length, 34; breadth, quite 1% line. I found one on the Waitakerei Range. 298 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. BYRRHID&. 1363. Morychus gemmeus, n. sp.—Convex, oval, nude; brilliant rufo-cupreous, legs red, tarsi and palpi yellow; antenne ferru- ginous. Heaa rather narrow, forehead considerably rounded ; closely and coarsely punctured near the eyes, more distantly on the middle; labrum closely sculptured. Prothorax of the orthodox form, sides almost straight, front and hind angles distinct, the latter rather acute; distinctly punctated, the punctures not so close nor coarse as those on the head, and much more distant from one another on the dorsum. Scwtellum minute, quite tri- angular. Elytra very convex, with distant shallow punctures, their whole surface divided into small areas by minute irregular lines running in different directions. Legs finely pilose; all the tibiz arcuated externally, the anterior quite as much as the inter- mediate. Antenne of moderate length, basal joint robust, 2nd shorter but stouter than 3rd, the latter slender and longer than Ath, 5th a little shorter but thicker than its predecessor, 6th and 7th about equal, much stouter but shorter than 5th, joints 8-10 increase in width, transversal, 11th normal; the slender joints are sparsely, the terminal densely pubescent. Smaller than WM. coruscans, the sculpture different, and the front tibiz obviously curved. Length, 14% ; breadth, 5@ line. I picked my specimen off a log at Parua (Whangarei Harb.) 1364. Morychus insuetus, n. sp.—Black, shining, legs and first antennal joint ferruginous, the remaining joints of the latter and the tarsi yellowish ; broad and convex. Head smooth on the middle, distinctly punctured on the sides. Prothorax of the usual form, remotely and very finely punctured. Scutellum quite invisible. Hlytra without perceptible sculpture of any kind. Legs clothed with fine yellow hairs, front tibiz scarcely arched. Antenne pubescent, their 3rd articu- lation slender and elongate, joints 6-11 gradually incrassated. Similar to Mv orbicularis in form; in that species, however, the front of the head between the antennz, is almost truncate, whereas in the present one it is much rounded, and the thorax, instead of being evidently punctured, must be carefully examined before its minute sculpture can be perceived; the antennz of this species are more robust, particularly the dilated joints. Length, 1% ; breadth, 4 line. Described from one mutilated example detected in a saw- ae at Parua. THE ZEALAND -. DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF ihe PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY. a lal dal hs Pia hes i al el Fudicio perpende: et si tibi vera videntur Dede manus; aut st falsum est, adcingere contra. AN OA aL NAAN UIA FRAN SEN AENEE, CONTENTS: — . eas. te a ae ee aes Bre) wuts pa Auk On Methods 3 fame? Annelida. be eer es: A. HASWELL, M.A. ad a 0: a tchie Bd cy Pee) | te Ene geet Oh ea Marine Caddis-worms. | Zealand Mollusca of ‘‘Challenger” Expedition. Rev.R. BooG WAtson, Babs S. ct of Paper on Desmidiez. W. M. MASKELL Sle Ane S Transit of Venus i Heit Wea ois BA e See +e ace eee eee see see * eee “wee see __-_—N.Z, Idoteide—Endosmotic Movements in Nitel’ New seid Beetles — Stalk-eyed acd 7 hah of New Zealand—Nests of the Yellow-breasted Tit—Professor Haeckel on Education— Botrychium Lunaria, Swaitz—Is ga Setacea, R.Br., indigenous to New Zealand. tings. of Societies—__... Ba EN cas, ib me Se ts ~ Auckland mstitiiee Wellington. Philosophical Society Philosophical Institute of Canterbury — ~ Otago ee Sete Society of New South Wates—- Linnean Society of New South Wales. ae — WDuudin, W.K,: Ph i wi WILKIE & Co. Teas interest PRINCES STREET. 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extremity ; it bears many minute, glossy, black granules, and short fulvous seti- form hairs. Elytva ‘with rounded shoulders, slightly curved sides, gradually narrowed behind, almost plane ; sub-striate, interstices uneven, with fewer and smaller granules than the thorax, and with similar, but more rufescent sete. Underside rather dull, blackish ; flanks of prosternum coarsely, but remotely punctured, the rest not distinctly sculptured; sparsely clothed. The antenne are covered with pubescence on the sides only; joints 4-10 are dilated inwardly, but not acute, at the extremity. An occasional puncture may be noticed in the elytral grooves, and the humeral regions are more or less obtusely tuberculate. Length, 8-9 lines ; breadth, 234-3%. Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager found this curious insect in the crevices of rocks on “ The Brothers ” (Cook’s Strait). 1371. Cryptohypnus montanus, n. sp.—Sub-parallel, almost de- pressed, moderately glossy, blackish-brown, legs flavo-testaceous antenne rufescent, clothed with short yellowish hairs. Head broadly impressed, finely and not closely punctated. Pyothorax as long as broad, obtusely rounded laterally, contracted near the base, convex, its posterior angles carinate, prominent, sub-acute, and divergent ; the surface rather closely and finely punctured, obsoletely grooved on the middle. Scwtellum oblong. Elytva slightly rounded laterally, distinctly, but not coarsely, striated, the external grooves more or less punctate, interstices nearly plane, closely punctulated. Underside pubescent, dark cas- taneous ; prosternum closely punctulated ; abdomen finely and closely sculptured. Antenne shorter than head and thorax, stout, 3rd and 4th joints equal, 2nd shorter but stouter than 5th. Besides the ridge on the thoracic angle, there is another ab- NEW ZEALAND COLEOPTERA 303 breviated one between it and the middle, the base is nearly trun- cate, with a tooth-like projection on each side of the scutellum. Female, length, 5 ; breadth, 1% lines. One of Mr. T. F. Cheeseman’s captures on Mount Arthur. 1372. Cryptohypnus sandagervi, n. sp.—Black, a little shining, antenne, palpi, and labrum more or less rufescent, femora fus- cous, tibice and trochanters reddish-castaneous, apical segment of abdomen of a chestnut colour ; clothed with short grayish hairs. Head punctulated, otherwise unimpressed. Pvothovax barely as long as broad, sides obtusely rounded, incurved before the hind angles; these latter ridged, acute, slightly divergent, but little produced beyond the base, with an inner carina ; canalicu- late, finely and distantly punctured, more closely on the sides ; base tri-sinuated, the median incurvature dentate at each side. Elytva depressed, obviously striated, the grooves distantly punc- tured, interstices rugulose. Underside rather dull, blackish- brown, densely, but finely, sculptured and pubescent. Antenne longer than head and thorax, pubescent; 2nd and 6th joints about equal, the intermediate differing but little from one another, except that the 3rd is the stoutest. The male has a rather longer thorax, with its posterior angles just perceptibly prolonged, so as to be visibly elongated beyond the basal line. Allied to No. 523 and 522, larger than either, differently coloured, with punctures in the elytral striz. Female, length, 4% ; breadth, 1% lines. The pair I possess are from Wellington, where they were taken by Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager. 1373. Somemus vectus, n. sp.—Elongate, parallel, sub-depressed ; glossy black, antennez fuscous, legs fusco-testaceous ; pubescence fine, rather dense, obscure yellow. Head coarsely punctured, forehead obtusely rounded. Antenne elongate, sub-serrate ; 2nd and 3rd articulations equal, short, and, conjointly, half as long as the 4th, joints 4-10 longer than broad. Pvothorax elongate, nearly twice as long as broad, just perceptibly narrowed anteriorly, posterior angles prominent, scarcely divergent ; its punctation moderately coarse and close, Elytva slightly attenuated apically, finely, yet distinctly, striated, the outer grooves, and those before the middle only, punctured ; interstices rugulose. If it were not for the slight attenuation towards the extremi- ties the body would be quite parallel-sided. The three basal joints of the antenne taken together barely equal the fourth in length. The sculpture of the elytral interstices is more obvious than the punctures in the strie. The legs are long and slender. The species seems to be allied to S. flavipes only. 304 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Length, almost 2 lines ; breadth, quite 54. Described from one example in my own collection, obtained, most likely, near Whangarei Harbour, Somemus vittatus, n. sp.—Black, shining with a short broad ob- lique basal stripe on each elytron, testaceous, legs fuscous, tarsi slightly rufescent ; rather broad and sub-parallel. Head closely punctured. Pvothovax longer than broad, nar- rowed in front, convex, posterior angles divergent ; moderately closely, but not coarsely, punctured, slightly canaliculated behind; covered with short, erect, blackish hairs, and a few grayish ones near the hind angles. Scwutellum punctulate. Elytva nearly parallel-sided, finely striated, the external strize punctured, inter- stices so punctulated as to appear rugulose, densely clothed with fine, decumbent, griseous hairs. Antenne as long as head and thorax, 3rd joint a little longer than 2nd, these two, together, quite as long as 4th, joints 4-10 serrate. Underside black, punc- tulated, closely covered with yellowish-gray hairs. Easily recognised by the upright hairs on the thorax and the oblique elytral vittee. Length, 4; breadth, 1% lines. One example, in bad condition, taken by Mr. T. F. Cheese- man, F.L.S., on Mount Arthur. TO OUR READERS. SS In entering on the second year of publication of the NEw ZEALAND JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, it is incumbent on us to ad- dress a few words to those who have supported the undertaking in its inception, and are interested in its progress, with a view of showing how it has prospered and what its prospects are. Asa publication we are led to believe that it is generally viewed as a success ; it has fulfilled the promises held out at its start; and its contents and get-up are favourably compared with other colo- nial scientific productions, Its usefulness, too, must be apparent to all engaged in scientific research. As a financial speculation, however, it has not been a success, the cost of printing alone having more than absorbed the receipts. This no doubt is due, to a great extent, tothe fact that it appeals to a limited number of readers, and also, in part, to a lack of support from certain quarters in which support was looked for. One thing has made itself abundantly clear in the course of the past year, and that is that such a publication need never succumb for lack of materials. The question then resolves irself into one of £4 s.d. If the jour- nal is to be carried on, it must receive more support ; whereas, of course, if the sinews of war are not forthcoming, it must be allowed to die a natural death—to add another to the many METHODS OF STUDYING THE ANNELIDA. 305 bantlings which have succumbed from want of nourishment. We have no intention, however, of allowing the thing to col- lapse after so short a trial of existence, and thus we enter with confidence upon. our second year, and will carry the undertaking through to the end of it. If by that time our prospects have not improved, we shall be justified in concluding that the journal, has been premature in its arrival. Meanwhile, we would call upon all who wish to keep this publication afloat, to use their influence in extendingits circulation. ON METHODS OF STUDYING THE ANNELIDA. oe BY WILLIAM A. HASWELL, M.A., B.SC., EDIN. Demonstrator of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, University of Sydney. <>— Many of the most important observations on the structure of the Annelida can only be made on the living or recently-killed animal. Such observations must be carried out by the ordinary methods of compression and of dissection under water, with the aid of the dissecting microscope. But for the demonstration of many points in the structure a process of hardening and section- cutting must be resorted to. Of hardening agents for the Annelida I have found chromic acid and corrosive sublimate, followed in either case by alcohol, to give the best results. The chromic acid should be used ina ‘25 / solution. The Annelide should first be killed ina 1% solu- tion, but should be removed as soon as dead, after being as far as possible straightened, to the weaker solution, in which it may be allowed to remain about three weeks. It should then be washed in water and placed in rectified spirit for a week, and finally in absolute alcohol for a day or two. The corrosive sub- limate should be employed in the form of a concentrated aqueous solution. After remaining in this for half-an-hour to an hour, the animal should be placed in weak (50 %/) alcohol, in which it should remain-for 24 hours. It should then be transferred to 70 7, alcohol for 24 hours more, then placed in strong rectified spirit for two or three days, and finally in absolute alcohol for two or three days more. It will in many cases be found desirable to make two series of sections, viz—sections of the animal as a whole, and sections of individual organs. Before making the former series it will be found desirable to stain the animal as a whole before cutting, to avoid the risk of disarranging the sections involved in staining them separately. This can best be effected by cochineal, by haematoxylin, by diluted Beale’s carmine fluid, or by borax car- mine. The cochineal staining fluid is prepared by soaking cochineal in strong spirit for a day or so, drawing off the solution, 306 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. filtering and diluting if necessary.* This solution stains rapidly and intensely, but I think is inferior to the others mentioned in selective power. The best formula for the haematoxylin is that well known as Kleinenberg’s.f A saturated solution of calcium chloride in 70 ¥ alcohol, with the addition of a little alum, after being filtered is mixed with from six to eight times its volume of 70 Y% alcohol. To this is added a few drops of a concentrated solution of crystallised haematoxylin in absolute alcohol. The colour of the staining fluid thus formed should not be too dark, but a watch-glass full of it should appear nearly opaque when placed on a sheet of white paper. In this solution the Annelide should remain for half a day, and should then be transferred to strong alcohol, to be followed after twelve hours by absolute alco- hol. If the object is seen to be overstained (and it is often very difficult to adjust the strength of the solution and the time of immersion to the state of the specimen, so as to be quite sure of the result), a little hydrochloric acid (a drop to two ounces) should be added to the rectified spirit. For the carmine solution the modification of Beale’s formula recommended by Rutherford{ will be found the best. Ifthe specimen has been hardened in chromic acid, the addition of a little more ammonia may be found advantageous. This should be diluted with its own bulk of water, and the specimen allowed to remain in the solution for twenty-four hours, after which it may be transferred to strong spirit. Grenacher’s borax-carmine, which I have found a very excellent staining fluid for the Annelida, is prepared as follows :—To a 4 ¥ solution of borax in water add 2.5 % of pure carmine; allow the solution to stand for two or three days, stirring it occasionally. Add to thisan equal bulk of 70 % alcohol ; allow it to stand for a week, and then filter, when it will be ready for use. Six to ten hours will be found sufficient to stain the Annelide very thoroughly ; it should then be transferred: to 70 ¥ alcohol, slightly acidulated, for a few hours, then placed in 90 / , and afterwards in absolute alcohol. Before being embedded the specimens should be placed for half-an-hour in creosote, and from that removed to a mixture of creosote and paraffin melted in a water bath. A very excellent embedding material is paraffin and vasellin, in the proportion of three parts of the former to one of the latter. This wax is very readily dissolved out from the sections by a mixture of carbolic acid and turpentine, and moreover it cuts extremely well. It will usually be found unnecessary to wet the knife. To preserve with certainty the order of the sections, they should be placed in series along the slide as they are cut, and, to prevent the possi- bility of disarrangement, the following process will be found of advantage.§ Each slide, after having been carefully cleaned and * Paul Meyer, Mittheilungen aus der Zool. Station zu Neapel, I. + See Foster and Langley’s Practical Physiology, p. 252. { Practical Histology, p. 172. § Giesbricht, Mittheilungen aus der Zool. Stat. zu Neapel. METHODS OF STUDYING THE ANNELIDA. 307 slightly warmed, has placed on its surface a large drop of a care- fully-filtered solution of shellac in absolute alcohol ; the drop is caused to run over the whole surface by tilting the slide, or is spread over by means of a glass rod, and the superfluous fluid is drained off. In this way the slide is covered with a thin trans- parent layer of shellac. Before use the surface of the slide (slightly warmed) is gently pencilled over with clove oil. When the sections have all been placed on the slide, it is placed over a water-bath heated to about 130° Fahr., until the smell of clove oil can no longer bedetected. It is then allowed to cool, and the surface flooded with turpentine, or a mixture of I part of carbolic acid to 3 of turpentine, to dissolve the paraffin. If turpentine alone is used, it will be found advisable to replace it with clove oil after the paraffin is dissolved out, before mounting in balsam or dammar. I find it a great saving of time, trouble, and space to place the sections in order along the slide in two rows, about 30-50 in each row, and to cover each row with a single long slip of thin glass about half an inch broad and about an inch shorter than the slide. The slips are laid on after the paraffin has be- come thoroughly dissolved out and the sections have cleared up, and the balsam in a thin solution is run in at the sides, For the finest sections the shellac method described above, in which the object must be cut dry, is not very favourable. These are better cut in many cases with the aid of a large drop of sweet oil to cover the surface of the object and the portion of the knife with which it is being cut. When the sections are very delicate and brittle, they must be floated on the oil from the knife to the slide; the superfluous oil must then be drawn off with bibulous paper, and the paraffin dissolved out as before with turpentine. There are many cases, however, in which the finest sections can be made without the aid of the oil, and it is well to do without it when possible, as it is somewhat diffi- cult to dissolve away from the sections, and sometimes delays their complete clearing up. ON A MARINE CADDIS-FLY FROM NEW ZEALAND* (Philanisus, Walker, =Anomalostoma, Brauer). <> BY R. MCLACHLAN, F.R.S., F.L.S., HON. MEMB. N. Z. INST. eee ees In April of this year I received a letter from Prof. F. W: Hutton, of Canterbury College, Christchurch New Zealand, in which was the startling announcement that the larva of a Caddis- fly lives habitually in rock-pools, between high and low water- marks, in Lyttleton Harbour in that colony, and forms its case of coralline seaweed. Hehad often attempted to rear the perfect —————’ *Read before the Linnean Society of London, 15th June, 1882. 308 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. insect, but only once succeeded, and that when he was away from home; so that only the dead remains were obtainable. Prof. Hutton gave me the welcome intelligence that these remains, with larva and case, were on their way to this country in charge of a friend who was coming home. This gentleman (Mr. C. C. Bowen, Governor of the Canterbury Province) recently arrived, and the materials are now in my hands. We are so accustomed to associate Caddis-worms with fresh water, that the arrival of these materials was awaited by me with not unnatural impatience. We are already acquainted witha terrestrial species (Zzozcyla); but no truly marine form had been recorded. Itis, I believe, known that at least one _ species can exist in the brackish water of the shores of the Baltic, at any rate in the vicinity of the mouths of large rivers. Others certainly manage to exist in marshes that are liable to the occasional influx of salt water during high tides, and in pools near the sea-shore into which sea-water sometimes enters in large quantities during storms. These instances, however, scarcely affect the matter now under consideration. So far as I can ascertain, these New Zealand larve are quite outside the influence of river-water ; and the materials of which the case is chiefly composed appear to prove this. The specimens before me are not in good condition on the whole. Theyconsist of :— . (i.) A straight tubular cylindrical case, 10 millim. long by nearly 3 millim. in diameter, which is nearly equal throughout. To the inner silken tube are attached fragments of some white coralline seaweed (with a few quartz [?] fragments &c.), arranged in no special order. In one or two instances the fragments are larger, showing the jointed nature of the alga; but mostly they consist of single joints. The case is empty; but I think it wasa pupa-case, one end showing signs of having been closed in a manner that is usual when the inmate is in the pupal condition. (ii.) A larva (probably young), mounted asa transparent object on a microscopic slide, crushed and a good deal damaged. This larva is 6 millim. long. The head is rounded oval in form, blackish above, but with three pale spots, one posteriorly, the two others (smaller) on each side of the disk ; there are also pale dots round the small eye-spots ; the anterior margin and labrum are provided with long hairs. Viewed from beneath, the mouth-parts are not discernible. The pronotum is narrow and transverse, but with anterior angles much produced; the colour is testaceous, mottled with paler ; fringed with long hairs. Mesonotum similar in form, but somewhat broader, and the angles less produced ; almost entirely pale yellowish, slightly mottled with testaceous ; less chitinous than either the head or pronotum. Metanotum the broadest segment of the thorax, scarcely chitinous ; the sides apparently with a hair-bearing tubercle. Legs wholly bright yellow ; the anterior pair short, the two other pairs longer (not extraordinarily long) and nearly equal. All the legs are simple a. ON A MARINE CADDIS-FLY. 309 (without teeth or spines), and present nothing unusual in form ; the claw very long and curved. Abdominal segments having the sides nearly parallel, apparently bright yellow in life ; terminal segment dilated, its posterior margin angular and notched in the middle. Anal claw very short, piceous, much curved, and seated on a strong protuberance ; on either side of the posterior margin of the anal segment is a tuft of very long black hairs. I can discover no trace of stigmata in the larva in its present condition, and the respiratory filaments are rather uncertain ; but there are distinct traces of bundles composed of three or four short fila- ments on either side of the ventral surfaee of the first and second abdominal segments; on the other segments I cannot define traces of filaments. (iii.) On the same slide are disconnected fragments of what Prof. Hutton assumed to be the perfect insect. Here he was a little mistaken. The fragments are those of a male pupa which had died before transformation, probably from being without anything in the jar of water up which it could crawl into the open air for metamorphosis. All the fragments show the transparent pupa integument enveloping the perfect insect, which was fully formed and ready to emerge. Ordinarily it would be almost impossible to identify a species from such fragments. The man- dibles are very long and strong, sickle shaped. but considerably dilated at the basal articulation (they are more formidable structures than are often seen in Trichopterous pups). But neither these, the antennee, nor the unexpanded wings would have given any clue had the maxillary palpi not rendered identi- fication both possible and certain. These organs prove that the New Zealand marine Caddis-fly isno other than P&zlanisus plebejus, Walker(=Anomalostoma alloneura, Brauer), a species in which the maxillary palpi of the male present a remarkable and unique conformation of the second joint, which is very long, curved, and having the insertion of the third joint placed consider- ably before its apex. (In the female the second joint is also long ; but the third joint is inserted, as is usual a¢ its apex.) So far this is a very satisfactory conclusion to arriveat. But Philanisus plebejus is already known from several localities in New Zealand ; and one would like to know if it is always found on the sea-shore. The other locality-records give us no informa- tion on this point. | The insect was first noticed (I can scarcely say “described ”) by Walker in 1852, in Part I. of the ‘ Catalogue of the Specimens of Neuropterous Insects in the Collection of the British Museum,’ p. 115, asa new genus and species which he termed Phzlanzsus plebejus, indicated as from ‘New Zealand, Dr Sinclair.” Walker made no mention of the extraordinary formation of the palpi; his diagnosis is very vague ; and he placed the insect in the family Hydropsychide. In the Neuropterous portion of the ‘Reise der Novara, published in 1866, Dr. Brauer gave a very detailed and full description, with excellent figures, of the same insect, under 310 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. the name Axomalostoma alloneura (pp. 15-20, pl. i. figs. 6A, 6B), worked out with that care for which he is so well known, the examples having been taken at Auckland by Frauenfeld. Brauer evidently had suspicions that Azomalostoma might be identical with P#z/anzsus, as is indicated at p. 16, and entered a protest against the adoption of Walker’s name in case the insects should prove the same. It is not my intention here to enter into a discussion on the application of the rule of priority ; suffice it to say that I agree with Brauer on principle, but sometimes doubt the practicability of his suggestions. He placed the insect in the family Rhyacophilidz, in which he was followed by me in the Journ: ‘Litin: Soc., vol. x.;p.'2T4. Now that we know the habits of the insect, it is clear that it cannot remain either amongst the Hydropsychidee or the Rhya- cophilide. In both these families the larve construct perma- nently fixed cases, not moveable tubes. The anomalous structure of the palpi, and also the neuration, would suggest the Sericosto- matidee as a position ; but in this family the maxillary palpi of the male are not only differently formed to those of the female, but have also fewer joints. In P£Azlanisus the joints are five in both sexes ; therefore I see no alternative other than to consider it an anomalous form of the family Leptoceride, to which the structure of the larvais not opposed. Perhaps the point on which itis most divergent from any other described species of this family is the structure of the apex of the abdomen in the female, which is produced into a very long, straight, pointed, horny ovipositor (as in many Hydropsychide and Rhyacophilide, but more pronounced); in what way this structure may perhaps bein correlation with the presumably constant marine habitat remains to be seen. The importance of Prof. Hutton’s discovery rendered it desir- able that a detailed account should be given as far as the materials would permit. Now that the connection of this marine larva with Philanisus is proved, I hope he, or some other entomologist in New Zealand, may be able to give us fuller details ; examples of the larvee and pupe preserved in alcohol are also desirable. POSTSCRIPT. In the same package with the materials for the marine Caddis- fly Prof. Hutton forwarded specimens illustrating the economy of two other species of New Zealand Trichoptera, from the Weka Pass, Canterbury. (i) Helicopsyche-—Numerous cases regularly formed, constructed of fine sand, 3%-4 millim. in diameter by 134-2 millim. high, with nearly three complete whorls. Some are empty; others contain larva and pupxe. Accompanying them were two female pupee emerged from the cases, and ready for the final metamor- phosis. So far as can be judged, the perfect insect should be congeneric with the species that have been reared in Europe and ON A MARINE CADDIS-FLY. 311 in North and South America. I refrain from bestowing names upon cases only*. (ii.) Fixed cases, probably constructed by the larve of some unknown genus and species of Rhyacophilidee, which should be of about the size of some of the smaller European species of Rhyacothila. The pupais enveloped in a special cocoon, as is usual in the family, and does not agree with the genus Rhyacophila either in spurs.or palpi. P4Azlanisus having been removed from the family, the latter is now without any described representative in New Zealand. Oftwo cases one is wholly composed of stony (? granitic) fragments; the other partially of similar fragments, partially of shells (of two or three species), and partially of the cases of the Helicopsyche referred to above. SCIENCE-TEACHING IN OUR SECONDARY POCEOOLS, “WITH ESPECIAL.” REFERENCE)-FO UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS. —_- <> ———— BY GEO, M. THOMSON, F.L.S., SCIENCE TEACHER IN THE DUNEDIN HIGH SCHOOLS. — _ In view of the approaching annual meeting of the Senate of the New Zealand University, it is perhaps desirable to take into consideration the position occupied by science-teaching in our secondary schools, the suitability of the various subjects taught, and the nature and amount of encouragement which it receives at the hands of the University authorities. Hitherto, those who are responsible for this part of our school instruction, have not made their voices heard in any discussions which have been raised on the subject, and it is with the object of presenting the aspect of the question from a teacher’s point of view, that I am tempted to advance my opinions in these columns. Limited space must be my excuse for treating the question briefly. It has been a matter of considerable difficulty to obtain infor- mation as to the teaching of science in our secondary schools, and my attempts in this direction have not met with unqualified success. It is evident, however, that most of the subjects in- cluded under the head of science are still treated with a con- siderable amount of suspicion by a certain section of the teach- ing community, In some cases it is only owing to the pressure of outside opinion that they find a place in our curriculum. This is most frequently shown by the fact that, with one or two ex- * Helicopsyche-cases from New Zealand have long been in the British Museum, and have several times been alluded to by me in various published notes. 312 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. ceptions, little or no special provision is made for their teaching.* The subjects are generally relegated to a junior master, who has little or no apparatus at his disposal, and who has to teach his classes in any ordinary class-room, whether it be suited for the purpose or not. The teacher, too, has usually been selected for his special aptitude in any but science subjects, the latter being mere makeweights. The time given to the subjects is also very short, in most cases ranging from one to two hours per week. Under these circumstances it is not to be wondered at that the lessons, instead of developing the observational and reasoning faculties, often degenerate into mere lectures on the part of the teacher, and a committal of the information received by the pupils to notes and memory, without a single practical demonstration having been afforded. One result of such work is, of course, to lower the subjects in the estimation, not only of the general teaching community, but of the pupils themselves, who, in later years, may well look back with distrust on the so- called science they have been crammed with. The causes of this state of things are not very far toseek. Among them are :—(1) The fact that science-teachers have very frequently been men of one idea, who lauded their particular subject to a degree which was nauseous to teachers of other—and in their own estimation—far more important subjects, and though this class of men is not now nearly so common, many teachers of twenty or thirty years’ standing can testify to their former frequent occurrence. (2) The heads of schools, whose opinions ought to be of great weight with the governing bodies, having been generally selected chiefly for proficiency in the teaching of classics or ma- thematics, are naturally inclined to follow to a very considerable extent the systeras of instruction in which they were themselves educated. (3) The strong scientific reaction which is permeating University teaching everywhere, is only now beginning to make itself felt in the schools, as it is only within the last ten or fifteen years that men who have made science their speciality have been turned out in any appreciable number. (4) A spirit of conser- vatism—outcome of the old scholastic spirit—still survives strongly, and has been further strengthened by that caution which is necessary in introducing new subjects and modes into our educational systems. These are no doubt some of the causes which have tended to retard the advancement of science to a first place in the school curriculum. * Tt is due to the Board of Governors of the Dunedin High Schools to say that the arrangements made for science-teaching in the schools under their care are ex cellent, and are such as are not possessed by any other secondary school in the Colony. The teacher’s time is devoted to science alone, and he is not reponsible for nor is called upon to teach any other subjects. A large and specially fitted labora- tory is set apart for his exclusive use, and is supplied with every requisite for the practical teaching of chemistry and botany, the two subjects which are taken up. The arrangements which are being made in the new school now in course of con- struction are on a still more elaborate and complete scale. Under such circum- stances the author feels that he can speak freely as one who is placed above the very defects he seeks to remedy SCIENCE-TEACHING IN OUR SCHOOLS. 313 To judge from the past it is certain that this branch of learn- ing will eventually come to be a recognised and a valuable part of every secondary school course, but it is equally certain that it will have to be conducted on a more definite and methodical plan than is at present adopted in the majority of our schools. The relative suitabilities of the different subjects which come under the general head of science will have to be recognised. and only those selected which can be most advantageously taught. This is a matter of primary importance, and a few remarks on this point may not be out of place. It may be pre- mised that besides training the reasoning faculties, scientific teaching should aim at developing the observational faculties in a degree not equalled by any other educational subjects. In re- lation to the teacher himself, all branches of science are not suitable, as it depends greatly on the bias of each individual as to what he can most effectively take up. The question for him must not be, what subjects he can obtain a maximum of passes in, but in what manner can he most effectively develope in the minds of his pupils the scientific method of looking at all questions. This ought to be his aim; but as he is apt to be judged by an empirical standard which asks for immediate re- sults, and as this standard is looked upon as the guage of his ' success, he most frequently reduces his aim to comply with it. In the case of the secondary schools of New Zealand, this stan- dard exists in the Junior Scholarship Examination of the Uni- versity. It behoves the authorities of the University, therefore, to fix this standard with due care, making it as high as it can be placed with safety, and to do all in their power to encourage actual work and to discourage cram. The task must always be a difficult one, as no general system of practical examination has yet been hit upon, and for lack of this the best part of a teacher’s work, that namely which is due to his personal influence and enthusiasm, is not tested. In regard to the pupils, the training of the observational faculty should be begun early in their educational career. In the primary and preparatory schools it should take the form first ot properly conducted object lessons (not notes out of a book, but lessons on the physical properties of objects actually in the hands of the class), and later on, of special lessons in some defi- nite branch such as physiography or structural botany. Indeed, the latter science should find a place in every school, as it will be found to be the most useful preliminary training which can be adopted as a preparation for more advanced scientific work. The materials for its study are always readily available, and their examination does not necessitate the “ messing ” which accompanies some other branches of scientific work. It can be conducted in any class-room, or in country districts even out of doors, and for a very long time no apparatus (in the form of pocket lenses, &c.) is required. The pupil is introduced to a technical vocabulary, the acquisition and correct application of 314 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. which form a valuable training in themselves, and lead to habits of accurate definition. When carried past the stage of examina- tion of external structure only, the study of this science, still without entailing cost of microscopes, carries with it a knowledge of the principles of generalization and classification. Taken then, in its entirety, no science subject can be considered to have an equal value for school purposes.* Closely allied to the last, but far less suitable as a teaching subject, is zoology. In the first place it is open to the objection that it cannot be studied without making more or less “ mess,” and this can only be overcome by having rooms specially fitted with appliances for its teaching. This would entail an expense disproportionate to the value of the subject. It has the further disadvantage of covering an enormous amount of ground, while the important processes of reproduction and development, which constitute the very back-bone of the science, cannot well be in- troduced into mixed or juvenile classes. I look upon this—the most fascinating of all sciences—as, therefore, an inappropriate one for the majority of schools. Geology is another subject which can seldom be taught with advantage, except perhaps in a few localities, where the condi- tions are exceptionally favourable. For a due comprehension of its phenomena, a large amount of experience and power of drawing correct references are needed. In most cases, however, the surrounding geological conditions will be found eminently unsuitable for observational lessons to beginners. But one branch of the subject—viz., physiography—may be taught, as Huxley has shewn, with great advantage, as it appeals to the observational faculties in the first place, and brings into promi- nence the law of cause and effect. Neither with regard to this subject, nor with regard to physiology, which is attempted in a number of schools, can I speak from personal experience. While the knowledge of the facts dealt with by the latter are of primary importance, I am somewhat doubtful as to its pedagogic value. Direct observation being out of the question, the teacher is con- strained to use diagrams and models, both of which, to be good, are expensive. Without them the lessons may be of use as les- sons on general information, but they cease to have an educa- tional value. In this connection, and before leaving the so-called natural sciences, I think it advisable to draw attention to the fact that in the Junior Scholarships examinations, as now defined, the only subject included under this head is elementary biology. The following is the category of science subjects, and the scope of the biology paper, as stated in the calendar for 1882 :— * Though it has no direct bearing on the present subject, I may point out that the teaching of botany and kindred sciences has an indirect moral value, as furnish- ing our youth with a study of great interest and fascination, the pursuit of which will prove to them of life-long value, and which introduces them to questions of the high- est importance. From this point of view alone, scientific education has a high value, SCIENCE-TEACHING IN OUR SCHOOLS. 315 “Natural and Physical Sciences:—Any two of the follow- | ing— (2) Inorganic Chemistry. (2) Electricity. (c) Sound and Light. (dq) Heat. (e) Elementary Mechanics of Solids and Fluids. (f) Elementary Biology, (viz.) The structure and life-history of such typical unicellular organisms as Bacterium, Saccharomyces, Protococcus, or Closterium and Ameceba ; and of such multicellular organisms as Penicillium, Mucor or Agaricus, Spirogyra, or any other multicellular Alga, Nitella and Hydra, or any other hydroid polyp; and the anatomy, physiology, and histology of a flowering plant and of a cray-fish.” I cannot but think that this last selection is a mistake, and that it would be far better to expunge it from the catalogue, and put botany and zoology in its place, as was formerly done, and as is still done in the matriculation examination. My reasons for objecting to elementary biology are reasons of expediency, and will, I consider, be thought sufficiently weighty by any one who has had experience in teaching scholars at the age (and in the numbers) at which we have to deal with them in secondary schools. The subject, taught on the Huxleyan plan, is eminently suitable for students who have arrived at a sufficiently mature age to be attending University, but is not particularly so for school boys and girls. In the first place the five typical unicellular organisms named are microscopic structures, requiring for their mere identification lenses of high power and good definition, while the study of their life-histories necessitates the perfection of microscopic manipula- tion. This alone constitutes an objection to their employment as suitable objects for beginners. Boys and girls are not blessed with an unlimited stock of patience, a virtue which commonly developes later on in life, and if after long looking they fail to see points which appear to the teacher—with his long practice— quite clear, they are apt to be repelled from, rather than be at- tracted to, the subject. Any one who has worked out the his- tory of a unicellular organism will bear me out in saying that without long preliminary training in the use of the microscope and in histological methods, little or no result will accrue from personal observation. It takes long practice even to know what one is looking at under a microscope, and the time to acquire this practice cannot be obtained in a class of any size, unless each pupil is furnished with an instrument. As yet, we area long way from such a desirable state of affairs in our New Zea- land schools, and we should not have conditions imposed on teachers which they cannot satisfy. As the matter now stands, the inclusion of such subjects in our examinations appears to me to defeat one of the objects of scientific instruction. The main 316 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, feature of the teaching method introduced by Huxley consists in the fact that the pupils are expected to Avow the structure and the history of the subjects studied from actual observation ; they are to take nothing for granted, nor to accept anything as gos- pel, but are to verify the information communicated to them regarding any organism by direct examination, or by analogy from the examination of allied structures. But in the case of such organisms as those referred to, actual examination is almost impossible to any but those furnished with excellent instruments, and who can devote hours of patient observation to the research. These conditions are not found in the best-furnished of our schools, and probably among the students examined, all or nearly all will be found to have acquired the information they possess on these subjects solely from their text book. At the other end of the list I have an equally strong objec- tion to the cray-fish. Nothing can be more interesting in the field of biology than the study of this animal, and nothing sup- plies better lessons in comparative anatomy and physiology. In a well-furnished physiological laboratory with a limited number of students, nothing could be pleasanter than to work out the structure and development of this typical crustacean. But how is it to be taught to a score of boys in an ordinary class-room ? Imagine the “ mess,” the difficulty of getting and keeping up a supply of “specimens,” and altogether the unsuitability of the thing in view of ordinary school arrangements. The result which will follow from putting such a subject before pupils just leaving our schools, will be either that they elect to eschew ele- mentary biology altogether; or, if they select it, they will get it up largely by “cram,” the very thing which it is sought to avoid. Of the physical sciences, chemistry is by far the most compre- hensive, as a correct apprehension even of its rudiments requires more or less knowledge of other branches of physics. As the result of my experience, I advance the opinion that very little good accrues—unless in exceptional cases—from the teaching of any of the physical sciences to boys and girls under fourteen or fifteen years of age. When the mind has reached the stage at which the intellectual faculties begin to manifest themselves conspicuously, when the possibility of abstract reasoning begins to show itself, then the study of physics may be most advan- tageously commenced. Before that period the youthful mind may master the facts presented to it, but it does not usually comprehend the why and the wherefore of them, nor can it deduce the results aimed at. The study of these sciences may in fact be commenced along with, or soon after the pupil has entered on, that of mathematics, but before that I think the teaching of it is apt to be thrown to the winds. I have always found that those pupils who have shown an aptitude for mathe- matics have as a rule made good progress in physical science, doing better in it than in the natural sciences; while, on the con- SCIENCE-TEACHING IN OUR SCHOOLS. By: tray, those with a non-mathematical turn have seldom shone in physics. No branch of physical science can be taught well without the requisite appliances. Certainly in many cases these need not be of an expensive character, and the ingenious teacher can illus- trate many of the phenomena of heat, light, sound, and chemical action by means of apparatus and utensils in every day use. But to elucidate his whole subject, he must have certain special kinds of apparatus, and these are possessed by few of our schools. Chemistry in particular requires a somewhat elaborate stock, both of material and apparatus, and without these it is better policy on the part of teachers to take up some other subject which would more easily be illustrated. Electricity (and magnetism) also require apparatus, and that of a somewhat expensive kind. My own opinion, which will not perhaps meet with much favour from physicists, is that this science is best left alone until the principles of some of the allied sciences are mastered. Its phenomena are not readily presented to the mind in a thinkable form, and, as a matter of fact, a very considerable familiarity with these phenomena may be acquired without any corresponding knowledge of the principles under- lying them. While both things are important, the knowledge of principles is much more so, from an educational point of view, than the practical acquaintance is. Again in this connection I am tempted to review the position assigned to the physical sciences in the~ University Junior Scholarship examination. In the list of subjects scheduled, in- organic chemistry, sound and light, heat, electricity, and elemen- tary biology,* are all placed in the same standard as far as values are concerned, 500 marks being assigned to each. Those who are practically acquainted with, and have taught these subjects, know that to attain equal results in each, very different amounts of teaching and of study are required. No doubt examination papers could be set so as to reduce all to an equal value, but in practice this is rarely done. It requires a far more considerable amount of study to be able to answer questions over the wide fields of chemistry and of biology than it does over the more limited and definite subjects of heat, light, sound, and electricity. I can point to more than one instance of pupils who have been engaged for two years or more on the study of one of the wider subjects, but who, six months before their going up for examina- tion, dreading that they could not compass all the field, have thrown it up, taken up one of the four above-mentioned (which was previously unknown to them), and with that brief “cram” out of a text-book, have passed successfully. This is certainly not one of the results which the Senate of the University desire, and though such work under the best devised scheme of ex- amination will always be more or less possible, still it is neces- * T leave out of account the ‘‘ Elementary Mechanics of Solids and Fluids,” as I have no practical acquaintance—as a teacher—with the subject. 318 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. sary to take those precautions which will tend to reduce it toa minimum. As every examiner knows, there are two limits to be equally avoided in the setting of papers. One is, not to set them too low, as then the subject is taken up solely as a “pass” one, and the standard is unworthily lowered. The other is of course not to set them too high, as in that case candidates are apt to avoid the subject altogether as one which “does not pay.” In my own humble opinion the former tendency has been shown in our University examinations in the papers set on physical sciences. This may be remedied to some extent by amalgamating heat and electricity as one subject, as sound and light are treated. Elementary biology also should give place to botany and zoology. I hope the day is not far distant when every candidate for University Honours will require to pass in one branch each of physical and natural science. To attain this desirable consum- mation, all occupied in teaching these subjects must work ear- nestly, but judiciously, not obtruding their dogmas offensively, nor blazoning them abroad as the universal panacea which is to revolutionise the existing state of things. On the contrary, they must possess their souls in patience, must build up in the minds of the rising generation a strong conviction that the scientific method is the right one, and must show to the intellectual world at large that the subjects which they teach possess a high - educational value, and one which will be of lasting and practical utility to its possessors. CORRESPONDENCE. a MARINE CADDIS-WORMS. S1rR,—It may interest your entomological readers to learn, with reference to the marine caddis-worm found last year by Professor Hutton in Lyttelton harbour, and recently described by Mr. R. M‘Lauchlin in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, that some months ago I found a specimen of a very similar tri- chopterous larva among seaweeds between tide marks in Port Jackson. The case was composed of minute fragments of alge, and the form of the head and of the abdominal appendages re- sembled closely that of the corresponding parts of the New Zealand species, as figured by Mr. M‘Lauchlin.—I am, &c., WILLIAM A. HASWELL. Sydney, Oct. 4th, 1882. , + * 4 4 NEW ZEALAND MOLLUSCA, 319 MEW ZEALAND MOLLUSCA OF THE “CHALLEN- GER” EXPEDITION. ————<—<—<—=- —_ BY REV. R. BOOG WATSON, F.L.S., etc. Extracted from the Linnean Society’s Journal-Zoology, 1879, etc. DENTALIUM DIARRHOX, Watson. P.L.S. xiv., p. 511. emnOOauly 10; 1874.) dt. 37° 34.55 10n. 170; 22°) KN. from New Zealand. 700 fms., Grey ooze, 4 specimens. Animal_—Mantle white, body pale yellow. Captacula many, fine, long, and equal, with small ovoid points. Foot and collar those of a true Dentalium. Shell—White (chalky), but porcellanous beneath the surface ; rather straight, with a considerable bend near the apex, of rather rapid expansion from a very fine apex. Sculpture-—The whole surface is faintly marked with scarcely-impressed longitudinal lines of very equal interval (about 0.0055 apart) ; transversely it is very faintly scratched all over by very slight lines, which run elliptically round the shell. The apex has a very narrow slightly ragged fissure, about 0.027 in. long, which lies unsymmetrically on the convex curve. L.? B.0.9. This differs from D. leptosceles, W., in being more curved and more conical. It resembles in form the young of D. lubricatum, G. B. Sow., B.M., “from Australia”; but in that the transverse strize are much less oblique, and the surface is lubricate and po- lished. CADULUS COLUBRIDENS, Watson, l.c. xiv., p. 523. Brag. July 10, 1874. Lat. 37° 34. S.; long. 179° 22).E. N.E. point of New Zealand. 700 fms., Grey ooze, I specimen. Shell—Like an adder’s fang ; long, sharp, bent, very slightly flattened, swollen near the broader end. The swell, which is faintly angulated and is at one-fourth of the length, is chiefly on the convex curve, but is visible on the concave curve too. From the angulation the curve is very equable in either direction. About two-thirds a long towards the apex, it bends more back. The shell is thin, brilliant, semi-opaque, white. Scw/pture.—Very faint and fine scratches on the lines of growth. Mouth large, oval, very slightly flattened on the front side, from which the thin sharp edge is obliquely cut off towards the convex curve. The foste- rior opening is much smaller, nearly round, and the edge is thin and chipped. L.o0.58; B, at mouth 0.067, at swell 0.1, at apex 0.033. This is twice the size of C. gadus, Montague; but it resembles that in the angulation, which, however, is here more marked at the summit of the swelling ; its expansion from the smaller end 320 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. is much more gradual, and its contraction from the angulation on to the mouth is more rapid. TURRITELLA CARLOTTA, Watson, l.c. xv., p. 222. ot. 162... April 2,.18745.. Lat39°..10'. 30°, 3.3 enero ae E.. Moncceur Island, Bass Straits. 38-40 fms., sand. St. 1674... June 27, 1874... luat,- Al, -4. )S.0 Jonge o1Q alt, Queen Charlotte Sound, New Zealand, 10 fms., mud. Shell—High, narrow, conical, with slightly-impressed suture and an angular flattened base, thin, translucent, with fine ruddy spiral threads. Sculpture —Longitudinals—these are fine, thread-like, slose-set curved lines of growth. Spirals—there are two principals, two secondary, and very many minor spirals, but the relative value of these varies a good deal; they are little raised, but distinct. The base is covered with fine crowded spi- rals, of which those near the edge are stronger than the rest. The microscopic system of spirals is fine, sharp, and distinct. Colour, yellowish ashy white, with a suffused ruddy brown on the upper part-of the whorls, and a stronger shade of the same colour defining the more important spirals. The colour becomes alto- gether paler up the spire, and the apex is white. Sfzve very per- fectly conical; but the profile lines are interrupted by the im- pressed sutures. Afgex small, rounded, smooth, and glossy, consisting of 144 embryonic whorl ; the next whorl is slightly angulated, after which the regular sculpture begins. Whorls 15, very slightly convex on the sides, contracting gradually upwards into the suture; towards the bottom of the whorl the contrac- tion into the suture is shorter, straighter (z.e. less convex), and more rapid ; they are of very gradual and regular increase. To- wards the upper part of the spire the curve of the profile line of each whorl becomes increasingly stronger. The base is flat, very slightly conical, sharply angulated, and not contracted at the edge. Suture very slight, but well defined. d/outh small, angu- larly rounded, a little higher than broad. Outer-lip a little drawn in and advancing on the edge of the base. descends straight to the lower outer angle, is flat across the base, and a little patulous in front of the pillar-point. The generic sinus in the outer-lip is parabolic in form. Inner-lip—There is not (though the spe- cimens are full-grown) even a glaze across the body nor round the base of the pillar ; but on older specimens this may probably exist. Pzllar is a little concave, rather direct, with a thin rounded edge. Efidermis a very thin and delicate calcareous membrane obviously not extraneous; it adheres to the top of the spirals, and stretches across their furrows. It is sparsely cleft by minute gaping rents in the direction of the lines of growth, and the microscopic sculpture ot the shell is traceable in it, but rather on its under than its upper surface. H. 0.95, B.0.28, least 0.25. Penultimate whorl, height 0.15. Mouth, height 0.16, breadth, 0.14. NEW ZEALAND MOLLUSCA. 321 This species has some resemblance, both in form and sculp- ture, to 7. kuzysnaensis, Krauss, but it is narrower, suture less impressed, whorls not so convex ; the embryonic apex is very like, but in the “Challenger” species it is a little more swollen and depressed. -NATICA AMPHIALA, Watson, l.c. xv., p. 260. erivao! sjulyire, 1874. Lat. 37° 34° Sis long. 179° 22H. N.E. from New Zealand. 700 fms., Grey ooze. Bottom tem- perature, 40° F. Shell_—Thick, depressedly globose, with a small scalar, rather elevated spire, and a narrow obliquely-pointed base ; pale yellow, umbilicated. Sculpture—Longitudinals—There are many fine close-set lines of growth. Spirals—There are a few faint traces . of obsolete lines and furrows ; there is a slight angulation round the mouth of the umbilical pore. Colour is slightly brownish yel- low, but is pure porcellanous white below the epzdermis, which is thin, slightly puckered, smooth, not glossy, persistent. Spzre short. but abrupt andscalar. Ager seemingly rather large, but abraded, Whorls, 4-5 narrow, flatly rounded, of gradual increase to the last, which is disproportionately large, especially towards the mouth. Swzture strong, slightly channelled, almost quite horizon- tal. Mouth large, oval, very little oblique, and rather straight, scarcely pointed above ; it is more than two-thirds of the whole height. Outer-lip sharp, but strong, patulous throughout. Jz- ner-ltp straightish, but slightly concave in its whole length ; it is expanded on the labial callus, which is thick, but has no labial nor umbilical pad; the front of the pillar is thickened and flat- tened back on the very indistinct circumumbilical carina. OUm- bilicus is arather coarse, pervious, smallish round hole, hardly encroached on at all by theinner-lip. Operculum membranaceous thinnish, of a yellow colour, with a dark maroon outer edge which does not quite coil into the centre. H. 0.27, B.0.25; penulti- mate whorl, height, 0.07 ; mouth, height 0.21, breadth 0.17. This species combines a flattened globose form with a pro- minent pointed base and a small raised scalar spire, in a way that is very peculiar; so much so, indeed, that it almost recalls an Amphibola. A. tenuis, Gray, in particular, has features of re- semblance. It very slightly resembles VV. xana, Moller, from Greenland ; but the body whorl is more depressed, the spire is more enserted, and the umbilicus is not closed, as in that species. (To be continued). 322 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. ABSTRACT OF PAPER ON DESMIDIE: > Read at Meeting of Canterbury Institute, October 5, 1882. The introductory remarks contain acknowledgements of in- debtedness to Dr. Spencer, of Napier (from whom several of the plants described have come), to Mr. Joshua, F.L.S., of Cirencester, England, and to Professor Nordstedt, of Lund, Sweden, who have sent tothe author various European Desmidiezeand papersthereon. Also a statement of the system of measurements adopted in the paper, the basis of which is one ph=1-1000th millimetre=about 1-25000th inch. This system, first proposed by continental microscopists, is gradually gaining ground in England as being intelligible to observers of all nations. In the journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, there is inserted every few: months a series of tables showing the conversion of English inches and foreign fractions of metres into » and probably in a few years the system will be universally adopted. The paper itself consists of two parts. Part I contains the description of all the species of Desmidieze which have come under the notice of the author since his first paper in 1880, whether new species or identical with European plants. In this part all the plants received from Napier, if they had not been previously observed by the author in Canterbury, are marked with the distinguishing letter S. The conjugation of Desmidiez has been observed since 1880 in some half-a-dozen species, but for some reason or other this process seems to be much more rare here than in England. Even ' when seen here, except on two occasions, in the case of Closter- num acerosum and Pentium margaritaceum, conjugation occurred only in detached specimens; in those two plants gatherings were made of large masses of conjugating fronds. Only two of the Desmids described appear to be new species, but several are believed to be new varieties. The following list contains all those described in Part I. as probably new, exclusive, that is, of European plants :— Cosmarium valfsi, var. B, var, nov.—Distinguished by its minute size, which is quite constant. Length 37°5 pn. Cosmarium obsoletum, Hantzsch, var. punctatum ; var. nov. The original plant is very rare in Europe, and occurs also very sparingly (teste Nordstedt) in the Sandwich Islands. It is dis- tinguished by short awns at the entrance of the constriction. The present variety differs in having distinct puncta. Diameter 60 p Cosmarium speciosum, Nordstedt, var. inflatum ; var. nov.—Very small, and prettily marked with vadiating gemmules, producing a grooved effect. The new variety differs in having a prominent inflation on each segment. Length 72 p. ABSTRACT OF PAPER ON DESMIDIEZ4. 323 Cosmarium cyclicum, Lundell, var. ampliatum ; var. nov.—The original is exceedingly rare in England. It has a deep, narrow constriction, whereas the N.Z. variety has a wide, gaping con- striction. The frond is marked with radiating gemmules. Dia- meter 50 p. Cosmarium nndulatum, var B, var. nov.—A doubtful variety, chiefly distinguished by its minute size, but this is variable. Length about 33 p. Cosmarium tenue, spec. nov.—Very minute ; length only 15 p; somewhat resembling C. bioculatum, but having no isthmus and a deep narrow constriction. Stauvastrum eustephanum, var. emarginatum ; var. nov.—lIt is diffi- cult to give an abstract description of this little plant. In side view it resembles nearly S. spinmosum ; in end view it shows a tri- angle with emarginate sides, and, as if placed on the face of the triangle, a star of six rays. The rays are bifurcate. and the angles of the triangle are produced into sharp awns. Length of sides of triangle, exclusive of awns, 25 p. Staurvastyvum clepsydva, Spencer; spec. nov.—The author has been allowed by Dr. Spencer to include in his paper this plant, which appears to be a new species resembling S. dejectum, but differing in the broad junction of the segments, which junction is about half the width of the trond. Bodies which are probably zygospores of this plant were observed ; they have fewer spines than those of S. dejectum. Triploceras tridentatum, Maskell, var. cylindvicum; var. nov.— Differs from the original (Trans. Vol. XIII.) in having greater thickness and circular section. Probably both plants ought to be relegated to the genus Pleuvotenium. Rabenhorst rejects Bailey’s name Triplocevas. All these plants are ficured i in an attached plate. Besiees the above nine plants, thirty others are included in the paper which are believed to be identical with species described from elsewhere. Part II. contains notes on some of the Desmidiez included in the auther’s paper in Vol. xIII. of the Transactions. A note is devoted to the distinctions of Micrasterias votata and M. denticulata, which the author considers too slight to separate’ the plants, and to the differences observable in the New Zealand form. First, this is invariably a good deal larger than the English plant, the diameter of the former being from 320, to 400 uw against 270 mw for the latter ; secondly the teeth are more numerous and sharper; thirdly, the terminal lobe of the New Zealand plant is deeply cleft at its end, and has at each side of the cleft two short spines. This latter character, indeed, would make it approach nearer to M, fimbriata, were it not for the total absence of spines on the teeth of the intermediate lobes. Four figures, showing the differences referred to, are oven in the second plate attached to the paper. ‘Notes are also given as to the motions observed on one occa- 324 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, sion in a specimen of Cosmarium botrytis. The question whether the Desmidieze move “voluntarily” or not seems to have never been clearly settled. That they move towards the light, if in mud, has long been known, and some observers have mentioned motions in Clostevium, But others deny that the Desmids move voluntarily, and their travelling towards the light may be simply due to the stimulus of light, The term “voluntarily ” is here used in the same sense as when referring to Diatoms, which certainly travel in all sorts of directions. Some observers also have spoken of “cilia” and “ retractile processes” as noticeable in Desmids, but these also have been denied. In the case in question the Cosmarium was observed for about three hours, and in that time it travelled, without any external disturbing influence, backwards and forwards like a Diatom, steering round obstacles, advancing and retreating, rolling over and over, and generally behaving with quite as much “voluntary ” effort asa Diatom. The motion however, was not an easy, gliding, smooth motion, but a succes- sion of sharp jerks, pushing forward first one side and then the other, “ exactly like that of a man elbowing his way through a crowd.” On the whole, the author concluded that the Desmid might be said to travel quite as “voluntary” as any Diatom, But, with the most careful scrutiny, under various lights and con- ditions. not a trace could be made out of cilia or retractile pro- cesses, or of any effect on the surrounding water indicating them. There are also remarks upon a point in connection with the conjugation of Closteviwm acerosum and of Closterium seleneeum, Mas- kell. The process in the latter plant which was observed on one occasion up to the point of formation of the zygospores (when unluckily the specimen was crushed by an accident) resembles that in Closterium ehvenbergit, as described by the Rev. W. Smith, in the Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., 1850, p. 1 and plate 1, and it is highly interesting. The conjugating fronds approach in pairs, surround themselves with a distinct mucous envelope, and then undergo division. From this it results that four fronds appear in the envelope, each having one long’and one very short segment; and the conjugation takes place between each adjacent pair of these new fronds, so that the process is double, and two zygospores are produced. Clostevium ehvenbergit has been hitherto supposed to be the only plant with this character, but (. seleneum has now to be added to it. The author also believes that C. acervoswum undergoes a process nearly similar, because in that plant, in conjugation, it is invariably observed that each frond has one long and one very short arm. This fact, although shown in all figures by different writers—Ralfs, Pritchard, Ehren- berg, &c.—is not alluded to by any in their descriptions. There seems to be only one way of accounting for it, namely by the self-division of the fronds before actual conjugation is effected. In a mass of conjugating fronds observed by the author, there was no instance of any in which the segments were of equal length. At the same time there was no distinct mucous envelope ———— TRANSIT OF VENUS 325 to each original pair of fronds, the whole being surrounded by one mass ; nor could any pairs of zygospores be detected as be- longing to any particular four fronds. Yet, if the fronds begin by dividing, (and this is pretty clear) each original pair of fronds must produce two zygospores, as in C. Ehrenbergit. The paper concludes with a nominal catalogue of all the species and varieties of Desmidieze (110) known to the author as mentioned occurring in New Zealand. W. M. MASKELL. THE TRANSIT OF VENUS. DUNEDIN. The observations of the transit at Dunedin were a great suc- cess, The morning broke, indeed, with a very unpromising look, and until about 6.30 0 ‘clock the prospect of observing the critical points of the transit, or even of seeing it at all, seemed hopeless. But a little before 7 o’clock the sun showed his face, and though clouds continued at intervals to pass, there appeared good rea- son to hope that the “contacts” might be observed after all. The event abundantly justified this expectation. In fact the light film of cloud that throughout obscured the sun was a cir- cumstance of the most favourable character. Itgave remarkable steadiness and distinctness tothe observations. At zxzternal con- tact there was so little of that agitation known as “ boiling,” that the range of uncertainty in fixing the instant of internal contact I myself set down as being not greater than perhaps two or three seconds. I was reassured on this point on finding that Mr. Be- verley, in his communication to the Evenzng Star, makes a simi- lar observation. I shall be surprised, when the observations are collated (unless the “ personal equation” turns out to be unusually disturbing), if the times of observation of internal contact by the several Dunedin observers do not come within two or three seconds of absolute synchronism. When it is remembered that two seconds of time only indicate an angular separation of one-tenth of a second of arc (a quantity inappreciable except by the finest tele- scopes in use), it will be seen that this result is wonderfully satisfactory. None of the observers in Dunedin make any mention of having seen either “ligament” or “black drop ;” the “first ap- pearance of well-marked and persistent discontinuity in the illu- mination of the apparent limb of the sun near the point of con- tact,” being recognised with almost geometrical distinctness. In regard to the erternal contact I shall be prepared to find a considerable difference between the several observers. The phenomenon is a most difficult one to observe, and, I should imagine, under the most favourable circumstances, would give a 326 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. a wide range of uncertainty. But, as observed at Dunedin, the specially favourable circumstances of the zzternal contact were, in the case of the external, wanting. The sun was less obscured, his disc was considerably agitated, and the: moment of the dis- appearance of the dark depression on the sun’s disc, caused by the emerging planet, was not easily fixed amid the fluctuations (the “ boiling”) of the sun’s limb. The times of the contacts it is not easy, with perfect accuracy, to give. Unless the errors of the various instruments for indi- cating the time are accurately known, the mention of seconds is delusive. And as I am not in possession of full information on this subject, I think it best to forbear the giving of times, whose seeming accuracy—from incompleteness of statement—could only mislead. Mr Beverley states the times of contact approxi- mately (that is, as I understand him, to the nearest minute only) as being—internal, 7h. 31m.; external, 7h. 51m., New Zealand mean time, THOMAS ROSEBY. CLYDE. This station was chosen on account of its being situated in the centre of the widest extent of land in New Zealand, and having almost a continental climate. Rain rarely falls, and a bright still atmosphere is almost invariably experienced at early morning. It was one of the few places in New Zealand that enjoyed a clear sky throughout the whole day of the last transit in 1874. It is also conveniently circumstanced as regards the telegraph system, being the junction point of two separate lines by which communication could be maintained with Burnham observatory. Clyde is 150 miles from the coast, on the Molyneux river, and 600 feet above the sea level. - A favourable site was chosen for the observing station on a terrace 100ft. above the river, and 300 yards from the telegraph office, with which it was connected by double wires. A level plain extends for 7 miles to the eastward, the highest hills in the direction of the sun’s bearing at the time of the transit only subtending an angle of 2% degrees. The use of an iron hut was obtained, in which the telegraphic and recording apparatus was arranged, and in front of which the observing tent was erected. The packages containing all the required appliances were taken up country from Palmerston in a spring dray, and reached their destination without the slightest mishap on the 20th November, being the eighth day from Wellington. By the 22nd all fittings had been completed, and on the 24th the first of a series of time signals were exchanged with Burnham. The telescope used is the property of Mr. G. V. Shannon, of Wellington, who kindly lent it for the occasion. It is a 5 inch reflector, of 6ft. 4in. in length, by Cook, of York. It is mounted TRANSIT OF VENUS. 327 in alt. azimuth, on a strong tripod, and has very smooth acting slow-motion gearing. To secure greater steadiness the legs were fixed to a horizonal triangle of timber, firmly attached to piles driven into the ground. Its optical performance in the fine atmosphere of this inland district was extraordinarily perfect, and high powers of 300 and 400 diameters could generally be used without producing blurring or imperfect definition, while the “rice grains” and other characters of the sun’s surface were quite distinct with much lower powers, The telescope was fur- nished with a first surface reflecting prism for solar work, sup- plied by the maker, and also neutral tint glasses of various shades ; but as these were all found to be too dim, slips of the optical glass, known as “London smoke,” were used instead. Two or three thicknesses were sufficient, the first surface being placed in absolute contact with the lens nearest to the eye. The time-keeper was the full-size chronometer No. 7430, by Thos. Russell, London, beating half-seconds, with a chronometer watch for daily comparison. Before leaving Wellington the chrono- meter had no sensible rate of error; but during the journey it appears, from the appended records, to have lost about 35 se- conds, and after its arrival at Clyde to have acquired a steady gaining rate of about 05 per day. The chronometer was screwed down to stakes driven into the ground through a hole cut in the floor, so that it might be quite free from vibration. Close beside it, on a slightly higher level, were the contact keys of the tele- graph instruments, so that they could be manipulated while the eye was vertical over the seconds hand. The telegraph apparatus had a line battery of 35 cells, and two local circuit batteries of 15 cells each; but provision was made for joining in one of the latter to the line battery for dis- tant signals when required. One local circuit was for working either with the relay or by a contact spring when observing with the telescope, and the other was for working the second pecker of the chronograph, which was a double instrument, having two independent peckers marking on the same tape. The velocity of the tape gave about 34 of an inch distance between the mark for each second. The telegraph instruments were furnished and arranged ready for use by Dr. Lemon, and the fitting up of the chronograph and batteries was done by my assistant, Mr..E. Ashcroft. They were in good working order in less than a day, and never gave the slightest trouble afterwards. Mr. Henry, the telegraphist at Clyde, conducted all the communications most efficiently, and on some occasions had to exercise much skill and patience to secure the integrity of the time signals received. The Observation. The 6th December, 1882, was a splendid day, clear and bright, with a cool southerly breeze. At early morning, and again in the afternoon, the programme for the observation was 328 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. carefully rehearsed. Mr. Henry devoted his attention to beating seconds with the chronograph key, which duty he performed with the greatest steadiness and precision; Mr. Ashcroft, keep- ing a watch on the mechanism, to see that the tape did not run foul, and that the adjustments were such as to produce a distinct record. Mr. McKay, the district surveyor, very kindly took general supervision of the time, writing down each minute as it passed, and being ready to call the seconds aloud if any mis- chance took place with the chronograph, and Major Kedell, R.M., who has great facility as a shorthand writer, kindly under- took to note any remarks I might make during the observation. During the night the barometer commenced to fall and the temperature to rise, a sure indication of a change to N. W. wind, but the sky remained clear until 11 pm. At 4 a.m.on the 7th dense black clouds covered the whole of the sky, and the upper current of air was from N. W., the lower being still from S. This was the first cloudy morning I had experienced at Clyde, except a few during the previous week arising from extensive bush fires, all of which had been extinguished by the rainfall of the 3rd. At 6 a.m. the wind changed to N.W., and the clouds began to dissolve towards the S.E., leaving patches of blue sky that spread only very slowly towards the quarter we desired ; and it was not until 7 o’clock that there was the slightest hope of getting an observation, but just then the sun showed out over Alexandra, which is 7 miles to the S.E. The sky then cleared very rapidly, and at 7.12 I got the first glimpse of the sun with the 60 eye- piece. On changing the eye-piece the planet was then seen to be about one diameter within the sun’s limb. As soon as the last shred of the cloud passed, all boiling of the sun’s edge cleared, and it was more sharp and steady than I had ever before seen it. The markings of the sun’s disc were very distinct, and I tested my focus on a small circular spot that was seen very obliquely close to the eastern edge of the sun. The power used was 200 with two thicknesses of the tinted glass. The field was very bright, but there was no discomfort or irradiation. No trace of a halo or indefinite outline was seen round the planet, which looked intensely black and seemed as if immersed in the substance of the sun. By altering the focus slightly, how- ever, the planet could be made to appear as if in relief. The onward creeping motion of the planet was remarkably steady, and the sun’s edge was so sharply defined that I was fully expecting to get a good observation. When I judged that it wanted about two minutes of Internal Contact, I signalled to commence beating, and the tape showed the first beat to have been 28’ 30", which is the time of the appearance marked on sketch A. TRANSIT OF VENUS. 329 (Sketch A.) Soon after the view was suddenly obscured, and I at once put down the key, which marked 29’ 02". On looking up I found that a small dense cloud in an otherwise clear sky had got in the way, and looked as if it would pass in a few seconds. When it did pass, however, I found the contact was over, and at once put down the key to mark the appearance B, when the tape showed yi 33 20". 3 Having thus lost the Internal Contact observation, the sun being now very sharp, I remarked that the outline of the portion of the planet on the sun was quite symmetrical, and that the cusps were beautifully sharp. While observing closely at 7h. 40’, the outline of the emerged limb of the planet suddenly became apparent against the dark background of space as a delicate violet-tinted streak, having its concave edge sharp but the convex edge discontinuous. I brought this appearance out more distinctly by cutting off the sun’s limb with a dense glass. Its extreme width I estimate at about 1-5o0th of its distance from the sun, which was about a semi-diameter of the planet. Suddenly, with a twinkle, this phenomenon disappeared, and I called time at 7h. 42’. This twinkle made a most distinct impression on me. There was not the least vibration at the time and my eye was not fatigued, as I still saw the “ rice grains” on the sun’s surface. I then waited for External Contact, and got it clear and distinct, the last trace of a notch in the sun’s edge disappearing sharp at 7h. 50’ 55""5. As the error of the chronometer on the previous day on 330 - JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Burnham mean time was F. 22°5, and the hourly rate was ‘025 gaining, all the above times are subject to a correction of —22"87. This makes the Burnham mean time of External Contact 7h. 50° 32”°63. JAMES HECTOR. Clyde, 7th December, 1882. WELLINGTON. ; The actual observation of the transit being a record of the instant of the apparent meeting or contact of the limb of Venus with that of the sum, it’ becomes of the utmost importance to have the true sidereal or mean time determined with the greatest accuracy, and that the observers at different stations. either all keep the same time or have the means of knowing their differ- ences from one standard clock. With the view of securing this concert among the New Zealand observers, the greater number of them had their stations placed in telegraphic circuit. Time signals were distributed from Col. Tupman’s station, at Burn- ham to observers in the Middle Island ; and from survey obser- vatory, Mount Cook, Wellington, to observers in the North Island and in Nelson. Another essential is the correct know- ledge of the longitude of the stations. . Exchange of signals for this purpose were made between Burnham and Auckland, Burn- ham and Wellington, Wellington and New Plymouth, Wellington and Bidwell’s, Wairarapa. These New Zealand stations are therefore well connected together. And as Col. Tupman has had exchange of time signals through the cable with Sydney and arrangements have been entered into for exchange of time signals over the gaps between Sydney and Greenwich, where this had not previously been done, there will on completion of this work be an unbroken line of longitude determination bind- ing the various stations together. The observations of internal contact at the stations enumerated — hereafter were not attended with any phenomena of black-drop or pear-shaped appearance of planet, or other perplexing phases such as were anticipated from the records of some of the ob- servers of former transits. The first decided appearance, as seen through the fine-inch equatorial telescope at Boulcott street, Wellington, was a rapidly-forming haze between the limbs of Venus and the sun, through which, as the planet made its way, there seemed a disturbance on the limb of the sun. This lasted for nine seconds previous to the geometrical contact by the apparent touch of the two black edges, which phenomenon was instantaneous ; there could be no doubt about it. From that instant a broadening band kept forming as the planet overlapped the edge of the sun. The external contact was also very well defined ; there was no clinging to the edge of the sun at parting. The planet went off quite uniformly. The only difficulty in the observation was to name the exact second that the blunt cusps TRANSIT OF VENUS. , | 331 of Venus met as they gradually approached each other on the edge ofthe sun. The time noted for this observation might be uncertain twoseconds. The decimal of a second given in the table arises from applying the clock correction to the recorded time. The various observers enumerated had each two assistants, one to count aloud the second-beats of the clock or chronometer, the other to note the minutes and the times given by the ob- server. In this manner the records of each observer were made, and his report of phenomena written before consultation with others, so as to guard against error or bias. The weather was favourable for observation at all the stations,—at Wellington especially so. The sky being bright and clear, no wind, and a steady atmosphere. There was no tremor or boiling of the sun’s limb at the time of observation. With a power of 250, the definition was excellent in the telescope at Boulcott street. This instrument is a splendid 5-inch Equatorial Telescope, 80 inches focal length, by Grubb, of Dublin. It was recently imported by Mr. King and very generously lent by him for the observation. At Mt. Cook observatory, Wellington, Mr. C. W. Adams, observed, with a 4-inch telescope and a power of 70, through which he projected the sun’s image on a screen attached to the telescope by-a light frame work. The telescope was the property. of Mr. Barnard, and was kindly lent by him Mr. Boscawen at the same station observed with an 8-inch Transit Theodolite. Mr. Humphries at New Plymouth, with a 4-inch Cooke’s telescope, power 200. Mr. O’Donahoo at the same place with a telescope, aperture 234 inches, power IIo. Mr. Marchant at Bidwell’s, Wairarapa, with a 4-inch Browning refractor, focal length 66 inches, power 200. This telescope the property of Mr. David Gray, of Wellington. Captain Hewitt was also at Bidwell’s with an 8%-inch Browning’s Reflecting Telescope, the property of Mr. Pope, Inspector of Native Schools. | The times given are sidereal, and are all referred to the meridian of Mt. Cook observatory. The longitude of this station is the determination given by Mr. J. T. Thomson, derived from his observations of moon culminating stars at Rockyside, Caversham, Dunedin, in 1869-71, and connected with Mt. Cook observatory by telegraphic and_ trigonometrical connection. The longitudes of the other stations are based on that of Mt. Cook. The reports and details of the observations have been placed in the hands of Col. Tupman for disposal. It would therefore be unseemly to enter on any discussion of them at present. But the general summary of them is as under. 332 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Disturbance| . ternal External Observer. Place. Lat. S. Long. E. lof Sun’s limb ea cnde Contact. —_—- ——f or wn ane ae ae a Le a ae . . . Se . * . . . . ocaslewstt tsk H, M. Ss. |H. M H., M, Sa. Mw. S James M‘Kerrow Wellingt’ nitl 17 14/11 39 09. 5812 42 13.3|/12 42 22.3/13 2 16°3 Cc. W. Adams Wellingt'2 41 18 oO|II 39 09.92) not obs’d, [12 42 21.5]13 2 17°5 J. H. Boscawen Do, Do. Do Do, +, jIR dS eels. @ 205 T. Humphries N. pas th)39 04 O8|II 36 22 {12 42 21 |12 42 34 |not obs’d. A. O’Donahoo Do. Do not obs’d. |12 42 30.51 Do. J.W.A. Marchant Bidwals | II O4|II 41 46 |12 42 27 |12 42 38 |13 2 3 Cap. J.D. Hewitt, Do. Do. not obs’d, |not obs’d. | not obs’d. |13 I 54 JAMES MCKERROW. [We hope to publish Col. Tupman’s report in our next issue.—Ed. | GENERAL NOTES. > —_—_ N. Z. IDOTEIDA.—In his catalogue of N. Z. Crustacea Mr. Miers describes three species of /dofea as occurring in this Colony, viz.: (1.) I. argentea, Dana, with its variety I. margaritacea ; (2.) I. affinis, 17. Edw.; and (3.) I. elongata, White. A revision of the whole family by the same author, in the Journal of the Linnean Society, Vol. XVI. p. 1, enables us now to place the members of this group accurately. Since the publication of the catalogue I have added two species, viz, /. lacustris (Trans. N. Z. Inst., XI., p. 250), and Adotia dilatata (described at a meeting of the Otago Institute on 31st October last). The following now constitute the New Zealand species of this family. I have omitted the detailed synonymy, which Mr. Miers has elaborated with great care. 1. Idotea marina, Lzzu—A species of wide range. The Paris collection contains one male from New Zealand ‘M. Petit) which appears to be the only specimen described from this Colony. I am not aware that anyone else has found this species here. 2. Idotea metallica, Bosc. (f. argentea of the catalogue)—A cosmopolitan pelagic species. The only specimen recorded from this part of the world was taken by Dana zear New Zealand. 3. Idotea margaritacea, Dana.—Closely allied to the pre- ceding. One specimen taken between New Zealand and Port Jackson, about 500 miles from the latter. 4. Idotea lacustris, G. Md. Thomson.—Occurring in the Tomahawk Lagoon, near Dunedin. Mr. Miers describes the same or a Closely allied form from Port Henry, Straits of Magellan. 5. Idotea ungulata, Pallas (L. affinis of the catalogue). —This eo wee ©! Pag GENERAL NOTES. 333 appears to be the commonest species on our coasts. It has a wide range in the southern hemisphere. 6. Idotea elongata, W/zte—Auckland Islands. 7. Edotia dilatata, G. WZ. Thomson.—A remarkable form, intermediate in many respects between Edotia and /dotea, of which one specimen was forwarded to me from Auckland by Mr. 1. F. Cheéseman. GiiNack, ENDOSMOTIC MOVEMENTS IN NITELLA—A beautiful example of movements due to endosmosis may be seen in this plant by making a section through a stem, so as to leave the nodal cells intact, and mounting the preparation in a drop of water. At first no motion is visible in any of the cells, but in the course of an hour or two the contents of the cells of the cortical layer begin to rotate round and round the inside of the cell wall. Owing to the size and number of the chlorophyll bodies, the movements are very readily seen. At the end of about three hours, varying, however. in different cells, the move- ments appear to gain their maximum rapidity, the protoplasm sometimes making six or eight revolutions round the cell wall ina minute: Gradually the rapidity slackens, ceasing altogether in the course of about twelve hours, after which the protoplasm commences to disintegrate and become discoloured. G. M. T. NEW ZEALAND BEETLES.—The following new genus and new species of New Zealand Beetles were described in Europe during the year 1880. (t) By E. Reitter, in Verhandlungen des Naturforschenden Vereins in Brin. xviii. Lyraxis, n.g—Allied to Bryaxis ; head and thorax smooth, elytra not striated; antennz thick 10-jointed, joint 11 being fused with the preceding. Type: 2. monstrosa, n.s. Sagola pulcher, S. notabilis, S. deformipes, S. denticolle, S. monstrosa, Epierus rufescens, Soronia occulata, Epistramus Sharpi, E. fulvus, Coxelus robustus, C. helmsi, Penthe- lispa sulcatissima, Philothermus sanguineus, P. notabilis, P. bicavus, Parabrontes picturatus, Micrambina helmsi, M. insignis, Holoparamecus tenuis, Corticarina illustris, C. splendens, Myrmecoxenus atromaroides, Pedilophorus helmsi, Cis zeeland- icus, Ennearthrum beettgeri, E. obsoletum, Tritonidea rubripes. (2) By L. W. Schaufuss in Sechzig neue Pselaphiden,—Dres- den, Oberblasewitz, 1880. Bryaxis ovalipennis, Trichonyx longicollis, T. microcephalus, T. brevicollis, T. rotundicollis, T. sordidus. (3) By L. Fairmaire in Ann. Sac. Ent. France (5) x. Luciola spectralis. STALK-EYED CRUSTACEA OF N, Z,—With regard to the lists 334 JOURNAL OF ‘SCIENCE. of Crustacea referred to. by Prof. Hutton at p. 264, I think all the species which he desires to eliminate should certainly be struck off our catalogue. Of the doubtful species I have several specimens of Vzrdius bifidirostris, which were got by the dredge in Paterson Inlet and Port Pegasus. These agree closely with Miers’ description, except in having 5 teeth instead of 7 on the lower margin of the rostrum. There appears to be considerable confusion as to the Species of Expagurus. Ihave numerous specimens,—all young, however, —which are provisionally labelled £. cristatus ; they certainly are as near that species as they are to &. spinulimanus or E. nove-scelandice, but they do not agree well with any of the three. They were obtained from the same localities as Vzrdzzs. AE aga gs NESTS OF THE YELLOW-BREASTED T1IT.—Mr. W. E. Barker’ of Waikonini, Rangitata, records the occurrence of two nests of this little bird (Petveca (Myiomoiva) macrocephala) in a remarkable locality. They were placed in the holes of a black-pine post, which had formerly been used as a slip-panel. The upper one was either deserted or not quite finished ; that in the lower hole had two young ones in it. Both nests were neatly made just to fit close to the sides of the slot-holes in the post, and well back. Outwardly they were made of small chips of wood, short grass, roots and moss, while the inside was lined with moss and a mass of feathers of the common fowl, together with a few parakeet feathers. The young birds had not their eyes open, and the mother fed them fearlessly even in the presence of persons standing a few yards off. PROF. HAECKEL ON EDUCATION.—At the close of a remark- able lecture recently delivered at the meeting of German naturalists and physicians at Eisenach, Professor Haeckel said : — In face of the surprising velocity with which in these last years the development theory has paved an entrance into the most diverse departments of inquiry, we may here express the hope that its high pedagogic value also will be even more recognised, and that it will quite perfect the education of the coming generations. When five years ago, at the fiftieth meeting of naturalists,in Munich, I laid stress on the high significance of the development theory in relation to education ; my remarks were so misunderstood that a few words of explanation may here be allowed me. It stands to reason that with these words I could not mean to claim that Darwinism should be taught in elementary schools. That is simply impossible. For just like the higher mathematics and physics, or the history of philosophy, Darwinism demands a mass of previous knowledge which can be acquired only in the higher stages of learning, Assuredly, however, we may demand that GENERAL NOTES. 335 all subjects of education be treated according to the genetic method, and that the fundamental idea of the development theory, the Causality of Phenomena, find everywhere its acknow- ledgment. We are firmly persuaded that by this means thinking and judging conformably with nature will be promoted in far greater measure than by any other method. “ At the same time through the extended application of the development doctrine, one of the greatest evils of our day in the culture of youth will be removed—the cramming of the memory, we mean, with dead lumber, which smothers the best powers and prevents both soul and body from coming to a normal develop- ment. This excessive cramming is based on the old fundamental ineradicable error that the guantity of factual knowledge is the Dest measure of culture, while, in truth, culture depends on the guality of causative sczence. We would there- fore deem it especially useful that the selection of the material of instruction be much more carefully made; and that in making the selection those departments which cram the memory with masses of dead facts do not receive the preference, but those which cultivate the judgment through the living stream of the development idea. Let our worried school youths only learn half as much, but let them understand this half more thoroughly, and the next generation will in soul and body be doubly as sound as the present.” BOTRYCHIUM LUNARIA, SWARTZ.—This interesting plant has been added to our Fern Flora by Mr. J. D. Enys, to whom I am indebted for specimens collected in the Upper Waimakariri, at an altitude of about 2500 feet. The plants are small and closely resemble British specimens from alpine localities. They are about 14% inches high, with two pairs of sterile pinnules, and the terminal pinnule deeply cleft. This simply pinnate sterile frond’at once distinguishes it from B. ternatum, Swartz. It occurs sparingly in Tasmania and - Victoria, ascending to 4000 feet. In New Zealand it may be _ expected to occur in cool grassy places from the sea level to 3000 feet. . T. KIRK. Is STIPA SETACEA, R. BR., INDIGENOUS TO NEW ZEALAND? —This grass has been found, so far as I know, in only two locali- ties in the interior of Otago, distant some sixteen miles from each other, in both of which it is confined toa small area at or near the level of a public road. The locality where I first found the plant (some five years ago) is at Firewood Creek, near Crom- well, Otago. It occurs in the valley of this stream, both above and below the paint where the public road crosses it, growing chiefly, if not entirely, on ledges and in crevices of the schist rock, that are difficult of access for sheep. The area over which it extends is very limited, not exceeding a radius of 100 yards 336 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. from the spot where the road crosses the gully. It does not ex- tend any distance up the valley, though the latter abounds in situations suitable for its growth. In this locality I have care- fully ascertained the range of the plant, and should it be found beyond the limit assigned above, can confidently assert that it is extending its range. The second locality is on the Kawarau River, at the first rocky bluff above the Victoria Bridge. It grows here both above and below the public road, principally on inaccessible rocky ledges. Ina few spots it was found growing on level ground among and underneath large stones; but in these situations sheep had eaten down such portions of the foliage as they could reach. The range appears to be as limited as at Firewood Creek, but I was unable to make a very careful ex- amination of the surrounding localities. In no other spot in Otago have I seen Stipa setacea, though I have looked for it in similar situations in all parts of the district. Mr. Goyen also informs me that he has carefully looked for it in the lake district, but to no purpose. The curious fact that the plant occurs chiefly, indeed almost exclusively, on inaccessible rocky ledges, is manifestly due to its being greedily eaten up by sheep. Of this I had clear evidence in the condition of the few patches that were partly protected by large stones and blocks of rock, every leaf that could be reached being closely cropped. It is just possible that its range may formerly have been greater, and that it has been almost exterminated by sheep ; but this is in the highest degree improbable, as I have examined hundreds of localities inaccesssible to sheep, and suitable for its growth, with- out finding a trace of it. Unless it should be reported from some other distant locality, remote from public highways, we may safely conclude that it is a casual immigrant from Australia or Tasmania. The long awn would readily cling to other objects, and so aid its dispersal. Many of the situations it now occupies could have been reached only by the wind wafting the seeds about. The seeds germinate readily ; but plants grown in my garden have not thriven well. It is evidently well fitted for the dry interior, and as it is greedily devoured by sheep, and grows in very arid situations, it doubtless possesses considerable eco- nomic value as a fodder grass. D.- PETRIE; WEA MEETINGS? OF -SOCTE TIBS: Le AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. October 23rd, 1882.—E. A. Mackechnie, Esq., President in the chair. New members—Dr. Edgelow and Rey. Mr. Macrae. Papers—(1) ‘On the occurrence of Platinum in Quartz Lodes at the Thames Goldfields,” by J. A. Pond. The author stated MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 337 that according to most text-books, Platinum had been very rarely found in situ in rocks. Some little interest was therefore attached to its discovery in quartz lodes in the 54oft. and 6ooft. levels ot the Queen of Beauty mine, Thames. The assays made varied consi- derably, the lowest being at the rate of 1oz. 5dwts. to the ton, and the highest 10 oz. 6dwts. Other members of the platinum group of metals, such as Iridium, were also present, but in very minute quantities. After the reading of the paper some microscopic slides were exhibited, shewing minute crystals of platinum 1im- beded in the quartz matrix. (2) “ Note on the origin of the Boomerang,” by W. D. Camp- bell, F.G.S. In this paper the suggestion was thrown out that the first idea of the boomerang might have arisen from watching the fall of the Eucalyptus leaves from the tree. According to Mr. Campbell, the leaves first fall in the direction of the wind blowing at the time, but soon curve backwards, and generally reach the ground almost directly under the branch from which they dropped. Sketches were exhibited shewing the great similarity in the outline of the boomerang and that of the leaves of several species of the Eucalyptus. (3) “‘ New species of Coleoptera,” by Capt. T. Broun. A large number of new species, belonging to several families, were fully described. (4) “The Visionary Faculty of Mind,” by E. A. Mackechnie, Esq. This was an enquiry into the mental conditions of such re- markable visionaries as Swedenborg, Blake, Shelley, and others ; and it was shewn that the facts of each case might be fully ac- counted for without going outside our present knowledge of physi- ology and mental phenomena. November 2oth, 1882. E. A, Mackechnie, Esq., President, in the chair. | Papers—(r1) ‘‘ The Naturalised Plants of the Provincial District of Auckland,” by T. F. Cheeseman. This paper was mainly an enumeration of the naturalised plants observed by the writer in the province of Auckland, together with an enquiry into the causes that have led to their rapid increase. Over 400 specimens were included in the list, about 100 being recorded for the first time. (2); Our Earliest Settlers,” by R: C. Barstow. - A lengthy account was given of the struggles of the earliest white residents in New Zealand—those who accompanied the Rev. Mr. Marsden in his missionary expedition in the year 1814. | (3) ‘Imaginary Quantities,” by H. G. Seth Smith. The ob- ject of this paper was to show that the inconceivability of a thing was no proof of its impossibility, and that all knowledge was in the first instance based upon pure assumptions. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. October 21st, 1882.—W. T. L. Travers, Esq., F.L.S., President, in the chair. New member—Mr. Thos. Turnbull. Professor Liversidge, of Sydney University, was nominated for 338 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. election as an honorary member of the New Zealand Institute; and Mr. Martin Chapman chosen to vote in the election of Governors of the Institute for the coming year. Papers—(1) ‘‘On the distribution of certain New Zealand birds,” by W. T. Travers, F.L.S. This paper discussed the dis- tribution of certain birds in relation to the question of the former connection of New Zealand with other islands of the Pacific. Dr. Hector considered this a most important contribution to the statistical branch of natural history, and would form a valuable supplement to Dr. Buller’s recently published manual. He thought that the distribution of birds was very much controlled by the abundance of their favourite food, at periods when they were not engrossed in the business of nesting. (2) ‘‘Remarks on certain bones lately discovered by Mr, Wharton in caves at Highfield, Canterbury,” by Dr. Hector. This was a description of a valuable collection of the bones of Ap- tornis and Dinornis found by Mr. Wharton, and presented by that gentleman to the Museum. The point ot interest was the associa- tion of these bones with those of the rat, kiwi, kaka, and weka, suggesting that no great period had elapsed since the deposit took place. The President stated that he had some years ago found bones in the Collingwood district under similar circumstances, and had sent them to England, but unfortunately they had been lost. (3) “Ona new mineral (Hectorite) found by the late Mr. E. H, Davis in the Dun Mountain in 1870,” by Mr. S. H. Cox, F.L.S. It is closely allied to serpentine. (4) ‘‘On the non-metallic minerals of New Zealand,” by S. H. Cox, being a continuation of the paper read and published last year on the metallic minerals, by the same author. Among the objects exhibited to the meeting were two salt-water fishes, A gonostoma forsteri (Green Mullet), and Retvopinna osmeroides (New Zealand Smelt), which were taken with the fly by Mr. Stevenson in the Hutt River, about three miles from the mouth. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. Christchurch, 2nd November, 1882.—Annual meeting. Pro- fessor J. von Haast, President, in the chair. The annual report was'read by the Hon. Secretary. The fol- lowing is a summary of it :— “ During the past year one special and nine ordinary meetings have been held, the attendance at which has been fair. At these meetings 18 papers have been read. They were contributed by seven authors, a fact the Council would desire to call attention to, since it shows that the number of members actually working in furtherance of the object of the Institute is but small compared to the total number. Of these papers 13 are on zoology, 2 on geo- logy, 2 on botany, and 1 of a miscellaneous character. Nine new members have been added to the list during the year, whereas 13 have withdrawn, making the number at present on the books 156. Valuable additions have been made to the library during the year, a detailed list of which is appended. The donations comprise 18 volumes and about 220 pamphlets. The additions made to the MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 339 library by purchase number 128 volumes. The Council has cor- responded with the other affiliated societies of the New Zealand Institute, asking if they would co-operate in suggesting to the Board of Governors the desirability of publishing the transactions either quarterly or half-yearly. The majority of the replies were favourable, but as the societies were not unanimous, the Council did not consider it advisable to proceed with the matter. The Hon. W. Rolleston has been chosen by the Council to vote at the election of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute The Council recommended Mr. A. Russel Wallace, as an honorary member of the New Zealand Institute, in consideration of his re- searches into the origin of the flora and fauna of New Zealand in his ‘Geographical Distribution,’ and his ‘Island Life.’ The Honorary Treasurer submits the balance-sheet, which shows total receipts for the year of £197 19s. 2d.; expenditure, £168 5s. 11d. ; balance, £29 13s. 3d.” The following were elected officers and council for the ensuing year :—President, Prof. F. W. Hutton; Vice-presidents, Messrs. E. Dobson and R. W. Fereday ; Hon. Treasurer, Mr, W. M. Mas- kell; Hon. Secretary, Mr. G. Gray; Council: Prof. J. von Haast, WMessrs. «C2; Chilton, T...S.; Lambert, :T.:Crook;'J. Inglis, and Dr. Symes ; Auditor, Mr. C. R. Blakiston. | The retiring president then read his address, which dealt with the rise and progress of the Society from its earliest infancy in 1862. Christchurch, 30th November, 1882.—Prof. F. W. Hutton, President, in the chair. The President announced that Prof. von Haast had resigned his position on the Council of the Institute, and that Mr G. Hog- ben had been elected to fill the vacancy. Papers—(1) ‘‘On two new Isopods,” by Chas. Chilton, M.A. In this paper the following two Isopods were described :—(a) Cymo- docea covdiforaminalis, sp. nov., in which the lateral portions of the abdomen on each side of the terminal notch are produced back- wards and inwards so as to meet in the median, so that the ter- minal notch appears as a heart-shaped opening in the end of the abdomen. (b) Faera nove-zealandie, sp. nov., agreeing well with the characters of Faeva, except that the terminal pleopoda are lateral, being situated at some distance from each other, in this resembling Fania or Asellus. Both species from Lyttelton Harbour. (2) ‘On two Marine Mites,” by Chas, Chilton, M.A. This paper contained the descriptions of two mites found between tide- marks at Lyttelton Harbour. They are both referred to the genus Halacarus (Gosse), which contains two English marine species. The New Zealand species are H. parvus, sp. nov., and H. truncipes, sp. nov. (3) ‘“ On some of the Diatomaceous deposits of New Zealand,” by Mr. J. Inglis. The deposits described in this paper were from (a) Lake Sumner, in which there are thirty-six species, two new to science, Tvicevatium trifoliatum and Surivella contorta, figured and described by English diatomists in scientific journals; (b) Wainui, Akaroa Harbour, eleven species ; (c) Dunedin, near Green Island, chiefly of one species, Eucyonema cespitosum; (d) Cust Valley, N. 340 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Canterbury, seven species; (¢) Amberley, N. Canterbury, four- teen species; (f) New Brighton, near Christchurch, thirteen species ; (g) Macintosh Bay, Bank’s Peninsula, thirteen species ; (hk) Whangarei, Auckland, eighteen species; and (7) Cabbage Tree Swamp, eleven species. Mr. Gray pointed out that the deposit at Wainui, Akaroa Har- bour, was of some commercial value as polishing powder, or tri- poli. It was two feet in thickness, and only covered by a toot or two of surface soil. (4) ‘* Description of a species of Butterfly new to New Zealand, and probably to science,” by R. W. Fereday. Family Nympha- lide, Westwood; genus (?) helmsi, n.ssp. Male; wings, upper side dark brown, with transverse fulvous bands ; fore-wings with a sub- apical, white-pupilled, black occellus ; hind-wings with anal angle elongate, a white-pupilled black occellus near the anterior angle, and connected with one or two less distinct occelli, and a similar one near the anal angle. Under side of fore-wings, part of exte- rior and middle bands silvered; under side of hindwings, bands silvered and other silver stripes. Expanse of wings, 1” 10.” Paparoa Range, near Greymouth (R. Helms). (5) ‘‘ Description of two new species of Heteropterous Lepi- doptera,” by R. W. Fereday. Family Leucaude, Guénéé; genus Leucania, Ochs; Leucania purdu, n.sp.—Male; fore-wings dark pinkish cedar colour, with several dashes of bright ochreous yel- low, cilia pale. Hind-wings dark fuscous, paler at the base. Ex- panse of wings, 1” 10.” Near Dunedin (Alex. Purdie). Leucania blenheimensis, n.sp.—Female; fore-wings very pale fawn, nearly cream colour, black points on subcostal median and submedian nervures, and sub-terminal row of blackish points on each nervule; veins speckled with dark gray and white; cilia dark grey ; hind-wings grey, with paler cilia. Expanse of wings Rid Blenheim and near Napier (Wm. Skellon.) (6) ‘‘ Occurrence of a species of Ophideres, Bois., new to New Zealand,” by R. W. Fereday. Female: body ochraceous and pale ferruginous grey mixed; fore-wings too dilapidated for descrip- tion, but indications of pale ferruginous grey clouded with ferru- ginous brown and purplish-grey markings; hind-wings luteous with broad black border abbreviated towards anal angle, and very broad curved and abbreviated black discal band. Expanse of wings 42.” Christchurch. (7) ‘« Note on a peculiar neuration in the wings of some indi- viduals. of Pevcnodaimon pluto, a New Zealand Butterfly,” by R. W. Fereday. The peculiar neuration consists in the uniting of the costal nervure with the first sub-costal nervule before reaching the costa. Inthe ordinary specimens the costal nervure extends to the costa in the usual form, and the first sub-costal nervule is absent. Out of 55 specimens examined, there are 11 males and 1 female having the peculiar neuration. The President called attention to the curious fact that such a usually constant structure as a main nerve of the wing should occur under two different forms in this one species. — ° : “ee es MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 341 Prof. Bickerton asked if the two forms were fertile znter se. Mr. Fereday could not answer Prof. Bickerton’s question. All the specimens he had examined showed the nervures ot the wing to belong to one or other of the forms; there were no interme- diate variations. (8) ‘*On a new composite plant,” by Robert Brown, communi- cated by Professor Hutton. Glossogyne (?) kennedyi, n.s.—A small shrub with hispid branches, alternate, distant small leaves and solitary yellow flower-heads; involucre of two rows of bracts; florets of the ray ligulate, female, those of the disc tubular, herma- phrodite; stigma bifid, rounded at the apex ; anthers scarcely co- hering, obtuse at the base, without any terminal appendage; pappus of 6-8 awns, only two or three of which are long, barbed with retrorse stiff hairs; achenes obconic, slightly compressed, with two of the angles minutely winged. Habitat.—Godley Heads, Banks Peninsula. (9) “‘On the Immortality of the Cosmos,” by Prof. Bickerton. (10) *‘ Further problems on the impact of Cosmical bodies,” by Professor Bickerton. (11) “ Remarks on the report in ‘ Nature’ of September, 1882, on Prof. Haeckel’s address to German Naturalists at Ejisen- ach,” by Mr. W. M. Maskell. OTAGO INSTITUTE. Dunedin, October 31st, 1882.—W. Arthur, Esq., C.E., Presi- dent, in the chair. } Mr. J. McKerrow, Surveyor-General, was nominated as a governor of the New Zealand Institute. Mr k. L. J. Ellery, F.R.S., of Melbourne, was nominated as an honorary member of the New Zealand Institute. Papers—(1) ‘“‘ Descriptions of new Crustaceans,” by Geo. M. Thomson, F.L.S. The author described and figured four new species of Crustaceans recently obtained by him— Edotia dilatata, n.sp.—A form intermediate between Edotia and _ Idotea, sent from Auckland by Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. Pseudega punctata—A new genus and species, belonging to Ciro- lanine (Fam. Aegidz), but differing from any known form. Found on the Ocean Beach, Dunedin. Covrophium excavatum, n.sp.—from Boat Harbour Creek, Brighton. Oxycephalus edwardsii, n.sp.—This singular pelagic torm is quite distinct from any describea in the British Museum Catalogue, but is only advanced provisionally until comparison can be made with the forms described in Dr. Claus’s recent memoir on the Platysce- lide (in Arbeit Zool.-Zoot. Inst. Wurzburg ii, 1879). Numerous specimens were obtained on the Ocean Beach, Dunedin, where they had been washed ashore. (2) *‘ New Zealand Copepoda,” paper ii, by Geo. M. Thomson, F.L.S. The following forms were described and figured :— Thorvellia brunnea, Boeck, var. antarctica ; almost identical with the European form. Dunedin Harbour. Cyclops gigas, Claus. Tomahawk Lagoon, near Dunedin. Cyclops sevrulatus, Fischer. Tomahawk Lagoon, near Dunedin. Cyclops chiliomt, n,sp.—Gravel pits, Eyreton; collected by Mr. C, Chilton, 342 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Cyclops equoreus, Fisher. Tomahawk Lagoon, near Dunedin. Mevope hamata, n. gen. and sp.—Allied to Cletodes. Dunedin Harbour, Laophonte austvalasica, n.sp.— Dunedin Harbour. Dactylopus tisbocdes, Claus.—Dunedin Harbour. Thalestris forficula, Claus,—Dunedin Harbour. Zaus contvactus, n.sp.—Dunedin Harbour. Porcellidium interruptum, n.sp.—Dunedin Harbour. Artotrogus boecku, Brady.—Dunedin Harbour. Artotrogus ovatus, n.sp.—On kelp in Paterson’s Inlet. 3. ‘©On the Gravid uterus ot Mustelus antarcticus,” by Prof. T. J. Parker (Hon. Sec.)—The uterus of this viviparous shark is divided by reduplications of its lining membrane into separate compart- ments, in each of which a foetus is contained, floating freely in a fluid which fills the chamber. The wall of each chamber is double; its outer layer (common to adjacent chambers) is vascular, and the author proposes to call it the pseudochorion, since it forms a vas- cular investment to the foetus, like a true chorion, but is a mater- nal and not a foetal structure; the inner layer is non-vascular, forms a perfectly closed sac for each foetus, and may be called the pseud-amnion. The fluid surrounding the fcetus (pseud-ammotic fluid) is colourless and slightly opalescent ; it contains no appreciable trace of proteids, but a considerable proportion of urea and prob- ably some uric acid. There can be no doubt that both pseudo- chorionic and pseudo-amniotic membranes are thrown off at birth, and therefore form a true decidua. It seems probabie that the in- vestment of each foetus is formed in much the same way as the decidua veflexa of man, ‘The walls of the uterus are remarkably thin and transparent. Probably birth is brought about by the activity not of the parent but of the foetus. The President gave an account of the ovary of a trout in which the usual discharge of eggs at the spawning season had not taken place. Professor Parker exhibited the disarticulated skeleton of a turtle, and an injected preparation of the heart and gills of a skate, both recent additions to the Museum. ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Sydney, 4th October, 1882.—C. Rolleston, Esq., C.M.G., Pre- sident, in the chair. New member—Sir Edward Strickland, K.C.B., F.R.G.S. Papers—(1) ‘‘Some Marine Carboniferous Fossils,” and 2) ‘*Some Mesozoic Fossils trom the Palmer River, ban SCHey land,” both by the Rev. J E. Tenison-Woods. (3) On the French ros eaLiae Societies and the Colonies,” by Mr. E. Marin La Meslee. Sydney, 1st November, 1882,—C. Rolleston, Esq., C.M.G. President, in the chair. Papers—(1) ‘‘ Notes on the aborigines of New Holland,” by Mr. James Manning. These notes had been collected in 1844 and 1845, and the information contained in them had been subsequently corroborated by the experiences and research of others than the : : | MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 343 collector. The subject almost exclusively dealt with in the notes was the religious belief of the aborigines in the southern part of New Holland. The god of their belief was Boyma, who, they said, dwelt at an immense distance to the north-east, in a heaven of beautiful and supernatural appearance. ‘Their belief also included the existence of a son of Boyma, equal to his father in omniscience, and but slightly inferior to him in any attribute. There was a third person in their creed who was of semi-divine origin, and who was the great law-giver to the human race. There was a place ot everlasting fire for evil men, and a heaven for the good, who in- herited eternal happiness. The dread of eternal punishment acted forcibly as a restriction on their conduct in life. From all the joys of heaven, however, the women of the tribes were restricted. The men had an imperfect consciousness that there was a future world for the women, but it was not that of the heaven good men went to. (fhe women were entirely ignorant of the secrets of the relt- gion, and were regarded as inferior beings. After death the souls of men rose, and were taken before the throne of Boyma, where they discarded all that was mortal. Judgment was pronounced by the god, and, as the sentence was declared, they were removed to heaven or hell. The only prayer used was one on the occasion of the interment of the dead. Many other interesting particulars - of the religion were given, the conclusion drawn being that the abo- rigines had not been without a high sense of the Supreme God- head, and of a moral conception of what was right and wrong. A discussion followed on the paper, some of the speakers being of opinion that the natives had been communicated with by mission- aries, and that this was the outcome of the ideas they had gleaned. Others thought trom personal experience that Mr. Manning’s notes contained a strong foundation of fact. Sydney, 6th Dec., 1882.—C. Rolleston Esq., C.M.G., President, in the chair. New Members.--Mr. James J. O. Atkinson, J.P., Dr. Thomas Chambers; Rev. John G. Fraser, M.A., Dr. A. Norrie, and Mr. Surgeon J. Steel. Papers.—1. ‘“‘On the ashes of some Epiphytic Orchids,” by Dr. W. A. Dixson. 2. ‘On a Fossil Plant formation in Central Queensland,” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods. Mr. C. S. Wilkinson, Government Geologist, exhibited a num- ber of coral formations which had been collected for him by Mr. Barling, of the Harbour and Rivers Department, on his visit to the Elizabeth Reef, Lord Howe Island, for the purpose of seeing that the provisioned lifeboat kept there in the event of shipwreck was secure. He had submitted them to the Rev. Mr. Tenison- Woods for his inspection, and that gentleman had made some notes on them. The Rev. Mr. Tenison- Woods said that the corals were all of reef-building tormation, such as were never found out of tropical or very warm seas, and as Lord Howe Island was some 300 miles to the south of any place where such corals were known to be formed on the Australian Coast, there must be some peculiar con- dition of temperature in that locality to account for their occur- 344 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. rence—probably a warm current from the north. The collection included several new species, amongst others that named the ‘brain coral,” which would be subsequently described by him, and which weré all tound on the north-eastern Barrier Reef of Australia in warm seas. There was a coral reef oft the coast of Western Australia, named the Hautman’s Abhronthos, in probably the same latitude as the Elizabeth Reef, Howe Island, and which was known to be in the midst of a warm current flowing south from the Indian Ocean. LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Sydney, 25th October, 1882.—Dr. James C. Cox, F.L.S., &c., President, in the chair. New members.—Messrs R. W. Graham, J. Ahearn, M.D., A. C. MacMillan, A. R. Johnston, W. Peter, and Dr. J. Wharton Cox. Papers.—1. ‘ Description of a new species of Solea (S. lineata), from Port Stephens,” by Mr. E. P. Ramsay, F.L.S. 2. “Contributions to Australian Oology” (continuation), by Mr, E. P. Ramsay, F.L.S. In this paper the author gave descrip- tions of the nests and eggs of nineteen additional species of Austra- lian birds, whose nidification and oology had previously been im- perfectly known. 3. ‘* Descriptions of Australian Micro-Lepidoptera,” by E. Mey- rick, B.A. This, the eighth paper by Mr. Meyrick on the Micro- Lepidoptera of this country, treats exclusively of the Oecophonide, a family represented in Australia by about 2ooospecies. Fifteen gen- era and 107 species are described at great length inthe present paper. 4. “ Notes on the Geology of the Western Coal-fields,” by Pro- fessor Stephens, M.A., No. 1. This was a brief account of the Wallerawang and Capertee Conglomerates and overlying coal measures, together with some description of the Devonian beds of the Capertee valley and Coco Creek. Specimens ot Bvachiopoda and Favosites, together with a large Pleuvotamaria, as well as of Por- phyry and other rocks obtained from the same locality, were shown in illustration of the paper. 5. ** Notes on the Oyster Beds at Cape Hawke,” by James Se, Cox, M.D., &c. This was a paper in support of the author’s views as expressed in a previous paper, of the undoubted specific differ- ence between the Drift Oyster and Rock Oyster of our coasts. Sydney, 29th November, 1882. Dr. James C. Cox, F.L.5., &c., President, in the chair. Papers—t. ‘‘ Description of two new birds of Queensland,” by Charles W. de Vis, B.A. One of these birds —Pvionodura Newtonia —constitutes a new genus and species of the family Paradiseide. It is described from a unique specimen taken in Tully River scrubs, Rockingham Bay. The other bird described—Cvacticus vufescens— came from the same locality. 2. ‘* Fungi aliquot Australis Orientalis,” by the Rev. Carl Kal- chbrenner. The following new species were described—A garicus megalotheles, Agaricus Kivtom, A. peltastes, and Scleroderma pileolatum. 3. ‘* Botanical Notes on Queensland,” by the Rev. J. E. Ten1- son-Woods. This paper consisted of a description of the “ Briga- low” scrubs, which consist mainly of Acacia harpophylla (¥.v.M.) instead ot A. excelsa as usually stated. The brigalow forms thickets MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 345 of from 30 to 80 feet in height, amongst which a peculiar flora occurs. A list of those collected by the author was given at the end of the paper. 4. ‘Contribution to a knowledge of the Fishes of New Guinea,” No. 3, by William Macleay, F.L.S., &c. In this paper Mr Mac- leay completes the list of the fishes sent by Mr. Goldie from Port Moresby, bringing the number of species up to 274. The new species described in the paper are: Platyglossus guttulatus, Corts cyanea, Pseudoscarus Goldiei, Pseudoscarus frontalis, Pseudoscarus papuen- sis, Pseudoscarus zonatus, Pseudoscarus labiosus, Pseudoscarus Moresbyensis, Monacanthus nigricans, Monacanthus fuliginosus, Trygon granulata, and Temura atra. 5. ‘** Notes on the Geology of the Western Coal Fields,” No. 2. By Professor Stephens, M.A. In this paper Professor Stephens proceeds to an examination of the Wallerawang, Marangeroo and Capertee conglomerates, which leads him directly to the conclusion that the continent off whose shores the upper marine carboniferous beds were deposited, was a system of high mountain ranges, snow- capped, and under erosion by glaciers which descended to near the level of the sea. It was shown further that all the subsequent formations were of shore or river formation, in plains skirting the mountains, or in valleys penetrating their recesses, and that these were all fresh-water deposits, excepting the coal seams themselves which were subaerial; and that the most recent sedimentary for- mation in that district was the Hawkesbury Sandstone, also lacustrine in origin, and due like the underlying strata to the con- tinued rise of the lake waters upon the land. 6. ‘“* Note on an Australian species of Phoronis,” by William A. Haswell, M.A., B.Sc. The species described, which was named Phoroms austvalis, was obtained with the dredge off Ball’s Head in Port Jackson, and inhabits the walls of a semi-gelatinous sac of large size. 7. “ Note on a curious instance of Symbiosis,” by William A. Haswell, M.A., B.Sc. A Cellefova having minute antinids scattered over its branches, and occupying the terminal portions of narrow canals in the substance of the bryozoarium, was dredged in Torres Straits. It was suggested that this may throw some light on cer- tain problematical pores occurring in various fossil and recent species of Bryozoa. 8. “* Note on the segmental organs of Aphvodita,” by William A. Haswell, M.A., B.Sc. Mr W. A. Haswell exhibited a coral which he had recently found in Port Jackson. With reference to this exhibit the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods stated that it was a Plestastvea, which he was inclined to regard as a new species. It differed in some re- spects from P. Pevonit of the south coast, and P. Urvillei of King George’s Sound. Ifit were the former it was the first record of its being discovered living in Port Jackson. He promised care- fully to examine the specimens and communicate the results to the Society. He added that conclusions had been drawn erroneously as to the former existence ot reet-building corals and a semi- tropical temperature from the occurrence of a similar fossil in the Miocene beds of Tasmania, but neither the existing nor the fossil species were reef-builders, nor were they confined to warm sea. 346 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Sydney, 27th December, 1882,—Dr. James C. Cox, F.L.S., Pre- sident, in the chair. Papers.—1. ‘“‘ Occasional Notes on Plants indigenous in the neighbourhood of Sydney,” No. 2. By Edwin Havilland, Esq. | This paper treats chiefly of the construction and habits of Utvicu- lavia dichotoma, of the order Lentibularince, showing the provision made to enable the plant (which usually grows in shallow creeks) to float in case of an increase in the depth of the stream; thus avoiding injury to the pollen, which would occur if it were sub- merged, The author also referred to the peculiar construction of the flower, favouring cross-fertilization, while at the same time self-fertilization 1s prevented by the corolla falling off, carrying with it the stamens and pollen before the stigma is mature. 2. ‘* Description of a new Belideus (B. gracilis), from Northern Queensland.” By Charles W De Vis, B.A. A species in size between B. austvalis and B. sciureus, differing from both in its mark- ings, in having shorter ears and in the more slender and less hairy ~ tail. 3. A paper by the same author describing two new Queensland Fishes—-Callionymus achates and Mugil nasutus. 4. * The species of Eucalyptus first known in Europe.” By the Rev. Dr. Woolls. Of the twelve species described by Willde- now, eleven are from the immediate neighbourhood of Sydney, and one only from Tasmania. This tree, the Tasmanian Stringy Bark, E. obliqua, was the first Eucalypt know in Europe, the specimen having been collected during Furneaux’s Voyage. On it L’Héri- tier founded the genus, 1788. The early descriptions are, as it may be supposed, very vague and imperfect, and their identifica- tion has been a matter of much difficulty and hesitation, now hap- pily removed. 5. “On some new species of Tubicolous Annelides.” By William A. Haswell, M.A., B.Sc. This paper contained descrip- tions of five new species of tubicolous annelides from New South Wales and Queensland. 6. ““On New Species of Agaricus discovered in Western Aus- tralia.” By the Rev. C. Kalchbrenner. The new species described, which were collected by Mrs. Forrest, were named Agaricus For- vestie, A. carneo-flavidus, A. turbinipes, A. plagiotus, and A. bicinctus. 7. **On some points in the anatomy of the urogenital organs in females of certain species of Kangaroos,” Part I., by J. J. Fletcher, M.A., B.Sc. This paper continues the subject treated of in a former paper, and gives an account of the urogenital organs of sixty female kangaroos, of which forty-four specimens described in Part I. were taken from animals which had certainly produced young. The results are—(1) Corroborative of the fost partum exist- ence of a direct communication between the median vaginal and urogenital canals in H. vujficollis, Osphvanter vobustus, and Osphranter vufus, in all of which species it has been met with before. (2) Descriptive of its existence in two species (H. dorsalis and Onycho- galea frenaa) in which the female organs have been hitherto un- described. (3) Corroborative ot the absence, as a rule, of the direct communication in Macvopus major, even after parturition. Part II., treating of the organs of virgin animals, with summary and conclusion, will be given later on. i ‘ : % ‘ . ¥S 2 7 F \ : ‘eo. S é NG. a ID | T } i; : 7 7) io Ca 4 DISSECT CO ‘ PS ‘ tat E ¥ read ers, AND a3 © STRE : Ma ei) 4 t 4 if YA pai eet egy it f \ } i ’ 4 riou D t by ie vario a Cc one / 9 i é ae er: PRIN > eet RESP sda t ae Saute ieel ne : veg a ~ ” oe ~ rat 7 Celeb ey \ d Oy s La Vie ny bl 2 = a * - ae 2 = o uppl mersion i 4 4 $ § * . rf x 8 in. D ie 7 m 1 sion. ) mmers Ss yi an Now sup} aker’ ms oil) C r *s rices. ‘ i Pi ou ~ str, en oy ey ogue og 4 % om e or 1 af Catal nt fe e ee ee “4 t i Obje iy f 8s ‘ es a= “ v4 J. : . P 7 < ‘ . - ‘ ' a ‘; : Ue J ~ — > ¥v ad a = - * ~ ¥ by - T<29 ‘ a. cial * — : ¢ . 5 ere 1 O Ce pe oT v ; s " as Pap aan Ae a y a. a - . cs “he he rea . sn ie a _ PIAS salir a ee . rn iaG ete . 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Prof, B ie f: PARKER ae ae eyes oe 1 Recent Additions tor the New Zealand Bice. _ Tuomas ‘Kirk, PLS, Res wae . eee” re $0 news de Sa net y * PRINTED BY JOHN MACKAY, "| MORAY: PLA\ oF. a ‘, Vol. I., No. 8, MARCH, 1883]. NOTES ON THE SALMON DISEASE IN THE TWEED ANDO OTHERY RIVERS, ANDJTS REMEDY. BY W. ARTHUR, CE. > It may seem bold for a resident at the antipodes to express any opinion on the disease which has become epidemic among the salmon of the border rivers of England and Scotland ; and yet an outsider has always the advantage of being free from, and unbiassed by, local ideas or preconceptions, and so is better able to weigh fairly the evidence already recorded on the subject. In this spirit I have tried to arrange my notes under three heads or divisions, which are these :—(1.) Zhe disease itself; (2.) A sum- mary of the occurrence of the disease; and (3.) The proposed remedy or remedies. 1. The disease ttself—The disease appears to be due to a fungus, known to science as Saproleguia ferax. This fungus is figured in the Royal Commissioners’ report on the disease pub- lished in 1880, where the three stages of protoplasm, zoospores, and resting spores are shewn. It is present seemingly in all fresh waters, but has not been discovered positively in the waters of the ocean, and probably will not. Where it finds the requi- site conditions for germination and growth itssubsequent develop- ment appears to be one of extraordinary rapidity. These condi- tions are present when the spores floating through the water find and rest on a dead animal, or the soft parts of a fish’s body, as the head and fins. Hence these germs are known as the “ rest- ing spores ;” they are possessed of greater vitality than the zoo- spores, and are the principal reproducers of the species. The common aspect of the fungus is dirty-white and fluffy, and ofa thread-like structure. Although the Commissioners on the disease collected a large amount of evidence from residents on the banks of rivers affected, supplemented by the scientific re- ports of Professor Rolleston, Erasmus Wilson, F.R.S., Dr. Cooke, C. L. Jackson, A. B. Stirling, &c., yet they suggested that more information is still required in order to determine the natural history of this fungus precisely—and they might have added, to determine the chemical condition of affected and non-affected waters. Impressed with the necessity of further discovery, Pro- fessor Huxley has, since the issue of above report, begun a series of independent experiments on the salmon disease—the first re- sults of which are now public.* The principal things disclosed by Professor Huxley are that the resting-spores, though incon- ceivably prolific, are yet very short-lived, and the suggestion that although the return of the salmon to salt-water removes the pe 5 * See Nature for March, 1882, 348 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. disease from the epidermis and restores the fish to apparent health, yet on its re-ascent of the river the disease, if it has pre- viously penetrated the true skin, reappears on the fish, with or without the accessory of fresh infection. Sir James Gibson Maitland also, in his essay sent to the Norwich Fishery Exhibi- tion, 1881, has contributed some very useful information. He says :—“ Saprolegnia ferax is one . those fungi which propagate either by seed or cells. The cell is in diameter many times larger than the seed, and is probably always present at all times in all waters ; but there is this difference between the two modes of propagation—the cell is much more particular as to the soil on which it can root than the infinitesimal seed. Wherever there is dead fish matter in water the fungus is sure to grow, but unless some scrape or sore form a suitable nidus, I very much doubt if it would grow from the cell on the back of a living fish. It is probable zoospores are fertilised by the actual penetration of the male spore, and in this fertilisation the secret of the epidemic probably lies. I mean I consider the zoospore the cause of epidemic, the resting-spore the cause of after-growth in the sporadic form of the disease, and the probable source of the cen- tres of infection from which the epidemic spreads.” But the most important and suggestive observations are those of Mr. Livingstone Stone, given in his “ Domesticated Trout, 1877.” In Appendix I. Mr. Stone says :—“It has hitherto been sup- posed, I believe, that the fungus eats into the tissues of the fish and destroys it. The microscope revealed, however, that it was not the fungus that penetrated into the fish, but a multitude of microscopic worms of the shape and appearance given on page 278. The worms are never found in the upper part of the fun- cus, but just below the roots, or where the fungus joins on to the surface of the skin. They are about 1-8o0th of an inch in length, and 1-200th of an inch in diameter, and are provided with a mouth at one extremity, and at the other with about twenty claw-like appendages for fastening on to the fish on which they feed. They are continually eating into the tissues of the fish, and the twenty tentacles enable them to fasten on so tightly that the fish cannot shake them off. These parasites appear to live on the flesh of the fish, and the fungus to live on the digested matter into which they transform it.” There appear to be two or more different species of fungi which attack the Salmonidz ; but the particular form described by Mr. Stone has not as yet been identified on any diseased sal- mon examined in England. Probably it is not the same; but, be that as it may, it is sufficient for my present purpose that the salmon disease is due to a fungus, which microscopists call Sapro- legnia ferax, and that it is epizoic—that is, fastens on to the skin of the fish, and from the outside strikes its roots into the tissues. 2. A summary of the occurrence of the Salinon disease, and of the conditions of different waters—The evidence taken by the Com- missioners disclosed the fact that the disease has been known to NOTES ON THE SALMON DISEASE. 349 old anglers for many yaars past in isolated cases of salmon dying by fungus. But it was not till 1878 that it first appeared in the Solway as a widespread and fatal epidemic—when thousands of salmon died. Then it ravaged the Tweed, Nith, Annan, Doon, and Derwent, reaching from the Severn to the Tay ; and although at present it is not quite so vigorous in its progress, yet it has, by latest accounts, appeared in the Northumberland Tyne, a river which has hitherto enjoyed a singular immunity from it. In the United States it has long been known in the rivers of the Pacific coast—in fish hatcheries,—and latterly I see it has ap- peared in Canada. Here in New Zealand a fungus was observed by Mr. H. Howard in 1876 on trout in his pond, and I have seen it myself on a golden carp at our Opoho ponds, also on large trout in Lake Wakatipu—to which I shall refer again. Although the above places are not the only ones where disease has appeared, both here and in other countries, yet they serve to give some idea of the wide distribution of this fungoid disease ; and here I ought to add that the seasons immediately preceding and during the outbreak of the disease till 1881 (which was a wet one) were remarkable for drought, heat, and lowness of rivers in Britain. I will here, in this connection, make some remarks on the nature of the waters in which the disease has been fatal. The Tweed drains an area which is partly pasture land and partly land highly cultivated ; but it has no lakes of any size. It isa fact also of great significance that within thepresent century the average flowof waterin the Tweed has decreased by about one-third —that is to say the discharge of the river (exclusive of floods) is two-thirds of what it was 60 or 70 years. At that date a flood took a week to run off, and thereafter the flow in the river diminished very gradually ; now a flood runs off in two or three days, and is higher while it lasts. The cause of this great altera. tion is the extensive drainage and agricultural operations carried out during above period. The effect of the change is that salmon cannot get up the river to spawn, nor out of it and back to sea when spawned, so freely as formerly. This, together with the obstruction caused by rivers, is the first or primary contributing cause of the disease, and means also less water, less oxygen, and more heat—all very bad conditions. But add to this the effect on the constitution of the salmon, of its prolonged passage up and residence in the river after spawning, and we have the jfirs¢ proximate cause of the appearance of the disease. Then the absence of the proper proportion of salt in the water seems to me to be the second cause. This of course I cannot prove directly ; but the healthy effects of salt on Salmonidz have been deter- mined. But there must be yet another or ¢hzrd cause, arising from the greatly increased nitrogen in the rivers, due to the decomposition of manures, both artificial and from the farm- yard, now so much more extensively used than formerly in agri- culture. These three predisposirg causes I shall refer to again ; but, together with these, the spores or seeds of the fungus, it 350 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. must be remembered, are constantly floating through the water, ready to fasten on any vulnerable fish. The Tweed, then, may be taken as the type of salmon rivers in Britain, which have not their source in large lakes, as the Nith, Solway, Severn, &c. But rivers such as the Tay, flowing out of a loch, where one would expect nature had laid up an ample compensation for the modern loss of water in the river lower down, caused by excessive drainage, have also been found to be infected. In such cases I suspect the lake water cannot be suff- cient in quantity or quality to effect the above object. At the same time it must be borne in mind that there is no evidence as yet of the disease in British waters draining a less cultivated area—as Loch Lomond and its tributaries, the river Awe, and the rivers of the North of Scotland. On the other hand, North America and New Zealand furnish examples of fungus on salmon or trout living in waters where no appreciable alteration in che- mical constitution can as yet have resulted from agricultural operations. The above ideas, stated generally, explain what I call the predisposing or primary causes of the outbreak of the salmon disease. But before discussing these further under my last divi- sion, the remedy, I may observe that I cannot entirely agree with the opinion expressed by Dr. Cooke and other scientific men, viz.—that river pollutions, arising from town and factory drainage, have nothing to do with it. I am well aware that the fearful condition of the Tyne, below Newcastle-on-Tyne, has not as yet resulted in salmon forsaking that river, up which they still force their way on the top of a flood. It is likewise true that a score or two of this noble fish still run the gauntlet of the abominations of the Clyde at Glasgow, under favourable autumnal spates, and push up to their ancestral haunts below the Falls of Clyde. But I contend that not only is it but a question of time when the salmon will desert such rivers; I also believe that all excess of nitrogen contained in sewage will have the same bad effects on the fish as the manures I have already mentioned employed in agriculture. By excess of nitrogen, I mean the ratio of nitrogen to oxygen being too high for the health of the fish. 3. The proposed remedy.—Here it becomes necessary to refer to the natural history of the salmon, so far as now known, as being inseparable from a consideration of the three causes of the disease. The recruiting and feeding ground of the salmon is in salt, nct fresh water. I speak, of course, of Salma salar. Asa rule, with few exceptions, it does not feed during its ascent of fresh water rivers. One proof of this is in the fact that no food has as yet been found in the stomachs of salmon which had been any short time ina river. The salmon leaves the sea regularly and cleaves its way up a river in search of a nest or a place where it may, so to speak, form a seed-bed for its ova, and that as near the river’s source as possible. This, its principal instinct, it follows to the neglect of all other considerations, food included. But when spawning is accomplished, then it seeks for nourish- NOTES ON THE SALMON DISEASE. 351 ment, and as it gradually drops down seaward again helps itself largely (as a kelt) tothe young of the Salmonidze—in the absence of more congenial food. The abstinence from its natural food while pushing upwards in a river to spawn must lower the fish’s vital powers greatly. Then it is to be borne in mind that the salmon is in finest condition and greatest vigour when it first leaves the sea—fat, plump, and gleaming with its coat of burnished silver. How is this? It is simply because the sea covers its natural feeding grounds, where it can fatten on numberless crustaceans, molluscs, and small fish, which appear to suit its constitution admirably. Besides proper food, it gets more orygex into its system in the sea. This is a matter requiring more investigation than has yet been devoted to it. Certain gases, it appears, are found secreted in the air bladder of all fishes furnished with that organ. Dr. Giinther says :—“ The gas contained in the air-bladder is secreted from its inner surface. In most fresh water fishes it consists of nitrogen, with a very small quantity of oxygen, and a trace of carbonic acid : in sea fishes, especially those living at some depth, oxygen predominates, as much as 87 per cent. having been found. Davy found in the air-bladder of a fresh-run salmon a trace of carbonic acid, and 10 per cent. of oxygen, the remainder of the gas being nitrogen.” We know also in fish culture that well grated, or oxygenated, water is a necessity to the life of the young of Salmonideze. Seeing then that the salmon is in its finest ~ condition when in the sea, that is when its air bladder has most oxygen in it, and in its lowest condition when in the river after spawning, that is when we may believe least oxygen is in its air- bladder, I think it a fair inference that these states of the air- bladder may be taken as indices of the health of this fish. A gaseous analysis of the waters of affected and clean rivers, and of the contents of the air-bladder of salmon taken in these waters, would at this point beof great value. The only analysis in my possession is one made by the late Dr. Penny many years ago (1852), and I give it for what it may be worth now :— Carb, Acid. Oxygen. Nitrogen, Parts. Loch Lomond water at Balloch 5.10 31.18 63:72 = 100 The Tay at Perth ‘e im eb25O. 25.00 62,50 a 100 Loch Ness ie ee aie Bris 31.47 64.80 = 100 Now, it is a curious coincidence at least, and favourable to my theory, that the Tay salmon are diseased, while those of Loch Lomond and Loch Ness are not. For the Tay water not only contains the smallest amount of oxygen of the three waters examined, but also the ratio of nitrogen to oxygen in it is highest. In other words, the waters of Loch Lomond and Loch Ness have not yet deteriorated so far as to encourage the outbreak of the fungoiddisease. And in these lochsit appears there ismoreoxygen than in the water of the Tay, the absence of the necessary pro- portion of which I consider the principal cause of disease. This loss of oxygen, as before stated, is consequent on the progress of agriculture, which has reduced the average flow of 352 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. salmon rivers, and at the same time increased the quantity of | nitrogen supplied to them. To follow up the effect of these we must assume (what I think may be conceded) that the same run of salmon numerically takes place now as occurred sixty years ago. Given thena pool in Tweed, say “Gleddies Weel,’ which in 1822 carried a third more water than in 1882, and water with a larger proportion of oxygen in it, with 200 salmon in full vigor of life. How is it possible for the same number of fish at pre- sent to maintain health with a third less water, and vitiated at the same time by an overdose of nitrogen, delayed also, it may be, two months beyond their natural time of reaching that pool ? But there are many rivers of North Western America still un- affected by agriculture, and waters in New Zealand as pure, where this fungoid. ora similar disease is known. This may fairly be urged against my theory, but it is not therefore unan- swerable. In the long American rivers, as the Fraser, the habit of the salmon, S. guznuat, or S. chonicha, is the direct cause of the disease. For even after this fish has travelled up hundreds of miles from the sea and spawned, it still presses upwards, losing condition and strength daily, and gets scarred and bruised by rocks till its vitality is reduced beyond the point where it can throw off the attacks of fungus, and to which it eventually suc- cumbs, and dies covered with a mass of offensive sores. Again, in Queenstown Bay, Lake Wakatipu, New Zealand, where the water is pure and abundant, and the trout remarkably fat, this fungoid disease is widespread. In this case there is a total ab- sence of salt in the water, and all fish above a certain size are unable to ascend their native stream, the Town Creek, owing to its smallness, tospawn. These two reasons appear to me enough to make the trout subject to the disease, and, as a matter of fact, they die from it, although as yet not in great numbers. In a word, then, the blood of the salmon when deprived of its proper quantity of oxygen deteriorates, and thus so weakens the fish as to leave it with no vigour of life or strength sufficient to throw off the seeds of the fungoid disease. Finally, contrasting, then, the above facts—lowness of rivers, want of oxygen, excess of nitrogen, prolonged residence of sal- mon in the rivets with fungoid disease prevalent, as at present ; and on the other hand, plenty of water, free passage of fish, fish abundant and healthy, as obtained sixty years ago—and the conclusion is plain that the disease in Tweed, &c., is due not to a single specific cause, but to those connected with the altered state of the rivers, and that the remedy must lie in restoring these rivers to their previous condition so far as practicable. This re- storation can only be effected by the general concurrence and united action of all the higher and lower proprietors, assisted in the first outlay by a Government subsidy. In other words, com- pensation reservoirs must be constructed on all the tributaries of salmon rivers, to impound the excess of flood waters, and from which reservoirs it may be delivered during the dry months to — assist the salmon in its ascent and descent. This is the first NEW ZEALAND SHELLS. _ 353 essential to success in eradicating fungus. Next, rock salt should be used in wells below the sluices of the reservoir, to yield its well-known health-giving properties to the water as it passes over it. All rivers, caulds, and dams, should be furnished with the most approved fish-ladders, so as to afford a clear run to the salmon in low states of the rivers, and stake nets, with other nets, must be removed one mile from the mouths of the rivers. If these, or like remedies, be not adopted, I see no other way of assisting nature to cure the salmon of British rivers of this fatal disease. Roslyn, December, 1882. NEW ZEMAN D) SHELLS OF sTHE “CHALLENGER ‘ EXPEDITION. BY THE REV. R. BOOG WATSON, F.L.S., ETC. (Continued from Page 321.) <_ PLEUROTOMA (SURCULA) ISCHNA, Watson, Proc. Linn. Soc., LOO. XV, 0: A032. meeeo. july 10,1874. Lat 37°. 34° S; lon.*179.. 22’ E., N.E. from New Zealand. 700 fms., grey ooze. Bottom temperature, 40°. Shell.—Higch, narrow, conical, blunt, with a contracted base and longish snout, little sculpture, yellowish grey, porcellaneous. Sculptuve.—Longitudinals—these are only strongish regular lines of growth, which rise into small tubercles, especially on the upper whorls ; between the stronger lines the surface of the shell is delicately fretted with other very minute sharp lines. S#zrals.— The whorls are faintly keeled above the middle by a spiral thread, which is a little stronger and more prominent than any of the others. Close above the suture is another, almost as strong, and which also slightly carinates the whorls ; half-way between these is a finer thread, which tends to split into two very fine threads ; at the suture, but visible beyond the mouth, is another thread, which here defines the base. The longitudinals rise into very small tubercles as they cross the spirals ; but this feature is much the strongest on the upper whorls, which are reticulated ; on the last whorl it is feeble. Between the keel and the suture lie three very fine, equally-parted threads. On the base and snout are about twelve pretty equal fine threads. Colouy a faintly yellowish-gray. pidermis extremely thin, smooth. Spire conical, with an almost unbroken profile, the whole being scarcely convex. A pex.—There are barely two embryonic whorls, smooth, globose, not flattened down at the tip, which, however, is slightly im- mersed. Whorls, 7 in all, feebly keeled with a just perceptibly concave line from the suture to the keel, and from the keel to the suture below. Just above the suture there is a slight con- 354 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. traction, which forms a faint superior margination. The last whorl is very slightly swollen; the base is rather rapidly contracted, and is drawn out into a rather long, straight, but not narrow snout. Suture distinct, impressed. Mouth almost club- shaped, being pointedly oval above, with a longish rather sinuous canal below. Outery lip forms a regular curve, till at the canal it becomes flattened and oblique ; from the body it retreats at once to form the rather deep, rounded, open-mouthed sinus, from which it advances on a very straight line to the edge of the canal in front, where it bends slowly and slightly backwards ; it is throughout open, but not patulous except at the point of the canal. Inner lip spreads as a narrow porcellaneous glaze on the body and pillar; it is slightly hollowed out on the body, is straight on the pillar, toward the front of which. it is cut off with a narrow, rounded, and very slightly oblique edge. H.0.34; B. 0.09. Penultimate whorl, height 0.05. Mouth, height o.14, breadth 0.05. This species is very like P. emendata, Monterosato (= P. Remeri, Phil. but not really that of Scacchi) ; but is much narrower, has much finer and differently arranged spirals, which are minutely tubercled, the curved cusps of the old sinuses are much feebler, and the longitudinals between the threads are far less distinct. The apical whorls are much less depressed. PLEUROTOMA (GENOTIA) ENGONIA, Watson, l.c., p. 405. (?) St..169. July 10, 1874.'" Lat. 37° 34 S.,clongiizatiga! I: N.E. from New Zealand. 700 fms. grey ooze. Bottom tem- perature 40°. St. 232: May 12,1875. .Lat. 35° 1 bi Naplongegganes ura Off Inosima, Japan. 345 fms., sandy mud. Bottom tempera- ture 41.1". Shell—Fusiform, biconical, with an expressed rounded keel angulating the whorls, and broad, prominent, lop-sided snout. Sculpture—Longitudinals—there are no ribs. The lines of growth are strong, hair-like, unequal and close-set ; on the keel, which marks the line of the old sinuses they are exceptionally strong, prominent, regular, and a little remote, as they also are at the top of the whorls in the suture; still they are throughout rounded, not sharp. Spirals——The whorls are angulated about the middle, and project in a rather narrow, prominent, rounded keel, which is almost crenulated by the lines of growth. The whole surface is also covered by small, broadish, rounded, close- set spiral threads, which are somewhat granularly tubercled below the keel. On the left side of the point of the snout they tend to become obsolete, as they also do on the earlier regular whorls. Colour, porcellaneous white. Epideymis: only one minute fragment remains, which seems thin, yellowish, and membranaceous. Spire, high, sub-scalar, typically conical, the profile lines being very little interrupted by the carinal projection. Apex blunt, rounded, consisting of two smooth globular whorls. a. Fi NEW ZEALAND SHELLS. ~ 355 Whorls.—8, short, broad, of regular increase, the last rather large ; they have a sloping, slightly concave shoulder; their profile - below the keel is straight and scarcely contracted. At the top of each whorl there is a slight collar, which gives the effect of a very slight canaliculation to the suture. The base of the shell is somewhat swollen, and prolonged into the shortish broad, and very unequal-sided snout, which lies quite on one side of the base. Suture strong and slightly caniculated. Mouth large, almost rhomboidally pear-shaped, sharply angled above, and with a broad open canal below. Outer lip very regularly curved throughout ; its edge, which is thin and sharp throughout, retreats at once on leaving the body, forming an open V-shaped sinus, which is rounded at the angle ; below this it sweeps downwards and very little forwards, forming a very low-shouldered wing ; towards the lower part of the mouth it curves very regularly backwards to the point of the pillar. Inner lip, which is polished and porcellaneous, is rather broadly excavated in the substance of the shell ; it is scarcely convex on the body, very slightly con- cave at the junction with the pillar, which is narrow and short, being very obliquely truncate in front, with a fine, but strong, sharpish twisted edge. H. 1.26; B. 0.52. Penultimate whorl, height, 0.23. Mouth, height 0.6; breadth, 0.34. I have marked the specimen from station 169 with a query. It is very much rubbed ; but the sculpture of the shell, and even of the sinus-scars, is perfectly preserved. This and the propor- tion and form of the successive whorls are similar, though the line of keel lies a little higher. The shoulder is squarer and shorter, while the line from the keel to the suture is larger. Were the localities of the two less distinct and dissimilar, I would not hesitate. Still, the depth at which they live may secure similar conditions for the species even from 35° N. to 37°S.; and in any case I do not feel able to part the specimens. In its expressed keel this very remarkable shell recalls the young of P. tornata, Dillw., or of P. civcinata, Dall. In form it is slightly like P. spivata, Lam, or P. obesa, Reeve. The resemblance most striking of all, however, both in form and sculpture, is one to which my attention was kindly drawn by Dr. H. Woodward, —that, viz., to P. cataphrvacta, Brocchi, a fossil from the Upper Miocene of the Vienna basin and Northern Italy (Brocchi ii. 221, No. 52, viii. 16, Lam. ix. p. 367, and Philippi, Enum. Moll. Sicil. i. p. 199, ii. p. 171). Compared with that species, this New Zea- land form is slimmer, the angulation of the whorls is less, but the keel on the angulation is more prominent though less nodulous and much lower placed, and the sinus is more remote from the suture and is sharper. PLEUROTOMA (DRILLIA) GYPSATA, Watson, lic. p. 413 Bee tOo. tly. LO; 8874) oath 37>e34iSis olonginn79g! 22%: N.E. from New Zealand. 700 fms., grey ooze. Bottom tem- perature 40°. 356 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Shell.—Strong, fusiform, biconical, scalar ; shortly, sharply, and obliquely ribbed, keeled, constricted at the suture, with a long and rather inflated body-whorl and a largish snout. Sculp- twve.—Longitudinals—on each whorl is a strongish angulation, forming a shoulder, crowned by a series of narrow elongated tubercles or short ribs ; this coronated keel lies on the earlier whorls below, but on the later above the middle. The ribs do not reach the lower suture; in shape and breadth they are irregular, but are always somewhat swollen in the middle and pinched up into prominence; they are parted by flat open furrows of nearly double their width ; on the body-whorl they extend very little below the shoulder, and still less above it. There are about twenty of these ribs on the last whorl, and fifteen on each of the earlier whorls. The surface is scored with hair-like lines of growth, of which every here and there, and especially on the base in the continuation of the riblets, one is stronger than the rest. Spirals—The carination at the shoulder is made more prominent by the sharp line of tubercles. The whole surface is covered with flatly-rounded threads, which are roughened by the incremental lines ; these threads are strongest on the snout, feeble on the body, and very faint in the sinus area. Colour, under a yellowish epidermis, which is a rough but thin and persistent membrane. Sfive high, scalar, conical. Apex eroded, but evidently small. Whorls, 10 (?), of rather rapid increase, high, angulated, with a long, rather high, and scarcely concave shoulder, and with a straight slight contraction to the lower suture ; the last is very large in proportion to the rest, being long and somewhat tumid, and ends in an elongated, broad, unequal-sided snout. Suture very slight indeed; for though it is defined by the contraction of the whorls above and below, yet the inferior whorl laps upon the one above it so as almost to efface the junction angle. Mouth, pale buff-coloured within, long and narrow, angulated above, also at the keel, and also, very slightly, at the junction of the pillar and the body. Outer lip.—F'rom the body to the keel it is slightly concave and contracted ; from the keel it curves very regularly to the point. On leaving the body the line of the edge runs quite straight forward for a short distance, and then curves round to the right, running out on the line of the ribs into a high shouldered prominent wing, between whicn and the body-whorl the broad, deep and rounded sinus lies : towards the front of the mouth it retreats rapidly to the point of the snout. Inner lip spreads rather broadly on the body, is a little thickened, and has a very slightly raised edge. The pillar is long, straight, narrow, and has in front a slightly twisted edge, but is not truncated. H. 1.75; B.0.75. Penultimate whorl, height 0.3. Mouth, height 0.96, breadth 0.47. It is unfortunate that this very interesting species is repre- sented by only two dead and somewhat broken shells. Dr. H. Woodward, who kindly examined this species for me, says it is near P, vostvata, Solander. That species is figured by ha —_ * NEW ZEALAND SHELLS. 357 Edwards in the “ Eocene Mollusca,” published by the Palzeont. Soc., p. 218, xxvi. 8. Compared with that figure, this is much stumpier, more scalar, more sharply keeled, and the spiral sculpture is very much weaker; but there is a great deal of affinity in the general features of the shell. PLEUROTOMA (DRILLIA) BULBACEA, Watson, l.c., p. 418. Se eop jalysio) 1874.:° Latig7 34 | S.,long;er79? 227K. N.E. from New Zealand. 700 fms., grey ooze. Bottom tempera- ture, 40°. Shell,—Broadish, conical, sharply keeled, with a shortish con- tracted base and a short snout, short narrow ribs, and spiral threads, a bulbous apex, strong, porcellaneous. Sculptuve—Lon- gitudinals—Below the sinus-area and about one-third down the whorls from the suture arise, not quite abruptly, ribs slightly tubercled at the top, straight, direct, narrow, and parted by shal- low furrows about twice their breadth; they become feeble to- wards the lower suture ; on the last whorl they do not continue to the base, and become broader and weaker towards the mouth. There are eleven on the last and penultimate whorls ; on the first infra-embryonic whorl there are about seventeen crowded, sharp, scarcely curved, and oblique. The lines of growth are numerous and unequal; in the sinus-area they are sharp and delicate, on the rest of the shell coarse and puckered. Spirals —Marginating the suture at the top of each whorl is a narrow scarcely swollen band; below this the sinus-area is very finely, almost microscopically, scratched ; and the scratch-sculpture is continued, though less distinctly, on the rest of the surface. The projection of the top of the ribs forms a sharp keel. The rib- area is crossed by five coarsish threads, which arise into small tubercles on the ribs; one or two smaller threads come in betwen the lines of these spirals. The same sort of threads, but less distinct, are found on the base; those on the pillar and snout are a little more distinct. Colour dull porcellaneous white. Epidermis quite gone. Sfive rather short, conical, very slightly scalar; cylindrical towards the top. Apex two smooth embry- onic whorls, swollen and roundedly pressed down, with a deepish suture, rather more prominent than the regular whorl which follows. Whorls 6%, short. of rather rapid increase; the last large relatively to the rest ; from the suture to the ribbing they are concavely shouldered. The projection of the tubercles at the top of the ribs forms a carination, which does not really exist in the form of the whorls themselves ; there is a very slight contraction towards the lower suture. The last whorl contracts slightly from the keel to the edge of the base, and from that point rapidly to the small, narrow, straight, and direct snout. Suture coarse, slightly impressed, and well defined by the band below it, Mouth narrowly oval, pointed above, with an oblique, short, rather open, and gradually contracted canal in front. Outer lip a rather depressed convex curve, a little concave at the 358 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, top and flattened towards the point; on leaving the body it retreats at once, forming a shallow, blunt, V-shaped sinus, from the lower side of which, with little of angulation, it advances very straight to the edge of the canal, whence it slowly curves back- ward round the open point of the snout. Inner lip spreads as a very porcellaneous glaze; it runs very obliquely to the base of the shortish narrow pillar, below which point it is a very little hollowed. The point of the pillar is cut off with a very slight obliquity, and has a blunt and very slightly twisted edge. Operculum small, oval, smooth, with hair-like strize, apex terminal, colour pale brownish-yellow, H. o'5., B. 0:23. Penultimate whorl, height, o11. Mouth, height ovt., breadth o'r2. The blunt apex, the ribs, and coarse spirals of this species suggest some faint affinity with the P. nivalis, Lovén, group ; but it is very remote. PLEUROTOMA (DRILLIA) ULA, Watson, l.c., p. 420. St:\169,; July. 10,/1874./.; Lat. 37° «34-.S;; longa 7 Opa oles N.E. from New Zealand. 700 fms. grey ooze. Bottom temper- ature 40°. Shell—Rather short, fusiform, biconical, scalar, angulated, obsoletely ribbed, with rather strong spiral threads. The snout is rather short, broadish, and lop-sided. Sculpture. Longitu- dinals—There are on the last whorl about 18, very oblique, curved, narrow, rather obsolete, irregularly arranged riblets, parted by wider shallow furrows ; they originate faintly at the suture, are strongest and somewhat mucronate at the angulation, extend to the lower suture, and appear on the base but not on the snout; they are much stronger on the earlier whorls than on the last one. There are very many fine hair-like lines of growth. Spirals—There are a great many remote hair-like threads; on the shoulder below the suture these are fine and closer set than on the body and base; the carinal one at the angulation and that next below this, especially the first, are strong; they are ornamented with close-set, round, minute granules, which swell into small prominent tubercles in crossing the riblets ; those on the carinal spiral in particular are high, sharp, and horizontally elongated. In the interstices of the ribs and spirals, the whole surface is microscopically granulated. It is this granulated sur- face which gives the peculiar crisp aspect to the texture of the shell, from which its name is taken. Colouy semitransparent flinty white, with a crisp or slightly frosted aspect. Spive scalar, rather stumpily conical, with its profile lines much interrupted by the constriction of the sutures. Afex—There are two globose embryonic whorls, of which the first is immersed, but scarcely flattened down on one side; they are rather remotely, micro- scopically, regularly striated. Whorls 5% in all; they are short, broad, of slow increase, with a rather long sloping shoulder and a sharp carinated angle, below which they are cylindrical, with a very slight contraction to the suture; the last is broadest at NEW ZEALAND LARENTIID/. 359 the keel, and from this point convexly contracted to the rather short, broadish, conical snout. Suture linear, but well marked by the contraction of the whorls. Mouth rather large, rhomboidally pear-shaped, with three angles above, and prolonged into a wide open canal. Outer lip thin, angulated, rectilinear above to the keel, flatly curved below ; on leaving the body it at once retreats to the left, forming in the shoulder a shallow, open, rounded sinus ; below the angle it advances very little, and at the snout its retreat is small. Inner lin—There is a thin, narrow glaze on the body and pillar; at the base of the pillar is a slight rounded angle; the pillar is short, conical and straight ; its point is very slightly truncate, with a narrow, rounded, but scarcely twisted edge. H. 024, B. 0117. Penultimate whorl, height o'04. Mouth, height, 0°12, breadth o'06. This shell may very likely be immature. The external lip in Pleuvotoma is generally so thin that it is difficult to determine from it when the shell is full grown. (To be continued). NEW ZEALAND LARENTIIDA:. a epg BY ALEXE:: PURDIE, B.A. —_—=— The main inducement to compile this paper was the know- ledge of the difficulty experienced by local entomologists in identifying their specimens of Lepidoptera. This difficulty arises from the fact that the descriptions are scattered through various publications not readily accessible by the ordinary student. What Captain Broun’s work has done for our Coleoptera we yet want someone to do for our Lepidoptera. To help to supply the above want in some degree is the object of this paper, and I trust that through your pages these descriptions may be brought before many that would otherwise not have seen them. The Larentiide include many of our commonest moths, and such as are likely to form part of every collection, while they are large enough also to render observations on their structure and mark- ings somewhat easy. They are grouped under Larentia, Coremia, and Cidaria ; but no weight is to be laid on the arrangement, as the question of the genera is at present in a very unsettled con- dition, and can be decided only by those having access to more complete reference libraries, and to larger collections than those within our reach in New Zealand as yet. As these descriptions may be used by some that are new to this work it may be well to give shortly the general character of the markings of the family. The most distinct and constant mark is a broad transverse dark band across the middle of the forewing. This central band is referred to in the descriptions as the central or median belt. It is often edged with a lighter colour, and its central area is usually paler than its edges. The basal area of the forewing is often dark, containing several transverse lines. There is usually a dark 360 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. irregular submarginal band inside the outer margin, and edged outside with a light colour. The outer margin, just inside the fringe, is usually edged with a blackish line—the marginal line. In the central part of the median belt there is usually in the cell a dark dot or streak, called the cellular, discocellular, or discal dot or streak. These markings refer mainly to the forewings. The following descriptions are in general quoted in the author’s words, but in several cases where the original description was vague or scanty the description has been rewritten or sup- plemented. I hope ina future number to extend the paper to the other genera of Larentiide, and also to give the remaining species belonging to the foregoing genera. Laventia semisignata, Walk.—Cinereous, minutely black speckled. Antenne of the male pectinated. FForewings with several denti- culated blackish lines, some of which are most conspicuous on the veins, where they form black points ; middle space without lines, containing the black transverse elongate discal point ; dn- terior, exterior, and submarginal lines formed by whitish points on the veins ; marginal lunules black ; costa convex ; exterior border hardly convex. Hindwings paler, with indistinct lines. Body 4 lines ; wings 12 lines. Lay. punctilineata seems to differ mainly in colour from L. semisignata. Laventia ?. megasptlata, Walk.—Cinereous brown. _Palpi stout, pilose, rostriform, extending much beyond the head, and about as long as its breadth. Antennz of male moderately pectinated. Forewings with numerous indistinct blackish denticulated lines ; interior and exterior lines whitish, accompanied by black points, having between them a large pale cinereous subcostal blackish bordered patch, which contains a black point; a black, oblique, bent, diffuse apical streak, which passes across the cinerous zig- zag submarginal line; marginal points black, elongated ; tips subfalcate, the exterior border being excavated in front. Hind- wings dull ochraceous, with indistinct brown lines. Body 4% lines ; wings 13 lines. This is a very variable species, and I think that Lav. nehata, falcata, and rufescens, are rather varieties of it than distinct species. Laventia ? nehata, Feld.—According to Mr. Butler this is allied to Lar. megaspilata, but is smaller; the primaries much darker and more uniform in colouring, the secondaries ochraceous. Laventia ? falcata, Butl—Allied to L. punctilineata (which it much resembles in colour and markings), but larger, and with distinctly falcate primaries ; primaries reddish-brown, with the base and a broad central belt dark brown, traversed by blackish lines, and margined by white dots; a black discocellular dot ; external border blackish, diffused ; two or three whitish sub- apical dots ; secondaries silvery-grey, with a darker waved cen- tral belt, formed of parallel dark grey lines, dotted with black upon the abdominal margin, white bordered ; a submarginal series of white-bordered grey spots ; a marginal series of blackish dots in pairs ; fringe pale yellowish-brown ; abdomen with dor- eee ee er SO rSr—CSSt:~‘; C.mFt”*éi‘ ‘SCS - NEW ZEALAND LARENTIIDA. 361 sal pairs of black dashes on each segment; primaries below grey, with darker white-bordered central belt ; costa cream-coloured between the markings ; a zig-zag white-bordered subapical stria; secondaries whitish, with a broad irregular central belt, formed by two blackish limiting lines and two grey intermediate lines ; the outer black line distinctly undulated; a very ill-defined blackish speckled submarginal band; body below testaceous. Expanse of wings 1 inch, 3 lines. Laventia ? rufescens, Butl—Intermediate between L. falcata and L. megaspilata. Primaries pale lakey-brown, crossed by numerous undulated brownish lines, with indications of a broad central belt, cuneiform blackish subapical patch and black discocellular dot, all as in Z. megaspilata ; secondaries pale sericeous testaceous, crossed in the middle by four parallel sinuous undulated grey lines in pairs ; three similarly undulated grey lines in pairs; three similarly undulated grey lines upon the external area, and the commencement of a fourth between these and the central ones ; external border pale lakey-brown, with a marginal series of black dots in pairs ; fringe traversed by a grey line; a black discocel- lular dot; head and thorax pale lakey-brown, speckled with blackish ; abdomen pale testaceous, banded with blackish ; pri- maries below grey ; costa pale ochraceous, a whitey-brown discal band immediately following the limiting lines of the central band, otherwise nearly as above, but the central lines rather darker ; secondaries altogether darker than above, the groundcolour sandy, the central lines blackish, the lines on external border ill- defined ; body below pale lakey-brown. Expanse of wings I inch, 1 line. Laventia ? invexata, Walk.—Cinereous. Palpi porrect, rostri- form, shorter than the breadth of the head. Antenne of male moderately pectinated. Forewings minutely brown-speckled, with many blackish denticulated lines, of which the basal, in- terior, and-exterior lines are black, and more distinct than the others, and are partly shaded with blackish, which hue forms a discal patch; these markings are most distinct towards the costa; submarginal line pale cinereous, zig-zag ; marginal points brown, minute: costa slightly convex; exterior border straight, rather oblique. Hindwings with very indistinct lines. Body 3-3% lines ; wings 9 lines. The smallest species of this group (Butler). Covemia squalida, Butl.—Silvery greyish-brown ; primaries above with the usual irregular central belt very broad, its central area dark grey, its borders broadly yellowish olivaceous, edged on both sides and intersected with undulated black lines; a sil- very-white line on each side of the central belt ; base olivaceous, traversed by blackish lines and limited externally by a white line ; a sub-basal yellowish belt occupying the space between the base and the central belt ; disc crossed immediately beyond the central belt by two yellowish-brown lines on a white ground, and followed by a white-edged band of the same colour; outer bor- der yellowish olivaceous; a blackish marginal line; fringe 362 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. whitish, traversed by two dark brown parallel lines ; seconda- ries with a black undulated marginal line, fringe traversed by a slender, dusky line ; under surface greyish-brown ; basal three- fourth of the wings limited externally by a very irregular dark- brown line, followed by a white line ; discocellulars dark brown ; apical borders irrorated with white ; fringe whitish, spotted with brown. Expanse of wings, one inch two-tenths. It is easily recognised by its blackish grey colour and white markings. Coremia ypsilonaria, Guén.—Superior wings dull whitish flesh- coloured, or somewhat straw-coloured, but very pale ; markings wood-brown, consisting of a space near the base terminated by an oblique black line, and containing another black line, a median band constricted in its lower, open in the form of a Y in its upper portion, enclosing a little cellular dot placed between two black marks of which the external forms a xX with filled-in tri- angle; there is also a series of little nervural dots, and an oblique sub-apical streak surmounting a faint brownish border ; inferior wings slightly smoky, without markings; underside of all the wings more obscure, especially the first half, which is limited by a vague line ; inferior with a cellular point and two faint sub-terminal parallel lines, scarcely visible on the upper side. Abdomen marked with geminated black dots. Palpi pro- duced but incumbent. Antennz furnished with long pectina- tions in their basal three-fourths, but afterwards filiform. Ex- panse of wings one inch and a fifth. lCovemia semifissata, Walk.,(=Cid. delicatulata, Guén).—Rosy-cine- reous with brown markings. Base of superior wings enclosed by a curved black line. Outside this at some distance isa second black band forming an acute angle near the costa. Between the second band and the median belt are first a broad irregular brown band, then two waved light-brown lines. The centre of the median belt is ashy, contracted towards the hinder margin, and contains a black discal streak. This central area is bounded by bands of brown and _ black, shewing traces of waved black lines. Outside the median belt are three parallel light brown lines, the third sometimes running into the submarginal band. Submarginal band blackish-brown, irregular, bordered by a narrow line of the ground colour. The veins between the median belt and the margin are streaked with short black dashes, and in the central belt the main veins are lined . with whitish grey. A light triangular patch at the apex. A marginal line of short black dashes. Fringe silky, greyish- brown. Inferior wings testaceous, with more or less indications: of dark lines. Marginal dashes pale brown, with small brown patches inside them. Fringe silky and brownish. Below testa- ceous. Forewings shewing the black discal streak, and outside this some faint brownish lines. Hindwings also have the black discal streak, and beyond it some five or six waved brownish lines. Marginal line absent, or very faint. Fringe paler than above. Expanse of wings about one inch and a fifth. It is very difficult to distinguish between this and Covemia NEW ZEALAND LARENTIID&. 363 ypsilonavia in poor specimens. The main points that mark out this species are the lining of the veins with whitish-grey, and the presence of distinct parallel brown lines on either side of the median belt. Covemia (?) inamenania, Guen.—Superior wings entire, acute at the apex, greenish-grey (perhaps quite green in fresh examples) ; all the extraordinary lines present but very indistinct, the two median ones rather more sensible, and the elbowed line darker above ; fringes in good examples violaceous, divided by a line in the middle. Inferior wings whitish grey, powdered with violet atoms ; some examples have a faint trace of lines, with the fringe as in the superior, preceded by indistinct geminated dots. The underside of all the wings is in part tinted with violet, with a cellular point and traces of two lines. Body concolorous with- out markings. Palpi scaly, projected in the form of a beak. Antenne of female completely filiform. As regards my examples rosy or reddish might replace violet in the above description. Fresh specimens have the forewings of a peculiar, dull, yellowish green. Covemia avdulana, Guéen.—Wings silky, very pale pinky-grey, with very indistinct traces of lines, save the two median ones, which are blackish upwardly and enclose a black dot very near the extra-basal ; sub-terminal absent, preceded by a series of very small black nervural dots ; below the apex is an indistinct grey- ish dash ; inferior yet paler, without markings on the upperside ; pale flesh-coloured beneath, mixed with black atoms, and with an indistinct median line formed of black atoms, and a cellular dot placed very near the costa. Body concolorous, without markings. Palpi prominent, as long as the head. Antenne with very fine but long pectinations, filitorm at the apex. Ex- panse of wings one inch and a tenth or under. This seems to come very near to Covemia voseavia, Doubl. Covemia pastinaria, Guén.—Superior wings entire, the terminal margin straight, not falcate ; wood-brown, traversed by a multi- tude of slender undulated brown lines; the median space cir- cumscribed by two narrow bands of a dirty white, each divided in the middle by a brown line ; this space, which includes several dark lines (of which the exterior two tend to form rings) en- closes in the cellule an ashy-grey spot, prolonged and constricted on the costa and marked in its centre by a black dot; the sub- terminal line is whitish but very irregular, thickened in its lower portion and divided above by an oblique black mark ; the fringe is preceded by black festooned marks, regular, but isolated by the nervures; inferior wings ochreous-yellow, somewhat shining, also bordered by black festoons, but with only faint traces of lines; beneath they are whitish yellow, with the same faint traces of lines formed by brown dots, and with a black cellular mark. Palpi rather broad, the second joint flattened and securi- form, the third forming a very short tubercle. Abdomen marked with a row of geminated black dots. Expanse of wings 13% tenths of an inch. 304. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. This is given as a synonym of Cor. vosearia, Doubl., by Mr. Butler. It was suggested by Mr. Butler in his “ Lepidoptera of N.Z.” that the series of moths named as Cidaria inclavata, descriptata, per- ductata, and congregata, with several synonyms, would prove vari- ations of one species. Having been able to examine a great number of fresh specimens, I am assured that this is the case, and the name inclavata will therefore stand for the whole. With them I would also include Cidaria congressata, Walk., and even Covemia deltotdata may prove but an extreme variety of this species, distinguished only the falcation of its wings. No dependence can be placed on the shape of the wing, as this is quite as variable as the markings. I shall give the general character of the markings, noting where variation oftenest occurs. Covemia inclavata, Walk. (Synonyms—Cidaria descriptata, bisig- nata, conversata, aggregata, congressata, Walker; Cidaria monoliata, inopiata, Felder)—Superior wings brown; basal area darker, bounded by a dark brown curved line, and containing a more slender dark line, and the commencement of a third on the costa very near the base. This basal area may be edged with whitish. Space between this and the median belt is sometimes brownish, with a faint trace of dark waved lines. Sometimes the inner edge of the central belt is edged with a whitish band lined with a brown line. Median belt dark brown and distinct, widest towards the costa. Outer bands of the median belt dark brown, shewing traces of waved black lines, the two interior of which tend to form circles round the central ashy area containing the black discal streak. Outer edge of median belt usually edged with a broadish white band containing at least two waved brown lines. Sub-marginal band blackish, obscure and clouded inside, waved and interruptedly edged with white outside. A light apical oblique streak, backed by a blackish marginal cloud, Marginal line black, interrupted by the veins. The margin may be clouded with blackish brown. Fringe silky and brownish. Inferior wings a reddish fawn colour of varying shades, with indications of waved black lines at the interior margin. Fringe and marginal line as in superior wings. Body and abdomen greyish. Abdomen with dorsal geminated black dots. Under- side of forewings dull, testaceous, clouded with blackish below the apex. Discal streak black, and area of median belt blackish. Hind-wings dull greyish white, mottled. Discal streak black, and outside it indications of several brownish black lines, Expanse of wings one inch and three-fifths, and under. The shape of the wings is more falcate than in Covemia pas- tinavia, and the white markings of the forewings wider. The median belt is also more obliquely set in the wing. The outer edge of this median belt may be nearly straight, of it may be much waved and very prominent about the middle. Covemia deltoidata, Walk.—As I have said above, I am in- clined to think this a variety of Cid. inclarata. Cinereous fawn-colour. Palpi short, slightly rostriform, | NEW ZEALAND LARENTIIDA. 365 Antennz minutely pubescent. Wings ample, with a black mar- ginal line. Abdomen with two rows of blackish points. Fore- wings falcate, with four oblique, nearly straight black lines towards the base ; two curved black lines nearer the middle, pre- ceded by a dark brown middle band, which forms two whitish bordered patches of which the fore one contains the deep black discal streak and two black lines, and is thrice or eight times larger than the hind one; a pale cinereous exterior band, con- taining a nearly straight black line; submarginal line whitish, denticulate1, irregularly shaded with black. Hind-wings dull ochraceous, with blackish transverse lines along the interior border. Body 5-5% lines; wings 16-17 lines. The above is merely a variety, the normal form having the median belt complete. Cidavia perversata, Feld., seems like a variety of this species. Cidaria clavata, Walk. (Cidaria pyramaria, Guénée).—Superior wings with wavy and toothed bands alternately white and wood- brown ; a whitish patch at the base, exceeded by a brown band, then a narrow white band, then a wider brown band darkest at the edges. The second white band is very distinct, and lines the inner edge of the median belt. The third white band lies in the centre of the median belt and may be reduced to two patches with crenate edges at the margins of the wing. The rest of the median belt is filled with light and dark brown wavy bands or lines. The outer edge of the median belt is bounded by a strong irregular white band. The fifth white band is sub- marginal and regularly crenate, crossed near the apex by an oblique white streak. The space between the fourth and fifth white bands is filled with brown bands. There is sometimes a black cellular dot in the third white band. Inside the fringe is a row of dark brown dots, the fringe is whitish and interrupted. Inferior wings uniform yellowish or fawn coloured. Fringe lighter, with black mark inside, interrupted. Below the superior wings are a brownish-yellow, shewing faintly the white bands of the upper side. The inferior wings are more distinctly marked below. The basal space is blackish-brown followed by a white band which runs nearly up to the cellular dot, following an indentation in the dark basal patch. This central white band is followed by brown bands, and these by a submarginal white band, regularly toothed. The rest of the wing is greyish brown. The marginal brown marks form an almost complete line inside the fringe. Abdomen with black dots. Antenne of male finely pectinated, antennee of female filiform. Expanse of wings about one inch and a third. We. , Cidavia beata—Above very similar in pattern to Cid. clarata, but much smaller, and the primaries with all the markings olive-green instead of bronzy brown ; the secondaries white instead of yellow, with a pale pinky brown outer border; thorax olive green; abdomen testaceous ; primaries below, with the basal area to the extremity of the dentated central band of the upper surface, madder-brown ; costa testaceous, tinted with olivaceous, and 366 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. crossed by ferruginous bars; disk whitey-brown ; apex and outer border shining testaceous, almost golden; a submarginal series of white dots; fringe silvery white, black-spotted ; second- aries pale testaceous, increasing in intensity to the outer border which is golden, crossed by parallel crenate olivaceous lines, three of which form a central band, relieved externally by white lunules ; disc crossed by paler olivaceous lines, followed by a submarginal series of white lunules; body below testaceous. Expanse of wings one inch, Some specimens have the markings of a bronze-colour instead of olive green. Cidaria similata, Walk. (Cid. timarata, Feld).—Ground colour of superior wings a somewhat bright green, crossed by numerous blackish bands having a confused appearance. Base greenish, followed by a broad black band bordered by double lines and green in the centre. Between this black band and the inner edge of the median place is a narrow band of two blackish green lines. The inner band of the median space is of indistinct black lines and is bordered with white on the inside. The centre of the median space is filled by a band of the ground-colour, con- taining a black discal streak edged with reddish brown. The outer band of the median space is composed of several black lines, the spaces between these being clouded partly with black and partly with green. The outer side of this band is edged with white. The submarginal band is blackish, edged outside with white, and is interrupted opposite the end of the oblique apical streak and also in the middle. The space between this band and the outer edge of the median space is clouded with blackish. There are black. marginal crescents between the nerves, and from these to the submarginal band are black streaks. Fringe reddish. Inferior wings pale fawn colour with a darker brownish tinge towards the abdominal margin. Traces of black lines at the abdominal margin continued across the wing by black dots on the veins. Marginal crescents as in the forewings and fringe also reddish. Underside of forewings a rosy brown. On the forewings the black cellular dot, several of the black bands and the white edging of the submarginal band can be traced. The hind wings are paler and have a black cellular dot followed by about five waved dark lines, the middle one of which has pointed black marks on the veins. Marginal festoon reddish brown, almost continuous, fringe as above. Body green with black dorsal spots. Expanse of wings a little over one inch and a fifth. | : . | | : “ r : NEW ZEALAND DASCYLLIDA. 367 Wen NEW ZEALAND DASCVLEIDA ETC: BY CAPT. T. BROUN, M.ES. > (Read before the Auckland Institute, August 8th, 1881.) DASCYLLIDA. 1375. Cypvrobius undulatus, n.sp—Oviform, convex ; slightly glossy, dark brown, legs rufescent, tarsi and palpi yellowish, the first four or five antennal joints yellowish, the others infuscate. Head broad, obliquely curved from the eyes, produced beyond the base of the antenne, finely punctate, clothed with fulvous hairs. Pvothovax short, apex broadly rounded in the mid- dle, anterior angles obtuse, sides slightly curved, with sculpture and clothing similar to those of the head. Scuwutellum large, tri- angular. Elytva punctulate, with an irregularly shaped fascia, dilated laterally, in line with the posterior femora, and a more or less obvious sub-apical spot, composed of white hairs; the pubescence near the base and apex is bright yellow, the rest paler. Antenne longer than head and thorax, basal joints robust, 2nd short, 3rd slender, and about as long as the 4th. Underside densely and finely sculptured and pubescent. The prosternal process projects considerably beyond the front coxe, is of nearly equal width throughout, with carinate margins. Length, nearly 2% lines ; breadth, nearly 1%. I captured two specimens on the Waitakerei Range. 1376. Oyphanus mandibularis, n.sp.—Oblong, moderately convex transversely ; somewhat nitid, castaneous red, tarsi and trophi yellowish, covered with short fulvous hairs.. Head broad, distended behind the eyes, punctulated ; labrum excessively reduced, deeply emarginated, without the orthodox membranous space separating it from the forehead ; mandibles robust, tri-dentate inwardly, almost wholly exposed. Prothovax short, with explanated and rounded sides, its angles obtuse ; finely punctulated. L£lyiva densely and rugosely punctured, much more coarsely than the thorax, the suture and a linear lunate mark near the apex of each, blackish. Amntenne elongate, basal articulation thick, 2nd short and stout, 3rd _ scarcely half the length of the 4th, the others about equal. Labial pal: furcate. (Belongs to Cyphanus, but the labrum is so short that the mandibles are almost entirely visible from above). Length, 4 lines; breadth, 134. My specimen was found at Parua (Whangarei Harbour). 1377. Veronatus antennalis, n.sp.—Elongate, oblong, transversely convex ; dark red, legs and antennee reddish ; clothed with yel- lowish hairs, 368 - JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Head densely rugosely punctured ; behind the eyes straight, produced anteriorly, labrum prominent, the membranous part separating it from the forehead large ; eyes prominent. Prothorax transverse, finely marginated and obtusely rounded laterally, an- gles acute ; with an obsolete dorsal impression, densely punctu- lated, but not so coarsely as the head. Elytva closely and ru- gosely punctured. Antenne of moderate length, basal joint thick, 2nd short, 3rd hardly longer, but more slender than the preced- ing, 4th elongate, nearly thrice the length of the third. An aberrant form ; the anterior prolongation of the head, and the large membranous space and. labrum, together, have the effect of concealing almost all but the tips of the mandibles in repose. , The species cannot be satisfactorily referred to Vevonatus, or indeed any other genus, but as the structure of the head in this group undergoes various modifications I have not thought it ad- visable to create a new genus on that account alone. Length, 234 lines; hreadth, 1%. I found one individual only on the Waitakerei Mountains. 1378. Cyphon rvemotus, n.sp.—Castaneous, thorax reddish, the greater portion of the elytra blackish, legs and antenne testa- ceous; moderately shining, head opaque and nearly black; densely clothed with pale brassy hairs; oblong, rather narrow, slightly convex. Head so sculptured as to appear densely but finely granulated. Prothovax rather glossy, finely but not closely granulated. Elytva closely, distinctly, and somewhat rugosely punctulated, impressed near the base, the suture elevated towards the apex. Underside closely sculptured and pubescent. Antenne pubescent, basal joint red, stout, 2nd small, 11th infuscate. Comes near C. parviceps, but the granules on the thorax are but little elevated. and the interstices quite equal in size to the granules. Sub-ocular line absent. Length, 1% ; breadth, 56 line. My two specimens are from the vicinity of Whangarei Har- bour. ; 1379. Cyphonnigropictus, n.sp.—Sub-oblong, somewhat depressed, pubescent; rufo-testaceous, elytra with two large sub-apical spots blackish, legs and antenne paler than the body. Head large, distinctly but not densely granulated. Prothovax narrower than elytra, sculptured in the same way as the head. Elytva oblong, distinctly depressed transversely near the base, densely, punctulate. Underside pale reddish-chestnut, densely pubescent. Genal line distinct and acutely elevated, the sub- ocular invisible. Allied to ©. granigey and C. pictulus, smaller than either, with a distinct depression across the elytra. The clothing consists of grayish hairs, which are easily rubbed off. Length, 1% ; breadth, 56 line. Two examples in my owrcollection ; exact locality uncertain, — 1380. Cyphon laticollis, n.sp.—Sub-oblong, moderately shining, NEW ZEALAND DASCYLLIDZ. 369 pubescence conspicuous and grayish, very dark rufo-fuscous, antenne somewhat rutescent, legs testaceous brown. | Head moderate, sub-opaque, finely and not closely granulated. Prothovax as wide as base of elytra, slightly rounded laterally, front and hind angles almost rectangular, very finely and dis- tantly granulated ; shining, reddish. -Scutellum finely granulated. Elyiva oblong, slightly depressed transversely near the base, rather finely punctulated. Axtenne rather short, 3rd articulation quite half as long as 4th. The space between the genal line and eye broad and unsculptured, sub-ocular line absent. Length, 1% ; breadth, 5@ line. My specimen was transmitted from Queenstown (Otago) by Professor F. W. Hutton. | 1381. Cyphon vectangulus, n.sp.—Shining, quite black ; legs and antennze testaceous-yellow, covered with gray hairs. Head not broad, minutely granulated. Pvothovax narrower than elytra, not short, posterior angles straight and sub-acute, its granules very fine and distant even on the sides. Elytva oblong, sub-parallel, almost imperceptibly impressed longitudinally before the middle, and, except near the base, very finely and distantly punctulated. Antenne reaching backwards just beyond the humeral angles, their 3rd joint quite half the length of the 4th. No sub-ocular carina. | Somewhat resembles C. parviceps, but much more finely sculp- tured ; at first sight the thorax seems quite smooth. Length, 1% ; breadth, 56 line. I found one near Whangarei Harbour. 1382. Oyphon plagiatus,n.sp.—Pubescent, somewhat oblong, broad, subdepressed, glossy ; nigro-fuscous; the legs, 2nd and 3rd an- tennal joints, a large spot and indistinct lateral stripe on each elytron, testaceous. Head rather small, not narrow, so sculptured as to seem covered with shallow punctures; without sub-ocular line, the space between the genal carina and the eye not broad. Prothovax narrower than the base of the elytra, its sides rounded, base sinuous, without distinct angles ; sparsely punctulated. Scutellum punctulated. £lytva ample, obsoletely impressed longitudinally on each side of the suture, punctulated. Antenne moderate, in- fuscate, 3rd joint rather stout and more than half the length of the 4th. Underside blackish, punctulated, and densely covered (like the upper surface) with fine, pale yellow hairs. Allied to (@. latus, but the latter, as well as C. vividipennes, are nearly hemispherical. Length, nearly 2 lines ; breadth, 1%. Professor Hutton forwarded two from Lindis Pass, Otago. 1383 Cyphon propinquus, n.sp.—Nitid, variegated brown, the su- tural and lateral regions of the elytra, legs, and three basal joints of the antennze testaceous, the remaining joints infuscate. Head remotely and indistinctly granulated. Prothovax nar- rower than base of elytra, base sinuated, sides almost straight, ‘posterior angles not acute; its granules minute and distant from 370 JOURNAL OF ‘SCIENCE, one another. Scutellum minutely granulated. Elytra obsoletely impressed behind the scutellum, closely punctated. Underside pale brown, sculptured and pubescent. Antenne moderate, their 3rd articulation one fourth less than the 4th in length. If it were not for differences in coloration this species might be readily confounded, at first sight, with B. plagiatus ; the general form is precisely similar, its granules are minute and require a careful examination ; the sub-ocular line is absent, and the genal carina very nearly approaches the eye ; its clothing consists of fine pallid hairs. Length, 134 ; breadth, 1% line. The two examples before me came from Wellington, where they were found by Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager. 1384. Cyphon acerbus, n.s.—Testaceous, head and thorax reddish, elytra with infuscate spots, antennz and legs testaceous, under- side of the predominant colour. Head finely and indistinctly granulated, densely pubescent, not broad. Prsthovax slightly rounded laterally, with blunt angles, remotely and very minutely granulated, the granules a little more obvious on the sides. Scutellum granulate. Elytva slightly broader at the base than the thorax, not depressed, oblong, their punctation moderate, neither very close nor deep. The 3rd joint of the antenneg half as long as the 4th. The insect is covered with grayish pubescence, is a little glossy, ovate- oblong ; the space between the genal line and the eye is slightly concave and shining, but there is no distinct intermediate line. Rather broader than 0. pictulus, with the head remotely gran- lated, &c. Length, 136 ; breadth, nearly 34 line. Hab. Upper Taieri. I received two examples from Professor Hutton. 1385. Oyphon crassus, n.sp.—Convex, rather broad, pubescent, a little glossy, black, legs fulvous, basal joint of antennz red, one or more apical joints infuscate, the intermediate testaceous. Head broad, finely granulated. Pvothovax rather large, not short, as broad as the base of the elytra, sides slightly curved, angles not acute, distantly and inconspicuously granulated, more distinctly on the sides. Scutellum not granulate. Elytva slightly depressed in rear of the scutellum, and a little but broadly compressed at the sides before the middle, moderately punctu- lated, their pubescence gray and grayish-yellow. Antemme stout, 3rd. joint small, less than half the length of the 4th. Iie GC. suffusus in form, but with a granulated thorax, and quite distinct sub-ocular carina. Length, 1% ; breadth, quite 3¢ line. My unique specimen was taken near Whangarei Harbour. 1386. Oyphon suturalis, n.sp.—Black, moderately g clossy, femora and tibize fuscous, the knees and tarsi testaceous. Head large, opaque, closely and rugosely granulated. Pvro- thorax finely and distinctly punctulated, as broad as the elytra at the base. lytra oblong, not depressed, closely punctulated ; NEW ZEALAND DASCYLLID&. 371 most of their surface covered with ash-coloured hairs, those along the suture and lateral parts coarser and whiter. Antenne stout, 2nd and 3rd articulations rufescent, 4th and 5th infuscate, the others blackish ; 3rd joint small, not half the length of the 4th, the latter much larger than those which follow. Terminal joint of the maxillary palpi pointed. An easily recognised species; its nearest congener is C. suffusus, but the sub-ocular carina is distinct. Length, 136 line ; breadth, 5%. The only individual I possess was found on the Waitakerei Hills. 1387. Cyphon nitidus, n.sp.—Glossy, head reddish, thorax testaceous red, elytra testaceous with their base and suture infus- cate ; apparently quite nude ; oblong. Head moderately broad, finely granulated. Pvothovax broad as base of elytra, with obtuse angles, rather remotely and minutely granulated, not much more distinctly on the sides. Scutellum minutely granulated. Elytva closely punctulated, but along the middle of each elytron the punctation is shallow and obsolete. Antenne rufo-testaceous, 4th joint a good deal larger than 5th, the 3rd slender, scarcely half the length of the 4th. Swb-ocular line distinct, and interposed between it and the hind part of the eye a minute abbreviated carina. Differentiated from C. Zealandicus by its shining head, &c. and from Nos. 587, 588, 589, and C. lateralis by its unimpressed elytra, &c, Length, 156 ; breadth, % line. Habitat, Lindis Pass, Otago. Described from a single in- dividual sent by Professor Hutton. 1388. Oyphon latevalis, n.sp. Oblong, moderately shining, pubescence grayish ; rich [dark reddish brown, elytra variegated with brownish red and testaceous spots, the latter apical; an- tennz rufo-testaceous, legs brown, knees and tarsi testaceous. Head moderately broad, closely granulated, not opaque, its clothing pallid. Prothovaez about as broad as base of elytra, base slightly sinuated, posterior angles almost rounded, neither closely nor coarsely granulated on the disc, but more distinctly on the sides. Scutellum finely granulated. Elytra slightly bi- impressed before the middle, densely and somewhat rugosely punctured. Antenne stout, reaching the intermediate femora, basal joint red, 2nd much stouter but hardly longer than 3rd, the 3rd more than half the length of the 4th. Swub-ocular carina visible, the space between it and the eye sculpfured. Should be placed near C. suffusus and ©. laticeps, smaller than the latter, distinct enough from the former by its granulated but glossy thorax. When quite perfect the pubescence most pro- bably is rather dense. Length, 15 ; breadth, 3¢ line. My specimen is from Upper Taieri, Otago, where it was found by Professor Hutton. 1389. Cyphon molestus, n.sp.—Variegate, testaceous, the base and 372 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, other parts of the elytra fuscous, head slightly rufescent ; clothed with pale brassy hairs. Head moderate, finely granulated. Pvyothovax nearly as broad as base of elytra, minutely and rather distantly granulated. Elytra widest behind, moderately closely and rugosely punc- tulated, very slightly depressed just behind the scutellum. A rather short ovate species, with a moderately developed subocular carina; allied to C. osculans, but readily enough identified by the minute and distant granules on the thorax. Length, 1% ; breadth, 5 line. Professor Hutton communicated my unique example. Hab. Queenstown, Otago. 1390. Cyphon dilutus, n.sp—Narrow, oblong, sub-depressed, thickly covered with fine pallid hairs, almost wholly testaceous. Head rather broad proportionally, somewhat castaneous, its fine punctation. much concealed by the pubescence. Prothovax almost as wide as the elytra at the base, with blunt angles, distantly and minutely punctured. Elyiva parallel-sided, rather flat, but without obvious depressions, finely and distantly punc- tulated. Antenne robust, rather long, 3rd articulation half as long as 4th. Of remarkably elongate outline; cannot well be mistaken ; superficially resembling a small Mesocyphon, or Atopida testacea. Length, 1% ; breadth, ¥% line. I found one specimen only at Tairua. MELYRIDA, Arthvacanthus, n.gen.—Allied to Dasytes ; differing principally in the maxillary palpus terminating in a broad joint obliquely trun- cated at the extremity, and, thererore, sub-securiform ; and in the structure of the tarsi, the anterior having the basal joint -shorter than the 2nd, with a yellow spiniform protuberance close to its external apex ; the claws are not perceptibly appendiculate, though thickened at the base ; eyes large and prominent. 1391. Arthracanthus planifrons, n.sp.—Sub-depressed, mode- rately elongate ; bluish, head and thorax darkest, elytra slightly infuscate, legs and four first antennal joints castaneous ; mode- rately glossy, clothed with fine cinereous hairs. Head rather broad, plane in front, distinctly and finely punc- tured, but densely and minutely sculptured on the occiput and near the eyes. Antenne longer than head and thorax, not serrate, 4th joint just appreciably shorter than 3rd or 5th, 9th and toth distinctly expanded apically, sub-triangular, the terminal quite as long as its predecessor. Prothovax a little longer than broad, not so wide as the head, medially dilated laterally ; transversely impressed near base and apex, the sides and front most punc- tated, the basal sculpture similar to that of the occiput. Scutellum small, transversely quadrate. Elytva broader than tho- — rax, rugosely punctured. Legs elongate, the basal articulation of — the posterior tarsi longer than 5th. & NEW ZEALAND DASCYLLID. 373 Length, 13; breadth, 3 line. I captured my specimen on the Waitakerei Hills (Auckland), 1392. Dasytes constrictus,n.sp.—Narrow, elongate, sub-depressed, clothed with short, obscure, yellow hairs, most sparingly and finely on the head and thorax; dark blue, shining; legs and antennez variegated rufo-piceous. Head moderate, indistinctly tri-sulcate, (two grooves inter- ocular, the third medial behind the eyes), rather finely punctured, least so in front. Antenne not elongate, joints 3-10 nearly equal, sub-serrate. Prothovax hardly longer than broad, narrowed and constricted anteriorly, transversely impressed near base and apex, the latter deeply ; its surface moderately finely punctated. Scutellum sub-quadrate. Elytva slightly convex, widest just behind posterior femora, sub-rugose-punctate. Legs long ; tavsi elongate, their 5th joint equalling the Ist; claws apparently simple. Altogether narrower than D. laticeps, the terminal joint of the antenne quite oval and pointed, not short and rounded as in that species. Var. Tibiz and tarsi of a light chestnut colour. Length nearly 2 lines; breadth, quite % Habitat., environs of Whangarei Harbour. I possess two individuals. 1393. Dasytes occiputalis,n.sp.— Depressed, elongate; moderately glossy, dark blue, with fine yellowish hairs, legs and terminal joints of antennz piceous, tarsi and basal joints castaneous. Head rather narrow, nearly plane in front, occiput grooved, excessively finely and densely sculptured, with larger scattered punctures. Antenne moderate, joints 3-10 elongate obconical, 3rd and 5th rather longer than the others, 11th oval. Thorax small, not broader than head, quite as long as broad, sub-tuber- culate laterally, transversely impressed at base and apex, its punctation moderately fine. Scwtellwm sub-triangular. Elyiva broader than thorax, especially behind, their shoulders somewhat elevated, rugosely punctate. Legs elongate, basal tarsal joint not longer than 5th. Claws thickened but not obviously lamellated. The relatively small sub-tuberculated thorax will lead to its recognition. Length, 15; breadth, % line. I found one at Parua. Halyles, n.gen—Body moderately elongate, sub-depressed, pubescent. Hea! short, narrowed behind. yes prominent, rounded, distinctly facetted. Maxillary palpi short, terminal joint conical and acuminate. Antenne \1-articulate, variable as to length, sub-serrate, inserted in front of the eyes. Prothoru# transverse, rounded laterally. Scuwtellwm small, quadrate. Hlytra broader than thorax, elongate-oblong. Legs rather short, tarsi evidently shorter than tibize, femora not clavate, tibie linear ; anterior tarsi with four sub-equal basal joints, the. Ist emarginate with pro- longed apices, 2-4 slender at base with the extremities produced, 5th rather shorter than the preceding ones taken together, 374 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, robust, obconical, with three or tour conspicuous elongate bristles ; claws with large membranous laminez ; posterior similarly formed but longer. The structure of the tarsi suggested the separation of the fol- lowing species from Dasytes. 1394. Halyles nigrescens, n.sp.—Shining, brownish-black, legs and four basal joints of antennz pale testaceous; clothed with semi-erect pallid hairs ; moderately elongate, sub-depressed. Head broad, quite as broad as thorax, forehead with two rounded fovez, its surface glossy, nevertheless finely linearly sculptured ; eyes large and prominent, causing the head to appear unusually broad. Antenne elongate, considerably longer than head and thorax, stout, basal joint incrassated apically, 2nd short but stout, 4th rather smaller than 3rd or 5th, 11th elongate oblong. Prothorax broader than long, base and apex truncate, strongly rounded laterally, impressed transversely in front and behind, the basal impression bent and terminating in a deep fossa near the middle of each side ; very densely sculptured, apparently minutely granulated, the granules, however, flattened above. Elytra broader than thorax, widest behind the posterior femora, transversely punctate-rugose. Legs moderate ; tarsi shorter than tibiz, their fifth joint twice as broad as the others, not so long as they are conjointly. Claws appendiculate. Length, 11% ; breadth, 3 line. I found only one at Waitakerei. 1395. Halyles brevicornis, n.sp.—Black, glossy, legs and labrum castaneous, antenne piceous. Head rather small, indistinctly bi-impressed in front, its sculpture dense but indefinite, seeming to consist of minute de- pressed granules. Prothorax transversal, narrower in front than behind, indistinctly impressed on the middle of the apex trans- versely, more so on the sides, the basal depression bent forward and ending in a cavity near the middle at each side; its whole surface is excessively finely sculptured, but with many quite evident though rather shallow punctures. Hlytra broader than thorax, gradually dilated posteviorly, transversely punctate-ru- gose. Legs moderate. Antenne short, as long as head and thorax, 3rd articulation a little longer than 4th, joints 4-10 sub- quadrate, 11th oval, longer than the preceding ones. Broader than the typical species, the eyes being smaller causes the head to appear narrower ; the antennz are decidedly shorter, and their last joint quite oval and pointed ; and the 5th tarsal joint is not quite so much expanded towards the extremity. Length, 1% ; breadth, 3 line. One, also from Waitakerei, 1396. Halyles semidilutus, n.sp.—Elongate, sub-depressed, rather densely clothed with fine grayish hairs, shining black ; elytra infuscate-black, with the suture and apices testaceous, as are also the legs and four first antennal joints. 7 Head minutely and densely granulated. Prothorax trans- verse, of the normal form, its sculpture similar to that of the © NEW ZEALAND DASCYLLIDA. 375 head: Elytra punctate, becoming transversely punctate-rngose laterally. A variable species, sometimes the whole of the elytra are suffused with testaceous. My three specimens are in bad condi- tion, so that it is not advisable to enter into structural details. Length, 134 ; breadth, nearly ¥% line. Habitat, Port Nicholson. Collected by Mr. P. Stewart- Sandager. CLERID. 1397. Phymatophea ignea, n.sp.—Shining, moderately elongate ; head and thorax rufescent, the legs and base of elytra reddish-testa- ceous, four spots and extremity of elytra, and all save the dilated parts of the antennz testaceous, tarsi blackish, middle of elytra violaceous ; sparingly clothed with long, erect, fuscous and eriseous hairs. | Head moderately coarsely but notdensely punctured. Prothovax constricted anteriorly, dilated laterally behind the middle, a little uneven, impunctate. Elytva broader than thorax, sub-parallel, very obtusely rounded behind, humeral angles oblique and a little raised, elevated near the suture close to the base, the yellowish spots immediately behind the basal protuberance also somewhat elevated, but in a less degree ; a few scattered punctures may be seen near the base, some very indistinct strise beyond, and a large shallow depression near each hind thigh. Antenne elongate, the basal joints of the club at least twice as long as broad, the terminal somewhat obliquely and obtusely pointed. In form like P. violacea, but with longer antenne, &c. Length, 3%; breadth, 7% line. My specimen was found near Dunedin, by T. Chalmers, Esq. CISSIDA. 1398. Cis vecuvvatus, n.sp.—Cylindrical, slightly shining, blackish, legs reddish-chestnut, antennz fulvous, club fuscous and opaque ; clothed with the short pallid setee. Head rather dull, with dense minute sculpture ; theantero-lateral margins gradually elevated inwardly from the eyes towards the middle, where there is an evident gap. Pvothovax about as long as broad, base feebly bi-sinuated, somewhat rounded laterally, its apex, with two slightly recurved protuberances, much smaller than those on the head ; its surface moderately punctated, the interstices minutely sculptured. Elytva as finely punctured as the thorax, but with smooth shining intervals between the punc- tures. Legs moderate. Palpi stout, the terminal joint of the maxillary not acuminate. Antenne 10-articulate, basal joint ro- bust, 2nd also stout but not so thick as the Ist, 3rd elongate and slender, 4th of the same form as the preceding one but shorter joints 4-7 decrease in length, club loosely articulated, pubescent, last joint oval, the other two more or less rounded. Underside blackish. , 376 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Female without protuberances on head or thorax ; those on the latter distinguish the male of this species. Length, 34-7% ; breadth, nearly 36 line. Hab. Wellington. Collector, Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager. The antennz of C. undulatus (p. 347), as well as those of all the other species, exactly resemble those of the present one; an error had been made in computing the small joints, which cannot be easily seen without the aid of a microscope. No. 636 is not actually nude, there being a few excessively fine pallid hairs on the body, the word “ nearly” should, therefore, be placed before “nude” in the first line of its description (p. 349). 1399. Cis picicollis, n.sp.—Cylindric, slightly nitid, clothed with short brassy sete, thorax rufo-piceous, elytra reddish-brown, legs and antennez pale brown, club darker. Head simple. Prothorax rather dull, about as long as broad, the lateral margins nearly straight before the middle, but rounded towards the base, so that there are no distinct posterior angles ; moderately finely and closely punctured, interstices minutely sculptured, its clothing finer than that of the hind-body. lytra finely and rather closely punctated, almost in rows, obsoletely and irregularly lineated, their sete somewhat congregated behind. Legs sparsely pubescent. Antenne with a rather short 4th joint and broad club. Length, 7% line. One example. Probably from the vicinity of Whangarei Harbour. 1400. Ois viridiflavus, n.sp.—Convex, rather short and broad, shining, apparently quite destitute of pubescence, legs reddish, body greenish-yellow. Head minutely and distantly punctured, the antero-lateral mar- gins moderately elevated and widely separated. Prothorawx finely marginated, a little rounded laterally, base truncate, minutely and remotely punctated. Hlytra short, rather abruptly narrowed and deflexed posteriorly, their sculpture very similar to that of the thorax. Legs stout, pubescent. Allied to Nos. 638 and 639 only, and, like them, without a distinct scutellum. It seems questionable whether the absence of that important organ would justify the separation of these three species. Length, 34 ; breadth, quite 3 line. One, in bad condition, from Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager. DIAPERIDA. 1401. Menimus curtulus,n.sp.—Short, broad,convex, nitid; thorax rich dark brown, elytra rufo-fuscous with testaceous apices, head, legs, and thoracic margins rufescent ; nearly destitute of pubes- cence. Head finely but distinctly punctured, most obviously near the antenne, the whole surface minutely sculptured ; eyes small, yet quite easily seen, Antenne short, with griseous hairs. Prothorux NEW ZEALAND DASCYLLID/. 377 large yet transverse, slightly rounded laterally, more narrowed in front than behind, apparently smooth, nevertheless minutely sculptured and having a very few fine punctures distributed over itssurface. Scwtellum punctulated. Hlytra convex, rather abruptly declivous and attenuated apically, bearing many rows of fine, distant punctures, the yellowish spaces spotted with brown, so as to appear coarsely punctated, though really smooth. Underside piceous ; prosternal process distinct, not depressed. Allied to M. obscurus, but more convex, the posterior slope of the hind-body more abrupt. The body is contracted at the junction of the thorax and elytra. The pubescence is almost ex- clusively confined to the legs and antenne, though a few short hairs may be perceived along the margins. The colour is subject to variations, being sometimes much darker than in the typical specimen. In IM. cecus the form is more elongate, less convex, and almost wholly of a chestnut-red colour. Length, 1% ; breadth, 5 line. My specimens were found at Tairua. 1402. Menimus piceus, n.sp.m—Convex, oblong-oval, nude, shin- ing, nearly black,sometimesslightly rufescent, with testaceous mar- ins. ; Head finely but distinctly punctured. Prothorax transversal, slightly narrowed anteriorly, not rounded laterally, finely and distantly punctured. Hlytra convex, finely punctured in rows. Difficult to identify ; closely allied to M. curtulus, but differ- ing from it in having no narrowing of the middle of the body, the sides of the thorax being straight and of the same width as the shoulders of the elytra; the punctation of the thorax is closer, that of the elytra not only closer but coarser, and their surface is’ more uneven. The prosternal process is elongate, almost touching the intermediate coxz, and on the same level throughout. Length, 14% ; breadth, 5 line. Taranaki. Collected by Mr. Stewart-Sandager. TENEBRIONIDZ. 1403. Lorelus quadricollis, n.sp.—Nitid, light brown, head darker, legs and palpi flavo-testaceous, antenne ferruginous, sparingly clothed with minute grayish hairs; elongate, sub-de- pressed. Head rather finely and not very closely punctured ; slightly dilated laterally ; antennal orbits raised and prolonged towards the middle of the forehead. Eyes quite flat. Antenne stout, bearing yellow hairs, gradually incrassated ; 2nd joint short, square; joints 4-8 transverse; goth and t1oth transversal, not twice as broad as the 8th. Prothorax transversely quadrate, its sides almost straight, only slightly narrowed posteriorly, the lateral margins explanate, particularly behind, hind angles rec- tangular but not produced, base and apex almost truncate ; its punctation quite as distant and rather finer than that of the head. Seutellum smooth. lytra sub-parallel, punctate, the punctures 378 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. not close, coarser than those of the thorax. Legs robust; the tibiz with a minute terminal spur. Larger and broader than Z. priscus, with finer sculpture, and thicker, differently formed antenne. Differentiated from L. erassicornis by its less robust antenne and legs, straight-sided thorax, &c. ; and from Z. pubescens by the truncate apex of the thorax, &c. Length, 2 lines ; breadth, 54. The only individual I have seen was found at Parua. HELOPID. 1404. Adelium cheesemani, n.sp.—Convex, sub-oblong, not parallel, attenuated posteriorly ; glossy black, antennee and palpi dark red, legs piceous, tarsi fulvous. Head short, immersed up to the eyes, obliquely rounded to- wards the forehead, the latter nearly truncate, rather finely punctured, more closely and coarsely near the eyes; epistome convex, with two large punctiform impressions; Jabrwm prominent, nearly quadrate, finely punctated, ciliated. Prothorax about as long as broad, apex widely incurved, base strongly emarginated ; sides with distinct rims, rounded anteriorly, a little natrowed yet almost straight behind the middle; hind angles nearly rect- angular, not protruding, resting on the elytra, the anterior rounded, moderately convex ; distinctly but not coarsely, and irregularly punctured, the punctures sometimes confluent, with several larger punctures similar to those on the forehead, an elongate depression near each side before the middle, two others (longitudinal) near the base, and an obsolete transversal im- pression uniting these latter. Scwtellum broad, minutely and distantly punctured. lytra elongate, oviform. widest behind the middle, somewhat broader than thorax, a good deal narrowed behind, distinctly marginated ; distinctly punctate-striate, some of the striz irregular, the punctures not very large but close to one another ; interstices rather narrow, minutely and remotely punctured. Underside shining black, finely and distantly punc- tated, head coarsely and rugosely. Legs punctulated, all the tibize bear fine fulvous hairs. Resembles 4. thoracicum, but distinguished from it by the more quadrate thorax, mot at all deusaad towards the posterior angles. Length, 5 lines; breadth, 2. Named in honour of its discoverer, T. F. Cheeseman, Esq., F.L.S., who found two examples on Mount Arthur. 1405. Adelium chalmeri, n.sp—Elongate-oblong, narrowed medially, slightly convex, nude, glossy, of a somewhat bronzed ~ coppery (red) colour, more dilute behind, antennz reddish, legs infuscate-red, tarsi rufo-testaceous. Head moderately coarsely but not very densely punctured, — less so on the vertex, epistome truncate. Prothoraw rather — broader than long, obtusely rounded laterally, sinuously narrowed Fe NEW ZEALAND DASCYLLID. | 379 behind, posterior angles rectangular and resting on the elytra, base and apex emarginated, the latter more deeply and sinuously than the former ; with a dorsal groove, two lateral foveze near the middle, and two close to the base, nearly a dozen large punctures, and with the surface more or less finely and irregu- larly punctated. Scutellwm triangular. Hlytra a little wider than the thorax at the base, widest near the middle, narrowed pos- teriorly ; each elytron with two, rather fine, punctured, sutural striz, and two more obvious, interrupted ones at the side, the intervening space bearing punctures and irregularly formed linear impressions. Underside of body and legs pitchy-brown, epipleure rufescent, without distinct sculpture. _ This species, especially as regards the shape of the thorax, comes near No. 694; it is, however, a good deal broader; the elytral sculpture somewhat resembles that of 4. bullatum though very much finer ; the scutellum is not rounded. The antenne are pubescent, their 3rd joint is not twice the length of the 2nd. Length, 5 ; breadth, 2% lines. The species bears the name of its discoverer, Thos. Chalmer, Esq., who sent me a specimen from Dunedin (Flagstaff Hill). CISTELIDA. 1406. Xylochus dentipes,n.sp.—Sub-oblong, moderately convex, nitid, piceous, nude, legs pitely= red, tarsi fulvous, antenne and palpi red. Head contracted behind the eyes, finely and not very closely punctated. Prothorax transversal, base feebly sinuated, sides medially rounded, nearly straight behind, narrower in front than at the base, finely marginated ; more finely and distantly punc- tured than the head, with two small basal fovese. Sewtellwm tri- angular, minutely punctured. Hlytra rather broader and. twice as Jong as the thorax, almost oviform, moderately narrowed apically ; each with a scutellar row of punctures and eight striae, none distinct at the base, the intermediate more or less confluent or obsolete posteriorly, all punctured ; interstices but little ele- vated, finely punctulated. Anterior femora slender at the base, dilated beyond and very evidently dentate ; tib’@ somewhat dis- torted, so as to appear incurved or incised at the middle ; inter- mediate and posterior femora simple, tibize arcuated, ciliated with short fulvous hairs. Undersi/e nearly smooth. Female—all the thighs simple, front tibiz not incised. Antenne reaching beyond the middle femora, with yellow pubescence’; basal joint Shorter than 3rd, 2nd short, 3rd and 4th longest, equal, 5th and 6th each shorter than 4th. Terminal joint of maxillary palpi securiform. I believe I am right in considering these two forms to repre- sent the sexes of one species, closely allied to X. tibialis, but differing from it in the armature of the front thighs, and in the absence of the basal protuberance of the femora and rounded median foveze of the thorax. ~ 380 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Length, 4; breadth, 15 line. Habitat, Parua (Whangarei Harbour). PYTHIDA. 1407. Salpingus hirtus, n. sp—Glossy, light coppery brown, head and thorax reddish, legs testaceous, antennze reddish, with their terminal joints infuscate ; rather thickly covered with erect, elongate, grayish hairs ; convex. Head elongate, distinctly and closely punctured except on a transverse, inter-ocular spot. Pvothovax longer than broad, cordi- form, its punctation nearly similar to that of the head but finer, without superficial irregularities. Scutellum smooth. Elytva ob- long, rounded laterally, slightly depressed along the suture near the posterior slope, not striated, punctured in rows, the sculpture becoming obsolete behind. Very much like S. angusticollis, but with shorter antennze than it, with the thorax more finely punctured, and the elytra without the least trace of strive. It differs from all the previously de- scribed New Zealand species by the absence of the more or less evident post-basal depression of the elytra, and the possession of numerous erect hairs; all the others, except S, Jautus, being nearly or entirely nude. Length, 14 ; breadth, nearly % line. I found my unique specimen at Parua (athaneaeel Harbour). 1408. Salpingus simplex, n. sp—Convex, nearly bare, shining, zeneous-black, legs fulvous, dilated antennal joints fuscous, the others reddish. Head punctate, a spot on the vertex and one near each an-_ tenna smooth or nearly so. Pvrothovax cordiform, quite free from rugosities, moderately closely punctured, with a more or less distinct fovea near each hind angle. Scutellum smooth, short. Elytra oblong, a little rounded laterally, with slightly elevated and porrected humeral angles, not distinctly impressed near the base, striate-punctate, smooth behind. This species may be distinguished from S. angusticolus and S. lautus by the almost total absence of elytral striz, and from S Iurtus, decidedly its nearest congener, by the more densely punctured and bi-foveate thorax, shorter and broader elytra, &c. Length, 1% ; breadth, quite 36 line. Hab. Parua. One example in my own collection. 1409. Salpingus quisquilius, n.sp—Elongate, sub-parallel, sub- depressed, almost nude, shining, of a dark fuscous colour, elytra slightly rufescent, head and thorax somewhat zeneous, legs, palpi, and narrow joints of the antennz infuscate-red. Head moderate, rather finely punctured. Thovax rather small, not much longer than broad, sub-cordate, moderately finely punctated, least so on the dorsal space. Scutellum punctulated. Elytva elongate-oblong, nearly parallel-sided, bi-impressed before the middle, but little narrowed apically, striate-punctate. Antenne moderate, joints 2-6 obconical and decreasing in length, 7-11 gradually dilated and laxly articulated. NEW ZEALAND DASCYLLID. 381 Not at all like any other New Zealand species; its almost parallel outline is characteristic. In all our species the tarsal claws are thickened at the base, but not quite dentate. Length 1; breadth, quite ¥% line. My three specimens were mixed with other species taken some years ago at Tairua (near Mercury Bay). MELANDRYIDZ. Allopterus, n. gen.—This new name is made for two species which do not exactly accord with Redtenbacher’s Ctenoplectron ; the type is A. veticulatus, which differs ‘from Ctenoplectron fasciatum in the elytral suture and margins being simple instead of coarsely ciliated ; the joints of the maxillary palpi are less acute, and the tibial spurs more slender. It would have been preferable to eliminate all allusion to the elytral margins in the original diag- nosis, but as the author is dead, and his generic name has special reference to that peculiarity of the elytra, no other course seems feasible. No. 707 must be added to this genus, so that it may be known as Alloptevus ovnatus in place of Ctenoplectron ornatum. 1410. Allopterus veticulatus, n. sp—Variegate, dull brownish- black, the apex, and sometimes most of the thorax, as well as the apices of the elytra more or less rufescent ; each elytron with two large ill-defined testaceous spots, one near the base, the other behind ; legs and two first joints of antenne infuscate ; body lanceolate. Head rather narrow, with linear impressions often intersecting one another. Pvothovax conical, convex, widely rounded laterally, base a little sinuous, obliquely depressed near each hind angle and before the scutellum ; so clothed and sculptured as to appear finely reticulate, with numerous small punctures on the intervals between the linear marks ; the hairs near the base yellowish, the others cinereous. iytva elongate, attenuated posteriorly, without distinct costee, their clothing and sculpture similar to those of the thorax. Capsella procumbens, Fries (Hutchinsia procumbens, Hook, f. FI. Tasm.).—I have received specimens of this plant from Mr. D. Petrie, who collected them at Cape Whybrow (? Wanbrow) and Forbury Head, Otago. Those from the last-named locality are small, scarcely an inch in height; and those from Cape Why- brow do not attain the usual size of European and Australian specimens, the largest not exceeding 3 inches. The leaves are entire or deeply toothed in all my specimens, never pinnatifid, and the flowers equal the calyx. The racemes are elongated and open in fruit, and the pod is narrowed at both ends. It will doubtless be found in other localities; but, from its small size, may easily be overlooked. Myriophyllum verrucosum, Lind|.—I collected this plant in ponds between Tauranga Harbour and the sea, but am not aware of its occurrence in any other part of the Colony. It differs from M. elatinoides and M. vaviefolium in its more slender habit, and in having all the floral leaves pinnatifid ; the flowers are small, with minute sepals, and the carpels are tuberculated. OO oo eee * From the Linnean Society’s Journal, 28th August, 1882. 388 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Cotula integrifolia, Hook, f—This plant is not unfrequent in situations where water has stagnated, but which have become dry on the approach of summer. It varies greatly in stature and luxuriance; but a complete series may be traced from minute one-flowered forms with entire leaves, the plant less than 1 inch in height, to the most luxuriant forms of C covonoptfolia. It can only be regarded as a transitory state of that species, and cannot take rank even as a trivial variety. British botanists are familiar with a similar state of Bidens cernua. Mentha australis, KR. Br—This species, remarkable even amongst its congeners for its powerful odour, occurs in great abundance in the Wairarapa, especially about Carterton ; but I fear that it must be regarded as an introduced plant. I observed it more or less continuously for three or four miles along the road, especially plentiful in ditches, but occurring also in the adjacent forest. It is an erect herb, with pale-green leaves and acutely angled stems ; the flowers are produced in great abundance in axillary false whorls, which may be pedicellate or sessile; calyx pub- escent or hairy, with long subulate teeth; the corolla-tube is small, scarcely exceeding the calyx in length, the mouth deeply 2-lobed. Our plant fills the ditches by the roadside, where it attains the height of over 2 feet. In most places in the adjacent forest it is much smaller. It is called “turpentine” by the settlers. Polygonum pyostvatum, R. Br——A much-branched, prostrate, suffruticose plant, the branches rooting from beneath, in the pre- sent specimens 6in. to 1oin. high ; the young branches and leaves sparingly clothed with rather long white hairs. Leaves lanceo- late, narrowed in a short petiole Iin. long; stipules sheathing, ciliate. Spikes axillary or terminating short branchlets, sessile or shortly pedunculate, %in. long. Perianth small, becoming enlarged after flowering. Stamens 6. Nut convex, black, faintly reticulated. In several places by the Wairarapa Lake (H. B. Kirk). | Funcus pauciflorus, R. Br. (not of T. Kirk)—Although some- what local, this species occurs throughout the Colony, and is abundant in Stewart Island ; it is generally known to New Zea- land botanists as Funcus communis, var. hexagonus ; it is, however, distinct from that species, although of similar habit. The panicle is lax, consisting of a few slender branches ; flowers few in number, and small; perianth-segments acute ; stamens 6 ; capsule ovoid, faintly angled. The culms are usually slender, and the sheaths at the base very short. It appears to have been collected in New Zealand by Banks and Solander. Juncus brevifolius, T. Kirk (F. pauciflorus, T. Kirk, not of R. Brown).—In the Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. [X., p. 551, I described this small species under the name of 7. pauciflorus, but as that name had been applied by Brown to the plant mentioned above, I propose to term my plant #. brevifolius. It is distinguished from all New Zealand species by its rosulate leaves, slender, a: NEW ZEALAND FLORA. 389 naked, erect culms, and sessile flowers. At present it has only been cbserved in the Broken River basin, Southern Alps, alt. 2000ft. Centrolepis monogyna, Benth.—(Alepyrum monogynum, Hook, f.)— This moss-like plant occurs in swampy places at an elevation of 3000ft. in Arthur’s Pass, where it was observed by the writer in 1877, when specimens were distributed under the M.S. name of Alepyrum viride. It forms large patches scarcely Win. in height when in flower. Leaves deep green, subulate, acute, dilated into a broad mem- branous base, with a few short hairs at the back. Bracts sub- opposite, narrow. Flowers two, eachinvested by a semitrans- parent scale, which nearly equals the bract, and consisting ofa single stamen and a single carpel. Hievochle alpina, Roem. and Schultes, var. submutica—(H. sub- mutica, F. Mueller, Danthonia buchanani, J. Buchanan, “Man. of Indig. Grasses of N.Z., p. 87, pl. xxxv., not of Hook, f.) This form is intermediate between H. vedolens and H. alpina, but is most closely related to the latter. The New Zealand plant agrees with that of Victoria in habit, and especially in the lower glumes being scarcely ciliated, but the awns are usually longer. The panicle is more open than in H. alpina ; the branches are longer, and extremely slender, distant, usually drooping ; spikelets 3-6; leaves broad, flat. Common in mountain districts, especially on the West Coast of the South Island. In “ Flora Australiensis” Mr. Bentham unites AH. vedolens and H, alpina, and considers our plant a connecting form which may possibly prove worthy of specific rank. I fully agree with Mr. Buchanan in considering H. alpina distinct from the European H, borealis ; but cannot understand his having mistaken our plant for a Danthonia, especially for D. buchanant, which, independently of its generic and sectional distinctive characters, is described as having a short contracted panicle and filiform leaves. Stipa micrantha, R. Br.—(Streptachne vamosissima, Trin. and Rup.) —TI have previously recorded the occurrence of this plant in the Colony, and now add that it was originally discovered by Mr. W. T. L. Travers, near Fox. Hill, in the Nelson district. Re- cently it has been found in great abundance in the Takaka Ranges, Nelson, by the Rev. F. D. Spencer, who informs me that its culms attain several feet in length. It occurs in small quantity on the Miramar peninsula, near Wellington, and must be regarded as a relic of the indigenous vegetation of that locality, although I formeriy considered it to be naturalised ony. The culms are from 2 to 5 feet long, sub- erect or prostrate, much branched ; the branches sometimes ab- breviated, and forming rounded bunches at the nodes, sometimes long and spreading. Panicle from 6” to 2’ in length; branches numerous, capillary ; spikelets small; outer glumes narrow, nearly equal. Flowering glume shortly stipitate, entire ; awn, ¥,” long, articulated on the glume. Palea less than half as long 390 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. as the glume. The habit is that of Microlena polynoda, but the plant is much larger. | Stipa setacea, R. Brown.—(8. petriei, Buchanan, “Man. of Indig. Grasses of N.Z.,” p. 171, pl. xvii. f. 2.—Mr. Buchanan’s §. petries must be referred to this species, which has a wide distribution in Australia. None of the specimens kindly sent me by Mr. Petrie have the outer glumes so unequal as represented in Mr. Buchanan’s late. ; Davallia dubia, R. Br—In Vol. XII. of “ Trans. N.Z. Inst.,” this fernis recorded by Mr. Armstrong, jun., as a native of New Zealand, but erroneously, as it has not been observed in the Colony. Specimens of Hypolepis millefolium, with the pinnules less divided than usual, appear to have been mistaken for it. MEETINGS “OF? SOCIETIES: —_——-<>—— LINNEAN SOCIETY OF-NEW SOUTH WALES. (Continued from page 346) Sydney, 27th Dec., 1882.—Dr. James C. Cox, F.L.S., presi- dent, in the chair. 8. The Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods read a paper on a species of Brachyphyllum, which was found in the Tivoli coal mine. The specimen was a very beautiful and perfect one, showing a larger amount of the ramifications and foliage, as well as the peculiar Lepidodendroid markings on those portions of the stem from which the leaves had fallen away. In many respects this species re- sembled the well known B. mamillave of the British and Continental Oolite, but lest any confusion shoula arise from a doubtful identifi- cation, and as the stems and leaves of this specimen were much thicker, and the leaves more fleshy than in B. mamuillave, the author distinguished it as B. crvassum. He considered that the discovery of this specimen served to place the Jurassic age of the Ipswich (Queensland) coal beds beyond much doubt. A note was read by Dr. H.B. Guppy, of H.M.S. ‘“ Lark,” on the cocoa-nut eating habit of the Bivygus of the Solomon Islands. Dr. Guppy had no doubt trom what he had observed that the Robber-crab is in the habit of breaking open the shells of the cocoa-nuts with its powerful chele. The Hon. P. C. King, M.L.C., exhibited specimens of Pueris teutonia, observed by him in great numbers near Tamworth a few days ago. They appeared to form part of a vast migration, mov- ing without intermission towards the North. The same species has been unusually common in many parts of the Colony during the present summer. Mr. Haswell stated that he had much pleasure in announcing to the Society, that, thanks to the intelligent enquiries made by Mr. Morton of the Museum while recently in Queensland, he had hopes that they were on the way towards learning something of the embryology of the Cevatodus. Mr Morton had ascertained that the Oevatodus spawns in the Burnett River during the months of MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 391 June, July, or August, the spawn being deposited in a slight exca- vation formed in the bed of theriver at a depth of eight or ten feet, ‘ the male and female remaining in close attendance on it until hatched, Arrangements have been made by which it was hoped that a supply of the spawn might be obtained for observation next season. OTAGO INS TT wre. ANNUAL MEETING. Dunedin, 30th January, 1883.—W. Arthur, Esq., President, in the chair. New Member.—Mr. E. A. Petherick (London). Papers. —(1.) ‘On the Picton Herring ;” by W. Arthur, Esq. This fish is found chiefly in the sea at Picton and about Queen Charlotte Sound, but odd specimens have been occasionally taken in Otago Harbour. It is a very superior food fish, and nearly as good as a Scotch fresh herring. It contains a large quantity of oil. Asto species, it is not only a true Pilchard, but is almost identical with that of the English Channel, the specimens examined running from 8 to 1o inches total length. The back is of a nefi steel-blue colour, the sides and belly being covered with large silvery scales which overlap, forming a beautiful diamond pattern. The fins are small, clear, and delicate, and the abdomen so tender that very soon after being handled it breaks, and cannot easily be preserved intact. Along the ridge of the abdomen, from the pec- toral to the anal fin, and underneath the scales, there is embedded a row of bony spines or plates with lateral arms, the general form of these plates bearing a resemblance to the outline of the Pterichthys with its arms erect. The position of these plates viewed transversely to the axis of the fish shews that they are designed to strengthen the dermo-skeleton exactly at its weakest point. Another very interesting arrangement is evidently conse- quent on the eyes being sunk with their orbital bones considerably within the plane of the cheeks. A depression of the bones of the head anterior and posterior to the orbits being covered with a beautifully transparent jelly-like disc, furnished with a slit or opening directly over the centre of the eyes, which disc is evidently meant by refraction to convey the impression of objects to the eye which otherwise could not be seen. ‘Specimens of this fish were sent to the writer by Mr. Fell, of Picton, who also contributed such information as he possessed regarding its habits. Of these not much is as yet known, but they are thus referred to:—‘‘ The fish is found all round Queen Char- lotte Sound and also in the adjoining Pelorus Sound, but is only caught here (Picton). Generally it is believed they do not extend outside, but my half-caste maintains that if sought for properly they would be tound all round Nelson waters (Blind Bay) and in the straits. They are not easy fish to find, unless they are rushing on the surtace, which is not often, and is a most peculiar sight. My own idea is that they will be found to extend much further to the south, but not into the warmer water north. The fish are in the Sound all the year round, but only come into the shallow bays in winter, when they are in largeshoals. In summer they keep more apart, and are sometimes caught, but are hard to find; no systematic fishing goeson in summer. They prefer the colder water, and thus leave shallow bays when spring sets in. 392 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, In summer they spawn, and are full of roe about Christmas time, going always in small shoals at that time. ‘‘ As food they are exceedingly good when fried fresh. It is the same as the dried fish sold as Picton herring. The fishermen have very poor appliances, and are not skilled at all in curing; I am sure their method could be greatly improved. ‘““As to the numbers visiting Picton Harbour or Queen Charlotte Sound, I cannot say at all; but four smoke-houses were kept going all last winter. The hauls average 1} to 2 tons, but at times 10 tons have been landed.” Of specimens examined the formule are :—Weight, 3 ounces to 53 ounces ; total length g inches to 10 inches. Fin vays, D 17 to 18; P16to18; V8; Aim7to19; C.19. Branchostegals 7; Ver- tebre 48 to 50. Pylovic Caeca 100 (one specimen only). Scales, Lat. 160; Trans. 1 12 (one specimen only). (2.) ** Description of a variety of Celmisia sessiliflova ;” and (3.) ‘‘ Description of a new species ot Cavex (C. littoralis) ;’ both by D. Petrie, Esq., M.A. The President then delivered his farewell address, as follows :— In taking leave of the members of the Otago Institute as president for the year 1882, I intend to offer only a few general observations rather than select any special topic. The present century will, I take it, be recognised and distinguished by most men as that in which very wonderful and rapid advances have been made in scientific discovery. Not only have new fields of investigation presented themselves, and new standpoints been assumed for study, but old methods and theories have been abandoned, or to some extent overturned, and many wonderful discoveries of great utility have been achieved. The results to mankind are recognised as eminently beneficial, not merely in the actual accumulation of knowledge, but also in adding comforts and facilities to life, with the promotion of friendly relations between diverse nations. At the same time, the very success of modern science appears to have induced errors in thought and practice which are to be regretted, and which time alone can eliminate. I should like to refer to one of these only, and which I would designate smpatience or haste. This the spirit of the age has stamped more or less on all sciences, but notably on what may be called the speculative sciences, as geology and natural history. One consequence of this is that certain paths have had to be retraced, while others will yet have to be retraced, I believe; meantime the unbelieving public is not edified. Geology, which may be regarded as contemporaneous with this century, has proved uncommonly fertile in theories—due no doubt to the restlessness of the times, but also to the temptations presented by our almost absolute ignorance (scientifically speaking) of the past. It is not then to be wondered at, for example, that recent researches into the action of the tides go far to prove that the immense periods hitherto assigned as necessary to account for geological changes or formations are altogether at fault, and require reconsideration as having been vastly over-estimated. So also error is not absent from the theory of the manner of coal forma- tions, deduced from observations of imperfect operations presently to be seen on the surface of the earth. For there seems to be a radical difference between the nature of that force and its ultimate pressure, required to form peat in Ireland, or carbonised wood in the bends of the Mississippi River, and that which finished its — work when the world’s coalfields were laid to rest. Even the MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 393 theory of submergence beneath great depths of water fails to account for the homogeneous quality of coal seams. Nor has biology escaped in the general hurry-scurry, but though richly endowed in itself, it too must needs make haste to keep pace with its fellows in the race. It is a seductive science, and one offering endless work with equal gratification to its followers; but it has suffered in the ‘“‘ house of its friends,” and its living witnesses have been hurried out ot court somewhat abruptly. Leaving on one side details and inferences, which are not free from mistakes, I would point out one or two principles at present held by many as sound and unassailable. First, it is assumed that we must take a plant or an animal just as we find it, and recognise nothing more about it than that it is a living machine or organism. But it must, I take it, be self-evident that the study of the life history of a living organism is incomplete and unscientific unless we tormulate first what we do know about as facts, and secondly what we do not know. In other words, it is our duty not only to inquire how an organism is constructed, and by what natural laws its functions are performed, but we must go further and find out, if possible, how it came into existence or came before the tribunal of science, and whence the laws which set it a-going and keep it a-going, To illustrate my meaning: A locomotive is a beautiful machine—an organism if you like—but you may put its parts together with faultless accuracy, put coal into its tender and fire-box, also water into its boiler, but it remains dead material and cannot perform its functions until man or the mind that designed it sets it moving and keeps it moving. So likewise among living beings, we do not exhaust their life history when we have discovered the laws regulating their nutrition and reproduction, or the methods by which their functions are performed. There remains the other part still demanding investigation. Did a mind design these structures, and does it maintain as well as originate the secret principle of life? Then there is another fundamental principle has something unsatisfactory about it, although its application has been ot immense assistance to biology. I refer to the order of classification of animals from the protozoa to the vertebrata, which is based, besides other facts, on the presence or absence of organs specialised to perform certain functions. That is, the lowest animals (so called) in the scale, have no special organs for the pre- hension and assimilation of food, or for reproducing their species. One portion of the body or mass fulfills the necessary conditions just as well as any other part ; while in the highest animals, as in man, we find organs set apart for respiration, nutrition, repro- duction, and for thought. Now an animal which without any apparent special organs can effect the work of prehension of food and other duties, must surely be a highly complex organism. At all events if a machine were built by any human being capable of performing halt-a-dozen diverse kinds of work simultaneously, it would not certainly be classed as a simple machine. It seems to me, then, that in our haste many things are being forgotten or overlooked, not only that relate to the phenomena of life, but to its Origin as regarded in biology; while the side-lights contributed by Sister sciences are often not contemplated at all. To quote a recent writer: ‘‘ The real difficulty in dealing with the problems offered by living beings arises, as it appears to the writer, from our ignorance of the nature and mode of action of that form of force which we have called vital force. As we have seen, the singular 3904 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. chemical phenomena which form the grand distinction between living matter and dead matter in every shape, are due to the action _ of this force ; and till we shall have discovered how it was originally called into action, or at least in what manner it still continues to operate, we shall not be able to rely on any experimental theory as being the complete and proved explanation of any phenomena presented by living beings: . And now, in welcoming our President-elect to his office, I hope we may find under his auspices that the present year will prove the most prosperous that our Institute has yet seen. ANNUAL REPORT. The Hon. Secretary then read the following report :—. ‘‘ During the present session five general meetings have been held, including the present annual meeting. «At these meetings nine original papers have been read, all on zoological subjects, with the exception of one dealing with the natural features, fauna, and flora of Macquarie Island. *« At the beginning of the session the Council adopted a scheme for the delivery of regular courses of popular lectures. Two such courses have been given—one of three lectures on ‘ Fermentation and Putrefaction,’ by the Secretary ; and one of four lectures on ‘English Literature,’ consisting of two lectures by Professor Mainwaring Brown on Chaucer, and two by Mr. Alexander Wil- son, M.A.,on Tennyson. In each case the plan was adopted of distributing among the audience a printed syllabus of the lectures, and a small fee was charged to non-members, sufficient to cover expenses of printing and advertising. The success attending these lectures has been such as to warrant the Council recom- mending their continuation next session. ‘« Six new members have joined the Institute during last session, but on the other hand the names of several defaulters have been struck off the roll. The total number of members is now 177. “The receipts tor the year, including a balance of £15 18s. 3d. from last year, amount to £195 2s. 3d. The total expenditure was £167 8s. 3d., so that there remains a balance in hand of £27 6s. The Permanent Fund in the Dunedin Savings Bank now amounts to £166 13s. gd.” The Secretary called the attention of the meeting to a circular of the ‘‘ Balfour Memorial,” which he laid on the table, stating that he would be glad to receive contributions from any who were interested in the scheme. He remarked particularly upon the nature of the proposed memorial, namely its foundation of stu- dentships for the prosecution of research in biology, and expressed a hope that, as the studentships were not to be limited to Cam- bridge men, one of them might some day be held by a student of our own University. The following were elected office-bearers for the ensuing ses- sion :—President, A. Montgomery; Vice-presidents, W. Arthur, C.E., and Rev. Dr. Roseby ; Hon. Secretary, Prof. Parker, B.Sc., etc.; Hon. Treasurer, D, Petrie, M.A ; Other members of Council : T. M. Hocken, M.R.C.S., Professor Scott, G. M. Thomson, F.L.S., F. R. Chapman, R. Gillies, F.L.S., G. Joachim, and Prot. Mainwar- ing Brown; Auditor, D. Brent, M. A. The Secretary exhibited some recent additions to the Museum, including a stuffed edible turtle, skeleton of the Dugong and the Sting Ray, the latter prepared by the glycerine jelly process. ‘GLASS 5 TOP, 3. LENSES &C , IN CASE “£2 10.” — mens ~YERY COMPLETE, IN HANDSOME CASE = ei 10° : - WILKIE. 8. (exer : ‘Booksetters and Stationers, 40, PRINCES STREET, ite ee DUNEDIN. ee ictoscope tae rE. ‘B. RYNGDON, FRMS, OC Oiicciives at a “trifle ane the maker’s _ published Catalogue Prices. Bs 2, 1, x diy ues “6, nee in. Dry. | Ls in. Immersion. ~ ARy ‘he i in, de (oil) Immersion. ‘ZEISS’ beautiful gin. immersion, the finest % made. £6, Post Free. Peete a ‘kbs ‘4 7.4 « oa Sake : Z = WH ea SES) Oar mips Rost gal Sige ee er os sek an ye Saeeae Fes war Ben, t > * DL 3 te ee 4 at OLESALE & 4 os a. | ee ‘ - “ : % > s ; nm et ome aire, Sis er An ie ed Oe sort ~ Aas ‘= Toag > * S : STREET. — F E =~ % it 3 =) : > ws eae LY ta 2 Ke 7 b x ~ - . - ., tg RY SS - = vg tee; “a ce 7 ~ r = bur 2 : Sees eet ate Been Se m4 t Fogiot Seis? 1 is rake, bet Ser desc te O ofen a : DUNEDIN, ~ J ni “ te, S x 4 ny af : - yy ~ iL’ ze * + ’ =; = * : a 2 =< eA f ss S wr ©, ee VE. es ay ee : er 7 > ’ > 4 r 2 o :%. ‘ yj Cre ee = y fr bs a , a Sa - ¥ : #" ‘ > ro ok ° . : 2 . < = a i, epee . & t + iv ca é 2 % ts s : pooch = ~ 4 , ‘i ; ys x . ae - a ? < al se er Taree 4 Wns . . ~ ee | ioe ’ “4 nr” . pr 4 - ~ » ‘ ‘4 r 4 ’ : Ke Shp " é r : * We a “ase . - wo 4 t : oe » ‘ é + ¢ ’ f > * 7 ad 4 . * nw » - 4 ve 2 ; ‘ ‘ - - 7 s % Cin ) 4 Fa - . } - - { 4 z A <5 - ~- ( v - rt z 7 hon 5 » 7 “ ns | 7 c 4 Bie x o>—s y 5 , > ~ 3 7 » al > - “ o < . r ~ { - ; +3 7 } “4 - “h - < ¥ * - - ; 7. : ‘ *9 ~ . 2 eee te ea chap he ay Vth a Ai 7 [No. 9, Vol. I- eTHE: ZEALAND AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE coLony. ay \ Pi ik s { Et My ‘ Pe Rte Meee eT eee ae Fudicio perpende:: et st “bt v vera videntiur pe eke way hs Dede manus : aut St palin est, rererey re contra. | PNA APN IOI cat “CONTENTS: a PAGE Geology. Prk. F von Haast, F.R. S. 395 er been Land? Prof. BW, Huron a3 eee 4G . D. PETRIE, M.A, ve Fis asa ae, is Aga Tar, Metals." Pee iscae | Mate ty at tae 8) agt Uke Gi) ete LO k Ww: t pa: ee fakineaaneuelet Pianta oemaale for Screw Power-- angers ies sor hn an age eating Thistle Heads, ' » aoe see ‘ ooo eos one ; coe 422. ; u sak le Institute—Linnean soci of New South Wales Philosophical Insti- pepe 2 Broun, M, 1B... + 430 “Vol. I., No. 9, MAY, 1883]. ON THE PROGRESS “OF GEOLOGY: AN OPENING ADDRESS DELIVERED TO THE STUDENTS OF CANTERBURY COLLEGE ON MARCH 28TH, 1883. <> by YOLIUS VON HAAST, PH.D.) F_LRS, eaieseor of Geology and Palzontology in Canterbury College (N, Z. University) In addressing you to-night at the opening of the session 1883 of Canterbury College, may I be allowed to see. first to your kind indulgence. Onanoceasion like thie war hava NOTICE. e108 Subscribers who have not paid their sub- scriptions for last and current years, kindly remit same to the Publishers at once. bachelors oi Arts, together 70; of\. «1 Canterbury College can claim 29 of its own, many of whom would be an ornament to any university of the home country. And although the greater portion of our AN ee mostly apply the knowledge gained to the education of others, they continue their studies for their further intellectual progress long after they have gained their well-earned degrees. To my mind no more ennobling or higher sphere can be selected by anybody than that of the teacher. What mental energy, what moral devotion are required in the teacher, who can only be successful if he has his whole heart in the work, so that the chain of human sympathy, the most powerful tie in mankind, unites him with his pupil. In a young country, where wealth is generally considered to give power, position, and influence, and the “ azvrz sacra fames” is much developed, only a refined mind can gladly and willingly turn away from those 396 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. pursuits by which wealth is more easily obtained, in order to de- vote himself entirely to the education of the young. Moreover,nothing shows us more clearly than teaching that we have only put our foot on the first step of the ladder leading to knowledge. We remain students our whole life ; and I trust that noneofourgraduates willever overratethestep gained, but that they will consider that thedegree obtained has only given them aninsight into the dominion of Knowledge, and has shown them how much they have still to learn: and that in fact they have become masters of the art how to learn to the advantage of themselves as well as of others. Before entering into the subject I have chosen for to-night’s address, I wish to make only a few remarks upon the develop- ment the University of New Zealand ought to take, so as to satisfy the present and future wants of our population. It was only to be expectcd that in the beginning its founders should have been guided by the curriculum of the great centres of learning in Great Britain, although even then some of the newer improvements were not adopted; but I may point out that under the different circumstances in which we live in a Colony, we ought to have more cosmopolitan views, and profit by the experience of those states and communities which our conditions resemble most. In fact the University of New Zealand ought to be eclectic, and to select for assimilation in its constitution the best as to manner and matter of teaching from all parts of the world. According to my views it ought not to be at present the highest aim of a university course to offer a mass of knowledge of a chaotic character in a number of subjects, but to make the student acquainted with the general principles of the stock of knowledge possessed by the world and its application to life ; to know in what direction that general stock is most deficient, and in what manner it can be augmented and made more useful both intellectually and practically. The study of Philosophy, in its highest and most general acceptance of the term, is one of the greatest wants for any university that intends to educate thinkers, men and women who not only wish to use their acquired knowledge for earning their daily bread, but to advance the human understanding. Advancing to the subject upon which I wish to address you to-night, I have thought that some remarks on the progress Geology has made and is daily making would not be inappro- priate. I should also like to show, though owing to the short time assigned to me this can only be done ina fragmentary manner, how from an empirical science it has gradually been raised to be an inductive science fully deserving, as far as actual observations go, to claim the position of an exact science. If we consult “the Cyclopzedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences,” by E. Chambers, F.R.S., London, fourlarge folio volumes, of which thefirst appeared in177gand the fourth in 1783, an excellent work, for which some of the most eminent men of the — ON THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGY. 397 last century wrote, we find that the word Geology, or Geognosy, did not exist atthat time, the principal informationupon the forma- tion and constitution of our earth being contained in the articles, Basaltes, Earth, Fossils, Geography, Lithology, Marine Remains, Mineralogy, Mountain, Rocks, Stone and Volcano. The explanation of the formation of “stones” is in many instances exceedingly erroneous, and appears ludicrous to us; whilst the explanation of the nature and occurence of fossils is given quite correctly, although the theory of Tournefort, pro- posed in 1702 to the Royal Academy of France, that all stones, fossils included, were derived from liquid stone seeds, is gravely considered and rejected. The description of volcanoes, both active and extinct, is also given ina lucid manner; but the opinions as to the cause of Vulcanicity are sometimes very peculiar, including the theory of Dr. Lister : that they are originated by an inflammable mineral called Pyrites. The origin of Basalt (Basaltes) is correctly given, according to the researches of Desmarest in Auvergne, and Raspe in Ger- many, so that before Werner no erroneous views on that subject were held. But it is a most remarkable fact that there was not even an attempt made to give an explanation of strati-graphical Geology, and how the different rocks were formed, or to connect certain sets of fossils with certain rocks in which they occur ; so that in many respects we can claim that Geology is a child of the last hundred years. Abraham Gottlob Werner, the great teacher of the Freiberg Academy of Mining, may be considered one of the founders of modern Geology. In 1785 he delivered the first course of Geog- nosy, as distinct trom Mineralogy, and by his great knowledge of all matters connected with the latter science and mining, and his excellent method of teaching, he had an enormous influence upon the advancement of Geology. Therefore, as far as I am aware, the word Geognosy was first used two years after the last volume of Chambers’ Cyclopedia appeared. A great retrograde step was, however, made by Werner when he brought out his famous theory of the aqueous origin of basalt, usually named the theory of Neptunism. After the war between the Neptunists and the Plutonists (those who maintained the igneous origin of basalt) had been raging for some years, most of the disciples of Werner—acting as partisans, and instead of trying to elucidate the truth, were only bent upon making by all means in their power the cause advocated by them victorious— for a time managed to get the upper hand. Those scientific men, who knew from their own experience that Werner’s doc- trines on the subject were incorrect, preferred to retire from the contest, and refused to fight with the same unfair weapons. Of equal, if not of greater importance, are the labours of James Hutton, who, in 1788, published his “Theory of the Earth,” in which, for the first time, the complicated structure of 398 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. the surface of the earth is explained by the agency of natural forces, still at work at the present day. With this the founda- tion of modern Geology was securely established, and though in some respects the great Scotch philosopher went too far, his system was, nevertheless, the only true one on which his succes- sors could build that branch of knowledge, now claiming a pro- minent rank amongst its sisters as an inductive science. And when William Smith, the modest English land surveyor, in 1790 published his “ Tabular View of the British Strata,” in which the first attempt was made to connect certain fossils with certain strata, an attempt turning out a masterpiece of patient research — and skill, a further great step was made in advance, and instead of merely theorising on disconnected facts, the greater portion of geological students began to rely more upon the facts collected by them and others, than upon speculative views, however fasci- nating they might be. In entering upon a short review of the physics relating to the great system of which our earth is only a very inconsiderable speck, we find that although men of the highest scientific merit had tried to explain the origin and nature of the Cosmos, and the laws by which it is governed, not one speculation had been adopted at the time of the publication of the Cyclopedia of Chambers as possessing all the necessary precision for the entire satisfaction of inductive reasoning. It was only at the end of last century that Pierre Simon Laplace published his two great works, “ Exposition du Systeme du Monde” in 1796, and “La Mécanique céleste” in 1799. This cosmogony, usually called the “ Nebular Hypothesis,” has hitherto stood the test of inquiry nearly a whole century ; all the facts—and they are innumerable—tending invariably to testify at least to the great probability of its general correctness. In jus- tice I ought here to mention that Immanuel Kant published -in 1755 his cosmical theories in his work “ Allgemeine Naturge- schichte und Theorie des Himmels,” in which the great Kcenigs- berg philosopher came to the same. conclusions, afterwards so convincingly demonstrated by the French mathematician. But when we leave the Cosmos and confine ourselves to our small planet, we find ourselves surrounded by such difficulties that we appear just as far now from a true conception of the constitution of the earth’s interior as our predecessors were at the beginning of this century. Numerous theories, based upon careful calculations, as to the thicknessof thecrust of the earth have been advanced. Some phys- icists give to our earth so thin a crust that it has been compared to the rind of an orange, the fruit enclosed in it representing the molten matter of the globe ; others affirm that the crust is of much greater thickness, whilst there are some who maintain that our planet has cooled so thoroughly that it now forms a mass of rock of various density from the surface to the very centre. Other theories (or better stated hypotheses) giving to our globe a crust of more or less thickness, with a hard metallic nucleus in — ee ae nh eee bk ON THE PROGRESS) OF GEOLOGY. 399 the centre, and matter in a high state of fusion filling the space between both, have been advocated by other scientific men, and mathematical proofs in support have not been wanting. How- ever, objections apparently fatal to them all have been brought forward at one time or another by physicists, astronomers, or geologists, according to their particular line of study, and we can therefore only wait patiently and follow attentively the care- ful researches continued in all civilized countries, applying at the same time every new discovery to the elucidation of a prob- lem, the more tantalizing as its solution has for many years appeared to be within our grasp. The great hopes that the deep borings lately obtained in artesian wells, or careful temperature observations in deep mines, would supply us with some material for ad- vancing this question, by offering important and reliable data of a uniform character, have not been fulfilled. It appears, on the contrary, from the deep borings at Sperenberg, in Ger- many, reaching nearly to 4200 feet, that the increase of heat exhibits a remarkable retardation of its rate the deeper we descend. And even if we take convection and conductivity of the rocks into account, there are scarcely two localities where the same ratio of increase in the temperature has been observed, in some that ratio being more than treble that of others. There may once have been a uniform cooling of the original crust of the earth; now almost entirely removed or remodelled, but there is no doubt that this difference in the increase of temperature depends now either upon local generation of heat by hydro- chemical action or mechanical agencies of enormous power still at work. Thus in localising the variable increase of tempera- ture, the vera causa both for the crumpling and metamorphism of rocks, for the formation of mountain chains, as well as for the origin of volcanic action, might be traced with more reliance, than to seek to establish a general law that most probably no longer existed when the strata accessible to our examination were formed. Leaving the dominion of theory and returning to the actual work of the geologist in the field, I need scarcely say that the task already accomplished has been truly gigantic. Patient research in the civilized countries of Europe, in the United States of North America, and most of the: English colonies, as well as the work of travellers to almost every part of the globe—of the latter I wish only to allude to Baron von Richthofen’s excellent late researches in China—have made us acquainted with such remarkable and innumerable data, that it is impossible for any man, however studious he may be, to gain more than an imper- fect knowledge of the material already accumulated. The relations of the plutonic, metamorphic, sedimentary, and volcanic rocks to each other have been clearly defined, and most valuable facts have been brought together, from which the past history of our globe is being constructed, while the palzeontolo- gist has done his work equally well in classifying the wonder- 400 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, fully complex animal and vegetable life, always in harmony with the conditions of the earth’s surface, gradually and during untold ages reaching, by evolution, the present stage of existence and perfection. It would lead me too far to enter into a discussion of all the theories advanced as to the cause or causes by which mountain chains and seas have been formed, and volcanoes and earth- quakes—because in most instances the two latter are intimately connected with each other—have been originated. Elie de Beau- mont’s theory of the sudden upheaval of parallel mountain chains, first published in 1833, although at one time finding great favour on the continent of Europe, was never adopted by any English geologist of note, the teachings of Hutton and Lyell leaving no room for the doctrines of the paroxysmal school. Moreover, when the size and direction of mountain chains were taken into account, and the rocks composing them were carefully examined, it was found that the explanations offered by the eminent French geologist could not be adopted. Many valuable publications have been issued upon these subjects, of which those of Robert Mallet may in many respects claim our greatest attention. Another work of great value is that of Professor E. Suess, the eminent Professor of Geology in the University of Vienna, “Die Entstehung der Alpen,” the formation of the Alps, in which this difficult question is treated in a masterly manner. Professor Green’s “ Physical Geology” contains also an exhaustive resumé of the physics of the earth’s crust, in which all the newest researches and theories are thoroughly examined and sifted by an excellent observer and practical geologist. However, there is another distinguished geologist and physicist, Constant Prevost, whom I should not omit to mention, he having already explained, in 1822, the eleva- tion of mountain chains by tangential and lateral pressure, now mostly adopted as the correct theory. The deep-sea dredgings have also offered us considerable material to elucidate the former history of our globe, both from a strati-graphical and palzeonto- logical point of view. : The oscillation of land and sea is another subject of great importance that has hardly received that attention it deserves, whether we take the so-called glacial period into account or not. There may be with many geologists the fear of appearing heterodox if they state their belief that the hydrosphere is, like the lithosphere, subjected to considerable oscillations, by which great changes in the climate of the globe may have been brought about in past geological ages. For years I have held and stated this opinion. However, I find thatlatelyagreatdeal of attentionhas been paid to this subject. Thus, for instance, Ph. Fischer, Heinrich Bruns, and others, in discussing pendulum observations, have come to the conclusion that the sea-level is mot a regular spheroid, but may vary many hundreds of feet even along the same parallel of latitude. Dr. Penck will also explain raised beaches and other ve £ ON THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGY. AOI signs of the glacial period by the oscillation of the sea-level. Penck’s views in this respect are different from those of Adhemar and Croll. Another factor for explaining great changes on the Earth’s surface, brought about in geological periods long past, has lately been put forward under the name of Tidal Evolution, a very in- genious theory, first worked out in its entirety by G. H. Darwin. It is based upon the action of the moon, once a part of our planet, on the earth, producing the tides and retarding its motion, as well as upon the reaction of the earth upon its satellite. Gradually the moon was driven away from our planet, and the length of day has thus at the same rate become more consider- able. However, when Professor Robert Ball, in Dublin, and others attempt to make out that the former much larger tides, when the moon was closer to the earth, formed a powerful agent for the destruction of rocks existing at that time, and for the formation of newer beds from them, by which the thickness of the older sedimentary and fossiliferous strata can be explained, I think we have to pause before we can accept such a sequence. Moreover, according to Sir William Thomson, there has not been any great change in the ellipticity of the earth’s figure since its consolidation, consequently Mr. Darwin’s views as to higher tides have to be modified, as he presupposes a more considerable ellipticity for his calculations. However, even assuming Professor Ball’s calculation that when the moon was only 40,000 miles distant from the earth, the tides at that time would rise and fall between 600 to 700 feet twice in 24 hours, to be correct, I have no doubt that it was long before the Cam- brian or lowest fossiliferous rocks with which we are acquainted were deposited. The occurence of numerous fossils in the oldest beds, belonging to animals that could live only in clear water, and minute ripple marks on the rocks, speak clearly against Professor Ball’s hypothesis. This speculation in Physical Geology has already been tested by various geologists to account for the so-called Marine Denudation. This expression was first introduced by Sir Andrew Ramsay for the higher portions of ridges over large areas, that if laid down on an imaginary plane, appear to have once formed one surface with a very gradual slope in one direc- tion. However, this peculiar appearance can, as I have repeatedly suggested in former publications, be easily explained by the fact, that when the land gradually rose above the sea-level, abrasion on a gigantic scale must have taken place, by which, in the case of our Southern Alps, the whole had the appearance of a shallow dome, of which the western side was much steeper than the eastern, till the subzerial erosion by atmospheric agencies or, as I called t, ridge-making, took place. Before leaving this subject, to which I have devoted more time than perhaps I ought to have done, I may add that many 402 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. speculations have been built upon it. Thus, Mr. O. Fisher attempts to prove that the ocean basin represents the scar whence the mass forming the moon separated from the earth. Another cause of gradual retardation in the rotation of our planet, and to which, as far as I am aware, very little attention has hitherto been paid, is the increase of the bulk of our planet by meteorites and cosmic dust. There is not the least doubt in my mind that matter, even in the most diffused state, cannot leave the outermost or gaseous portion of our planet, but that an enormous amount of matter in the form of meteorites must have been accumulated year by year. Ifwe add to this the cosmic dust falling upon the surface of the earth, which, according to a calculation by Nordenskjold, may amount to half-a-million tons yearly, the size of our planet must have been gaining in dimensions and weight to an almost inconceivable degree, even since a rich and diversified flora and fauna inhabited it. But even assuming that Nordenskjold’s estimate is far too high, and reducing it to a tenth, or to 50,000 tons yearly, the result of any calculation upon this basis is most astounding. Thus if we take only a period of twenty millions of years, a short interval in the life history of our planet, the cosmic dust falling during that time would add not less than 1,000,000,000,000 or one billion of tons. And this result is obtained without accounting in any way for the further addition by the fall of meteorites, without doubt of very considerable magnitude. Such a factor, as Professor von Nordenskjold forcibly points out in his last work, ought cer- tainly not to be overlooked if we wish to account for various changes in the form, position, and rate of rotation of our planet since it began to consolidate. I am well aware that several scientific men, who have care- fully examined some of the cosmic dust, have come to the conclusion that it is in most cases of terrestrial origin ; but the fact remains that some of the dust collected shows its cosmic origin by its constituent parts, and that all the meteorites reach us from far beyond the atmosphere of our earth. The importance of the great doctrine of Evolution as first fully established by Darwin cannot be over estimated by the paleontologist. Applying the leading facts of the origin and distribution of animal and vegetable life, as at present existing, to the numberless past generations preserved in the marvellous stone-book of Nature, he is able to unravel more fully their history, to account for the missing leaves, and to estimate at their just value those few remaining, and of which he now and then is privileged to decipher a small portion. Darwin himself, in his classical chapter ‘“ On the imperfection of the geological record,’ in his Origin of Species, has pointed out to us in his usual masterly manner how to avail ourselves of the scant material at our command, and how future discoveries, adding to the palaon- — tological stock, will open out new vistas in the past history of — our globe. | ON THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGY. 403 I need scarcely add that every new addition to our know- ledge will assist us to gain more fully day by day an insight into the harmonious unity of the whole. It is not yet a quarter of a century (1859) since the Origin of Species appeared, but if we compare our knowledge of Palzontology at that time with that obtained at present, we find that a striking progress has been made. Instead of a col- lection of facts, more or less loosely connected, we now possess a system of remarkable strength and harmony, a powerful aid to an inductive science like Geology. Evolution might be compared to an architect, who succeeds in raising an edifice of pure and noble proportions, placed upon a stable and firm foundation, from a large accumulated material of finely and ingeniously wrought building stones stored up pro- miscuously without any apparent plan or order. Since the appearance of the “Origin of Species” I have always held this opinion ; and I may be allowed to mention that as far back as 1862, in my opening address as first president of the Philosophical Institute, I spoke of this incomparable book as “the great work of the age.” The researches of the paleontologist have shown already convincingly that there are innumerable intermediate links between present species and those which lived in past ages. I may here, to give only one instance, refer to Huxley’s important researches into the relations of the members of the family Equide, the Anchitherium, Hipparion, and Equus. At the same time the gulf between the different classes of vertebrates is being gradually bridged over by careful research. Thus Pro- fessor O. C. Marsh has shown that the jurassic bird Archzeop- teryx from Solenhofen is closely connected with the Dinosaurs, generally considered to be most nearly allied to birds. Archzop- teryx has besides true teeth in sockets, bi-concave vertebrz, the pelvic bones are separate, and the metatarsals either separate or at least imperfectly united. American fossil birds, such as Ichtyornis, have also bi-concave vertebre (like Fishes and some Saurians), and teeth in sockets. The skull of Otontopteryx toliapicus, found in the Isle of Sheppey, i in the London Clay, has also true teeth in sockets. There is, however, in Palzeobotany still a great deal that is in many respects unsatisfactory and inconclusive. This is mainly Owing to the fragmentary material at our command, consisting mostly of leaves, the determination of which in many instances may lead us to wrong inferences. To give only one instance, I wish to refer to O. Feistmantel’s latest researches on the palzozoic and mesozoic Flora of Australia, with which our own fossil Flora is closely connected. The eminent paleontologist of the Indian Geological Survey comes to the conclusion that Phyllotheca, in Europe and Siberia of j jurassic age, is paleeozoic in New South Wales and upper mesozoic in Victoria; Glossopteris, palzeozoic in Australia, is jurassic in India and Russia. Noeggerathiopsis, beginning to 404 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. appear in paleeozoic beds in Australia, is represented by the jurassic Rhiptozamites in Siberia. It is unquestionable that such conclusions, before they can be adopted, have to be confirmed by evidence of a still more reliable character than the present material for comparison can have afforded. Returning to the physical conditions under which the surface of our globe has been formed and is still forming, I may here point out that since Evolution has been adopted by most scien- tific men as a beacon to guide them to truth, the greater portion of the so-called uniformitarian school of geologists, following in the footseps of Lyell, has become somewhat modified in its views and may now be called the evolutional school. But let me hasten to add that Lyell himself, with his great love for truth, may be claimed as one of its first disciples, he having reviewed his own writings by the light Darwin held up to us, which is sure to advance Geology even more than we can at present realise. There is one question of great importance, in the solving of which both the geologist and the palzontologist have to go hand in hand with the archeologist. There is no doubt that ‘the human race existed already in pliocene times; and if we can trust the reports of discoveries in Portugal and other portions of Southern Europe, man may have lived as early as the miocene age. However, we want further and clearer evidence before this latter view can be adopted. If we consider the enormous space of time that separates us from our first ancestors, the oldest his- torical facts preserved seem to us as of to-day ; and taking into account the wonderful progress the human race has made from the condition of the cave dwellers, with their rude stone imple- ments, to our present state of civilization, we ought to look proudly upon the position mankind has attained. And we can therefore scarcely conceive the high degree of perfection, both physically and mentally, the human race may reach in future. Although, as far as our researches go, the autochthones of New Zealand cannot boast of great antiquity when compared with the inhabitants of ;the Northern Hemisphere or of the tropical regions, there is nevertheless strong reason to believe that this country has*been inhabited for a much longer time than was formerly generally assumed. It is, however, possible that some of the traces we have hitherto found of the oldest occupancy of these Islands may have been left behind by occasional visitors, adventurers in search of new countries, or by crews of wrecked ships coming from distant shores. But we have only begun to examine these questions; and although, as is always the case, the wiseacres will first shake their heads, if our researches are only continued without fear and without preconceived conclusions, we may be certain that valuable results will be in store for us. The existence of Loess-beds, often of considerable thickness, | ON THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGY. 405 in numerous parts of New Zealand, of which many have begun to be deposited before the beginning of our great glacier period, will be of great use, and offer us an excellent field for research in this direction. These beds being of subeerial origin, not only the remains of land animals are preserved in them, but we shall find in them also the tracesof man. I may here mention the strange fact that the true nature of these beds has for a long time been misunderstood and misinterpreted by most English geologists. Even in the last edition of Lyell’s Elements of Geology the Loess of the Rhine is described as fluviatile loam, whilst the author himself shows that only the remains of land- shells and land vertebrates are imbedded in it. It has always been inconceivable to me how such an error should have re- mained so long uncorrected ; the more so, as as far back as 1847 Alex. Braun in “ Leonhard and Bronn’s Neues Jahrbuch” has shown the true state of things, and German geologists have re- peatedly furnished new facts in illustration and given analyses of Loess and of recent and older fluviatile deposits of the Rhine for comparison. But, as I have previously pointed out, the peculiar nature of the Loess deposits—the minute vertical capillary structure caused by the empty spaces once filled by the rootlets of innumerable generations of grasses—is a sure guide even toa tyro in Geology. This structure amongst these localities is well exhibited in the fresh cuttings near Lyttelton. I fear that the time allotted to me will not allow me to enter more fully into a review of what has already been accomplished to make Geology an inductive science,and what remains still to be ‘ done, but I may be permitted to allude to one of the principal causes that retarded Geology from taking its present position. This was the fear of the student to enter into antagonism with the established religious cosmogony. It is unnecessary to allude to the middle ages, because the stake or disappearance in the dun- geons of the holy inquisition were the rewards of fearless physical research, and men like Galileo and Descartes were obliged to use often evasive language, unworthy of such great thinkers, in order to preserve their lives or freedom, and therefore my remarks will _ only apply to our own times. In proof of this I wish only to quote one work, “ Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation,” of which the first edition appeared in 1844. If we read this book at the present time we can scarcely understand how it could have created such intense indignation amongst a large portion of the community, or that so much could have been written against it. Lyell himself, when publishing his Principles of Geology, a work of a true philosopher, was, judging from some letters in his biography, very careful not to hurt too much the prejudices of his time, not wishing to mar the usefulness of his work. Even at the present time are there not thousands and thousands of well-meaning but narrow-minded persons, at once entering into strenuous opposition when there is any reference made to scientific cosmogony differing from that they have been accus- 406 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. tomed to from their youth, and that cannot stand before the light of modern research ? However, the great principle of liberty for the teacher, so well expressed by the German word “ Lehrfreiheit,” cherished by the whole Teutonic race, a principle even preserved in the German universities during the darkest days of absolutism is a safe- guard of inestimable value, possessed fortunately also by our New Zealand university, the d/ma Mater for whose advancement to the highest obtainable position and general utility we ought willingly to devote our whole strength and best energies. HAS THE DEEP OCEAN EVER, BEEN LAND? beara bales BY PROFESSOR F. .W. HUTTON. Badr ed at A hundred and fifty years ago if any one had asked the ques- tion which heads this article, he would have been laughed at for supposing that such changes might have taken place on the earth. Fifty, or even twenty years ago he would have been thought very ignorant not to know that the science of geology had shewn that, during the long history of the earth, the positions of oceans and continents had .constantly changed. At the present day, however, the question must be considered as unsettled, some scientific men supporting the affirmative others the negative. . Sir C. Lyell, in the last edition of his “Principles of Geology,” says :—‘ Continents, although permanent for whole geological epochs, shift their positions entirely in the course of ages ;’ and further, “ It is not too much to say that every spot which is now ~ dry land has been sea some former period, and every part of — the space now covered by the deepest ocean has been land” On the other hand, in Sir Wyville Thomson’s opinion, “there seems to be sufficient evidence that all changes of level since the close © of the palseozoic era are in direct relation to the present coast lines,” and he thinks there is not a shadow of reason for suppos- — ing that the deep oecan beds were ever raised in mass above the ~ sea ; such an arrangement, indeed, is to him inconceivable. In this opinion he is supported by such men as Darwin, Carpenter, Archibald Geikie, and Wallace; while the original idea of the permanence of continental areas is due to Professor Dana. That the vast majority of sedimentary rocks were formed under the sea is allowed by all, but the new school of geologists say that when these rocks were forming there must always have been land in the neighbourhood from which these sediments were derived, and that consequently the general position of the continental masses must always have been the same, although © their outlines have varied much in different periods, and at times ~ the continent may have been represented by groups of islands, as the Indian Archipelago at the present day. The phrase, HAS THE DEEP OCEAN EVER BEEN LAND? 407 “permanence of oceanic areas,” would represent their views more correctly than “ permanence of continental areas.” _ The oldest known rocks of the Laurentian series are formed from the detritus of other rocks which had already been worn away by denudation ; consequently land must have existed even then. But it is not until we arrive at the Silurian period that we find remains of land plants and animals. At this time ferns and Lepidodendra existed. In rocks of the Devonian period we find freshwater shells belonging to a genus at present living in our rivers ; and in the Carboniferous period there were insects and land shells, the latter closely related to living species. As these forms are doubless the progenitors of those now living, it follows that since the Silurian period land has always existed on the surface of the earth. In order to explain this continuance of land we may suppose (1) that the continental areas, once formed, have remained the same, and have never been entirely sub- merged ; or (2) that when subsidence of land below the sea took place on a large scale, it was compensated by the elevation of portions of the ocean bed into land ; or (3) a combination of both, some small areas never having been submerged, and some oceanic areas having at one time been land. When we consider the great depth of the oceans, it becomes evident that movements of elevation or subsidence, which would ereatly alter the shape of a continent, would produce no apparent effect if they took place in the deep ocean. The average depth of the North Pacific is 15,850 feet ; of the North Atlantic 14,000 feet; andof the South Pacificand South Atlantic about 13,000 feet. But great as are these depths, we have proofs that the surface of the earth undergoes upheavals to an equal amount. Marine rocks of Eocene age are found in the Pyrenees and Alps at ele- vations of 10,500 feet, and in Western Thibet at 16,500 feet. Corals belonging to still living species are found fossil at a height of 3000 feet at Peru, and Lake Titicaca, 12,500 feet above the sea, contains marine forms of crustacea, one of which (Allorchestes imermzs) lives also in the Straits of Magellan. Evidently, then, the forces which mould the contours of the earth’s surface are sufficiently powerful to lift the oceanSbed up into the air ; but, of course, it does not follow that they have done so. Let us ex- amine the evidence. The sedimentary rocks which form the land are all shallow water deposits, occurring as long narrow strips, rarely, if ever, a hundred and fifty miles wide. They are conglomerates, sand- stones, clays, and limestones, such as are forming along the sides of the continents at the present day; while the deep water de- posits now forming are either calcareous ooze with abundance of Foraminifera, especially the form called Globigerina; or, if below 15,000 feet, are of red clay. These deposits show no ten- dency to take a linear shape like the rock formations forming the land. The only exception to this statement is, perhaps, the chalk of Europe, which once extended from Ireland to the Cri- mea and from Sweden to the South of France, and is composed 408 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. largely of Globigerina-ooze. Chalk differs considerably from the ooze of the Atlantic in its chemical composition, but, as Mr. Starkie Gardner has pointed out,great chemical changes must have taken place in chalk since it was upheaved above the sea; the soluable constituents have been to a great extent removed, and the silica and iron have aggregated into flints and nodules. The palzontologicalevidenceastothe depth at which chalk was formed is conflicting, for while the sponges, corals, and Echinoderms are allied to deep sea forms, the Mollusca, according to Mr. S. P. Woodward and Mr. Gwyn Jeffries, indicate comparatively shal- low water. On this, however, Mr. Gardner remarks that “the dissolution from the chalk of all its Mollusca except the few whose shells were phosphate of lime, renders any inference from them relatively untrustworthy, seeing that so many of the latter are extinct forms, about whose habits we can know nothing.” Mr Murray says, “the globigerina-oozes which we get in shallow water resemble the chalk much more than those in deeper water, say over 1000 fathoms.” But granting that the sedimentary rocks are all shallow water deposits, does it necessarily follow that the continental areas have never formed part of the deep ocean? I think not, for the following reason :—The deep sea' deposits accumulate with ex- ceeding slowness. Shark’s teeth, belonging to extinct tertiary species were dredged by the “ Challenger” expedition from the bed of the deep sea, and they must therefore have been lying almost or quite on the surface of the mud. Minute granules of native iron, supposed to be of meteoric origin, form no incon- siderable part of the red clay, and this could not be the case un- less the deposition of other material was almost inconceivably slow. These deposits, therefore, must be thin and unconsoli- dated, and if the mid-ocean beds were to rise above sea-level, they would be easily removed by denudation. Now, in every continental area large periods of time are unrepresented by any rocks. This may, of course, be owing to the surface having been land during those periods, but it may also be owing to its having been at the bottom of’ a deep ocean. Consequently we can arrive at no definite conclusion with our present imperfect know- ledge. Mr. Darwin has pointed out that nearly all oceanic islands are either of volcanic origin or else coral atols, and that none of them shew any sedimentary rocks older than the tertiary era. From this he infers that no continents nor continental islands existed in the earlier periods where the oceans now extend ; for had they existed, sediments derived from them would have been partially upheaved by the oscillations of level which must have taken place. This fact, however, seems to me to point to an exactly opposite conclusion. We do not know why volcanic islands should be so common in oceanic areas ; but, whatever be the cause, it must have acted in the ancient oceanic areas as it acts now, and the absence of older sedimentary rocks on these islands goes to prove that they were not then in existence: else HAS THE DEEP OCEAN EVER BEEN LAND ? 409 why should we only find tertiary sedimentary rocks on them? But if the islands were not then in existence the cause which has produced them could not have been acting in those localities, that is, they were not then oceanicareas. If these islands formed part of an upheaval of the ocean bed, then Mr. Darwin’s argu- ment would have been valid. But: this is not the case, the islands are merely huge heaps of lava and ashes, volcanic ejec- tions which have been erupted through the ocean bed, and bring up none of the older rocks with them. The shape of the bottom of the oceanic areas is also used as an argument in favour of the permanence of continents. It has been found that around the continents, the sea bottom sinks very gradually, for a variable distance from the coast, until it reaches a depth of ahundred fathoms or so; it then falls more suddenly, and ultimately becomes flat. Now, if this argument, which is advanced by Dr. Carpenter, means anything it means that the continental areas have never been elevated more than 600 feet or so above their present level: for the sudden slope beyond the hundred fathom line is supposed to be part of the original continental upheaval, which has been planed down by denudation as far as that line and no further when the land stood some 500 or 600 feet higher than at present. But we know that oscillations in the level of the continental. areas, to a far greater extent than this, have often taken place, and it is absurd to suppose that all the great land masses have, at some time or other, been elevated 600 feet and no more above their present position. I suspect that the statement with regard to the hundred fathom line does not rest upon sufficient evidence ; but, if it is true, we must find some other explanation of it than the one offered by Dr. Carpenter. The more rapid fall of the bottom at a comparatively short distance from the coast may, perhaps, be accounted for by the more rapid deposition that takes place round the coast. We see the same thing in the fan formed by a river entering a lake, and on a coast line we have a series of fans running into each other. Tolerable permanence of level for a certain time would ensure the formation of a bank of deposit around the land. Dr. Carpenter also says that there are “no known submerged continental platforms in mid-ocean.”* He allows that there are raised plateaux in the middle of the Atlantic and in the middle of the Pacific, but he calls these “ upward bulgings of the median portions of depressed ocean floors.” He does not, however, ex- plain the difference between an upward bulging of an ocean floor and a submerged continental platform, and it is not easy to see how one can be distinguished from the other. Mr. Wallace says that the plateau of the Mid-Atlantic “is no doubt due to volcanic upheaval and the accumulation of volcanic ejections ;’+ * The Deep Sea and its Contents, Azmeteenth Century, April 1880, f Island Life, p, 98. 410 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. but he does not bring forward a particle of evidence in support of his opinion, and indeed it would be impossible to do so as we cannot examine any sections through these plateaux. More- over there is no reason to suppose that volcanic agencies upheave the sea bottom any more than they do the land. Massive eruptions, which Dr. A. Geikie allows to have been submarine, break through the superincumbent rocks exactly as does the pipe of a volcano. Dr. Carpenter also insists upon the persistence of cretaceous types of animals in the Atlantic up to the present day as proving that the North Atlantic has not been land since the termination of the cretaceous period. There is, no doubt, much force in this argument ; but it is not conclusive, for the deep sea fauna is much the same all over the world, and if the bed of the North Atlantic had sunk at a comparatively late period it would probably have been invaded by the fauna of the South Atlantic, which closely resembles it. I do not attach much weight to the argument that the direc- tions of first relief of pressure caused by a shrinking nucleus under a rigid earth crust must always afterwards remain the direction of further relief, because we really know so little of the conditions of the problem. It looks plausible, but we must remember that great subsidences have certainly taken place in former areas of elevation which, by hypothesis, were areas of relief; and we should expect that the areas of relief would be far more numerous than the three great meridional lines of eleva- tion. Weknow, asa matter of fact, that continental areas are liable to subsidence, and that oceanic areas are liable to eleva- tion; and we cannot as yet place a limit on the possible amount of continental depression or of oceanic elevation. Mr. Wallace’s argument that rocks of all ages, on all conti- nents, contain the remains of land, or fresh-water, or estuarine animals, or of plants, is of no special value, because it is only a restatement of the argument that all the sedimentary rocks are shallow water deposits, which is admitted. If we were to finda complete, or nearly complete, series of rocks from some ancient date up to the present day represented in a continental area, then that continental area must have been permanent since that ancient date, but this is never the case. We certainly do find a large number of geological periods represented in Europe, Asia, America, Australia, and New Zealand, but in all cases there are also long periods unrepresented, especially in the Paleozoic era, where there are many physical breaksin continuity, accompanied by an almost complete change in animal life, and Sir A. Ram- say says that these breaks may each indicate a period of time as ereat as the vast accumulations of the whole Silurian series. The question is, what was the condition of these areas during the un- represented periods? Certainly they might have been land, but also they might, in some cases at least, have been deep ocean. Our knowledge of the geology of the world is, at present, quite insufficient to settle this question. HAS THE DEEP OCEAN EVER BEEN LAND? 4iI The present geographical distribution of plants and animals has a very important bearing on the former distribution of land and sea ; for the land is a barrier to the migration of marine animals, and the ocean is a barrier to the migration of terres- trial animals and plants. Mr. Wallace has shown that the pre- sent distribution of the higher animals, which came into exis- tence in the tertiary era, can generally be well explained by the present distribution of land, but he allows that this will not hold good for the older groups. “The general conclusion,” he says, “we arrive at is that the causes that have led to the existing distribution of the genera and larger groups of terrestrial mol- lusca are so complex, and have acted through such long periods, that most of the barriers which limit the range of other terres- trial animals do not apply to them, although the species are, in most cases, strictly limited by them.”* And Mr. Starkie Gard- ner has pointed out that the eocene palms of Europe could hardly have reached tropical America by the present northern route, as they are not found there. In the distribution of reptiles, and of some birds, in Polyne- sia, we have evidence of the existence of a former continent. The Brush-turkeys, or Megapodes, are birds that are unable to fly, and yetthey arefound in Borneo, Celebes, the Philippine Islands, Austra- lia, New Guinea, New Caledonia, the Marian Islands, the Samoan Is- lands,and others inthe Pacific. Reptiles arewidelyspread through- out the islands of Polynesia, and we can only account for it by sup- posing a former land communication. Mr. Wallace, in his ‘Island Life,’ attempts to explain the fact by suggesting that reptiles have some unknown and exceptional powers of dispersal. But, if so, why is the phenomenon limited to Polynesia? And why should Mr. Wallace himself explain the small number of reptiles in Great Britain and Ireland by the supposition that they are unable to cross the English and Irish Channels? To give one more case. Dr. Gunther has drawn attention to the remarkable affinity between the fresh water fishes of Africa and those of South America. Two well-marked families, the Chromides and the Characinide, are found only in these two re- gions (with the exception of the genus Etroplus, of India), but the species and genera in each region are different, shewing long isolation. Dr. Gunther believes that all these fishes are the de- scendants of a common stock which long ago had its home ina region now submerged under the Atlantic Ocean. Many more instances could be given, but these are sufficient to show that the present distribution of animals is not altogether favourable to the hypothesis of the permanence of continental areas from very remote periods. If now we sum up the argument, we and that the geographi- cal distribution of the higher animals combines with the existence of tertiary rocks on oceanic volcanic islands to prove, with but little doubt, that the present continental areas have been perma- ——— a — = ———- = = * Geographical Distribution of Animals, ii, p. 528 412 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. nent during greater part of the tertiaryera. But the distribution of the lower animals, together with the absence of palzeozoic and mesozoic rocks on oceanic islands, tends to prove that in pre- tertiary times the distribution of land and sea was very different to what it isnow. The geological evidence is unsatisfactory, as it is all negative. There is no positive evidence that the deep sea has ever been land. There is no positive evidence that any continental area has ever been deep ocean ; and there is no posi- tive evidence that any one of them has alwaysbeen land. There is positive evidence that most of the continental areas have often been land since the Cambrian period, but the positive evidence is not continuous ; there are long periods of unrepresented time ; and, as Mr. Darwin says, “we do not know what was the state of things in the intervals between the several successive forma- tions; whether Europe and the United States during these in- tervals existed as dry land, or as a submarine surface near land, on which sediment was not deposited, or as the bed of an open and unfathomable sea.” — ae SOME EFFECTS OF THE RABBIT PEST. cree tee eee BY D. PETRIE, M.A. Kitked &: ra It is some three or four years since the rabbit pest has reached a crisis in the interior of Otago. Their invasion and occupation of the country have been fruitful in serious results to squatters and their flocks. They have called into existence a new voca- tion, that of the rabbiter, who with his canine following is now a well-known figure in most parts of the interior. It is not, how- ever, the aim of this paper to descant on the effects of the rabbits on labour and settlement, but to point out certain other import- ant though less notorious results flowing from their encroachment and predominance. I refer to changes in the vegetation of the country that are being slowly but surély brought about by their agency. Some of these it will be seen are unexpected enough. First we may notice how they lead to the spread of thistles. This may be conspicuously seen in the Moa Flat and Ettrick districts, where thistles are gaining a firm footing high up on the hill sides, on what was a few years ago well-grassed pasture country. The rabbits and sheep together have for a series of seasons kept the grass down so thoroughly that an increasing area became year by year almost bare. On these bare spots the thistle seeds, wafted about by the winds, gained a ready footing, and as the grass has been and is kept very bare, they are spread- ing further and further. In the original condition of the land thistles throve only by road-sides, and on land disturbed and left © bare Dy floods and digging operations. Now, however, the general bareness of the soil is such that there is every prospect of thistles spreading very extensively over what used to be ex- SOME EFFECTS OF THE RABBIT PEST. 413 cellent pastoral country. Thus, rabbits, besides eating grass that would in their absence go to support sheep, have induced a state of things that highly favours the supplanting of grasses on a large scale by a useless and aggressive weed. In the higher parts of the interior of Otago (3000 feet and over) several common native plants are rapidly disappearing. Let us first take the case of Colenso’s spear-grass (Aciphylla co- lensot). ‘This spear-grass ranges as high as 5000 feet, or even higher. It is in many districts very abundant at low levels, such as 1000 feet above the sea, but appears to reach its greatest de- velopment at 3000 feet. On the Carrick Range it was very common a few years ago at all levels. But since rabbits became common it has been rapidly disappearing, especially at the higher levels. I have seen them nibbling at its leaves in the autumn season, and there can be no doubt that they are the sole agents leading to its destruction. It seems probable that rab- bits first took to eating spear-grass in winter, when the ground was covered with snow, as is the case on the Carrick Range for some months every year. They have during three months to burrow under the snow to get food, and if spear-grass was palat- able, a bush of it would be a god-send to a rabbit, for it would supply it with food for a considerable time and save the labour of burrowing more afield for suitable tufts of grass. Be this as it may, it is certain that rabbits do subsist largely on spear-grass during the winter in snow-covered tracts, and _ that their attacks on it are rapidly making it a rare plant in elevated situations where it was formerly abundant. The leaves of the plant are eaten by them in such a way that a circle of withered leaf-tops is alone left to mark the spot where a spear-grass bush formerly grew. It seems to me highly probable that their attacks will soon lead to the extermination of spear-grass in districts that are rabbit infested and where snow lies for some time during winter. The appearance of many spear-grass plants examined by me in autumn warrants the belief that it is eaten by them at other seasons besides winter. No doubt when tender grass is scarce, from drought or close cropping by sheep and rabbits, they fall back on spear-grass as a staple article of food. In lower districts spear-grass is seldom attacked, from which we may infer that rabbits prefer to feast on tender grasses. A second plant that has suffered from the attacks of rabbits even more than spear-grass is Lyall’s narrow-leaved cotton grass or native aster (Ce/mzsia lyalliz), This plant is greedily eaten by horses, and they kecp in excellent condition on its leaves. It was in former years very common on the Carrick Range, at an elevation of from 3000 to 4000 feet. The rabbits have now eaten it down so thoroughly that I could not see a single plant last year by the roadside, where hundreds were to be seen four or five years ago. To all appearance it has been exterminated in this locality. It has also become very rare on the Mount Pisa Range, where it was formerly very plentiful. Celmisia viscosa and Celmisia haastii are also attacked by 414 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. them, and are steadily becoming more and more rare on the Mount Pisa Range. The effects of their ravages on the native grasses are not so obvious as in the cases mentioned, as grasses survive the eating down of their foliage so much better than the plants above cited. A general thinning of all the more tender kinds is certainly taking place, and less useful and less nutritious plants are in consequence spreading and gaining predominance. In the case of a matted form of what Mr. Buchanan considers to be Poa exigua, I have observed that it has been all but exterminated in the localities on Mount Pisa, where I first found it in consider- able abundance. No doubt sheep as well as rabbits have helped to eat it down, so that its disappearance cannot be ascribed to their exclusive agency. Much the same is doubtless happening with other grasses, of which I can specify in particular Poa colensot, and Danthonia nuda. The indirect effects of the close cropping of rabbits and sheep combined are almost as striking and important as the immediate ones. It is leading to a desic- cation of large areas that unfits them for the growth of their ori- ginal inhabitants. I have especially remarked the decline of Raoulia hectort on the Mount Pisa Range from this cause. The foregoing remarks may suffice to show that the preva- lence of the rabbit pest is calculated to produce most important effects on the collection of plants growing in the districts they infest. As years pass by, several highly characteristic plants will probably be exterminated from large areas in which they flourished and were likely to flourish but for their appearance on the scene. The writer’s observations have been made casually on journeys undertaken in connection with his calling. Though they are not complete, and do not apply to a large area, they appear to indicate causes that are acting over a wide area, that are acting, too, continuously, and must result in highly impor- tant and interesting changes in the distribution and prevalence of native and introduced plants. It is to be hoped that some persons who have good opportunities will take the subject in hand and make more complete andextensive observations, If this imperfect paper should lead to such a result, it will have answered one of the writer's chief aims in directing attention to the subject, ON SOME NEW ZEALAND CARICES. For the convenience of such of our readers as are not ac- quainted with Dr. Berggren’s contributions to our knowledge of the New Zealand Flora, we give here a translation of the species of Carex described by him. Being communicated to a Swedish Society of Naturalists, his contributions are not so widely known as they deserve to be. On some future occasions we shall give the remaining parts of his paper. The value of the original gS EE ee ey eee eee ON SOME NEW ZEALAND CARICES, 415 memoir is greatly enhanced by the beautifully executed steel engravings. Carex tenax (Berggren).—A reddish species ; culms densely tufted, graceful, robust; leaves nearly equalling the culm, or larger, tenacious, semiterete, scabrid at the margin ; bracts ex- ceeding the culm, the lower sheathed, the upper without sheaths ; spikelets 5-6, oblong, the lowermost remote, the others approxi- mate, the terminal one cylindrical male, the others female but male at the very base; glumes obovate, with long hispid awn, pale, membranous, with lacerated margin; utricles elliptical, plano-convex, beaked, bifid, cilio-serrate at the beak and top, purple-spotted, nerveless, smooth, covered by the glume ; stigmas two. Habitat: Dry grassy places on the mountains by the Wai- makariri, and littoral plains at the Bluff. This species differs from C. vaouliz (Boott) in the very tenacious semi-terete leaves, the terminal spikelet being wholly male, and the utricles smooth and nerveless. Carex dipsacea (Bergegren).—A pale green species; culms smooth, covered at the base by rigid scale-like leaves; leaves keeled, longer than the culm, scabrid at the margin; spikelets 5-7, uppermost male, others female, the two uppermost sessile, the lower with peduncles rising above the sheath, the lowermost remote ; glumes shorter than the utricle, rounded, obtuse when the nerve dies out, or apiculate when it is produced; utricles divaricating when ripe, elliptical, biconvex, very shortly beaked, finely serrated at the upper margin, nerveless, smooth; stigmas two. Habitat: The mountains of New Zealand at Tokano and Omatangi in the N. Island, and the mountains of the S. Island, It is distinguished from C. /ucida (Boott) by the spikelets being obtuse and approximate (with exception of the lowermost), and the glumes rounded, gently waved at the margin, and shorter than the very short beaked smooth divaricating utricle. Carex comans (Berggren).—A_ straw-coloured species, tufted, with numerous sterile fascicles of leaves; culms filiform ; leaves longer than the culm, channelled, striate, filiform, slightly scabrid at the margin, plano-convex towards the base; spikelets 5-6, uppermost male, the rest female with long bracts ; the two upper sessile, oval, without sheaths, the rest oblong club-shaped on peduncles invested by sheaths; glumes membranous, ovate, hispido-cuspidate, bifid at the apex ; utricles lanceolate, plano- convex, finely serrated at the top, bifid, purple; stigmas three. Habitat : On dry sandy coasts near Hokianga, The species differs from C. testacea (Solander) in its remote spikelets, the lower sheathing and peduncled, its narrower utricle, and three stigmas. Carex pulchella (Berggren).—A reddish, tufted species ; culms setaceous, flaccid ; leaves longer than the culm, keeled, deeply grooved, filiform, scabrid at the margin, plano-triquetrous towards he base ; spikelets 4-5, the uppermost (rarely the two uppermost) 416 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. male, the others female ; the upper on short and the lower on longer peduncles invested by the sheath, the lowermost remote near the base, all oval sheathed ; glumes membranous, ovate, hispido-aristate, torn at the margin; utricles ovate, turgid, obtusely trigonous, nerveless, shining, slightly scabrid at the bifid apex ; stigmas three. Habitat ; Mountains by the Bealey River, North. Can- terbury. It is distinguished from C. ¢estacea (Solander) by its remote lowermost spikelet, by all its spikelets being peduncled and sheathed, by its narrower nerveless utricles, and its three stigmas; from C. comans (Berggren) by its flaccid culm, its remote lower- most spikelet, all its spikelets being sheathed ; and from both by its turgid utricles longer than the glume. Carex cirrhosa (Berggren).—A very stunted species, glaucous green or reddish ; culms very short, 3-4% in. long; leaves lon- ger than the culm, flat or plano-convex, striate, scabrid at the margin, when dried cirrhate-tortuous at the tip ; spikelets 4-5 ovate approximate, the uppermost male, the others female, the upper sheathless and sessile, the lowermost shortly sheathed with enclosed peduncle; glumes ovate-lanceolate, cuspidate, quite entire ; utricles elliptical, plano-convex, beaked, bifid, slightly nerved ; stigmas two. Habitat: Near the Waimakariri River, on the Alps of North Canterbury. It differs from C. tenax (Berggren), to which it appears most closely related, in its stunted size, flat leaves, very short culms, approximate spikelets, and perfectly entire utricles and clumes. For C. tenax Mr. Petrie gives us the following additional localities in Otago:—Lower Shotover, Cromwell, Balclutha, Maniototo Plains, and Kurow District. It appears to be widely spread over the uplands of Otago, and is very common on the margins of water-races on the goldfields. C. dipsacea he has gathered at Lauder Creek (Manuherikia Plain), Strath Taie1i, Macraes, and Waikouaiti. Mr. Goyen has gathered it also at Catlin’s River. | REVIEW. Man Before Metals. By N. Joly. (The International Scientific Series. London: Kegan, Paul, Trench and Co.) To readers familiar with the merits of Lyell, Lubbock, Tylor, and Geikie, “Man Before Metals” does not present much that is new ; but to most of the readers for whom the International Scientific Series is more especially intended—men of business, and others, whose time is so occupied with the material concerns of life as to preclude them from the study of such ponderous tomes as “The Antiquity of Man,” “ Researches on the Early REVIEW. AI7 History of Mankind,” &c.,—M. Joly has presented within the small compass of about 350 pages, so to say, a kind of concen- trated solution of the evidence that supports the theory now held by the majority of scientific men, that the human race is of im- -mense antiquity—of an antiquity to be measured not by years but by geological epochs ; for not only do proofs of his existence abound in the quarternary strata, but traces of it are not, accord- ing to some, wanting in the rocks of the meiocene and pleiocene epochs. But whether this is so or not, there can now be no question that the evidence collected from almost every part of the globe proves beyond all doubt “that man was contempo- raneous with the extinct mammalia of the quaternary epoch, that he witnessed the upheaval of the Alps and the extension of the slaciers, and that he lived for ages before the dawn of the re- motest historical traditions.” From ancient times down to our own days worked flints have been found both on the surface and deep down in the soil, in caves and under the ruins of ancient monuments. These flints bear many shapes, but they generally resemble axes, saws, lances, &c. They are found of all degrees of polish and workmanship, ranging from the roughly-splintered to the finely-polished. They are found, too, in almost every country, an indication that man everywhere passes through similar stages of advancement in the art of tool-making as well as in the art of working materials subservient to the purpose of tool-making. The order of the materials is stone, copper, bronze, iron, and it is the first of these—the Stone Age that forms M. Joly’s principal theme. Art does not spring into existence spontaneously, but is the result of gradual development; and in the earlier stages of society this development is slower than in thelater. Flint tools have been found in Egypt, where, at least forty-nine centuries before the birth of Christ, flourished “a civilized people advan- ced in science and art, and in the knowledge of mechanics, capable of raising monuments of immense size and of indestruc- tible solidity.” The early inhabitants of Egypt began their art course by making splintered flint tools; 4900 years before Christ their descendants were able to produce works of art, so a com- petent judge informs us, unsurpassed by any produced by the Greeks. The time that elapsed between the making of the roughly-chipped flint axe, “the first monument of man ina state of nature,” and the execution of such remarkable works of art as the statue of King Chafra, and the door of the Great Pyramid of Sakkara, must have been immense. “In the remote epochs of which we are speaking,” says M. Joly, “the Egyptian tongue was already formed, and possessed a written character. Tle great number of our domestic animals were bred by the Egyp- tians, and distinct and long established breeds were known to them (greyhounds, lop-eared goats, &c.). No one can tell with certainty the number of centuries they must have passed through before attaining to so complex a civilization. The whole history of Egypt confirms our belief in the immense antiquity of the 418 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. human race.” But it is the ancient caves that have yielded the most abundant and the most incontestible proofs of our great antiquity. ‘As early as 1828, Tournal of Narbonne announced to the scientific world the discovery of human remains, and of things fashioned by the hand of man, in the cave of Bize, inter- mixed with bones of animals which Cuvier himself considered as fossil in every acceptation of the word. . . . At Souvignarg- nes, M. de Christol dug out of the undisturbed diluvium a humerus, a radius, a fibula, a sacrum, and two vertebre, which had formed part of the skeleton of an adult of small size, per- haps of a woman, as Professor Dubrenil thinks. | “In 1833 Dr. Schmerling explored the numerous caves in Belgium, and in several of them, notably at Engis and at Engihoul, near Liege, he ascertained the existence of skulls and of portions of the human skeleton, together with those of bears, hyenas, elephants, rhinoceroses, &c., lying in the diluvian deposits, sometimes above and sometimes below the remains of these species which are already universally recognised as fossil. Bones and flints shaped by human hands, extracted from the same beds, served to confirm Schmerling in the belief that man was the contemporary of the extinct animal population whose re- mains he had found.” Similar evidence was discovered by M. Joly himself in 1835. Since then Kent’s Cave and Brixham Cave in Devonshire, Long Hole Cave in Glamorganshire, and others in France and else- where have furnished convincing proofs of the synchronism of the human species with the great extinct mammals. “Man was the contemporary of the great annihilated quadrupeds. He saw in our latitude the primitive elephants wandering in virgin forests, the hippopotamus disporting itself in the rivers, the rhinoceros wallowing in the mud of the marshes: he heard the roaring of the lion, and disputed his life with the terrible cave bear, and hunted those primitive oxen and stags the species of which are extinct.” The Danish peat mosses and kitchen middens, the Irish bogs and the American river valleys are all placed under contribution’ by our author, and are all made to yield a rich harvest of testi- mony in favour of the great antiquity of our species. The second part of the book, dealing with primitive civilization, domestic life, industry, agriculture, commerce, religion, &c., though exceedingly interesting, is not so strong as the first, and falls considerably short of Tylor’s inimitable Anthropology. The title Man Before Metals is very inapt: Man Before Tools is the key-note of the author’s theme. Still we thank M. Joly for the matter, and will not cavil further about the title. P. GOYEN. > » GENERAL NOTES. 419 GENERAL NOTES. A FRESH-WATER HYDROZOON—Cordylophora lacustris (?) All—In the early part of March I went to the Petane (Esk) River, Hawke’s Bay, at a point near to the Napier-Taupo road, and about a mile from the place where, under ordinary circum- stances the river flows into the upper portion of the Napier Har- bour, to collect specimens,and if possible to find in particularsome more of the fresh-water Polyzoon, Plumatella repens,* which I had found on former visits. The afternoon was warm, and a gentle breeze carried my boat along over the clear water. Every floating piece of raupo was covered with small molluscs, and © others might be seen crawling slowly over the bottom. Here and there would be seen the furrow-like track of a Unio, and on nearing the mouth of the river swarms of crabs made with all speed for their holes in the clayey banks and mud flats. Being now in brackish water, I had given up hopes of finding my Plumatella, when I saw some rotten leaves of raupo covered with an interlacing network, and which, when looked at closely, resolved itself into something very much like the species I was in search of. I collected some of the best pieces and put them into a bottle with some water, and after finishing my other work took the specimens home. The first look at the animal con- tained in the little horny tubes which formed the network told me that it was among the Hydrozoa that I should have to look for my species, which differed chiefly from Hydra in having a firm outer case or ccenosarc. I found the specimen easy to handle, and upon cutting off a portion of the colony and placing it under the microscope, it condescended to dilate itself, and thrust forth one after another its restless arms and tentacles. The tentacles under all powers presented the same granulated appearance as those of the common Hydra, and, I fancy, show, when stained, a trace of muscular fibre. The polypite is, in shape, that of a more or less elongated oval, having at its apex the mouth-opening and from 15 to 20 tentacles, varying in length, disposed irregularly round it. The narrowed extremity or neck is inserted into a chitinous tube apparently excreted by the polypite from the ectodeimal layer. The gastric chamber can be plainly seen through the ectoderm, but the structure I could not determine at the time. One polyp, after stretching and expanding itself several times, gradually retracted the mouth until the thickest portions of the club formed the rim of a cup ‘by introversion, the tentacles during this manceuvre being shortened and dwarfed. It then gradually resumed its normal shape. I was unable to detect any particle of food or grain of irritating matter which might account for this strange movement. In my first gathering I did not observe any reproductive organs or buds, but in a subsequent occasion I collected several * Trans, N.Z, Inst., Vol, XII, p, 302. 420 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, colonies with gonophores in all stages, from a mere swelling or knob of ceenosarc to the fully-developed gonophore, containing the oval-shaped embryos. Hitherto I have not observed the embryo when liberated from the sac, but from the figure given in the Manual of the Coelenterata, p. 53, it appears to be an elongated oval swimming by means of cilia, and very contractile, which eventually becomes pear-shaped, and which afterwards becomes attached and developes what is called the primitive polypite. This soon commences to send forth prolongations, and these by gemmation develope the polypites and other ap- pendages of the adult organism. Professor Allman in “ Ann. of Nat. Hist.” vol. XIII, p. 330, thus describes the species most closely resembling the specimen under notice :— “ Cordylophora lacustris.*—Polypidom horny, rooted by a creeping tubular fibre, alternately branched, branches cylindrical. Polypes developed at the extremities of the branches and consist- ing of an ovoid body prolonged anteriorly into a conical pro- jection which bears the mouth at its extremity, and behind which the body of the polyp is furnished with scattered filiform tenta- cula.” Its name is a rather unfortunate one for a New Zealand species, as in the first place we have no newts, and in the second fluviatilis would be more appropriate for the description of the habitat. However, when the Marine Hydrozoa come to be worked up in this country, I have no doubt but that this beau- tiful little species will be duly recognised and stand in the proper place with an appropriate name, and that the above title will be given as its equivalent. This is, as far as I am aware, the first record of this species south of the line, and adds another to the long list of species represented by identical forms in both the northern and southern hemispheres. In the Manual of the Ccelenterata it states that Cordylophora has been met with only in Denmark, Great’ Britain, Ireland, and North America. A. HAMILTON. MARATTIA FRAXINEA.—I have to record a new habitat for — this fern, which is fast becoming very rare, viz. Tryphena Har- — bour, Great Barrier Island, in dense bush. C. R. WINKELMAN. AUSTRALIAN PLANTS.—We have to thank the author, Baron F. von. Mueller, for a copy of his valuable “ Systematic census of Australian Plants,” Part I. The part issued deals with the Vasculares, viz., Flowering plants and Vascular Crytogams. To the non-scientific reader the work will appear to be a bare list of names, but to the systematic botanist it will prove a rich fund of information. All the plants known to occur in Australia —_~_ * Cordylon, a water-newt ; phore, a burden, GENERAL NOTES. | 421 are named in order, and each name is followed by that of its author, the publication in which it was originally described, and its date. Then follows a list of the various parts of Australia in which the plant is known to occur, and lastly a reference to the volume and page of Bentham’s “Flora Australiensis” or Mueller’s “Fragmenta” in which it is described. The work should be in the hands of every colonial botanist. It is remark- ably well printed. FORMUL& FOR SCREW POWER.—Mr. A. Y. Ross, of Gisborne, writes to us that, having found no theoretical formula for screw power in any works on Mechanics which gave results exactly in accordance with those obtained in practice, he has been led to institute a series of experiments with the view of obviating this defect. From these he has drawn up the following empirical formulse, which will, he claims, solve accurately any of those problems in screw power which the practical engineer constantly meets with. We regret that we cannot shew the illustration which accompanies Mr. Ross’s communication. FORMULA. W = Weight to be raised. P = Pressure at end of lever necessary to raise W. L = Length of lever required, diameter of screw as unit. C = .36 Coefficient of friction, Iron upon Iron, &c., see Table.* R = Pitch or rise of thread compared with its length. 2 xe EP W x (C+ R) Wx (Cee RR) =oP nee TS yp Pe ee py SE eee GC - R PTE) Ngee el ok | 2P ’ TONGARIRO.—After an interval of thirteen years of com- parative quiescence this volcano has again broken out into violent eruption. Tauranga and Napier.telegrams of 26th April inform us that the mountain was emitting an immense column of black smoke, which continued for several hours. No fire could be seen. Owing to the cloudy weather the observations appear to have been very imperfect. No earthquake shocks were felt. SS PROFESSOR WALKER, recently appointed to the Chair of Mathematics and Mathematical Physics in Auckland University, was drowned while out boating in Auckland Harbour yesterday (1st May). The unfortunate gentleman was out in a small boat * Coefficient of friction varies slightly according to weight per square inch, unguents used, and the material the screw is made of. COEFHKICIENT OF FRICTION TABLE, BY MR. G. RENNIE, Pressure per square Wrought Iron upon Wrought [ron upon Brass upon Cast _ inch, Wrought Iron. Cast Iron. Iron. I cwt. »250 2275 225 2 ae 292 .219 3 312 »333 a-Hiiils 4 -395 365 208 — 4.66 -409 366 223 422 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. in company with Professor Tucker and a lad named Bydder, and when within about 100 yards of shore, their craft capsized. Pro- fessor Tucker managed to regain hold of the boat to which he clung until assistance arrived, while the boy swam ashore, but Professor Walker appears to have sunk at once. The deceased was only 26 years of age, was a fellow of Queen’s College, and second wrangler in 1879. He had only been in Auckland a fortnight. ee SHEEP EATING THISTLE HEADS.—Regarding Mr. D. Petrie’s note (General Notes, Journal ot Science, No. 8) concerning the above, I beg to state that in our part of the country (Hawke’s Bay) it is a very common thing to see sheep eating thistle heads, indeed, they are very fond of them (leaves as well), and, were it not for the abundance of thistles on the large “runs” during the summer months, many sheep would die of starvation. I have made several enquiries, and find that the farmers in this district value the common thistle plant, not only as food for sheep, but for cattle also. The latter have been seen to break the plant off, close to the ground, and gradually eat the whole of it. I know of several instances where both sheep and cattle have been saved from starving through having plenty of thistles to eat. The mouth of the sheep becomes very hard, the skin almost like leather, after feeding for some time on thistles. CHAS. P. WINKELMAN. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Wellington, March 2uth.—A meeting of the Board of Gover- nors of the New Zealand Institute was held to-day, the following members being present :—His Excellency the Governor (in the chair), the Hon. Mr. Rolleston, Hon. W. R. Johnson, Hon, W. Man- tell, Mr. Mason, M.H.R., Ven. Archdeacon Stock, Mr. McKer- row, and Dr. Hector. Of the seven names proposed by incorpo- rated societies throughout the Colony, the following gentlemen were elected hon. members of the New Zealand Institute, in terms of the Act:—Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., Professor ot Natural Philosophy, University of Glasgow; Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S., C.B., of London; and Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, F.R.S., Government Astronomer at Melbourne. Accounts were passed, and it was shown that the funds in hand will cover the cost of printing Volume XV ot the Transactions, the publication of which is well advanced, 450 pages having already been printed. The volume will contain 60 articles, besides the proceedings and the appendix, and will be illustrated by 41 plates and 16 woodcuts, It is ex- pected to be ready tor distribution early in May. eke r 5 ' ’ ; ‘ 4 - MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 423 SOUTHLAND INSTITUTE. Invercargill, April, 1883.—J. T. Thomson, Esq., president, in the chair. ANNUAL REPORT. During the year six general meetings were held, at which were read the following eight papers, namely :—‘‘ On the work done by the New Zealand Institute,” by J. T. Thomson; “On the forma- tion of certain Quartz Pebbles,” by W. S. Hamilton; “On Forestry,” by D. McArthur; “On Folk Lore,” by J. G. Smith ; * On Self-regulating Windmills,” by J. T. Thomson; ‘ On the use of training walls in deepening Invercargill Harbour,” by J. T. Thomson ; ‘* On the surface features of the earth and local varia- tions in the force of gravity,” by T. B. Wakelin; ‘ On the consti- tution of Comets,” by Rev. P. W. Fairclough. In addition to the papers read at the ordinary meetings, Mr. J. T. Thomson read a paper under the auspices of the Institute on ‘ Capital v. Labour.” Nine new members joined the Institute during the year, the total number now being sixty. Application was made to the Government for the granting of a site for the erection of a building suitable for the Institute, and providing room for a Museum, &c., but a definite reply was de- ferred pending the settlement of the question as to the require- ments for the railway station and extensions. A number of valu- able works have been added to the library, and a case containing a large number of mineralogical and geological specimens pur- chased in England has also been received. Arrangements have just been made with the Council of the Law Society for the use of their shelves for the Institute Library, and permission given to place the case of specimens in the room, in consideration of our paying £10 per annum towards the librarian’s salary. The books of the Institute are thus available for reference to members daily between the hours of 10 a.m. and 5 p.m. The receipts for the year, including a balance from last year of £52 9s. 11d., amount to £102 17s. 11d,, and the expenditure to £58 9s. 8d., including £37 7s. gd. spent on books and periodicals and £10 on specimens, leaving a balance on hand of £44 8s. 3d., and of which will have to come the annual outlay on books, &c. outT wo vacancies which occurred during the year in the Council by the resignations of Mr. Goyen and Dr. Galbraith, were filled by Rev. P. W. Fairclough and Mr. Carswell; and the duties of secre- tary were undertaken by the treasurer. The report and balance sheet as read were adopted, and the following gentlemen were then elected as office-bearers and mem- bers of Council :—President, Mr. J. T. Thomson; Vice-president, Rev. P. W. Fairclough; Secretary and Treasurer, Mr. J. C. Thomson ; Council: Dr. Galbraith, Messrs. Hamilton, Robertson, Carswell, Scandrett, and Denniston, LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Sydney, 28th Feb., 1883.—C. S. Wilkinson, F.G.S., &c., presi- dent, in the chair. New members—E. C. Fallick, Jas. D. Cox, P. N. Trebeck, S. C, Burnell, H. H. Onslow, F. M. de Meyrick, J. MacDonald, 424 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Papers—(r1) ‘‘ On the Coal Flora of Australia,” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.L.S., F.G.S., &c. This was a complete monograph of all the known fossil coal plants, including the new species recently discovered by the author. A diagnosis of each genus and species was given, together with a history of the subject and its literature. The author also added his own views with reference to the classification, in which he regards some of the Newcastle beds as Permian, some as Trias, and the Ipswich beds (Queensland), the Victorian carbonaceous (Bellerine, Cape Otway, Apollo Bay, Colac and the Wannon), Tasmanian (Jerusalem) and the Hawkesbury sandstone as Jurassic or Lower Oolite. He ex- presses a doubt whether the Wianamatta beds can be regarded as a distinct formation, his own opinion being that they are shales distributed at various levels all through the Hawkesbury sand- stone. The new species of plants described are—Phyllotheca con- cinna, Equisetum votiferum. Vertebvaria tivoliensis, V. towarvensis, Sphenop- tevis (Aneimoides) flabellifolia, S. (A.) f. var. evecta, Trichomanides laxum, T. spinifolium, Thinnfeldia media, T. austvalis, T. falcata, Alethop- tevis curvant, Teniopteris carvvutherst, Gleichema (?) lineata, Feanpaulia bidens, Ptilophyllum oligonerum, Brachyphyllum crassum (which the author thinks may be a variety of B.! manidare), Sequoutes australis, Walchia milneana, Cunninghamites australis. Besides these new species the following Indian or European fossils are new to Australia— Podozomites lanceolatus, Lindley and Hutton; Mevianopsis major, Feist ; Angioptertdium ensis, Oldham. The monograph is meant to be a complete reference for students on the subject of Australian coal fossils, and is illustrated by six plates of heliographs and two of lithographs. The author exhibited some of the Coal Fossils described in his paper, namely, Sphenopteris cvebva, Phyllotheca con- cinna, and Taxites media. Also a specimen of Sagenopteris rhotfolia, the second found in Australia, from the Oolitic plant beds, Darling Downs, Queensland. (2) “Further contributions to the Flora of Queensland,” by the Rev. B. Scortechini, F.L.S. This paper contains an account of plants collected by the author in the neighbourhood of Stan- thorpe, all ot which are new to the Flora of Queensland; one, a variety of Grevillia ilicifolia, which Baron v. Mueller was at first in- clined to consider a distinct species, and a new species of Bossiea, B. Scortechini, F. v. M. (3.) “ Descriptions of two new Fungi,” by the Rev. Carl Kalch- brenner. The species described are Polyporus pentzhei and Paxillus hivtulus, both from the Daintree River, Queensland. (4) “Notes on the Fructification of the Bunya Bunya in Sydney,” by the Hon. James Norton, M.L.C. The author observes that the fertilised seeds require at least eighteen months to come to perfection; and he further notes that Pinus insignis is now producing cones freely, which are fertile, although no male catkins have as yet, he believes, been produced. The ovules may probably have been fertilised by pollen from some allied species. (5) ‘* Description of some new Fishes from Port Jackson,” by E. P. Ramsay, F.L.S. In this paper Mr. Ramsay describes a — species of Sauvida (Saurida ferox), also new species of Genyoroge and — Percis. (6) The President read some ‘“ Notes on the Tuena Gold- — Reefs,” by M. F. Rate, Mining Engineer. The author gives a MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. A25 description of the workings and of the mode of occurrence of the gold and the rocks associated with it. He points out the impor- tance of relations between the eruptive and dyke rocks and mineral deposits. and calls attention to the rather unusual fact of the presence of calcite in quartz at the Lucky Hit Reef. Sydney, March 28th, 1883.—Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.L.S., Vice-president, in the chair. New. Members—J. H. Maiden, Hon. C. S. Mein, W. McKinny, T.’ Keele. Papers—(1) Occasional notes on plants indigenous in the immediate neighbourhood of Sydney, (No. 3) by Edwin Haviland. This paper refers chiefly to the genus Lobelia, its mode of fertiliza- tion, and its domestication. The author also took the opportunity of drawing the attention of botanists to a locality in the vicinity of Sydney, particularly rich in specimens of the coast flora. (2) **On tooth-marked bones of extinct Marsupials,” by Chas. W. de Vis, B.A. A large proportion of fossil marsupial bones from the Darling Downs, recently examined by Mr. de Vis, are considered by him to show more or less decided traces of the action of the teeth of carnivorous animals. ‘The tooth-marks are ascribed to the agency partly of the native dog, partly of the Thylacoleo, and partly of an extinct species of Savcophilus, which was identified by a portion of a tibia. (3) “On Brachalletes palmer,” an extinct Marsupial, by Chas. W.de Vis, B.A. A femur from the Darling Downs differs so markedly from that of Macropus and Halmaturus in the less pro- minent character of the great trochanter that it is considered to belong to a new generic type, proposed to be named Brachalletes. 4. On the habits of the ‘“‘ Mallee Hen” (Lezpoa ocellata) by K. H. Bennett. This gives an interesting and detailed account from the author’s own observation of the nidification and general habits of this very curious bird. Mr. Macleay exhibited a specimen of Dendyvolagus dovianus, a new species of Tree Kangaroo, from Mount Owen Stanley, New Guinea, described by Mr. E. P. Ramsay at the January meeting of the Society. He pointed out that the hair on the body all turned the wrong way. | Mr Macleay also exhibited some specimens of a Moth, with a fungus upon which their larve had fed. He statea that the larve were inhabitants of portable cases, like the rest of the Psychide, to which family they no doubt belong. The genusand species 4cinia scott? were described and figured by Walker Scott, M.A., in his beautiful but unfortunately uncompleted work entitled ‘‘ Austvalian Lepidoptera.” en PalLLOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. Christchurch, 1st March, 1883.—Professor F. W. Hutton, Presi- dent, in the chair. New member—Mr. L. Cohen. The evening was occupied with a discussion on the “ Small-bird question.” Mr. Murphy explained why introduced birds increased so rapidly in New Zealand, and why larger numbers can live on equal areas 426 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. here than in England. He thought that the bad effects of the small birds had been much exaggerated, pointed out the great use they were, and drew attention to several useful native birds, especially the Tern, or Sea-swallow. He thought, however, that something must be done to check the increase of the introduced birds; the present system of poisoning was altogether bad, as it killed all kinds. He advocated the introduction ofthe Kestrel. Mr. Ritson agreed with Mr. Murphy. He remembered when the caterpillars were so numerous as to eat the tussocks. Mr. Fereday thought that the farmers who abused the small birds had not formed their opinion on scientific principles, but merely by guessing. The opening up of the virgin ground, and the introduction of English plants enormously increased the num- bers of caterpillars. Now, however, moths and caterpillars, for- merly abundant, were becoming very rare; this, no doubt, was owing to the increase of the small birds. All newly-introduced animals increased largely at first, but this righted itself in time when the natural destructive forces were brought into play ; even now there seemed to be a decrease. The average yield of corn in Canterbury was not less now than formerly, and consequently there was no proof that the birds did any harm. Larks eat the tops of shooting corn, but he did not think they pulled them up; the corn was brought to the surface by the action of night frosts, and then the Larks got atit. Poisoning was exceedingly injurious; the game birds were often poisoned, and he had known eighteen or twenty dead rooks picked up in a day near Fendall-town. Rooks were very valuable birds, as they ate the cockchafer grub which destroyed the grass. Linnets eat wheat, but only for a short time in the year. Small birds were, however, very destruc- tive to fruit ; he could get none now of any kind. Mr. Webb pointed out that fruit was abundant at Akaroa, and many places near Christchurch, so that the birds did not destroy it altogether. Still he thought that some means were required for keeping them moderately in check; nothing could be worse than poisoning, The Acclimatisation Society did not introduce the Sparrow. Some were brought to Lyttleton in a ship, but the Society would not buythem. The captain sold them to someone, who turned them out at Kaiapoi. The Acclimatisation Society took great precautions before introducing anything. He thought that the farmers would bitterly regret the wholesale destruction of birds by poison. Mr. Chilton said that formerly caterpillars were extraordinarily numerous near Kaiapoi, and were very destructive. The farmers used to dig trenches to catch them. Also, before the introduction of Sparrows the pea-pods used to be full of caterpillars, and the peas destroyed ; now there were hardly any in the pea-pods. He did not think that the Sparrow was now increasing, probably it was decreasing in numbers. He had heard no complaints against the Sparrows this year from the farmers near Kaiapoi. Mr. Barkas pointed out that the farmers did not complain of the Sparrows, which had killed off the caterpillars, but of the Sky- lark. He thought that these birds did not eat insects, but pulled up the sprouting grain. Some farmers near Lincoln had had half their crops pulled up, others had been obliged to sow over again ; and the same was the case with mangold and grass. The Larks, MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 427 however, did much good in eating the seeds of the wire-weed. Poisoning kills more Sparrows and Finches than Larks, which eat very little grain. Mr. Murphy said that Larks could be easily netted, and formed good food. The President agreed that the birds did much more good than harm, but thought that natural checks to their increase should be introduced. The Hobby and the Merlin were the only hawks that would catch Larks, the former lived chiefly on them. The Kestrel ate field mice and grasshoppers, and occasionally birds, but would not do much good. All these three were long-winged falcons that lived in the open, and took their prey on the wing; they would not do any harm, as they never frequented trees or hedges, and were too small to kill game. They would not kill native birds or Sparrows that frequented trees. The natural enemy of the Spar- row was the Sparrow hawk, a short-winged hawk that hunted hedge and trees. These birds might occasionally kill a young chicken or duck, but would do far more good than harm. The native hawk was a harrier, that could catch neither Larks nor Sparrows ; it was quite useless as a check on the small birds. The Morepork was also useless for such a purpose. Mr Hogben pointed out the importance of observations, scien- tifically made, on the food of birds. Dr. Symes thought very important information had been elicited as to the bad effects of poisoning and the advantage of introducing hawks. He thought that the sparrow clubs encouraging egg taking had a bad effect on boys. Christchurch, 5th April, 1883.—Professor F. W. Hutton, Pre- sident, in the chair. New members—J. A. Newell and W. Ives. Papers—(r1) On the “Artesian Waters of Christchurch,” by Mr. G. Gray. He said that the subject might be considered under three heads—its quality, its source, and the extent of the supply and the conditions affecting the same. His own remarks would be mainly on the quality of the water. He had collected and analysed twelve samples of artesian water from different parts of town. The result was highly satisfactory. The waters stood high in quality when compared with Wanklyn’s scale, according to which waters of great organic purity were those yielding from ‘oo to ‘o5 parts albuminoid ammonia per million; 11 of the samples came under this category, and the other was what was classed as a safe water, containing ‘06 of albuminoid ammonia per million. The water was also shown to be of remarkable purity when tested by Professor Tidy’s scale for determining the oxygen required to oxidise the organic matter contained therein. The samples had also been tested for putrescent matter by being exposed in a closed bottle to a temperature of 80deg. Fahr. tor four days. Only one sample—which had been procured from the east side of the city— gave any indications ot such matter, and that only in a very slight degree. With one exception the samples were remarkably clear and free from sedimentary matter. The reaction of the water was slightly alkaline, and it appeared to be wellerated. As with most soit waters it possessed a corrosive action on the iron vipes. This 425 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. might be prevented by adopting a process invented by Dr. Angus Smith, chief inspector of alkali works in England, whose plan was to heat the newly cast main or pipe to about 5oodeg. Fahr., and then dip perpendicularly into a mixture of pitch and heavy coal oil, maintained at a temperature of about 430deg. Fahr. With regard to the mineral matter in the water, the amount of solids was very small, and these were of a perfectly harmless character. An animated discussion followed, during which it was elicited that the artesian basin appeared to extend from Leeston to Salt Water Creek, but that attempts to get water by this means at Templeton had proved failures. The water from the shallower wells in Christchurch, about goft. in depth, has a constant tem- perature of 55deg. Fahr., while the water from the lower stratum, 2ooft. deep, has a temperature of 57deg. Fahr. Mr. T. S. Lambert thought that the difference ot level to which the water rose in different wells was due in great measure to the relative porosity of the stratum from which the water was derived. He mentioned that the two wells sunk on the Exhibition ground, which were 7oft. deep, threw water to the height of 8ft. 6in. above the surface of the ground; and that the filling of the swimming bath at the Gloucester street school had, on one occasion, nearly dried up all the artesians within a radius of four chains. Dr. Symes thought that the water was too pure, it would be better if it-had more lime in it. ae The President drew attention to the intermittent flow of wells which only just ran over ; these flowed at night, and on days after holidays, when the majority of the surrounding wells would have been shut off. He contended that it was within the power of the people of Christchurch to conservetheir present magnificent supply of drinking water by simply not allowing it to run to waste, and he thought it would be well if the authorities were to compel them to do so. Mr. E. Dobson was of opinion that no private individual hada right to draw water at pleasure from a public reservoir like that lying below Christchurch. He explained a simple method by which waste water could be prevented, and at the same time the water could be used for extinguishing fires. Mr. Appleby said that the difficulty was to get the working classes who were ratepayers to vote for any improvement, no matter how important, that necessitated an increase in the rates. Christchurch, 3rd May, 1883. Professor F. W. Hutton, President, in the chair. New Members—R. M. Laing, W. P. Evans, and Dr. Bakewell. Papers—(1.) ‘“ On the economic limit to the use of reservoirs,” by E. Dobson, C.E. The author explained that in the water supply of towns a high-level ‘‘ Storage reservoir” received its supplies irregularly but gave out regularly, while a low-level ‘‘ Service reservoir” received regularly from the “ Storage reser- voir” by the ‘“‘ Storage main,” but gave out a variable supply by the ‘‘ Service main” according to the requirements of the town at different times of the day. If there were no service reservoir, the main from the storage reservoir. would have to be twice the dimensions of a storage main leading into a service reservoir, if the MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 429 supply was only for domestic purposes. But, if the extinction of fire was also contemplated, larger quantities of water would be suddenly required, and if a pressure of 72lbs. to the square inch had to be kept up for the use of hydrants, then the main from the storage reservoir would have to be at least six times the capacity of a storage main leading into a service reservoir. Of course the cost of the main depends largely on the gradients, but in all cases, the author thought, it would be more economical to obtain the necessary pressure by pumping trom a service reservoir than by getting it direct from a high level storage reservoir. If the water supply was below the level of the town, but a site for a high-level service reservoir was available, the water would have to be pumped either into the reservoir or directly into the main, in which latter case the power of the pumps must be quadrupled. Even here, pumping direct on Holly’s or some other system, would be more economical than into a reservoir. If the town were flat, so that a site tor a high-level service reservoir could not be obtained, then of course pumping direct into the main would be necessary. The author explained in detail the different methods of getting pressure by pumps, and concluded by saying that experience had fully shewn that pumping direct into the main was the most economical, and that the system of supplying water by gravitation was being universally abandoned. Dr. Symes thought that great ignorance prevailed in Christ- church on this question. The gravitation system from the Wai- makariri was understood, but Holly’s system was not understood. A water supply was very necessary, and if Holly’s system was understood no doubt it would be adopted. Mr. Maskell wished to know if the cost might not be much reduced if the supply was limited to domestic and street purposes, leaving to portable engines the extinguishing of fires as at present ? Mr. Lambert said that every scheme had been rejected by the ratepayers, and the City Council was not likely to bring another forward. He did not believe in bringing water from the Wai- makariri. Mr. Reece thought that Christchurch was most advantageously placed for having a cheap and excellent water supply. Hethought that the City Council must soon make another attempt to get one. The President thought Mr. Dobson’s plan an excellent one; the only question was whether the artesian supply from the lower stratum would prove adequate? No doubt it was so at present, but before long everyone would be sinking wells down to this level. He thought it would be necessary for the City Council to obtain control over the artesian water supply before it could be laid on for domestic purposes. But for drainage purposes and for extinguishing fires, the River Avon could be used at once, and the artesian water at some future time. Mr. Dobson in reply said that it the mains were laid and wells sunk first it would be sufficient for domestic purposes; pressure for putting out fires could be added afterwards. The artesian supply from the 200 feet level would be sufficient for the first, with a small pump for putting on a pressure when necessary to extinguish a fire. If it was tound that the water ran short during a fire, an ample supply could be got from the Avon, and by mechanical arrangements, which he explained, the Avon water could be pre- 430 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, vented from going into the houses. In a few hours after the fire was over the mains would be entirely emptied of Avon water. (2) “On a new Rosaceous plant,” by Mr. R. Brown; com- municated by Professor F. W. Hutton. Acena huttom.—Radical leaves 5 to 8 inches long, the upper surface smooth, the petioles and midrib woolly, veinlets with a few hairs on the under side; peduncles leafy to near the apex; calyx-tube four angled, the angles produced into wings, each face deeply wrinkled ; achenes two, pale and long; stigma fimbriated ; stamens 2 to 8. Habitat.—Canterbury Plains, near the River Ashburton. (3) “On the occurrence of Botrychium lunaria in New Zealand,” by Mr. J.D. Enys. For an account of this see N.Z. Fowrnal of Science, p. 335. (4) ** Description of New Zealand Micro-lepidoptera,”* by G. E. Meyrick. NEW SPECIES OF CURCULIONID&. BY CAPT. T. BROUN, M.ES. (Read before the Auckland Institute, Sept. 6th, 1881.) BRACHYDERID. 1412: Catoptes attenuatus, n.sp.—Piceous, covered with yellow- ish grey scales and decumbent pallid sete; tibie, tarsi and antennee rufescent. Rostyum normal, sub-carinate. Antenne pilose, 2nd joint of funiculus of the same length as the Ist. Pvothovax about as long as broad, obtusely rounded towards the front, nearly straight behind the middle, moderately convex, its punctation concealed by the squamosity. Elytva very elongate and rather narrow, cordiform, sub-striate-punctate, most obviously striated behind, the 3rd and 5th interstices obsoletely elevated behind, the suture raised apically. Legs scaly and hispid. An obscurely coloured insect, usually covered with scale-like matter ; narrower than C. obliquis, with much longer and narrower elytra gradually attenuated from the obliquely rounded shoulders, and without the peculiar oblique appearance of the posterior declivity. Length, rost. included, 3% ; breadth, 136 line. I have two examples from “ The Brothers,” where they were found by Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager. RHYPAROSOMID. Pachyprypnus, n.gen.—Rostvum moderately elongate, arched, sub- parallel, slightly narrowed towards the middle ; scvoves shallow, ex- tending to the upper part of the eye,the point of antennal insertion 7, Our abstract of this paper is unavoidably held over. NEW. SPECIES OF CURCULIONIDA. A2t foveiform. Zyes small, distant from thorax, most elevated behind, oviform, coarsely facetted. Antenne moderate ; scape clavate at apex, attaining the hind part of the eye; funiculus 7-articulate, the two basal joints elongate and nearly equal, 3rd shortest, joints 4-7 increase ; club short and compact. Pvothovax oblong, base and apex sub-truncate, without ocular lobes. Scwutellum invisible. Elytva ovate, widest behind, incurved at base, with porrected humeral angles, closely applied to the thorax. Legs not elongate, stout ; femora clavate ; tibie flexuose, mucronate at the extremity ; tavsi with transversal basal joints, the penultimate superficially excavated for the insertion of the terminal joint. Anterior coxe prominent, contiguous. Metastevnum short. The two basal seg- ments of the abdomen large, the suture obliquely sinuated, 3rd and 4th excessively short. Body pyriform. Allied to Phrynixus, but with the rostrum sub-parallel, or dilated towards the base ; the antennal insertion is foveiform, but shallow scrobes proceed backwards; the elytral base is marginated. 1413. Pachyprypnus pyviformis, n.sp.—Piceous,a little glossy, pear- shaped, uneven, the legs and elevated parts clothed with elongate yellow scales, tarsi and antennz obscure red. Rostvum longer than thorax, longitudinally carinate, not smooth, slightly dilated at base and apex. Head minutely and distantly punctured with a distinct inter-ocular punctiform im- pression. Prothovax longer than broad, oviform, narrower in front than behind, uneven, having two elongate frontal depressions separated by a smooth costa, an ante-scutellar depression, and many small rounded elevations. Elyiva widest in line with the summit of the hind slope, their front angles embracing the thorax; striate-punctate, the dorsal punctures large, the apical small and placed in fine but distinct strie; the third interstices almost carinate ; four or five crested elevations appear on each elytron behind the posterior femora. Antenne inserted near the middle of the beak. Length (rost. excl.), 3; breadth, 13 lines. To this genus belongs No. 762, which must be removed from Phrynixus so as to stand as Pachyprypnus longiusculus ; it differs from the present species in having the rostrum very perceptibly . thickened towards the eyes, &c. I found my specimen at Parua. HIPPORHINID. Phaeophanus, n.gen.—Rostrum moderately long, robust, slightly arched, gradually dilated anteriorly, triangularly grooved at apex, compressed laterally, broadly but not deeply grooved above ; its scvobes apical, not linear, oblique, becoming obsolete and con- vergent below. Scape not quite reaching the eye, flexuose, thickened at the extremity ; fumculus 7-articulate, two first joints equal, 3-7 obconical ; ub ovate, tri-articulate. Eyes depressed, 432 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. facetted, truncate in front, transverse, lateral. Pycthovae longer than broad, somewhat narrowed behind, base sub-truncate, with distinct ocular lobes. Scwtellum minute. Elytra oviform. slightly tri-sinuated at base, where they scarcely exceed the thorax in breadth. Femora clavate beyond the middle; tbie flexuous, with- out hooks, sub-mucronate and concave at the apex; tavsi with brush-like soles, their two basal joints obconical, penultimate bi-lobed, claws simple, divergent. Abdomen with two large basal segments, having their suture sinuous, 3rd and 4th very short. Body moderately convex, sub-ovate, with minute scales. A form near Inophleus, with the apex of the rostrum more expanded below the antennal insertion, the scrobes much more oblique, and the extremity of the tibize less produced, &c. 1414. Pheophanus vugosus, n.sp.—Opaque, pitchy-black, tarsi and antenne rufo-piceous, sparingly clothed with minute, obscure testaceous scales ; sub-ovate, moderately convex. Rostrum as long as thorax, broadly but not deeply hollowed above, closely and very minutely punctated, with some coarser punctures disposed in rows. Pvothovax sub-cylindrical but not narrow, widest before the middle and a little narrowed pos- teriorly ; nearly plane but rather uneven above, with a frontal and two obtuse dorsal elevations, a few minute granules, and entirely covered with very dense but excessively fine punctures, Scutellum triangular. Elytva ovate, with nearly vertical sides, a little convex, gradually deflexed apically ; their sculpture more or less rugose, they bear some small granules near the base, are irregularly punctured, with indications of striz, there are two callosities behind, and many smaller ones on the sides, Antenne with a few straw-coloured hairs, the two basal joints of the funicle longest, joints 3-7 longer than broad, obconical. Underside obscure black, apparently almost nude and impunctate. Legs and tarsi hispid. The body usually covered with a fusco-testaceous scaly deposit. Length (rost. excl.), 534 ; breadth, 2% lines. Two specimens have been transmitted from “The Brothers ” (Cook’s Straits), by Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager. CYLINDRORHINID&. 1415. Empaotes amotus, n.sp.—Sub-ovate, broadest near pos- terior femora, rather plane; piceous, covered with depressed, variegated, but chiefly grayish, scales and decumbent sete; funiculus and tarsi red. Rostrum short, indistinctly carinated, densely squamose. -Pro- — thovaz slightly longer than broad, sub-cylindrical, uneven, punc- tate, not tuberculate. lytva rather short and broad, nearly vertical behind, uneven, with four callosities behind the posterior ~ femora, and two robust protuberant processes directed backwards, on nearly the same level as the disc, on the summit of the posterior declivity; apices not projecting. Legs squamose. Scape scaly ; funicle pilose, its 2nd joint quite as long as the Ist. NEW SPECIES OF CURCULIONID&. 433 The apical protuberances distinguish this species from all but E. aculeatus, but that insect is much smaller and otherwise dis- similar. The elytra are irregularly sub-striate-punctate. Length (rost. included), 334 ; breadth, 15% line, My specimen was taken off foliage on the Waitakerei Range, near Auckland. HVLOBIIDA. 1416. Eivatus costatus, n.sp.—Sub-oblong, sub-depressed, dull pitchy-black, the apex of the thorax, tarsi and antennz (save the blackish club) rufescent. Rostrum stout, as long as thorax, punctate. Pvothovax longer than broad, rather narrow, narrowed anteriorly, coarsely, closely and rugosely punctured. Scwutellum minute. £lytva oblong, much broader than thorax at the base, rather abruptly narrowed and declivous behind, bi-sinuated at base; coarsely punctate- striate, the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 6th interstices carinated, the 2nd continuous, 3rd and 4th interrupted, 3rd least distinct. Antenne pubescent, basal joint of funiculus robust, club large. There is scarcely any pubescence, but on some parts a scaly deposit is apparent. The insect may be easily recognised by its costate elytra, and rather narrow, sub-conical thorax. Length (rost. incl.), 1144 ; breadth, 3 line. I found one at Parua. ERIRHINIDA. Heterotyles, gen. nov.—Rostvum moderately elongate, arched’ apex rounded, its anterior half nearly cylindric, slightly and gradually narrowed medially, but expanded at the antenna insertion (the middle), of nearly equal thickness behind ; scvobes oblique, reaching the lower part of the eyes. Antenne elongate ; scape attaining the thorax, straight, a little incrassated at its extremity ; funiculus 7-articulate, the two basal joints elongate, cylindrical, the 2nd the longer, joints 3-7 decrease in length, sub-obconical ; club elongate-oval, 4-jointed. - Head rounded. Hyes free, distant above, oblique ovate, not coarsely facetted, sub-depressed. Pvothovax convex, about as long as broad, oviform, base and apex truncate, with distinct ocular lobes. Scutellum sub-quadrate. Hlytva twice as long as thorax, wider than it at the base, humeral angles oblique, sides nearly vertical, narrowed posteriorly. Legs long, femora clavate; tbiew flexuose, mucron- ate, without hooks, sub-cavernose at apex; tavst with dense brush-like soles, two basal joints triangular, penultimate ob- viously bi-lobed, claws simple. Anterior cove globose, prominent, contiguous ; intermediate not widely separated. Metasteynum moderate. The two basal segments of abdomen large, with arcuated sutures. Body squamose. The snout is remarkable ; widely dilated and deeply hollowed at the middle for the inser- tion of the antennez, at that point approaching Otiorhynchus in appearance, the scrobes, therefore, are visible from above for nearly half their length. 434 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 1417. Hetevotyles argentatus, n.sp.—Piceous, legs and antennze pitchy-red ; covered with depressed, oval, whitish and pallid scales, ; Rostrum nude and nearly smooth in front, slightly widened at the end, its basal half squamose. Pyvothoraz convex, its length and breadth about equal, rounded laterally, almost constricted in front; punctured rather coarsely and closely. Elytva broader than thorax, shoulders oblique, sides nearly straight, contracted and declivous behind, nearly plane above; each elytron with three more or less obvious coste, the intermediate ceasing at, the others before, the posterior declivity, with two rows-of coarse and distant punctures on the interstices; the scales are of a silvery hue, except along the suture and elevated parts where they are intermingled with a few coarse bristles and of a pallid colour. Legs covered with scales and sete. Antenne reaching backwards beyond the base of the elytra, hirsute, their 2nd joint twice as long as the 3rd, the latter shorter than the Ist. Under- side punctate and squamose, in colouration resembling the upper- surface. Length, 3% -33{ (rost. excl.) ; breadth, 14-134 line. I captured my three specimens on the Waitakerei Range. 1418. Dovrytomus aevicomus, n.sp. — Elliptical, elongate-oval, slightly convex ; flavo-testaceous, most of the thorax, and, on the elytra, a large tri-lobed basal spot, an irregular, interrupted median fascia, a lateral stripe and sub-apical spot, nigro-fuscous ; scape and tarsi testaceous red, beak and funiculus infuscate-red ; clothed with decumbent brassy hairs. Rostrum moderately elongate, arched, parallel, quadri-sulcate. Head punctate, densely covered with yellow hairs ; eyes somewhat prominent, distinctly facetted. Antenne elongate, scape slender and gradually thickened ; funiculus with fuscous hairs, basal joint largest, much incrassated towards the extremity, 2nd. sub- cylindric, shorter than 3rd and 4th conjointly, these latter equal, longer than broad, joints 5-7 decrease in length, the last trans- verse; club oblong-oval, pubescent. Prothovax transversal, rounded laterally, narrower in front than behind ; not closely nor coarsely punctured, its clothing disposed across the surface. Scutellum small, blackish. Elytva nearly thrice the length of the thorax, a good deal broader than it at the base, humeral angles oblique; they taper gradually towards the apices, are striate-punctate, the interstices plane and minutely punctulated, the 4th and 7th unite before the apices, and at their junction appear somewhat elevated, just where the dark apical spots bend towards the sides; their hairs arranged lengthways. Legs stout; temora dilated and angulated, dentate, so as to appear deeply notched at the extremity ; tibize flexuous. Most nearly related to D. sudus, the snout rather shorter and stouter, the eyes rather more distant from the thorax, the latter broader and more rounded, and the elytra more attenuated posteriorly. NEW SPECIES OF CURCULIONIDA. 435 Length (rost. excl.), 114 ; breadth, % line. My specimen was found at Northcote (Waitemata Harbour). Cenophanus,n.gen.-- Rostvum moderate, sub-cylindrical, arcuated, slightly expanded in front ; scvobes sub-apical, oblique. Antenne moderate, implanted near the apex ; scafe flexuose, gradually in- crassated ; funiculus 7-articulate, two first joints elongate, equal, joints 3-7 obconical, decreasing in length ; club elongate-oval, 3- jointed. Eyes distant from thorax and one another, longitudinally oval, distinctly facetted, prominent. Pvothovaxz sub-conical, small, constricted anteriorly, base and apex truncate, rounded laterally. Scutellum minute, oblong. lytva oviform, thrice the length of, and broader than, the thorax at the base. JZegs stout; anterior femora so clavate as to appear notched at the extremity; the thickening of the intermediate ending acutely, yet not quite dentate ; the posterior laterally compressed and strongly and acutely protuberant below ; tibie stout, flexuous, the hind pair considerably ridged longitudinally, and cavernose at the ex- tremity ; ¢avsi rather broad, their two basal joints triangular, the penultimate expanded and truly bi-lobed, being cleft to the base. Related to Hugnomus, but the eyes, tibize, and hind-body pre- sent disparities of structure ; the latter is far more elongate and narrowed towards the front. No. 820 should be located at the end of the Eugnomii, so as to become known as Hugnomus squamosus, and to form a connecting link between that genus and Cenophanus; ultimately it may be made the type of a new genus. 1419. Cenophanus flavipilus, n.sp.—Elongate, elliptical, slightly convex; a little glossy, chestnut-red, legs and antenne red, clothed with yellow hairs. Rostvum punctate, indistinctly tri-carinate, apex blackish. Head punctate, dilated behind. Pvrothovax about as long as broad, contracted in front, its sides rounded; closely punctured, with a few elongate scales at base. Flytva truncate at, and narrowed towards, the base, humeral angles oblique, widest behind the middle, not greatly attenuated behind, elongate-oval ; punctate- striate, interstices as broad as the punctures; their clothing rather dense, consisting of fine and coarse hairs, the latter not very numerous and seeming to form lines on the interstices. Legs robust, pilose. Mength (fost. incl.),:3; breadth; 1 line. The only specimen I have seen was taken by Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, on Mount Arthur. SCOLOPTERIDA. 1420. Ancistropterus prasinus, n.sp.—Elongate; head and thorax obscurely coloured, the latter greenish, elytra and most of the legs green, tarsi and antennz rufo-testaceous, club infuscate. Rostrum cylindrical, sparingly clothed with yellow hairs, punctated. Head punctate, clothed like the beak, twice as broad 436 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. as the latter ; eyes large and prominent. Pvothorvax conical, about as long as broad, its punctation coarse but rather shallow and distant, densely covered with golden-coloured scales and hairs, those near the sides more scattered and darker. Scutellum oblong, nearly smooth. Elytva sub-triangular, elongate, twice as broad as thorax at the base, shoulders obliquely rounded, pro- minent, not hooked ; they are striate-punctate, and each bears a laterally compressed acute tubercular elevation in line with the hind thighs, and another, more protuberant one, near the apex ; they are sparingly clothed with fine golden-yellow hairs, and, on each elytron, with three patches of depressed yellow scales, the largest between the spiniform elevations, the smallest near the scutellum. Antenne elongate, scape slender, clavate at the extremity, with fuscous hairs; funiculus similarly clothed, 2nd joint elongate, cylindric, about as long as 3rd and 4th con- jointly ; club elongate oval, 3-jointed, pubescent. Legs long and | stout ; posterior femora greatly produced and dentate below ; tibie of the same pair strongly arcuated. Differs from the typical species in having a broader head, and, consequently, more widely separated eyes, in the humeral angles not being spiniform, in the presence of four elytral tubercles above, and in the structure of the hind legs; these latter resemble those of A. pilosus. Length, 244 -2% (rost. incl.) ; breadth, 34-1 line. I detected four individuals of this charming weevil on Panax anomalum on the Waitakerei Range. CRYPTORHYNCHIDZ. 1421. Acalles griseus, n.sp.— Ovate, moderately convex; piceous, beak shining pitchy red; clothing dense, consisting of depressed griseous and fuscous scales and setule. Rostyum stout, as long as thorax, smooth on the middle, with fine elongate punctures on the sides, and scales behind. Prothovax as long as broad, contracted in front, its sides obtusely rounded, base feebly sinuated, coarsely and closely punctated. Scutellum distinct, squamose. lytva but little broader than thorax at the base, humeral angles oblique, sides sub-parallel, narrowed behind the posterior femora ; on nearly the’same plane as the thorax, seemingly striate-punctate, the interstices more or less ridged, the middle one of each most elevated behind ; the fuscous scales — form small irregular spots. Antenne shining, scape half the length of the funiculus, the two basal joints of the latter elongate and nearly equal ; they are implanted just behind the middle of the snout. Legs robust, covered with scales and setule. Resembles A. intutus; the rostral punctation is finer and more distant, the elytra slope more gradually behind and are less obviously punctured, and the insect is a good deal larger. Length (rost. excl.), 2 ; breadth, 1 line. I found my unique example some years ago near Auckland. 1422. Acalles diversus, n.sp.—Broad, sub-ovate, moderately 3 NEW SPECIES OF CURCULIONID. 437 convex, squamose, variegate, dark red, antennez and tarsi ferruginous. Rostrum moderately long and stout, a little thickened behind, its sculpture consisting of longitudinal grooves, and punctures near the apex, with some yellowish scales behind. yes longi- tudinally oval, depressed, coarsely facetted. Head globular, sunk up to the eyes. Antenne moderate, shining ; scape flexuose, clavate at the extremity ; funiculus pubescent, Ist joint large and stout, 2nd longer than 3rd, joints 3-7 decrease in length but be- come more transversal; club ovate. Pvothovax about as long as broad, sub-conical, closely punctured, with round, flat, whitish scales on the middle, and erect pale brown sete elsewhere. Scutellum invisible. Elytva short and broad, broader than thorax but not much exceeding its breadth at the base, rounded laterally, deflexed behind; coarsely striate-punctate, without superficial irregularities ; the depressed whitish scales form four spots, two elongate near the scutellum, and one near the middle of each side, pale brown depressed and erect scales cover most of their surface. Legs stout, densely covered with erect pallid sete. In general appearance like A. canescens, the elytra, however, are of much more rounded outline, and the colour and squamosity are essentially different. Length (rost. excl.), 1 line ; breadth, quite fa: I found one at Parua. 1423. Acalles ap ulotas, n.sp.—Sub-ovate, narrowed and a little depressed medially, moderately convex; densely clothed with depressed testaceous and dark-coloured scales, and erect, variegate, elongate, hair-like sete; red, tarsi and antennz ful- vous, “the club of the latter blackish. Rostrum moderate, shining, longitudinally eraaeiner Antenne short, glossy, nearly nude; scape gradually incrassated ; funi- culus nearly twice as long as scape, Ist joint large, 2nd hardly the length of the following two united, joints 3-7 decrease in length; club large, opaque, pubescent. Prothovax large, longer - than broad, but little rounded laterally, transversely convex, gra- dually narrowed and produced anteriorly ; coarsely punctated, the testaceous, sometimes fulvous, scales predominate, but with- out forming distinct marks, the upright hairs are fuscous. Hlytva obovate, not much longer but broader than thorax ; str ate- punctate, the fulvous or testaceous scales are scattered over the surface, but generally form an obvious band in line with the hind thighs, on the band the erect sete are usually all white, the darker ones prevail elsewhere. Legs stout, clothed with upstand- ing pallid sete. Underside pitchy-red, setigerous ; the basal seg- ments of the abdomen with large punctures. Shorter and relatively broader than A. hystviculus and A. trino- tatus and much more contracted medially; more nearly resembles A. vubricus ; not like any other known species. The most brightly coloured example has been selected as the type. Length (rost. excl.), 74-1 ; breadth, 3 line. 438 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. About half a dozen individuals have been See a from Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager of Wellington. 1424. Acalles sentus, n.sp.—Convex, sub-ovate, medially nar- rowed and depressed, rough ; clothed with pale brown scales and erect hair-like sete ; dark red, tarsi and antennz testaceous-red, club pitchy-red. Rostrum moderate, nude and linearly punctate in front, squamose behind. Head immersed totheeyes. Prothovax longer than broad, sub-ovate, its anterior portion depressed and narrower than the base; except an ill-defined dorsal line, coarsely punctured ; the squamosity more congregated on each side of the middle than elsewhere; it is produced anteriorly. Elytra of the same width as the thorax at the base, which is emarginated at the middle, they are considerably rounded laterally and widest near the middle; their surface uneven, having rows of coarse punctures, and six squamose elevations near each side of the sutural region, which, consequently, seems depressed. Legs robust, setose. Antenne normal, inserted at the middle. Not unlike A. cingulatus in contour; the elytra are more angularly rounded laterally and narrower at the base, and the whole insect is darker and of rougher aspect. Length (rost. excl.), 1 ; breadth, % line. My two specimens are from Wellington, where they were found by Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager. Nos. 1290, 1291, and 1292, might with advantage be removed from Dolichoscelis and with the present, as well as one or two other species, be included under a distinct genericname. I have, however, seen but few examples, and, though homogenous, they do not discover any well-marked structural characters to warrant the creation of a new genus. 1425. Acalles lativostris, n.sp.—Elliptical, very convex ; variegate, antenne and tarsi reddish. Rostrum as long as thorax, broad, dilated anteriorly, smooth along the middle, punctated elsewhere, pitchy-red, squamose behind. Pvothovaz as long as broad, not greatly narrowed in front, rather flat above ; covered with depressed scales, greenish in front, fuscous near the base and sides, grayish ones prevail on two basal lines, whilst erect blackish ones form two inconspicuous dorsal crests ; its sculpture is quite invisible. ZHlytva but little wider than thorax at the base, gradually narrowed from behind the oblique shoulders, almost triangularly obovate, disc a good deal elevated, hind slope abrupt ; their sculpture completely concealed ; squamosity dense ; flat pitchy scales cover a great part of their surface, there are ‘a few pale brown ones near the shoulders, some gray ones near the base and sides, the posterior — declivity is covered with fusco-testaceous scales, and erect similarly coloured ones form two crests on its summit. Legs stout, somewhat rufescent, clothed with upright gray scales. NEW SPECIES OF CURCULIONID&. 439 Antenne stout, of the orthodox pattern, arising fom the middle of the beak. In some respects resembles a small and narrow P . % - : ’ £ Z * +o , he “a i f Deed oak a2 Er) ( 3 ae [No. 10, Vol. I. 7 3 Se ier aia Die Mins te Tera ad Fullicio perpende : et st tibi vera Diggin Dede manus : aut st falsum est, eae, contra. a wake Pt aa Tah) PEE OE ny \ Soa rap aL “CONTENTS : | 1 hells of < « Chelsie? E xpedition (Continued) ak oy Si ES mong the New Zealand Glaciers. By Rev. Ws Si GREEN f ee 443 from Artificially Impregnated Eggs. J. A.RYDER... pd PASS Sean Valley, West Carers of Otago: H. E. Witmor it Yee rs Aca ea Fishes—A Maori Rat at Guymnaty Thistles and their uses—Sexua differen- es in- Spiders—Transactions of New Zealand Institute—New Zealand , Diamonds—Veronica Derwentie—Dixon’ 's Patent Gas. tie ae ‘A eee eee vee el eee see : eee ‘ ei ooo 474 c Institute of Canterbury—Otago eum Auckiaid inaiate Soutiland Institute—Royal | "of New South Wales -Tangeat pets of New South W ee: ft unin, BE. Ret $ a WILKIE & 00, PUBLISHERS, PRINCES STREET. 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SS eG AF f bn =o RE aie el ap SO ee one aes ery oe. eee Eee Fea z oe Pa Re ‘i ‘4 € “ge Fe are = eg ti a er ae r on a Sang cok % eh, eer et ony Ae SR Ag oS Pe aT SNE ay to Ase Dy Peat Ce mr eI see arb > i aT PEK sere es eT EON rg Nae = OGRE AT NIE ee a et an eee ee cnet te he cease Sis po Se Se ney 2 Soe ae se Big oe at ln Les Cee ayer Se RO a te ign ee a ak AS MSE 1B IDS Rie ee AF ot oe lp tery Sie EP ~~ 2 oc com : ~ . : ? - 4 : ie = a . _ “ - Gl ES BRR Ee 4 OE OE BE BR OR. ig Or et er ee ee cad amp Steamed > = eet Sea orem Spas S 76. : = 2 i - e -- on. 4 ‘oo , 2 ee ae oe Sic’ Sag > Ft el FO eee er pert a ator ES ep POA |, deren te ati i ee y y ¥ = an Sel vay ag eS : Pattee meena” Ameo: # nes .™ = ” ee - = “ re , , x —_ _ VOT eee TRE a . | ‘ * eT ded, ead - —" Eth ee pe oY we: ‘ 2 J . mon ee tg FONT > et, Cee a eee Lge. SR SUA tater LEED, SMES TRE pe le Le ak, mee ee? we +, “ a ee es ee WES SE een ee vent. aa - er em ote a ee ats +e fe ats Fe eer. be ape pe! REI rr eee Se! ES A eee BO ah ie ahs “ a a a wee ot hie ee te ene ant kate — : — _ « a Z " a oa a . Seas < e* . . te ” i : te A r : y e « oe 2 oe ——.. Ine } We ; ~ 7 ‘ ice ene ; me nin apse be ams $ ~ te eae og pi G ae “eo yee ee = 4" «J ee oh ame 3 « a re POP all piveo™® pe, ~~ a ~ ile to sh-+ Rm = Lp 1 appa we 4 oxag* Ors RA nd: helt rile. Aen ees Oe mea AE ein oe io ~ — . > en oe - pe Sg MR a ate - ys een SA i yen L rok ~ ~ * SF fet» $s £ : wy hae’ we ~ r ss > eae gy - mn ate alll, ? ‘$e SQe4 = oF - a ee part oa o = “4 ; : f = oh i °5 4 ‘ f The Publishers beg to acknowledge receipt of the following sub- scriptions tothe New Zealand Journal of Science.— Adams, C. W., Christchurch, 1882 Auckland Museum, Auckland, 1882 and 1883 Arnold, T. P., Christchurea, 1882 and 1883 Arthur, W., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Batchelor, Dr., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Bannerman, Rev. W., Puerua, 1882 Bishop Cowie, Auckland, 1882 and 1883 Bold, E. H. C., Napier, 1882 Bright, C., Wellington, 1882 and 1883 Bullen, W. G., Wellington, 1882 Balfour, D. G., Puketapi, 1882 and 1883 Binstield, Rev. T. N., Rangiora, 1882 and 1883 Bennett, Dr. G., Sydney, 1882 and 1883 Baines, A. C., Upper Ricearton, 1882 and 1883 Barron, W., Waikaka, 1882 Brazier, J., Sydney, 1882 Buchanan, J., Wellington, 1882 and 1883 Chapman, R., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Calder,R., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Chilton, C., Christchurch, 1882 and 1883 Caffin, J., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Chalmers, Th., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Cheeseman, T. F., Auckland, 1882 and 1883 Chapman, F. R., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Deighton, Bell & Co., Cambridge, 1882 Drabble, F., Ermedale, Groper’s Bush, 1882 De Latour, Dr., Oamaru, 1882 Dunedin Athenzum, Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Fulton, F. G., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Fulton, S. W., Outram, 1882 and 1883 Fereday, R. W., Christchurch, 1882 Field, H. C., Wanganui, 1882 and 1883 Galbraith, J. M. D., Invercargill, 1882 and 1883 (Joyen, P., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Gully, J. C., Nelson, 1882 Howorth, H., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Holworthy, F. W., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Haggen, E. A., Wanganui, 1882 and 1883 Haast, J., Christchurch, 1882 Henley, J. W., Wellington, 1882 and 1883 Hamilton, A., Napier, 1882 and 1883 Hocken, Dr., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Hutton, P. W., Timaru, 1882, and 1883 Hendry, James, Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Hutton, F, W., Christchurch, 1882 and 1883 Hogben, J. Christchurch, 1882 Helms, Rd. Greymouth, 1882 and 1883 sant Wm. A., Sydney, 1832 and James, H. L., Auckland, 1882 and 1883 Johnson, J. R.Wellington, 1882 Joachim, G., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Ivey, W. E., Lincoln, 1882 Inglis, J., Christchurch 1882 and 1883 Kirk, H. B. Wellington, 1882 Linnean Society, Sydney, 1882 and 1883 Laing, W., Lyttelton, 1882 and 1883 Montgomery, A., Dunedin, 1882 an 1883 Mair R., Whangarei, 1882 Miller, M. R., Napier, 1882 Mayd, G. Dr., Adelaide, 1882 Milne, W. Caversham, 1882 and 1883 Meyrick, E., Christchurch 1882 and 1883 Maskell, W. M., ChristcLurch, 1882 McKerrow, J., Wellington, 1882 and 1882 McLeay, W., Sydney, 1882 and 1883 McCormic, J. C., Auckland, 1882 . McWilliam, J. Rev., Wellington 1882 and 1883 McGillivary, P. S., Victoria, 1882 and 1883 Nevill, Bishop, Dunedin, 1882 Morrison, A. R., Wellington, 1882 Otago Institute, Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Petrie, D., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Pond, J. A., Auckland, 1882 and 1883 Peattie, R., Oamaru, 1882 Parker, Prof. Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Querini, J. H., Glenomaru, 1882 and 1883 Royal Society, Sydney, 1882 and 1883 Rearden, J. A., Hawke’s Bay, 1882 Rigby, W. C., Adelaide, 1882 and 1883 Sammon, E. P., Hokitika, 1882 and and 1883 Sturm, F. W.C., Napier, 1882 Scannel, D., Taupo, 1882 and 1883 Spencer, Dr., Napier, 1882 and 1883 Taylor, W., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Ulrich, Prof., Dunedin, 1882 and 1883 Urquhart, A. F., Manukau, 1882 and 1883 Williams and Norgate, London, 1882 and 1883 Wakelin, T. B. A., Wellington, 1882 and 1883 Weetman, S., Auckland, 1882 and 1883 Williams, J. N., Hastings, 1882 Webster, J., Hokianga, 1882 Winkleman, ©. P., Napier, 1882 White, H. C., Waimate, 1882 Young, Dr. J., Riverton, 1882 and 1883 NEW ZEALAND GLACIERS. 443 very prominent but barely angulated at the point of the base in ad- vance of the pillar ; the canal is shallow and open, witha very re- verted funnel-edge. Inner-lip concave, with a thick, narrow, defined labial pad, running down the very short pillar, whose point is sharp and expanded but not flanged. Oferculum plain-edged, small, triangular, slightly subspiral, having its apex terminal and bent in towards the left. H.057, B. 033. Penultimate whorl, height o'14. Mouth, height 0:25, breadth 0.2. Closely allied to N. Woodwardi, Forbes, but quite distinct. Buccinum spinulosum, Phil. seems to have many points of resemblance, but judging from the description and figure, the ribs and spirals are much stronger, and the mouth is pointed above, and is longer below N. ephanulla having a broader and more truncate base. A JOURNEY AMONG THE NEW ZEALAND GUACTERS. Seer ek: ee BY REV. W. S. GREEN, M.A. > Read before the Royal Irish Academy, June 26th, 1882. The whole of New Zealand consists of a line of upheaved stratified rocks, modified in the northern portion by recent vol- canic activity, and in one or two other places showing traces of mere ancient vulcanicity. Theaxis of elevation runs from S.W. to N.E., and is cut across ‘into the North Island, South Island, and Stewart’s Island, by Cook’s and Foveaux’ Straits. In the South Island the mountains attain to their greatest elevation, and for over one hundred miles the Southern Alps, as they were named by Captain Cook, raise their peaks far above the snow line, in no place for the whole of that distance descending to a col or pass free from eternal snow and ice. Immense glaciers fill the valleys, and the remains of still more gigantic glaciers are everywhere to be met with. This chain, with its continuation north and south, seems to | have been upheaved in Jurassic times, and though it has ex- perienced many vicissitudes of upheaval and depression, it has never since, according to Professor Hutton, been submerged. These mountains are then of vastly greater antiquity than their European rivals, and their long exposure to the frosts and storms of ages is abundantly evidenced by the heaps of loose splintered stones to which all except the higher peaks have been reduced. ~The mountains lie close to the west coast; their western flanks possess a humid climate (the rain-fal? at Hokitika being measured at 118 inches), and are clothed with forest and impene- trable scrub. The western glaciers in some places descend to within 670 feet of the sea, and the rivers are short and swift. This low descent of the glaciers and the mean line of perpetual snow being at about 5000 feet, compared with 8000 in Switzerland, where also A44 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. no glacier descends to within 4000 feet of the sea, is particularly in- structive, when we consider that these Southern Alps are at about the same distance from the Equator as the Pyrenees and the city of Florence. To the east of the mountains the land drops suddenly to a level of about 2000 feet above the sea, and then by gentle slopes and immense flat bare plains sinks gradu- ally to the coast. The continuity of the plains is broken by ridges of low rounded hills, which on close examination often prove to be old moraine accumulations ; while many of the plains are the basins of ancient lakes, the old shores being very sharply defined. Inthe southern and northern portions of the South Island the arrangement of mountains and plains is considerably modified by the splitting up and bifurcation of the main axis of elevation, but flat plains extending to the very foot of the highest peaks of the main chain are most characteristic of New Zealand, and totally unlike other mountainous countries, where ranges of foot-hills have to be ascended and upland valleys traversed before the higher ranges can be reached. In the province of Canterbury, where the mountains attain their greatest height in Mount Cook, or Ao-Rangi as it is called in the Maori tongue, - these features are most distinctly observable, the Canterbury plains followed by the Mackenzie plains extending up to the very ice, and so flat that Dr Haast said he would undertake to drive a buggy the whole way from Christchurch to the foot of the Tasman glaciers. We tried it with an express wagon and three horses, and nearly accomplished it. The country was level enough, but the boulders as we drew near tothe glaciers proved a little too much for a wheeled vehicle, and,our waggon ended its days by being capsized in the Tasman river. These New Zealand rivers have been a source of much difficulty to colonial development. They are so swift and erratic in their courses that fords are dangerous and bridges difficult to construct. Once the rivers leave the mountains there is nothing to keep them to one channel, as the plains, nore. com- posed of loose boulders and sand, are easily eaten away by the swift streams swelled in summer by the melting of thesnow. A river bed is therefore a broad sheet of gravel through which a number of small streams wander and change day by day—what was a main channel one day being quite a secondary stream in the lapse of a week or so. Much time was often spent in crossing one river, with the delays of searching for fords; but now that railways run north and south the problem has been solved on the most important route by bridges, some nearly a mile in length. In the province of Otago rich woods extend right across the island to the east coast, giving place in many districts, how- ever, to immense plains covered with tussock grass and Spaniard or sword grass, except where the farmer has come and adorned the landscape with waving fields of wheat. Farther north the great snowy chain seems to form a complete barrier to the | moisture and vegetation of the west ; the plains, hills, and valleys are all bare, as if shaven, and of the one uniform brownish-yellow NEW ZEALAND GLACIERS. 445 hue. Clumps of flax (Phormium tenax) and isolated cabbage trees (Cordyline australis) make the desolation appear more desolate. The rain-fall is but 25 inches. The air is clear, bright, and exhilarating, and when we do penetrate into the furthest recesses of the mountains, to the very brink of the glaciers, we at last come toa rank vegetation brought into existence by the rains condensed by the cold ice peaks. Acclimatization has produced wonderful results in New Zealand. On the great grassy plains, where the moa once stalked majestically, the sky- lark is now the commonest of birds, the sparrow threatens to become a plague, as the rabbit has done, and English weeds seem determined to establish themselves and attain to a fertility unexampled at home. Clouds of thistle-down fill the air, and sorrel usurps the ground prepared for oats and wheat. Amongst other interesting points brought out by this invasion of the vege- table kingdom, one at least is worthy of special notice—the failure of red clover, while white clover thrives amazingly. In the neighbouring island of Tasmania red clover grows well, and it is now believed that till the humble bee is introduced to fertilize the flowers, red clover will not propagate itself in New Zealand.* On the 12th of last November I sailed from Plymouth for Melbourne in the Orient steamer “Garonne,” having arranged with Ulrich Kaufmann and Emil Boss, both of Grindelwald, to follow me in the next ship. Unfortunately small-pox broke out in my ship, and between a delay at the Cape and quarantine at Melbourne I was not able to reach New Zealand and join my men till February 5th. Immediately on landing I received a kind telegram from Dr. Hector, and a letter from the Minister for Railways enclosing free passes on the New Zealand railways for myself and guides during our stay in the Colony. I lost no time in reaching Christchurch, where I spent an afternoon in Dr. Haast’s company, he being the great authority on the topography of the Southern Alps ; and next morning we started in the train for the south. On arriving at Timaru we had a delay of three hours before the train left by a branch line for Albury, and we occupied the time in purchasing provisions for our mountain journey. As we were assured that we could get sheep right up to the snows of Mount Cook, we took with us but a small supply of meat in tins. Flour, meal, bread, and biscuits, formed the bulk of our stores. On reaching Albury by rail we hired a waggon and horses, and on the evening of the next day we got our first view of the great snowy range. The contrast between the brown, flattened downs over which we drove and the purple, ice-seamed peaks was most striking. Next morning we were up betimes, as we did not know how long our journey might be, and our driver was unacquainted with the country beyond this point. Our road soon lost itself in the rolling downs, so we walked on in advance pioneering the way, and thus before mid-day we reached the * See Meeting of Cant. Phil, Inst. held on 7th June, 1883. 446 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. last swell overlooking the Tasman river. We had now to descend about 200 feet, and again came upon the track leading up the river bed. This river bed of the Tasman, over two miles wide, is a broad sheet of coarse gravel, through which the river mean- ders in countless channels, between which are often dangerous quicksands. We drove along over marshy flats, on which numer- ous seagulls had their nests (one of the young seagulls we afterwards met high up on the glacier, winging its flight over the snowy range to the west coast), then across river channels, and then over wide tracts of gravel. Right before us, rising abruptly from the river bed, in the point where the valley forked, was the great mass of Mount Cook, its icy peak glittering like a pinnacle of frosted silver against the deep blue sky. On either side the mountains rose from the flat valley with the same abruptness, and the terminal face of the Hooker and Tasman glaciers closed in the end of the two branches into which the valley divided to the right and left of Mount Cook. This flat river bed, with the mountains rising from it abruptly, and from margins as sharply defincd as the shores of a lake, is so typical of all the mountain valleys we saw, that we may ask, What is the cause of a feature so distinctive ? I believe the low level to which the glaciers descend, and the consequent short incline of the rivers, is a sufficient cause. The terminal face of the Tasman glacier is, according to Dr Haast, only 2456 feet above the sea ; while the mean of four observations, taken in as many days by myself, makes it 100 feet lower; and its river descends to the sea level by a fairly uniform incline of about 25 feet to the mile. If the river had a greater depth to descend before reaching the level country or sea level, it would erode a deep ravine-shaped bed, like those so common in the European Alps. High up on the mountain slopes, on the side of the valley opposite to where we travelled, were the most remarkable series of terrace forma- tions I ever saw, their level being quite 500 or 600 feet above the present river, and their edges sharply defined. Dr. Haast con- siders that they form part of the margin of an ancient lake, which was dammed up by a glacier crossing the valley lower down during the last great glacier period. Accepting, in part, this interpretation of the phenomena, several interesting questions follow, which we will try to answer : What river or rivers fed this lake? Was it the Tasman? The present source of the Tasman being about 200 feet lower than the terraces, would be below the level of the ancient lake, so that it could not have been the feeder, unless the lake existed in an inter-glacier period, when the climate was milder, the ice-cap smaller than at present, and the source of the Tasman higher up the valley. Supposing it was not filled by the Tasman river, it seems to follow that, at the t’me of the existence of the lake, the great trunk glacier formed by the junction of the Hooker and — Tasman glaciers must have filled up the centre of the valley, and extending far away down beyond the terraces, formed the dam which banked up the drainage of the hills above the terraces, _NEW ZEALAND GLACIERS. “447 and thus formed a lake similar to the Merjelen-see in Switzer- land. At the same time the main drainage of the great glacier passed along at a lower level, and issued from its ice cave miles lower down, as the stream of the great Aletsch does at the present day. ; That the Tasman Glacier has been down the present valley at almost its present level, past the foot of the slopes on which the terraces occur, is proved by the existence of several little mounds of old terminal moraine which the river has failed to remove ; and until the structure of these terraces is more closely examined it is quite possible to suppose that they may have been formed by the direct action of the glacier banking up the debris that fell from the mountain sides. The heat as we journeyed up the river bed was intense, dark masses of rain-clouds blocked up the Hooker valley, while the Tasman remained clear, except for a passivg shower. Along the course of the river small whirlwinds followed each other atjregular intervals, making themselves visible by the cloud of fine sand which they whirled upwards to a height of from 50 to 100 feet. At 3 P.M., on February 12th, we commenced to ford the Tasman, and at 6.30 we reached its further shore. Halting for the, night at Birch Hill sheep station, we started early next morning, and were camped at the foot of the Tasman glacier by mid-day. Early on the 15th we started from the camp, taking with us some slight poles for observations on the motion of the glaciers, my photographic apparatus, our ice axes, and provisions for the day. Crossing a rude bridge which we had constructed, an hour’s smart walking over grass-covered flats brought us to the terminal moraine, which rises up here in grassy knolls to a height of 200 feet, and, assuming a more recent appearance to the eastward, extends right across the valley, a distance of about two miles in a straight line. Nowhere is ice visible except near the farther shore where the river breaks forth. The truncated form of this termination of the glacier shows, I think, that it cannot be retreating very rapidly, if it is retreating at all, as the absence of any heaps of terminal moraine on the flat plains near to its face proves that the river outlet must have changed many times along the present terminal face to have so completely swept the valley of all outliers, except one small heap which has been protected by boulders of unusual dimensions. It may be stationary, but from consideration of the appearance of the terminal face, and from observations on the relations of the present lateral moraine to more ancient ones, to which I shall allude further on, I would conclude that the glacier is at present advancing ; or if it is not doing so at the present moment, it has done so since its last retreat, as there is good evidence to prove that at a period not very remote the glacier was smaller than it now is. We ascended the outer line of grass-covered moraine, and 448 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, passing a little blue lake lying in a deep hollow, in which we discovered numerous small fish about four inches long, we ascended heaps of newer moraine composed of immense, loose, angular boulders, and finding our progress over it most fatiguing and slow, we turned off to the left in hopes that the lateral mor- aine might prove more practicable: but finding it just as bad, and no level ice being in sight, we descended to the hollow between the lateral moraine and the mountain side. Here we were en- tangled in almost impenetrable scrub composed of wild Irishman (Discaria toumatou) and sword-grass (Aciphylla colensot), which cut us cruelly. Occasionally we got a more open bit for a change, but nowhere could we feel ourselves safe from the chance of a broken leg or sprained ankle. After five hours of this sort of thing we again surmounted the lateral moraine, and, striking right across the glacier, in one hour reached the white ice. The cool air off the ice was most refreshing after toiling over the heated boulders under bright sunshine and sheltered from any wind, so we walked briskly ahead until two o’clock, when we reached a point from which we had a splendid view of the great cliffs of Mount Cook, and the grand amphitheatre of peaks which swept round from left to right. This view I consider quite equal, if not superior, to anything in Switzerland, and the glacier beneath our feet had an area half as great again as that of the Great Aletsch, the largest glacier of the European Alps. Tribu- tary glaciers poured in with graceful curves from the mountain sides, and long lines of moraine from thirty distinct ice-streams, which were in sight from this point, brought their tale of boulders to add to the great rampart which had given us such trouble to surmount. We scanned the great ice-ridges of Mount Cook with anxious eyes ; all its approaches seemed most difficult ; the only point which was quite clear was, that our present camp would not do, and that in spite of the roughness of the road we must shift it up to where we now were. As it was getting well on for three p.m., we decided we could at present go no further, so, selecting a mark on the hill-sides, I set up a row of stakes across the glacier, and, having secured a photograph, we started back for camp, which we reached at eight pm. On our way we deposited our ice axes, the stand of my camera, and some photo- graphic plates, beneath a boulder, so as to have the less to carry on our next journey up the glacier. At our lower camp the heat during the day was very great, the temperature being often 82° in the shade ; the air was clear, with the barometer ranging from 27°30 to 27:40; a brisk breeze occasionally blowing in sudden strong squalls from the south- west or north-west prevailed in the valley, while on the mountain ridges a steady fierce wind seemed to blow continuously from the west. The wood-hens or wekas (Ocydromus australis) were a source of constant amusement ; they seemed to know no fear, and would come pecking and examining every article in our camp, and were always ready to bolt off with any small object left on the ground. They cared little for the stones we threw at them NEW ZEALAND GLACIERS. 449 and all night they kept upa constant whistling, accompanied by a kind of grunting noise. On the stream hard by we had an inexhaustible supply of blue ducks (Hymenolaimus malacorhyn- chus); there was never many to be seen at a time; but when we shot three or four on one day, a couple of brace more would occupy the same part of the stream next morning. They were not wild, so in order to save cartridges we generally pelted stones at the birds to get them together, and then tumbled two or three in the one shot, Far more wild, though quite as numerous, were the Paradise ducks (Casarca variegata). These were splendid birds, in habits, mode of flight, and note, resembling geese rather than ducks ; and the male, with his white head, kept such a good look-out, that various stratagems had to be adopted ere we secured one for the pot; There were a few mosquitoes and sandflies, but the large blow- fly was the greatest source of annoyance. A coat or a blanket could never be laid on the ground for half an hour with im- punity ; even my mackintosh was considered a good receptacle for their eggs; but we kept them from our cold mutton and ducks with a few yards of mosquito net; and, after all, having your coat full of maggots does you no harm, so long as they do not, like the larvz of moths, feed on the material. We were astir at the dawn of February 17th, and, as soon as we had our packs ready, and the tents secured against all wekas and other possible invaders during our absence, we started for the glacier. On reaching a pack which I had sent on to the foot of the moraine, we re-arranged our loads, Kaufmann and Boss dividing all they had to carry into four loads, while my “swag” was as quite as much as I could manage over the rough ground, My men adopted the plan of carrying each one load for an hour or so, and then, setting it down, scrambling back again for the others, thus making the whole journey twice. In this manner we arrived at the camping-ground we had chosen, near the shore of a little blue lake, where the whole drainage of the valley that forced its way beneath the boulders bubbled forth to the surface. The lake was embosomed in dense scrub, which here clothed the high moraine and the mountain sides. This scrub was composed of dwarf pines ; birch, or more correctly beech (Fagus) ; veronicas, sixty species of which are indigenous to New Zealand, and scrubs of Podocarpus, Coprosma, Dracophyllum, &c., and as we came along we could not resist eating the sweet red berries of Podo- carpus nivalis, though at the time we did not know what ill effects might ensue. Of smaller plants, the fine white Ranun- culus lyallit was everywhere abundant; it goes by the name of Mount Cook lily among the colonists, and we found its large succulent leaves most useful in our hats as a protection against the fierce rays of the mid-day sun. A little white violet became common from this camp upwards, and ferns nestled under the shade of every damp rock. Keas, or Mount Cook parrots (Vestor notadilis), now made 450 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, their appearance, and came screaming close tothe tent. Kauf- — mann shot a couple, and soon had them picked and in the soup- kettle, while Boss added a brace of ducks to our larder. Parrot soup proved so good, that from this day forward we were never without some in the kettle. Since sheep were intoduced into New Zealand these parrots have acquired a taste for kidney fat, and perching on the poor unresisting animals, eat through their flesh in order to obtain this delicacy. Further up the glacier these birds were so tame, that I knocked one on the head witha stick which I had inmy hand. Inthe crops of about a dozen specimens of the kea which I examined, I found nothing but the ereen pips of the berries of Podocarpus nivalis, and the birds seemed confined to the zone where these berries were ripe. As night closed in heavy drops of rain fell, and soon it began to blow a gale ; but, ensconsed in our felt sleeping-bags, we at first defied the elements, and slept well. After midnight, however, the weather became so terrible that sleep was impossible. The tent could not have been blown away, as it was made on Mr Whymper’s plan, the sides and floor being all in one; but I felt sure it must soon split ; It fluttered and banged, and the torrents of rain never ceased lashing its sides. Thunder crashed round the mountain peaks, and when morning came there was no improve- ment. So far the tent resisted the rain, but now Kaufmann’s sleeping bag was getting wet from soaking the damp through the tent wall, then a pool formed in our opossum rug, and it was no longer possible to keep dry. There was no chance of lighting a fire, so we sat in the tent shivering till mid-day, and at three o’clock, seeing that it promised for a similar night, and all our things were wet, we determined to secure the tent and provisions as best we could, and retreat to our lower camp. The wet scrub drenched us as we pushed our way through it, but on reaching our camp we were soon into dry clothes. The weather cleared for an hour or so about sunset, allowing us to get our supper in comfort ; butas it began to blow and rain as night came on, we made ourselves snug in our hammocks, and slept, in spite of the banging of the tent walls and beating of the rain. Next day was stormy, wet, and cold, the highest temperature being only 42°. After our mid-day meal we set off in our waterproofs to try and reach the Hooker glacier; but finding we should have to mount the steep slopes of the spur of Mount Cook through dripping ferns, we relinquished the attempt, and amused ourselves by running after and catching some young wekas. The old birds came from all points to remonstrate, and forming a wide circle, squealed and grunted forth their indignation, and as we returned their young ones unharmed, they were, I am sure, quite satisfied that their interference had a most important influence over our actions. It cleared a little before sunset, showing the mountains glittering with fresh-fallen snow, and then settled in again for a bad night, the wind still blowing a gale from the north-west. At midnight we were aroused by the most awful torrents of rain ; there seemed to be no wind with it, and in the morning when we NEW ZEALAND GLACIERS. 451 awoke in bright sunshine, and looked out of the tent, we found the whole landscape, down almost to the foot of the glacier and surrounding hills, covered with a robe of freshly-fallen snow. These lower hills are of course covered with snow in winter, but it seldom lies in the flat valleys for more than twenty-four hours at atime. We were much surprised at learning this from the shepherds, as for a long distance the valley may be considered to be at the same level as the termination of the glacier, and land in such proximity in Switzerland would be covered all through the winter with many feet of snow. The wind was now from the south, the sky blue, and as the snow was rapidly melting, I determined to start by myself forthe camp at the Blue Lake, spread out the things to dry, and leave the men to follow when they had our lower camp dried and secure. It rained a little again at night, but next day was fine enough to continue our journey, which we did as usual, my men going over all the ground twice, and while they went back the last stage I pitched the tent and cut twigs for our bedding, Coprosma and Veronica scrub being still in abundance. I shall not go into all the details of our troublesome journey; suffice it to say, that our fourth camp was pitched on the moraine abreast of the stakes I had erected on the glacier. Oh visiting them, however, I found them all lying postrate. and blown to some dis tance from the holes in which they had stood. The sunshine and storms of the past seven days had so altered the surface of the glacier, that we had some little difficulty in finding the holes we had made. When we set the sticks up again, and I ran my eye along them to the mountain side, I found thatthey were'stillinan almost perfect right line, showing that in that time no motion of any importance had taken place. This was, however, what might have been expected owing to the flatness of the lower portion of the glacier, the incline being 100 feet to the mile. We returned to camp over piles of angular rocks alternating with gravel heaps, coming now and then upon a yawning chasm with sides of dirty ice and enclosing deep blue pools of ice water. The new moraine near the margin of the glacier overtopped a rampart of ancient moraine, showing that the glacier at a period not very remote was smaller than it is at present. Not only there, but at various other parts of our route, I made similar observations. The old moraine was consolidated by the dis- integration of the rocks composing it, and affording soil for numerous tufts of sword-grass and other smaller plants. Here for the first time we found the New Zealand Edelweis (Guapha- lum grandiceps), and my men seemed to take fresh heart after all their fagging work when we had our hat-bands adorned with the familiar little felt-like flowers. After a good night’s rest on a bed of Veronica hectort, we continued our “ swagging,’ and on the next afternoon, February 23rd, we reached our fifth and final camp. We were now 3750 feet above the sea, having gained bya _ week’s labour only 1450 feet of actual elevation, and Mount 452 - JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Cook still towered nearly 9000 feet above us. Our advance was here checked by the ice of the much-broken Ball glacier coming down from our left, and though we carried our “swags” on to its surface in hopes of camping further up, the absence of scrub on the farther spurs of sufficient size to promise a supply of fire-wood made us retrace our steps and pitch our tent on a gravel flat, close to the mountain side in the angle formed by the Mount Cook and Tasman glaciers. Here a glacier stream provided us with water, and the vicinity of our camp was strewn with dead wood brought down by landslips and avalanches from the steep slopes above. While looking for a suitable nook for our tent, Boss came upon a little square patch of dwarf gnarled Coprosma exactly the square of our tent : it grew by itself on the gravel in a snug corner, and seemed as if prepared so specially for our use that we did not wish to decline the hospitality of nature, so filling up the centre of the square with some cut bushes, we pitched our tent on it. Never was a bed more comfortable; its spring was perfect. We never sank to within less than five or six inches of the ground, and so long as the wekas contented them- selves with squeaking and grunting, and not pecking upwards, we did not wish to deny them the comfortable lodging beneath us which they seemed to appreciate. From this camp we made a long day’s excursion up the main elacier, and completed our reconnaissance of the ridges of Mount Cook ; and from a point on the medial moraine I took a circle of angles with a view tofmaking my map, and secured a couple of negatives of the Hochstetter ice-fall; but the light was so brilliant, there not being a cloud in the sky, that over exposure of my plates was almost unavoidable. On this day we spent some time sounding crevasses. Into one moulin I lowered a stone with 320 feet of cord, but as the cord was found to have tangled, the observation could not be relied on. We then timed the fall of large stones, and on several occasions measured 5 by my watch before the first crash was heard, giving a depth of 300 feet, and then asa series of bangs followed for as long again, these crevasses must at the lowest computation be 500 feet The glacier close to our camp, which I have named the Ball glacier, after John Ball, who may be looked upon as one of the fathers of Alpine exploration, had some points of special interest. Flowing from the S.W., it met the current of the main glacier coming from the north, and failing to stem it, was pushed aside downs the valley, its lower portion thus making an acute angle with its former course. As our tent was in the angle, I had abundant opportunity for watching its great slopes of ice which stood up high above the moraine, and by observation I found the ice moved past at the rate of one foot per day, At one point the pressure had been sufficient to push down the moraine as a great wall might have been tumbled over, while immediately in front of our camp the glacier was building up the rampart by a constant dropping of angular stones. Even in the stillness of night these stones evidence its icy life, and one night : 2 : | | a ee a ee ee ee =e NEW ZEALAND GLACIERS. 453 we heard a bang as of a cannot shot when some new crevasses sprang into existence. The blocks of the moraine were all either sandstones or slates of the newer palzozoic formation, of which Mount Cook and all this range is composed, with occasional fragments of quartz, in which we kept a bright look out for gold, and blocks of a kind of volcanic breccia, which, according to Professor V. Ball, who kindly examined a piece which I brought home, consists of fragments of pyroxene and felspar, the latter being much decomposed, and some free silica. Our first attempt to scale Mount Cook by the southern aréte was foiled by meeting a series of crags of the above-named slates, which owing to their rotten condition we could not climb. Our second attack ended in the face of a great sandstone cliff of the eastern spur. Our third and successful attempt was made for the greater part by snow and ice, and of the ascent I shall now give a few details. Immediately to the north of Mount Cook, Mount Tasman raises its glacier-clad peak, and from the basin between these two mountains descends, in a grand ice-fall, the Hochstetter glacier. This glacier forms one of the most splendid sights in the Southein Alps. Its chaos of sevacs tinted with every icy hue, from beryl blue to silvery white, is of course quite inaccessible, as every moment the ice blocks topple over with loud boomings and crashes, and descend from level to level in clouds of ice dust. No speck of moraine pollutes its surface though a medial moraine appeared lower down. showing that the ice-fall is really a junction of two glaciers. To reach the basin or plateau above the Hochstetter ice-fall was now our object, so on the Ist of March we started at day-break. with rugs fora bivouac and provisions for three days, and after crossing the Mount Cook glacier, and the Hochstetter glacier below its ice-fall we climbed the steep rocks of the spur from Mount Tasman. and after ten hours’ work settled ourselves for the night on some stones beneath a large boulder about 3000 feet above the Tasman elacier. Starting from our bivouac at six a.m., we reached the plateau above the Hochstetter glacier, and then by a glacier coming down between thesouthern aréteand thearéteconnecting Mount Cookwith Mount Tasman, which I have called the Linda glacier, we gained the last steep ice slopes of the peak, and after about five hours’ step-cutting stood on the highest ridge at 6.20 p.m. The wind was N.W., the ice thawing rapidly ; temperature about 40°. As my thermometer was broken I could not take the exact tempera- ture ; it may therefore have been even higher than 40°; it could not have been much lower. My aneroid read 19°35 inches, which, with correction to bring it into comparison with the standard instrument in the post offiice at Timaru, would be 19'05, and by comparison with the sea-level readings, furnished to me for that day by Dr. Hector, Superintendent of the Meteorological depart- ment, New Zealand, our elevation above the sea-level would ap- 454 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. pear to have been between 12,300 and 12,500 feet, according as the possible corrections are adopted. The mountain has been measured trigonometrically from twenty-two stations by Mr G. J. Roberts of the Westland Survey department, and his result of 12,349 feet is no doubt the true elevation. Though a heavy gale was driving dark masses of rain-clouds in eddies round the ice cornice on which we stood, we could see quite enough to satisfy ourselves that we were on the ice cap of the highest peak. Wecould not see the distant view ; but there is no other pinnacle of the mountain that can enter into competition with the peak we climbed. A peak that seems almost as high, when looked at from Tasman valley, only owes its chance of comparison to its being nearer the spectator. One peak alone with its little cap of ice presents itself as the FHochste Spitze from any point of view from which a true estimate of the mountain can be formed. In the hour of daylight that remained we descended about 2000 teet; it then became quite dark, and as heavy showers of rain and sleet beat upon us I called a halt. Spending the nine hours of darkness standing on a ledge of rock, we resumed our descent next morning, reaching the Tasman glacier at six, and our camp at 7°30 p. m. The vegetation in these high alpine regions was most interesting : veronicas of various species were of the larger plants the most numerous ; the Veronica macrantha with its large white flowers was especially beautiful, and quite takes the place of the little rhododendron of Switzerland. Above the mean snow line, which is about 3000 feet Jower than a similar line in the European Alps, numerous alpine plants and a few dwarfed stragglers from lower regions, flourished in suitable situations. Of these alpine plants I made a collection, noting the highest point at which I found them growing. Mr Armstrong of the Botanical Gardens? Chiistchurch, kindly named most of these for me; the few he was doubtful about I have since shown to Sir Joseph Hooker. and one of these being a new species of the genus //aastza, he has paid me the compliment of calling by my name. Speaking of it, he says: “This last is a beautiful thing, of which I hope that flowers may be found by future climbers.” It grew in white velvet-like bosses on the rocks facing the north, the barometer being at 23:90 when I gathered it on the southern spur, giving an elevation on that day of 6500 feet. Above this there was no sign of vegetation, except a little lichen, which extended to the very top stone of Mount Cook. What struck me most about all this vegetation was that, with the exception of a yellow ranunculus and a little violet tinge in the flowers of veronica, all the flowers were white, The pink of the primula and the blue of the gentian, so familiar to my eyes, were altogether absent. My companions and I had worked so harmoniously together, that we did not break up our alpine camp without many pangs of regret, that our days among the Southern Alps had come to a close. Once more we had to return to the haunts of men, and I cannot con- clude this Paper without expressing our appreciation of the o REARING OYSTERS. 455 boundless hospitality with which we were everywhere received by the hospitable people of New Zealand. Elevation, in NAME OF PLANT, AND AUTHORITY, fond ae Station 5 ; Ranunculus sericophyllus (Armstrong) - - - 6400 Ligusticum aromaticum (Hooker, fil.) - - - 6400 Flectorella cespitosa (Hooker, fil.) - - - 6400 Raoulia grandiflora (Hooker, fil.,.and Armstrong) 6400 Hlaastia greeni (Hooker, fil.) - - - - 6500 Gnaphalium grandiceps (Armstrong) - - - 3—5000 Gnaphalium bellidioides (Armstrong) - » : 3—4.000 Helophylium colensot (Hooker, fil.) - - - = Dracophyllum rosmarinifolium (dwarf) (Armstrong) — Coprosma pumila (dwarf) (Armstrong) - - - 6500 Euphrasia ( ?) - - : ‘ 2 is i Cal, Celmisia sessiliflora - - E 4 2 3 6400 REARING OYSTERS FROM ARTIFICIALLY- IMPREGNATED EGGS.* ———.-_ >> BY J. A. RYDER Pee EO ie During the past three years the writer has been engaged upon the investigation of this subject, with the view of reaching some practical results which would be available in the hands of oyster-culturists. Until last year his efforts under the auspices of the U.S. Fish Commission had been comparatively fruitless and unsatisfactory. In July and August last, in association with Col. M. McDonald, the experimental work was resumed at St. Jeromes Creek, St. Mary’s County, Maryland. Col. McDonald devised a simple combination of glass apparatus, consisting of a series of jars connected together with rubber tubing, somewhat in the manner of a series of Wolft’s bottles, with an open glass aqua- rium at a higher level as a feeder or reservoir, while the last jar of the series discharged into a similar cylindrical aquarium stand- ing on the floor. ‘The sea-water introduced into this contrivance was carefully filtered through cotton-wool, to remove all sedi- ment and foreign organisms. The circulation was maintained in this contrivance by baling the water from the lower into the upper aquarium ; the water passing continually through the in- tervening series of jars, which were, in effect, simply enlarged portions of the siphon-tube passing from the upper to the lower aquarium. No difficulty was experienced in keeping the water in this apparatus fresh and sweet without renewal. On the 23rd of July a batch of oyster-eggs was introduced into this apparatus, impregnated by a method to be hereafter described. On the 24th, and just about 24 hours after impreg- nation had taken place, an inspection of the transparent sides of the jars and aquarium was made ; and, to our great surprise, w * Extracted from ** Science,” vol, tp, 52. 456 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. found immense numbers of embryos with the valves of the larval shell covering the sides of the body, and adherent to the inner surfaces of the glass vessels. In some places upwards of twenty- five might have been counted to the square inch. Every avail- able part of the surface of the vessels was, however, more or less affected by these affixed embryos. Some of the jars were then taken from the closed circuit, and a continuous current passed through them, which it was found did not dislodge the embryos, but in two or three days more it was found that most had died or been detached, even in the portion of the apparatus not affected by a continuous current of fresh sea-water. The gratifying re- sult which we had anticipated at the beginning of our experi- ment was, however, not realised, except in so far as it determined that fixation of the embryos tool place at an early period under favourable conditions, or in about twenty-four hours, and that they might be reared from artificially fertilised ova. Efforts to repeat our first successful experiment failed, owing probably to to the high temperature then prevailing. The next advance made was when the writer hit upon a phy- sical test by means of which the sexes of the spawning adults can be instantly determined by the most ignorant person. It was found that, if the ova were squeezed from the ovary, and dropped into sea-water in a glass dish resting on a dark ground, they would break up into a distinctly granular cloud ; while the milt would not so readily break up, but would tend to mix slowly with the water as a milky substance, the particles of which were not perceptible to the naked eye, and, if stirred about in the water, would not break up at once, but be drawn out into wisps and streaks resembling in miniature cirrus or mares-tale clouds. This test was an infallible guide; so much so, that a pocket-lens was found to be of no advantage, as we had formerly supposed. We also found that if the eggs did not separate at once, when dropped into the water, they were not so mature as they should be. Another important improvement was also introduced by the writer for extracting the eggs and milt from the adults for spawn- ing purposes. This consisted in applying essentially the same method for the extraction of the eggs as is used in spawning fish artificially ; thereby avoiding the admixture of foreign mat- ters, and fragments of the other tissues of the animal, such as occurs when the ovary is cut out and chopped up into fragments in water. A very little experience will enable a person to find the ovary or spermary on the sides of the body of the animal when one valve is removed. Removing the mantle below and in front of the heart-chamber, its principal ducts will be exposed, and these may be traced backwards on either side of the ventral process of the body-mass to below the muscle, where the process juts into the suprabranchial chamber with its apex reaching to the commencement of the cloaca. When the spawn is abundant, the ducts are usually gorged, and look like prominent veins dis- tended with a creamy substance. REARING OYSTERS. A57 To remove the generative products without cutting or lacerat- ing the reproductive organs, one should be provided witha medicine-dropper or short pipette with a curved tip and a com- pressible rubber bulb at top. With the curved point of the pipette, the ducts of the reproductive organ are gently and firmly stroked in the direction of the external opening from before backwards. This, if properly done, will force out the eggs or the milt ina stream from the genital opening of the side ; when the pipette may be applied to suck up the extruded spawn and drop it into water without the admixture of any deleterious matters whatever. If the soft parts of the oyster have been left attached to the one valve, which I have found to be most con- venient in practice, the other side of the animal. may be treated in the same way, as the reproductive organ has an opening on either side of the body. Todo this the head end of the animal, next the hinge, is simply thrown back over the adductor, the mantel cut open, and the spawn pressed out of the ducts of the under side as before. By the foregoing method, which is much neater and more cleanly than any other, the best spawn is obtained ; and it is often possible to impregnate fully ninety per cent of the eggs taken. When eggs so treated are placed under the microscope comparatively few injured ones will be observed; at any rate the result will be vastly more satisfactory than if the animal is crushed or chopped up in order togetthe spawn. Many billions of eggs might be fertilised in a day by this plan. Asa result of the experience with the fixation of the embryos resulting from the artificially fertilised eggs, as described at the outset, it was determined to investigate the mode of fixation to learn if there wasany uniformity about it. I now believe that the fixation of the fry is accomplished by the border ot the larval mantle, the existence of byssal organs being doubtful. The oldest larval shells of artificially reared embryos have the hinges of the valves truncated and without beaks or umbos ; while the fry on the eve of conversion into spat has a distinct beak to each of its valves, which projects anteriorly beyond the hinge-line. The valves, at this time are very ventricose, quite symmetri- cal, and similar to [Pisidium in form, or in the most marked contrast, in respect of shape, with the irregularity of the older spat and adult. When a large number of very young natural spat is exa- mined on their attachments, it will be found that in every case the apex of the umbo of both the valves of the larval shell are turned towards the left if the hinge-end is directed towards the north. It is therefore clear, that when the young attach them- selves, they do so constantly by one and invariably the same side. Upon examining spat which has just begun to form a shelly attachment, we find this to begin at the border of the lar- val shell, and to grow outwards, the hinge being continued for a time laterally or on a line with that of the larval shell. We may also note that the distal free border of the lower valve is the only 458 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. part of the fry shell which comes into direct contact with the ob- ject to which attachment occurs ; and that the hinge-end of the larval or fry shell is directed somewhat upwards, the line of junc- tion of the valves having at first formed an angle of nearly thirty degrees with the plane of the surface to which fixation occurred. This condition of things isso invariable that it may be regarded as universally the case. How does the fixation occur? A bys- sus at most would only serve for temporary anchorage ; and we find that as soon as the first calcareous deposits are formed to build the asymmetrical valves of the spat, the lower valve of the latter is for the first time glued down by the conchioline or perios- tracum covering it externally, and that it often continues to be so affixed until it is nearly two inches in diameter. After this the lower valve of the spat becomes free, and the free margin of the shell begins to be bent upwards. The valves of the sym- metrical fry are also laminar and homogeneous in microscopic structure ; while the very first layers of calcic. carbonate deposited to form the spat shell are prismatic and of a wholly different microscopic appearance from that ofthe fry. The facts presented above prove beyond a doubt, that it is the mantle border of the fry which is the effective agent in the achieving firm fixation, whatever may be the importance of a temporary or larval byssus. | This was an interesting and important point to determine, on account of its practical relation to the artificial rearing of the American oyster (Ostrea virginica). But with the foregoing comparatively meagre results we may say that our success in the artificial culture has ended; and were it not for the highly encouraging recent reports from France, our efforts might have rested here. The stimulus which has provoked the investigations recently undertaken abroad was, however, probably Dr. W. K. Brooks’s success with the American oyster in 1879, and his demonstration of its unisexuality. The remarkable success of M. Bouchon-Brandelly in rearing spat from the artificially fertilised ova of O. angulata at Verdon in France, as reported in the Auzals and Magazine of Natural FHitstory for October, 1882, and his still later reports to the minister of marine of France in the Journal officiel de la republique fran- caise, are of the greatest moment as applied to practical oyster- culture. M. Brandelly, after determining that O. angulata was unisexual like the American species, conceived the idea of rearing the spawn by artificial means. In order to do this, two adjoining oyster claires, or ponds, fed by the tide, were arranged at Verdon ; the one acting as a resorvoir from which the fresh sea-water (brackish) was drawn through a tube, provided with a_ filter consisting of a sponge at either end, into the lower experi- mental claire. The water percolated out of the latter through a bed of fine sand ; in this way the embryonized ova placed in this pond were kept fiom escaping. Fertilised eggs were then put into the experimental pond from day to day, while a number of collectors or tiles were at once submerged in the same. In some- ee eT — —— ee a Pr. - THE HOLLYFORD: VALLEY... 459 what more than a month, success had attended his experiments ; and in the course of further experiment still greater success was attained when about four thousand spat had been found affixed to a single tile under circumstances which admitted of no doubt as to their having been the product of the artificially impregnated eges placed in confinement in their vicinity. It was found, moreover, that the artificially fertilized eggs had actually developed into spat in the closed claire a month before any had made their appearance on the thousands of tiles placed on the natural banks in the Gironde. From a personal investigation of the anatomy of O. angulata we can affirm that it is remarkably similar to O. virginica in the structure of the generative organs, and that there is no reason why as great success should not attend the culture of that species by the same apparently very practicable means. It remains to be seen, however, what proportion of the artificially reared spat will reach the adult condition. With an abiding faith, however, in the final achievement of the solution of the question of the artificial culture of the American oyster, which will soon become a positive necessity to its culture, I think it not improbable that another season’s work will conclude the required preliminary research, and realise for us all the success we could hope for. EXPLORATION OF THE HOLLYEORD VALLEY, WEST ‘COAST ,OF OTAGO. The following is a copy of the report submitted to Mr W. Arthur, Chief Surveyor, by Mr E. H. Wilmot, assistant surveyor, on the work done by himself and party during their recent three months’ explorations near Martin Bay :— “ As this report will be a general one I shall not notice the work particularly, but merely give a rough outline of the trip, noting any points which may seem to be of interest or im- portance. “ As you are aware I left Queenstown on the 26th December last for Dunedin, with the intention of purchasing a boat there, and engaging men, and of thence proceeding to meet the ‘Stella’ at the Bluff. I succeeded in getting a suitable boat, and engaged two men, having arranged in Queenstown for two others (one of whom, Fitt, had been with me on a previous trip) to go over- land and meet me at Lake McKerrow. The boat I sent by rail to Bluff, finding the freight by rail less than by steamer; and the men were to go down with meon the Ist January, the ‘Stella’ being announced to sail from the Bluff on the 2nd. These men met me at the railway station on the morning appointed, only to say that neither of them would go, so I had to proceed with- out them. Immediately on arriving at Invercargill I called on Mr Spence, the Chief Surveyor there, and through his courtesy and exertions was able to secure two other men the same night. 460 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, At the Bluff I purchased provisions to last for three months. The ‘ Stella’ left the Bluff on the evening of the 2nd, and, after calling in at several of the Sounds, arrived at Martin Bay on the afternoon of Saturday, 6th January. Owing toa dense fog I could not get a view of the country surrounding any of the Sounds until we came to Milford. There, however, I was able to note several of the peaks, such as the Mitre, so as to identify them if visible from any points on the Hollyford Ranges. As the surf was too heavy (a sou-wester blowing at the time) we could not land at the river at Martin Bay, but had to land at the south end of the beach. Next morning, however, it was calm, and we launched the boat and pulled along the beach, crossing the bar without any difficulty. At the bay I engaged another man, Robertson, making five in all. The first work was to get the provisions over to the old survey office at Jamestown, which I used as a depét. The office I found in good repair, with the exception of the piles on which it is built, some of which are giving way. I had understood that I should find some drawing instruments and surveying tools there; but, ifleft there, they have all disappeared, except a beam compass, which I packed ina case to be called for by the Stella last trip. Having housed the bulk of the provisions safely, we proceeded with a boat-load up to the head of the lake, where we found the two men from Queenstown had arrived two days before. Next day (12th January) the ordinary work was started, our camp being fixed at the head of the lake. I found that trig Z had not been cleared, and that another trig (A) and a sub-trig had to be built. This occupied nearly a week, during which, however, I observed at the trigs about the head of the lake. Onthe 19th we struck camp and started in the boat for Pyke Creek. After a hard struggle all day, tacking, and pulling, and wading, we camped that night about three-quarters of a mile below Pyke’s, and next morning reached our camping ground. “Up to this time we had had good weather, but during the three weeks we were at this camp fully one-half of the time was lost owing to rain, flooded rivers and creeks, and fog. On the 24th January we took the boat up Pyke Creek into Lake Ala- baster, thence up to the head of the Lake, and about three miles up the river which comes in at the head of the lake. This river differs very much from the Hollyford, not having so many rapids, and having open beaches along the greater part of its course. “ About five or six miles above Lake Alabaster there is another lake of about the same size, from which the river I have men- tioned flows. It was to ascertain whether it was practicable to take a boat up into this lake that I made the trip ; and although we did not reach the upper lake (not wishing to spend more than a day over it), I saw that there would be no difficulty in so doing. The character of the gravel upon the beaches would lead me to suppose that the river comes from a gold-bearing country. While at Pyke Creek there were two heavy floods in succession, with not sufficient time between them to allow the river to fall, THE HOLLYFORD VALLEY. 461 In the second our boat was very nearly lost, as the bank to which it was moored gave way. Fortunately a large tree in the fall came right across the boat, and though it sank and strained her considerably, kept her from drifting away until we secured her again. At the Pyke Creek camp we built a good “ futtah,” thus utilising some of the time that otherwise would have been wasted on account of the rain and fog. After finishing the work about this camp we took the boat back to Lake McKerrow and brought the rest of the provisions from the survey office up to the “ futtah,” whence I kept two men constantly employed in carrying them to the different camps up the valley. Whilst camped at the head of the lake the second time there was another heavy flood—the third within three weeks. Lake McKerrow rose on this occasion about ten feet, obliging us to shift camp in the rain, and cover- ing our camping ground to a depth of four feet. From this time until about the end of the first week in March, the weather was very unsettled, and the rivers constantly high. To cross the Hollyford above Hidden Falls we cut out a canoe. I found that two good axe-men could cut out a good canoe and complete it, with paddles, &c., in two days. The one we had would carry three men easily. Up to this time the work had been going on steadily, considering the weather, though slowly, two men being kept at swagging provisions, two going up with me to the trigs., and the cook staying in camp or out with the gun getting birds, which were our only meat after the first month. Some of the trigs could be done in the day from our main camp ; to others we had to take a tent and make a flying camp, usually pitching tent just at the head of the bush. “While at one of these flying camps we saw a strange sight, which I think worth noticing. I will make an extract from my diary :—‘ March 8—Got up very early this morning, and was up at the trig T by half-past seven. Though the sun was up, the eastern side of the valley was in the shade, so that I could not see the flags, and very soon the light morning fog rose around us. While waiting for this to clear away we went over to a small mountain lake about a quarter of a mile from the trig. Looking down on this from the top of the precipice which surrounds it, we saw a most strange and interesting sight, and one I fancy rarely seen. This was a beautiful miniature rainbow. As we gazed down on the lake, wondering at and admiring the depth and purity of its blue water, and speculating as to the cause of its formation, a wreath of mist floated slowly before us. The sun at the same time being almost level with and immediately behind us, his rays were reflected from the mist in the form of a perfect rainbow. In the centre of each of these circles, each one of us saw the shadow of his own head. The shadows were so distinct, owing to the mist being so close, that when I held up my hand as high as my head the fingers were plainly traceable in the shadow. From this I have named the lake Rainbow.’ “On the 13th of March I madea rather interesting excursion. The day before I observed at trig S, but instead of camping near 462 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. the trig, I had only taken one man with me, and had sent the other two with tent, etc., and provisions to a small grassy flat about two miles up the creek which flows into the Hollyford, on the western side of the river, opposite to High Falls. I had always been of the opinion that at the head of this creek there would be a saddle or a pass leading to Milford Sound, and the result of my excursion was to prove my opinion correct. Early on the morning of the 13th, then, myself and one of the men (who was a capital climber) started for the creek. For the first two miles or so the ascent was easy and the ground clear, after which there was a mile of very rough travelling over a moraine composed entirely of huge clean blocks of stone. At the head of this moraine there is a large mountain lake about one mile and a-quarter long and half a mile wide, which I have christened ‘Lake Adelaide.’ The sides of this lake are very steep, sheer down in many places; but at some height above it there are ledges running, along which travelling is easy. We chose the western side and, thinking to get a better view, climbed a peak on that side. To get at the top of this we had to cross a large snow-field, and several times were nearly stopped by crevasses. At one place we jumped a chasm over six feet wide, down which we could see the blue ice sixty or seventy feet below. On reaching the summit we were disappointed, for a belt of fog lay just below, effectually hiding everything but the hill-tops. Re- tracing our steps over the snow we kept along the foot of the field in the direction of where we now knew there must bea saddle of some kind. This was very ticklish travelling, for the rock was as slippery as glass with the water running over it from under the snow, and just below was a sheer precipice. As the foot of the snow-field looked very much as though pieces might break away at any moment, we made the best of our way along it, and soon had the satisfaction of reaching the saddle. Just then the mist lifted a little, and we found that we were within about four miles of the head of Milford Sound. I had no diffi- culty in identifying it, as I.had noted the place well when com- ing round in the Stella, and from the saddle we could see the whole length of the Sound and out to sea, Mitre Peak standing out well about half-way down. Having a prismatic compass with me, I made a rough sketch of the country around. The saddle is peculiar. The width on the top is not more than a chain, and the length about five chains. It is like a stone wall built across a narrow pass between two hills. On each side it ceoes down almost perpendicularly ; indeed, on the Milford Sound side you might almost say it was a sheer precipice of 1,000ft. ; and I am sure that 300ft. below the top of the saddle, from one side to the other, would not measure more than five or six chains, if so much. At first it seemed impossible to get down, but after some hunting about we found a narrow cleft about 2ft. wide, where the side of the precipice seemed to have split away. In the cleft a number of blocks of sharp stone had got jammed, and by holding on to these we descended some | ‘THE HOLLYFORD VALLEY. 463 300 feet and got on to a ledge, where there was a tuft or two of snow-grass growing. From here we thought we could see our way to reach the bottom of the precipice, from whence there was a valley, open at the head, but wooded heavily further down, leading down to the head of the Sound. As it was getting on in the day we did not attempt to go further, but we estimated that we were within two or three hours’ walk of the head. We left the saddle on our return about 4 o'clock, and, as the descent on the Hollyford side is not quite so steep as on the other, soon reached the head of Lake Adelaide, and following its eastern side to the foot, and thence along the creek, reached the tent about dusk. Not having a barometer, and the saddle not being visible from any trig points, I had no means of fixing its height, but judging from bush level, and the heights ot hills in the neighbourhood, I should put it down at about 3,700ft. Lake Adelaide is below bush level, probably about 3,000 or 3,100 feet above the sea. The height of the saddle, therefore, would be considerably less than that of Lake Harris saddle, and with the exception of the precipice just at the saddle there would seem to be no great difficulty in making a fair foot track, if not a pack track, from the Hollyford to the Sound. Of course such a track would be blocked for a considerable part of the year by snow. As I believe this is the first time the practicability of any track to the Sounds has been demonstrated, I have noticed this route the more particularly ; at the same time it is my opinion that a better route will probably be found higher up the Holly- ford Valley, or in from the head of the Eglinton. By the way, I may mention that Mitre Peak, on the south side of Milford Sound, is visible from trig N, near Lake Harris saddle. Nothing of further interest or importance occurred on the trip, which was concluded without hitch or accident of any kind. The men—more especially Mantle and Fitt, whom I engaged at Queenstown—worked capitally; and though the work was rough and hard at times, they always worked cheerfully, and there was no grumbling. The provisions we brought with us held out to a nicety, there only being 5olb. of flour and a little tea left. Those left in the “futtah” last year, however, were quite useless. Though the “futtah” was water-tight, and rat- proof, the constant dampness of the air mildewed the flour and oatmeal, so that it was uneatable, and most of the sugar had melted away. I regret to say that we found no trace of Ray- mond’s body, though, as we brought the boat up from Lake McKerrow to Pyke’s, the whole of that part of the river was thoroughly searched. I am now preparing the trig and topo. maps of the work, and also intend preparing a map on a smaller scale, which will shew a good deal of country outside the tri- angulation, and which will no doubt be of use. In concluding my report I may say that I have now seen so much of the country to the west of the Wakatipu that it has given me a keen desire to see more in two directions especially, viz., from the head of Lake Alabaster round behind Big Bay, 404 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. and towards the head of the Dart River, and from the Green- stone saddle in the direction of the Sounds. I feel confident that a practical route to the West Coast Sounds will yet be found in that direction; and if the Government should see fit at any time to send a party out to explore in either direction, I would beg leave respectfully to ask that I should be placed in charge of it. GENERAL NOTES. nor teagl Ts Dactylanthus taylori—On the Saturday in Easter week I was fortunate enough to find this curious and rare species. This very unattractive-looking plant has remained unnoticed for a considerable period, as I cannot find any record of its having been found since the type specimen was obtained by the Rev. — Taylor, and described by Dr. Hooker in the Trans. Lin. Soc., Xxii., 427 t. 75. Ihave carefully compared the plant with the description there given, and little seems to be needed to supple- ment it. I had ascended the hills which surround the little settlement of Tarawera, a military post on the Taupo-Napier road, about fifty miles north by west of Napier, and was search- ing the leaf-strewn ground for the so-called “vegetable cater- pillar” ( Cordiceps), when I picked up a scaly cone-like bud. Not recognising it at all, I put it into my box for further examina- tion. When a yard or two higher up the slope I found two or three more, and a little further on I saw a curious warty excres- cence, of a dirty brown colour, partly moss-covered, and, stand- ing erect on its surface, several curious brown scaly spikes, some of which were globose, and some nearly cylindrical. A few inches from the edge of the lump were several other spikes, ap- parently growing out of the leafy mould, but when traced they were seen to join the main tuber or rhizome, which when un- covered I found to be ten inches by six. Not wishing to destroy the whole plant, I searched about till I found a small subsidiary tuber or lump a few inches lower down the slope and apparently growing on the root of a tree. With some trouble I cut off the root, on each side of the tuber, and passed a knife under it, and lifted the earth-root and parasite into a box, without disturbing their relative positions. I then filled up the box tightly with leaf mould and moss, so that there would be little or no shaking. Two or three of the best male and female flowers were carefully gathered and tied up in soft paper and put in a safe place. I then traced up the root in which I supposed the plant to be pa- rasitic, with considerable difficulty, as three trees were growing completely intermixed, a Fagus, a Pittosporum, and a Melicytus ; however, I believe it was on the root of the latter—not that it mattered very much, for when IJ arrived home and made a care- ful examination, the tuberous portion of the Dactylanthus merely GENERAL NOTES. | 465 rested on the tree root, and the root-like portion which issues from the rhizome had been cut off; so that, whether it is at- tached to the root of the tree still remains an open question. Taylor’s plate gives the idea that the root of the tree penetrates ‘the rhizome, but such is not the case. I trust on some future oc- casion to trace the attachment of !the piece that I have left. A rigorous search failed to discover any more specimens alive, but I picked up several fragments of one which had been destroyed by the falling of a decayed tree. I found it necessary to place the male and female flowers in spirit as soon as possible, as they lost much of their shape in drying, and appeared as if they would be injured by mould. A few hours after placing them in alco- hol I noticed that the spirit had extracted a rich brown colour. oily Fs RARE FISHES.—A specimen of what I suppose to be Torpedo Fairchild: of the N. Z. Cat. of Fishes, was taken by a fisherman in the Napier Harbour, and has come into my possession. Com- pared with the figure given in the catalogue I notice that the _ spiracles are small and slightly lunate instead of large and cir- cular as in the figure. The colour of the upper surface was a purplish brown with an irregular cordate marking in the centre of the back, under surface yellowish white, tinged with pink to- wards the head. The area occupied by the electrical organs was well defined and the somewhat hexagonal shape of the columnar bodies could be seen, especially after the fish had been well washed in fresh water ; the mucous coating that had dried upon the skin then peeled off and the small pores through which this shining matter is poured could be traced: they are very numer- ous in the thick part of the body in front of the eyes and follow the true outline of the body at the junction with the pectoral fins, towards the tail. Judging by a short translation from a German source, in the January number of the Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist for this year, the classification of the Torpedinei is being revised, and probably the results of the critical examina- tion of the number of columns in the various species will even- tually be published. Since writing the above, I have had an interview with another stranger, or, at any rate, a fish seldom «taken in this Bay. He, or rather she, was caught by the captain of one of the small steamers belonging to the Port, and placed on exhibition in the town as a “Tiger Shark.” I went to see it, and found that it was not a Tiger Shark (Zamna) at all, but, judging from the serrated triangular teeth, a White Shark (Carcharodon ?). The specimen was 12 feet long, and looked a most formidable monster. The spiracles were extremely minute. The tail was large, and the lower lobe was nearly equal in size to the upper, which had a peculiar notch and projection near the end. Where the tail joined the body was a deep notch both above and below. In the neighbourhood of this notch I picked off a considerable number of very curious parasitic animals. At present I can find no description with which I can identify them 466 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. P.S.—April 19 : Another Torpedo was caught to day in the harbour, and has come into my possession. The only difference between the two specimens is that the last has the under surface very pink, and differs slightly in the general outline. In dissect- ing the specimen I found nothing in the stomach or intestines: but a kind of green slime. Two worms (probably Tania) were found in the preserving fluid, which must have come from the fish, and attached to the wall of the gill cavity I found a Distoma. Both specimens were immature females. A MAORI RAT AT GREYMOUTH.—For several years I have tried to obtain a specimen of the so-called native rat, which, according to information, has been met with in abundance in this part during some seasons, but I was only lucky enough to see one yesterday for the first time. It was caught in a house in this town. The description of this interesting animal is as follows: —Weight, 45£0z.; Length, from tip of snout to root of tail, 7%in. ; Length of tail, 73/in. ; Length of head, from ear to tip of snout, measured laterally and frontally, 17gin. ; Length of ear, Zin. ; Breadth of ear, 34in.; Longest hair in whiskers, 21%in. Fur: Back, dark, almost black ; the longer hairs possessing an olive-coloured gloss ; the shorter are lighter and grey near the skin, intermixed scantily with almost white hairs which, how- ever, only show when the fur is ruffled. Side, light grey, which colour extends as far forward as the whiskers, blending well with the dark back and with the fur of the underside, which is uniform ashy grey Whiskers, black and profuse. Hind feet with 5 toes, fore feet with 4 toes, an inner dwarfed one, all armed with sharp curved nails except the dwarfed toe, which shows only a horny covering. Feet and toes covered with short grey hair, lengthening towards tips of toes, particularly on hind feet. underside of feet smooth; the fore feet each with 5, the hind with six pads. Tail scaly, covered thinly with short dark bristling hair. Ears of a dull darkish-brown colour, rounded, almost smooth, finely pubescent near margins. Teeth: incisors of dark yellow colour rounded in front and almost pointed ; the lower much longer and protruding over 44 inch. Molars : 3 pairs each side, white ; the anterior larger than the middle and twice the size of the posterior. The vertebral column consists of 31 joints, 7 in neck and 24 to base of tail. 12 pairs ofribs. The specimen is a male, and seems to be full grown. Unfortunately some other rats had mutilated it slightly near the left shoulder, and as it had most likely been dead for several days the entrails were beginning to decompose, which prevented me from discovering what the animal had fed upon, as there was scarcely any food in the stomach. The trap had been baited with cheese. I found no trace of mamme. Greymouth, Nov. 27, 1882. R. HELMS. THISTLES AND THEIR USES.—Mr. Barker, of Waikonini, South Canterbury, adds his testimony to that already recorded GENERAL NOTES. 467 from Otagoand Hawke's Bay, as to sheep eating thistle heads. Not only must the quantity of nutritious (chiefly saccharine) matter thus obtained be very considerable, but the number of flowers thus prevented from seeding must be enormous. Mr. Barker further draws attention to the fact that sparrows feed very largely on thistle heads, and that when one is driving along the roads in South Canterbury these birds rise in hundreds from off the thistle plants, and from those parts of the ground which are already covered with seeds. Probably numerous other small birds join the sparrows in consuming this supply of food, notably the goldfinches, whose common name of thistle-finch (Carduelis) bears testimony to their tastes. Opinions are divided as to the good or evil effects of thistles on the soil, some persons affirming that if cut and burned they improve the soil by the quantity of potash salts they contain. This is probably—to a great extent at least—an imaginary benefit, as they cannot add any salts to the soil, but only return those which they had previously with- drawn from it. It is possible, however, that they do return these salts in a condition more readily available by the plants which follow them. When thistles come in enormous numbers, so as completely to cover the ground, there can be little doubt that their ultimate effects must be beneficial, however objectionable they are at the time. I have myself seen large areas in the Oamaru district, which had been turned over by the plough for the first time, and had been completely taken possession of by thistles. The great mass of the vegetation thus raised died where it had grown, and thus added largely to the humus of the soil, and even where it was burnt off all the mineral matters were still of course left behind. But the greatest benefit was apparently conferred by the roots, which had penetrated into the soil below the furrow-cut to a depth of 3 or 4 inches in all direc- tions. These, decaying where they had grown, not only aided themselves in breaking up the lower soil, but also furnished by their decay considerable quantities of carbonic acid, which would further tend to liberate and render soluble various alkaline and earthy silicates. Whether the good thus done counterbalances the evil which they accomplish in other ways is a question which no doubt each one interested will answer for himself, but it is some comfort to know that even sucha generally condemned plant has something to be said in its favour. G. SEXUAL DIFFERENCES IN SPIDERS.—I would draw the attention of your readers to the peculiar differences in the struc- ture of the palpi of male and female spiders of the genus Sadticus (Leaping Spiders), which I procured from among the dead stalks of afern. The female, which is the larger, has long chelate palpi, with a claw like a lobster’s, while those of the male are short, stout, and shear-like. It would be interesting to discover what different purpose they serve: it may be that the claw is used for the transportation of the eggs. The appearance and colour of these spiders were such that it was most difficult to 468 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. distinguish them from the dead leaves among which they occurred. Dr. J. von Haast, to whom I sent the specimens, was kind enough to name them for me. W. E. BARKER. TRANSACTIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.—The fifteenth volume, which has just been published, is a work of some 600 pages, illustrated by 4o plates. The majority of the latter are of rather rough execution, but we presume that as long as the sum of £500 is all that is available for the publication of such a bulky volume, it will be impossible to expect better results. The department simply cannot afford, in the majority of cases, to adopt any other mode of reproduction but that of photo- lithography, and though this mode gives absolutely faithful figures of the original drawings, they are also absolutely destitute of finish. Ifthe various affiliated societies could see their way to strengthen Dr. Hector’s hands, by voting additional funds to aid in the work of publication, better results in this direction could be obtained. There is rather a formidable list of addenda et corrigenda at the beginning of the volume, but, judging from our own experience, we have no hesitation in saying that it is largely due to the defective handwriting of the authors of the papers. Many writers cover their sheets with a mass of hieroglyphics, and then are indignant because the printer who has the misfortune to decipher them makes errors in setting-up their technical terms. Last year’s work of our Institutes shews a remarkable pre- dominance of zoological papers, namely, 30 out of a total 62. Most of the names in this section are those of former con- tributors, Messrs. Travers, Hutton, Parker. Arthur, Fereday, Chilton, and Thomson continuing their researches on the various groups with which they have been formerly oceupied. We are glad, however, to see Mr. Meyrick to the fore with an extensive paper on Micro-lepidoptera, and trust that the energy hitherto displayed by him will result in great additions to our knowledge of this branch of the fauna. Botany has not its usual prominence, Messrs. Cheeseman and Colenso being the principal contributors ; but papers dealing with Micro-botany are contributed by Messrs. Maskell and Inglis, and Drs. Spencer and Knight. Mr. Cox continues his valuable mineralogical papers, but Geology is hardly touched on in the volume. Some interesting reading is contained in the miscellaneous papers, which occupy the last 90 pages. The Proceedings of the affiliated societies are more briefly recorded than usual. The appendix contains zuter ala an earthquake table, from which we note that no less than 16 earthquakes occurred at Wellington and 5 at Christchurch, as against I, 2, or 3 at other stations. These numbers cannot be absolutely trustworthy, for while Cook’s Strait and its neigh- bourhood no doubt ezjoy a preeminence of earthquakes, the presence of skilled observers at both the above localities probably causes earthquakes to be recorded from them which are not noticed elsewhere. G. M. T. GENERAL NOTES. 469 NEW ZEALAND DIAMONDS.—Since the reputed discovery of diamonds in the Auckland District by some miners recently re- turned from the Cape diamond-fields, and the placing of an un- - doubted diamond, found by the said miners, in the Auckland Museum, a fresh discovery of these precious stones has been reported from the Canterbury district. Some specimens of the reputed diamonds from both localities were sent to Professor Haast, who forwarded them to Professor Ulrich, of the Otago School of Mines, for examination. From the report published in the Lyttelton Times we learn that these crystals were neither more nor less than quartz, having the conchoidal fracture, vitreous lustre and absence of cleavage characteristic of that mineral, while the recognisable crystals manifestly belonged to the hexagonal or rhombohedral system. The further tests applied leave no doubt as to the correctness of this identification. The crystals could scratch glass, but did not attack topaz in the least. The specific gravity was determined as 2.4, which, considering the small quantity of material operated on, gives results within the limits of error allowed for quartz (2.5 to 2.6), but not near _. that of diamond (3.1). Lastly, the chemical re-action with sul- phuric acid and calcium fluoride gave unmistakeable proof of the presence of silica. As against this latter test it has been stated that some of these Canterbury diamonds were placed in hydro- fluoric acid for 48 hours, the only result being that the outside became a little soft. It is needless to say that had they been diamonds they would not have become a little soft, whereas rock crystals would easily resist the action of hydrofluoric acid fora considerable length of time unless they were previously pulverised. A company has been formed to work this deposit of quartz, and a large number of specimens have been taken home by Mr. T. Kelsey to be reported on. Unless some Cape diamonds have inadvertently found their way into this consignment, the London and Amsterdam dealers will have little encouragement to give the consignees. ee VERONICA DERWENTIA, Lttlejohn.—Mr. J. B. Armstrong, of the Christchurch Botanic Gardens, informs us that this species, which was originally described from Tasmania, occurs sparingly in the Canterbury district. In his synopsis of the genus Veronica in “ Trans. N.Z. Inst.,” Vol. XIII., page 344, it was regarded as a large form of V. cataracte, to which no doubt it is somewhat closely allied. DIXON’S PATENT GAs.—Considering how completely the attempt to palm off this gas on the Victorian public was ex- posed by Mr. J. Cosmo Newbery at a meeting of the Royal Society of Victoria many months ago, it isa matter of regret and one calling for a protest from every scientific man that the inven- tion (?) should now be brought forward again, and this time in Dunedin. The gas is neither more nor less than an ordinary petroleum gas, and if the patentee had contented himself with 470 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. saying so, the public would have been able to judge for them- selves as to its illuminating value and its cost as compared with coal gas. But as the matter stands the specification either dis- closes gross ignorance of the simplest principles of chemistry on the part of the patentee, or it is a deliberate attempt to mislead the ignorant, and in any case it is well that the public should be warned against it. It isa difficult matter to obtain money for bona fide scientific research, but it seems to be the easiest thing in the world to gull an ignorant public into supporting unwork- able or absurd schemes. We append Prof. Newbery’s paper, as it will be found both interesting and amusing. Mr. Newbery read his paper as follows :—’‘ My desire is to call your attention to what seems to me to be a most extraordi- nary specification of a patent recently granted by the Victorian Patent Office for an improved gas, For convenience I have di- vided the specification into paragraphs, which I will read, with a few very brief notes. I. NATURE OF THE INVENTION.—My invention relates to the production of improved gas for illuminating purposes by the decomposition or dissolution of the component parts or constituents of certain metals, earths, or earthy bases, or alloys of earths or earthy bases, acids, or mixtures of acids, cacbon and hydrocarbon sub- stances or liquids, or other chemical substances, especially the salts of alkalis and alkaline earths, the dissolution of the substances being caused by heat in the manner hereinafter described. We are not told how to make alloys of earths or earthy bases, nor is there any further reference to them or to salts of the alka- lis and alkaline earths, and with regard to the process of decom- position or dissolution we are told nothing. 2. OPTICAL FActTs.—It has long been known that certain chemical substances, when strongly heated, produce flames of peculiar colours, which, when blended to- gether, produce a white light. Thus, for instance, sodium compounds colour the flame an intense yellow, while potassium salts tinge the flame violet. In like man- ner other chemical substances produce other colours, the blending of which together can be made to produce a white light. In looking through the whole specification we find named cop- per, bismuth, mercury, zinc, manganese, iron, antimony, calcium, and sodium, which, even if vaporised together, would not give a continuous spectrum, and certainly not a white light. 3. PARTICULARS AND NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS. —The following are the par- ticulars of certain stock or chemical mixtures employed according to my invention in the manufacture of gas, which are referred to in the formule or receipts herein- after mentioned, In preparing the stock it is essential that the scales, weights, and all utensils should be thoroughly and chemically clean, as_ the quality of the gas pro- duced depends upon great care being used in preparing the mixtures and keeping all the apparatus used clean, ‘There should be no water, or moisture, or damp, where the chemicals or ingredients are being mixed. Though no water should be near the chemicals when they are being mixed, water is used in several of them. Thus in para- graph 4 we have 44 parts of water in a total of 75 parts. 4. For Stock No, 1 (Mixture A.)—In order to form stock No, 1, I make the following mixtures, the figures corresponding to parts by weight. Mixture A.— Take copper wire very clean, 1; add nitric acid, 30; then water 44; total, 75. We are also left in the dark as to the reason of adding so much nitric acid ; 1 part of copper would require about 2 parts, not 30 parts of acid to dissolve it. GENERAL NOTES, A7t 5. Mixture B.—Take zinc cut small, 4; add muriatic acid, 3; then water, 5; then add of bismuth 2, of mercury 2. One-half of the bismuth and one-half of the mercury to be ground together in an iron mortar by a pestle, and kept free from damp or dust, and then added to the above after the other half of the bismuth and the other half of the mercury have been grounded with the zinc. Here we have some more curious chemical blunders. The first item, 4 parts of zinc, would require about 4.4 parts of muriatic acid, so that in this mixture part of the zinc and all of the other components are not acted on. If this is intentional, the inten- tion is immediately frustrated by paragraph 6. 6. Mix A. and B, Add mixture A to mixture B, and evaporate to dryness. The nitric acid left in excess in A will dissolve the mercury, bis- muth, and zinc, and all the labour of grinding in a mortar per- fectly dry is thrown away. 7, MIXTURE (X).—Then mix of kerosene 20; and sodium 4, and grind them ina mortar, Then mix of kerosene 10, and mercury (very dry) 24; total, 74; and grind them in a mortar. The object for this is not stated. The result of the grinding would be films of sodium, which would settle to the bottom of the mortar. Then, in paragraph 8, we are directed to 8 A, B, and X GROUND TOGETHER,—Then grind together in a mortar all the above mixtures, I fancy the patentee would be rather startled if he were to grind large or even moderate quantities of metallic sodium with metal- lic chlorides and nitrates. Our chemical result so far is to have a mixture of nitrate and chloride of sodium with metallic oxides and kerosene. 9g. MixtTuRE C.—Take of muriatic acid 480; and of nitric acid 80; then tak® of zinc (very clean), cut in small pieces, 240, Mix the acids together, and dissolve the zinc in the mixed acids. When the zinc is dissolved strain off the impurities by passing the solution through a porous substance. Then add to the solution—of kerosene 8000; total, 8,800, Here we have a strongly acid solution of chloride of zinc, to which he adds kerosene, as if the two fluids would mix. Then according to paragraph 1o— : 10, STOCK.—Mixture A, as above stated, is mixed with mixture B, and the two are then mixed with mixture C, and the three together form stock No. 1, which may be kept in a stoppered vessel, and has a full total of 8,94) parts. So that if any of the sodium of paragraph 7, mixture X, escaped when it was ground with A and B, the acid of C would combine with it. For stock No. 2 we have the following— Ir, S1ock No, 2,—Stock No. 2 is thus made—Take of bismuth filings (very clean), 5; then add of mercury, 5. These are amalgamated together with kerosene, 50; total, 60. Ina dry climate Sgr. of sodium may be added, A very simple preparation compared to Stock 1. How or why 5 grains of sodium amalgamated with bismuth and mercury under kerosene is to be affected even by a moist climate is not very evident, or why it should be added in a dry climate. “Stock No. 3 seems to be simply an excuse for adding more kerosene. It is described in paragraph 12. 12. Stock 3.—Stock No, 3is thus made :—Take an iron ladle, perfectly clean, warm it over a fire, put ina little suet to grease it, and while warmfput in of mercury 5, and of sodium 5, forming an amalgam which is cut into pieces about the size of a canary 472 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, seed, In cutting be careful not to touch with the fingers or allow any damp to ap- proach it. Mix the mercury and sodium well together, then add mercury 5, and rub the whole thoroughly together in a mortar, and add of kerosene 240, making a total of 255 for Stock No, 3 13. Stocks 2 and 3 mixed.—Pour Stock No. 3 as soon as mixed into Stock No, 2, and thoroughly amalgamate them together. Stock No, 2 will not keep without deteriorating unless hermetically sealed, but stock No, 2 and stock No. 3 combined will keep safely ina glass or porcelaine stoppered vessel. Care must be taken not to handle the mercury compound, An iron ladle may be used for mixing the several ingredients. Here we add stock No. 3 to stock No. 2; in other words, add sodium—a course paragraph II says may only be done in a dry climate. 14, COMMON STOCK (I, 2, and 3 mixed).—When No, 2 and No. 3 are mixed together, they are then mixed with No, 1, and kept ready for use in a suitably-closed air-tight vessel, And in this form they are not used; in fact these stocks are only referred to again when they are measured out in separate quan- tities, but not in the form of a common stock. 15. RETORTS AND CHARGES, —In carrying out my intentions I use retorts which may be similar to or only slightly differing from, those used in ordinary gasworks. Preferably I use an earthenware retort with an iron lining, or iron retorts may be used. These retorts are charged at requisite intervals with certain mixtures herein- after mentioned—|{Here we take a fresh departure. |—consisting ot metals metallic earths, silicious earths, carbons, hydrocarbons, alkalis, alkaline earths, and other chemical substances, such mixtures being defined in the following formule or receipts. And paragraph 16 is very interesting :— 16, Retort charge No. I is composed of the tollowing component parts com- pounded or mixed together as described. It is important that the scales and weights used be chemically clean. Take of muriatic acid, 10; add nitric acid, 10; These are mixed together and then are added—Of water, 5 ; bismuth, 1; iron filings I; zinc, 15. The mixture of metals and acids is put into an iron vessel, and heat is applied until the liquids evaporate, and when the mixture is perfectly dry there are added—Of mercury, I; and of sodium, 1, The mixture so formed is ground in a moitar with a pestle, and then there is added—Black oxide of maganese, 5,760. Chemically clean scales and weights are used to weigh out one part of iron to be dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid in an iron vessel. 17. Retort Charge, No. 2.—Charge No. 2, which may in some cases be substi- tuted for charge No, (, is made thus :—Take of copper wire (very clean) 2; nitric acid, 15 ; water, 15; charcoal (crushed very fine) 480; lime, unslacked (crushed very fine) or silicium, 1920; total, 2432.. Mix these ingredients well together and add 894°9 parts of stock No, 1, and 45 parts of stocks Nos, 2 and 3. We are not told when this charge may be substituted for charge No. 1, but probably when the acid destroys the bottom of the iron vessel in which No. 1 was to have been evaporated ; and one would like to ask how charcoal, lime, and silicium are to act as substitutes for oxide of manganese, and where the silicium is to be procured. 18, Retort Charges,—The retort charge No. 1 or No. 2 is put into a retort of the construction hereinafter set forth, and there are supplied to it intermittently mixtures, which I term flux mixtures, which are fed in from a vessel which I term a retort supplier. So we must presume that the chemical results expected from either of these mixtures—one or two—will be identical. Per- haps it is, so far as making illuminating gas is concerned. GENERAL NOTES. 473 19. This vessel (supplier) is placed at a convenient height above the retorts, The flux mixture is composed of the following component parts, compounded or mixed together as described, being intermingled or held in suspension by a vehicle, such as kerosene, petroleum, naphtha, or turpentine, Kerosene is the best, and it can be recovered by distillation. In no sense of the word would kerosene play the part ofa flux. 20. Making Flux Mixture.—Take of bismuth, 3 (dissolved by nitric acid); add antimony, I (dissolved in hot hydrochloric acid) ; sodium, 1 (held in kerosene), and tin, 4 (dissolved in nitric acid), Mix all the above and evaporate to dryness, then add nine-tenths of stock No. 1, and six-sevenths of stocks No, 2 and 3, and to this ‘¢add kerosene to any required extent,” and put this flux mixture into the retort supplier, from whence it is injected intermittently into the retorts as hereinafter shown. In this paragraph we find that tin may be dissolved in nitric acid ; whereas we have always been under the impression that tin was converted into insoluble oxide of tin by nitric acid. It is also to be noted that kerosene is here used to any required ex- tent. 21. Temperature of Flux Mixture.—The retorts and their contents should be heated to not less than a cherry-red heat to give the proper quantity and quality of the gas. The best working heat for the flux mixture for injection is 80deg; if under 5odeg. it is very lazy, if over 10odeg. it is volatile, 22. Quality of Gas,—Gas of a greatly improved character, as compared with that ordinarily used, is then generated, and will be found very suitable for being used as illuminating gas for lighting purposes. 23. Kerosene Recovered.—After generation in the retorts, the gas is led through a pipe or main answering to the hydraulic main of ordinary gasworks, and the con- densed vehicle is led to a recoverer. The function of this recoverer is to extract as far as possible the kerosene or other vehicle used in the retort supplier. Why not claim to extract it all ? 24. Purifier, &c,—Ihe gas is led from the main to a purifier consisting of a series of network or fine-meshed filters, which are formed of wire net-work sieves, covered with red oxide of iron. one part hydrate of lime, five parts mixed well to- gether, and spread Jightly over the sieves about aninch thick, Entering the purifier at the bottom and issuing from the top, the gas is then led to and stored in a gaso- meter of any suitable construction, such as those used in ordinary gasworks, from whence it is supplied through mains fur general use. Iron and lime purifiers are supposed to remove sulphur and car- bonic acid, and cannot be wanted for this gas. 25. Nature of Gas.—I would define my improved gas to be a metallic gas, de- rived from the dissolution of such ingredients as those contained in the before-going formulz. Ihave found that gas produced by my invention is of a dry nature, nearly incondensible, and is not affected by extreme cold. I may owe to the society an apology for asking its members to discuss this specification, but I am informed that a company has been formed, and that capital is subscribed to work this patent, and the shares of this company are sold at a premium, and I think that the public should be told by us that there is nothing introduced into the retort described that would produce an illu- minating gas except kerosene, and that the manufacture of kero- sene gas is in no way aided by the mixtures mentioned.” During the reading of the paper there were frequent bursts of laughter, and at its close an animated discussion ensued, in which severe strictures were passed on the patentee. Before the meeting separated Mr. Newbery said :—“I was once present at an experiment with Dixon’s gas. I saw the mixture made and put into the retort, During the operation of A74. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. making it, which was carried on with the help of a large diagram, like one of those which the old alchemists used to employ, the clergyman held the watch while Dixon added the drops. We all gathered round, and stared into the mixture. One gentle- man, then a shareholder, was smoking, and he spat very close to » the jug. Dixon and the parson jumped back, and said that if the spittle had gone into the jug we would have been all hurled | into eternity. Dixon asked the parson what had before hap- pened when but a little moisture got into the jug, and according to the latter it was something not far short of what had just been mentioned. Both retired to prepare a small extra dose. I sug- gested to the gentleman left with me that the mixture was only kerosene, and that spittle would do it no harm. He said if I spat in it, he would also. (Laughter.) I put in my finger and smelt kerosene. We then both spat into it.” (Much laughter.) MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. — — .<—___. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY: Christchurch, 7th June, 1883. Protessor F. W. Hutton, Presi- dent, in the chair. New Member—Mr. A. Loughrey. Papers.—1. Notes on the fertilisation of Red Clover in New Zealand, by J. B. Armstrong. The author described experiments which shewed that the red clover (Trifolium pratense) was to some extent self-fertile in New Zealand. but produced tenfold the num- ber of seeds when growing unprotected in the fields. He thought it was fertilised by the honey bee. He pointed out that seeds were imported into New Zealand from many parts of the world, and to the cross-fertilisation thus brought about he attributed the luxuriant growth of the vegetation here. This important paper will be published in full in our next number. | Mr. Murphy stated that he had obtained 60 seeds from a head of red clover, and 30 of them germinated. He thought that the virgin soil of New Zealand had much to do with the greater luxu- riance of plants, although cross-fertilisation of imported seeds may help. a Webb wished to know whether the humble bee was wanted in New Zealand for the clover. Mr. Fereday stated that moths of the family Noctuz visited the red clover in England, but as the Noctue were getting scarcer every year in New Zealand, whilst the red clover appeared to be getting more fertile, it was not probable that fertilisation was due to them. He thought that humble bees could be brought out in their hybernating state in the cool chamber of steamships. If they arrived here in the middle of summer, they would have plenty of time to rear their young before the winter. Mr. Meyrick said that experiments made in America shewed that, although the red clover was self-fertile there, it produced four times as many seeds when cross-fertilised by humble bees. Sir]. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 475 Lubbock had shewn that most papilionaceous flowers required bees to fertilise them. Moths might visit red clover, but they would not fertilise it, as they do not settle, but suck the nectar on the wing. Mr. Farr gave an account of Sir J. Hall’s attempt to introduce the humble bee. Each nest was packed in a box 18 inches by 12, with a zinc tray an inch in depth at each end; this tray was filled wi h sponge soaked in honey, and covered with perforated zinc. The bees ate freely, and lived for 84 days, and were ultimately killed by an oversight. The President pointed out that red clover might well be self- sterile in England and self-fertile here; other similar instances were known. He drew the attention of members to Mr. Darwin’s remark that farmers often get seed from other localities, but his experiments shewed that it would be better for farmers to import only half their seed and mix it with their own, so as to insure cross- fertilisation, © — | ir. Armstrong, in reply, said that one reason why red clover was comparatively rare in this couutry was that ten times more white clover seed was imported than red clover seed, and that white clover flowered all through the year. He thought that the red clover would be permanent in New Zealand without the help of the humble bee, but that it would deteriorate. The humble bee would no doubt be useful, especially for the fertilisation of the cowgrass variety. On the other hand humble bees were a great nuisance to all engaged in rearing true-bred flowers and vegetables for seed. The flora of New Zealand was remarkable for pale- coloured flowers, and he thought that there was in the clover a tendency to follow this apparent rule. 2. Notes on a native epecies of Mantis, by T. H. Potts. This paper gives observations made during the last three years on the habits of a species of Mantis found in several places in the South Island of New Zealand. The young are hatched in September and November ; they feed only on living insects such as flies, small moths, and spiders, and are very voracious. They throw them- selves on their backs to cast off the old skin. The mature insect seldom uses its wings. The female is ready for breeding in about ten days after the last moult. Coition takes place often, and lasts for several hours, and about ten days after the eggs are laid, in January or February. After forming an egg mass the female rests for a time, and then commences feeding again. She lays five or six of the egg masses at intervals of about nine days. 3. Notes on some New Zealand land shells, with descriptions of new species, by Professor F. W. Hutton. This paper contains descriptions of the animals of twenty species of land mollusca, and the dentition of fifty-one species. The following are described as new :— Patula jessica, Dark reddish brown, marked with horny ; spire flat: ribs sinuated, close, about 35 in the tenth of an inch; um- bilicus wide; diameter 0.17inch. Habitat, Bealey (Haast). Patula bianca. Horny brown, banded with darker; spire flat; ribs delicate, about 55 in the tenth of an inch; umbilicus broad, graduated ; diameter 0.1 inch. Habitat, Greymouth (Helms). Patula tumandva. Brown, obscurely banded with paler; ribs sinuated on the upper surface, distant, about 13 in the tenth of an inch ; diameter, 0.12 inch. Habitat, Auckland (Gillies). 476 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Patula sylvia. Pale horny, with thin bands of chestnut on the upper surface; spire flat; ribs oblique, distant, about 18 in the tenth of an inch; umbilicus wide; diameter 0.12 inch. Habitat, Bealey (Haast). Fruticicola adriana. Pale horny, spotted and angularly streaked with chestnut ; spire flat; ribs delicate, about 50 in the tenth of aninch ; umbilicus narrow but open; diameter 0.15 inch. Habitat, Christchurch (Brown). Endodonta marina, Pale yellow, faintly marked with chestnut ; spire conoidal, rather obtuse; suture margined; sub-perforate; a columellar plait, and two parietal plaits, none of which are on the basal margin; diameter 0.13 inch. Habitat, Auckland (Cheese- man). Endodonta nevissa. Pale horny, with indistinct bands ot chest- nut ; spire conoidal, obtuse; suture margined; sub-perforate; a columellar plait and six parietal plaits, three of which are on the basal margin; diameter o.11 inch. Habitat, Auckland (Cheeseman) Phrixguathus celia, Pale horny, with reddish-brown bands, shin- ing ; spire conoidal, depressed; suture impressed ; the last whorl obtusely keeled; narrowly umbilicated; diameter o0.15inch. Habitat, Dunedin (F. W. H.). Phrixgnathus (?) haastt, WHorny, with irregular bands of reddish- brown and white; spire conoidal, depressed; the last whorl sub- carinated ; suture impressed ; umbilicus moderate; diameter 0.12 inch. Habitat, Mount Somers (Haast). Phrixgnathus ariel. Pale horny; spire conoidal, depressed, finely ribbed; suture impressed; umbilicus covered; diameter 0.13 inch. Habitat, Auckland (Cheeseman). Phrixgnathus phrynia. Pale horny, radiately streaked with ru- fous, covered by a thin distantly plaited epidermis; spire acute ; diameter 0.1 inch. Habitat, Wanganui (T. W. Kirk). Phrixgnathus titania. Broadly umbilicated. Pale horny, irre- gularly banded with chestnut. Differs from A. sczadium in the higher spire and obtuse keel. Diameter 0.14 inch. Habitat, Dunedin (Hutton). Pfeiffera (?) cvessida. Pale greenish horny, pellucid; spire con- vex; whorls striated ; suture impressed; umbilicus very narrow, covered ; diameter 0.48 inch. Habitat, Waiau, Southland (G. M. Thomson). Amphidoxa lavinia. Closely ribbed, ribs 18 in the tenth of an inch ; yellow horny, mottled with rufous on the upper side; dia- meter 0.5 inch. Habitat, Palmerston North (T. W. Kirk). Amplidoxa perdita. Horny, without markings; spire convex ; whorls 34 or 4, rounded; umbilicus narrow, open; diameter 0.23 inch. Habitat, Auckland (Cheeseman). Amphidoawa jacquenetta. Horny brown, without markings; spire flat; whorls 24, striated, the last acutely keeled; umbilicus very narrow; diameter 0.2inch. zabitat, Greymouth (Helms). Geventia cordelia. Pale horny, marked with reddish-brown ; whorls 44, striated but not plaited; widely umbilicated ; diameter 0.32 inch. Habitat, Titirangi, Auckland (Cheeseman). Chavopa mivanda. Paie horny, tessellated with rufous; sub-per- forate ; ribs, 50 inthe tenth of an inch; diameter 0.16 inch. Habitat, Greymouth (R. Helms). Chayopa cassandra. Pale horny, with zig-zag bands of chestnut 5. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 477 narrowly perforate ; ribs, 20 in the tenth of an inch; diameter 0.5 inch. Habitat, Napier. Charopa planulata. Horny brown, without markings ; sub-per- forate ; ribs, 27 inthetenth of aninch; diametero.15inch. Habi- tat, Auckland (Cheeseman). Thevasia, n. g—Animal having the dentition of Chavopa with the shell of Thalassia. Thevasia tamova, Umbilicus narrow; shell conical, irregularly plaited ; brownish horn; diameter 0.17 inch. Habitat, Auckland Oe Cheeseman). Therasia valeria. Whorls strongly striated; sub-perforate ; yel- lowish horny, obscurely marked with reddish ; diameter 0.25 inch Habitat, Dunedin (Hutton). Thevasia thasa. Pale horny, variously streaked with brown, sometimes almost quite brown; rather solid; irregularly coarsely striated ; umbilicus moderate ; diameter 0.35 inch. Habitat, Waiau, Southland (G. M. Thomson). Tvachomorpha(?)hermia. Imperforate, closely plicated above, smooth below ; horny brown, paler above than below; columella callous, white; diameter u.7 inch. Habitat, Manawatu, Wellington. Leptopoma pallida. Pale brown, with a pale plicated epidermis ; spire conical; diameter 0.13 inch; heighto.2inch. Habitat, Auck- land (Cheeseman). Cyclotus charnnan. Shell with spiral raised striz, and an undu- lating keel, widely umbilicated; diameter 0.6 inch; operculum with the calcareous lamina thickened round the margin, and with a raised centre. Habitat, Horokiwi, Wellington. 3. Notes on some Marine Mollusca, by Professor F. W. Hut- ton. This paper gives the dentition of six species of marine gas- tropods not previously described. Leuconia obsoleta is formed into a new genus, called Leuconopsis, distinguished by having only one plait on the inner lip. Euthna lineata, var. D., of the Manual ot the New Zealand Mollusca, is made a separate species under the name E. flavescens. ‘The following new species are described :— ZZ olis leptosoma. A small yellowish-white species, with the gills brownish-grey tipped and slightly margined with white; there are minute eyes, and the foot is not crisped, nor expanded i in front. Habitat, Lyttelton. Cenithidea tricarinata, Stromal longitudinally plicate and dis- tinctly spirally grooved; eight longitudinal plice in a whorl, be- low which, in the body whorl, are three sub-equidistant spiral ridges. Habitat, Kati-kati, near Tauranga. Cingula limbata. Shell polished, but not iridescent; whorls flattened ; ashy-brown, more or less marked with white. Habitat, Auckland. Cyclostvema _iuctuata. Small, spirally grooved, not iridescent ; yellowish-white, with irregular bands of pale brown ; operculum sub-calcarious, of about six slowly increasing whor rls. Haditat, Foveaux Straits. Acmeacingulata. Shell rather thick, white, with about 30 to 50 low radiating ribs; interior white, the margin light brownish-pink, banded with white. Habitat, Lyttelton and Dunedin. Kellia cityina, Shell minute, pale yellowish, sub-equilateral, ovato-rotund, smooth, with fine concentric grooves. Habitat, Ta- mati Heads, near Auckland. 478 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Kellia sanguinea. Shell minute, much like the last in shape and sculpture, but yellowish-white, with the umbones bright pink, Habitat, Foveaux Straits. Unis depauperata, n.s. Shell oblong, very thin, compressed ; dor- sal margin slightly arched; ventral margin straight, sinuated in the middle; teeth almost obsolete. Habitat, Lake Takapuna, Auckland. Unis rugatus, n.s.—Shell oval, compressed in front, swollen and rudely concentrically corrugated behind; teeth rugose, not striated. Habitat, Lake Pearson. (Y. D. Enys). OTAGO INSTITUTE. Dunedin, 7th May, 1883.—A. Montgomery, Esq., President, in the chair. New members—E. A. Petherick, J. R. Wilkinson, T. C. Farnie, M.A., and G. A. Chalmers. Papers—( 1) “On the Pycnogonide, with descriptions ot two species,’ by Geo. M. Thomson, F.L.S. The author points out that only five species of this remarkable family have, yet been found in New Zealand, Of these, two species of Nymphen and one of Oorhynchus were found in our seas (at very considerable depths) during the voyage of |the “Challenger,” and are described at p. 170 of this journal. A species of Ammothea was ‘recorded by the author at p. 28 of this journal, but as the description there given (translated from Quatrefages) is most imperfect and cannot be with certainty applied to any known species, a new and full de- scription of our species is given under the provisional name of Ammothea (Achelia) dohrni. The second species described is a new Pallene (P. nove-zealandie), of which one specimen was obtained by the dredge in Otago Harbour. (2.) “On a new Daphma,” by Geo. M. Thomson, .F.L.S. Numerous specimens ot this species (including one male) were ob- tained last year by Mr C. Chilton, in ponds near Eyreton, Canter- bury, and were sent to the author. The animals when alive were ot a brick-red colour. They closely resemble the common European J. pulex, and may possibly be only a variety of that species. The chief difference lies in the very acute rostrum of the female, and in the anterior antenne being represented by a very minute tubercle, which is quite destitute of setee. In the male the beak is blunt, while in both sexes the carapace is posteriorly produced into a stout spine. The species is named D. similis. Several specimens illustrative of both papers were exhibited under microscopes. Mr. R. Gillies took occasion to welcome Mr. Thomson back to the Institute meetings, and to express the sympathy of the mem- bers with him in consequence of his long illness. Prof. Parker remarkedion the fact that the Crustacea of New Zea- land were now becoming pretty well known, owing to the researches of Mr. Thomson and others, and expressed a hope that workers might be got to take up the study of the numerous other inverte- brate groups, about which at present very little was known, (3.) “On a Torpedo recently caught near Dunedin,” by Prof. T. J. Parker. The specimen described was caught at Purakanui towards the end of last year. In most respects it agrees with MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 479 Torpedo hebetans (Ginther, Cat. of Fishes. VIII, p. 449), of which the author thinks it will probably turn out to be a variety. As, how ever, it differs from that species in at least one character con- sidered by Ginther to be of specific value, itis proposed to name it provisionally T. fusca. The fact that the spiracles are not fringed separates it from all Giinther’s species except T. hebetans and I. mavce. Among the synonyms of TI. hebetans, a query is placed by 'Giinther against T. emarginata of McCoy, which is ap- parently known only from the description in the ‘‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History” for 1841. Since the publication of the ‘‘ Catalogue of Fishes,” only one new species of Torpedo has been recorded (Zool. Record, 1881), namely T. fawchildi, Hutton, from the North Island of New Zealand. There are thus three species and a doubtful fourth with unfringed spiracles, from which the specimen in question differs in the following characters :— (1) From T. hebetans, (a) in the position of the first dorsal fin ; (0b) inthe presence of well-marked emarginations separating the pectoral fins from the head; and ¢) inthe colour. Judging from Ginther’s descriptions, the first of these characters is the only one of specific importance. > .4(2.) From T. narce, (2) in the comparative size of the first and second dorsal fins; (b) in the absence ofa well-marked longi- tudinal pit at the angle of the mouth ; and (c) in the colour. (3.) From T. emarginata, (a) in the anterior boundary of the head being curved instead of straight ; (5) in the breadth of the disc being greater than the length ; (c) in the tail being shorter than the disc ; (d)in the absence of tubercles on the dorsal surface ; and (e) in the position of the first dorsal fin. (4.) From T. faivchild:, (a) in the more rounded form of the disc ; (6) in the distance between the emarginations being fully six times the distance between the eyes, instead of the two distances. being about equal; (c) in the position of the first dorsal fin; and (d) in the relative size ot the two dorsals. The characters of the specimen described are as follows :— Torpedo fusca, ? n. sp.—Spiracles not fringed, their distance from the eyes little more than their own diameter; the greatest length of the first dorsal fin is to that of the second as 13 is to 8: line of attachment and vertical height of first dorsal almost exactly twice that of second; posterior end of line of attachment a pelvic fin nearly opposite the middle of that of the first dorsal ; distinct longitudinalipit at angle of mouth, but several ae folds; length of band of mandibular teeth has same proportions to width of gape as in T. mavce. Dark brown colour, mottled with ir- regular lighter patches; greyish-brown beneath. Total length, 26 inches; length of disc 16.5 in., breadth of same 14 in.; length of electric organ 7.5 in., average breath of same 2.5 in.; about 70 columns to the square inch in the anterior part of the organ, about 40 in its posterior part. Prof. Parker exhibited some embryos of the Elephant Fish (Callorhynchus antarcticus) which had lately been obtained for him by a fisherman in Wickliffe Bay. The eggs were found buried in the sand a little below low-water mark, a position which would seem to cast some doubt on the generally accepted theory which.ac- counts for the peculiar form of the egg-shell by supposing it to have acquired a protective resemblance to kelp. The cavity for the 480 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. embryo has an elongated pyriform shape, the broad end being anterior, and the narrow or posterior end produced into a long canal. On what may be described as the “hairy” in contra- distinction to the smooth side of the egg-shell, there is on each side of the middle line at the anterior end a longitudinal slit in the wall of the cavity, which serves to allow of currents to. and from the latter, for respiratory purposes. The anterior ends of these slits are united by a weak place in the wall of the egg-shell; very slight pressure from within causes rupture along this line and produces a valve, the lateral boundaries of which are formed by the respira- tory slits, its anterior boundary by the line ofrupture. This valve readily opens outwards by pressure on its inner face, and serves for the exit ot the foetus; pressure upon its outer face only forces it against the opposite wall of the cavity. The advanced embryo lies in the cavity in such a position that its head lies at about the line of the base or hinge of the valve, and therefore some distance trom the anterior end of the cavity, its tail lies in the narrow posterior prolongation of the cavity, which fits it accurately ; its right side lies almost invariably against the smooth, its left against the hairy side of the egg-shell. Unfortunately the embryos in all the four dozen eggs examined were in a tolerably advanced stage of development, so that there will be little chance of getting younger stages until next autumn. The youngest obtained are about 4 inches long; they have large yolk-sacs (1.75 inch inlength), and very long external gills project- ing from the opercular aperture; the snout has acquired the characteristic form, but the tail shows as yet no trace of hetero- cercality, nor the skin of the silvery character it has in the adult, being in the fresh state translucent and highly vascular. The yolk-sac is remarkable; it is longitudinally elongated, and pro- duced into numerous blunt paired projections, which are tolerably constant in position; one pair of these always lies to the anterior end of the dorsal surface of the yolk-sac, and between them the snout of the embryo is invariably situated. The umbilical or somatic stalk is practically obsolete, the foetus being sessile upon the yolk-sac. As in Elasmobranchs the yolk-sac is gradually drawn into the ccelome, and so consists in advanced stages of an internal and an external portion, the former continually increasing at the expense of the latter. As the external portion diminishes in size, it loses its blood-vessels, and its projections gradually disappear. In the latest stage obtained, the external portion is not more than 0.5 inch long, the internal portion being fully 1.25 inch in length, and causing a great distension of the abdominal walls. In this stage also, the external gills are absorbed, and the adult characters of the. integument attained. In the discussion which followed, Mr. R. Gillies suggested the probability of the eggs being laid among the kelp, and becoming afterwards covered with sand through the heavy seas so prevalent on these coasts. The President and Secretary gave an account of the arrange- ments made by the Council for the present session of the Institute, They stated that it had been decided to hold the meetings regularly on the second Tuesday in each month, from May to November ; that the reading of original papers was to be confined to alternate MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES, ASI meetings, the remaining evenings being devoted to subjects of more general interest, viz., to a conversazione atthe June meeting, and to discussions at the August and October meetings ; and that tea and coffee would be provided at the close of each meeting Dunedin, June 12th, 1883.—A. Montgomery, Esq., President, in the chair. New Members—A. Crooke, P. Goyen, — Mason, and Miss Wimperis. After the reading of the minutes the meeting resolved itself into a conversazione, at which the following, amongst others, were exhibited :—Water-colour Paintings and Autotypes, Messrs Hodg- kins and Joachim ; Microscopes and Miscroscopic objects, Messrs. Gillies, Goyen, Joachim, Petrie, Ulrich, and the Secretary ; copy of Bayeaux Tapestry, Dr. Hocken, for Mr. E. Humphreys; several early editions of Illustrated Books, Mz. F. Chapman; Electrica] Machine, invented and made by the exhibitor, Mr. Mason; Dynamo-electric Machine, aud various forms of Electric Lamp, Mr. R. Jones, for the N. Z. Electric Light Company ; Drawing of Pro- Me-caw \Vorks at the Otago “Tieads,-Mr.. G. M. Barr, C.E. Anatomical Preparation, Dr. Scott; recent additions to the Museum, including a great Ant-eater (stuffed), a Sting Ray (stuffed), and a Human Skeleton, Professor Parker. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE: June 4th, 1883.—The Right Rev. W. G.\Cowie, D.D., Pre- sident, in the chair. New Members—Prof. Brown, Prof. Thomas, Prof. Tucker, Dr. Mackellar, A. J. Hunter, J. K. Nicholls. The President delivered his inaugural address. After alluding to the munificent bequest made to the Institute by the late Mr. E. Costley, and to the endowment granted to the Auckland Museum during the last session of Parliament, he proceeded to enquire into the objects of the Institute and Museum, and how they couid best be attained. Many proposals of a practical nature were made, and suggestions were thrown out as to the propriety of enlarging the sphere of action of the two institutions. i The following papers were read -— (1.) ‘‘ Notice of the discovery of the genus Rhagodia in New Zealand,” by T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. The genus Rhagodia had been hitherto supposed to be strictly confined to the Australian Continent, but during a recent excursion of the Auckland Naturalists’ Field Club to the little island of Otatau, in the Hauraki Gulf, specimens of one of the species—R. nutans, Br.—had been collected, and further investigation had shewn that it was abundant all round the island. 2. “On a new genus of Sulphide,” by Capt. T. Broun, M.E.S. The writer alluded to the curious fact that all the members of this family found in New Zealand possessed habits quite different to their European representatives, being found without exception amongst decaying vegetable matter, while the European species fed on carrion only. The new genus described, and for which the name Microsilpha was proposed, was based on specimens collected among decaying alge on the coast near Dunedin by Mr. T. Chalmer. 482 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. (3.) ‘* The Auckland Water Supply,” by Mr. Justice Gillies. The object of this paper was to shew that in the suburban dis- tricts of Auckland an excellent water-supply might be obtained by impounding the rainfall. The average rainfall in Auckland was certainly not less than 40 inches; so that every square toot of sur- face has rained upon it annually at least 20 gallons of water, even on making fair allowance for evaporation, &c. A cottager whose dwelling is only 24 feet by 12 will receive onits roof annually 5760 gallons, which, if he provided the storage, would afford him nearly 16 gallons per day. As the rainfall is distributed over a large por- tion of the year, the storage room required would not be very large, although, of course, it would depend on the size and requirements of the household. Concrete tanks were recommended tor the storage of the water, in preference to the ordinary iron tanks, and fil- ters should also be provided for the water used for drinking pur- poses. The author maintained that no family on the Auckland Isthmus need have any difficulty in having, even in the driest sea- sons, an abundant supply of pure and wholesome water. A long discussion arose, in which Mr. Peacock, Mr. Aitken, Mr. Campbell, and Dr. Purchas took part. SOUTHLAND INSTITUTE. Invercargill, 29th May, 1883.—J. T. Thomson, Esq., President, in the chair. Papers—‘‘ On the Distribution of Seeds,” by J. C. Thomson, Esq. The paper dealt with the special appliances with which the seeds of many plants were furnished as aids to their distribution, the examples adduced being chiefly local plants. The bearings of the question were also touched upon. The paper, which was illustrated by numerous specimens and by enlarged drawings, was favourably received, and gave rise to considerable discussion. ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALEe: ANNUAL MEETING. Sydney, 2nd May, 1883.—Mr. Christopher Rolleston, C.M.G., President, in the chair. New members—C. B. Stephen, M.A., J. T. Lingen, M.A., B. M. Osborne, and H. E. Kater; Annual Report (abstract)—‘‘ The number of new members. elected during the year was 41, and the total number of members on the 30th April, 1883, 486. During the past year the Society has received 791 volumes and pamphlets as donations; in return it has presented 835 volumes to various kindred societies, as shown by the accompanying list. The Council has subscribed to 43 scientific journals and publications, and has purchased 573 volumes, at a cost of £336, which, together with new bookcases, account for bookbinding, &c., makes the total sum expended upon the library during the past year £422 12s 10d. The council reports that dur- ing the past year no reduction has been made in the mortgage upon the building (£1500), but that the sum of £94 2s has been been received, and £271 7s conditionally promised towards the building fund, in response to the circular sent out in August last. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES.” 483 Theamount nowstandingtothecredit of this fundin the bankis £189 13 11d. During the year the Society has held 10 meetings, including twoadjourned meetings, at which12 papers were read, andthemedical and microscopical sections have held regular monthly meetings. At the council meeting held 13th December, 1881, it was unanimously resolved to award the Clarke Medal for the year 1883 to Baron Fer- dinand von Mueller, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., &c., Government Botanist, Melbourne. At the same meeting the council awarded the prize ot £25 which had been offered for the best communication on the ‘ Influence of Australian Climates and Pastures upon the Growth of Wool,’ to Dr. Ross, M.L.A., Molong; and the prize for the one upon ‘ The Aborigines of New South Wales’ to Mr. John Fraser, B.A., West Maitland.” . The President announced that M. Pasteur had been elected an honorary member of the Society, vice the late Dr. Charles Darwin. The President then delivered his annual address, dealing with the life and labours of the late Dr. Darwin, and drawing especial attention to his Australian experiences.* The election of officers and council for the ensuing year resulted as follows :—President, Hon. J. Smith, C.M.G., M.D., M.L.C. ; vice-presidents, Mr. Charles Moore, F.L.S., Mr. W. A. Dixson, Pee enon, treasurer, Dr. FL Gs A,’ Wright, M.R.C.S.E.; hon, Sectctaties, Professor Liversidge, F.R.S.,\ Dr.” Leibius, Ph.D, F.C.S.; members of council, Mr. Robert Hunt, F.G.S., Dr. W. Morris, Mr. F. Poolman, Mr. Christopher Rolleston, C.M.G., Mr. Peeorrussell, BA. PARAS. Mr..P. R. Pedley. MICROSCOPICAL SECTION. Sydney, May 14th.—Mr. G. D. Hirst, in the chair. The following were the chief exhibits :— (1.) Polyzoa, presented to the Society by the Rev. Jas. Jefferis : the animals had been mounted with their tentacles fully expanded. Mr. Pedley observed that the addition of a few drops of water holding carbonic acid gas, such as sodawater, had an immediate stupifying effect on the most active forms ot aquatic life, thereby enabling observers to study and delineate them ina state of rest, whilst on the addition of fresh water they would immediately re- vive and resume their wonted state of activity. (2.) Bacteria, by Dr. Wright, including Bacillus anthracis, a portion of the lung of an animal that died from splenic tever ; also a slide of the blood of a man suffering from woolsorters’ disease ; a slide of typhoid bacilli, present in a section of the mesenteric gland of a person that died of typhoid fever; a slide of tubercle bacillus stained by Dr. H. Gibbe’s method, and derived by the sputum of a person in the last stage of consumption. (3.) Leptothvix buccalis, a bacterium that is found generally pre- sent in decayed tooth structure, although it is an open question as to whether this bacterium is the source of tooth decay. By Mr. Pedley, (4.) Bacteria, by Dr. Mackellar, (5.) Rotiferze, Vorticellide, etc. (living specimens), by Messrs. Kyngdon and Whitelegge. * The address is printed in full in the columns of the Sydney Morning Herald ! of May Sth , hen 484 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. (6.) Mr. Trebeck exhibited a curious sample of brown wool, having several bands of lighter colour, and he introduced the ques- tion as to the felting properties of wool. Messrs. Hirst and Pedley, having recently investigated the matter, expressed themselves as unable to dissent from the generally received theory that this im- portant quality of wool is due to the rough and serrated notches always present on a felting fibre Mr. Whitelegge, a visitor, hav- ing had practical experience in wool-sorting, and the preparation of telt for hat-making, stated that manufacturers generally cleanse wool from burrs and seeds by steeping in dilute sulphuric acid, whereby the woody matter is destroyed, and at the same time its felting properties are impaired, although he was unable todetect any alteration in the shape of the “notches.” However, in furs trom skins that had been tanned he found the felting properties to be in- tensified. Asa proof that felting depends on the presence and character of the ‘“‘ notches,” heinstanced the custom of the felt hat manufacturer to select and keep separate the little patch of red fur always present in the neck of a rabbit skin, known in the trade as the ‘‘ red patch,” for the purpose of mixing with other fur and rub- bing in over bare patches ina felt, so that what would otherwise be a defect, and render the goods unsaleable, is rendered scarcely discernible even to a practised eye. He found these “red patch ” hairs to be notched to an extraordinary extent. Sydney, June 11th, 1883.—Mr. Hirst in the chair. A short paper was read by the chairman explanatory of the principles upon which the latest objectives of the highest magnifying power are now being constructed, entitled ‘‘ What is meant by the expression Angular and Numerical Aperture?” Reference was more particularly made to the extension of aperture of ‘“‘ homo- geneous” lenses over the maximum angle, viz., 180°—capable of being given to ‘‘ dry ” objectives—this extension of aperture being termed ‘Plus 180: air angle.” ‘‘ Numerical Aperture” was then ex- plained as the name given to the standard scale to which objectives of every cliss are now reduced for comparison. Dr. Wright ex- hibited, on behalf of Mr. Thomas Francis, C.E., a series of photo- graphic views of microscopic objects, greatly enlarged, and of ex- ceptional excellence. These admirable photographs were taken in © one to one and a-half second of time, using direct sunlight, with immersion objectives and illuminators. An instantaneous picture of a greyhound leaping over a stick was taken with an exposure of 1-1500 part of asecond. Dr. Ralph, president of the Microscopical Society of Victoria, called attention to what he regarded as a bacteyrium, found in the living cells of the water plant Vallisnenia, a giant specimen of which grows most luxuriantly in the ponds of the Botanic Gardens. He has been studying these organisms for some months past, and surmises that bacteria are not the actual germs of disease, but act as disease carriers. Messrs. Hirst, Ped- ley, and Kyngdon exhibited living specimens of Vorticella, Pluma- tella vepens, and several other fresh-water organisms. Attention was called to the illustration of Floscularia ambigua that appears in the last number of the Jourual of the Royal Microscopical Society of London. This new variety has been also discovered in the Water- loo marshes, and a living specimen was exhibited at the last meeting. In the report of the last meeting the specimen of /-— —/- Te a ; ad 1 > * P | MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 485 Leptothrix, exhibited by Mr. Pedley, should have been reported as a fungoid growth, and not a bacterium, found in decayed teeth. LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Sydney, April 25th, 1883.—Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.L.S., &c., Vice-President, in the chair. ~ New Members—Messrs. G. Littlejohn, G. A. Cheeke, and William Neil. Papers— (1) “‘ Notes on a collection of Fishes from the Bur- dekin and Mary Rivers, Queensland,” by William Macleay, F.L.S., &c. Fifty-two species of fishes are here recorded as having been taken by Mr. Morton, of the Australian Museum, within the mouths of the above-named rivers. Of these, Mr. Macleay classes 18 as sea fishes; 11 as salt water fishes occasionally entering rivers ; 7 as fresh water fishes occasionally visiting the sea; and 15 entirely fresh water fishes. The new species described are Ser- vanus estuavius, Thevapon fuliginosus and parviceps, Diagramma labiosum, Corvina argentea, Cavanx compressus, Cybium semifasciatum, Platycephalus movtont, Eleotris planiceps, Atherinichthys maculatus, Mugil vamsayi, Chatoéssus elongatus, Anguilla marginipinnis, and Teniura mortoni. (2.) ‘‘ Notes on a vivaparous Lizard,” by J. J. Fletcher, M.A.. B.Sc. The author’s attention had been drawn to the subject during last January, when he obtained at Burrawang several examples of female lizards in an advanced state of pregnancy. The embryos were from 2 to 3 inches long, enveloped in a thin and transparent chorion, quite devoid of the calcareous matter with which it is more or less impregnated in the oviparous species. (3.) “ Notes on a method of obtaining water from Eucalyptus roots, as practised by the natives of the country between the Lachlan and Darling Rivers,” by K. H. Bennett, Esq. The author describes the method by which, during times of drought, when cut off from the rivers by fear of the hostile tribes on the banks, the back-country natives used to extract their entire supply of water from the roots of certain trees—3 species ot Hucalyptus, a species of Hakea, anda Kurrajong. The roots are dug out, cut iuto lengths, and the pieces set on end in a water-bag until the water drains out. The water is described as perfectly clear and free fro. any unpleasant taste or smell. Professor Stephens exhibited a photograph and a sketch for- warded by Mr. C. Jenkins, representing a fossil from the Devonian formation of the Murrumbidgee Valley, near Yass. This very re- markable specimen is the head of some Ganoid fish, evidently belonging to ;the Devonian period, and characterised by strong bony scales, deeply sculptured, and united by closetextures. Two of these are perforated by iarge sub-circular orbits for the eyes. Other portions of the same specimen had been forwarded to the Australian Museum while Mr. Jenkins was engaged in the explora- tion of the Covan Caves; and some other fragments have since, it is believed, been recovered. Mr. Jenkins is inclined to refer it to Astevolepis (which is closely connected with Prerichthys), but chiefly on account of the character of sculpture of the scales. On the same ground, he doubts its relationship to Cacostews or Cephalaspis. Prof. Stephens added that without the actual specimen before them with all its collected fragments, it would be premature to 486 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. determine even the genus of this ancient fish; but pointed out that it appeared to have some points of resemblance to Macro- petalichthys of the North American Devonians,. Mr. Macleay exhibited specimens of a small Moth (Tineide), the larva of which was at present creating great havoc in the vegetable gardens in and about Sydney, completely eating up the leaves of the cabbages and cauliflowers, and rendering the entire crop utterly useless. The Caterpillar, a number of which were exhibited, is an active, slightly hairy, green worm, the pupa is also ereen and is fastened onthe under side of the leaf on which it has fed, by a cocoon of beautiful open lace work, The rapidity with which this insect seems to reproduce itself is most astounding, and accounts for the short work it makes of a bed of cabbages. The insect was, it is said, first noticed last year, and then not in de- structive numbers, so that it will probably be found to be an importation. | Mr. Macleay also exhibited the foetus of Halmaturus rujicollis, taken from the pouch of .he mother, with the umbilical cord attached, illustrating the extremely early age at which the young leave the uterus, 7 Mr. H. A. Gilliat exhibited a collection of cretaceous tossils from the Mount Brown diggings. With reference to this exhibit the Vice-President made a few remarks on its value and interest. He said that the cretaceous tormation was known to extend throughout the whole eastern interior of the Continent, and pro- bably through the centre, but not much was known of the fossils. The abundance of Avicula alata, Eth., in this collection, showed such a wide-spread prevalence of this fossil, that he considered it the most characteristic species of the formation, The rock was curiously like the Greensand of Europe. The collection contained valuable additions to our knowledge of the fauna. Mr. J. J. Fletcher exhibited (1.) A specimen of a Giant Earth- worm, 25 in. long, from Burrawang, N.S.W._ It probably belongs to Prof. M‘Coy’s genus Megascolides, and its existence in this colony is now recorded for the first time. (2.) The plates of Dendvolagus inustus and D. ursinus from Profs. Schlegel and Miiller’s work on the Mammals of the Indian Archipelago, for comparison with the specimen of a new species of Dendvolagus exhibited by the Hon. Wm. Macleay at the last meeting. (3.) Specimens of the Lizard referred to in his paper. Professor Stephens exhibited a pebble from Casino, containing an included drop of water, which did not entirely fill the space in which it was inclosed. The stone was chalcedony, evidently washed out of a volcanic rock, in a cavity of which it had been formed by infiltration of hydrous silica, the process having been in all probability only arrested by the decomposition of the matrix and consequent liberation of the nodule. The cavity had been first lined by some (probably) geolitic mineral, forming a mammil- lary surface, which had been subsequently covered by the inner and harder silicious substance, which now enclosed the water ac- companied by some gas. The phenomenon is not at all uncom- mon, but often escapes notice. He also exhibited a Chrysalis of a Danais, secured by a silk line to a leaf of an exotic Pelargonium, NEW ZEALAND COSSONID. 487 REVISION OF THE NEW ZEALAND COSSONIDA:, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES. ———— <> BY CAPT. T. BROUN, M.ES. <> (Read before the Auckland Institute, Oct. 3rd, 1881.) COSSONID.. On page 731, Part II., of the Manual of the New Zealand Coleoptera, there is an allusion to the difficulty likely to be ex- perienced in accurately identifying the numerous species of this group, now seventy.. Having recently made a thorough exami- nation of its somewhat heterogeneous exponents, I came to the conclusion that a revision had become necessary. ‘The species have accordingly been re-arranged in my cabinet in such a way that, it is hoped, their determination will be greatly facilitated. The following list will express my views :— Nos. 9''6 Pentarthrum apicale Nos. 934 Sericotrogus setiger 908 53 rufum 1432 Agastegnus ruficollis 1297 oO sculpturatum 930 - longipes 1301 . By asperella 922 hs gratus 1299 Ls confinis 923 ae simulans 1300 re punctirostra 1365 Bacorhopalus glabrus 903 ie zealandicum 1308 Macroscytalus laticollis 905 Me subsericatum 1309 zs russulus 907 i brunneum 914 - remotus 911 uy brevirostre 915 2 zeneopiceus 1304 ce ruficorne 920 ig badius 1303 os rugirostre 1433 55 depressus 1298 se reductum 921 Proconus asperirostris 919 ie piceum 940 Heteropsis lawsoni 925 a ferrugineum 927 Entium aberrans 1306 conicolle 935 Mesoxenophasis brouni 909 ig assimilatum 937 Microtribus huttoni 904 fe longirostre ' 988 Belinophorus rufus 1431 a4 crenatum 939 5 nigrans 910 = planiusculum 946 Pogonorhinus opacus 924 bk lateritia 1436 Euodontus punctithorax 926 sharpianum »947 Arecophaga varia 912 Rhinanisus fulvicornis 941 Phleophagosoma corvinum 913 uJ parvicornis 943 ae thorocicum 923 { leb A 4 » | 5 ' a fe - ; f z - U - ; { i - \ 7 § * 4 1 $ - 7 y ‘ VY is bah! § \ ¥ { f a a 7 ti 0 ; 2 ig \ i 4 ei ‘ Jd t 4 t i i ec. ew ] isk s publi Dr ‘ Ey Yet Po i } RY. ec iy ; Va yy, ‘ upp Pre q hed ai mad 4 , IC to nig iie Call * H f - 5 : ; : f t re sh C O : , x u : t see a ee) ST ib { M 4 est ; n i TING - ‘in, mimersion. — ; yore ia bea aker’ 4 Th ’ T\ 4 oe 5 i 3 4 : t n now $s ca , § m e | A Sg says ae nic rs 4 ee i the é n ‘ ' ia Pp ‘ 4 , nou ee er E ne ae ¥ a% 1 66 5 ue J iy 4 t } tae Ae wee un A Ps STE, IN HA 24 ae h rai iy , oP Se Fs Sat eS \ ) 7 _———$—<—— v ¥ ty e beyond ogu be in. i rh j E MPLET M wie yg 4 ir ; ¥ i 4 ty ae \ t i \ a mu iD af { 4 ’ i n, Homog iful 4 18 aut a sell 4 va i ‘| ¥ a Ries, 3 way v Agent for Australia, a) .R * nted ject a , d ives a 12, am Bsn es Ths 4 tat + hoa J ‘ZEISS’ be |. q COMPLE appoi 20 ae ie ret VERY CC an OS ee re Rae nS = SE Ee ; “i So aS OF ee ee ee Sie 2 Mh = ees ; c SRE agit a i; i ke i + te * = t . t yoy ry IH ah 4 é “ a) 4 s fr : ‘WHO } “ & 7 LESALE + : 3% RETAIL PEAT pe ed — # q e ..> 4 ~ 3 BOOKSE ‘ hs \ LLE RS a a , ‘ f 7 ES STRE 2 PRINC & ‘NEW ZEALAND | "DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF cS a - PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY. es seh beatin eA ol ad MNP LP Fudicio perpende » et st tibi vera videntur . Dede manus: aut si falsum est, adcingere contra. Sainte er oC ahs PA ateaasstacdNomahigns Mloenircs ; es CONTENTS: eo : : << BAGH eas vision a the New Zealand Coscuae By Capt. T, BROUN, M.E.S; oy pO ee ertilisation of Red Clover, By J; B. ARMSTRONG,. is Les Oe OO Expedition to the Central Part of she ‘Southern Alps By Dr. R. oe LENDEN- 2S ae PR ELD eR nie See eae eA Fy SON : eral Notes—_ Fes ea NSS lage no, See Oligo ~~. Science in Schools— Tidal Waves—Schoo! of Agriculture, Lincoln—Fertilisation of Red Glove Seber 3 a Organs of Spiders—Habits of Beetles (fam. Silphida)—Remarkable Pigeons: 7idates, pean | al Podocerus Validus, Dana—The Jate eof) We A. ak area beet ; uM tings of Societies— See soe tae Ny eet Cee 519. “Royal Society of New South Wales. Otiso iiceluhine:< W ciliata Phitésophical Society P hilusp teal anaes Institute of Canterbury” —Linnean Society of Med South Wales. oe vi 2 ee eee “i ‘PRICE, Qs.2 ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, 10s. Posted—In New Zealand, 10s, 6d. ; Australia, 11s. Z | ; Wunsdin, T,Z,: : "J. WILKIE & Co., PUBLISHERS, PRINCES STREET, <7 AY, Ez N MACK LAC BY JOH AY P = ae =~ Q cs eR a ‘MOR The Publishers beg to acknowledge receipt of Subseriptions to the New Zealand Journal of Science since July, viz. :— Sydney Museum, Sydney - - : 1882 and 1883 James Adams, Thames : - - 18383 C. Knight, Wellington - - - 1882 and 1883 D. G. Balfour, Puketapu . - - 1883 A. de Brandon, Wellington - - : 1882 and 1883 G. Hogben, Christchurch - - : 1883 James Hector, Wellington - - - 1882 and 1883 Mrs May, Napier - - - - 1882 and 1883 E. F. Rich, Hokitika - - : = 1882 and 188 3 W. Mason, Queenstown : - - 1882 and 1883 J. C. Gully, Nelson - - : - 1883 CU. P. Winkelman, Kaipara’ - : 1883 J. Chambers, junior, Te Mata, Fualee’: s Bay - 1882 and 1883 Thos, Chalmer, Dunedin - - : 1283 R. W. Fereday, Christchurch - - - 1883 Hawke’s Bay Institute - - - - 1883 H. R. Morton, Auckland - : - 1882 and 1883 N.B.—Subscribers who have not yet paid their subscriptions for last and current years are respectfully requested to do so at once. ot oR Ok ely Auayirk yo SNe ne incline ok s ae A 4. a 7’ : : yY ij + ware mm 5 { ¥ ee >%, ’ tweeted me Aes a i ri ert com qe" re a ‘ ; 1 had eee , b; 7 sees 7h e C seg. blak ‘ A wo} C's nr ‘ 7 ; 7 ie i Siha » a. , 7 “4 ron , te saeay “ie” . at tea ha tek ve hy ov ey ; xe ye ot rane 0 \ “f J i ren f ° a voll a4 es - ‘ iS P ‘ , 7) te ee a ™ om as fo ‘ er} or ce aba a { Baty 7 ede P i- a ss 7 = ~ ‘ “i > t ‘ ef on 1: i A‘ ; . ; > a I b ud, > ~ r . a a i 4 “ en ee y Fs i gaan POM yats bo: Ss toe Oe tee ee: es a ane i, yy ee ue ie . m0 Payee ie 6 ; ’ it . Mt 2 #4 rae ¥ aL , Te fies ey Weta ah Ped | » 1 = os eat a § 1S) ee 7 ry — 4 a ee ‘i A « wee yess = = } ae . owes bo oe T * ‘ x ) eos as £175 per gh aedd| Dy Ae oat de ee bee ; ‘ ’ pu ee 3,85 $4.55 ri ; i Pe ANS g i". r ly ; * vi e j f ‘2 opm ; re i j re om » i ». tf — ™ a J ~ co } - 1 - ‘ \ , * f Ze { oo « bl ang. a 7 . ' ~- ; yt ‘ ) ’ + ‘ * . § ¥ ¢ ‘ ‘ et ® : : J PB 4 ie » } “ ‘7 i v i - < . 2 = \-* Bs + ‘ 1 NEW ZEALAND COSSONID&. 4Q1 Elytyva rather broader than thorax, about twice its length, scarcely rounded laterally, sub-depressed; coarsely striate-punctate, in- terstices almost imperceptibly and remotely punctulated, the 2nd sensibly elevated near the apices, and curved towards the exter- nal ones. Legs long, clothed with fine grayish hairs. If the base of the thorax be carefully examined, it will be seen that the punctures are replaced by minute, transverse, linear impressions. The thorax of A. longipes is much broader and more strongly rounded at the sides, and is longitudinally depressed on the disc. Length, 7% ; breadth, less than ¥ line. My specimen is from the Waitakerei. Baeorhopalus, n. gen.—Rostvum moderately elongate, slightly arched, considerably contracted behind, in front sub-parallel ; its scvobes Short and profound, not capable of receiving the scape, which is accommodated along the posterior contraction. Awtenne short and stout; scape a good deal incrassated apically, attaining the middle of the eye ; funiculus 5-jointed, 2nd articulation rather longer than 3rd; club ovate. Head exserted but not elongate, curvedly narrowed in front, with a linear post-ocular impression; the neck broad. Eyes small, not prominent, perceptibly granu- lated. Pvothovax not much longer than broad, greatly narrowed and constricted anteriorly, its sides and hind angles: much rounded. Scutellum distinct. Elytva elongate-oblong, narrowed behind. Legs stout; femora nearly straight below, and not notched at the extremity, swollen above; tibie gradually ex- panded apically, uncinate ; tavsi moderate, 3rd joint sub-bilobed. Mesosternum short, its suture straight. Metasteynum moderate, flat and canaliculate. Abdomen rather short, two basal segments largest. Body rather broad, depressed, bald, or nearly so. A form near Macroscytalus, but distinguished therefrom by its small orthodox club; differentiated from Pentarthrum by its form, the structure of the snout, &c. The genus is founded on No. 1305, now Beorhopalus glabrus, 1433. Macroscytalus depressus, n. sp.—Ferruginous, nitid, tarsi and antennz dilute, minutely pubescent, depressed. Rostrum moderately broad, narrowed behind, moderately finely punctured. ‘Antenne robust, club long, pubescent. Protho- vax longer than broad, considerably narrowed and slightly con- stricted anteriorly, rounded behind the middle, slightly impressed before the scutellum, its punctation neither very coarse nor close, and rather shallow. Elytva very slightly rounded laterally, broadly depressed behind the base, punctate-striate, the inter- stices with a row of minute punctures. Legs stout. May be easily identified by the broad depression before the middle of the elytra. No. 915 (M. aeneopiceus) though somewhat similarly impressed is a totally different insect. Length, 1 ; breadth, nearly % line. My specimen, mutilated, was found at Parua, 492 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Proconus, n. gen.—Rostrum obconical, as long and, in front, as broad as the head, broadly impressed anteriorly ; its scrobes oblique. Antenne shortand stout; scape short, gradually thickened ; funiculus 5-articulate, longer than scape, two basal joints obconical, 2nd larger than 3rd; club ovate, compact, its base not greatly exceeding the 5th joint in breadth. Head exserted, with a broad neck. Eyes small, oviform, distinctly facetted, not prominent. Prothovax considerably narrowed and constricted in front, broadly rounded behind the middle.. Scutellum distinct. Elytva elongate- oblong, base truncate, apices rounded. Legs stout ; femora in flated ; thie sub-triangular, with distinct hooks ; favs: rather short, 3rd joint deeply emarginated. Body rather broad, depressed, with a few longish hairs on the front of the thorax, and minute ones on the hind-body. Female incog. Should be located near Hetevopsis. This genus is constituted for Pentarthrum asperivostve, which, therefore, must stand as Proconus asperivostris. Eudontus,n.gen.--Rostvum rather elongate, a little arched, paral- lel, slightly dilated at the apex ; scvobes linear, extending from near the apex to the ‘lower part of the eyes. Antenne elongate, implanted near the apex; scafe long, slender, and some- what incrassated at the extremity ; fwmiculus 7-articulate, basal joint large, obconical, joints 2-7 decrease in length, the last broadest, quite transverse, 2nd longer than 3rd ; club large, ovate, obsoletely articulated. Mead globuliform, immersed, Eyes large, slightly prominent, distinctly facetted, rounded below, truncated inwardly. Pvothovax transversal, base and apex truncate, sides rounded. Scutellwm distinct, triangular. Elytva oblong-oval, but slightly curved laterally. Legs robust, four anterior femora cla- vate, deeply notched at the extremity, so as to be sharply angu- lated beyond the middle, the posterior somewhat similarly formed, but quite dentate below ; tie stout, flexuous, mucro- nated but not visibly hooked at the extremity ;, ¢avsi rather broad, penultimate joint expanded and bilobed. Body rather broad, but little convex, pubescent. Intermediate between Pogonorlinus and Arecophaga, the rostrum like that of the latter, but not ciliated as in the former. 1434. Ludontus punctithorax, n. sp.—Sub-oblong, slightly convex, not very glossy, bearing fine griseous hairs ; fusco-cas- taneous, legs and antennz more or less rufescent. | Rostrum not twice the length of the thorax, cylindrical, almost bi-sulcate. Pvothovax broader than long, nearly flat above, rounded laterally, narrower in front than behind ; its punctation neither close nor deep, the intervals between the punctures densely and minutely sculptured. Elytva broader and twice as long as the thorax, slightly incurved at the base, the sides but little rounded, apices not expanded, striate-punctate, interstices nearly plane, closely but minutely, punctated, not elevated nor NEW ZEALAND COSSONIDA. ~ AQ3 abbreviated apically. Legs and ¢arsi pilose. Antenne long, scape nude, funicle hairy; club shorter than funiculus, sub-opaque, densely pubescent. Metasterynum moderate. Length (rost. incl.), 2 ; breadth, 54 line. A distorted specimen was communicated, along with a few other well-known beetles, by J. Adams, Esq., Head Master of the Thames High School. CERAMBYCID/. _ 1435. Didymocantha clavipes, n. sp.—Elongate, sub-depressed, moderately shining, rufo-castaneous, femora dilute, tarsi and an- tennee rufescent. Flead punctate in front, the occiput with short smooth raised lines, the intervals densely and minutely sculptured, its yellow pubescence thickest near the eyes. Pvothorax as long as broad, slightly convex, obtusely rounded laterally, narrowest in front, base bi-sinuate ; the dorsal line smooth, a broad space on each side of it coarsely punctured, the sides a little uneven, destitute of tubercles, and, with the exception of a few large punctiform impressions, not sculptured, but densely pubescent, the coarser yellow hairs are confined to the dorsum. Scutellum densely pubescent. /ytra broader than thorax, near the base trans- versely punctate-rugose, from thence the punctation becomes finer and less rugose, so that towards the apices it is nearly obso- lete; they bear short, decumbent, coarse pallid hairs. Legs pubescent, femora strongly clavate, zd. est., nearly straight below but arched above. Aztenne@ as long as the body, their 4th joint shorter than 3rd, the latter but little shorter than 5th. May be readily identified by the absence of thoracic tubercles, and the strongly inflated thighs. Length, 534 ; breadth, 1% lines. One example in my own collection ; exact locality unknown. 1436. Didymocantha robusta, n. sp.—Sharp, Trans. Entom. bS0c.; 1982, p. 92. Ptychopterus, n. gen.—Body elongate, slightly convex, sub- opaque, sparsely pubescent. Head porrected, oviform, with a short muzzle. yes large, reniform, coarsely facetted. Pal/pz of moderate length, the ter- minal joint of the maxillary nearly twice as long as the penulti-: mate, nearly securiform. Avzéenne inserted on the forehead in line with the inner margin of the eyes, pubescent, I1-articulate ; basal joint stout, not much clavate, 2nd minute, 3rd and 4th equal, each a little longer than the Ist, joints 5-7 longest and about equal, the last four compressed ; they are shorter than the body. Prothorax sub-cylindrical, contracted near the apex, base emarginate, the sides dilated just behind the middle and armed with a strong acute spine, two other equally stout, erect spines are placed on the disc. Scutellum transverse, rounded behind, 494 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Elytra elongate, moderately convex transversely, humeral angles obtuse, the sides a little rounded, finely marginated, apices indi- vidually rounded, exposing a small portion of the abdomen, which, however, does not project. Legs rather slender, linear, simple ; zavsz with brush-like soles, their basal joint about as long as the following two united, 3rd small, deeply bilobed ; claws simple. Anterior core prominent, sub-conical, but little separated ; intermediate prominent, also somewhat cone-shaped, more dis- tant than the front pair, deeply notched ; posterior further apart, less convex, notched and angulated. JVetasternum short ; abdo- men elongate, the basal segment largest, its process triangular, the next four of nearly equal length. This genus is founded on No. 1013. The capture of a per- fect specimen, quite recently, on the Waitakerei Range, near Auckland, enables me to make known its characters. I have also changed the specific name from “ szmpliceps” to “rugosus,” and add a short description. 1013. Piychopterus rugosus.—Elongate, slightly convex, almost opaque, sparingly clothed with fine, short, yellow hairs ; fusco- castaneous, legs and antenne chestnut-red and densely pubescent. Flead closely and rugosely sculptured, without tubercles. Prothorax \onger than broad, constricted in front, base emar- ginated, the lateral dilatations with a strong spine, its sculpture similar to that of the head, the discoidal spines robust and erect. Scutellum pubescent. lytra elongate, broader than thorax, slightly curved laterally, transversely convex, so sculptured as to appear irregularly wrinkled, but much less ‘coarsely than the thorax, each with three not very obvious coste. Length, 17; breadth, 4% lines. The much mutilated insect named Blosyropus simpliceps (ante p. 579) is considerably smaller than the one adopted as the type LAMIIDA. 1437. Microlamia emula, n. sp—Elongate-oblong, sub-de- pressed, head and thorax eneous, blackish orfuscous, elytra reddish or brown, femora piceous or infuscate, tibie, tarsi, and antenne in- fuscate-red or testaceous, the latter tipped with piceous. The first mentioned colours indicate the male. Head with linear impressions and punctures. Pyvrothorax obtusely protuberant laterally, contracted at base; apex and base transversely strigose, the sides punctated and lineated, the middle of the disc quite smooth and glossy ; it bears a few grayish hairs. lytra oblong, slightly and gradually narrowed behind ; their punctation coarse but not close, and not extending beyond the middle, they are depressed near the base and each hasa sutural stria. In the male the clothing is very scanty, but in the other sex the elytra bear fine grayish hairs with a tendency to congregate, thereby producing a spotted appearance. Antenne stout, filiform, joints 3-7 appreciably longer than the others, the NEW ZEALAND COSSONIDA. AQ5 2nd quite half the length of the 3rd. In the male the four ter- minal joints extend beyond the body, in the female only two. In contour the female resembles J7. pygmea, but may be easily distinguished therefrom by the maculate antenne and much finer, depressed, elytral clothing. Length, 134 ; breadth, % line. My five specimens were taken at Parua. 1438. Somatidia crassipes,n.sp.—Head punctate, infuscate-red rather densely clothed with decumbent yellowish hairs. Pvo- thorax broadly oval, remotely punctured, with a few elongate griseous hairs, but otherwise clad like the head. /ytra oviform, gradually narrowed posteriorly, convex, rather coarsely, irre- gularly, and sparingly punctured to beyond the middle; the humeral regions, a transversal spot close to each hind leg, and a — large longitudinal space near the apex dark brown, the remainder of the surface covered with depressed yellowish hairs, with long erect ones near the sides. Aztenne robust; basal joint stout ; 2nd obconical; 3rd elongate, longer than 4th and 5th taken together ; 4th rather longer than 5th; the others about equal ; they are pubescent, reddish in colour, with more or less infuscate tips. Legs robust, hirsute; femora greatly inflated, reddish- brown ; tibiz and tarsi testaceous, knees fuscous, intermediate tibize deeply excised near the extremity. In form resembling Nos. 1050 and 1053, The body is nar- rowed towards the middle so that the thorax and elytra at their junction are of equal width; the third antennal joint is uncom- monly long ; the thighs much enlarged ; and the insect without tubercular elevations. A second example sent to me for ex- amination seems to be the female, having much less distended femora and shorter hind-body, but otherwise identical. Male : Length, 3; breadth, 14 lines. One of Mr. P. Stewart-Sandager’s captures, Wellington. 1439. Somatidia elongata, n. sp.—Narrow, elongate, slightly convex, gradually narrowed and depressed medially, variegated. Head infuscate, depressed between the antenne, clothed with yellow hairs. Aztennce almost as long as the body, stout, pubes- cent ; basal joint robust, 2nd short, 3rd nearly as long as 4th and 5th conjointly, 4th not twice the length of 5th. Pvrothorax longer than broad, widest in front, its sides nearly straight to beyond the middle, from thence considerably and rather abruptly narrowed ; its colour infuscate, concealed by yellow hairs, densely punctated. L/ytra elongate, oviform, widest behind the posterior femora, with four or five rows of punctures on each, not attaining the extremities, not tuberculate, sutural region testaceous, the rest fuscous, clothed with yellow hairs, but having two sub-apical white spots. Legs long, not thick; #2z@somewhat flexuose. An extraordinarily narrow and elongate species, quite dis- similar to the others. Length, 1% ; breadth, 3¢ line. One of my captures at Waitakerei (unique). 496 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 1440. Tetroreca discedens, n. sp.—Sharp, Trans. Entom. Soc., 1882, p. 95. 1441. Hybolasius brevicollis, n. sp.—Elongate, sub-oblong, almost depressed ; head and thorax rufo-piceous, elytra pale cas- taneous, legs nearly fulvous, basal joints of antennz red, the others gradually become paler. flead finely but densely granulated. Pyrothorax transverse, broadly impressed in front and behind, its lateral tubercles pro- minent but not acute, and placed behind the middle, its sculp- ture like that of the head, and, like it, sub-opaque ; it bears fine pallid hairs. £lytra broadly and obliquely depressed from the shoulders to the middle, a good deal and rather abruptly nar- - rowed apically ; the basal tubercles moderately large but simple, moderately coarsely punctated almost to the extremity, and clothed with decumbent pallid hairs. Axtenne slender, with erect cinereous hairs, 3rd and 4th articulations elongate. Legs rather slender, with white hairs. Allied to H. promissus. Length, 2; breadth, 34 (nearly) line. I found one on the Waitakerei Range, near Auckland. 1442. Hybolasius picitarsis, n.sp.—Narrow, scarcely depressed ; antennee and legs infuscate-red, the apices of the tibiz and the tarsi piceous, body mostly of a pitchy hue, but with the base and apex of the thorax, as well as the shoulders and apices of the elytra rufescent, these latter with a straight blackish fascia just in rear of the hind thighs ; pubescent. fTead nearly smooth on the middle, so sculptured as to seem covered with transverse granular elevations, clothed with fine yellow hairs. Prothorax as long as broad, obtusely dilated me- dially at the sides, depressed in front and behind, finely wrinkled transversely, its clothing yellowish. £/ytra sub-parallel, basal tubercles simple and obsolete, their surface more or less pitted with irregular punctures to beyond the middle, their decumbent hairs become grayish posteriorly. Legs stout, their clothing rather short. Azdenne longer than body, bearing long griseous hairs, 3rd and 4th joints elongate. Resembles H. s¢mplex only. Length, 2; breadth (nearly) ¥% line. Mr. T. F. Cheeseman brought one example from Mount Arthur. 1443. Hybolasius pusillus,n. sp.—Sub-depressed, oblong, varie- gate, principally pitchy-red, the elytra having the basal region and two curved anti-apical fasciee (not always distinct) blackish, the extremity of the tibze and all but the two basal joints of the antenne piceous, . FHlead granulated. Pvrothorax about as long as broad, de- pressed along its base, the sides obtusely dilated and then con- tracted behind ; its disc granulated, and clothed with pale brassy hairs. L£/ytra coarsely punctured to near the apices, their basal tubercles small and not crested, bearing fine gray and long erect NEW ZEALAND COSSONID. 497 cinereous hairs. The /egs are clothed with long white hairs ; the antenne with grayish ones. H1. cristatellus has tufted tubercles; HY. farvus may be said to have none at all, and its antenne are unspotted, which is not the case in the present species; No. 1320 is larger and differs otherwise; in HH. fasciatus the basal region is nearly nude and shining, and on that part the punctures though moderately close are not coarse. Length, 14% ; breadth, 36 line. I found five individuals at Northcote (Waitemata). CHRYSOMELID. 1444. Scaphodius compactus, Sharp.—(Ent. Mon. Mag. Aug., 1881, p. 50.) EROTYLIDA. 1445. Cryptodacne vagepunctata, n. sp.—Shining, infuscate-red, legs testaceous, antenne rufescent ; sub-oblong, convex, slightly narrowed and depressed medially, sparingly pilose. Ffead punctured in front, the middle of the vertex and the occiput quite smooth. Azzenne normal, bearing fine yellow hairs, their terminal joint obliquely cut away at the extremity. Prothorax nearly quadrate, incurved behind each eye, sides mar- ginated and almost straight, narrowed a little towards the base ; its punctation fine and rather distant, the broad dorsal space perfectly smooth, with a few fine yellow hairs. Scutellum transverse, smooth. F/ytra gradually narrowed posteriorly, not at all contracted near the middle, impressed with rows of fine distant punctures having yellow hairs proceeding from them. Legs stout; t2b¢@ very slightly arched. Smaller, the thorax more finely and distantly, the elytra more distinctly sculptured than C. syuthetica and C. dents, and the whole insect much more obviously hairy than either. Length. 134 ; breadth, nearly 34 line. Described from one example obtained at Woodhill, near Helensville (Auckland). COCCINELLID. 1446. Scymnus sedatus,n.sp.—Sub-oviform, moderately convex, nude, shining ; variegate, ground-colour smoky brown, with irregularly formed testaceous marks, legs, antenne, and palpi yellow. Head moderately finely punctated, dilute in front. Prothorax transversal, sides and base finely marginated, obtusely rounded and narrowed towards the front, the base broadly but slightly lobed at the middle, sinuated towards the sides, hind angles not acute ; its punctation rather finer than that of the head, with a fine linear impression just in front of the base, its sides and anterior angles more or less testaceous. Scutelliim triangular. 498 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, £lytra convex, sub-oblong-oval, with distinct lateral rims becom- ing obsolete behind, broader than thorax, moderately closely punctured and somewhat rugose ; the testaceous marks irregular, one on each elytron behind the middle and near the suture, sub-lunate, not touching its fellow, the others indefinite, some- times suffusing most of their surface. Legs stout, pubescent. Antenne shorter than head and thorax, their basal articulation stout, 2nd shorter and more slender, yet quite stout, 3rd longest, slender, sub-cylindric, 4th and 5th about equal, longer than broad, and, conjointly, longer than 3rd, joints 6-8 decrease in length, club large, sub-oblong, terminal joint largest. Tarsal claws thickened at base. Maxillary faz with the terminal joint securiform. Not agreeing very well with Scymnus. Length, 136 ; breadth, nearly 34 line. Mr. Meinertzhagen sent me a couple of specimens from Waimarama, Napier. 1447. Scymnus villosus, n. sp—Variegate, the middle of the thorax, a large triangular basal space, and other portions of the elytra castaneo-fuscous, the rest of the body testaceous, legs and antennz yellowish, rather densely clothed with long grayish hairs. Head moderately punctured. Prothorax finely and not closely punctated. Scutellum broadly triangular. L£/yira rather closely but not very coarsely punctured. Underside moderately punctured, bearing short grayish hairs, fuscous; the whole of the pronotum, the middle of the meso- and meta-sterna, and the last segment of the abdomen testaceous. The elytra usually appears to be variegated brown, with a large angulated spot extending from the shoulder to near the middle testaceous ; the villosity is semi-erect, with a tendency to curl. Length, 1 ; breadth, 56 line. Found in most parts of the North Island. Flolopsis, n. gen.—Body broadly oval, sub-hemispherical, con- vex, nude above. Antenne apparently nine-jointed, as long as thorax, basal joint robust, 2nd elongate and almost oviform, 3rd cylindric, shorter and more slender than the preceding one, the following three short and about equal; c/ué tri-articulate. Prosternum much depressed at the sides ; mesosternum short, almost linear, truncate ; metasternum very large, plane, its edges truncate. Basal segment of abdomen large, widely separating the posterior coxz, next three short, all with straight sutures. Legs stout, trbie arcuated externally and narrowed at the extremity, tarsal claws thickened or dentate at the base. The genus belongs to the Cranophorites, and should be placed between Oryssomus and Cranophorus, having, like them, the head completely concealed by the anterior prolongation of the prothorax ; the latter is not so broad as the elytra, and quite NEW ZEALAND COSSONID/. 499 destitute of front angles, so that the margins form an uninter- rupted curve from one posterior angle to the other. 1448. Holopsis nigellus, n. sp.—Convex, very broadly oval, nude, shining, blackish, the thoracic margins and humeral angles generally pale testaceous, legs fusco-testaceous. ffead not immersed, invisible from above. Pronotum broader than long, finely marginated, its base sinuously rounded, the sides and front forming a regular curve, its surface minutely and remotely punctured. Scutellum broadly triangular. Flytra with fine side rims, slightly wider than the thorax, their sculpture fine and shallow. Legs robust, bearing fine pallid hairs. Underside brownish ; e¢asternum large, scored with exceedingly fine irre- gular lines ; abdomen truncate between the coxe, minutely reti- culated, segments 2-4 short, each with a row of pale hairs, 5th more pubescent. Axzenuce yellow, slender. Club three-jointed. Claws dentate at base. Length, 34 ; breadth, % line. Hab. North Island. Not uncommon. 1449. Holopsis pallidus, n. sp.—Shining, testaceous, the middle of the thorax darker, legs and antennze pale yellow, seemingly destitute of pubescence, convex, broadly oval. Underside yel- lowish. Resembles ZH. xzgellus. Length, 5 ; breadth, % line. One example, Northcote, Waitemata Harbour. 1450. Holopsis lawsont, n. sp.—Glossy, nude, somewhat rufes- cent, thoracic disc brown, its margins testaceous ; convex, broadly oval. Prothorax minutely and distantly punctured. Ldlytra almost similarly sculptured. The insect is rather smaller and narrower than the two pre- ceding species, and the elytra are more distinctly punctated. Length, quite % ; breadth, 36 line. I found this species at Whangarei Heads, and Mr. Thomas Lawson recently gave me a specimen labelled by the late G. R. Crotch, M.A., Coccinella lawsoni. I have retained the specific appellation, but the insect has little in common with Coccinella. NOTE.—Page 650, genus Cranophorus, last line, should be “tarsi with simple claws,” not single. 500 TOURNAL OF SCIENCE. FERTILISATION OF RED CLOVER IN NEW ZEALAND. | BY J. B. ARMSTRONG. At the request of Professor Hutton, I have prepared a few notes embodying my observations respecting the fertilisation of the common red clover in New Zealand. It has been frequently asserted that the red clover does not produce its seeds in this Colony, but the facts are certainly far otherwise. During the 21 years I have been in the Colony I have had frequent oppor- tunities for ascertaining the true facts of the case, and during the whole of that time have never had any difficulty in obtaining abundance of excellent red clover seed. It is perhaps not gene- rally known that we have in the Colony three or four varieties of the red clover :—(1) The cow-clover, a very large and fine variety, with large purplish red flowers. (2) The common red clover of England, dwarfer and less durable in character than No. 1, but similar in the flowers. (3) A stout habited dwarf- growing variety, with paler coloured flowers, much smaller than those of Nos. 1 and 2. And (4) a pure white variety, which is at presentvery rare. The whole of these varieties produce seeds of good germinating quality, but there is a wide difference in their respective degrees of fertility. For instance, No. 1, when growing in the fields, produces about 8 to 10 seeds per head, occasionally much more, but most generally, I believe, about the former number. When two plants were covered up by a fine- meshed sieve, 20 heads yielded only 16 seeds, and consequently this variety may be safely assumed to be self-sterile, or nearly so. No. 2, the common red clover, is, however, much more fer- tile, yielding in the open field as many as sixty (60) or seventy (70) seeds per head, and I am satisfied that it is becoming naturalised throughout the Colony. Numerous instances have been brought under my notice where large patches of red clover have been formed by the natural increase of one or two plants which had accidentally appeared among artificially-grown grasses. It is impossible, therefore, to doubt that this variety is suffi- ciently fertile to continue its species in this country without the importation of any more seeds from Europe. When covered by the sieve this variety was, however, much less fertile than when exposed, 20 heads producing only 122 seeds, or a trifle over six seeds per head. From this fact I am inclined to believe that the variety is partly self-sterile and partially self-fertile, the larger flowers being probably visited by bees, moths, or other insects, whilst the paler and shorter flowers are probably self-fertile, the pollen being applied to the stigmas by the withering of the corolla, as appears also to be the case with the common pea (Pisum sativum) and the sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus), FERTILISATION OF RED CLOVER. 501 both of which, although possessing blossoms fully as conspi- cuous as those of the 7rzfoliwm, are admitted to be absolutely self-fertilisingin New Zealand, andprobablyin England also. The third variety is frequently termed the American variety, and as before stated is dwarfer than the common or English one, and has much paler flowers, which are also much shorter than in other kinds. To this variety I have given considerable atten- tion, and I have come to the conclusion that it is most generally self-fertilising. Furthermore, I feel perfectly certain that plants the produce of those which have been grown in the Colony for several generations are almost invariably self-fertilising. During the past two or three years years I have examined numerous flowers just before the expansion of the corolla, and have very frequently found that the pistil had already received the pollen of its own flower, and may be safely assumed to have been pro- perly impregnated, as there is no reason whatever to doubt the potency of the pollen ; the supposed self-sterility of the 7rzfolium arising from structural, and not from physiological inability to fertilise. From the above statements I think we may fairly assume that the varieties of red clover found in New Zealand exhibit an ascending degree of self-fertility. Thus in the cow- clover, a luxuriant variety, we have strongly developed self- sterility ; in the common English variety there is a tendency to become self-fertile, which tendency increases with naturalisation ; and the third, or so-called American variety, is usually, if not always self-fertile. This change from self-sterility to partial or perfect self-fertility—which may, I think, be viewed in the light of a degradation—is accompanied bya shortening of the corolla, and a changing of the colour from a fine red to a washy rose, and even to pure white in a few instances. Owing to the season of the year at which these notes are written, I am unfortunately unable to exhibit specimens showing the proportionate size of the corolla in different varieties. The question now arises, do the forms of red clover present different phenomena (as to their fertilisation) in New Zealand, to those seen in other countries? Iam inclined to think that this question may be answered in the affirmative. Thus, in “Cross and Self-Fertilisation,’ page 361, Mr Darwin, writing of red clover, observes :—“ One hundred flower heads on plants protected by a net did not produce a single seed.” And in the “Origin of Species,” first edition, page 73, he remarks :—“ From experiments I have lately tried, I have found that the visits of bees are necessary for the fertilisation of some kinds of clover—but humble bees alone visit the red clover (Trifolium pratense),as other bees cannot reach the nectar.” Here we have such a careful observer as the greatest naturalist of our times making two distinct statements: First, that the red clover does not fertilise itself in England ; and second, that the particular insect known as the humble bee is required to fertilise it. I cannot entertain a doubt, therefore, but that the red clover in England is self-sterile, and that it is not visited by the hive bee for the purpose of collecting nectar. But in our Colony the 502 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. facts are otherwise. Being a beekeeper on a somewhat exten- sive scale, | have made it my business for some years back to search out the facts relating to bees and flowers for myself, and to ascertain with certainty what plants are visited by the hive bee (Apis mellifica) at the various seasons of the year. The notes on the subject collected by me are very extensive, and I hope to publish them on a future occasion. Believing with many others that Darwin’s statement that the hive bee did not visit the red clover was equally applicable in this country as in Eng- land, I made no attempt to verify or disprove it until three years ago, when my attention was drawn to the matter by the authors of numerous American bee books, asserting that their bees fre- quently obtained honey from red clover. After this I constantly visited several large fields of the English variety, and one of the American, and after numerous disappointments was at last de- lighted to find my busy little friends very hard at work on the red clover, not in tens or hundreds, but literally in thousands. This was in the early autumn months, February and March, when a dearth of honey usually prevails about Christchurch. An examination under the microscope revealed the fact that the quantity of honey was exceedingly small in each flower, but the bees doubtless found it better than none at all. During the last two seasons I have been able to amply verify these observations. There cannot, therefore, be the slightest doubt that the honey bee is perfectly able to extract the honey from the red clover blossoms in New Zealand, and also in America; but that the quantity is so small as not to be worth collecting when more generous kinds of plants are in flower. I am confirmed in this opinion by a remark of Mr Meehan, an excellent American authority on fertilisation, who observed that humble bees would not visit a field of red clover when the white clover (7rzfolium repens) was in blossom, and yet the red clover fields “ bore seed as fully as most insect-frequented fields would do.” Mr Darwin lays some stress on the tongue of the hive bee being too short to reach the nectaries of certain flowers ; but he appears to have been unacquainted with a fact well known to gardeners, that the hive bee when unable to enter a. narrow corolla, is in the habit of tearing open the tube at the side, and so reaching the nectary. I haveobserved that thisis the casemore especially with the species of Lycium. A large plant of Lycium afrum, cultivated in the Christchurch Public Gardens, every year bears many thousands of blossoms, which are crowded with bees during several weeks, and they may at any time during the flowering season be seen at work tearing open the corolla tubes to get at the abundant supply of nectar within ; of course, this is an illegitimate kind of proceeding, but the fertility of the plant is not in the least injured by it, for it seeds most abundantly. A similar instance occurs in the common bean Fada vulgaris. We may, therefore, safely assume that the hive bee can, as a rule, obtain the honey from the nectary of almost any flower yielding sufficient nectar to render the operation a profitable one to the insect. In con- FERTILISATION OF RED CLOVER. 503 nection with this branch of the subject I should like to point out that the hive bee visits many flowers which are indisputably self- fertilising, such as the sorrel Ramex acetosella, Cerastium vulga- tum, Stellaria media, and many others, evidently obtaining much honey from them. Indeed, there is, I think, no doubt that the bee has a strong preference for flowers of quiet colour, well knowing that these contain more honey than those with gaudy hues ; and pale coloured flowers are usually self-fertilising. As Darwin has proved that cross fertilisation generally—not invari- ably—results in a benefit to the plants, or rather to the progeny of the plants so crossed, it appears that the functions of the hive bee in connection with fertilisation are more for the purpose of crossing (and consequently of improving) the races of plants, which, without the aid of these insects, would otherwise cross themselves, and bring about that weakening of constitution which certainly results from in-and-in-breeding, than for crossing self- sterile species. True, the Rev. G. Henslow has attempted to prove—in a very able article in the “ Linnzean Trans.” for 1879 —that self-fertilisation is not injurious; and in support of this he brings forward the well-known facts that British self-fertilis- ing plants, introduced by man’s agency into this Colony and Australia, are more luxuriant and more fertile than in their native country. Now, it appears to me that the facts connected with the naturalisation of British plants in this Colony tend to support Darwin’s views as to the benefits derived from inter- crossing, for it must not be forgotten that, in this and all other new countries, there is constantly going on an extensive importa- tion of seeds from Europe and America, belonging to races which must be far removed in pedigree from those of the same species already in the country. As nearly all self-fertile plants are liable ‘to be crossed either by the wind or by insect agency, there is every reason to believe that the races of species already in the country are crossed with those newly imported, and in consequence show an increased vigour of growth and greater fertility of seed pro- duction. If this theory be the right one, we may, of course, expect that in course of time, as the farmers and seed merchants give up the importation of stocks of seeds from England and America, and consequently check the importation of weeds, there will be a diminution of fertility and a lessening of the luxuriance of growth, which is such a marked feature in the naturalised plants of New Zealand. In confirmation of this view I have observed that the above-mentioned luxuriance of growth is most noteworthy in plants of short duration, in those, in fact, which have had time to produce several generations in the Colony. In the tree and shrub classes the luxuriance is not so marked, pro- bably because there has not yet been time, except in a few cases, for seedlings to be reared from colonially-produced seeds. On the other hand, it cannot be disputed that after a time the naturalised plants show some diminution of luxuriance, though not a very marked one as yet. In conclusion, I think that we may safely assume that the 504 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. following facts in connection with the fertilisation of the red clover in New Zealand are proved :—(1) That the red clover does produce its seeds in this Colony. (2) That some varieties are much more fertile than others. (3) That there is every reason to believe that numerous individuals belonging to the species are self-fertile, and that they produce self-fertile progeny. (4) That all the varieties show a tendency to produce paler- coloured flowers. (5) That the common hive bee, and its variety the so-called hybrid Ligurian bee, frequently gather honey from the blossoms of the red clover, thereby, no doubt, aiding cross- fertilisation. There is also reason to believe that the red clover is becoming modified in its structure, so as to admit the visits of insects not known to visit it in England, and that such modifica- tion tends to render the plant self-fertilising, but at the same time enables it to be improved in constitutional vigour by occasional inter-crossing. AN EXPEDITION TO THE CENTRAL PART OF THE SOUTHERN ALES? (BY DR. R. v. LENDENFELD.) Before entering on the description of this part of our moun- tains, I think it may perhaps be useful to recall to your memory the principal features of the Southern Alps. Although they were thoroughly explored some years ago by Dr von. Haast, and re- presented on the map, and although some of their glaciers have been visited by travellers; still they are not nearly so well known as they deserve to be, and so it may not be without interest to describe in detail the largest glacierin that mountain chain. As you are aware, the Southern Alps extend through the whole of New Zealand, not only through the Middle Island, but right from the southern end of Stewart Island to North Cape. The part which principally concerns us to-day is the central part of these Alps, which adorn the Middle Island. They extend for about a hundred miles, and the main range for that distance does not descend under 6o0o0o0ft. This part is situated between Haast and Whitecombe Passes. Haast Pass is a depression only 1716ft. high ; Whitecombe Pass lies 4212ft. above sea level. The average height of the main chain is, of course, greater than 6o0oft., as many of the peaks attain an altitude of goooft., or more. The saddles are in no place free from snow, and it would be impossible to pass the main range without traversing large and difficult glaciers. This main range has only twice been traversed by the foot of mat at the head of the Lyell glacier, and the second time by us, Mr Green did not touch the main range, because he kept on the * Lecture delivered at the Canterbury Philosophical Institute, on the sth July, 1883, ——— eee A a, THE SOUTHERN ALPS. 505 Lind glacier during his memorable ascent of Mount Cook. A comparison with the Himalayas of Asia, and the Andes of America, will show the similarity which exists in many respects between these ranges and the Southern Alps, not as far as their height is concerned, but as to their effect upon the climate. The mountain range runs in a north-east and south-westerly direc- tion, parallel to both coast lines of New Zealand, but much nearer to the west coast than the other. We meet the same thing in America. The European Alps and the Himalayas lie nearer the southern shores. All these ranges are situated toward the equatorial or toward the western side of the conti- nent or island, as the case may be. That is the cause of the peculiarity of the climate of these countries. The winds return- ing from the tropical zone, which carry the air back from the Equator, and above the trade winds, in an equatorial westerly direction, come across the ocean, or across the Mediterranean, and touch the Alps and Himalayas on the equatorial side, the Andes and New Zealand Alps on the western side. Here they move up the slopes of the mountains, and cannot retain the moisture with which they aré saturated ; losing their high tem- perature in the higher and colder regions, they are compelled to part with some of the moisture they contain, whereby a large quantity of snow and fain is produced. In all these cases the narrow strip of land which lies to the west or towards the Equa- tor of the main range is therefore abundantly watered, whilst the climate of the country on the other side appears comparatively dry. Itis well known how little rain falls on the high land of Thibet, and how much drier the plains of Canterbury are than Hokitika. I cannot devote as much time and attention to this interesting subject as I should like to, nor is it necessary that I should do so, as the most important points were demonstrated by Dr von Haast many years ago. I will at once plunge into my narrative. We started on our journey at the end of February, going by rail to Albury, and from there we went in a vehicle, something like a missing link between a buggy and a bullock-dray, drawn by three horses. The only road which opens up the Waitaki basin, in which the Tasman glacier lies, passes Burke’s Pass ; it is called the Mount Cook road. We reached Tekapo, at the southern end of a very nice lake, in the evening. Tekapo Lake isa large sheet of water formed by the Godley River, which flows into it from the north, and the Cass River from the north- west. This lake, like other lakes in the basin of the Waitaki, is formed by the stopping of the rivers by a dam, the old moraine of the glacial period. The Godley River, as well as the Tasman and other Alpine rivers, flow into large lakes, the northern ends of'which are swampy and partly lying at the foot of high moun- tains, while the southern ends are embraced by undulating land, which consists of hills of morainic matter. Few places on the earth can be found where there is such an accumulation of moraine. Here we find a large moraine from seven to ten miles 506 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. in breadth, and so high that in many places the rivers do not cut down to the bottom, and do not disclose the geological forma- tion on which it rests. The Tekapo Lake is like other Alpine lakes, particularly dirty, and looks like milk. The same is the case with smaller lakes of the same description in the European Alps, but it would be hard to find a lake in Europe which is so large as the Tekapo, and at the same time so dirty. The reason of this is that these New Zealand lakes are shallow. The Lake of Geneva, though fed in the same way as the Tekapo trom glaciers, is remarkable for its blue and transparent water; but these lakes in New Zealand are nearly as muddy as the streams which fill them, and the streams which issue from them still bear the same character. The suspended particles cannot settle, in con- | sequence of the strong currents which prevail. From Lake Tekapo we proceeded to the Tasman valley, which is cut much deeper into the country, the Tasman Lake lying 720ft lower than the Tekapo. Of course, all this country is very well known, and our exploration did not commence till we got high up the Tasman valley. The Government survey extends up to the junction of the Tollie with the Tasman River ; from there northward, we had to do all the work of surveying right up to the end of the glacier. Although some horizontal angles had been measured by Dr von Haast, the vertical angles had not been taken, so that the heights of all the mountains were unknown. In the Admirality chart the heights are given of Mount Cook and Mount Tasman, but these are incorrect, the _ mountains not being put in their right places. The Tasman valley is very unlike any valley in Europe; its sides are steep and covered with densevegetation, out of whichrocks loom in many places, and its bottom is a flat expanse of shingle, with only here and there a few tussocks of grass or Wild Irishman, which will after a shorter or longer time be washed away again by the ever- changing river. We had to cross the Tasman River, as it is quite impossible to get along the eastern side on account of the river flowing along the steep mountain side for a distance of several miles, and also because the Murchison River separates the glacier from the eastern range. The Murchison is so rapid and so full of large boulders that it would be next to impossible to cross itin summer. After waiting eight days, we succeeded, but not without great difficulty and danger, in getting across the Tasman River. It is well known how many people have lost their lives in these New Zealand rivers, and I. can easily under- stand how, after waiting four or five days, a man will risk some- thing to get across. We crossed the Hooker River the same day, and then made for the glacier. You will remember from the account given by Mr Green how difficult he found it to get along on the glacier, and we found the same difficulty, which arises from the very large amount of morainic accumulation, and the dense scrub at the sides of the glacier. This moraine is larger than the moraines are in the European Alps. The cause of this is the slower motion of the New Zealand glaciers, and THE SOUTHERN ALPS. — 507 % the peculiarity of the rocks which surround them. There are very few places to be found where the rocks are jointed so much as they are here. The rocks are split along the different joints into polyhedric masses by freezing water; they fall on the glacier and are carried down the valley. Ceterzs paribus, the slower the glacier moves the more moraine will accumulate. For miles no part of the ice is visible through the moraine. Mr Green, trying to bring into use his experience acquired in Swit- zerland, sought in vain for a tongue of clear ice, and. so did we, We soon got lost among vast and high hills, composed of loose stones of different sizes. We were compelled at last to proceed, like Mr Green, along the valley on the western side of the Tas- man glacier. This is a very remarkable valley. I have never seen a valley alongside an ice-stream of this kind in Europe. The glacier does not fill up the whole of the valley, but keeps away from the side, at a distance varying from ten to thirty chains. This isa fact which tends to prove the slowness of the glacier motion. The sun shining on the hillside warms these slopes so much that more ice is melted in a given time than the glacier can replace by its motion. In its southern part this valley is quite covered with dense vegetation. Further up it is filled with shingle, and covered here and there with patches of grass. It is quite impossible to travel through the scrub, and we had to walk along the side of the moraine and descend into the valley above the region of scrub. We finally pitched our tent, after several days of swagging up provisions, instruments, &c,, at the foot of the Ball glacier, eight miles above the ter- minal face of the Tasman glacier. Here Mr Green had en- camped, and we also made this place the base of our operations, It is a nice sheltered nook, and we found some wood here which had been brought down by avalanches and ice-water. It had taken us six days to get here from the terminal face of the glacier, though the distance is only eight miles. During the three weeks of our stay here we were provisioned by three men and three horses. A depdt of tinned meat, sugar, flour, &c., had been erected. at the bottom of the glacier,and one man, with the three horses, brought sheep and bread up to that depdét from Birchhill station. From there the men had to bring the pro- visions up to our camp on their backs. The way was so rough that they could go over the ground only once in a day to get up the provisions. One day the men went down to the depot, the next, one man with the horses went down to the station and came back to the depét the same evening, and the third day they brought the provisions up to the camp. Although we had overworked ourselves in swagging up provisions, and had four men and three horses to provide for us two, we starved at the end. With such difficulties we had to contend. I have dwelt in detail on them because they are the only ones which might thwart an expedition, and I think it may be useful to future explorers to have my experience at their disposal To return to the moraine, which is very interesting, not only 508 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. for its size, but also for its form. Some of it is not live moraine, that is to say, it is not moving now, and does not rest on ice, but has been deposited by the glacier, which was larger before. Such old moraines are covered with vegetation. By the moraine alone we could tell whether the glacier had of late retired at all. My own survey brings the terminal face to exactly where Dr von Haast put it. Of course, it may have advanced and then retired again, but it does not appear likely that it has changed its posi- tion much. There is an old terminal moraine, about 35o0ft. high, which is quite covered with grass. The eastern part of this is washed away by the Tasman and Murchison Rivers. The porch where the Tasman issues from the glacier does not appear to be always in the same place; it has been formed at one time ‘near the eastern side, and at another time near the middle. The Tasman River has, of late, never issued towards the west side, as in that case the old terminal moraine, which must have been where it now is for along series of years, would have been washed away. From our camp we made excursions across the clacier, and soon saw what we had to do. First, we had to ascend one of the peaks on the western slope of the main range, the Linda ridge, as I call that spur which descends in an eastern direction from Mount Cook. The Linda glacier is that one over which Mr Green effected his ascent of Mount Cook, and was so named by him. The Hochstetter glacier, which lies to the south ofthe Linda ridge was named by Dr von Haast. We made our ascent of the Linda ridge without experiencing any great difficulties. The rocks are pretty steep, but not so brittle as they are found to be in many other portions of the Mount Cook range. We reached the top of the Linda ridge in a strong nor’-wester, accompanied by heavy rain, and had to spend the night ina cave formed by two large blocks of stone leaning against each other. The next day the weather was just as bad, and as we had no provisions, we were obliged to go back. We left, however, our instruments, the kerosene stove, and a tarpau- lin. After provisioning ourselves at the lower camp, we made again for the Linda ridge, and slept on a rock between the Hochstetter and Linda glacier. The next morning the weather was beautiful, and I was able to take the angles I wanted, also to photograph the panorama. Coming down we got into a storm, apparently of snow, which turned out, however, to be nothing but clouds of thistle seeds, which covered the whole of the glacier. The Hochstetter glacier, the foot of which we had to pass four times, is one of the grandest sights in New Zealand. This elacier issues from a large basin at the foot of Mount Cook. This basin is part of a flat plateau, the northern half of which forms the nevé of the Linda glacier. The Hochstetter glacier descends from this plateau, forming a splendid cascade of ice 4oooft. high. At the junction of this glacier with the Tasman, I observed an interesting phenomenon. The two glaciers move, one in a south-east and the other in a southerly direction, and 4 4 an) sake ee 2 ee eee ee ee ——— oe THE SOUTHERN ALPS. 509 where they join, a large hole is formed about 5o0oft. deep, which most likely reaches right to the bottom of the glacier. The two glaciers continue on their course, and as they do not press very hard against each other, there is a space left open between the two, and that space is thishole. Wecould not see to the bottom of it, so that I cannot say whether it reaches to the uderlying rock. From the Linda ridge we saw what we had not thought to be the case, that the mountain which lies at the northern end of the glacier was higher than any peak in the Malte Brun range. This mountain, the Hochstetter Dome, appears to be pretty round when seen with the naked eye, but when looked at through the telescope does not look tame at all. When I spoke of ascending that hill to one of my porters, he said that it would be quite easy, but when he had inspected it with the glasses he said it would be impossible. This apparent impossibility is caused by the crevasses on its southern slope, which we shall have to describe further on. They are remarkable for their breadth and depth, and also for their length. We decided to try to ascend that mountain, because it appeared to be the highest, and situated at a point from which the ranges seemed to radiate. The part of the country to the north of the Hochstetter Dome had not only never been trodden by the foot of man, but it had never even been seen, so that great topographical results were to be hoped for from our getting a good view from the top. We studied our path very carefully, and came to the conclusion that there was in the lower part only one possible route, and that the summit might be tried from three sides, but that all three would probably turn out to be impracticable. We came back to our camp, did some surveying, and started three days later, with our last provisions, up the eastern side of the glacier. We kept for some distance on our old track to the foot of the Linda ridge, and then reached the middle moraine, which is formed by the confluence of a great many secondary glaciers of the western range. The ice melts away until there is none left visible be- tween these moraines, and so they join. The moraine covers the surface of the glacier for a mile in the upper part, and half-a-mile in the lower part, This narrowing of the moraine is particularly interesting, as it shows that here the glacier is jammed up by the influx of the Hochstetter and Ball glaciers coming down from the west; thereby the moraine is squeezed up, and gets narrower, instead of extending in width as it proceeds down- wards. After two hours we left the moraine, and soon were entangled in the crevasses, which run in two directions in this part of the glacier, and cut each other at right angles. We had seen’'them from the Linda ridge before, and had picked out our course, but when we got there we found it was impracticable. One of these systems of crevasses is caused by the manner in which the glacier is jammed up. The main stream, following the course of the valley, bends round a spur on the eastern side, and the crevasses are formed on the convex side, radiating from 510 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. the spurs. These crevasses reach pretty well across the glaciers, and are so close together that only thin walls of ice are left be- tween them. The other system of crevasses is from quite a different cause. These are formed by the influx of the Hoch- stetter glacier. The latter propels the ice on the western side, and thereby causes that side to move quicker than the eastern part. The crevasses got worse and worse, and at last we were obliged to get out as best we could, and to make for the slope of the hills. We reached the eastern margin of the glacier, and continued to follow it until we got to the valley coming down from' Mount Malte Brun. This is a green oasis, with rocks all round, and a nice little brook flowing through the middle of it, which disappears under the glacier. It has no opening at all, and is closed westerly by the eastern side of the Tasman glacier, a steep moraine 300ft. high ;—the contrast between the grey moraine and the green lawn at the bottom is most striking. The next day we proceeded up the glacier for surveying purposes, and returned the same day. The ensuing day, the 25th of March, was devoted to the ascent of the Hochstetter Dome. Westarted at 5 o’clock in the morning. The weather was beautiful, and no cloud visible. We walked up the glacier by nearly the same route we had taken the day before. After travelling for some distance we reached the foot of the steep ice-slope which descends from the ridge of Mount de la Béche at 9.30, and remained there half-an- hour before continuing our ascent. The further we proceeded up the glacier the more the crevasses vanished, and the latter part was a flat glacier, for miles as smooth as an asphalt pave- ment, with an incline of only three degrees, although the line of perpetual snow lies. much higher than this place, which is only about 5000ft. above the level of the sea. The eastern wall of Mount de la Béche is one of the most remarkable sights round the Tasman glacier. It is covered with a coating of ice several hundred feet thick, splintered up into large blocks of a quadri- lateral shape. This form of crevasses is peculiar to polar regions. These blocks are formed by immense quantities of frozen snow, which has not yet been transformed into crystallised ice. The ice is not blue as it is in the icefall of the Hochstetter . glacier, but quite white throughout. This furrowed coating of snow reaches up to the range of Mount de la Béche, which is the highest point of the mass of elevation that divides the Tas- man glacier from the Rudolf glacier. I have calculated the height of Mount de la Béche at 10,170ft., so that it is the third mountain in height in the Southern Alps ; the highest mountain being Mount Cook, the height of which is 12,340ft., and the next, Mount Tasman, 10,648ft. All the other ‘mountains which form the enclosure of the basin of the Tasman glacier are about 10,000ft. high, and only Mount Cook attains a height of over 12,000ft. Mount Cook has been measured several times, and particularly accurately by Mr Roberts, of the Westland Survey Department, who fixes it at 12,349feet. According to my own THE SOUTHERN ALPS. SLE survey it has a height of 12,320ft., but I willingly adopt Mr Roberts’ calculation as the right one; he took the average of twenty-two measurements and his calculation is therefore a final one. Of course, a mountain covered with snow might vary 2oft. in height during the year, according as a snow cornice may crown the summit or not. Mount de la Béche is the bulkiest mountain of the group; near the top, particularly towards the south, high glacier plateaux are situated—plateaux something like those from which the Linda glacier and Hochstetter glacier descend. At 10 a.m. we continued our march, and soon got to a place where the crevasses were so wide that we could hear the echo from the other side when speaking on the margin. Feeling our way through this labyrinth of crevasses, we could only make slow progress. The crevasses are due to the same causes which give rise to the crevasses on the western slope of Mount de la Béche. Projecting from this slope we see ridges with rocky _ steps, which are parts of terraces, and which run along the whole of the eastern incline of Mount de la Béche. These ter- races are filled with ice, forming a continuous coating from top to bottom. When the ice comes down from the highest terrace it bends over, and thus forms large transverse crevasses, which split up the ice coating into a series of ridges, like those turned up by the plough; on the lower terraces crevasses are formed in a similar manner. These may continue for several miles along the southern slope of the Hochstetter Dome. Although no rock appears over the surface in that part of the nevé of the Tasman glacier, still there are irregularities on the surface of the ice, whereby valleys in the ice are formed. Wherever the ice moves over projecting rocks crevasses will be formed ; and wherever the ice-stream flows along a valley the crevasses are filled up again, so that the ice in the valleys is not so much crevassed as that in the elevated parts; on this account, it is a rule with mountaineers to keep to the bottom of these glacier valleys. Making our way up the undulating ice-slopes, winding about between the crevasses, we at length got over most of them, and reached the saddle between the Hochstetter Dome and Mount Eli de Beaumont at 12.30 p.m. From this saddle we could see the flat land on the West Coast, and here we had the first view of the western ocean. From here we could discern the route we had to take, and found that our observations taken from the Linda ridge were correct. The westerly lower peak of the Hoch- stetter Dome is round, the easterly one is pointed. We made for the latter. There was a large crevasse before us, which was soon reached ; we had not only to find a place where it was bridged over by the debris of an avalanche and get over it, but we also had to cut steps up the other slope—a steep wall of ice. Although the height was only rioft., this took an hour. This crevasse is formed, as others, by the ice moving down over a convex plane. Another crevasse, of a much more formidable character, and which we expected would stop our advance, lies 512 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. higher, and is of a different character, not being formed by the ice moving over a convex surface. The ice above this “ Berg- schrund” never moves, whilst the lower portion moves along with the glacier, downwards, so that a great gap is formed, which would widen indefinitely, but for the avalanches which fill it. This crevasse can be considered stationary. The stationary ice above would rise, in consequence of the continually falling snow, to an unlimited height, if it were not that the snow does not lie steeper than a certain angle, and then when that angle is attained, comes down as an avalanche. We got to this crevasse at the saddle between the two peaks, and tried to get over it. A snow bridge just covered the black bottomless abyss. I managed to get over it, but could not ascend the other side, the mountain side of the “ Bergschrund ” lying much higher than the valley side, a steep wall of ice, per- pendicular in many places, slightly overhanging the crevasse. The difference of height in the two margins is caused by the downwards motion of the part towards the valley. I believe the bottom rock on which the nevé of the Hochstetter rests to be terraced on the southern side. After we had attempted to cross the “ Bergschrund” at another place, likewise without success, we went round the highest peak, over the main range on the northern (West Coast) side. There was only one possibility left to get across, and this was to descend the northern side, a little to the east of the highest point of the Hochstetter Dome. (To be continued.) GENERAL NOTES. es SCIENCE IN SCHOOLS.—We have received from the Educa- tion Department, Wellington, a work recently issued by the Government Press, entitled “ Materials for Lessons in Elemen- tary Science,” by Professor Bickerton, of Canterbury College. The small book before us consists of the first three chapters of what is evidently intended to be a very comprehensive work, and one touching on every branch of elementary science teach- ing. The preface informs us that it is intended for the use of teachers in primary schools, and not to be read by the pupils. The object of the work is to furnish teachers with a series of graduated experiments of the simplest possible nature, by means of which they may instruct their pupils in the fundamen- tal principles of physical science. The author’s aim is a most excellent one, and though some of the experiments may seem to be of too trivial a nature, yet in the hands of an intelligent teacher they may be utilised to great advantage, and will prove suggestive of other experiments. Our experience, however, of GENERAL NOTES. 513 the average run of primary school teachers leads us to believe that the work will not prove of such value to them as all in- terested in science teaching would wish. In saying this, we do not desire to disparage an intelligent and generally enthusiastic body of men and women, but the fact remains that only a minority of them possess such a sound grounding in the princi- ples of physical science as to enable them to avail themselves of Professor Bickerton’s lessons. A glance over the two hundred and seventy experiments suggested—we can hardly say de- scribed—leads us to the belief that the author has failed to some extent to realise the qualifications of his readers. If the teachers have no previous knowledge of the subjects referred to, they will not be able—with the slender materials put before them—to teach elementary science ; if they do possess a thorough ground- ing in these departments of science, then they hardly require the assistance of the diagrams at the end. Our conviction is, how- ever, that they do not as aclass possess the necessary knowledge, and that it will be long before they do. Even in England, after all the work done by the Science and Art Department, the num- ber of teachers who are certificated to teach science is small, and of those oxly a small portion can teach. In New Zealand, those who can teach science subjects are probably very few in number, and of the rest they would require to have the experiments more fully explained to them than is done. It is always a difficult matter for an expert in any subject to bring himself down to the level of those who have not devoted so much special work to that subject, and this is what appears to us the weak part of these “lessons.” Professor Bickerton assumes that those ad- dressed are possessed of an amount of knowledge and capability of imparting that knowledge, of which the majority are—alas— ignorant. But while thus inclined to be critical with regard to the results which will accrue from the present publication, we recognise the fact that those who wish to see science-teaching take its proper place in our educational curriculum must spread the knowledge of it in every way in their power. They must sow beside all waters, and leave others to reap the harvest after many days.—ED. TIDAL WAVES.—A remarkable disturbance of the ocean on the east coast of New Zealand occurred on the night of the 28th, and during 29th and 30th August. It appears to have been first observed about Io p.m. on the night of the 28th at Mongonui, but it attained its maximum there between 4 a.m. and 10 a.m. of the 29th, and continued to manifest itself throughout the 3oth. It was also recorded from Russel, Auckland, Gisborne, Lyttelton, and Port Chalmers, but though of such an evidently wide-spread nature, it does not appear to have been noticed to any extent at other ports. The movements appear to have been of an irregu- lar nature, rises of 3 or 4 feet occurring rather suddenly in some places, with as rapid a recession of the wave. In Lyttelton har- -bour the water fell as much as 6 feet below usual low-water level. 514 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Around Pigeon Bay and at Mongonui the continued disturbance rendered the water muddy, owing no doubt to the nature of the bottom and the shape of the coast line. Coincident with these local disturbances we have telegraphic intelligence of heavy tidal waves on the Atlantic Coast of North America. Whether any connection exists between these events or not is matter of un- certainty. Dr. Hector, ata recent meeting of the Wellington Philosophical Society, advanced the opinion that the local tidal disturbances are due to the volcanic eruption which had been. experienced in the neighbourhood of the Straits of Sunda. It is, however, improbable that an eruption of however severe a. character in a locality so distant as Malaysia, and separated from us by the mass of Australia, could have affected the waters of the whole Pacific Ocean to such an extent, without producing very marked disturbances on the Australian Coast. As none have been recorded from any of the sister colonies, nor apparently on any part of the west coast of our own island, it would seem more likely that the disturbance is due to submarine movements in the Pacific to the far north of this. A broad volcanic belt or region extends from Java, east-north-east to the Sandwich Is- lands, and it is extremely probable that any such terrific out-. break as that which has so recently devastated the Straits of Sunda would manifest itself in other parts of this region as sub- marine earthquake shocks. A glance ata map will show that any wave originating in the neighbourhood of Java, and radiat- ing outwards from thence, with sufficient force to make itself felt on the east coast of New Zealand, would do terrific damage to the coasts of Australia and the islands to the north. It it originated in the sea south of Java, then we should have heard of it from West Australia, or Adelaide, or Hobart, all of which would probably have experienced it more or less intensely. Probably later and more specific intelligence from all the regions affected will enable us to localise the seat of the disturbance more accurately— ED. SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, LINCOLN.—Dr. R. von Len- denfeld has been appointed Lecturer on Natural Science at the School of Agriculture, in the place of Mr. T. Kirk, who resigned some time ago. Dr. von Lendenfeld studied Natural Science under Professor E. Haeckel, and Professor F. G. Schulze, the great spongiologist, who wrote the report on the soft parts of Euplectella for the Challenger expedition; and he took his de- gree of Ph. D. at the University of Graz, in Austria. He has written an essay on the “ Flight of Insects,” referring chiefly to the anatomy and physiology of the wings of the dragon-fly, which was published by the Imperial Academy of Science in Vienna. In November, 1881, Dr. v. Lendenfeld came to Austra- lia for the purpose of studying the Coelenterata of the southern seas, and has published many essays on the subject in the Ger- man scientific periodicals. These essays contain several interest- ing discoveries, not only are many new species described which a GENERAL NOTES. ers throw light on the systematic position of the Medusze and Sponges, but the nervous system is for the first time recognised in Cyanea, and its development studied. A remarkable new genus, named FLuzcapella, is also described, which, like the Ephe- mera among insects, has no digestive organs in the adult state, a case never before known in the Ccelenterata. In the early part of this year Dr. v. Lendenfeld came to New Zealand to prose- cute his studies, but began by exploring and accurately survey- ing the Tasman glacier, the largest in New Zealand. This survey shows that Dr. v. Haast’s map of this part of the Alps, made with a prismatic compass only, is in its main features perfectly correct. Dr. v. Lendenfeld is at present working in the Canter- bury Museum, Dr. v. Haast having placed the splendid collection in that institution at his disposal for scientific purposes. FERTILISATION OF RED CLOVER.—In the report (in No. 10 of the Journal) of meeting of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, held 7th June, 1883, what I said with respect to the fertilisation of red clover in England is not correctly stated. My remarks as to moths were to the effect that moths of the Noc- tuide (not Noctuz) family visited red clover, and did assist in its fertilisation. And I understood Mr. Meyrick to doubt that fact, not “as they do not settle but suck the nectar on the wing,” but because it was his opinion that they were only attracted by white flowers. I did not hear him say, neither can I imagine he could have said, that moths of the Noctuidz family “do not settle but suck the nectar on the wing,” a statement which would be quite incorrect, as sucking the nectar on the wing would only apply to Hawk moths; and, as regards fertilisation, it could make no dif- ference whether the moth settled on the flower or took the nectar on the wing, the pollen in either case adhering to the proboscis of the moth, and thence being conveyed to other flowers. As to white flowers only attracting moths at night, my own experience is to the contrary— RICH. WM. FEREDAY. Christchurch, August 6th, 1883. had! SEXUAL ORGANS OF SPIDERS.—The palpi of the genus Salticus do not differ materially from those of many other genera. The palpal organs of male spiders consist of lobes, spines, &c., are only developed when the spider comes to ma- turity, and are used in the process ot fecundation. The palpus of the female is leg-like—in most species—generally ends in a single claw, and is often pectinated. The jumping spiders use them, with the aid of the falces, to retain their prey; also as brushes to cleanse their anterior eyes. The Sa/ticz do not carry their eggs, but lay them under a white silken cell, in various crevices, especially in stumps about old clearings ; but there are some spiders—e. g., genus Dolomedes—which carry the cocoon beneath the sternum, retaining it there with the aid of the falces, palpi, and a few silken lines. The resemblance to the immediate environment obtains in many species in New Zealand.—A.T.U. S16 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. HABITS_OF BEETLES (FAM. SILPHIDA).—In No. 10, fol. 481, “Ona new genus of Silphidz,’ I find the following remarks :— “The writer alluded to the curious fact that all the members of this family found in New Zealand possessed habits quite difter- ent to their European representatives, being found without ex- ception among decaying vegetable matter, while the European species fed on carrion only.” This assertion strikes me as very strange, and is certainly incorrect, both in regard to this family, as far as my experience goes in the New Zealand species, as well as what I know of their European relations. Of the New Zealand species that came under my observation, Necrophilus prolon- gatus, Sharp (Entomologists Monthly Mag., vol. xviii. July, 1881), xever was found by me but on carrion. Choleoa lugubris, Sharp (Trans. Ent. Soc., 1882, p. 1, April,) was taken mostly on carrion, but I have also found it on decaying vegetable matter, in kitchen offal, and amongst fowl dung. Another new genus, now being described by Dr. Sharp, although found by myself only once under bark (two specimens I got from a friend, and cannot give habitat), I have no hesitation to pronounce carnivorous, as there were several dead Prionopli reticularis near. That the Euro- pean sp. of this family are solely carrion eaters is equally erro- neous, for it is a well known fact that those nearest related to our New Zealand genera are as much, if not more, phytophagous than these. The genus Catops, Payk (Choleoa, Latr) has several species that live on fungi, and gums, or the sap of trees, and the most live on both decaying vegetable matter and carrion. The species of the genus Catopomorphus, Aubé,aremore vegetablethan carrion eaters, and the genus consists, if not entirely, nearly only of vegetable eaters. Other genera peculiar for their habitats (the cave dwellers) live no doubt more on fungi, &c., than flesh diet. But even amongst the genus Silpha some species have been observed to eat vegetables. For instance, S. obscura, L. has been found eating cereals, and the larva feeds on the leaves of mangold wurzel. Thesame is noted of the larva of S. atrata, L. and S. laevigata, Fabr, whilst the imagos are found in rotten wood and under moss. The interesting Pteroloma forststromii is principally found under moss near mountain rivulets, and Sphaerites glabratus, Fabr, is obtained on the sap that oozes from trees. As far as my observations go, I cannot say that I have found any great difference in the general habits of insects of the same family either in Europe, Australia, or New Zealand, the countries I have lived in—R. HELMS. Greymouth, July 12th, 1883. REMARKABLE PIGEONS.—About two years ago a remarkable pigeon was brought to me which had been shot 10 miles from here, up the Shag River. Its plumage was quite white, with the exception of a few blotches of brown on back and upper part of wings, perhaps 7 or 8 in all. The beak and feet were the same as in the ordinary wild pigeon. The colour of the eyes I could not determine, as the species had been shot through the GENERAL NOTES. 5 LF head ; besides I did not get it till it was several days old. About the same time a similar specimen was shot near Hokitika. A specimen shot lately, near the Arahura, is even more remarkable. The part of the breast is white as in the normal white pigeon, but the other plumage is of silver-grey, light about the neck and head, and gradually darkening towards the wing tips and tail, which is darkest. The feathers on back as far as the wings are attached, and those of the upper part of the wings, are tipped with brown, making a very even and distinct marking. It is a large bird, and most likely a female, because the feet and back are of a pale red, although otherwise like those of the ordinary wild pigeon. Most likely the bird has been brooding late, as the feathers under the breast have the yellowish tinge found on them in the breeding season. The eyes seemed to me to be normal. —R. HELMS. Greymouth, June, 1883. IDOTEA ELONGATA.—In the note on the “ New Zealand Idoteidz,” on page 332 of this journal, the only habitat put down to /dotea elongata is “ Auckland Islands,” whence the spe- cimens in the collection of the British Museum were obtained. I have taken in Lyttleton harbour several specimens, which I have no doubt belong to this species. The specimens—about six altogether—have all been taken on brown seaweeds, which they closely resemble in colour ; the largest is a mature female, with the pouch underneath the thorax full of eggs. In this spe- cimen the thorax is much expanded, it gradually widens until it attains its greatest breadth in that segment, which is rather more than twice as broad as long; the fourth segment is about as wide as the third anteriorly, but suddenly narrows, so that poste- riorly it is but slightly wider than the rest of the body. The length of the body of this specimen is about one inch. In my other specimens the body is of the same width throughout. As I was not previously aware that the thorax of the mature female of /dotea may widen in this manner, I have thought it worth while to place the fact on record, In all the specimens the postero-lateral angles of the abdomen are rounder than shown in Mr. Mier’s figures.—C. C. PODOCERUS VALIDUS, DANA.—TI have to record the occur- ence of this interesting Amphipod (originally described from specimens taken by Dana in the harbour of Rio Janiero), in New Zealand. My specimens were obtained in a peculiar manner. They were found in great numbers hiding among the hairs which line the sutures on the thoracic sterna of the common cray-fish (Palinurus),and from the fact that they were found on aé the cray-fish examined (about twelve specimens), I imagine that they live on them as commensalists. Most of the specimens found were females, but in both sexes the remarkable character of the second pair of gnathopoda leaves no doubt of the identification. Mr. Chilton records the same species from Lyttleton harbour.— | GiaeT, 518 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. THE LATE PROF. W. A. FORBES.—The death of this eminent young naturalist adds another to the already long list of those who have lost their lives in the pursuit of scientific knowledge. He had undertaken an expedition, chiefly for ornithological pur- poses, up the Niger River, but, owing to the interruption of com- munications, his medical supplies were cut short, and before they could be renewed, he fell a victim to dysentery. Among his latest papers read before the Zoological Society of London was one on two New Zealand birds—Xenzcus longipes and Acantht- sitta chloris. Hitherto these two species have been usually assigned to the Certhiide, but Mr. Forbes, after minute exami- nation of their anatomy, refers them to a new family—Xenzcide@ —of Passerine birds, having its affinities “only with the Pipridz (including the Cotingide) Tyrannide, Pittidze, and Philepit- tidae.”— ED. PERIPATUS.—The April number of the “ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science” contains a paper on the anatomy and development of Peripatus capensis, by the late Prof. F. M. Bal- four. Just before his death the eminent naturalist was engaged in investigating the structure and embryology of this interesting species, with the view of bringing out a complete monograph of the genus. The notes and descriptions which he left have been prepared for the press by Profs. Moseley and Sedgwick, and have been superbly illustrated by a series of beautiful drawings, chiefly executed by Miss Balfour. Itis intended that the present me- moir shall be followed by others, comprising a complete account of all the species of the genus. In this connection it may be re- marked that hitherto P. xove-zclandi@ appears to have only been found in one locality in New Zealand—viz., at Forbury, near Dunedin. It is desirable that search should be made in the other parts of the Colony, as specimens are in great demand. The animals, which resemble slate-blue pipillose caterpillars about an inch long, furnished with a pair of short antenne, occur in de- cayedtree-stumps. On being placed in spirits, they instantly eject a white mucous substance from two papille situated at the sides of the mouth. From a private letter received from the Naples Zoological Station, we learn that Prof. Meyer is working out the , embryology of this species, and is greatly in want of specimens In “ Nature,” of 21st June (vol. 28. p 171), Prof. W. T. Thisleton Dyer states that “one of our younger embryologists (with funds furnished by the Royal Society) is on the point of starting for the Cape to study the embryology of Perzpatus.”—ED. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. " 519 MEE TINGS OF} SOCIETIES. ROYAL SOCIETY. OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Sydney, July 4th, 1883—Hon. Professor J. Smith, M.L.C., in the chair. New members—Messrs.. J. Barnet; J. Fraser, B.A.; J. H. Maiden; F. Morley; S. Sinclair; T. P. Stuart, M.D.; T.B. Tre- beck, B.A.; P. W. Tuxen; W. Wardell, C.E.; and W. C. Wil- kinson, B.A. Papers—(1) ‘‘On the Wainamatta Shales,” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods. The author discusses the group or series of beds so-named by the late Rev. W. B. Clarke in his ‘‘ Sedimentary Formations of New South Wales,” and again described by Mr. Beete Jukes in a paper read before the Geological Society of Lon- don in 1847, and disagrees from both these geologists. The con- clusions arrived at are ztey alia:— That the shales do not lie on but are intercalated with the Hawkesbury Sandstones ; that they do not occupy any basin in the formerly eroded rocks; that both in the contained fossils and the stratification, the shales are one with the Hawkesbury Sandstone; and that consequently there is no such formation as the Wainamatta. ‘The verification of these conclusions has been rendered possible by examination ot the cut- tings and tunnels in connection with the new waterworks. A list of the fossil flora of these rocks is given, and it is pointed out that allthe fossils of the Blue Mountain shales and sandstones are found inter- mingled in the mesozoic coal basin around Moreton Bay. These latter beds again are identical in their fossil contents with the shales and sandstones of all the so-called carbonaceous shales and sandstones of Victoria, and they also have the closest relations with the Jurassic plant beds of India, ot Siberia, and of Yorkshire in England; from which facts the author concludes that the Hawkesbury rocks belong to the Lower Jurassic. The lacustrine origin of these beds is denied, and it is shown that they probably were due to the drifting of loose sand over moorlands and shallow marshes covered with a thick vegetable growth. (2.) “On the Australian Strophaosiz,” by Professor Liversidge. (3.) Description of a new species of Ancella from the cretaceous rocks of N. E, Australia,” by Mr. R. Etheridge, jun. MEDICAL SECTION. Sydney, 20th July, 1883.—Dr. Manning in the chair. Papers—(1) ‘‘On the use of the Jequirity Bean in the treat- ment of granular ophthalmia,” by Mr. Thos. Evans. (2.) ‘On the desirability of establishing Federal Quarantine,” by Dr. Mackellar, Government Health Officer. The author de- scribed the growth and history of quarantine regulations in Europe and other parts of the world, and particularly instanced the various cases in which epidemic diseases were introduced into the Austra- lian Colonies. He urged the advisability of all the Australian Governments coming to some agreement on the subject, and ot 520 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. establishing quarantine stations at the northern and western extremities of the coasts, so that vessels approaching the colonies with infectious diseases on board might promptly land the sick ; and then, after purification, come on in quarantine to their des- tination. Sydney, 1st August, 1883.—Hon. Professor Smith, M.L,C., Pre- sident, in the chair. New members—Messrs. O. Schulze; R. B. Smith, M.L.A.; G. M. Styles. Paper—(1) ‘‘On Plants used as Food and for Medicine, etc., by the Natives of North Queensland,” by Mr. E. Palmer, OTAGO INSTITUTE. Dunedin, July roth, 1883.—A. Montgomery, Esq., President, in the chair. | Papers—(1) ‘‘On a specimen of the great Ribbon Fish (Rega- lecus argenteus, n. sp.), recently obtained at Moeraki, Otago,” by Professor Parker. A considerable part of the paper was occupied with a critical resumé of the results of former observers on the characters of the various species of this rare deep-sea fish. The author concluded that it would be impossible to assign the present specimen to any of the hitherto described species, and proposed — to make it the type of a new species, characterised as follows :— Regalecus argenteus, D. 15/192; P. 13; V.1; Br. 6. Height of the body about one-tenth, length of the head about one-seventeenth of the total length. Eye one-sixth of the length of the head. Length and height of the head about equal. The fifteen anterior dorsal rays form a crest, the height of which is more than double that of the head ; its rays have their lower halves united by membrane, their upper halves having a narrow mem- branous fringe; more or fewer of them terminate in lanceolate cutaneous lobes, and they are not spinose, Ventral rays fringed posteriorly by membrane. No caudal fin. Four longitudinal ridges and an indistinct fifth extend trom head to tail above the lateral line, by which they are obliquely cut in front. Surface studded with numerous hard but not bony tubercles, which are largest and most elevated on the ridges; those forming the ventral edge are not perceptibly hooked backwards. Teeth absent. Sil- very, with irregular, wavy, sub-vertical stripes and spots ; forehead and membranous portions of mouth blue-black ; fins crimson. Total length 12°5 feet ; greatest height 15°25 inches; greatest thickness 3°5 inches. | (2). ‘*On the occurrence of the Spinous Shark (Echinorhinus spinosus) in NeW Zealand Waters,’ by Professor Parker. This species is usually stated to be confined to the Mediterranean and Atlantic, extending from the coast of England to the Cape of Good Hope. It is believed that the present specimen is the first which has been recorded beyond the usual range. The specimen having been greatly damaged, the author gives no description of it be- yond a quotation of the generic and specific characters, from Giin- ther’s ‘‘ Catalogue of Fishes,” MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 521 August 14th, 1883.—Mr. A. Montgomery, Esq., President, in the chair. Mr. F. R. Chapman opened a discussion on the “ Nationalisa- tion of Land,” stating the present aspects of the question, and bringing forward a scheme by which freehold might be acquired by the State. The discussion was continued by Mr. J. A. Connell, Mr. W. D. Stewart, Professor Mainwaring Brown, Mr. C. Y. O‘Connor, and Mr. W.N. Blair. On the motion of Mr. J. Denniston, seconded by Professor Brown, it was resolved to adjourn the discussion to a special meeting to be held on Thursday, the 21st inst. (This meeting was afterwards turther postponed until the following Thursday, August 28th, when several other speakers took part in the discus- sion. ) WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Wellington 13th June, 1883—-Hon. G. Randall Johnston, M.L.C.. President, in the chair. The President read his annual address. Mr. McKay read a paper descriptive of a recent geological sur- vey of the East Coast of the North Island, having particular refer- ence to his discovery of volcanic and igneous rocks in the district. He described the geological features of a series of low hills and gullies about 14 miles from Masterton, on Mr. Beetham’s run; and showed a model indicating a well-defined crater, which he had no doubt was the low neck of an extinct volcano. He inferred from the adjacent strata that the volcano was not ancient in a geologi- cal sense, though he offered no comparative data as to the period of its probable activity. Dr. Hector considered that this volcano was a rare discovery, affording clear and perfect evidence of volcanic activity not far from Wellington. It was a much more important element in fix- ing accurately the different grades of geological sequence than might appear at first sight. The discovery had also an importance in searching tor gold and other minerals in the district. Although the Terawhiti district showed indirect evidence of volcanic activity, direct evidence was afforded by large masses of hornblende like that now exhibited from districts near Wellington, and the nature and origin of which they had not been able to account for until the discovery of this low volcanic neck. Now they saw the reason, and there might be tound other necks of old volcanic craters not far from the surface and nearer Wellington. Wellington. 4th July, 1883.—Hon. G. Randall Johnston, M.L.C., President, in the chair. Papers—(1) ‘‘ Notes on Monstrosities in Animals,” by Dr. Newman. : (2.) “‘ History of the Aorere River, Collingwood, since Miocene mmes,” by Mr. S. H.-Cox, F.G.S8. Among the exhibits shown were (1) some quartz taken from a point between Lowry Bay and Pencarrow Light- house, which Dr. Hector said had been tested and found to contain gold at tthe rate of 607 oz. to the ton. The quartz had a close resemblance to that of the Wealth of Nations claim at 522 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Reefton ; (2) a calf of Cagia bveviceps, a very rare species of whale, which had been taken from a cow harpooned near Petone. (3). A fossil Ammonite, nearly 18 inches in diameter, found in the South Island by Mr. McKay. Wellington, 8th August, 1883.—His Excellency Sir William Jervois, K.C.B., in the chair. His Excellency delivered an address, dealing with the work done by the various brauches of the New Zealand Institute as shown by the papers, and referring in particular to the astro- nomical events of the past year. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OR CANTERBURY. DEscRIPTIONS OF NEW ZEALAND Micro-LEpiIDoPTERA.—III.— CEcoPHORIDA. (Abstract of paper read by Mr. E. Meyrick on May 3rd, 1883.) Direct affinity with Australian forms very slight. The following species are described :-— Nymphostola galactina, Feld. Hamilton, Otira Gorge, Dunedin. Proteodes cavmfex, Butl. Christchurch, Mt. Hutt, Arthur’s Pass. Larva on Fagus solandv. Eulechria zophoéssa, Mey:. Wellington. Eul. photinella, Meyr. Wellington. — Atomotricha ommatias, n.sp. Fore wings fuscous, clouded with darker, three arched discal marks, and a posterior transverse line obscurely darker ; hind-wings whitish-grey. Christchurch. Brachysara sordida, Butl. Rakaia. — Phloeopola dinacosma,n.sp. Fore wings fuscous, clouded with ochreous, part of costa, base of inner margin, three discal spots and a short central streak dark fuscous; hind-wings grey-whitish, with a darker central lunule. Wellington. Tvachypepla leucoplanetis, n. sp. Forewings with anterior half white, posterior half fuscous, base of costa blackish, a costal spot and posterior line white; hind wings grey. Hamilton, Otira Gorge. ___- Trach. euryleucota, n, sp. Forewings dark fuscous, a large basal and small costal spot and posterior line white, base ot costa black ; hind wings dark grey. Auckland, Wellington, Dunedin. Trach. conspicuella. Walk. Wellington, Christchurch. — Trach. spavtodeta, n. sp. Fore wings pale, greyish-ochreous, a transverse anterior right-angled line, a posterior sinuate line, and central costal spot dark fuscous, a small ferruginous discal spot ; hind wings pale grey. Wellington. ; — Tvach. nyctopis, n. sp. Fore wings grey, a black transverse somewhat bent anterior streak, sometimes a broad paler fascia, a central costal spot and posterior sinuate line dark fuscous; hind wings grey, Christchurch, Dunedin. ~~ Trach. galaxias, n. sp. Fore wings white,sprinkled with gray, sometimes vosteriorly suffused, a broad fascia near base bordered by a black right-angled line, a central costal spot and posterior sinuate line dark grey; hind wings grey. Hamilton, Wellington, Bealey River. Trach, protochlova, n. sp. Fore wings whitish, suffused with AS . See oe oe! ee ee MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 523 ochreous-green, a fascia near bise, costal and apical spots grey, a transverse anterior acute-angled black line; hind wings grey. - Palmerston, Otira Gorge. e __. Trach. aspidephora, n. sp. Fore wings whitish, suffused with light ochreous, a large sub-triangular posterior costal blotch and small apica! spots dark grey, mixed with black; hind-wings grey. Christchurch, Dunedin. Trach. anastrella, n. sp. Forewings fuscous, suffused with ~ darker, a transverse anterior nearly right-angled black line, a cos- ' tal spot and posterior sinuate line dark fuscous; hind wings dark fuscous. Christchurch, Otira Gorge, Dunedin, Invercargill. Sie Trach. lichenodes, n. sp. Fore wings dark purple-fuscous, partly sprinkled with yellow, three small black discal spots, a whitish spot near base of inner margin, a posterior dorsal spot and_ hind- marginal streak yellowish; hind wings dark fuscous. Bealey River. Aochleta psychra, n. sp. Fore wings whitish, sprinkled with grey, posteriorly partially suffused, two minute discal dots and an ocellus black ; hind wings whitish. Castle Hill Semiocosma peroneanella, Walk. Hamilton, Christchurch, Dunedin. Sem. picarella, Walk, Dunedin. —, Sem. epiphanes, n. sp. Fore wings white, irrorated with grey, a basal spot angulated posteriorly, and large costal blotch including black marks dark fuscous ; hind wings grey-whitish. Wellington. Sem. prasophyta, n. sp. Fore wings white, suftused with ochre- ous-green, a streak near base, scattered discal scales, costal dots and hind marginal line black; hind wings grey, towards base whitish. Taranaki, Wellington. ; Sem. austera, n. sp. Fore wings fuscous, an anterior fascia and ~™ curved posterior line hardly paler, an arched darker discal mark ; hind wings dark fuscous. Wellington. — Lathicrossa,n.g. Characters of Gymnobathva, but antenne very shortly ciliated (4), and thorax crested. | ~~ Lath. leucocenitva, n. sp. Fore wings dark fuscous, two small costal spots aud a hind-marginal row of dots whitish-ochreous, three white discal dots; hind wings darkfuscous. Dunedin. —. Thamnosarva, n. g. Characters ot Gymnobathva, but second joint of palpi with a large square tuft beneath. Thamn. chivista, n. sp. Fore wings whitish-brown, densely irro- rated with dark fuscous; hind wings grey, Christchurch. Gymnobathra coarctatella, Walk. Wellington, Castle Hill. —. Gymn. sarcoxantha, n. sp. Fore wings whitish-ochreous, with three dark ochreous-fuscous discal dots; hind wings ochreous whitish. Christchurch, Dunedin. Gymn. parca, Butl. Wellington, Christchurch, Lake Wakatipu. ™ Gymn. tholodella, n. sp. Fore wings fuscous, irrorated with ochreous, with three darker discal dots; hind wings grey. Hamil- ton. Palmerston, Christchurch, Dunedin. _ Gymn. calliploca.n. sp. Fore wings whitish-ochreous, sprinkled with fuscous, with three discal, five costal, and a hind marginal row of dots dark fuscous ; hind wings pale grey. Dunedin. : sig flavidella, Walk. Auckland, Wellington, Taranaki, Christ- church. Gymn. hamatella, Walk. Christchurch. Gymn. hyetodes. n. sp. Fore wings of male tuscous, ot female §24 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, ochreous-yellow, with three discal points and a straight posterior fascia obscurely darker ; hind wings of male dark grey, of female ochreous-yellow. Wellington. | —— Gymn. philadelpha, n. sp. Fore wings grey, somewhat sprinkled with whitish, tips of cilia white; hind wings grey-whitish, apex darker. Mount Hutt. ’ Oecophora pseudospretella, Stt. Common in houses. — Occ. scholaea,n.sp. Fore wings pale grey, irrorated with red- . dish-fuscous, three anterior costal spots, two discal dots, a third on fold beyond first, and posterior transverse angulated line dark - fuscous; hind wings grey. Wellington to Invercargill. | _. Occ. letharga, n. sp. Fore wings whitish-grey, irrorated with fuscous, three anterior costal spots, two discal dots, a third on fold before first, and posterior transverse angulated line dark fus- cous ; hind wings grey. Dunedin. Oec. chlovitis, n. sp. Fore wings whitish-yellowish, base of costa ~ and a dot beneath fold black, an oblique anterior fascia reaching fold, a bar from anal angle, and a posterior transverse line ob- scurely grey ; hind wings grey. Lake Wakatipu. — Occ. epimylia,n. sp. Fore wings light grey, three costal spots one on fold, and two discal dots obscurely darker; hind wings grey ; head grey. Castle Hill. Oec. contextella, Walk. Christchurch to Invercargill. ~< Oec. hemimochla, n. sp. Fore wings whitish, irrorated with grey, an oblique mark beneath fold, two discal dots, a bar from anal angle, and sub-apical spot blackish; hind wings whitish-grey ; head ochreous-white. Hamilton, Napier, Wellingfon. Oec. gviseata, Butl. Christchurch to Invercargill. ~ Occ. phegophylla. n. sp. Fore wings dilated, reddish-ochreous- brown, a discal dot and indented dorsal streak ochreous-whitish, partly suffused with yellow; hind wings dark grey. Lake Waka- tipu, — X Oec. opovaea, n. sp. Fore wings deep yellow, a blackish line on base of costa, sometimes three reddish fuscous discal dots; hind wings grey; thorax yellow. Castle Hill. — Oec. hovaca,n. sp. Fore wings whitish-ochreous, suffused with yellowish-ochreous, a blackish streak on base of costa, a mark on fold, another on anal angle, and two costal dots obscurely dark fuscous; hind wings grey; thorax anteriorly dark fuscous, pos- teriorly yellowish. Hamilton, Bealey River. Occ. avmigevella, Walk. Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu, Invercargill. Oec. apanthes, n. sp. Fore wings pale whitish-ochreous, a black- “Ish streak on base of costa, a small apical spot, sometimes three discal dots and a bar from anal angle dark fuscous ; hind wings whitish grey ; thorax pale whitish-ochreous, with a dark fuscous interior spot on each shoulder. Hamilton. : — Occ. anaema,n. sp. Fore wings pale whitish-ochreous, with fine scattered fuscous scales, a basal streak on costa, a bar from anal angle, and sometimes a mark on fold dark fuscous; hind wings grey; thorax dark fuscous, with a small pale lateral spot. Lake Wakatipu. ~~ Occ. macavella, n. sp. Fore wings pale yellow, base of costa blackish, sometimes a mark on fold and bar ‘from anal angle ob- scurely dark fuscous; hind wings whitish-grey ; thorax dark fus- cous, posterior margin yellowish, Christchurch. jn SP phe MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 525 ——~ Occ. homodoxa, n. sp. Fore wings whitish-grey, closely irro- rated with darker, a mark on fold and another on anal angle hardly darker; hind wings grey. Lake Wakatipu. ~~ Oee. sidevodeta, n. sp. Fore wings narrow, ochreous, suffused with dark fuscous, sometimes with three obscure fasciz, inner margin generally paler; hind wings dark grey. Christchurch, Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu. —.. Cec. hoplodesma, n. sp. Fore wings narrow, pale yellow, an- terior half of costa, three oblique fasciz and a hind marginal streak grey; hind wings grey. Rakaia. —Ocee. chrysogramma, n. sp. Fore wings narrow, deep yellow, base, two oblique tasciz, a costal spot, and hind marginal streak dark purple-fuscous ; hind wings dark fuscous. Wellington. _. Cvemnogenes, n. g. Characters of Oecophova, but antenne in male with ciliations whorled or closely set over entire surface. —- Crem. oxyina, n. sp. Fore wings in male dark fuscous mixed with ferruginous, in female reddish-ochreous, sometimes with a pale indented dorsal streak, a spot beneath fold and discal dot blackish ; hind wings dark fuscous. Lake Wakatipu. _—. Crem. aphrontis,n. sp. Fore wings ochreous-yellow,: partially suffused with grey, with a black discal dot; hind wings dark grey, paler towards base. Arthur’s Pass (5000 ft.). Christchurch, 5th July, 1883.—Professor F. W. Hutton, Presi- dent, in the chair. The President announced that. the Honorary Secretary, Mr. G. Gray, had been obliged to resign, having been appointed lecturer on Chemistry in the School of Agriculture at Lincoln, and that the Council had elected Mr C. Chilton as Honorary Secretary. The vacancy on the Council made by Mr. Chilton taking the Secretary- - ship had been filled up by Mr. G. Gray. Papers—(r) ‘‘A Visit to the central part of the New Zealand Alps,” by R. von Lendenteld, Ph.D. (See page 504). Christchurch, 2nd August, 1883.—Professor F. W. Hutton, President, in the chair. New members—R. F. Irvine, T. P. Arnold, A. Beaver, Dr. Stewart. Papers—(1) ‘‘ The Germ Theory of Disease, with especial reference to the Infectiveness of Consumption,” by R. H. Bake- well, M.D. The author gave a resumé of the experiments of Pasteur, Klein, Buchner, and Koch on the Bacillus anthracis of splenic fever in sheep. He then explained the old and newer theories as to the nature of consumption, and the observations and experiments of Koch on the Bacillus of tubercle. The objections madeto Koch’s observations were then recounted, and in a review of the question the author arrived at the following conclusions :—That the evi- dence at present was very conflicting. That Koch’s deductions were not warranted by the evidence, and that his experiments could be explained by the older theories. The author was of opinion that Dr. Bastian had fully proved the fact of spontaneous generation, and he (the author) thought that these bacteria. were products of degeneration spontaneously produced, each tissue pro- ducing bacteria sw generis. He adduced in support of this that 526 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. bacteria were formed in the aqueous humours of the eye of a dead animal. He also pointed out that consumption was not infectious like eruptive fevers, and that when inherited it remained latent in the constitution during the whole period of youth. Dr. Symes thought that the principal cause of consumption was inhaling impure and damp air. He pointed out that some of the Government schools in Christchurch were very badly venti- lated, and advocated the drainage ot subsoil water. Mr. Meyrick asked if it were true that consumption was un- known in arctic regions? Mr. Hogben said that there were two things which ought to be kept separate, viz., the bacillus and its nidus. One might be pre- sent without the other, and then no disease would be produced. The President pointed out the difference between the bacilli themselves and their germs, or endogonidia. The use of aniline dyes for staining was attended with much uncertainty, and success depended largely on the strength of the dye used. He objected to Dr. Bakewell’s conclusion that bacteria originated spontane- ously. One experiment in which bacteria were not produced was of more value than a hundred in which they were produced. The anterior chamber of the eye-ball was not closed to bacteria, it con- tained blood-vessels, such as those going to the muscles of the iris, and the bacteria were introduced in the blood. (2.) ‘““ Monograph of New Zealand Geometrina,” by E. Mey- rick, B.A. 8g species of Geometrina and 1 of Siculina are des- cribed, 30 being new. ACIDALID&, Theowena, n. g. Characters of Acidalia, antenne of male with long tufts of cilia, vein 8 of hind wings free, 6 and 7 from a point or stalked. Theox. scissaria, Gn. Christchurch, Mount Hutt. A cidalia rubvaria, Dbld. (acidaliaria, Walk. ; fighinaria, Gn.) Com- mon; also in Australia and Tasmania. LARENTID&. Parysatts, n, gen. Antenne of male pectinated ; areole simple, vein 8 of hind wings free, united to 7 by a transverse median bar. Parys. porphyrias, n. gen. Hind margin ot fore wings excavated on upper half and below middle; yellow-ochreous mixed with brown and purplish, with two brown lines, first bent near costa, second straight. Otira Gorge. Hippolyte,n. g. Palpislender; antenne of male minutely cili- ated; vein 6 out of g, areole simple. Hipp. vubvopunctana, Dbld. (visata, Gn.; mullata, Gn.; pulchvaria, Butl.). Common; alsoin Australia and Tasmania. Larva on Haloragis. ! Epiphryne,n, g. Antenne of male pectinated, vein 6 from a point with 9, 7 below angle of areole, areole simple, 11 out of areole, Epiphy. undosata. Feld. Wellington to Dunedin. Hermione, n. g. Characters of Epiphryne, but 6 out of 9, 7 from angle of areole. Herm. xanthaspis, n. sp. Bright yellow ; costa reddish-fuscous, with five darker marks; a transverse oval dark fuscous discal spot. Lake Guyon. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 427 pine. n.g. Characters of Epiphryne, but 6 from below g, 11 out Of g. ‘ hi abrogata, Walk. (sevvularia, Gn.) Christchurch, Castle ill. Panopea, n. g. Characters of Hermione, but 7 from below angle of areole. | Pan. verviculata, Feld. Christchurch, Dunedin. Eurydice, n. g. . Characters of Heyvmione, but 7 from above areole. Eur. cymosema, n. sp. Hind margin sinuate; brown-whitish, with numerous sub-dentate dark fuscous lines; a discal dot, in a clear space; hind wings grey-whitish. Dunedin. Harpalyce,n. g. Characters of Epiphryne, but 11 out of 9. Harp. megaspilata, Walk. (assata, nehata, Feld; vufescens, Butl.) Common. . Harp. humeraria, Walk. (? obtusaria, flexata, obtruncata, fusiplagiata, Walk ; cinevascens, Feld). Wellington to Mount Hutt. Synonymy doubtful. Sivatonice, n. g. Characters of Hurydice, but 2 from below g, palpi with very long hairs, Sivat. catapyrvha, Butl. Lake Guyon, Otira Gorge. | Hivia glaucata, Walk. (Donovam, Feld.) Christchurch to Dune- din. Pasiphila, n. g. Characters of Elvia, but antenne of male with fascicles ot cilia. Pas, bilineolata, Walk. (muscosata, indicataria, inexptata, semralbata, Walk, ; cidariaria, Gn. ; fumipalpata, aquosata, Feld ; charybdis, calida, Butl.) Common. | Tatosoma lestevata, Walk. (vanata, Feld.) Christchurch. Tat. transitavia, Walk. (mistata, F eld.) Wellington to Dunedin. Tat. agvionata, Walk. (tipulata, inclinataria, collectaria, Walk.) Christchurch. Asthena pulchvavia, Dbid. (plurilineata, Walk.; ondinata, Gn.) Napier to Dunedin. Ast. schistraria, Walk. (subpurpureata, Walk; tuhuata, Feld.) Wellington to Dunedin. Scotosia gobiata, Feld. (simulans, undulifera, anguligeva, vivularis, Butl.) Wanganui to Dunedin. Scot. deltoidata, Walk. (welavata, perductata, congressata, conversata, descviptata, bisignata, aggvegata, congregata, plagifurcata, Walk. ; pasti- navia, Gn.; tmopiata, monoliata, perversata, Feld.) Wellington to Lake Wakatipu. Epyaxa, n.g. Characters of Laventia, but 6 from a point with 9. Ep. rvosearia, Dbld. (arvdulavria, inamaenaria, Gn.) Christchurch, Dunedin. Ep. orephylla, n. sp. Larger and greyer than E. vosearia, with anterior edge of median band straight, Castle Hill to Lake Wakatipu, up to 4000 feet. . Ep. semifissata, Walk. (ypsilonana, delicaiulania, Gn.) Christ- church to Dunedin. Ep. chlamydota, n. sp. Pale whitish-ochreous, a small basal patch and broad median band greyish-purple, black-margined, posterior edge of the band with a broad truncate projection ; a purplish hind-marginal fascia. Wellington to Akaroa. Arsinoé, n. g. Characters of Laventia, but antenne of male dentate, ciliated. 528 ‘ JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Ars. subochraria, Dbld. (strangulata, pusinata, Gn.) Wanganui to Dunedin; also in Australia and Tasmania. Ars. prionota, n, sp. Hind margin crenate or dentate; light- ochreous, with numerous fuscous strie; costa and hind margin greenish; a broad darker median band, posterior edge with a rather strong indented projection. Castle Hill, Dunedin. Cidaria triphragma, n. sp. Pale dull greyish-purple; margins of basal patch and median band marked by dark fuscous fascie, externally white-edged, third fascia acutely angulated. Blenheim. Cid. rixata, Feld. (squalida, Butl.) Wellington to Mount Hutt. Cid. purpurifera, Fereday. Mount Hutt. Cid. similata, Walk. (timarata, Feld.) Christchurch to Dunedin. Cid. callichlora, Butl. Christchurch. Cid. chaotica, n. sp. Dark fuscous ; a very broad pale ochreous median band (sometimes dark fuscous), margined with rows of white dots, posterior edge with a bi-dentate projection almost touching hind margin. Arthur’s Pass to Dunedin. Larentia stinaria, Gn. Christchurch to Dunedin. Lar. praefectata, Walk. (subtentaria, absconditaria, Walk. Christchurch. Lar. nephelias,n. so. Pale whitish-grey, slightly ochreous; a discal dot, sinuate line beyond middle, and two rows of cloudy spots before hind margin dark fuscous. Arthur’s Pass, 4600 feet. Lar. cataphracta, n. sp. Allied to L. clarata, but lines less dentate, and hind wings pale greyish-ochreous. Arthur’s Pass to Lake Wakatipu, up to 4000 feet. Lar. clarata, Walk. (pyramaria, Gn.) Castle Hiil to Dunedin. Lar. beata, Butl. Christchurch to Lake Wakatipu. Lar. chlorias,n. sp. Bright yellow; base of costa, four rows of dots, and a triangular anteriorly black margined costal blotch before apex dark purple. Castle Hill, 3100 feet. Lar. aegrota, Butl. Christchurch, Dunedin. Lar. psamathodes,n. sp. Whitish-ochreous, slightly brownish, with numerous almost straight subdentate fuscous hairs. Wel- lington, Dunedin. Lar. helias,n. sp. Pale whitish-ochreous, costa and hind mar- gin yellow; several fuscous and ochreous dentate lines; a rufous median fascia, anterior edge straight, posterior edge dentate, with a short projection; hind wings ochreous-yellow. Dunedin. Lar. prasinias,n. sp. Bright yellow, with numerous cloudy dentate brownish strie; a dark fuscous median band, posterior edge projecting in middle, containing a clear patch on costal half. Castle Hill. Lar. chionogramma, n. sp. Pale greyish ochreous, irrorated with dark fuscous; a rather darker white-edged median band, posterior edge shortly projecting ; a white subterminal line. Mount Hutt. Lar. obarata, Feld. Wellington to Mount Hutt. Lar. petropola, n. sp. Large ;.dark grey, irrorated with bluish- whitish ; costa partially whitish ; median band margined by pairs of whitish sub-dentate lines; a whitish subterminal line. Otira (sorge. Lar. cinerearia, Dbld. (invexata, semisignata, inoperata, puncti- lincava, dissociata, semilisata, Walk. ; corcularia, infantaria, eupithe- ciaria, Gn.; sphaeriata, Feld.) Christchurch to Lake Wakatipu. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. » 529 Lar, anthracias, n. sp. Dark fuscous; median band marked by two whitish black-margined double fascia, second angulated ;. a whitish subterminal IIne. Mount Hutt and Lake Wakatipu, up to 5400 feet. Lar. bulbulata, Gn. Christchurch to Dunedin. Pasithea, n. g. Characters of Zarentia, but thorax densely hairy beneath. Pas. insignis, Butl. Castle Hill. Pas. orphnaea, n. sp. Dark fuscous, mixed with yellowish and whitish; numerous irregular dentate blackish lines; cilia barred with black and white. Lake Wakatipu, 56v0 feet. _ Pas, mechanitis, n. sp, Dark fuscous, mixed and suffused with yellow, four white and yellow lines, third angulated, and a blackish median line; cilia white, basal half dark gray. Arthur’s Pass and Mount Hutt to 4600 feet. Pas. paradelpha, n. sp. Allied to P. mechanitis, but without yel- low suffusion, and cilia barred with white and dark fuscous. Lake Wakatipu, 5000 feet. ) Pas. strategica, n.sp. Dark fuscous, with four fascie anda sharply dentate subterminal line white, fourth fascia sharply an- culated ; cilia barrred. Lake Guyon. Pas. callicrena, n. sp. Dark fuscous, mixed with reddish; three fascie, and a sharply dentate subterminal ochreous whitish, dark margined, third fascia sinuate ; hind wings beneath reddish. Lake Wakatipu, Pas. perornata, Walk, Wellington to Mount Hutt. Pas. niphocrena,n. sp. Dark fuscous, mixed and suffused with orange ; two anterior curved dentate lines, and a post median an- gulated fascia white. Arthur’s Pass, 4500 feet. Pas. ferox. Butl. Castle Hill. Pas. zopyra, 0. sp. Smaller, darker, and more bluish than P. ferox; hind wings orange, with a basal patch, two slightly bent median lines, a subterminal line and hind marginal fascia dark fuscous. Mount Hutt. Pas. vulcanica, n. sp. Darker than P. ferox, markings more ir- regular and blackish ; hind wings orange, with basal halt’ a sinu- ate median line, and subterminal and hind marginal fasciz dark fuscous. Hawkes Bay. Pas. brephos, Walk. (brephosata, Walk.; catocalaria, Gn. ; Enysii, Butl.).Nelson to Invercargill. Pas. omichlias, n. sp. Dark grey, with darker and paler lines ; a darker curved fascia before middle, and an irregular fascia beyond middle, with a short projection ; hind wings dark grey, with three paler median lines. Castle Hill. Statira,n. g. Char. of Pasithea, but antenne of male simple, filiform. Stat, homomorpha, n. sp. Very similar to Pas. brephos, but post median line of hind wings angulated, widely remote in middle from median. Mount Hutt. | Stat. anceps, Butl. Nelson to Castie Hill, to 3100 feet. Stat. Hectori, Butl. Mount Hutt and Lake Wakatipu, to 5700 feet, Dasyuris partheniata, Gn. Mount Hutt. Cephalissa, n. g. Char. of Panagra, but palpi less long, antenne of male filitorm, minutely ciliated, 6 from a point with g 530 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Ceph. siria, n. sp. Rather dark reddish fuscous; a slender anterior fascia and,median band darker, edged with yellowish white on costa; hind wings deep orange. Dunedin. Panagra faleatelia, Walk. WUunedin. BoLETOBIDA. Cacopsodos niger, Butl, Lake Wakatipu. LyYRCEIDA. Iyrcea alectoraria, Walk. (primata, mixtaria, Walk. ; acrotaria, Feld. ; varians, Butl.). Wellington to Dunedin. ENNOMID&. Hybernia indocilis, Walk. (indocilisaria, Walk.; boreophilaria, Gn.). Christchurch. Zylobara fenerata, Feld. Wanganui to Christchurch. Zyl. productata, Walk. (pungata, fragosata, Feld.). Wellington to Dunedin. Pseudocoremia lupinata, Feld. (suavis, usitata, Butl.). Christ- church to Dunedin. Pseud. melinata, Feld. (indistineta, Butl.). Wanganui to Dune- din. Boarmia dejectaria, Walk. (attracta, exprompta, patularia, scrip- taria, erebinata, stigmaticata, lignosata, Walk.; pannularta, Gn. ; masriata, sulpitiata, caprimulgata, Feld.). Taranaki to Dunedin. Barsine, n. g. Char. of Boarmia, but 10 and 11 both separate, 12 free. Bars. panagrata, Walk. (menanaria, Walk. ; antipodaria, Feld. ; desiccata, arenacea, Butl.). Masterton to Akaroa. Detunda atronivea, Walk. (manxifera, Fereday). Napier to Wellington. Det. egregia, Feld, Otira Gorge to Akaroa. Declana floccosa, Walk. (scabra, Walk. ; verrucosa, Feld. ; Fere- dayt, nigrosparsa, Butl.). Christchurch. Decl. crassitibia, Feld. Blenheim to Dunedin. Atossa, n.g. Char. of Declana, but antenne not pectinated, areole simple. At. niveata, Butl. Dunedin. Phyllodoce,n. g. Char. of Azelina, but coxe and femora densely hairy. Phyll. nelsonaria, Feld. (felix, Butl.). ‘Nelson to Dunedin. Amastris, n. g. Char. of Boarmia, but antenne of male shortly ciliated. . Am. encausta, n. sp. Apex almost acute, hind margin obtusely projecting above middle; pale purplish grey or ligkt reddish och- — reous brown, strigulated with dark fuscous; three short dark — fuscous marks on costa ; hind wings pale whitish yellow. Hawkes — Bay to Mount Hutt. Stratocléis, n. g. Char. ot Azelina, but antenne of male shortly ciliated, 12 shortly touching 11. Strat. gallaria, Walk. (palthidata, Feld.). Wanganui to Christ- church. Strat. streptophora, n. sp. Apex strongly projecting, hind — margin with a strong bidentate projection; whitish yellow, irro-— rated with brown; four dark fuscous lines, second straight, third MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES, 531 curved, fourth followed by a row of crescentic white spots. Otira Gorge to Dunedin. Azelina fortinata, Gn. (ziezac, Feld.). Nelson to Mount Hutt. Drepanodes muriferata, Walk. (ephyraria, Walk.; cookaria, haastiaria, Feld.). Taranaki to Dunedin. SICULINA. SICULIDE. Siculodes subfasciata, Walk. (gallicolens, Butl.). Christchurch to Dunedin. (3) ‘‘ Description of a new species of Ofdaria (Lepidoptera), by A. W. Fereday, M.E.S.L.” Cidaria purpurifera, n. sp. Primaries olive green with dark chocolate lines and markings ; a very broad central belt with broad obtuse projection between 1st and 3rd median nervules ; central area of the belt traversed by a broad pale purplish band, the other part of the belt being olive green suffused and blotched with dark chocolate-brown; a very con- spicuous narrow white band beyond the central belt, and thin white subterminal line; fringe chequered. Secondaries tawny ochreous with some indistinct transverse lines. Expanse of wings 11 to 14 lines. Habitat; Mount Hutt, Canterbury, N.Z. Somewhat resembles Cidaria rivata, Feld. (Coremia squalida, Butl.) but readily distinguished therefrom by the purplish belt, brilliant white lines, and bright olive green ot the primaries of C. purpurifera and by the outer margin of the central belt being in the primaries of O. rivata very deeply indented along the lower branch of the median nervure. — .) “Revision of the Land Mollusca of New Zealand.” by Protessor F. W. Hutton. This paper is an attempt to arrange the New Zealand Land Mollusca into natural groups. It comprises short diagnoses of 116 species, of which all but 13 have (been seen by "the author. These species are divided into 39 genera. In addition therejare seven introduced species. Of the native species, so far as our present knowledge extends, about one half appear to be confined to the North Island, one quarter to the South Island, and one quarter common to both.. Three species are known from Stewart Island of which two areendemic. A single endemic species comes from Campbell Island; while the three species said to be found in the Auckland Islands are all natives of New Zealand, as also appear to be the two species from the Chatham Islands, and the Kermadecs. Outside New Zealand the closest connection is with North Australia and New Caledonia, but there are also affinities with the faunas of Polynesia and South America. The author has adopted Prof. V. Martens’ suggestion that all specific names meaning of, or from, New Zealand should be spelt uniformly, and has taken neozelanicus as the best. The following new genera are made :— Genus Carthea. Animal helicitorm, jaw of many quadrate over- 532 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. lapping plates. Shell globose, imperforate, of several slowly in- creasing whorls. Type Helix kiwi, Gray. Genus Thera, Animal and jaw as in Patula. Shell conical, high, perforate, hairy. Type Helix stipulata, Reeve. Sub-genus Calymna. A sub-genus of Amphidowa distinguished by the shell being ribbed. Type Amphidoxa costulata Hutton. Genus Otoconcha. Animal limaciform; no mucous gland; shell external, of a few rapidly increasing whorls, covered by the mantle. Jaw with distant ribs; marginal teeth quadrate. Type Vitrina dimidiata, Pfeiffer. Genus Psyra. Animal and jaw as in Charopa. Shell imper- forate, or narrowly perforate. Type Helix venulata, Pfeifter. Genus Pyrrha. Animal helicitorm ; tail with a mucous gland ; jaw with flat ribs; marginal teeth quadrate. Shell thin, of 44 to 53 Slowly increasing whorls; sub-perforate. Type P. cressida, Hutton. Genus Elea. Animal heliciform; jaw none; all the teeth aculeate. Shell small, widely umbilicated, of a few rapidly increas- ing whorls; epidermis thin, not involving the peristome. Type Helix coresia, Gray. LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Sydney, May 30th, 1883.—Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.L.S., Vice-president, in the chair. New members—T. Whitelegge and H. Deane, M.A., M.I.C.E. Papers—(1) ‘‘ Notes on the Lower Jaw of Palorchestes azael,’ by Charles W. De Vis, B.A. A fine specimen of the right ramus of the lower jaw of a young Palorchestes azael, now in the Bris- bane Museum was tully described in this paper. Reference was made to Professor Owen’s account of an adult jaw of the same species (Foss. Mamm. Aust. Pl. cvi.); and the relations of Palor- chestes to Sthenurus, Macropus, Protemnodon, &c., discussed as fully as the evidence allowed. The author regards it as a true saltigrade of the Macropod type, closely allied in many respects to Sthenurus, though with a premolar of a quite distinct character. A cast of this fossil was exhibited by Mr Macleay. (2.) “*Synonymy of Australian and Polynesian Land and Ma- rine Mollusca,” by John Brazier, C.M.Z.S., &c. In this paper the author traced the synonymy of Patella aculeata, Reeve; Natica incei, Phil.; and some others, besides rectifying the identification of Lucina dentata, Jay, which has by most authors been confounded with ZL divaricata, Linn. (3.) ‘‘On some Mesozoic Fossils from Central Australia,” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.S., &c. The author de- scribes the nature of the deposit from qualitative analysis and microscopic examination ; noticing the occurrence of various fossils too imperfect tor specific identification. The author describes also the two new species Trigonia mesembria, a clearly cretaceous form of the section ‘‘ Glabre,” and Pecten psila, which the author con- siders may only be a variety of P. socialis, Moore. He also de- scribed a Belemnites, probably B. australis, Phillips, of a very _ aberrant type of the section “ Hastati.” In conclusion, he con- sidered that as many of Moore’s Wollumbilla (Jurassic) fossils were found in this formation, there was either a confusion of type, — MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 533 or that the Wollumbilla beds were part of the lower cretaceous formation of Central and N. E. Australia. (4.) ‘‘Contribution to a Knowledge of the Fishes of New Guinea, No. 4,” by William Macleay, F.L.S., &c. One hundred and thirty species of fishes are here recorded, chiefly from the ex- treme south-east of New Guinea, making with those enumerated in the three previous papers, 409 species in all, collected by Mr. Goldie on the island. One new genus (Tetracentrum) and 33 new species are described, chiefly from fresh water. (5.) “*A second half-century of Plants new to South Queens. and,” by the Rev. B. Scortechini, F.L.S. The author enumerates 50 plants not previously quoted from Southern Queensland, and either belonging to the tropical flora of Northern Australia, or in- digenousto the southern and temperate portions of the continent, He also notices some of the changes of nomenclature resulting from the fusion of the genera Pithecolobium, Calliandra, and En- terolobium with Albizza. Professor Stephens exhibited a collection of fossils from ‘“‘ Sturt’s Stoney Desert,” close to the Grey Ranges. Among them were specimens of Ammonites biflexuoides, Belemnites sp., besides other mollusca, all found at a depth of over 100 feet. Also a speci- men of petrified wood, part of a tree met with in sinking a well on the Dunlop Station, fifty miles north of the Darling, at 300 feet below the surface; Dendrites from Wittabreena, thirty miles north of Mount Brown; Gypsum (selenite) from the Grey Ranges, where* high cliffs of this substance occurr; fossil wood from the same place; shell-breccia from the district between Paroo and Werrego, found at a very great depth, &c. Healso exhibited a rare fungus from Springwood, both in the dry state and by drawings. It was regarded by Mr. Tenison-Woods as probably a species of Stereum. Also a specimen of Opal in reniform nodules, obtained by Mr. Calliatt from a well in the Paroo district. The matrix is understood to have been clay, presumably a deposit from hot Mr. Whitelegge exhibited a living and vigorous specimen of Plumatella obtained in the Botany swamps. It appeared to be identical with P. repens, Linn. Also dried specimens of Mitella gelatinosa from Randwick, one of the Characez which had not been previously recorded from this district. Mr. Macleay read the following letter from Mr. Meyrick rela- tive to the caterpillar exhibited by him (Mr. Macleay) at the last meeting :— ‘‘ Warwick House, Armagh Street West, ‘‘ Christchurch, N.Z., 21st May, 1883. “Dear Sir, “1 observed in the Abstract of Proceedings of the last meeting of the Linnean Society, a note by yourself on the injury caused to cabbages by the great numbers of larve of one of the Tineina, and thought you might be interested to know the specific name. The habits of the larva and your mention of the lace-work cocoon enable me to say for certain that the species is Plutella eruciferarum, Zeller (family Plutellide), which, as you rightly conjecture, is an importation from Europe. It occurs now through- out the world from Greenland to New Zealand, and is apparently abundant everywhere, not regarding climate ; it is the only known 534 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Lepidopterous insect of which this can be said. It swarms in many parts of Australia, especially at Adelaide. It has probably been imported with the cabbage, but will eat almost any Crucifere. Its numbers are, | think, principally kept down in the larval state by small birds. The moth, though small and inconspicuous, may be readily recognised by unpractised persons from its habit ot projecting its antenne forward when at rest, as the Trichoptera do. ‘* Believe me, ** Yours truly, ‘¢ EDWARD MEyRICK. “Hon. Wiiiiam Macteay, M.L.C.” Sydney, 27th June, 1883.—Professor W. J. Stephens, M.A., in the chair. New members—Messrs, T. Richards, P. Hayes, and J. L. Wool- cock. Papers, (1.) ‘*‘ Descriptions of new genera and species of Fishes,” by Charles W. De Vis, B.A. Two genera are described, Dactylophova of the family Cirrhitide, and Leme of the Family Amblyopinn. The new species described are—Gzivella carbonaria, Givella neuvalis, Dactylophova semimaculata, Platycephalus semermis, Polynemus speculavis, Leme mordax, Sphyreena stvenua, TIvochocopus sanguinolentus, Labrichthys dux, Plagusia notata, Synaptura cinerea, and Crossorhinus oynatus, (2) “Plants indigenous in the immediate neighbourhood of Sydney,” Paper IV., by Mr. E. Haviland. This referred chiefly to the reproductive organs of the genus Leptospeymum, and its mode of fertilisation. The author regards cross-fertilization as being probably the rule of this genus, this being brought about by two means :—First by the difference in the times of maturing of the anthers and stigma, and secondly by changes in their relative positions. (3.) ‘‘ Localities of some species of Polynesian recent Mollusca.” by John Brazier, C.M.Z.S.,&c. This paper gives with some de- tail all the synonyms of Pzvenopsis costata, of Quoy and Gaimard, and of Melania acanthica, Sea. Also the various localities in which they have been found. , Baron Maclay exhibited some beautifully preserved specimens of very delicate forms of marine life, such as Oceanza pileata, Salpa democratica, Alcyonium palmatum, &c., & These were prepared at the Naples Biological Sfation, under the direction of Dr Dohrn and may be obtained there at a reasonable cost, for study or ilus- tration. Even large specimens of Rhizostoma are perfectly and permanently preserved by this process. Baron Maclay also gave an account of various large animal preparations which had been preserved in the Berlin Museum by the Wickersheimer fluid, pointing out that the failures which had attended its use here, were due to too protracted immersion in the fluid. The objects when once well penetrated by the solution, should be withdrawn and kept in a dry state. Mr. Whitelegge exhibited a decayed leaf of some acquatic plant covered with a thick growth of Plumatella vepens. Also a specimen of fresh water sponge, undetermined, Both from a water hole in Moore Park. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 535 Mr. Trebeck showed the claw ofa very large crab, Pseudocareinus gigas, which had been washed ashore in Lane Cove. This species is of common occurrence fin Bass’ /Straits, but is seldom found much to the northward of that district. Professor Stephens exhibited, for the Rev. J. M. Curran, some good specimens of Sphenopteris, A lethoptervis and Merianopteris, as des- cribed by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods in his paper, vol. VIII., pt.1. Also of Thinfeldia odontoptevoides, and a photograph of the male amentum of Walchia Miilneana, allfrom Ballinore near Dubbo. Also a quantity of Coccus infesting a species of Casuarina; from near Warren. Professor Stephens exhibited, for Mr. J. Anderson, of Newstead near Inverell, several specimens of leaves and tresh-water Mol- luscs (Unio). They were clearly tertiary, were, though much frac- tured by the pick, excellently preserved, and probably all capable of identification. The matrix was hardened. mud, the detritus of basaltic rock mixed with much vegetable debris, and dotted with numerous little spheres of pisolitic iron ore. The pool in which this mud was deposited must have been of very still water, and may probably have been formed by a lava stream damming some small rivulet. Dr. Schuette showed a plaster cast of an impression which Mr De Vis had previously exhibited. This cast was therefore a model of the original fossil, and was regarded by Baron Maclay, as con- sisting of the Occipital and Parietal bones of a gigantic Wombat, seen from within. Mr Deane exhibited a portion of sandstone penetrated by a number of burrows, formed in all probability by some Hymenop- terous insect. Sydney, July 25th, 1883.—Professor W. J. Stephens, M.A., in the chair. Papers—(1) **On the Myology of the Frilled Lizard (Chlamy- dosaurus Kingw)” by Charles De Vis, B.A.. The author does not find there is any special muscular mechanism connected with the reptile’s habit of elevating the frill, and of occasionally assuming the erect attitude. The function of the frill he regards as being partly to frighten assailants, partly to aid in the collection and consentration of the waves of sound. (2) ‘Descriptions of Australian Micro-Lepidoptera, No. 9,” by E. Meyrick, B.A, The paper continues the descriprion of the (Ecophoride, bringing the number of Australian species ot the tamily up to 179. (3) “Some Remarks on the action of Tannin on Infusoria,” by Harry Gilliatt. The author points out with reference to a paper by Mr. H. J. Waddington that the effect of the tannic acid on Paramecium aurelia is to cause the elongation and discharge of the trichoysts, which form a dense fringe of slender rods all round the body. fc. Haswell exhibited a series of anatomical and zoological preparations. Mr. Deane exhibited a small collection of rocks, chiefly igne- ous, from the railway between Gunnedah and Narrabri. Mr. Pedley exhibited a specimen of what is called Copper 536 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Grass at Cobar, and is regarded asa sure indication of that metal, growing only, it is said, upon the outcrop of a lode. Mr. Haviland suggested that it might be a species of Xerotes. Mr. Macleay exhibited a living specimen of Tvachydosaurus asper, brought by the Honourable P. G. King from Narran country. (Zo be continued.) CORRESPONDENCE. ——_ - > —__ — EXPLORATION \OF THE HOLLYFORD VAELEY, WEST COAST OF, OTAGG. > TO THE EDITOR. SIR,—I have read, not without interest, Mr. E. H. Wilmot’s report published in the last number of the SCIENCE JOURNAL, in which he claims to have discovered a pass across the Darran Mountains, by which communication may be established between the Hollyford Valley and Milford Sound, added to his descrip- of which are the following words: “I believe this is the first time the practicability of any track to the Sounds. has been demonstrated.” . . Without encroaching too far on your valuable space, I may take leave to doubt that the practicability of the pass has been demonstrated ; at least such impression is left me after reading Mr. Wilmot’s report. That Mr. Wilmot was the first to ascertain the existence in these mountains of a depression low enough to admit the possibility of their being crossed, is also matter for doubt, the saddle in question having been observed by Dr. Hector twenty years ago, from whose report on the West Coast of Otago, printed November 5th, 1863, I make the following extract descriptive ot the appearance of this pass from the Hollyford Valley :— | “The Darran Mountains, which encircle the head of Milford Sound, and form the west side of Kakapo (Hollyford) Valley, have a striking appearance from this point, although from the profundity of the valley the higher peaks are completely shut out from view. There is only one place where there is the slightest appearance of a gap in this range, but even there the saddle cannot be lower than 3,000 feet. The high slopes, above 5,500 feet, seem to be covered with perpetual snow.” During the progress of these explorations, sketches of the Darran Mountains as seen from the Hollyford Valley were made, some of which, snowing the depression in the mountain range, the position of the saddle, and the eastern approach thereto, are still in the possession of Dr. Hector. Again, speaking of the western approach to this pass from Milford Sound end, in the report above quoted he says: “ The fall of the (Cleddau) river is very quiet ; and the bed of the ‘THE HOLLYFORD VALLEY. 537 stream is everywhere composed of glacier detritus. We followed up one of the branches to its source,” (The middle branch leading to the saddle). ‘‘ The stream ends quite abruptly against a glacialised surface of rock, which slopes to a height of 3,000 feet at an angle of from 30deg. to 4odeg. The snow which falls from the mountains is unable to lie on this polished surface, and, sliding down, wedges in at the back of the moraine, forming a miniature glacier, though without true ice structure, at an eleva- tion of only 1,000 feet above the sea. The depth of the groove, which has been cut by this snow bank between the rock and the moraine, is not less than 400 feet. By a slightly dangerous climb, we got up the glacialised surface of the rock, and on to the top of the great moraine which is heaped up against it.” In the Geologicai Reports for 1879-80, I described the eastern approach to this saddle as follows :— “The Darran Mountains, from opposite the upper end of Lake McKerrow to Mount Christina, appear to be a range of mountains everywhere impassable. A large creek comes from this range south-east of Mount Christina, which may possibly lead up to a pass in the range, but such has not been found as yet. At no other point does it seem possible to cross this range as it is followed.to the north till reaching a point on the range opposite the junction of the Greenstone and Lake Harris tracks in the Hollyford Valley, where a large creek, which a little fur- ther down the valley joins the Hollyford from the west, looks from the opposite mountains as if it led toa saddle by which the Darran Mountains might perhaps be crossed so as to reach the Cleddau River, which, followed down, falls into the upper part of Milford Sound. “From the higher parts of the north end of the Lake Harris Range, the saddle and the whole of the approach thereto from the Hollyford Valley was distinctly seen. The creek by which the approach to this pass will have to be made, on leaving the lower grounds along the Hollyford River, is confined in its course (though not strictly passing through a gorge), and has, for the first mile, a rapid fall. It is here that the only difficulty on the east side of the range may be looked for. Higher up the creek the valley widens and slopes gently, having patches of open grass land along its banks, surrounded by bush. Along this part of its course the bed of the stream is from 1,800 to 2,000 feet above the sea. Beyond this an abrupt rocky barrier stretches nearly across the valley, which here is somewhat more than half a mile ‘ wide. This parapet of rocks may be passed on the north side of the valley. Hitherto the creek has had a westerly course; now it turns to the south-west, and passes shortly to the south of its rocky part. The rocky barrier already mentioned marks the 3,500 feet line, and the upward limit of forest growth. “ Having gained or passed beyond the rocky barrier at the height above mentioned, the ground to be passed over is again comparatively level, forming a sort of basin between the sur- rounding mountains. From the upper edge of this, if looking 538 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. south-west, the pass lies on the left hand, or directly behind the mountain standing south of the lower part of the creek, and already mentioned. The pass is a shingle saddle, apparently easy to be gained from the basin below, and cannot be more than 800 to 1,200 feet higher than the bush-line, which on the Lake Harris Range is limited to 3,300 feet. When seen from Lake Harris, about the end of March, no snow was'to be seen on the saddle nor on the adjoining range for another 800to 1,000 feet of elevation, which leads me to believe that I have not under- estimated the height of the saddle itself. “What is the nature of the descent to the westward could not be seen from the point of view on the Harris Range, but as placed upon the map the distance to the Cleddau River is as far as from the saddle to the Hollyford River. The first part is evi- dently along the bottom of a deep gorge, to reach which from the saddle may be a very abrupt descent, although this may prove easier than it appears to be. If the west side is not greatly more difficult than the approach to the saddle trom the east, there is no doubt that this pass can be used during the summer months as a short route—and, as it seems, the only possible one by land—from the Lake District to Milford Sound. While in this district, had the weather been less stormy than it was, or the Hollyford River crossable, the nature of the western approach to this saddle would have been ascertained.” Unless mistaken as to names and dates, on March roth, 1880, I met Mr. Wilmot at the Upper Routeburn hut, he making his way to, andI returning from, the Hollyford Valley. At that. time Messrs. Sutherland and McKay were stirring in the matter of a low pass, which they supposed would establish communica- tion between Milford Sound and Te Anau Lake or Queenstown, and thinking it possible to cross the range at the point already described, I mentioned to Mr Wilmot the low saddle I had seen, which he promised to further examine as opportunity offered. Such opportunity presenting itself, the credit of being the first to reach the top of the range and the saddle itself is due to Mr. Wilmot ; but, in so far as this may prove a possible means of crossing the mountain, this had been already suggested ; and to Dr. Hector’s account, written in 1863, must we turn for the first announcement of its discovery, as described in the passages already quoted. - ALEX, McKay. Museum, Wellington, 13th July, 1883. £ fea nn a ls) ‘ a=, Zz < Z RY COMPLETE B NY oh rain oe ats =~ oi toners tat s and § eller INCES STREET, ae \ ‘DUNEDIN. y oy Celeb 4 Sse uppoi ‘ated r a, can NOW supply the i Agent for Austral nted- ectives at a trifle beyond the maker's published ee i Oh Catalogue Pr ices. Ce tig te me ORS oh hy ef By Ef Td 5; Dry ion... in Immers t 10n. il) Iu -Immers 5 1n. 3 1 in. ae 138 -Homogenous (0 ors feet ——/2, the finest - beaut made 1 8 < > Free. immersion Eh i. i ost. He 8 3 iful £6 > BREWE | .S DO} ” a t = Ly . + Sas 4 ‘ } . ey , j + > 5 ' ae 7 > as = “4 sa ¥ + fa a j 3 - i ~ "y ) & vf = - ; . ? Mis 4 3 ; A ee z ; * - ine 4 s] hots I Fs . * . : . 4 r ay = ek S x . oe. DM re f As $ " 7 J es A ’ — ny < <3 > ¢ > 1 1 ¥ ies ' = 1 ow 4 F p r a (3 7 4 F : be car 7 yee it ca “ TREET De NORT ¥ DUNEDIN, t es Bs 2 WHOLESALE & RETAIL Se $ ry oe pa 4 PRINCES S we, re saaer| © x : = y 3 é ' %% r 2 ed 7 L 5 , “x . Pea. Oe i ‘ z ; eka : § f ‘ iy = : eae 2 ¥ ‘ , An ge it» cP PA Me) 2) f j wer tee Z ? VS ab 2 % - BAe : e } . , * . ah “ : yy ie ‘ ate ~ <<" \ 7 p, P : ny) a { ¢ K F ba (ae 7 ; ‘ ¢ > : ; ° . — . “ ; ) f 4 2) j , nb! F - > . ‘ . a5, . } ? ‘NOVEMBER, 1883] ee Ce ae Pee. 18, You THE NEW ZEALAND i 3 DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF "PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY. | re 7 = ; Cha lal ee lah a eda aw alg del cd te Fudicio perpende : et st tibt vera videntur Dede. manus: aut st falsum est, adcingere contra. Pca Vid Ml oe Phd id Pl Pin Phael Pett ad CONTE NTS: ee es PAGE Humanism and Realism in their Relations Higher Education, - a Dr, J: VON iy HAAST, C.M.G. ~ ... ae he 539 An Expedition to the Central Part of the Southern Alps (conchuded) By Dr. R. oe VW. LENDENFELD > .7- 2 558 “Science Demonstration in ignitor Sehoole ‘By Wm, nee Gi pues ER, B, A. 560 Review—‘‘ The Fertilisation of Flowers,” ., ss. oo Pa REN re et OG General Notes— - ae , eee eee see . vist ese see soe : $71 Pass A New Species of Notorais—Tidal Waves—A New Doris_—A New Zealand Fresh-water sane st —Habitat of Peripatus Nov#-Zea'andi—Machine for testing strength of Timber, © Meetings of Societiés— ..., ou ak 574 ~ Linnean Society of New South “Wales—Royal Sneny ae New ‘South Wales-Philosophica Institute of Canterbury—Wellington Philosophical Society—Otazo: Institute. PRICE, 2s.; ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, 10s. Posted—In New Zealand, tos. od. ; Australia, 11s, Dunedin, W.Z:: J. WILKIE & Co., PUBLISHERS, PRINCES STREET. % ‘ tA + cd \ NOTICE, : ie ee > In future the NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF SCIENCE will be published on the Second Satur- day of alternate months, commencing with No. 1 of Volume II. on Saturday, 12th January, 1884. HUMANISM AND REALISM. 539 HUMANISM AND REALISM IN THEIR RELATIONS 2 OP nIGILER EDUCATION: AN INAUGURAL ADDRESS DELIVERED TO THE CANTERBURY COLLEGE DIALECTIC ‘SOCIETY, AT THE COMMENCEMENT "OE THE SECOND TERM OF 1883. SIN Lo) BY, ORS J. MON ELAAST, C:M.G. etcne tee PEE Having had to deliver the opening address of Canter- bury College for the Season 1833. you have kindly al- lowed me to postpone the address to your Society as its Honorary President for the year 1883, to the opening of the second term, and in fulfilling the honorable task im- posed upon me, I wish to claim your kind indulgence, if my delivery should not come up to the accustomed standard. For my theme I have chosen a subject foremost in the mind of every earnest thinker, who has the advancement of our rising nation as well as our Alma Mater at heart : Humanism and Realism, the great question in modern higher education. If, by giving my views on the subject fearlessly, I should hurt the settled or preconceived ideas of some of my hearers, who regard any thorough reform in the curriculum of our higher schools as exceedingly dangerous and objectionable, I trust they will remember that no great change for the better has been accomplished in any human organisation without giving offence to someone, or interfering with the time-honoured privileges of at least one section of the community—the conservative and antiquated. Objection to my speaking on the subject I have chosen may be taken on two accounts, to which before proceeding I wish to allude. In the first place it may be said, and with truth, that this question has been already ventilated in all its bearings by men eminently fitted to have an opinion on the subject ; and se- condly, that being a foreigner, unacquainted to at least some degree with the English character or English requirements, it ill becomes me to find fault or to propose remedies. Having lived now a quarter of a century in New Zealand, I have had the privilege of standing at the cradle of some of our ereatest educational institutions, and watching their wants, re- quirements, and success ; and on the other hand, not being born a British subject, I may claim that Iam quite unbiassed, and that I might perhaps more easily point out where changes and im- provements are urgently required, which to an Englishman, born and educated in the atmosphere of some great English Univer- sity, appear if not necessary, at least premature. Moreover I shall venture to doso only in an indirect way, my principal observations in many instances referring only to Germany, or to the Teutonic race in general. 540 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. If there is one object on which all men should coincide in acting together, it is in the earnest endeavour to further the in- tellectual advancement of our race. We should never lose sight of the fact, that what we are we owe to our fore- fathers, who have struggled from a stage of utter barbar- ism always onward towards a better state of civilisation. And in accepting this precious heritage, the sacred duty devolves upon us of continuing the erection of that moral and intellectual temple, of which our forefathers have laid sucha secure and broad foundation. We ought to feel proud in the thought that we have the power and capacity to add our share to that wonderful edifice. All national barriers have to be removed in our endeavour to develope and advance human knowledge and thought. Science in the widest acceptation of the term does not belong to any nationality ; it belongs to all mankind, and in it we find the real source of true progress, and of international peace and good-will. At the same time it is true that the greatest men who ever lived—men who have spread a lustre upon their fatherlands, only too proud to call them now their sons, when they tried to ad- vance knowledge by their eminent discoveries and teachings, were considered to be dangerous, and the virtucus indignation . of those Pharisees who did not wish the even tenor of their lives to be interfered with, brought them great hardships and privations, or even death. I may be allowed to make here a quotation from the Novum Organum of Lord Bacon, the immortal father of modern Philo- sophy and Science, as it is thoroughly applicable in all its bear- ings even tothe present time :—“ Again in habits and regula- tions of schools, universities, and the like assemblies, destined for the abode of learned men, and the improvement in learning, everything is found to be opposed to the progress of the Sciences. For the lectures and exercises are so ordered that any thing out of the common track can scarcely enter the thoughts and contemplatians of the mind. If, however, one or two have dared to use their liberty, they can only impose the labour on themselves, without deriving any advantage from the association of others ; and, if they will put up with this, they will find their industry and spirit of no slight disadvantage to them in making their fortune. For the pursuits of men in such situations are, as it were, chained down to the writings of particular authors, and if any dare to dissent from them he is immediately attacked as a turbulent and revolutionary spirit.”* The principal cause of a certain stagnation in the higher educational system, even at the present time, lies in the fact that it is of early medieval origin. In most cases it therefore never denies its origin and tendencies. It is influenced by old traditions, and by a spirit of conservatism, quite foreign to the progress it should make. For manyreasons Universities in the older countries are aristocratic institutions,and tendenciesof thesame kind in simi- *Book the Ist, XC, i HUMANISM AND REALISM. 541 lar institutions transplanted to democratic countries can only be overcome by a gradual understanding of the totally different conditions to which they owe their existence. The educational systems of Europe, of the Teutonic as well as of the Latin races, are agiftof the Church, and a legacy of Graeco-Roman civilisation. Our forefathers have not had the same invaluable advantages as the Greek youth possessed, who not only were inspired by their great national poets, but also taught to look upon their own _ language as the most beautiful and expressive, and to regard the Greek nation as the most accomplished race, and its ancestors as the most sublime heroes of mankind. No wonder that they accomplished great deeds, and as philosophers, artists, poets, and statesmen, stood far above their contemporaries, -and remain models for imitation even to the present time. The same may be said to some extent of the education of the Roman youth during the most illustrious period of the Roman history, though Greek influence, as civilisation advanced, was felt more and more conspicuously. But alas! the young Teuton has not been so fortunate. The language in which he was taught in the monastic schools as far back as the seventh century was a foreign one, foreign the thought presented to him for assimilation. The bloodless spectre of ancient Rome undertook to take revenge upon the destroyer of his dominion over the world, and to bend the neck of his successor. Latin language and monastic discipline were instrumental in build- ing up a high wall to separate effectually the Teutonic youth from the primeval forest with its sacred groves, where the religions and poetical traditions of their ancestors were preserved foratime. Charlemagne, a thorough Teuton, had the great German heroic songs and traditions collected and noted down, but it was of no avail Nothing of them remains to us; they doubtless disappeared under some Roman influence, through which the Teutonic youth were taught to despise their own na- tionality. If for some time longer Scandinavia and Iceland had not been faithful to the religion of their forefathers and had not possessed their traditions, nothing would have remained to give us an insight into the grand conceptions of our ances- tors, except what we can find in the writings of Julius Cesar and Tacitus. And so the Trivium and Quadrivium reigned su- preme in the land of the Teuton under the hard and merciless hand of the Church, forming priests, monks, lawyers, and states- - men, to whom all that was Roman was of principal importance and foremost value. No wonder that Latin was considered the only language worth knowing, and that the powerful and expressive Teutonic language was neglected, German being only fit for the vulgar mass of the people. This contempt for the mother tongue (for many centuries called the vulgar tongue in comparison with the classical languages) is still, after the lapse of more than a thousand years, unconsciously shown in our own University. Thus, whilst Latin is compulsory, Eng- lish belongs to the optional subjects. However it proves the §42 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. good common sense of the students, that most of them take their mother tongue as one of the five subjects for their B.A. degree. It appears from this curious medieval arrangement, that a student entering the New Zealand University is considered to know English sufficiently if he has passed his matriculation ex- amination in it. You will agree with me that no student can claim to be possessed of true culture if he is not thoroughly ac- quainted with his mother tongue, if he cannot speak and write with acertain degree of perfection, and is unacquainted with the accumulated treasures of its literature. Now this is partly sacri- ficed with us for the accomplishment of a dead language, chiefly because it has been the principal subject from the very dawn of | the dark middle ages. Certainly, if we must have compulsory subjects in our curriculum, one of them ought to be English. It almost appears to show a contempt for the language of Shake- speare and Byron, of Locke and Macaulay, Lyell and Darwin. A similar feeling in regard to the vulgar tongue continued to exist also in Germany, in later mediaeval times—German being only used in the elementary schools. In the secondary or mo- nastic schools, and at the Universities, Latin continued to be the medium through which the rising generation was instructed. Even Luther, that giant of energy and intellect, could obtain but one concession, that in a number of secondary schools, founded or re-modelled after the Reformation, the pupils should be taught in German; the Universities still continue to use Latin. And notwithstanding that Luther had shown in his own works what a beautiful and expressive language German was, all his friends and companions in arms during the great work of the Reformation still continued to write in Latin. However one eminent man, Paracelsus (Bombastus von Hohenheim), living in the sixteenth century, had the courage as Professor of Medicine, in the University of Basle, to lecture in German instead of using barbarous Latin. It can easily be imagined how deeply his colleagues were shocked by this want of esprit de corps, and what a howl of pious indignation was raised against him, for using such a vulgar tongue as the German language, spoken by the common people. There is no doubt that Paracelsus, to whom we owe several valuable discoveries in Medicine, still of general use at the present time, was a most remarkable man, possessing very high attainments and unusual knowledge. However, the accounts handed down to us by his contemporaries present us with only a caricature. It has been shown that many facts con- cerning his life and works have been greatly distorted, and that his enemies were innumerable. This was a natural consequence of having been in advance of his time ; he wanted progress with too great a haste for his contemporaries, and in many instances introduced valuable reforms, and thus raised amongst the mass of his co-workers a storm against him, under which he at last suc- cumbed. It was only towards the end of the seventeenth century that Professor Thomasius, of the University of Halle, began to lec- HUMANISM AND REALISM. 543 ture in German, and his example was soon followed by others. It is a curious coincidence that the wonderful progress in the results obtained by German Universities dates from about the same time, and this is not to be wondered at. What a serious drawback it must have been to students to listen to a Professor using a dead language, probably imperfectly known to himself, and doubtless less understood by them!! Thus with the Ger- man language life and light entered the German Universities. and the progress in knowledge must necessarily have been much more rapid both to Professors and students than it ever was before. It will always be a subject of great wonder, that under these highly injurious influences, the languages of Luther and Shakespeare could develope to such a state of perfection, able to express alike the highest conceptions of the philosopher, the poet, and the historian, in a manner not second to any other language. Though the immediate change in the educational system due to the Reformation was scarcely visible, a new spirit, the spirit of enquiry, had been awakened all over Europe, the invention of the printing-press offering the means of diffusing general knowledge and opinions of every shade. At the same time the discoveries of new countries, of new animals and plants, and a certain progress in physical science, evoked a vast amount of investigation and criticism, the searchers after truth not being satisfied with the teachings of Classicism alone. I need scarcely point out that Rabelais and Montaigne belong to the eminent writers of those days, who show a certain con- tempt for book wisdom, and advocated strongly that man should think and investigate before accepting the dictum of others. Germany, after having fought the battle of religious freedom, was now torn for a long time by internal wars, and could do little to advance education in its higher aims; but at that time there arose one man, a giant of intellect, living in a country then already in the possession of its free institutions, whom we must regard as the father of inductive reasoning, and at the same time the originator of Realism. This man was Francis Bacon, who taught us that in future all conceptions must be based upon experience, and that faith in authority must be banished from scientific en- -—quiry. In such a manner alone was it possible to advance from observation and experience to the perception of the Laws of Nature, and from their understanding to their application, from knowledge to power. I do not go so far as many advocates of Physical Science who are of opinion that in future teaching ought not to be by words and phrases, but by things and facts alone ; that our youth should be educated by observation and experiment,and not by mere memory. I do believe, however, that a great portion of school- time ought to be devoted to teaching the pupils by the former methods, instead of filling their minds with mere lists of names and dates. This latter can certainly not be called a mental d scipline, or claim to heighten their ethical perceptions. And yet, after all that Bacon has taught us, how comparatively little 544 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, has been accomplished. Is not our own University little more than a monastic school? Are not Latin and Mathematics the chief disciplines to which the greater portion of the time at the disposal of the student has to be devoted? Of course the secondary schools preparing candidates for the University have to follow a similar course, and thus in their turn pay the greatest attention to these two favored subjects, often to the neglect of others. No wonder that our boys and girls when they enter our secondary schools, and find that most of their time is to be devoted to Latin and Mathematics, consider them of primary importance. They at once begin to look upon the other subjects as of much less value, and therefore very seldom heartily devote their youthful energy to them. And what sad disappointment awaits them when they enter life, and find that just those things they ought to have studied as necessary for their intellectual and material welfare, have been utterly neglected. Of course, having heard that their fathers have undergone the same training, and having seen their younger friends do the same, they consider it the fate of mankind to unlearn to a great extent, in the world, what they have learnt at school. If they have any ambition or wish to improve them- selves, they have then to set to work to fill up the gap in their knowledge—in many instances a process of great difficulty. Probably I shall be told that I am exaggerating, but in that case I appeal to my hearers, and I am certain that they will bear me out in my assertions. And although we are still at this early medizval stage, there is ample proof that during the past few centuries many men, having the welfare of their nation at heart, have been bent upon the intellectual improvement of our educational system. They have reasoned with great force that the true school ought not to work for itself, but for life—the real life—that it should follow the progress of mankind, and assimilate to itself all the great intellectual discoveries, so that when the pupil goes out into the world he should be at once in contact with life; his power of observation having been ex- panded, that he should know himself and the world surrounding him. Onleaving school,the future citizen ought to know his duty towards mankind. He should feel that by participating in the blessings of civilisation he has to live up to the state of general culture surrounding him, and to assist in advancing it to the best of his abilities. In one word, there should never exist a contrast between life and school. From Bacon, Ratichius, and Comenius, to Matthew Ar- nold, Huxley, Spilleke, and Wiese, this great evil in the present school system has been bitterly bewailed; and Matthew Arnold, in his excellent work, “ Higher Schools and Universities in Germany,” on page 179, forcibly points out “that the philological and mathematical disciplines ought not to be an end in themselves, but only a preliminary step to the knowledge of nature—they ought only to be a ladder to the main object of teaching a knowledge of the world, and of , as oe - ———— le HUMANISM AND REALISM. 545 oneself.” He also believes, like many of his predecessors, that for one student who is being led by humanistic studies to vital knowledge and intellectual life, there will be ten whose natural access to them is through realistic studies. Although scarcely necessary, I wish here forcibly to protest against being mis- understood. Ido not wish to raise the mode of education by observation above that by classical and mathematical studies. All I intend to advocate is, that both disciplines go hand in hand, and assist each other in the mental training of the understanding. There is no doubt that the power of observation, and that of reasoning, when properly developed in early years, will pre- vent the student from despising afterwards the aspirations of the inner life, as very often happens when he begins to devote himself to scientific discipline—a fact greatly to be regretted. This, unfortunately, is a natural outcome of the present system, favouring, as it does by its dogmatism and intolerance, the change from one extreme to theother. To avoid this, the great aim of all education should be not to make only wiser, but better men and women, to elevate their moral and intellectual sense, to open their minds to all that is great and noble in nature and mankind, to make the heart and intellect, the emotional and the reasoning faculties, form a close union. In Germany, the evils complained of in pure humanistic schools have for more than three hundred years originated many attempts to create either purely realistic institutions or to re-model some of the existing humanistic schools. And with your permission I shall now devote some of the time allotted ta me to sketch rapidly to you how far these attempts have been successful, Such a review should suggest to us how far the experience gained on the European continent might be suc- cessfully applied to our own wants. Amos Comenius, of Moravia, living in the first half of the seventeenth century, may claim to have been a true apostle of realism. Although chased and persecuted by the Jesuits and their adherents, he never became tired of advocating the newer mode of discipline. His “ Didactica Magna” (1639-41), his “ Novissima Linguarum Methodus” (1642), and his remarkable “ Orbus Pictus” (1657), are the first and most important appli- cations of realism. They were an attempt to introduce works more suitable for teaching purposes than those in general use at that time. At the termination of the Thirty Years’ War, numerous attempts were made to bring the higher education more into unison with the spirit of free enquiry which had resulted from the Reformation, and was in the ascendant in England, France, and Holland alike. In many of the higher schools the sons of noblemen were allowed to substitute French for Greek ; in some of them, Mechanics or Astronomy; and in some instances Geography and Modern History were taught. It appears, however, that this was always done with a certain amount of apology, as if the authorities had been aliowing some malpractice. After the death of Louis the XIV, it was agreed 540 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. by all honorable men in France, and those of every shade of opinion, that nothing should be left undone to stay the great moral decay of the nation, which like an epidemic had been attacking every stage of society, and had also spread to the adjoining countries. Education of the young was naturally con- sidered to be one of the most efficacious means for restoring the people to virtue and morality, and through them to thrift and prosperity. The Church tried to do so by becoming more strict and zealous in disseminating its doctrines, and by trying to hide the existing state of things, especially as found in the higher social circles. The liberal party or encyclopeedists on the other hand, hoped to regenerate the nation by fearlessly exposing all the evils then existing in morals and politics in Church and State, by spreading philosophical doctrines, and by an- attempt to return to a more simple mode of life—the primitive life of the savage being fancied the most desirable existence. It is natural to suppose that both parties tried to influence education in all its phases, and that the tendencies towards realism had very strong and powerful advocates. However, it is a strange fact that the first successful attempt to combine realistic with humanistic studies was made about this time in the pietistic Poedagogium of Halle, where, in addition to Greek and Latin, history, geography, natural history, and technology were taught. The pupils were taken to the rooms of mechanics, and were shewn specimens, whilst the masters were particularly charged not to teach so much from text-books as by imparting their own knowledge to the pupils, and by inviting discussions. The result was so encouraging that Christoph Semler opened the first Real-schule in 1739, in thesame town. In this new venture the other extreme to pure humanistic teaching was adopted. Agriculture, horticulture, and many other disciplines now only taught at technological schools appear in the programme, written, strange to say, in pompous barbarous Latin. I am not aware how long this school continued, but I believe that it had but an ephemeral existence; for the Real-schule of Johann Julius Hecker, founded in 1748, in Berlin, is generally considered the type of the schools devoted to realistic teaching in Germany. In this Real-schule, mainly devoted to the practical wants of its pupils in life, Latin, French, theology, history, agriculture, architecture, engineering, including fortification, were the princi- pal subjects of teaching. The creation of similar schools in many other parts of Germany followed soon, and after the appearance of Rousseau’s “ Emile,” in 1761, the enthusiasm rose to such a height that we can scarcely conceive it, unless we take the important impending political changes into account, and it is only to be wondered at that at that time, more than 120 years ago, the whole educational system did not undergo a thorough alteration. | [ have already alluded to the two great contending parties in France at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and to the earnest endeavors of both to raise the moral standard of the HUMANISM AND REALISM. 547 people, by offering the rising generation a better education according to their views, in most instances directly opposite to each other. After the clergy and philosophers had been at work for a number of years, Jean Jaques Rousseau, as before observed, appeared on the scene, and produced in his “ Emile” a pedagagic work of singular merit, but also abounding with singular faults. However, it was equally free from the one-sided views of his immediate successors and contemporaries, the scepticism and atheism of the philosophic school, and the bigotry of the Jesuits and their partisans. It advocated that the education of the body and that of the mind should gohand in hand; that the pupil should not be taught according to certain established rules and systems, but according to his talents ana individual character. It taught by experiment and by exercising his reasoning power. In one word, it insisted upon an inductive method, coupled with the education of the mind and its ethical perceptions. Thus Rousseau has shown us the right way that modern teaching should follow. As before observed, there are many and grave faults in his system, but they are easily accounted for by the stirring times in which he lived, and by the peculiar mode of life the author led, into which the “Confessions” gives us a painful insight. There is, however, not the least doubt that Rousseau’s writings had a marked influence upon the attempted remodelling of the educational system on the continent of Europe ; but at the same time we must not forget that Rousseau had some notable experiments before him in the realistic work attempted in Germany for more than 30 years before his “Emile” appeared ; so that in some respects he only continued the work of his German predecessors, but with the remarkable power and earnestness this apostle of freedom was possessed of. One of the men instigated, partly by theologicalintolerance, partly by Rousseau’s “ Emile,” who made a further step in advance, was Johann Bernard Basedow, who for years had also studied the works of Comenius. By his work published in 1768, “Vorstellung an Menschenfreunde and vermoegende Manner iiber Schulen, Studien und ihren Einflas auf die offentliche Wohlfahrt” (Appeal to Philanthropists and Wealthy Men on Schools, Studies, and their Influence upon the Public Welfare), Basedow made the greatest impression upon princes, nobles, and professional men, and the great majority of the people, who all suffered alike under religious and political tyranny. Amongst the warmest advocates of his theories were the Freemasons, who were at that time acquiring great influence in Germany, and they assisted most energetically in the propagation of his ideas. This earnest appeal (as Friedrich Kreissig, an eminent German writer on realism, to whom I am indebted for a number of valuable facts and suggestions, forcibly says) to liberate the German youth from the scholastic theological prisons, misnamed learned schools, found many warm hearts ready to receive it. The appeal from the pedantic cram of the memory to observa- tion and thought, from severe monastic compulsion to free will 548 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, and inclinations, agreed so well with the world-historic, all- powerful, intellectual movement of these times, that even men like Kant looked upon Basedow as akin to a prophet. The Duke of Dessau, in 1744, entrusted him with the erection of a school according to his system, the “ Philantropin;” and in many parts of Germany similar institutions were founded shortly afterwards, and flourished for a time. However, with a few exceptions, of which one, Salzmann’s Educational Institute, at Schnepfen, is still in existence, they disappeared before the end of last century. Many causes, of which the principal one is that the projectors attempted more than they could fulfil, combined to bring about this failure. Science had not yet reached such a prominent posi- tion in the life of the nation as it has acquired since, nor was it advanced enough to be taught in a popular manner, for in Base- dow’s time scientific teaching was mere play, and often consisted of mere conjuror’s tricks. Moreover, in the eagerness of the promoters for the health of the pupils, the latter were prevented from working as steadily as would have been necessary to make real advancement in their studies. At the same time the ex- treme advocates of the Philantropin in many instances, by despising the Bible and the writings of the ancients, dwarfed the ethical and moral feelings of the pupils and called forth strong and unrelenting opposition from the humanists and clergy. There is no doubt that the movement in some measure was pre- mature, dying soon, where it went to extremes, a natural death ; however it cannot be denied that it left some excellent results behind, from which the humanistic schools reaped great advantages. Amongst them should not be forgotten the pre- paration of better and more logical school books, the improve- ment of primary schools in German villages ; and, above all, the great regard shown for the physical development of the pupils, for well-aired school-rooms and large healthy play-grounds. Doubtless in view of the realistic requirements, the Gymnasiums (Grammar Schools) | gradually underwent considerable changes, principally in Berlin, Hamburgh, Frankfurt, and other large cities, where, though the old disciplines were not dispensed with, teaching by experiment and observation was added, and the pupil encouraged to advance by his own intellectual exer- tions. The splendid results obtained by German humanists in their researches amongst the Greek and Latin Classics, in Philo- sophy and the History of the Ancients (Alterthums-Wissen- schaft), the appearance at the same time of the greatest poets and writers Germany has ever produced, who in most instances took the poetical and prose works of the ancients for their models, wrought moreover a great change in the feelings of the public. Then came the French Revolution, with all its political and material misery, also deeply felt over Germany. And though this great movement laid the foundation of German unity and freedom, yet in the beginning of the present century realistic or philanthropic tendencies, as they were called then, were looked HUMANISM AND REALISM. 549 upon as anti-German and Bonapartist, and for a time no school teaching after the new system was encouraged by any of the German Governments. However, with the fall of Napoleon, with the newly-awakened national life of Germany, the wishes and aspirations of the people were led into new and wider chan- nels, and the wish for the creation of secondary schools of an- other type than the Gymnasium or Classical School came again to the foreground. Perhaps it will be useful to allude here to one of the principal causes that stimulated a large section of the German communi- ties to have such schools established. Owing to the peculiar position of all higher civil servants in Germany, who in most cases could only obtain their appointments after having passed through the Gymnasium, remained three or four years at the University, and then successfully passed their rigorous State examination, the whole nation became now divided into two castes, those who had studied at a University and those who had not. The great bulk of the citizens, merchants, manufacturers, engineers, artists, farmers, and the rest, stood apart from those who had received a purely classical education, and who looked as it were with a certain degree of contempt upon the former as being uneducated. All those young men who did not intend to select a learned profession, who wished to be manufacturers, merchants, &c., and who were now educated at the Gymnasium for the want of a more suitable institution, felt that they had not learnt what was most needed by them, but that the methods by which they weretaught in some respects incapacitated them for devoting their intellects to the pursuits they had selected for their future career. Thus, as the communities grew larger and richer, as education became more diffused amongst the middle classes, as either religious or political liberty was gained, the want of secondary schools for all those who were not desirous of becom- ing civil servants grew more manifest every day. As the State in almost every instance could not assist in creating schools by which the existing Gymnasium might be injured, and the clergy were equally adverse to seeing schools established in which there was not exclusively humanistic teaching, the task devolved upon the communities themselves to establish these institutions with their own means and to protect them against ill-will and injury, often only too ready to work against them from humanistic and conservative quarters. Men of the highest intelligence, though brought up in strictly humanistic establishments, having the welfare of the community at heart, and feeling deeply its wants, now went to work and created the so-called Hohere Biirgerschulen (higher citizens’ schools), the forerunners of Realschulen. Foremost amongst these energetic and public-spirited men were W. Spilleke, director of a gymnasium in Berlin, who, with his excellent work, “Ueber das Wesen der Buergerschule” (On the character of the citizens’ school), appearing in 1822; and W. C. Mager with his equally earnest and powerful work, “Die deutsche Buerger- 550 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. schule” (the German citizens’ school), published in 1840, did much to clear the ground for the erection of higher realistic schools. Neither of them wished to interfere with the old humanistic method of teaching in the gymnasium and in the University, so far as concerned those students who wanted to devote themselves to advanced linguistic and _ philosophical studies, and who in their turn would preserve for us the precious heirloom of antiquity; but they insisted at the same time that the high task the modern Biirgerschule has to fulfil should not be interfered with. They were of opinion that the education given in the realistic schools should be compared with that of the ancient Greeks in their endeavor to unite the beautiful with the good, to make the knowledge of the future citizen thorough and comprehensive, and especially to educate him to intellectual and physical health, and to make him enjoy and appreciate the language and customs of his own country. "This new school of reformers did not wish to educate scholars, but men cultivated and able to enjoy the intellectual work of all nations, to live in the present world participating with a warm and fresh heart in the joys and sorrows of their fellow-beings, to form their own opinions by observation and thought, always ready to do the right thing at the right time. To obtain such a desirable result it was urged that the mother tongue ought to be the principal medium for thought and intellectual exercise, that the modern languages ought not to be neglected, and that mathematics, history, geography, and espe- cially the natural and physical sciences, ought to be taught with great attention, and by the best masters procurable. The pupils were to live in and with the present time, not satisfied with knowledge alone, but conversant with its practical applica- tion to every phase of life. Latin, they held, ought not to be taught, the French and English languages being substituted for their practical and logical powers, and their advantage to the cosmopolitan citizen. Several Hoehere Buergerschulen were created in different parts of Germany, principally in the larger cities ; and though the main tendencies as sketched out by Spilleke and his successors were generally followed, a number of alterations in the curriculum were introduced. Thus, in some schools Latin was compulsory, in others optional; whilst mathematics and physical science were in others the subjects to which most attention was paid. The latter was principally the case where the schools were situated in great manufacturing © or mining centres. Hitherto the final examination of the pupils after they had passed successfully through the highest form had not been recognised by the State, but in the year 1832 the Prussian Government, under the Liberal Minister von Alten- stein, passed an ordinance that in future these schools if they wished to be recognised by the State should consist of six classes, with a course of at least seven years. The subjects were specified in which the pupils at the end of their course should pass their final (Arbiturienten) examination. This included a HUMANISM AND REALISM. b51 good knowledge of German, French, English, mathematics, history, geography, natural history, chemistry, and natural philosophy. Latin was optional, though its suceessful study brought some advantages to the pupil. The successful candi- date had the privilege of having his length of service in the army reduced to one year, and of entering the Berlin Royal Academy for technology. Moreover, he was privileged to enter the postal and revenue departments, and to study forestry and civil engineering. The concessions offered to these modern schools were not very great, but they were nevertheless of the utmost importance. At last the barrier had been broken down, separating those who were receiving a realistic education from those who were educated in a curriculum that had been followed for more than a thousand years, and was defended by the par- tisans of the conservative element in State and church, men who looked upon the introduction of science in secondary schools as a dangerous, revolutionary, and heterodox element. If we were to trust the representations of Nicthammer, Thiersch, and others, we should suppose that the erection of the realistic schools had reduced the human race to a state of utter barbarism. With this concession of the State the Buergerschulen soon multiplied, and the number of their pupils grew rapidly, so that the atten- dance at the gymnasiums in many larger cities sensibly diminished. The citizen, merchant, manufacturer, mechanic, | and agriculturist, found at last that their children could now receive an education preparing them directly for their future duties in life, without being obliged to devote a great’portion of their time to one or two subjects that in most instances would be of little use to them ; that their education would be thorough, and that while the humanistic element would not be thrown out they would be able to follow and appreciate all the great dis- coveries of physical science, the great lever of modern society and civilisation. When, however, after the memorable year 1848, the re- action set in in good earnest in Germany, powerful enemies of the modern secondary schools were not wanting, who tried to abolish them again. These enemies consisted of a number of humanists, whose pride and narrow-mindedness found a welcome alliance with an autocratic government. Strange to say, in order to do this, provincial technological schools in the first instance were instituted where mathematics, drawing, and physical science formed the principal subjects, without any humanistic instruction being given. It was presumed that this in some respects would stay the progress of the modern schools, or even harm them to some considetable extent, by drafting their best pupils into the new, purely technical schools, so as to give them a kind of education fitting them for their future calling, without offering that amount of humanistic culture through which the pupils of the gymnasium should be favorably distinguished from them. But this jesuitic attempt did little arm to the Buergerschule, and when at last in 1859 the new $52 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. instruction and examinations ordinance for Realschulen was issued by a new liberal government in Berlin, a further im- portant step was made in advance to transform the whole method of teaching from a theological-historical to a scientific- inductive discipline. I may here mention that gradually, without in the least in- terfering with a thorough conscientious teaching of classics, science had entered the Gymnasium or Grammar School, and that as the times advanced many of the subjects whicheven at our own University are quite optional and are unconsciously discouraged were now taught by well qualified teachers with a thoroughness worthy of the highest commendation. I fear it will take too much time were I to give a full exposition of the new arrange- ments instituted by this ordinance, and I can therefore offer only a short synopsis of the curriculum still in force at the present time, a curriculum that works remarkably well. As the Gymna- siums are divided into several kinds, so now are the Realschulen, the latter consisting of Realschulen of the first and second class, and of the Hohere Biirgerschule. In the Realschule of the first class, where the pupils have to remain the same number of years as in the Gymnasium or Grammar School, Latin is compulsory, and a thorough humanistic and scientific education is given. The pupil has all the advantages of both disciplines, the more so as he has been constantly reminded that he ought never to repeat or adopt the opinions of others without having examined, thought, and experimented for himself. However the Abiturienten Ex- amination-of a Realschule of the first class has not got the same value and privileges as that of a Gymnasium, the student being allowed to matriculate at the University only for the study of mining, forestry, and civil engineering. Although he has the same privileges as the successful candidate at the Gymnasium for the army, postal, and finance departments, he is not allowed to study philology, science, medicine, or law at the University. There is no doubt that such a distinction is very unjust, and this was felt by the Prussian Government in 1869, when the Cultus Minister (Minister of Education) sent a circular to all the Prus- sian Universities requesting their opinion as to the desirability of the successful candidates in a Realschule of the first class enjoy- ing in future the same privileges as those of the Gymnasium. The result was not a favourable one, the greater portion of the Universities sending a negative answer, although there is this to be said, that if the affirmative were in the minority, that affirm- ative was most emphatic. It is very evident that in many in- stances nothing but the spirit of conservatism dictated the opposition to this proposed concession, for sometimes the answers were very illogical. One case will show this conspicuously. One faculty of medicine, whilst refusing flatly to have any realistic medical students who have been well grounded in biology, com- plains bitterly that the students they receive from the humanistic institutions, the Gymnasiums, are generally very useless from their defective biological training, the Professors having to begin HUMANISM AND REALISM. 553 with the very elements of biology. And so the matter stands. But I have no doubt that shortly the secondary schools in Ger- many will be so remodelled that there will be very little difference between the two systems representing the old and new times,— deductive and inductive reasoning, authority, and research. Having now offered you a rapid sketch of the endeavours of the German people to assimilate its higher schools to the progress of science and inductive reasoning, and to bridge over the wide gulf still existing between the narrow-minded Humanists and Realists who, in most cases being more or less ignorant of each other’s panacea, fail to see its intellectual advantages, I Wish fo throw a rapid ‘glance at the ‘present state of the higher educational institutions at the Antipodes. I need scarcely point out that we still adhere in many respects to the same principles as have been followed for more than a thousand years, and what I contend for is that our teaching methods even of humanistic subjects should become inductive, that Science should be treated on an equal footing with Classicism, because in the union of both disciplines the true solution of the vexed question at issue lies. In confirmation of my statement that education has been at a stand-still, I would point to the present state of our middle schools, where the main object appears to be to prepare candidates for matriculation and junior scholarships of the University, and you will agree with me that there is much room for improvement if you accept the axiom that science and inductive teaching should be considered of the same value as classicism and the deductive method. To give you an instance, the first and second masters of the secondary schools in the Colonies, who have hitherto generally been obtained from the Mother Country, have been selected simply for their proficiency in classics and mathematics, and are therefore called the classical and mathematical masters. The rest of the subjects, several of which ought to be placed on a par with those favoured studies, are generally left to masters selected on the spot, or are taught by the two principal masters irrespective of their qualification for such tuition. Take the curriculum of our own University, it will be a matter of the greatest surprise to future generations to be told that at the end of the nineteenth century English, French, and German had not the same importance attached to them as Latin, and were put on the same footing as Science, that step-child of the present educational system. The same favour is shown in the schedule for junior scholarships to Latin and Mathematics, which have 1,500 marks assigned to each of them, whilst English and Science have but 1,000, and modern lan- guages, History and Geography have to be contented with 750 marks each. I might continue my list of obstacles offered by the University regulations to the proper study of scientific sub- jects, but will content myself with offering one further and last illustration. For the B.A. degree the candidate can take only one natural scieace subject, so that if he selects biology he is prevented from taking geology ; and he cannot thoroughly study $54 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. the latter subject unless he gives a considerable time to the study of the former for his paleontological work, and consequently he has to take two subjects to pass in one. It will perhaps not be amiss to quote upon this subject the opinions of an eminent English author, who has given his individual attention to educa- tion. I shall not take my quotations from the writings of Pro- fessor Huxley, the president of the Royal Society, and one of the greatest scientific men of the age, because, though he always fully recognises the humanising influence of classicism and only insists upon science being placed on the same platform with the former, he might nevertheless be considered biassed in favour of his own branch of study. I have instead selected another writer, Matthew Arnold, a humanist of great ability, well versed in all the methods of teaching employed in the Mother Country. In the excellent work to which I have previously alluded he proves himself an observer of remarkable acuteness and fairness in comparing the Continental institutions with those of his own country. It would be impossible to review this work as fully as it deserves here, or to apply the whole of the conclusions he has reached to our own educational system, but a few of the most striking observations and postulates might at least be alluded to. In defence of Humanism, Matthew Arnold, on page 174, dwells upon the fact “that the men who had had humanistic training have played, and yet play, so prominent a part in human affairs, in spite of their prodigious ignorance of the universe ; because their training has powerfully fomented the human force in them.” But the answer is that the only education at their disposal has been the humanistic, that amongst many thousands of great intellects coming under this one-sided system only a small portion have risen above the average, and that if they had received a fair share of realistic teaching they would doubtless have become still more eminent. A great number of men whose faculties were not developed by the humanistic discipline would - have risen far above the average had they been taught to think for themselves. © Nevertheless, when Matthew Ar- nold alludes to the present curriculum of the English public schools and universities, he quotes (on page 176) that well-known authority, Abbé Fleury, speaking of the media- val universities, the parents of the English public secondary schools, ‘“ Les -universités ont eu le malheur' de com- mencer dans un temps ou le godt des bonnes études était perdu. De la nous est venu ce cours réglé d’ études qui subsiste en- core.” This was written in 1708, but the English author adds that it is, in the main, still true in 1867, and that all the great movements of the human spirit have either failed to get hold of the public schools, or have failed to keep their hold. He also (on page 175) considers that it is to be regretted that scientific teaching is inferior to humanistic, but that the principal cause of this is, that the leading humanists were schoolmasters, while the leaders of the natural sciences were not. No wonder science HUMANISM AND REALISM. 555 is generally taught as a secondary matter ; it gets the crumbs from the rich man’s table, and, therefore, even good and con- scientious masters who have to teach it look very often upon it as a mere appendage to their more important work, and I con- sequently fully endorse the author’s observations, that “when scientific physics have as recognised a place in public instruction as Latin and Greek, they will be as well taught.” Again, when speaking of the present mode of examination for matriculation in England, he wishes it so altered that the examiners should become acquainted with the whole amount of culture the candidate has received. He dwells emphatically upon the fact that the Ger- man authorities consider the bare examination test quite in- sufficient, and, he continues, “so averse are they to cram, so clearly do they perceive that what forms a youth, and what he should in all ways be induced to acquire, is the orderly develop- ment of his faculties under good and trained teaching. With this view all the instructions are drawn up. It is to tempt candidates to no special preparation and effort, but to be such as a scholar of fair ability and proper diligence may at the end of his school course come to with a quiet mind, and without a painful preparatory effort, tending to relaxation and torpor as soon as the effort is over” (page 59). In offering his views for remedying the evil effect of the present system, he sums up as follows (page 191) :—‘“ The ideal of a general liberal training is, to carry us to a knowledge of ourselves and the world. We are called to this knowledge by special aptitudes which are born with us; the grand thing in teaching is to have faith that some aptitudes of this kind everyone has. This one’s special aptitudes are for knowing men—the study of the humanities; that one’s special aptitudes are for knowing the world—the study of nature. The circle of knowledge com- prehends both, and we should all have some notion at any rate of the whole circle of knowledge. The rejection of the humanities by the realists, the rejection of the study of nature by the humanists, are alike ignorant. He whose aptitudes carry him to the study of nature should have some notion of the humanities; he whose aptitudes carry him to the hu- manities should have some notion of the phenomena and laws of nature. Evidently, therefore, the beginnings of a liberal culture should be the same for both. The mother tongue, the elements of Latin and of the chief modern languages, the elements of history, of arithmetic and geometry, of geography, and of the knowledge of nature, should be the studies of the lower classes in the secondary schools, and should be the same for all boys at this stage. So far, therefore, there is no reason for a division of schools. But then comes a bifurca- tion, according to the boys’ aptitudes and aims. Either the study of the humanities or the study of nature is henceforth to be the predominating part of his instruction.’ From this passage it will be seen that our author advocates a bifurca- tion of the secondary schools, a humanistic and realistic side, 556 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, after a certain amount of general knowledge has been obtained by the pupils. Of course it will be necessary in that case to devote also more time to the realistic subjects, and less to Latin and mathematics in the lower forms, but here too our author proposes a remedy, and I may again be allowed to quote from his work (page 180). “ No doubt it is indispensable to have exact habits of mind, and mathematics and grammar are excellent for the promotion of these habits ; and Latin, besides having so large a share in so many modern languages, offers a erammar, which is the best of all grammars, for the purpose of this promotion. Here are valid reasons for making every school- boy learn some Latin and some mathematics, but not for turning the preliminary matter into the principal, and sacrificing every ap- titude except that for the science of language or of pure mathe- matics. A Latin grammarof thirty pages, andthe mostelementary treatise of arithmetic and geometry, would amply suffice for the uses of philology and mathematics as a universally imposed preparatory discipline. By keeping within these strict limits, absolute exactness of knowledge—the habit which is here our professed aim—might be far better attained than it is at present. But it is well to insist, besides, that all knowledge may and should, when we have got fit teachers for it, be so taught as to promote exact habits of mind ; and we are not to take leave of these when we pass beyond our introductory discipline,” Fi- nally, when alluding to the conflict between the humanists and realists, he is inclined to think that both sides will, as is natural, have to abate their extreme pretensions; a conclusion with which every true friend of culture must heartily agree. I should like to dwell much longer upon the clear and excellent con- clusions of this eminent writer, but fear that I have already taxed your patience more than I ought to have done, and wish now to offer you a few concluding remarks. To ameliorate the present state of things, and bring it up to the requirements of the age in which we live, it is evident that considerable changes will have to be made both in the higher and middle courses of our educational system.. As long as in the University course Latin and mathematics are the principal subjects required, so long will the middle schools devote their principal energy and time to teach them, to the neglect of other subjects equally valuable. The secondary schools at present do not teach for the requirements of life, as they ought to do, but merely for the enactments of the University ; and all their pupils who do not wish to prepare for a university course, but nevertheless are anxious to receive a first-class education, to obtain that amount of culture necessary for a well balanced mind, are obliged to follow a course of study which is designed only for candidates for matriculation at the University. Such a system is still more to be deplored if it is followed in high schools for girls, where probably only one-fiftieth of the pupils prepare for a university course, but where nevertheless the whole curriculum is arranged for such a purpose; modern languages, and that HUMANISM AND REALISM. 557 portion of science so necessary for an educated woman, destined to bea wife and a mother, being only treated as of secondary importance. The application of realism to the highest branches of art and literature has scarcely even been mentioned, though no great painter, sculptor, philosopher, or even dramatic writer, could conceive or execute their great classical creations with- out it. When in the renaissance of art, immortal artists like Leon- ardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo,and Raphael, created their sublime works, it was only by the adaptation of pure realism, or in other words, by being truthful not only in conception but alsoin form. They studied perspective, the laws of light and shade, and especially anatomy, with great perseverance, and it was only by those means that they could give to their works that perfection we still admire in them. I wish to allude also to two immortal men, both born towards the middle of the sixteenth century, Francis Bacon and William Shakespeare. The former united in a remarkable degree the understanding of the ancients with the scientific knowledge of his own time; and the greatest poet of all times was not unacquainted with the teachings of realism, as every page of his works reveals to us. To come to more recent times, we meet Kant and Alexander von Humbold, in whom the circle of human knowledge, classicism and humanism, were united in a harmonious whole. Again, Goethe, the greatest poet that Germany ever possessed, who had formed his elevated and pure style principally from the stucy of the ancients, was at the same time a Scientific man of great eminence, so that in his case too, both disciplines can claim him as their disciple. So real- ism and humanism must go hand in hand in order to reach per- fection, not only in the human mind but in its creations. If the follower of one wishes his own subject to reign exclusively, and despises the other branch, he will remain narrow-minded, and never reach the true balance of knowledge, only obtainable by a due regard for both disciplines. If imagination, idealism in philosophy, the desire to know ourselves and the feelings implanted in our hearts, if everything. not explicable by aid of the microscope, the scalpel, chemical analysis, or the geological hammer, is to be scouted, then I say it would be far better to have less realism and more humanism ; but if both disciplines will work together, will combine in the investigation of what surrounds us, as well as what we possess in ourselves, then the human race will have achieved a great victory ; the artificial barriers will fall, and knowledge, based upon inner and outer consciousness, will reign supreme, a guiding star to our fortunate successors on this beautiful and bountiful earth, 558 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. AN EXPEDITION TO THE CENTRAL PART. OF THE SOUTHERN: ALPS, SSS BY DR. R. V. LENDENFELD. >——_ (Continued from Page 359.) I was able to scramble up the ice wall, and we were over the “ Bergschrund ” at 4.30 p.m. We got up to the main ridge again, cutting steps along the upper margin in very steep ice, and then walked along the ridge-towards the summit. Another crevasse, which runs right through the summit from north to south, forced us to descend the steep northern side once more. We rounded this last difficulty and cut steps up tothe top. The incline of this last bit was so great, that it was necessary not only to cut large steps to stand in, but also to cut little holes for our hands. Slow was the work, and I had to exert all the energy that was left in my brain to press on. At last, when lifting the iceaxe for a blow, I saw the sun shining on its glittering blade; the sun shone over the top. Twostep3 more, and I was on the top, and pulled the others after me with the rope ; this was at 5.50 p.m. The sky was cloudless, and not a breath of wind dis- turbed the absolute stillness which surrounded us. New Zea- land lay at our feet. We surveyed the land from sea to sea—a glorious panorama; the Southern Alps extended from south to north, glittering in all the colours of the rainbow in the parting sun. I sketched the panorama whilst my wife administered some food to me—there was no time for a comfortable dinner. We hoisted our flag on the highest crest of snow. We were on the main range, and looked down into the Tasman Valley on one side, and to the Wataroa on the other. According to the old map, the Hochstetter Dome does not form part of the main range, In this respect the map will have to be altered ; the Wataroa Valley is longer and extends up to the main range. The Hochstetter Dome stands between the Tasman and the Wataroa, closing both these valleys. The Southern Alps extend in a long glittering array to the north-east and south-west as far as the eye can reach. The wide expanse of the Western Ocean, changing in colour rapidly as the sun neared the horizon, lay at our feet to the westward ; the clear, straight horizon line apparently towering to heaven. We could discern the coast line to the south of Hokitika and the belt of flat land which fringes the western slope of the Southern Alps. We could dimly recognise parts of the great eastern plain, nearly all Canterbury and Westland being visible. We could trace the great mountain-chain from Nelson to Otago, and sur- — vey the land from sea to sea. The grandeur of the scenery around aroused in us an idea of the sublime; we felt our- THE SOUTHERN ALPS. 559 selves nearer to the Absolute, and felt proud and happy with the thought that all the grand glaciers and rocks around were conquered by our energy and skill. This is the secret of mountaineering, and therin lies the otherwise unattainable hap- piness to be felt on the summit of a mountain. We left the summit at 6'40p.m., just as the sun dipped his golden disc into the purple ocean. Why should the sunlight be so much more glorious now than at mid-day ? Of course because he now rises on our dear fatherland—no wonder that he shines so much more gloriously! It is really owing to the great altitude and the re- flection of the light travelling through layers of air of decreasing density. We saw the sun set about fifty minutes later than he really sinks below the horizon on March the 25th. We hastened our steps, for it appeared necessary to get over the lower steep wall of ice before the night set in. We hurried down the steps in the ice and got to the foot of the steep place just as the last glimmering of the parting day was vanishing from the snowy crests around us, looming out in the darkness with a phosphor- escent greenish light. I recall to the memory of the reader the fact that snow retains the light of the sun some time after he has departed, and is therefore phosphorescent like sugar. Below the lower wall of ice, on the shoulder of our mountain, we waited for the rising moon from 8°20 to 8°45 pm. The moon was full and illuminated the glacier very well. There was no difficulty in finding our steps of the morning again, and we made good progress. The flat glacier below the crevasses was reached at midnight. Here, of course, there were no traces left. It appears that we took a wrong direction, for we were soon en- tangled in a mass of crevasses, which got worse and worse the further we proceeded. Scrambling along the sharp edges be- tween the bottomless black precipices, here and there jumping from crest to crest, we hardly advanced at all. The moon shone brightly, and made the scenery around look like an enchanted palace. Thin and ragged pinnacles of ice projected here and there, ready to tumble and crush the wanderer beneath them. Anchored firmly with the ice-axe, and holding the others with the rope, my mind would wander, and put life into those tottering spires. They appeared as an army of giants carrying the debris of the rocky mountain slopes on their strong shoulders down the valley. Our progress was hardly visible, and we were still scrambling along these crevasses when the first dawn of the coming day illuminated the eastern slope of Mount Cook. The porters, who had been left at the bivouac in the Malte-Brun Valley, had come on to the glacier to search for us, and we met them just as the firstrays of the sun poured a shower of roses over the summit of Mount Cook. The moon was then setting behind the crest of that mountain—a pale-green night wanderer retiring seedy from a night’s dissipation. At 8 a.m. we reached our bivouac, after a forced march of 27 hours, 134 hours of which only were spent in stoppages. After three hours’ sleep we left our halting place and walked back to our camp. Finding a 560 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. better way than going up, it took us this time only five hours, so that the tent was reached at 4 p.m. We were starved out, and we proceeded down the valley the next day. It was dark by the time we reached the summit of the old semi-circular terminal moraine, with our heavy swags. From there we saw a cheerful sight—a large fire burning before the illuminated tent, and the men evidently preparing our dinner. The great difficulty in travelling in these parts is exclusively caused by the difficulty of provisioning. The technical difficul- ties are slight—not in the least comparable to those encountered on some of the European Alps, and can easily be overcome by any one who is desirous of climbing these mountains, without trained guides. Bad weather had set in, and we were heartily glad to be able to return to town. Heavy snow-storms pursued us as far as the Tekapo Lake. If these lines serve to induce any of the readers of the JOURNAL OF SCIENCE to visit these high mountain ranges, I, and doubtless they also, will be satisfied. The mountains being much lower than the European Alps, and the néveés of the glaciers much narrower than those in Switzerland, a visitor will of course not expect to find anything so grand in New Zealand as in that country. The New Zealand valleys are certainly very mono- tonous on the eastern slope, and would not stand comparison with the valleys in Europe, covered with dense forests and green lawns. Although these differences certainly exist, and although there are in New Zealand no mountains that could be compared with the famous peaks of the European Alps, still any visitor would find himself amply repaid for his labour if he were to penetrate this unknown part of our island. SCIENCE DEMONSTRATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS? BY WM. LANT CARPENTER, B.A,, B.SC., F.C.S. WeNas RPh Less than fifty years ago,a Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, gave as his opinion on the education of the people, that “it were best they should be left alone ;’ while the Bishop of Durham added that “education was not likely to make its way among the poor.” It is possible that people may still exist who hold these opinions, but they do not, I think, venture to express them openly. It is difficult, however, on any other hypothesis, to account for some of the attempts to restrict and hinder pro- gress which are occasionally met with. If, however, the spirit of these two remarks which I have quoted be confined to the education of the poor in elementary | | | . 7 SCIENCE DEMONSTRATION IN SCHOOLS. 561 opinions of a larger number of people than I like to think of, and the concealed convictions of at least as many more. It js with the view of making known what has actually been done in this direction in two of the largest cities of the empire, Liverpool and Birmingham,—both as regards methods and results,—as well as of detailing the objections raised to the scheme, and the way in which they have been met, that the following remarks are offered to the Society. I venture to take it for granted that the Society would view with warm approval any well-considered efforts to bring home to the young of all classes the elementary truths and phenomena of Physics, Chemistry, and Physiology, not only for the sake of the actual practical knowledge thus given, but, and perhaps still more, for the sake of showing the immense value of Science properly taught, as an imstrument of education. I specially say, properly taught, for the essence of the scheme of which I am about to speak consists in the manner of teaching ; hence the title of my paper, “Science Demonstration in Ele- mentary Schools.” There is, I believe, good foundation for the remark that the best elementary schools of twenty years ago were nearly, if not quite, equal to those of to-day ; and that the improvement in the intervening period, of which so much has been said, has been rather in the direction of the guantity of the work (by a multiplication of good schools of one pattern) than in its guality. It is to this latter that I am about to ask your attention. It will, I think, be acknowledged by those whose experience enables them to judge, that one of the great shortcomings of the present system is the mechanical nature of the work done, which reduces the children to the state of machines rather than of thinking individuals. The Government inspectors com- plain unceasingly of the monotony, want of ease and power, and lack of “general intelligence” exhibited by the children. They read correctly, but the words represent or convey 20 ideas to their minds. “They can” (to quote an official utter- ance) “usually work ‘straightforward’ sums with quickness and precision, but they rarely succeed in solving the easiest problem.” In an ablearticle in the April number of the J/odern Review, on “ The Overstrain in Education,” are various state- ments by teachers of large experience as to the evil effects of the “ Payment by Results,” and of the individual examination system ; I will only trouble you with two—“ There is not time to train children to think,’ and “ What will pass, not what will educate, is the incentive.” In fact, of the two great mistakes which, according to the author of this article, vitiate the whole organization of English education, from the elementary - schools upwards, the one with which we are concerned to-day is, the conception of intellectual training as the ac- quisition of information, rather than as the development of aculty. 562 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, That this deficiency in the present system has been lately, to some extent, practically recognised by Mr Mundella, all true friends of Education,—using this word in the etymological sense of “drawing out the faculties,’-—will greatly rejoice. Although the individual examination is to remain the same (not for many years longer, let us hope), an entirely new element is introduced in the shape of a “ Merit Grant,” and hencefor- ward the instructions to inspectors are explicit, that they shall in future take due account of, and give full credit for, the general intelligence of the children, as indicative of the manner in which they have been taught. Few, if any, of those present, I think, will be disposed to deny the enormous, I had almost said the superlative, influence of Science teaching in thus quickening this general intelligence, as well as the very great practical value of the knowledge im- parted, provided that the teaching is conducted in a proper manner. For this, I need scarcely say in this room, it is essential that the children should be so taught as to attach | definite ideas to the words used by their instructors and by themselves. That great danger exists of their not doing so in their ordinary reading lessons, I have already tried to show ; and this to a great extent disposes of the argument used by many opponents of reform, who nevertheless admit to a certain limited degree the utility of Science teaching, but who assert that Science can be properly taught, and reading improved at the same time, simply by reading short extracts upon scientific subjects in the ordinary school lesson-books. To scientific men such a statement carries its own refutation on the face of it, but it is extremely difficult to convince many people of the fact ; and it is hoped that the education of the public mind upon this point may be to some extent improved, to however small an extent, by these remarks, and. more particularly by the expressions of opinion on the same subject from men far more qualified to address you on the general question than I am, which I trust we may hear in the discussion that follows this paper. [Here followed, in the paper as read, a brief description cf a Public Elementary School, the Seven Standards, and the Ten Specific Subjects, with statistics of the examination in these last. | The origin of the system to which I now invite your atten- tion is thus described in a paper by Mr Hance, clerk to the Liverpool School Board, published in the School hoard Chronicle for Nov. Ist, 1879 :— | “However important, I might say essential, may have been the system of Payment by Results introduced by the Revised Code, I think that there can be little doubt that the effects of it as first applied—and, to a modified extent, the same still holds good—was to reduce education in, I might say, the majority of Government-aided schools to a monotonous ‘grind’ at reading, writing, and arithmetic, of which the ultimate aim appeared to be the attainment of mechanical accuracy. This not only did SCIENCE DEMONSTRATION IN SCHOOLS. 563 very little, if anything, to develop the intelligence of the children, but was directly calculated to defeat that object by generating in a large proportion of cases a positive distaste for intellectual attainments. The Liverpool School Board, as soon as they had any schools of their own to manage, were, like most other School Boards, greatly impressed with the necessity of providing a somewhat more varied curriculum. They also felt strongly the importance of introducing some subject. specially calculated to awaken and exercise the observing faculties of the children, and, by making this subject common to all their schools, to render it a distinctive feature in their educational system. With this object, they sought and obtained the valuable advice of Prof. Huxley, Col. Donnelly, and other gentlemen of eminence in the world of Science. The result would, if they had felt themselves entirely free, have probably been the adoption of Lilementary Physics for both boys and girls ; but, in view of the provisions of the New Code as to Government grants, and of the importance of having the work tested by independent ex- amination, it was decided not to go outside of the subjects provided for by the Code. Under these circumstances, the ' Board, at the suggestion of the gentlemen before mentioned, ultimately selected ‘Mechanics’ for boys, and ‘Domestic Eco- nomy ’ for girls, as the subjects most suitable for their purpose,— the definition of these subjects given in the New Code being of such a nature as to allow of the instruction being considerably expanded in the one case in the direction of Elementary Physics, and in the other in that of Elementary Chemistry, Physics, and Physiology. In reference to the system of instruction, it was, by the same advice, decided to absolutely abandon the use of text-books by the scholars, and to rely upon oral instruction, accompanied by, or rather explaining, appropriate illustrations and experiments.” ) The general idea of the scheme thus suggested was first worked out in detail in Liverpool, but was speedily adopted by the Birmingham School Board, and by them still further developed. If, in what follows, I lay more stress upon the Birmingham work, it will be simply because I have had the very great advantage of seeing the system in full work in the latter town under the guidance of my friend, the Rev. W. H. Crosskey, Chairman of the School Management Committee of the Birmingham School Board, and also of Mr Davis, their energetic clerk. The special feature of the scheme, and one which I regard as of the very highest importance in connection with it is, that these Science-demonstrations are given, not by the or- dinary staff of the school, but by a specially appointed expert, whose sole duty it is to go round from school to school, giving practically the same lesson in each one, until all have been visited. The apparatus necessary is kept, and the experiments are prepared, at a central laboratory, built at one of the schools, about which I may say more presently; and whatever 564 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. is needed for a given lesson is carefully packed in neatly partitioned boxes (in a way with which those of us who, like myself, travel about the country with experimentally illus- trated lectures on Physics, are very familiar), and is taken from school to school in a hand-cart, drawn by a boy employed for the purpose. In this way the Birmingham demonstrator, Mr W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S., is able to give four lessons per day, of about 45 minutes each, in as many different schools ; and at present 28 schools are thus receiving such in- struction, which is given to about 1500 boys and 1000 girls. Mr Harrison has (or is about to have) two assistants; and it occasionally happens, as was the case at the time of my “sur- prise” visit, that he may be teaching Mechanics to boys, and one of his assistants expounding Domestic Economy to girls, in different rooms of the same school at the same time. Car- riage of apparatus is thus saved. In Liverpool “the number of children under this instruction last year was 5008, of whom 3407 were examined by H.M. Inspector ; more than one-half of these were in Standard IV.—a standard which for the future,” writes to me Mr Hance, the clerk to the Liverpool Board ,“will be excluded from examination.” In Birmingham the lessons are given fortnightly; one of the regular staff of the school is always present, and it is his duty in the intervening week to go over the lesson again to the class, and drive ithome. After this, each child writes out notes of the lesson, often in reply to questions set, and these notes are revised by the demonstrator himself before he next visits the school. I looked over several of these notes selected at hazard, and was much surprised at the ability displayed in some of the answers. I also conversed on the subject with my friend Mr. Poynting, Professor of Physics, &c., in the Mason College, Bir- mingham, who at the request of the Board had examined a number of boy candidates for a Scholarship offered in connec- tion with the system, and he spoke in very strong terms to me of the excellent results noticeable throughout the examination, as well as of the individual excellence of the successful candi- dates. Two lads were so exactly equal, that, to borrow an illus- tration from Wimbledon, quite a large number of ties had to be shot-off before a decision could be arrived at.. Some of the answers at this examination I lay on the table. In his official report to the Board, he says :— “ Hardly any of the questions in my paper could have been answered without independent thought on the part of the candi- dates, and I had but very few answers showing a want of such thought. The boys showed that they had seen and understood the experiments which they described,—and that they were not merely using forms of words which they had learnt without attaching physical ideas to them.” The practice of having one or more of the ordinary teachers present at the demonstration is fraught with more important consequences than at first sight appears. Their attention is thus SCIENCE DEMONSTRATION IN SCHOOLS. 565 drawn to Science, and to Science well ¢azght,—as the following quotation from a teacher’s letter to Mr. Harrison will show (the writer was one of the hardest-working assistant teachers in Bir- mingham, and his testimony was spontaneous) :— “T have attended eight or ten Science classes, and gained several certificates, but from them all I have not gained so much knowledge as by listening to your lessons.” I venture to hope that this system of Science teaching in elementary schools by specially appointed demonstrators, will obtain authoritative endorsement as the right one. Dr. Crosskey tells me that he has had to fight for it against objections of the following kind :— I. “ The regular teachers can do all the Science which is needed.” Those, however, who know how completely their time is occupied under the present system, can see at once that there is really no time available for the necessary experimental pre- parations. | II. “Only a few elementary principles can be taught, and this special supply of apparatus and demonstrators is beyond the mark.” To this it is sufficient to reply, that the careful scientific demonstration of the simplest principles is a necessity for their apprehension. As my father, Dr. Carpenter, said to me once, “I hold that every child should have his hand on an air- pump receiver, while the air is exhausted from beneath it, and should see for himself the circulation of the blood in the frog’s foot.” As his son, I can testify to the vividness of the impres- sion made upon my boyish mind, at about eight years old, by these very things. III. “It will interfere with the ordinary school work,” was frequently urged. The best answer to this is the results,—which show that the schools in which the Birmingham Board passes most in Science, are also the Jes¢ in the ordinary school work, since the general intelligence is so much quickened. The general scheme of instruction given in the various standards and years, upon the lines and in the manner indicated above, may be thus summarised; it commences after the children have passed the 4th standard :— Boys. ist Stage-—Matter in three states, solids, liquids, and gases. Mechanical properties peculiar to each state. Matter is porous, compressible, elastic. Measurement as practised by mechanics. Production of a plane surface. Measures of length, time, and velocity. In Birmingham this is given in twenty-one lessons, in Liverpool in thirty-four. Both courses include such prac- tical subjects as the spirit-level, air-pump, barometer, syphon, water-pumps and valves, thermometer, clocks, hydrometers, filters, &c., &c. Boys. 2nd Stage——This comprises the meaning of Force, and the work done by it; gravitation and the three laws of motion ; the idea of Energy, both kinetic and potential, and of its Con- servation. 566 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Boys. 3rd Stage-——This year they are taught the principles of the six simple mechanical powers, the hydrostatic press, and the parallelograms of force.and of velocities. It was a class in this stage at which I was lately present in Birmingham, and was so much struck with the intelligence of the boys, and the way in which they drew upon their own and their parents’ experience, to furnish illustrative replies. The experience at Liverpool is, that in every school some five per cent. or more of the scholars evince such marked aptitude and taste for scien- tific studies, as to make it clear that they would gladly avail themselves of further opportunities, and amply repay any trouble spent upon them.* As arranged for the girls, the instruction in the so-called “Domestic Economy” is as follows :— Girls. 1st Stage.—Functions of food, and its distribution by the blood ; the chemistry of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and _ ni- trogen ; the proximate composition of various kinds of food ; clothing and its uses, and the mechanics and chemistry of wash- ing, both as regards the person and the clothes. Girls, 2nd Stage—Food, its functions and composition, treated more in detail than in the first stage; and the physical and chemical principles involved in warming, cleaning, and ven- tilating a dwelling. Girls. 3rd Stage,—This comprises rules for health; the management of a sick-room ; the preparation and culinary treat- ment of food ; and lessons on expenditure and savings. As regards the expense of the scheme, the cost to the Liver- pool School Board was about 4100 for the stock of apparatus, and £470 yearly for the instructor and his assistants. In Bir- mingham more than 4200 has been spent upon apparatus, and the present annual expenditure is—Chief Demonstrator £300, two assistants £255, two juniors 10s. and 12s. per week, say £55; or a total of £61c. It is obvious that, under this plan, a maxi- mum of highly efficient teaching is obtained at a minimum cost, since the same demonstrators and the same apparatus are avail- able for a large number of schools—in Birmingham, at present, for 62 school departments. It may be objected that, although feasible in a large town, such a scheme is not practically useful in the number of smaller towns scattered over the country. Here, I venture to think, a lesson might be taken from the operations of the Gilchrist Educational Trust, for whom I have had the honour of doing much work during the last two or three years. The towns where lectures are to be given are grouped in fives, and on Monday and the succeeding nights of each week, a lecture (in my case always illustrated experimentally) is given in a different town. Hence, except in the very smallest and most distant places, there is nothing to prevent schcols in nearly every town from reaping the advantages of such a scheme as this. *In an article upon this same subject, but treated from quite a different point of view, in the ‘*‘ Modern Review” for July, will be found some remarkably interesting statistics of the Liverpool work,—W.L.C. SCIENCE DEMONSTRATION IN SCHOOLS. 507 As carried out in Birmingham, however, the duties of the demonstrators are by no means confined to the day lessons given to the boys and girls in the three stages above named. On two evenings in the week there are two classes held, in which 180 pupil teachers. exhibitioners, &c., are receiving instruction in Chemistry, Electricity and Magnetism, Physiology, and Physio- graphy. Children who really distinguish themselvesare granted Scholar- ships of £10 per year (in connection with South Kensington) or free admissions, and come to evening classes at the new Science Rooms, just opened in connection with the latest school erected by the Board. This part of the system is now just developing itself; an assistant will in future be stationed at this central la- boratory, and selected pupils will go there to do practical work at fixed times. Here also is kept the store of apparatus, and here the experiments are prepared for the school demonstrators. I carefully went over the arrangements of this new laboratory, and was much struck with the completeness of the appliances for demonstrating to classes the elements of Physics and Che- mistry, and for encouraging actual work by the pupils themselves, The small lecture-room on these premises for the selected pupils, under-teachers, &c., is quite a little gem of its kind. I may, perhaps, take this opportunity of remarking that all the new Board Schools in Birmingham are built upon what is known as the class-room system, which greatly facilitates the Science demonstration. Further, Mr. Harrison, the chief demonstrator, devotes at least one evening per week in the winter months to giving ele- mentary popular lectures at the various schools, illustrated with photographs and transparencies projected by a very good bi-unial lantern presented to the Board for such purposes by Mr, Tangye, of Tangye Brothers, who also gave £250 to found Scholarships. Of this work Mr. Harrison says, “The effect in improving the general intelligence of the children, in attracting them to school, and in improving the regularity of the attendance, is, I believe, unquestioned.” I may add that, for such purposes, the series of lantern photographs illustrating Physics, already published by York and Son, and the series illustrating Biology, at present in course of publication, are especially suited. In this connection, also, I ought to mention that, acting upon a deficiency in their system pointed out by H.M. Inspector for the Birmingham district, the Board have just issued “ Sugges- tions regarding the preparation of progressive schemes of object- lessons, in boys’, girls’, and infants’ schools,” in order to help the teachers to prepare the scholars of the first four standards syste- matically for the Science courses which they enter upon when the 4th standard is passed. The number of new lessons in any one year is fixed at 36; and their aim is “to place the child in intelligent connection with the phenomena by which it is surrounded,” The lessons, however, are confined to “objects,” 568 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, t.2., matter ; those which need reference to force being left until the 5th Standard is passed. The results which have been incidentally mentioned in the course of the paper may be thus put together. 1. The general quickening of the intellectual life of the school. 7 2. The sending of a large number of lads to Science classes, after leaving school, at the Midland Institute and elsewhere. 3. The finding out lads of exceptional scientific ability, and setting them on the road. 4. The attracting the attention of the ordinary teachers to Science and the results of its teaching. In conclusion, I wish to impress strongly two points upon the Society as to this scheme— I.—The success of it, which has been admitted to be great, depends almost entirely upon the employment of a specially appointed demonstrator, who shall go from school to school with apparatus, and shall encourage the children to assist him in the performance of the experiments, and to handle his specimens. I]1—Under this system, instruction is given in elementary Science to every child above the 4th Standard. This it is very important to note, because in many “Upper Grade Schools,” under Boards, it may be (and is) admitted to be a good thing to give such practical instruction, and in some towns they say that they are doing it. They are not, however, really doing it in the sense in which I am now urging it ; for they only give such les- sons in the upper schools, to which a few poor boys come by exhibitions and examinations. The point that I desire to urge most strongly is, that these demonstrations ought to be a fart of the work of every school. ‘They are given in the “ Penny Schools” in Birmingham, and, as Dr. Crosskey says, in words which I can most fully confirm from my own experience in Bristol, ranging over a period of more than 20 years, with a class of boys con- siderably rougher even than his, “ It is a wonderful thing to see the power of experimental Science over the roughest lads. My own belief is that in our young blackguards we have a most amazing reserve power of scientific research. They are afive in every sense, and I have watched them at the Science lessons as keenly interested as if they were up to mischief in the streets.” From my own experience of the last two years, both as a Gil- christ Trust Lecturer, and as a worker in Science exposition at the Victoria Coffee Hall, Waterloo Road, familiarly known as the “ Vic.,” I am inclined to extend the scope of Dr. Crosskey’s remarks so as to include children of larger growth, but equally rough. ‘This, however, is a subject beyond the scope of the pre- sent paper. I may, however, perhaps mention, as a practical illustration of what I mean, that by teaching the elements of Geology to the colliers in the Leeds district, Prof. Miall has se- cured many valuable fossils for the Leeds Museum, which would otherwise have been thrown aside as rubbish on the pit-bank. It has just come to my knowledge, also, that the discovery of SCIENCE DEMONSTRATION IN SCHOOLS. 569 the manufactory of dynamite in Birmingham was due, in the first instance, to a youth who passed through the Science system of the Birmingham Board Schools, including the evening instruc- tion. He had, I believe, been taught the relation of glycerine to explosive compounds, and living near Whitehead’s premises, and seeing what he recognised as cans of glycerine, and carboys and bottles of acid, go in there, he communicated his suspicions to a friend, who happened to be a detective policeman. I trust that the reading of this paper, and the discussion thereon, may have some influence in drawing attention to this essentially practical scheme for Science demonstrations in Board Schools—a scheme suggested by the matured experience of most eminent men of science; worked out in practical detail by Boards controlling the education of two of our largest centres of population ; (would that it were adopted in London also!) and proved to have given, under their management, such admirable results. I will conclude by simply recording my very firm con- viction that, if this work can be but set moving, it will end in an intellectual revolution for the mass of our ‘people, and that the national results of it will be great. NoTE—After this paper was read, the chairman, Prof. G. C. Foster, invited discussion. Among the speakers, besides the chairman, were Dr. J. H. Gladstone (London School Board), Mr. Walter Baily (H.M. Inspector of Schools, London district), Prof. Chandler Roberts, and Dr. Carpenter, C.B. A unanimous ex- pression of approval of the scheme was elicited, and Dr. Carpen- ter stated that he had been for some time waiting for a suitable opportunity to bring before the public just such a scheme, which he had worked out in his own mind. It afforded him very great satisfaction to find that it was already actually an accomplished fact. | It may be noted also that, at the public Presentation for De- grees in the University of London last May, Sir John Lubbock, M.P. for the University, referred in terms of strong approval t> this scheme.—W.L.C. REVIEW. The Fertilisation of Flowers, by Prof. Hermann Miller, trans- lated and edited by D‘Arcy W. Thompson, B.A. London: Macmillan & Co. Up to the present time Dr. Miiller’s valuable researches on the fertilisation of flowers, described in his chief works, “ dze Befruchtung der Blumen durch Insekten,” and “ die Alpenblumen, thre Befruchtung durch Insekten, und thre Anpassungen an dieselben,’ as well as in his numerous articles in German pub- lications, have been inaccessible to the majority of English 570 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. readers. This has been all the more to be regretted, because Hermann Miiller, in Germany, and his brother Fritz Miiller, in Brazil, have done more to add to our knowledge of this ex- tremely interesting branch of biological study than any other naturalists, with perhaps the exception of Charles Darwin. Mr Thompson has therefore done an excellent service in preparing a translation of this work. The present work is not, however, merely a reproduction of the original German edition. Since “die Lefruchtung” was published (in 1873), great additions have been made to the literature of the subject by others as well as by the Miillers, and the translator has incorporated the gist of these along with Dr. H. Miiller’s most recent observations. A short preface by Charles Darwin, “ full of suggestion, full of kindly appreciative feeling, is of peculiar interest as one of the last of his writings.” An excellent introductory chapter gives the history of-our knowledge of the subject. It is remarkable to note here how accurately Sprengel, nearly a century ago, worked out the idea that many flowers are fertilised by one or more species of in- sects, and that the bright colors, honey, scent, &c., which he noticed and described, were contrivances to aid in this work. And yet, with all the remarkable insight into the subject which he gained, he missed the chief point in it. He saw that pollen was carried by insects from flower to flower, and was the first to observe the common occurrence of dichogamy, or the maturing of anthers and stigmas in the same flower at different times, and yet he failed to detect the reason of these phenomena. For seventy years his valuable observations remained mere dead letters, because no one seemed to see the direct application of them, or if they saw them at all, as in Knight’s case, they failed to bring general conviction to their views. It was one of the great merits of Darwin’s “ Origin of Species,” that it suddenly, as it were, vivified all these dead facts, uniting what previously seemed purposeless and disjointed observations into one har- monious whole, and utilising them all in the exemplification of the great law of natural selection. Since the date of Darwin’s chief work numerous observers have entered this field of biological study, and the work now before us brings the most of of the information thus accumulated into a compact form. After describing briefly the insects which affect the fer- tilisation of flowers, and showing in some detail the chief modifications in their structure, which serve to adapt them for this work, the author describes the mechanisms of flowers at considerable length. The translator has arranged this part in accordance with English systematic ideas, which certainly is a convenient aid in finding out any known group. Naturally, the greater portion of the work is occupied with European plants, briefer notices being accorded to extra Euro- © pean species. But so numerous are the types and species of flowers whose mode of fertilisation is here described, that any- one desirous of acquiring a knowledge of the subject will find GENERAL NOTES. _ 571 numerous examples among our garden or introduced wild plants, and may study them text-book in hand. To the New Zealand botanist the most noteworthy feature of this work will be, that while full of suggestion, instruction, and interest to him, it still leaves the field almost untouched as far as he is concerned. He will find in its pages a fund of valuable information, but the main problems regarding the fertilisation of flowers here are still to be worked out. Not only are the individual features of the several species still but im- perfectly known; there are the wider questions of the prevalence of white flowers, the brilliancy of our Alpine flora, the re- markable tendency towards separation of the sexual organs, and others of a similar nature, still requiring investigation. And side by side with this, we require a more complete knowledge of our insect life. This branch of biology has only recently been attacked with any degree of energy, but thanks to the labours of various systematists in our midst, a considerable amount of work is now being done. We shall soon have tolerably com- plete lists of our Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera ; but as yet hardly anything is known of the Diptera, which are great insect-fertilisers, and in my opinion (judging necessarily from very imperfect data) are relatively of much more im- portance here than in Europe. An excellent feature in Mr Thompson’s translation is the compendious bibliographical list at the end of the work, a list containing over 800 references, and including nearly all the books and papers which have been written on the subject since Sprengel’s time. The excellent woodcuts which illustrate the work are reproduced from the original German edition. GENERAL NOTES. a A NEw SPECIES OF NOTORNIS.—Most of our readers will recollect that a Motornis—the third known specimen—was ob- tained about four years ago near lake Te Anau, and though every effort was made at the time to acquire the skin and skele- ton for one of the colonial museums, its owner sent the specimen to Europe for sale. It was purchased for the Dresden Museum, and we learn from “ Nature,” of the 16th August, that Dr. Meyer proved in his “ Abbildungen von Vogelskelettes” that it belonged to a different species from that originally described by Prof. Owen from a skull and bones found in the North Island. It would thus appear that JV. mantel, the North Island species, has become extinct, while VV. Zochstetteri, the South Island form, has still a few living representatives. We have no copy of Dr. Meyer’s paper, and therefore do not know on what characters he founds these species, but they are evidently sufficient to show 572 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE how a comparatively recent separation of the islands has led to considerable alterations even in the skeleton of these birds— G. M. T. TIDAL WAVES.—In our last issue we suggested that the tidal disturbances at the end of August were probably due, not to the terrific volcanic outbreak in the Straits of Sunda, as was suggested by Dr. Hector, but to the earthquake dis- turbances induced in the volcanic belt lying to the north of Australia and New Zealand. Weadvanced this opinion because no record of similar tidal disturbances had been received from Australia. Since the publication of the “ note,” however, tele- grams have been received showing that in West Australia, Tasmania, and the West Coast of N. America very extensive oce- anicdisturbances took place. Following shortly afterthe great out- break at the Straits of Sunda, viz.,on 30th and 31st August, sharp shocks of earthquake were feltin various partsof New South Wales and Queensland, accompanied by considerable tidal disturbances. eT A New Doris.—One day last week, when exploring some tidal pools at this place for Polyzoa, my eye was attracted by a brilliant patch of color in the clear water at the bottom of a pool. Upon examination, I found a beautiful Doris, which I had not previously met with; and as it is not possible in this remote spot to ascertain whether it has or has not been de- scribed, I give here a description of it:—Shape oblong; mantle small, not covering the foot, the posterior end of which projects beyond it like a tail, but extending beyond the head like a hood ; eyes large and globular; teatacles two, club-shaped, laminated, retractile within cavities, gill plumes also retractile ; color, very pale violet, with brilliant scarlet spots, irregular oval in shape, and arranged in lines both on mantle and foot, except four spots on the mantle over the head, which form a cross ; the mantle has also a narrow border of opaque white ; gill plumes and tentacles. dark purple, with a tinge of red. Total length, a - little over an inch. This specimen was kept alive for some days, and is now preserved in spirits. In general appearance it is rather like Gonzodoris castanea, figured by Gosse on page 105, vol ii., of his “ Marine Zoology ;” the mantle, however, projects beyond the head in my specimen.—C. H. ROBSON. Portland | Island, Hawkes Bay. por ee to 2 A NEW ZEALAND FRESH WATER SPONGE.—The sponges preserved in the Canterbury Museum have lately been examined by Dr. v Lendenfeld. Among them was a specimen of the fresh water sponge, found by me in the Kakahu river (see page 383 of this Journal). Dr. Lendenfeld finds that this is Spongil/a fluviatilis, the fresh water sponge found in running streams in England.—C.C, ee eee GENERAL NOTES. 573 HABITAT OF PERIPATUS NOVA-ZEALANDIZ.—I was much surprised to read on p. 518 0f the N.Z. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, that “hitherto Peripatus nove-zealandie appears to have only been found in one locality in New Zealand—viz., at Forbury, near Dunedin.” As it is of some importance that a correct list of habitats should be made, I venture to send you notes of printed records of its occurrence in various parts of theColony. (1) Professor Hutton, in the “ Annals and Magazine of Natural His- tory,” (vol. XVIII. p. 361), says—“ That a species of Peripatus inhabits New Zealand, was first brought under my notice by Mr. W. T. L. Travers, who showed me a good locality for them near Wellington. I have since found the same species at Nelson and Dunedin, so that it probably occursall over New Zealand.” (2) On p. 86, vol. XIX, of the same journal, Mr. Mosely says— “When H.M.S. ‘Challenger’ was at Wellington, Mr. W. T. L. Travers . . brought me off some specimens of the animal to the ship, and gave me such information about its whereabouts, that collectors sent from the ship were able to procure me about fifty living specimens.” (3) On p. 279 of “Notes by a Naturalist on the ‘ Challenger,” Mr. Mosely particularises the locality where these specimens were procured; he says “the New Zealand Peripatus (P. xove-sealandi@) is abundant near Wel- lington amongst dead wood, and I had 4o or 50 specimens brought to me as the result of a day’s search in the Hutt Val- ley.” (4) Iam informed by Dr. Hector that Mr. J. Buchanan obtained specimens in the North-East Valley, near Dunedin, as early as 1861, though, of course, he was not then aware of its systematic position. Its abundance throughout the Wellington Provincial District is evidenced by its occurrence at the following places :—Botanic Gardens, South Karori, Hutt Valley, Lowry Bay, Masterton, Wanganui, Porirua (T.W.K.), and Ohario (H. B. Kirk).—T. W. KIRK, Colonial Museum. MACHINE FOR TESTING STRENGTH OF TIMBER.—Several years ago on examining the late Mr. Balfour’s machine for test- ing the strength of the timbers of the Colony, I found that the machine was faulty in three respects, tending to give too high results. I then concluded that these faults caused the discre- pancy between the experiments at the Sydney Mint and those made by Mr. Balfour. To satisfy myself, I made a direct-acting machine, which proved that Mr. Balfour’s results for ultimate transverse strain are on an average 17 per cent. too high. I com- municated to Dr. Hector the fact that the Balfour machine was faulty. That gentleman took no notice, but, I believe, con- ducted another series of experiments with the same machine. I would warn engineers'that all ultimate strength results by that machine are unreliable. Subjoined you will see in the first column my experiments, in each case a mean of ten tests. The second column contains Mr. Balfour’s results :— 574 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. ULTIMATE STRENGTH. Name of Timber. lbs. Ibs. Totara - - - 155 —— Kauri - - - - 150 165 Rimu (red pine) - - 148 168 Kahikatea (white pine) - go 106 Matai (black pine) - 136 190 Towai (black birch) - 174 202 — (white birch) - 196 — — “(red birch) - 226 243 Henu - - - - 125 — Koe Koe_~ - - - 145 — Maire (black) : - 285 314 Titoki -. ° - - : 237 248 Manuka - ‘ 228 240 Gisborne. —A, Y..Rogs, MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. ——$ > LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Sydney, July 25th, 1883.—Professor W. J. Stephens, M.A., in the chair. Papers—r. “ On the Myology of the Frilled Lizard (Chlamy- dosaurus Kingu),” by Charles De Vis, B.A. The author does not find there is any special muscular mechanism conuected with the reptile’s habit of elevating the frill, and of occasionally assuming the erect attitude. The function ofthe frill he regards as being partly to frighten assailants, partly to aid in the collection and concentration of the waves of sound. 2. ‘Descriptions of Australian Micro-lepidoptera, No. 9,’ by E. Meyrick, B.A. The paper continues the description of the Ccophoride, bringing the number of Australian species of the family up to 179. 3. “Some remarks on the action of Tannin on Infusoria,” by Harry Gilliatt. The author points out with reference to a paper by Mr H. J. Waddington, that the effect of the tannic acid on Paramecium aurelia is to cause the elongation and discharge of the trichocysts, which form a dense fringe ot slender rods all round the body. Sydney, August 29th, 1883.—G. S. Wilkinson, eRe President, in the chair. New Member—Mons. F. Ratte. Papers—1. “On a fossil Calvaria,” by Charles De Vis, B.A. The writer gave a full and minute description of this fossil, which consists of the parietal and the upper part of the occipital bones. It is remarkable for the great prominence of the occipital spine, and thickness of the parietals, which, though only four inches in length by three in width, have an average thickness of nearly MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 575 three-quarters of an inch; the bevel of the coronal suture being thirteen lines in depth. He was inclined to refer this singular form to some extinct Sirenian, living in fresh waters, and of a much lower degree of development than those now existing. 2. “Remarks upon a skull of an Australian aboriginal from the Lachlan district,’ by Baron N. de Miklouho Maclay. The skull, which was found by Mr C. Horsley, of Gunningbland Station, in the Lachlan district, is remarkable for the formation of the occipital bone. The superior curved line with the external occipital protuberance, forms nota line but a very prominent occipital crest, and the hindmost part of the skull is not the convex part of the superior portion of the occipital bone, but this occipital crest. The thickness of the bone between the external and internal occipital protuberances is 21 mm. The skull is also remarkable as being very dolichocephalic, the index of the breadth being 66.8. ROwAL SOCIETY OF NEW. SOUTH WALES, Sydney, September 5th, 1883. —Chas. Moore, Esq., F. L Ds Vice-President, in the chair. | New Members. —Messrs. H. Blaxland, W. Little, A. J. Vause, W. H. Warren, and T. Whitelegge. Papers—1. ‘‘ Notes on the genus Macrozamia,”’ with descrip- tions of some new species, by Mr. C. Moore. 2. ‘On the discolouration of white bricks made from certain clays in the neighbourhood of Sydney,” by Dr. E. H. Rennie. The bricks after exposure tor some time to the air become more or less green or yellowish-red in colour. The author tound that the former hue was due to organic growths—probably Protococeus. The latter colouration, however, was found to be due to Vanadic Acid, the vanadium being present in the clay from which the bricks were made, and presumably forming metallic vanadates in the process of burning. The only method of prevention suggested was to burn the bricks at a much higher temperature, but this of course would render the production of light-coloured bricks im- possible. 3. “On Irngation,” by Mr. H. C. Russell, Government Astro- nomer. Mr. Wilkinson, Government Geologist, exhibited a collection of very fine carboniferous fossils from Cataract Creek, near Mt. Wellington, Hobart, and expressed the opinion that boring opera- tions at that locality would lead to the discovery of workable de- posits of coal or kerosene shale. Prof. Liversidge exhibited a fossil specimen of an extinct Chelonian reptile which had been described by Prof. Owen, who stated that it was the first of the kind which he had ever seen from the Australian continent. PeaieOoOPHICAL INSTITULE OF CANTERBURY. Christchurch, 6th September, 1883.—Professor F. W. Hutton, President, in the chair. Papers.—1r. ‘‘ Revision of the recent Rhachiglossate Mollusca of New Zealand,” by Prof. F. W. Hutton. This paper in- 576 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. cludes the Muricide, the Olivide, the Columbellide, the Mar- ginellide, the Volutidx, the Mitride, the Fasciolaride, and the Buccinide. All species not known to occur in New Zealand are struck out, and the synonymy of the real species is given, together with their geographical distribution and short diagnostic charac- ters. Thus 37 species are removed from the list, and 45 remain. The more important changes are the following :— Purpura vugosa (Quoy), is identified with Fusus stangeri (Gray), and put into Tvophon. Fusus covticatus (Hutton), is identified with Fusus duodecimus (Gray), and put into a new genus, called Kalydon, having the shell of Uvosalpina, with the operculum of Tvophon. Purpura haustrum (Martyn), is placed in a new sub-genus of Polytropa, called Lepsia. Marginella albescens (Hutton), is identified with M. fans (Reeve). All the New Zealand species of Euthna are referred to Prsama, Buccinum funeveum (Gould), is identified with Cominella lunida (Philippi), and with B. zealandicum (Hombron and Jacquinot). 2. Notes on Botrychium lunana, by T. Kirk, F.L.S. This paper compares the specimens of this fern collected by Mr J. D. Enys with plants trom England. The species occurs in the British Isles, Australia, Tasmania, Tierra del Fuego, as well as generally through the northern hemisphere, and is remarkable for the great length of time required for the development of the leaves, it being only in the fourth year that the frond appears above ground. Christchurch, 4th October, 1883.—Prof. F. W. Hutton, Presi- dent, in the chair. New Members,—Dr. R. von Lendenfeld, F. Wilding. Papers—1. ‘‘The Hot Winds of Canterbury,” by Fred. Barkas, A.Sc., F.C.S., &c. This paper explained the hot winds by Dr. Hann’s theory of the Fohn, or hot winds of Switzerland. If the wind was perfectly dry when it reached the western bases of the Alps it would as it ascended the mountains expand and become colder ; as it descended the other side of the mountains it would be compressed, and at. the bottom would regain exactly the same amount of sensible heat as it had previously lost ; so that a dry wind would undergo no permanent change in temperature. But it the wind was saturated with moisture when it reached the Alps the case would be far otherwise. As the wind ascended and became cooler the moisture would condense and fall in rain on the western slopes of the mountains. By the time it reached the top, one-fourth or even one-third of its moisture would have been lost. On reaching the other side the wind becomes warmer, but cai- not again take up the moisture it is capable of holding; it becomes therefore a dry wind. But as the rain is being formed the latent heat of the aqueous vapour is given out which prevents the wind falling to so low a temperature at the summit of the range as it otherwise would have, and the wind when it reaches the plains not only regains the heat due to compression, but has in addition the increased heat due to the rainfall during its ascent of the moun- tains. The increase due to rainfall has been calculated at about 1 deg. F. for every 360 feet in height of the mountain range, so MEETINGS OF ‘SOCIETIES. 577 that if a fully saturated wind at a temperature of 55 deg. F. had to cross a range of mountains 7,200 feet high, the wind on the dry side would have a temperature of 75 deg. F. If observations at Hokitika be compared with those taken at Lincoln or Christchurch in nor’-westerly weather, it will be found that the maximum tem- perature in the shade at Hokitika is some 15 deg. to 20 deg. F. lower than at Christchurch ; while the humidity of the air is go at the former and only 45 at the latter place, taking 100 as repre- senting complete saturation. Mr. Hogben did not agree with Dr. Hector’s theory, given in Sir C. Lyell’s “‘ Principles of Geology,” that the hot winds were heated in Australia. Our north-west winds almost always changed to south-west, which showed that both were parts of a cyclone dis- turbance with the centre of depression passing in an easterly direction south of Canterbury, and as the south-west wind was not hot, the heat of the north-west wind must be due to local causes. The occasional change from north-west to north-east would be due to an anticyclonic disturbance round a centre of elevation. Mr. Inglis said that the wind was often cold on the plains at the foot of the hills when it was a hot wind in Christchurch. The wind was often still on this side the hills but blowing violently at the top of the pass. The wind felt cold in the mountains, but it melted large quantities of snow. Dr. von Lendenfeld agreed with Mr, Barkas. Exactly the same thing occurred on the north side of the Swiss Alps, but the wind there changed in the opposite direction owing to its being in the northern hemisphere, so no doubt Mr. Hogben was right. The wind changed suddenly from the N.W. to S.W. because the moun- tains prevented the wind blowing directly from the west. The wind was cold at the foot of the mountains because the hot wind blew higher and came down on the plains further off, this caused a backward whirlwind of cold air. He said he found in his observa- tions on the Alps that the barometrical curves there were ahead of those at Hokitika, although from geographical position they ought to be behind them. He explained that by supposing that the. centre of depression formed a vertical line while on the sea, but the friction of the land caused the lower portion to move slower than the upper, and consequently the line of greatest depression got inclined, and in this way he would account for clouds moving in different directions at different altitudes. The President thought that the theory brought forward by Mr. Barkas was quite correct, and gave an excellent explanation of the phenomena in outline, but many details had yet to be filled in. As the wind ascended the mountains it gained by giving out latent heat about as much sensible temperature as it lost . by rarefaction, and therefore it would keep approximately the same temperature during the whole of its ascent; this no doubt was the cause of the snow being melted, but he could not un- derstand why the wind should feel cold. Mr. Barkas explained that the wiud felt cold on the top of the mountains because it was nearly saturated with moisture. Mr. McKay in a paper in the Transactions had pointed out that the wind often blows from the south at the foot of the hills, while a nor’-wester is blowing higher up. Dr. Lendenfeld’s ex- planation accounted for this, As the foot of the mountains were ~ 578 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 1,700 feet higher than Christchurch, this alone would make a difference of 8 deg. F. Dr. Hector had told him that cyclonic disturbances sometimes moved to the west, which would account for some changes of wind. 2. ‘Notice of a Thermal Spring near Lyttelton,” by Mr. R. | M. Laing. The spring is situated about 2} miles from Lyttel- ton on the Governor’s Bay Road, and is close to the sea. The temperature remains uniform at 73 deg. F. There is not much taste in the water, but it deposits a small quantity of calc-sinter in the shape of incrustations and stalactites. Mr. Gray stated that there was another warm spring in Gebbie’s Valley containing sulphate of magnesia ; it was undrink- able. He would gladly examine the deposits from this spring. Mr. Laing said that Dr. Haast had told him of another spring near the Ferry Road with a temperature of 65 deg.; he had also heard of another at Kaituna, which was said to give off steam. 3, “ Onthe N.Z. Coccide,” by W. M. Maskell. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, Wellington, 26th September, 1883.—Hon. G. Randall Johnson, President, in the chair. Papers—1. “On a new species of Lycopodium,” by Mr. T. Kirk, F.L.S. This species, to which the name of L. gyvacile is given, is intermediate between L. vavium and L. billardiert. 2. “On a new kind of bird-catching tree,” by Mr. R. H. Govett. The author described aspecimen ot Pisonia brunoniana found at New Plymouth, and raised the question as to whether the viscid secretion on the fruit was designed for catching birds or insects for food (as in Droseva?) or as a contrivance for having the seeds transported and distributed. Dr. Hector and Mr. T. Kirk thought the latter was the case, the fruit adhering to the feathers of birds, and thus being carried away. Mr. Kirk identified the plant as Pisonia umbellifera. 3. The President exhibited the skin of a rat from Poverty Bay, which the natives said was the true Maori rat. Dr. Buller believed the so-called Maori rat which lived in trees, was identical with the common Mus rvattus of Europe. Dr. Hector said that he concurred in this opinion, but Prof. Hutton had inferred the former existence ot another species from bones found in a sub-fossil state. This was a flesh-eating rat, and there- fore not Mus vatius, which species is very common in bush country, and comes into Wellington during hard winters. In the northern forests they become very fat at this season, when they feed on the bark of the Patete (Melicope ternata). They also feed largely on wild honey, and after Christmas are often found in large numbers ~ dead or stupefied at the foot of the Puriri trees (Vitex littovalis), being poisoned by the honey which in some years is dangerous and even fatal to human life at that season. Mr. McKay said that rat bones were found mixed with moa bones in situations which suggested that the rat and the moa were contemporaries. (Specimens were exhibited to illustrate this.) Either the moa was not so ancient an inhabitant of these islands, or the rat must have been here anterior to the Maori immigration. If Mus vattus existed here with the moa, by what agency was it —— eee MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 579 introduced? It was suggested it might have been introduced by the earliest navigators—perhaps by Tasman—and that the earliest rats and latest moas existed together. | The President considered that what had been said proved that this interesting point in the natural history of New Zealand was far from being satisfactorily settled, and hoped that no time would be lost in collecting authentic information on the subject from Na- tives, before it was too late. 4. Dr. Hector made some interesting remarks in reference to what he had said at/a previous meeting, that the tidal disturbances felt on these shores about the time of the Sunda eruptions were due to their influence. The editor of the NEw Zeatanp JouRNAL OF SciENCE had objected that, as the great Australian continent intervened directly between the Straits of Sunda and New Zea- land, no tidal wave from that cause could have been felt here without being felt much more forcibly along the western and southern shores of Australia and Tasmania, and suggested that the disturbances were propably due to other submarine movements in the Pacific. Late reports showed that the tidal movements were very marked on the west coast of Tasmania, and the disturb- ances felt herejwere found to coincide suggestively with the succes- sion of earthquake shocks that followed the eruption at Sunda. The retardation or acceleration of the tidal swell by those earth- quake shocks would act and re-act in various directions, thereby causing disturbances of varying intensity on all the shores of these islands. An extraordinary phenomenon to which he particularly drew attention was that atmospheric disturbances, as registered by a delicately suspended barometer coincided remarkably in the sudden jerks on several days with the recorded eruptions at Sunda, beginning on the evening of August 27th, and recurring on four or five days. These barometrical jerks and curves were exhibited by diagram, with dates and hours given; and Dr. Hector moreover showed that these readings in Wellington corresponded with simi- lar jerks in the curves recorded by a self-registering barometer at Dunedin, showing that they were produced by a fast-moving in- fluence that traversed the atmosphere quite independently of the ordinary cyclonic movements that were in progress. OTAGO INSTIEUTE. Dunedin, September 11th, 1883. A. Montgomery, Esq., Presi- deut, in the chair Papers 1.—‘* The Lower Harbour and Bar of Otago,” by G. M. Barr, M.I.C.E. In 1844, Colonel Wakefield stated that there was no bar at the entrance to Otago Harbour, and the report of the survey by Captain Wing of the ‘‘ Deborah,” at the same time, represented that the banks inside the entrance were of inconsider- able extent, and had 34 fathoms all over them at low water. It was also stated that a channel with 18 feet of water existed all the way to the top of the Harbour. Another account, by an old whaler who was here 55 years ago, stated that no banks dry at low water existed between the islands and the heads. On the other hand, the sailing directions of Mr. Charles Kettle, a year or two later, make mention of both the outer and the inner bars, and there is also the fact that the ‘‘ Royal Albert,” drawing 20 feet 6 inches 580 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. struck heavily on the bar when trying to enter about 30 years ago, and it was not until her second attempt that she succeeded in coming inside. If we go further) back and consult geological indications, there are strong evidences that at one time the present harbour of Otago was a strait, with the present north-west side as [the main- land, and the Peninsula as a detached island. The tides must then either have met and shed somewhere in the straits, or there were two distinct branches, one through between the mainland and the island, and the other quite to seaward of the island. The present St. Kilda and South Dunedin flats, and also the spits and bar at the northern heads would then originate and develop by the action of the currents and eddies at the meeting points of the straits and the main ocean, and the greater exposure of the southern extremity, and also the debris brought down by the Water of Leith, would cause that entrance to become completely blocked betore the northern one. The boring and dredging operations in the neighbourhood of Dunedin show a formation alternating between the products of land-floods and sea-borne sand, while the spits and bar at the northern heads are pure sand down toa depth of 44 feet at least below low water. At the northern heads there is a distance of 96 chains between the volcanic cliffs, which at one time were the boundaries of the stream going and coming. Of this, 24 chains are covered by the present stream at high water, the remainder being low flat, either destitute of vegetation, or only having the usual marshy growth of rushes and coarse grass. This flat probably had its beginnings by that part of the stream being sooner retarded by the oceanic action than the other portion under shelter of Taiaroa Head, and hence the deposit of the solid matter borne by it. Further,—the current coming from the north would cling with its greatest force to the curved outline on the side of Taiaroa Head and Harrington Point, thus again leaving the north- western portion of current the more sluggish and the more likely to induce deposit. The present outer bar probably had its origin in the division of the currents by the sharp features of Taiaroa Head and a consequent zone of slackened speed between the two streams where solid matter in the water would readily settle down. The first accurate record of the depths of water in the Har- bour is that furnished upon survey by Captain Stokes in 1849, Since then, in 1875 and 1879, the Upper and Lower Harbours were surveyed by Mr. D. L. Simpson for the Otago Harbour Board ; and more recently, in 1882 and 1883, special surveys of the bar and its neighbourhood have been made by the Public Works Department for the Government, and under the direction of the author for the Harbour Board. A comparison of the 1849 and 1879 surveys along the line of the deepest water between the islands and the heads shows marked improvement in the latter one, both as regards the regularity of the bottom and the depths of water. In the earlier survey the least depths were 20 feet near Acheron Point, and 15 feet near the Maori Jetty; now there are 23} and 27% feet respectively. The latter spot was for long known as the ‘‘ inner bar,” and was a serious inconvenience to the navi- gation of that part. A bank lying between this and the Peninsula began to disappear in 1864, and changes in the form of the bottom MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 581 were continuous till 1874, the principal reduction of the special shoal occurring between 1872 and 1874. During that period the sand was being carried from the channel into the Peninsula, up the hills and over the cliffs into the ocean. Comparing the cross sections in the harbour at the two dif- ferent times, shows that while the disturbances are considerable, there is almost always a scour to account for a deposit, and that the whole lower harbour exhibits the usual characteristics of streams in having scour on the concave bank and deposit in the convex. These facts show that caution is necessary in stating the changes in a harbour, and that unnecessary fears should not be entertained with regard to such, because a bank may be making up in any one spot ; tor if so there is sure to be a deepening at some other. At the entrance to the Otago Harbour the waves come 9n to the beach at right angles and not obliquely, as at Timaru, and many other parts ot the east coast of New Zealand. In 1868 an earthquake wave scoured down to a depth of 22 teet at low water a huge portion of the bar which in its normal condition had only from 13 to 18 feet water on it, but it was restored to almost its old condition within two years. The experience in dredging also shows a heaping-up tendency by the wave action when dredging is suspended, and more especially in heavystorms. The great current setting northwards along the New Zealand coast does not come nearer the northern heads than about three miles, while it seems to strike about the ocean beach and then to be deflected seawards. This is an important point in connection with the pro- posal to carry the sewage of Dunedin to the neighbourhood ot the Lawyer’s Head. The currents that affect the banks at the Heads are principally those of the tides. The ebb sets out of the harbour in a direction about parallel to a line drawn from Harrington Point to Taiaroa Head, and about the northern extremity of the bar it meets the general ebb current coming south along the coast. At the nar- rows, Harrington Point, the mean velocity of the ebb is 23 knots per hour; off Taiaroa Head, and also when it clears the bar, 2 knots per hour. Inthe line of leading lights it is only 13 knots, and in other parts from } knot to1 knot. There are less varieties in the rates of the flood tide, and indeed less of a defined stream. Its mean velocity at Harrington Point is 13 knots. ; When the steamer ‘“ Oreti’’ was wrecked at Pleasant River, one night about g o’clock, some of her cargo was floating at Otago Heads next morning, and came in upon the flood tide. When the ‘* Bruce ” steamer was wrecked within a mile of the lighthouse, some floatage from her was inside the heads next morning. On both occasions there was very little wind, so that in the one case the articles were carried along by the ebb, and in the other by the flood tides. On the other hand, when a small vessel was wrecked on the bar, nothing from her was ever known to come ashore. A comparison of the depths on the bar in 1849 and 1879 shows :-— : 1849. 1879. Least depth in line of leading lights - 16ft. 15it. We know, however, from soundings taken just before the dredge began to work, that the minimum depth at this part in the begin- 582 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ning of 1862 was 16} feet, so this shows that not only is the bar liable to considerable fluctuations, but also that there is still a force of sufficient power to pare down the bar to fully the depth that it was before any works were executed in the upper har- bour. The average depth along the crest of the bar, north of the line of the leading lights, was in 1849—15.2 feet, and in 1879 —15} feet. The lines at different times, though not coincident, still show the same average depth. On the other hand the north channel has made up, and where in 1849 the least depth was 22 to 23 feet, it is now 20} feet, and the average depth along the line of deepest water has been reduced from 29 to 263 feet. The plan of the bar shows a widening towards the northern end, and also a tendency to turn in towards the shore. A map with the line of greatest depths upon it, shows it to be decidedly tortuous, keeping, however, in its average direction pretty nearly the same line as that of the strongest ebb tide until it impinges upon the bar, and is then deflected shorewards to with- in 30 chains of the northern cliffs, after which it turns abruptly seawards. If therefore the north channel were looked to as the permanent entrance, two very material disadvantages would have to be faced, in so far as the limiting depth is only 201 feet, and that ina position hopeless for improvement ; and also owing to its direction a vessel would sometimes be broadside on to the waves, and sometimes would be heading direct on towards the beach. There is no part of the north channel north of the pro- posed training wall which has so great a depth as 26 feet at low water. Measuring on the line of the leading lights, the distance between the inner and outer 18 feet contour line is 400 feet, and between the 26 feet lines, 1300 feet. That is, that to get a depth of 26 feet at low water, material must be removed from the bar for a length of quarter a mile, and average depth of 4 feet, by some process either of lifting and transport, or by scour. Bores to the number of 36 on the bar and its immediate neighbourhood, and 8 in the spit opposite Harrington Point, were put down by my assistant, Mr. Mason, and these showed the for- mation of those parts to be pure sand. The greatest depth reached was 44 feet below low water in the first series, and 30 feet in the latter. These probings were effected by a strong jet of water being sent down through a 3-inch tube, thus clearing the sand away from the bottom of it and allowing the tube to be easily pressed down to the required depth. There can be no doubt that the forces which developed the Otago bar are still in existence, and therefore any force operating in its reduction must be continuous. To prevent its further growth the present reducing agencies must not be diminished; but to accomplish a radical improvement in depth, these must be — strengthened and better directed. The principal deepening in- fluence is the tidal water passing out and in the harbour, and therefore the quantity of this should not be lessened by reclama- tion, unless either the commercial gain thereby is very great, or the loss of water can be compensated by other means. The com- pensation may take the form either of facilities for the more rapid filling up of the harbour by the tide; or it may be secured by im- provements in the neighbourhood of the bar. At the head of the ——— lle ee MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 583 Dunedin Harbour, somewhere about 200 acres of reclamation have _ been executed, but several facts already alluded to in this paper, such as the reduction of the bar by natural forces alone, before dredging commenced; the identity of the average heights now and in Captain Stokes’ survey; and the clearing away of the inuer bar, all point to the conclusion that the diminution of tidal water has not had a prejudicial effect in any practicable degree. But if the reclamation is open to suspicion, the straightening and the deepening of the Victoria Channel must have had a powerfully beneficial effect in shortening the run in one part trom 63 to 54 miles, and in giving a more uniform grade for the run of the tidal water. That this is of great importance will be mani- fest by a study of the conditions of the tides in the harbour. The high water at Dunedin rises on ordinary occasions to the same height as at the Heads, but not till 14 hours later. When, therefore, the water is at its height at the entrance to the harbour the water at Dunedin is from 1 to 2 feet lower, and there is a wedge of water wanted to completely fill the basin. If the time of travel to Dunedin be shortened, the difterence in height at the same moment will be less, and a gain in quantity of water will be the result. Thus the increased facilities given by the improve- ment of the Victoria Channel for the travel inwards of the tidal wave are compensation for the space taken up by reclamation, and we may calculate that if high water at Dunedin can be hastened by 10 to 15 minutes, and an average gain of one and a-fifth inch ot water over the whole Upper Harbour affected, the quantity of tidal water coming and going is not lessened by the works already carried out. Works for the improvement of the entrance must have two objects, these being the deepening of the bar and the straightening of the channel. There is no hope of effecting this latter part by dredging on the north spit, because that has been formed by the stream ‘choosing to cling to the opposite side, and it would still do so, and allow anaccumulation on the northern bank. The only manner in which a permanent improvement upon the bar and the channel can be obtained is by the use of a training wall to alter the course of the main current, and send it outwards ina line directly opposed to the heaping-up force of the ocean, instead of its being in a direction as at present inclined. This should start from the vegetation at high water mark, and go right across the north channel to the bar, thus forcing the water presently in that channel to go by the line of leading lights where it would pass into the ocean through a passage 2000 feet wide, instead of being dispersed as at present over a very wide area whereby its force is diffused and dissipated. The effect would be jincreased scour by the con- centration, and a removal of the sand until such a depth and cross section be attained as would allow the body of water to pass at a velocity less than that capable of moving that material. This contraction would not prevent the proper filling up of the har- bour, for the widthlavailable for the passage of the water would still be greater by 700 feet than that at Harrington Point by which the harbour is partly filled for the first half of the flood, while as the wall is proposed to be only up to halt-tide level, the second half of the flood would enter pretty much as it does at present. Sir John Coode proposes a second wall going from Taiaroa t84 Cs JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Head, and also that the walls should be up to at least high water level, and with a distance between them of 500 feet. He evidently attaches great importance to the straightening of the entrance, and properly so, but as walls to effect that to a satisfactory extent would be exceedingly costly, it may be granted that with only limited funds at our command, it will be better to attain the deepening of the bar first. | It is proposed to construct the wall of rubble stone obtained from the neighbouring cliffs, and pitch that into the ocean, there allowing it to be dressed down to slopes of stability by the action of the waves. This system is exceedingly suitable for building on sand, and though a certain amount of subsidence will occur, it will not be dangerous or costly. This system has been employed for the foundations of Cherbourg, Holyhead, Portland, Alderney, Boulogne, Madras, and Tynemouth breakwaters, and the Danube and Dublin training walls. It may be noted by way of comparison, that the widths of well-known and much frequented harbours vary from Dover, which is 120 feet, to Kingstown, measuring g60 feet. The proposal to remove a bar by a concentrated current is no. novelty, and has been successfully put in operation in many places. Perhaps the case of Dublin is the most convenient to quote at present, because it has been very ably and fully described by Mr. Mann, the assistant engineer to the Dublin Board. Of the effects of the training walls he writes—‘‘ The increase in the depth of the channel isremarkable, amounting in some instances to 20 feet, the point ot maximum useful effect occurring at about 1500 feet from the entrance. The scouring action extends over a large area difficult to define, but probably exceeding 800 acres.” And again— ‘‘ For a distance of about 2500 feet from the harbour entrance the average depth below low water has been increased from 11 feet to 27 feet; for the next 2000 feet the average has been increased from 6 feet g inches to 18 feet ; and the remaining part of the chan- nel to about 6000 feet from the entrance has had its average depth increased from 13 feet to 16 feet, so that there is now an available depth over the bar otf 29 feet at standard high water, or about 28 feet at ordinary springs.” The Otago Bar ought to have a corresponding chapter in its history. 2. **On the structure of the head in Palinuyus, with special re- ference to the classification of the genus,” by Prof. T. J. Parker. The paper contains detailed descriptions of the head in Palinurus edwavdsii, P. vulgaris, and P. imterruptus. As aresult of the examina- tion of these and other species, the following phylogenetic table is given (see next page). The author proposes the following classification of the genus:— Genus Falinuvus, Fabr. A. Stridulating organ absent ; rostrum well-developed, clasped by paired pedate processes of the antennulary sternum ; procepha- lic processes present ; coxocerites imperfectly fused ; antennulary flagella short. (Sub-genus Fasus, T.J.P.) P. lalandu, P. edwardsn, P. hiigellu, P. twmidus. ; B. Stridulating organ present; rostrum variable, but rarely (? never) as well developed as in section A; pedate clasping pro- cesses absent ; procephalic processes absent :— (2) Antennary sternum narrow below, bases of antennules be- ing hidden—in a view trom above—by bases of antenna ;. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 585 coxocerites imperfectly fused; antennulary flagella short. (Sub-genus Palinurus). 1. Rostrum well-developed, covering ophthalmic sternum. PP. trigonus. 2. Rostrum reduced to a small spiniform tubercle | ophthalmic sternum uncovered. P. vulgaris. (b) Antennulary sternum broad below, bases of antennules being visible from the dorsal aspect; coxocerites per- fectly fused; antennulary flagella long (sub-genus Palinurus, Grey ; Senex, Pfeiffer ; “*‘ Langoustes longi-: cornes,” Milne-Edwards). P. intervuptus, P. fasciatus, ete:,etc, P. lalandiz. P, trigonus, P, vulgaris. P. interruptus} P. edwardsit, and other P, higelliz. ‘* Langoustes P. tumidus, Rostrum large longicornes.” enough to cover ophthalmic sternum, Rostrum Pedate process of an- atrophied : tennary sternum Rostrum reduced —————-perfectly clasping base of rostrum : ——_—_—_———— +o a small fused : other characters as in* spiniform tubercle, antennulary Stridulating organ flagella elon- developed : rostrum gated ; anten- more or less reduced : nularly sternum. procephalic processes widened, *PAREN1 SPECIES, atrophied: other ; No stridulating characters as in*. organ : rostrum well-developed : procephalic processes present : coxocerites imperfectly fused : antennulary flagella short. ee Dunedin, 9th October, 1883.—A. Montgomery, Esq., president, in the chair. New members—Messrs. S. P. Seymour and J. C. Thomson. Professor Mainwaring Brown introduced a debate on ‘“ Tech- nical Education,” and the subject was discussed by the President,. and Messrs. R. Gillies, G. M. Barr, and Geo. M. Thomson. SYNOPSIS OF THE GENERA OF EARTH WORMS.* ————e <> TRAN SCATED BY "PROP. ER. W.rELUE EON, | a4. i [. ANTECLITELLIA. The male genital orifices situated in front of the clitellum. A single genus—Lwmoricus, Linné. I].—INTRACLITELLIA. The male genital orifices situated in the clitellum. Setz in four rows. A.—Orifices of the segmental organs in front of the sete of the ventral row. Sete arranged in pairs in front of the clitellum; separated from each other behind the clitellum, forming eight distinct rows. JZz¢anuzs, Perrier. * From E. Perrier’s ‘‘ Recherches pour servir a Vhistoire des Lombriciens ter- restres,” Nouvelles Archives du Museum, 1872, 586 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE B. Orifices of the segmental organs in front of the setz of the dorsal row. (a) Copulatory apparatus altogether wanting ; external genital orifices blended with those of the segmental organs; sete allalike. Azteus, Perrier. (6) Male orifices distinct, situated in the ventral rows of sete ; setee of the clitellum modified for copulation and ornamented ; cephalic lobe prolonged into a tentacle. ARhinodrilus, Perrier. (c) Male and female orifices quite distinct ; the last blended with those of the spermathecz ; a muscular retractile penis, but enclosed in a special pouch. Exdrilis, Perrier. III.—POSTCLITELLIA. The male genital orifices situated behind the clitellum. A. Sete in pairs, in four rows. (a) Two pairs of male genital orifices, each armed with a penis composed of a certain number of curved sharp pointed setee. Acanthodrilus, Perrier. (6) A single pair of male genital orifices ; no copulatory apparatus. Dzgasier, Perrier. B. Setee isolated, forming circles in the middle of each seg- ment ; only one pair of male genital orifices. (a) Male orifices situated in the ventral region, but sepa- rated from each other and placed on the second seg- ment behind the clitellum, which consists of three segments ; orifices of the spermathecze wholly lateral. Pericheta, Schmarda.* (6) Male orifices contiguous, collected in a pit situated on the segment immediately following the clitellum, which is formed of more than three segments, orifices of the spermathece distinctly placed on the ventral surface, and almost joining ; cephalic lobe deeply en- croaching behind on the first segment. Perzonyx, Perrier. LV ACLITELLIia. Clitellum apparently absent. Sete in four rows, in pairs in each row. Orifices of the seg- mental organs in front of the sete of the upper rows.—Four male genital orifices, two in the lines of the ventral rows of seta, and two between the two rows on the same side. JMonzligaster, Perrier. Incerte sedis—Sete arranged in quincunx, at least in the posterior part of the body. Uvocheta, Perrier. NoteE.—In my paper on the New Zealand Earthworms in Trans, N.Z, Inst., ix., p. 350, I have, in the descriptions of the first three species, mistaken the openings of the male genital organs for the valves (or openings of the spermathecex, and vice versa, ‘The first of these species, Z. wliginosus, probably belongs to Acanthodrilus ; the two last, Z. campestris and L. levis, to Digaster.—F.W.H. * This is the same as Megasolex, fe tee aire 7k & i: Pa at Agoke s rm 4 of} Te = 3 ; : ‘4 § » ‘ y uid ary Sey hy ee 7 Thang ty : i be ¥ Ly ae. Pt A 4) dines =: Toe ee ¢g ° 5 y eet \ va ’ he ois iow ‘ : ‘ eres 4 . i ay ta - is ; : | ~ . at . i | \ : ciety! - a , : a , : a4 oe , \ | - * ay As Ay m f Kris i # 4 ‘ Phy ia .. 4 © : + rien. "Awe = — 5 a: oe . y rads ‘ a) x 1 vi sah q : 4 1 4 / a ¥ ‘3 hs Lh tae pte o 4 5 . Fas ; ; wf mil ul - J ' = or. al iat \ “ r ‘i ’ Je it hi ; é :. id be 7 } r ’ ‘x ' g \ F } Z" i Ny a ; .. a : : ra * a q ‘ By ne ¥ 34) Re rt, c ™ +. 4 y a a , , ’ ; ri ( 4 ‘ } i. 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T errr ee cetera te wens ele eteta & a eter et eee or ee Shee ereeceeree Weritar? tenet ee Sere te tence ee ete eee meee eee Se ee ee eeets wteeetetattirte ~ sean eae rr ee Ores eH eR eee He rer enene Hee One weer eee eee scetere Seorevaseres 60ee errr re eee eT Se ere ee ee es ows heoee Perret tier ttt) eee eee ee haem h aw ee ew te ten aeteere -_——* a ober ee weno ncre <5 teen er eee eee eee eee ee ee Peer ere ere ee eee san epee are