VJHW. 07 • • Aberdeen University Studies : No. 12 Proceedings of Anatomical and Anthropological Society UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS. Convener: Professor JAMFS W. H. TRAIL, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Curator of the University Library. l\ \IVERSITY STUDIES. Ueneral Editor: PETER JOHN ANDERSON, M.A., LL.B., Librarian to the University. No. I. — Roll of Alumni in Arts of the University and King's College of Aberdeen, 1596-1860. Edited by P. J. Anderson, igoo. No. 2.— The Records of Old Aberdeen, 1157-1891. Edited by Alexander Macdonald Munro, F.S.A. Scot. Vol. I. 1900. No. 3. — Place Names of West Aberdecnshire. By the late James Macdonald, F.S.A. Scot. 1900. No. 4. — The Family of Burnett of Leys. By the late George Burnett, LL.D., Lyon King of Arms. 1901. No. 5. — The Records of Invercaitld, 1547-1828. Edited by the Rev. John Grant Michie, M.A. 1901. No. 6. — Rectorial Addresses delivered in the Universities of Aberdeen, 1835-1900. Edited by P. J. Anderson. 1902. No. 7. — The Albemarle Papers, 1746-48. Edited by Charles Sanford Terry, M.A., Professor of History in the University. 1902. No. 8. — The House of Gordon. Edited by John Malcolm Bulloch, M.A. Vol. I. 1903. No. 9. — The Records of Elgin. Compiled by William Cramond, LL.D. Vol.1. 1903. No. 10. — Avogadro and Dalton: The Standing in Chemistry of their Hypotheses. By Andrew N. Meldrum, D.Sc. 1904. No. II. — The Records of the Sheriff Court of Aberdecnshire. Edited by David Littlejohn, LL.D., Sheriff Clerk. Vol.1. 1904. No. 12. — Proceedings of the Aberdeen University Anatomical and Anthropological Society. 1902-04. President: Robert William Reid, M.D., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University. 1904. No. 13. — Report on the Alcyonaria collected by Professor Herdman at Ceylon in 1902. By John Arthur Thomson, M.A., Professor of Natural History in the University, and William Dawson Henderson, B.Sc., Carnegie Scholar. 1905. No. 14. — Researches in Organic Chemistry. By Francis Robert Japp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University, and William Maitland, B.Sc., Carnegie Fellow, Joseph Knox, B.Sc., James Wood, M.A., B.Sc., Carnegie Scholars. 1905. No. 15. — Meminisse Jnvat : with Appendix of Alakeia. By Alexander Shewan, M.A. 1905. No. 16 — The Blackhalls of that Ilk and Barra. By Alexander Morison, M.D., F.R.C.P., L. and E. 1905. No. 17. — Roll of the Graduates of the University of Aberdeen, 1860-1900. Edited by Colonel William Johnston, C.B., M.A., M.D. (In the press.) No. 18. — The Registers of the Scots Colleges on the Continent : Douai, Rome, Madrid, Valla- dolid, Ratisbon, 1581-1900. Edited by the Rev. William Forbes Leith, S.J. (In the press.) No. 19. — Bulletins of the Agricultural Department of the University. (In the press.) Proceedings of the Aberdeen University Anatomical and Anthropological Society President Robert William Reid, M.D., F.R.C.S. Professor of Anatomy I9O2-O4 Aberdeen Printed for the Society 1904 2- CONTENTS. PAOB Comparison between a Skeleton of a Chinese Coolie from Singapore, a Skull of a Boxer from North China, and a Skeleton of a European 2 Hernia of the QEsophageal End of the Stomach 7 On the Contents of Short Cists found in Aberdeenshire and neighbouring Counties. (With Plates I.-V.) 8 A Case of Hernia into the Fossa Duodeno-jejunalis 36 The Antiquity of Man 38 The Characteristics of five Wa Kamba Skulls 56 Record of Anatomical Variations 59, 78, 81, 100, 134 The Anatomical Variations presented by two Cases of Twin Monsters. (With Plates VI.-XIV.) 63 The Analysis of Anthropometric Statistics 85 Sagittal and Coronal Sections of the Human Head. (With Plates XV.-XXVI II.) . 99 The People of Ashanti 104 Statistics obtained from the Examination of the Eyes af four hundred Medical. Students attending Aberdeen University 119 Observations on the Skulls of ten Wasoga Natives 131 The Myology of Troglodytes Niger 136 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATE 1. Short Cist at Balbridie, Dim-is, Kincardineshire to face page 34 2. Pig. 1. Parkhill (a) Skull — norma lateralii 34 Fig. 2. Parkhill (a) Skull — norma vertical!* „ 34 Fig. 3. Parkhill (a) Skull — norma occipitalis 34 Fig. 4. Parkhill («) Skull — norma facial!* 34 Fig. 5. Parkhill (a) Skull— norma basilaris „ 34 Fig. 6. Stoneyvvood Skull — norma lateral-is 34 3. Fig. 1. Auchindoir Skull — norma w.rtieal-is 34 Fig. 2. Auchindoir Skull— norma /acialis 34 Fig. 3. Tyrie (a) Skull — norma lateral-is 34 Fig. 4. Tyrie (a) Skull — norma vertical™ 34 Fig. 5. Tyrie (a) Skull — norma weipitalis 34 Fig.fi. Tyrie (a) Skull— norma facial is „ 34 4. Fig. 1. Persley Skull— norma lateral!* „ 34 Fig. 2. Urn from Cist at Parkhill (a) 34 Fig. 3. Urn from Cist at Stoneywood 34 Fig. 4. Urn from Cist at Persley 34 5. Fig. 1. Urn from Cist at Clinterty 34 Fig. 2. Urn from Cist at Auchindoir n 34 Fig. 3. Urn from Cist at Durris (a) 34 Fig. 4. Urn from Cist at Durris (6) 34 6-14. The Anatomical Variations presented by two Cases of Twin Monsters ^ yg 15. Photograph of Head of Female Subject, aged (53 years, with Dark Lines indicating Planes of Sagittal Sections „ 100 16. Sagittal Section of Head through Right Lachrymal Papillae viewed from the Left Side )( 100 17. Sagittal Section of Head through Right Lachrymal Papillae viewed from the Right Side ;) 100 18. Sagittal Section of Head immediately to Right of Middle Line viewed from the Left Side n 100 19. Sagittal Section of Head immediately to Right of Middle Line viewed from the Right Side „ 100 20. Sagittal Section of Head through Middle of Left Pupil viewed from the Left Side n 100 21. Sagittal Section of Head through Middle of Left Pupil viewed from the Right Side „ 100 •2'2. Photograph of Head of Female Subject, aged 33 years, with Dark Lines indicating Planes of Coronal Sections .... „ 100 23. Coronal Section of Head through External Angular Process of Frontal Bone viewed from Behind 100 iv LIST OF ILU sTRATIONs. PLATK 24. Coronal Section of Head through External Angular Process of Frontal Hone viewed from the Front tn /<«•<• jun/e 100 25. Coronal Section of Head through Middle of Zygomatio Arches \iewed from the Front ' „ 100 26. Coronal Section of Head thnuiuh Depres-ion in Front of Tragus viewei I from the Front „ 100 27. Coronal Section of Head just behind Posterior Attachment of Pinna viewed from the Front „ 100 28. Coronal Section of Head Midway between External Auditory Meatus and External Occipital Protuberance viewed from the Front „ 100 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. PACK On the Contents of Short Cists found in Aberdeenshire and Neighbouring Counties — Fig. 1. Right Fibula, from before. (Reduced one half.) From Auchindoir Short Cist 30 Fig. 2. Transverse Section through the Middle of the Shaft of a Modern European Fibula (Natural Size) 30 Fig. 3. Transverse Section through the Middle of the Shaft of the Fibula from the Auchindoir Short Cist (Natural Size) 30 Fig. 4. Bone Ring from the Clinterty Short Cist. Viewed from the Side. (Natural Size) . 34 Fig. 5. Bone Ring from the Clinterty Short Cist. Viewed from above. (Natural Size) '. 34 The Anatomical Variations presented by two Cases of Twin Monsters — Fig. 1. Diagram of Cardiac and Vascular Abnormalities 66 Fig. 2. Diagram to Illustrate the Body Fusion 68 Fig. 3. Diagram to Illustrate Evolution of Single Duodenum and Jejunum from one Yolk-sac Common to both Embryos 70 Fig. 4. Diagram to Illustrate the Fusion of the two Hearts in the Region of the Sinus Venosus 72 Fig. 5. Diagram to Illustrate the Development of the Ventricles . . .73 Fig. 6. Diagram to Illustrate the Normal Evolution of the Great Vessels from the Aortic Arches 74 Fig. 7. Diagram to Illustrate the Evolution of the Great Vessels in the Case of the Right Twin 75 Fig. 8. Diagram to Illustrate the Evolution of the Great Vessels in the Case of the Left Twin 7& The People of Ashanti — Fig. 1. Ashanti Native Room Ill Fig. 2. Clay Pillar on either Side of Door of Chief's House Ill Fig. 3. Clay Panel on Native House . Ill Fig. 4. Plan of Ashanti Native House Ill Fig. 5. Plan of Ashanti Native Gold Mine 113 The Myology of Troglodytes Niger- Fig. 1 13» Fig. 2 147 Fig. 3 152 Fig. 4 155 ORDINARY MEETING. 6TH DECEMHEK, 1902. Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.R.C.S., President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the last meeting- were read and approved. On the motion of the President, it was unanimously agreed that the following change be made in the constitution of the society, riz. : the portion of rule 4, reading " that the published Proceedings of the Society be issued to members at one shilling per copy and to non- members at two shillings per copy," shall now read, "that the published Proceedings of the Society be issued to members and to non-members at whatever price shall be determined by the committee of manage- ment ". Professor Reid exhibited and described a Chinese skeleton and a Boxer's skull ; the skeleton having been presented to the Anatomical Museum by Dr. Middleton, of Singapore, and the skull by Captain M. B. Pinchard, an officer of the Indian Medical Service. From measure- ments made by himself and Mr. Andrew he compared them with the average European skeleton. Professor Reid also exhibited some Chinese relics, including a small cannon and a brick from the Great Wall of China sent by Major-General Reid, C.B., from Shanhaikwan, North China. Mr. R. H. Spittal demonstrated a variation found in the dissecting room, consisting of a hernia of the oesophageal end of the stomach. A short discussion followed as to the cause of the abnormality. •2 I'ROCKKDIXCJS OF TIIK ANA TOM K'A I. AND A.NTHROPOLOCHCAL Mr. Alex. Low gave a description of the contents of a series of short cists found in Aberdeensliire and surrounding districts, and preserved in the Anatomical Museum. The descriptions were illus- trated by numerous lantern slides. The meeting closed with votes of thanks to those who had con- i ribnted papers. COMPARISON BETWEEN A SKELETON OF A CM INKS K COOLIE EKOM SINGAPORE, A SKULL OF A BOXER FROM NORTH CHINA, AND A SKELETON OF A EUROPEAN. I'.v Professor REID and C. T. ANDREW, M.B., Ch.B., B.Sc. Through the kindness of Dr. Middleton, of Singapore, and of Captain Pinchard, I. M.S., of the China Field Force, Shanhaikwan, the Anatomical Museum has been much enriched by the addition of the skeleton of a Chinese coolie and the skull of a Boxer from North China. We desire to thank those gentlemen most cordially for all the trouble which they have taken in order to help us in our anthropo- logical work. Such specimens are ill to obtain, and consequently it is desirable that measurements of their different parts should be put upon record. We think also that if, after such measurements had been taken, a comparison was made between them and those obtained from an ordinary European skeleton, such as in daily use in the Anatomical Theatre here, the results of the investigation should prove interesting and instructive. In all three cases the bones are of male adults. The height of the Chinaman from Singapore, as estimated by the length of the femur, would probably have been 16:3'6 cm., while the height of the European would probably have been 182'f> cm. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. MEASUEEMENTS OF SKULL. Chinese Chinese (Coolie). (Boxer). European. Cubic capacity - 1354 1410 1620 Horizontal circumference - 502 498 531 Ophryo-occipital length - 181 175 175 Glabello-occipital length 184 177 176 Maximum breadth - 133 141 158 Breadth index - 73-5 80-6 90-3 Basi-bregmatic height 132 137 131 Ileiijht index - 72 -9 78-3 74-9 Frontal longitudinal arc - 121 124 134 Parietal longitudinal arc - 124 131 123 Occipital longitudinal arc - 119 110 113 Total longitudinal arc 364 364 371 Transverse vertical arc - 299 312 342 Distance of highest points of temporal ridges from antero-posterior mid-line 38 55 83 Basi-nasal length 102 105 100 Basi-alveolar length - 103 102 98 Alveolar index - - 101-0 97-1 102-0 Nasal height 52 56 53 Nasal width - 25 26 26 Nasal index 48-2 46-4 49-1 Orbital height - 36 36 37 Orbital width - 41 36 38 Orbital index 87-8 100-0 97-4 Ophryo-mental length 145 155 135 Inter-zygomatic breadth - 134 132 132 Facial index 108-1 117-0 102-0 Palato-maxillary length 56 54 54 Palato-maxillary breadth - 60 61 61 Palato-maxillary index 120 112 112 Dental length ' - 41 Basi-nasal length - 102 105 100 Dental index 39-2 From the above dimensions it is noticeable that the cranial capacity of either of the two Chinese skulls is less than that of the European skull, and that the cranial capacity of the Boxer's skull is distinctly larger than that of the Chinese coolie's. The Boxer and the European are broad skulls. The Singapore specimen is long, and it is interesting to observe that the brain case of the Boxer is markedly larger than that of the Chinese coolie. 4 PROCKKDINUS OK THK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL In all three skulls the height index is less than the breadth index. All three are orthognathous, but the European skull approaches prognathism more nearly than either of the other two Chinese. The facial portion of the skull is markedly broader in both Chinese skulls (especially in the skull of the Boxer) than it is in the European one, and it shows a general flattening above the alveolar processes of the upper jaw bones. The orbital index is decidedly smaller in the skull of the Chinese coolie than it is in either the skull of the Boxer or of the European. The nasal index of the European skull is greater than that of either of the two Chinese. The length of the palate is slightly more in the coolie's skull than in the others, and the mental process of the coolie's lower jaw is poorly developed. Upon the whole, therefore, although the European skull shows a few low racial characteristics, yet when observed as a whole it is superior to either of the two Chinese skulls as regards its cranial capacity, horizontal circumference, development of frontal region and in breadth of face. It is interesting to notice that, when a comparison is made be- tween the measurements of the two Chinese skulls, the Boxer's skull is superior to the coolie's skull in cranial capacity, breadth of cranium and development of frontal region, while in face development and cranial circumference it is lower. The whole pelvis in the Chinese coolie is larger and narrower than in the European. The fore parts of the iliac crests rise more vertically and are not so much everted as in the European one. The shape of the cotyloid cavity is practically the same as in the European pelvis, but the obturator foramen is narrower. The brim of the true pelvis is narrower in proportion to its length and more circular in outline than in the European skeleton. It approaches in its appearance the shape seen in the case of the Andamanese skeleton in our museum. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. MEASUREMENTS OF PELVIS. Chinese (coolie). European. A. EXTERNAL DIMENSIONS — Breadth of pelvis 252 270 Height of pelvis 214 225 Breadth index 84-5 83-0 Breadth between anterior superior iliac spinous processes - 202 215 Breadth between posterior superior iliac spinous processes - - 76 71 Breadth between outer borders of ischial tubero- sities 143 152 Greatest vertical diameter of acetabulum - 56 51 Greatest transverse diameter of acetabulum 54 55 Greatest vertical diameter of obturator foramen 53 54 Greatest transverse diameter of obturator foramen - 32 41 Obturator index - - ... 60-3 75-0 B. DIMENSIONS OF CAVITY — Transverse diameter of brim - 119 121 Conjugate diameter 101 119 Pelvic index 84-8 98-0 Bight oblique diameter - 108 129 Left oblique diameter 115 122 Inferior sagittal diameter 96 121 Inferior transverse diameter - 106 139 Depth of pubic symphysis 36 37 Depth of pelvic cavity 96 108 C. DIMENSIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BONES — Height length of iliurn 123 125 Breadth of ilium 151 164 Iliac index 122 132 Breadth of innominate bone 172 178 Length of os pubis - 73 76 Pubo-mnominate index - 42 42 Length of ischium - 88 108 Ischio -innominate index - 40 47 Innominate index - 80 74 Length of sacrum - 104 122 Breadth of sacrum - 113 119 Sacral index - 98 97 The outlet of the Chinese pelvis is smaller in proportion to the size of the pelvis. G I'KOCKKDINliS OK THK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL The symphysis is deeper, but the depth of the pelvic; cavity is not appreciably increased. The innominate bone is broader in proportion to its height than in the European. The length of the pnbis in relation to the breadth of the whole innominate bone is the same in both, but the Chinese ischinm is shorter in relation to the height of the innominate than the European. There is no appreciable difference in the relation of length to breadth of sacrum in the two skeletons. The curves of the iliac crests are not so sinuous in the Chinese as in the European specimen, and the bones forming the iliac fossa1 are thinner (the left one being perforated), while the pectineal lines, the pubic spines and crests are more prominent. MEASUEEMENTS OF BONES OF EXTREMITIES. C (C !^i|. European. Length of right clavicle 154 170 Length of left clavicle 151 167 Length of right scapula 158 178 Length of left scapula 158 184 Breadth of right scapula 101 116 Breadth of left scapula 100 115 Scapular index- —right 63 65 Right infra-scapular length 126 136 Left infra-scapular length - 125 135 Infra-acapular index— right 80 86 Length of right humerus 321 325 Length of left humerus 316 325 Length of right radius 246 236 Length of left radius - 241 237 Radio-humeral index — right 76 73 Length of right femur 443 502 Length of left femur - 445 504 Length of right tibia - 357 396 Length of left tibia 356 399 Tibio-femoral index — right - 80 78 i Upon comparing the bones of the extremities in the two skeletons we notice that the clavicles in the Chinese skeleton are longer than SOCIETY ()K THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 7 those of the European, and that in both cases the right bones are longer than the left. The Chinaman has longer and narrower scapuhe than the Euro- pean. The increase in length occurs in the infra-scapular regions, which are very thin and perforated here and there. The bones of the upper extremities of the Chinese are slender, with muscular impressions badly marked, and the relation between the length of right forearm to right arm is greater than in the European, the respective indices being 76 and 73. The Chinese femora show strong ridges for muscular attach- ment. Their shafts show pilastering and are more bent forward than those of the European. In the legs, the tibia; of the Chinese are much more flattened laterally than those of the other skeleton, and the area1 of origin tibiales postici muscles are more pronounced. The distances, too, between the tibiae and fibula; are increased, and the relation between the length of right leg to right thigh is greater than in the European, the respective indices being 80 and 78. HEENIA OF THE (ESOPHAGEAL END OF THE STOMACH. By R. H. SPITTAL. The subject was an old female. A pouch of peritoneum was found extending up through the diaphragm along the lower end of the oesophagus for nearly H inches. It overlapped the oesophagus in front, on the left side, and partly behind, i.e., for rather more than half its circumference. This pouch was mostly in relation with the left parietal pleura, but a small portion in front was in relation with the pericardium. Just beneath the diaphragm the stomach showed a distinct bulging, bounded below by a well-marked constriction. When the stomach was dis- tended with water this bulging rose up and filled the pouch. On slitting open the viscus the circular muscle fibres of the oesophagus were seen to terminate at the level of the diaphragm, so that it was PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND AN Til KOl'OU Mill 'Al. without doubt a case of a hernia of the stomach and not a dilatation of the lower end of the oesophagus. The stomach itself was very small, and a very distinct hour-glass contraction of the muscular coat wa* evident about the middle of the viscus. The lumen of the pyloric orifice was extremely narrow, and it was surrounded by a distinct thickened ring of tissue. On micro- scopic examination this thickening was found to consist of involuntary muscular fibre. These appearances were probably due to formalin preservative fixation. A branch of the diaphragmatic artery curved in front of the opening in the diaphragm. The height of the diaphragm was normal. In the right mammary line it reached the upper border of the fifth rib, and on the left side it reached the fifth intercostal space. ON THE CONTENTS OF SHOET CISTS FOUND TN ABERDEEN- SHIRE AND NEIGHBOURING COUNTIES. By ALEX. Low, M.A., M.B., C.M., Senior Assistant to the Professor of Anatomy and Lecturer on Embryology, University of Aberdeen. (With Plates l.-V.) There is preserved in the Anatomical Museum of Aberdeen University a valuable series of the contents of short cists. By the kind permission of Professor Reid it has been my privilege to examine these and thus obtain information especially as to the physical characters of the builders of these short cists in this part of the country. The cists have been from time to time unearthed in Aberdeen- shire and neighbouring counties, and their contents as presented to the Anatomical Museum have been carefully preserved, each set in its own glass case. Beyond the site and date of discovery, we are able to give little further data about most of the cists themselves. As to the contents of the cists, while the record of these is fairly complete, there may in some cases have been implements of stone or Hint that have not been presented along with the skeletal remains. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN*. 9 We now proceed to describe in detail the contents of the cists as preserved in the museum. 1. PAKKHMJ, SHORT CIST (a). 1 " Contents of short cist found at Parkhill railway cutting in 1SH7." Besides the skeleton of an adult male in a fairly good state of preservation, this cist contained a complete urn of the " drinking- vessel " type. Covering the bones was a thin layer of a matted substance which, on examination, proved to be largely made up of hair. The skeleton had probably been covered by an ox-hide. SKULL. — The skull, excepting the /ygomatic arches, is practically complete, and is that of an individual beyond middle life, the sutures being partly obliterated and the upper jaw almost eden- tulous. Though the muscular markings are not strong, and the mastoid processes small, the characters as a whole indicate that the skull is that of a male. The cranium is fairly large, with a capacity of 1,450 c.c. of mustard seed, which has been used for taking the capacity on account of the fragile state of the bones. Norma Verticalix (Plate II., Fig. 1). — The cranium is broadly ovoid, the transverse diameter being so great as to give it a rounded and markedly brachycephalic appearance. The cranial index is 85. There is flattening behind the bregma with a gentle slope out to the parietal eminences. The glabella and supraorbital ridges enter into this view, while the zygomatic arches are concealed. Norma Lat<>r«lix (Plate II., Fig. 2). — The nasion is somewhat depressed and the glabella and supraorbital ridges fairly prominent. The vault is high, rising up in the frontal region with a uniform steep curve to the bregma ; behind this there is some flattening and then the postero-parietal passes down with a similar sharp curve to the lambda. At the lambda there is a distinct step produced by the occipital jutting backwards. However, as a whole the occipital pole does not project. Nornin Orcipitili* (Plate II., Fig. 3). — The outline of this view 1 Museum label, 2 10 I'ROCKKDINtiS UK THE ANATOMICAL AM) ANTHROPOLOGICAL approaches the pentagonal. The greatest width is high up on the parietal, the sides of the skull below this being Hat and tending some- what inwards— Cleland's "ill-filled" type of cranium. The parieto- occipital suture is very elaborate, and in it is a chain of no less than twelve distinct Wormian bones. The Wormian bones really form a strip 12 mm. broad from asterion to asterion. The three largest Wormian bones each measure to mm. long by 1*2 mm. broad, one of these being at the lambda in the middle line. \nrniii /<'/•<>/nim liM l< 'A 1. AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL MONKS UK TKIAK. There arc several vertebra- mostly uiiich broken. The body of the fourth lumbar vertebra is intact and is much deeper in front than behind, being 2t> mm. in depth in front and :>."> mm. behind. The last lumbar vertebra is much broken. The base of the sacrum measures TJ4 mm. in its transverse diameter, MONKS oi- KxTitK.MiTiEs. — The shaft of the right clavicle is slender and comparatively straight. Pieces of the shafts of the humeri in- dicate stout bones with well-developed muscular impressions. I loth femora are complete and are muscular-looking bones of an average length, and in appearance differ little from that of modern bones. These bones then belonged to a brachycephalic male with a calculated stature of about ."> feet 7 inches. 3. STONEVWOOD SHOKT CIST. 1 " Contents of short cist found at Stoneywood in 1866." There have been preserved from this cist the bones of a male skeleton, a good deal broken, and a complete urn of the " drinking- vessel " type. SKULL. — The skull is incomplete, the parietal region on the right side being broken and the right half of the lower jaw wanting. The skull is that of a male, though it is rather delicate and has its muscular impressions faintly developed. The cranium has an ap- proximate capacity of about 1,420 c.c. of mustard seed. \orin« \r<>rtic. The nasal aperture has a breadth so great as to be almost platy- rhine. BONES OF TRUNK. — There are the bodies of two dorsal vertebrae and an almost complete last lumbar vertebra, the anterior vertical diameter of which is 28 mm. and the posterior diameter 22 mm. The base of the sacrum measures 120 mm. across. BONES OF EXTREMITIES. — The right humerus is broken but the left is quite complete. The head of the bone is large and globular with well-developed tuberosities. The whole bone is rather stout but very short, its total length being only 297 mm. Both radii are intact and are also short well-marked bones : they have the usual relative proportion to length of humerus. The right femur is broken but the left is almost complete ; it is a very short bone with a maximum length of 42:3 mm. There is also part of the shaft of a left tibia, which shows a marked degree of platycnemia. This skeleton would have belonged to a male with a high and extremely broad head, narrow orbits and broad nose. The stature as calculated from the femur would have been only just 5 feet 1 inch. 4. PERSLEY SHOUT CIST. 1 " Contents of short cist found at Persley Quarry in 18t5H." This cist contained the skeleton of a male, an urn of the " drink- ing-vessel " type and two Hint knives or scrapers. SKULL. — The left side of the calvaria is wanting in a line near 1 Museum label. 11 l'i;o('KKI)IN(.iS OF TlfK ANATOMICAL AND AN I II Kol'OI.Ol il( 'A I. to and almost parallel with the sagittal suture ; however, the supra- orbital margins on both sides and the foramen magnum are intact. The skull has distinctly the characteristics of a male. The cranial capacity is approximately 1,.~>ital ridges and external angular processes enter into this view, and certainly the /ygomata had they been entire would have been concealed. The vertex is 3f> mm. behind the hregma, and from this point the surfaces of the skull descend uniformly and rapidly in all directions. The maxi- mum breadth is well down the parietals. The breadth is relatively great, the cranial index being 85' 1. NoriiiK LatiTnli* (Plate IV., Fig. 1). — This view is very striking on account of its apparent great height. The real height is, however, diminished by the rapid way in which the occipital bone shelves in- wards and forwards below the inion. The supraorbital ridges are prominent and overhanging. The outline of this view is high and so rounded as to form practically the segment of a circle. The parietal arc in this skull is 14 mm. longer than the frontal arc. Xoritui QecipitaKs. — The parietal eminences are well out and be- low them the lateral walls of the skull widen slightly as they descend toward the mastoids, so that the greatest breadth is near the squamous sutures. Nonnn l^icialis. — The brows are beetling and the face wide and square-looking. The malar bones are not prominent. The gnathic index is low, being only 90'6. The orbits are microseme and the nasal aperture is almost broad enough to be reckoned platyrhine. Norma lidxil/irix. — The foramen magnum is rounded and the anterior ends of the occipital condyles are far apart. The palato-max- illary index is 107 "(5. The other bones of this skeleton are much broken. The hyoid bone is complete and is a delicate well-marked bone. There is also an ala of the thyroid cartilage almost completely ossified. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 15 The left clavicle is the only other complete bone and measures 14:2 nun. long. It is a very straight bone with a large flat surface for the origin of the pectoralis muscle. The femora and tibia,' are too much broken to permit of length measurements — however, one from trochanter to condyle measures the same as that of the femur of the Pai khill (it) skeleton, and hence the individual to whom it belonged was probably not more than 5 feet '2 inches in stature. 5. CLINTEUTY SHOUT CIST. ' " Part of contents of short cist found at Clinterty, Kinellar, Aberdeenshire, September, 1897. Presented by Mr. Godsman, Clinterty." The contents consist of parts of a male skeleton, an urn of the " drinking- vessel " type and a bone ring. The cist also contained flint arrow heads, a small flint axe or borer and charred wood ; these were not obtained for the museum. SKULL. — The skull is much broken and hence only a limited num- ber of measurements can be taken. The skull is that of a male and is bracliycephalic, the cranial index being 84'3. The horizontal circum- ference is approximately 528 mm. The nasal depression and the glabella are fairly well developed. The frontal arc is slightly longer than the parietal arc ; still the bregma is well forward, the frontal arc being high. The norma verticalis is broadly oval and the zygomatic arches are hid from view. The norma occipitalis has a distinctly " ill-filled " appearance. The nasal aperture is relatively wide, the nasal index approaching the platyrhine group. The orbital margins are destroyed and do not admit of measurement. The symphysis of the lower jaw projects well forward and the teeth are much worn. The first four cervical vertebrae are intact. The upper articular facets on the atlas have their long axes more antero-posterior than 1 Museum label, ic> |'I;OCKKI>IN<;S OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTIFKOI'OLO<;ICAL usual. The last lumbar vertebra is (! mm. less in vertical depth behind than in front. BONKS OK KXTKKMITIKS. — The right humerns is rather short but muscular-looking and somewhat bowed out at the deltoid impression. The right and left radii are intact but present no peculiarity. The radio-humeral index is low, being only 71. The right femur is short, shows a distinct third trochanter and a prominent linea aspera. A piece of the shaft of the right tibia shows very distinct platy- cnemia. The stature as calculated from the femur would have been f> feet 1 inch. 6. TYRIE SHOUT CIST («). '"Skull from Boyndie, Tyrie, presented by Mrs. Ogilvie Forbes of Boyndie. The skull was found in a rude cist formed of slabs. The body had been laid on its left side, with knees bent and head to the north-east." From this cist there has been preserved the skull only. It is quite complete except for a small part of the parietal of the left side. The skull is that of a male with the coronal and sagittal sutures ossified. The cranial capacity is large, being approximately 1,580 c.c. \oriiui Vertimlis (Plate III., Fig. 4). — This view is broadly oval, bulging in the Stephanie region. The supraorbital ridges and glabella are seen and there is very distinct " keeling " along the sagittal suture. The breadth is relatively great so that the cranial index is high, the cranium being brachycephalic. Norma Lute ni It* (Plate III., Fig. 3). — The glabella and supra- orbital margins are prominent, with distinct hollowing at the ophryon. The parietal is flattened above and the postero-parietal passes very sharply downwards, so that there is no projection of the occipital pole. This skull is longer than the other skulls described, and this lengthening has taken place in the parietal region. 1 Museum label. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 17 Xor>ii<( Oc<-i i >}t). — This view is distinctly pentagonal in outline. The greatest breadth is well up on the pari- etal bones, and the sides of the cranium below this are flattened, giving an " ill-filled " appearance. Nor mi i /<''((•/(///' # (Plate III., Fig. <>). — The face is very broad, with the chin protuberant and sloping forwards ; however, there is no actual prognathism— the gnathic index is only 90-4. The malar emin- ences are not prominent. As only the skull has been preserved no estimate can be formed of the stature. 7. ARDOE SHOI;T CIST. 1 " Skull and bones found in a short cist at Ardoe, Kincardine- shire. Presented by A. M. Ogston, Esq." SKULL. — The face and base of the skull are a good deal broken, so that the cubic capacity cannot be obtained. The skull is that of a male with fairly prominent supraorbital ridges. The noniiu rcrtictilis is broadly oval with brachycephalic propor- tions, the cranial index being 82-8. The vertex is rather flattened and lengthened from bregma to obelion. The iiornHt owipittili* is of the " ill-filled " type, being of penta- gonal outline with the parietal eminences high up and the, maximum diameter here. The face of this skull is quite destroyed. The other bones of the skeleton are too fragmentary to admit of any measurements being taken, and hence no estimate of stature can be formed. 8. AUCHINDOIU SHORT CIST. 1 " Contents of short cist found at Ord, Auchindoir, in 1857. Presented by the liev. William lieid, minister of Auchindoir." Besides a very beautiful and almost complete male skeleton, this cist contained an urn of the " drinking-vessel " type. 1 Museum label. 3 IS 1'KOCKKIMNcs oh' T1IK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL SKUU,.— The sagittal suture and the lower parts of the coronal suture arc obliterated. The cubic capacity is l,3nO c.c., so that the skull can just he reckoned inesocephalic. .\nnini I 'rrfii-H/i* (Plate III., Fig. 1). — This view forms an ex- tremely broad ovoid, narrowed in front and widening out rapidly towards the region of the parietal eminences. There is slight flatten- ing of the parietals with a tendency to "keeling". The cranium is hyper-brarlu cephalic, with a cranial index of Sf>. .\iirnni Lulci-'ili*. —The glabella has been broken, exposing two large frontal sinuses. There is slight hollowing at the ophryon, and then the frontal ascends with a uniform and high curve. Behind the obelion there is a sudden flattening of the postero-parietal region. There is no projection of the occipital pole. The skull is extremely high, the vertical index being 81 '4. XODIKI ()(•<•} i>'ii (ill*. — The outline of this view is a broad pentagon with rounded angles. The parietal eminences are high up and the maximum breadth is between these. The skull is of the " ill-filled " type. XODIKI l''«riiit«li*. -This is somewhat square-looking, with the upper lateral angles gently rounded off and formed by the parietal eminences. The sides of the cranium slope slightly inwards below. BONES OF TKUNK. — There are pieces of three lumbar vertebra) and a complete last lumbar vertebra. This has an anterior vertical diameter 6 mm. greater than the posterior vertical diameter. The sacrum is complete except that the last piece is broken off. The transverse diameter of its base is 10S. It is peculiar in that it is not curved but is quite flat and ape-like. The pelvic brim is fairly complete and admits of its diameters being taken approximately. It is quite rounded, the transverse and conjugate diameters being the same, 114 mm. approximately. BONES OF EXTREMITIES. — Both humeri are preserved and are short slender bones with a somewhat sinuous appearance. The radius and ulna are also slender bones. The ulna shows a uniform curve backwards in its upper third, while the articular facet for the radius on its lower end looks forwards instead of outwards — the two bones seeming to have been naturally in a position of semipronation. Both femora are complete, and are slender short bones with the upper half of each shaft thrown well out. The tibia- show some flattening of their shafts and the heads are distinctly recurved, so that both articular surfaces look a good deal backwards ; the surface for the inner condyle is distinctly convex from before backwards. The femoro-tibial index is nearly the same as that for the modern European. The stature as calculated from the long bones could not have been more than 5 feet. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. '21 10. TYKIK SHORT CIST (ft). 1 " Skull and 1 tones found in a short cist at Boyndie, Tyrie." SKULL. — The skull is much broken, all that part of cranium an inch to the right of the middle line being quite gone. The left half of face and nasal aperture are fairly complete. The skull is evidently that of a female ; the orbital margins are fine, the supraorbital ridges poorly developed and the muscular mark- ings slight. The left half of the horizontal circumference can be taken, and by doubling this we get an approximate horizontal cranial circumference of 480 mm. Noniut Vertirii/i*. — This view is broadly oval and the glabella is seen while the zygomata are concealed. The vault is almost uni- formly convex, the highest point being just behind the bregma. There is slight "keeling" and the parietal eminences are high up and well forward. The cranial index is 87 "2. Xormn Lntcm/i*. — The glabella is smooth and rounded and the frontal is steep. The outline from nasion to inion, as seen from the side, closely corresponds to the segment of a circle with its centre above and in front of the external auditory meatus. There is no projection of the occipital pole. Xoniia FacAalis. — The face is broad, especially above. The gnathic index is 96 '9. The outer angles of the orbits are receding and the orbits are microseme. The nasal aperture is almost platy- rhine. Normit Orripitnlix. — This is pentagonal in outline with the parietal eminences high up and the greatest breadth between these points. A few pieces of the bones of the extremities are preserved, but they are too much broken to admit of measurement, and hence no estimate can be made of the stature. 1 Museum label. 2-2 PROCKKDIMiS OF ANATOMICAL AND ANTHKOPOMHJK'AL SOCIETY. 11. Drums SHOUT C'ISTS. 1 " Part of contents of three short cists found ;it Balbridie, 1 )iii-ris, in 1S9I5. Presented by Mr. James Smith, Crathes." The bones preserved in the museum arc too much broken to admit of any measurements being taken. There is part of the body of the lower jaw with the teeth well preserved and little worn. The pieces of the extremity bones indicate rather small and delicate bones. Two complete urns of the " drinking-vessel " type were found in these cists and are now preserved at Durris House. Full notes as to these cists were taken by Mr. James Smith, C'rathes, at the time of their discovery. Mr. Smith has kindly given us a copy of these notes, to which we will refer later in speaking of the structure of short cists. GENEKAL SUEVEY OF THE CHABACTEES OF THE SKELETONS. Since this paper was read to the society, Principal Sir William Turner has issued in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin- burgh an important memoir entitled a " Contribution to the Craniology of the People of Scotland". This memoir deals in detail with the measurements and characters of Scottish skulls as seen in the people of modern times. In our survey of the characters of the short cist skulls we shall make use of Turner's measurements for purposes of comparison. Hence when we speak of the modern Scottish skull it is to be understood that the figures are obtained from Turner's memoir. However, it is to be noted that the majority of these measurements have been made on skulls from Lowland Scotland, hence we have also recorded the measurements of three modern male skulls contained in the Anatomical Museum and which belonged to natives of Aberdeenshire. 1 Museum label. TABLE I.— DETAILED MEASUKEMENTS OF SKULLS. SKULLS KHOM SHORT CISTS. MODKRN SKULLS FROM ABERDBBNSHIHE. (1) (2) (3) (4) (6) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Native Native Park- hill. Park- Mll. Stoney- worxl. Parsley. ('linterty. Tyrie. Anloe. Aucliin- doir. Foveran. Tyriu. of Auchter- .N Jitivii of of Olclnu-1- (a). (b). (H). (b). luss. Ski'itc. ilrniii. Ssx- M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. F. F. M. M. If. Cubic capacity - 1450 1420 «p. L500op. 1580 ap. 1350,,,,. 1460 ap. 1525 1510 L760 Glabello-occipital length - 180 183 169 188 185 185 186 167 172 172 189 18(> 199 Ophryo-occipital length 178 180 169 184 182 183 184 162 174 169 185 187 198 Nasio-inioual length - 171 180 162 173 174 179 180 162 167 168 171 181 181 Basi-bregmatic height - 135 148 up. 133 146 138 144 135 ap. 136 — 128 188 131 135 ]'rflieiil null i1 - - - ffi. 80-9 78-7 77-7 74-6 77-8 72-6 81-4 — 74-4 73- 70-4 67-8 Minimum frontal diameter 102 — 100 100 102 99 95 91 102 96 ap. 98 107 106 Stephanie diameter - : 115 — 120 ap. 136 ap. 120 ap. 124 125 108 118 128 <,'p. 115 123 120 Asteriouic diameter - 137 — 110 120 up. 115 125 110 113 107 106 up. 112 116 118 Maximum breadth 153 160 ap. 156 up. 160 up. 156 ap. ; 150 ap. 154 142 135 150 ap. 139 148 154 I'nniiiil index , 85- ; 87 '4 92-3 85-1 84-3 81-1 82-8 85- 78-5 87-2 73-5 79-5 77-3 Horizontal circumference - .V24 — 510 up. 540 528 : 548 532 ap. 494 500 502 524 534 575 Frontal longitudinal arc - 135 132 128 132 143 I 126 130 123 128 127 130 130 136 Parietal longitudinal arc - J 25 118 120 148 140 140 130 120 122 110 140 112 140 Occipital longitudinal arc - ; 100 — 111 117 110 120 122 — 105 116 114 128 120 Nasio-inional longitudinal arc .... 310 354 308 345 336 330 329 296 303 299 332 312 350 Inion-opisthionic long! t u - dinal arc 50 — 51 52 57 56 53 53 52 54 52 58 46 Total longitudinal arc 360 — 359 397 393 386 382 — . 355 353 384 370 396 Base line - 137 — 131 135 138 140 143 — 125 136 135 140 144 Proportion of vault to base 2-62 — 2-74 2-94 2-84 2-75 2-67 — 2-84 2-59 2-83 2-64 2-75 Proportion of nasio-iniunal arctonasio-inional length 1-81 1-96 1-90 1-99 1-93 1-84 1-82 1-82 1-81 1-77 1-94 1-72 1-93 Sagittal circumference 500 491 531 528 528 — — 488 521 511 541 Vertical transverse arc 327 — 300 336 ap. 336 ap. 310 ap. 330 306 300 up. 304 up. 305 324 328 Biauricular diameter 131 124 130 ap. 130 ap. 128 — 128 120 ap. 124 ap. 121 129 129 Auriculo-bregrnatic radius 132 12(i 142 137 132 138 127 117 126 107 110 133 Auriculo-uasal radius 110 — 106 108 — 110 112 111 — 108 125 129 113 Transverse circumference - 458 — 424 466 466 438 — 434 420 428 426 453 457 Foramen magnum length - 36 — 37 38 37 38 — — — 38 36 37 40 Basi-nasal length 104 100 ap. 95 96 98 104 — 100 — 97 101 104 105 Basi-alveolar length - 98 92 87 87 — 94 — 97 — 94 98 102 — iliinthii- index --- 94-2 92- 91-6 90-6 — 90-4 — 97- — 96-9 96-9 98- — Inter-zygomatic breadth - 142 — 126 ap. 140 — 137 — 136 — 130 up. 129 140 142 Inter-malar breadth - 115 — 114 ap. 110 — 117 — 114 — 112 ap. 118 119 116 Inter-dachryonic breadth - 21 — 22 22 22 23 — 21 — 24 24 26 25 Nasio-mental length - 108 122 107 110 — 122 — 108 — — 132 131 — l_'n ni ill i-ll' furiill 'nnlr.f - 76- 84-9 78-5 — 89- — 79-4 — — 102-3 93-5 — Nasio-alveolar length 64 80 64 67 — 72 — 67 — 68 75 81 — 1 '/'/"''' fui'illl illili-.i- 45- 53-9 47-8 52-5 — 49-2 _ 52-3 58-1 57-8 — Nasal height - ' - 48 53 ap. 48 48 55 53 — 50 — 48 52 61 — Nasal width ... 23 25 25 25 28 26 — 24 — 25 23 27 — A a*iil itidez . _ _ 47-9 47-2 52-1 52-1 50-9 49-1 — 48 — 52-1 44-2 44-2 — Orbital width - 41 40 44 41 40 40 40 38 39 Orbital height - 33 30 32 31 — 31 — 33 33 34 36 Urliilttl i lulu- - 80-5 75- 72-7 75-6 77-5 82-5 82-5 89-4 92-3 Palato-alveolar length 51 56 51 52 — 50 — 55 — 50 53 57 — Palato-alveolar breadth 55 64 61 56 65 — 66 — 62 61 62 — I'llllttul il/dl'X - - - 107-7 114-2 119-6 107-6 — 130- — 120- — 124- 115- 108-7 — Mi-uxiin an »/x nf /,owr .Ian'. Symphysial height - 30 28 30 30 . 32 31 38 36 26 Coronoid height 59 50 63 63 66 — 60 62 M 67 65 Condyloid height 58 . 48 54 64 68 59 — 66 52 60 62 Gonio-symphysial length - 90 83 91 90 98 — 98 83 — 91 92 91 Bicondyloid width - 127 113 123 110 ap. 133 — 121 — — 121 121 126 Bigonial width - 101 96 107 112 112 — — 102 95 105 Breadth of ascending ramus 37 33 33 36 35 37 29 34 32 36 33 Condylo-symphysial length Condylo-coronoid width - 108 44 — 112 39 98 38 106 43 108 40 — 106 44 — 120 34 108 35 102 33 Mandibular indi-.i- 85- 991 79-6 96-3 81-2 87-6 — 99-1 89-2 80-8 Coronoid index - 40-7 — 34-8 38-7 40-5 37" — 41-5 — 7~ 28-3 32-4 32-3 •24 I'KOCEKDIXOS OF TIIK ANATOMICAL AND AN I'll KOl'OLOGIC'AL SKILLS. ( 'iili'n- (1« /mi-it /i. ( hving to the fragile condition of the skulls the capacity was taken with mustard seed. Six of the crania were in a sufficiently good state of preservation to admit of the internal capacity being taken fairly accurately. The maximum capacity in five male skulls is l,i)8() c.c., the minimum is 1 ,420 c.c. and the mean is 1, 400 c.c. One female skull has a capacity of l,4GO c.c. Turner -jives 1,478 c.c. as the mean capacity of seventy-three modern Scottish male skulls, and 1 ,:>'J2 c.c. as the mean of forty-two female skulls. So that the capa- city of the short cist skulls does not fall much short of that of the average modern Scottish skull. On the other hand the mean capa- city of three modern male skulls of natives of Aberdeenshire is 1,~>9f> c.c. — a distinct increase. Lciitftli. — The mean glabello-occipital length of eight male skulls is 180'3 mm., and of two female skulls 17- mm. Both these measure- ments are distinctly less than the corresponding measurements of modern Scottish skulls. ll<'i2:> In all the crania the maximum breadth lies above the parieto- squamous suture. In all the skulls the Stephanie diameter is greater than the minimum frontal diameter, as is also the asterionic diameter. Cranial Index. — In the eight male skulls this index ranges from sri to 92-3, with a mean of 85'3. The mean index for the two female skulls is 82-8. The corresponding indices for modern Scottish skulls are 77 '4 and 77 "2 respectively. Turner ' has given statistics of seventeen Bronze Age skulls — the average cranial index of twelve skulls was SI -4, while in other five it was 74. So far we cannot find a record of a Scottish cranium with a cranial index so high as 92-3. All the cist skulls are brachycephalic, with the exception of one female skull, and of the ten skulls six are hyperbrachyeephalic. Horizontal Circumference. — -The range of variation in this measure- ment is remarkably small — the mean horizontal circumference for seven male skulls is 52;V1 mm., and for two female skulls 501 mm. The corresponding measurements for modern Scottish skulls are 531 mm. and 506 mm. Total Stxj it-till- Circuinfeiwice.—In five male skulls this varies from 491 mm. to 531, the average being 515-6 mm. ; in one female skull this measurement is 488 mm. These measurements are almost identical with the corresponding measurements of modern Scottish skulls. In five out of the eight male skulls the frontal arc is longer than the parietal arc ; in the two female skulls the frontal arc is also the longer. In all the skulls the occipital arc is distinctly shorter than the frontal arc. The average length of the occipital arc for six male skulls is 113'3 mm., and for two female skulls 110'5 mm. On comparing these measurements with those of the three modern Aberdeenshire skulls in the museum, we note that while the lengths of the frontal and parietal arcs are much the same, the occipital arcs are, on an average, 7 mm. longer in the modern skull ; further, this difference in the length of the occipital arc takes place in that part of 1 Eoyal Institution Lecture, Nature, 6th and 13th Jan., 1898, 4 '20 PROCKEDIXC.S OF THK ANATOMICAL ANU ANTHBOPOLOGICAL the arc that lies between the lambda and inion. Thus the arc from lambda to inion is distinctly less developed in the short cist skulls. In six male skulls the proportion of the base line to the sagittal arc is as 1 to 27(5, and in two female skulls as 1 to 271. Turner gives the average relation for a series of seventeen modern Scottish male skulls as 1 to 2'8. In the cist skulls there is thus a larger proportion of base line to sagittal arc. Tniiinrcrtti' Ciri-Mmfcri'in-c. — The average for six male skulls is 447'6 mm., and for two female 424 mm. The corresponding figures for modern Scottish skulls are 434 mm. and 409'6 mm. respectively. Foramen Mii«l Index. — The width of the orbit was measured from the dacryon to the most distant point on the edge of the outer border of the orbit. The index in five males averages 76'2, and in one female skull it is 82'5. The orbits in all are distinctly microseme, much more so than those of modern Scottish skulls, which have a mean index of 86 -4. SOCIETY OK THK I'NIVKRSITY OF ABERDEEN. 27 Lower Juir. — Six male lower jaws arc sufficiently well preserved to admit of measurement. These jaws are well developed but not large and muscular looking — some specimens are rather delicate in appearance. The symphysial height ranges from 28 to 3*2 mm., not less than in dolichocephalic- skulls. While the condyloid height is about the average, the coronoid height is rather short. While the bicondyloid width is about the average the bigonial width is relatively greater — the jaws being short and wide. The coronoid index varies from 34'8 to 41 -5, and on the whole is larger than in modern skulls. TABLE II. — CONTRASTING PRINCIPAL MEASUREMENTS OF SHORT CIST SKULLS WITH THOSE OF MODERN SCOTTISH SKULLS. Short Cist Modern. Aberdeen- shire. Scottish. Sex - Females (2) Males (8) Males (3) Females Males Cubic capacity - 1460 1460 1595 1322 1478 Glabello-occipital length 172 180-3 191-3 178-7 186-6 Ophryo-occipital length 171-5 177-7 190 — — Basi-bregmatic height - 128 139-3 134-6 126 132-4 Vertical index 74-4 77-3 70- 70-5 70-9 Maximum breadth 142-5 153-8 147 138 149-3 Cranial index - 82-8 85-3 76-7 77-2 77-4 Horizontal circumference - 501 525-1 544-3 506 531 Sagittal circumference 488 515-6 524-3 488-8 513-2 Transverse circumference - 424 447-G 445-3 ' 409-6 434 Basi-nasal length 97 99-5 103-3 95-3 101-4 Basi-alveolar length - 94 92-5 100 91 96 Gnathic index 96-9 92-6 97-4 94-8 94-5 Interzygomatic breadth Nasio-mental length - 130 136-2 112-8 137 131-5 121-5 108-8 132-2 120-7 Complete facial index - 81-5 97-9 87-8 92-3 Nasal height 48 50-7 56-5 49-9 53-5 Nasal width 25 25-1 25 22-1 23-1 Nasal index 52-1 49-6 44-2 44-4 38-9 Orbital width 40 41-2 39 37-4 39 Orbital height - 33 31-4 34-3 33 34 Orbital index - - - 82-5 76-2 88- 84-6 87-2 Palato-alveolar length - 50 52-5 55 51 55-6 Palato-alveolar breadth 62 61-1 61-5 58-3 60-9 Palatal index 124 116-5 111-8 109-8 113- •2S l>H()('KF.|)IX(is OK THK ANATOMICAL AND ANTII UOl'OUKiH'AI. BONKS OK TitiNKs AND EXTKKMITIKS. }'<>i-t<'lini>. In most of the cists a number of vertebra- are pre- served. The only peculiarity noted is in connection with the lumbar vertebrae, In one case the lumbar vertebra- are all preserved, and the vertical diameters of the bodies are as follows :— Anterior vertical diameter Posterior rf.rt.ical diameter Ll. L2. L3. L4. L5. Total. 29 30 30 28 30 = 147 mm. 30 31 31 31 26 = 149?Hwt. The depth of the five lumbar bodies together is greater behind than the depth in front, while the last lumbar vertebra is the only one in which the anterior depth is markedly greater than the pos- terior. These are characteristics of the lumbar spine in the dark races of man. Unfortunately in this one ease only is there a complete series of lumbar vertebra), but in five cists the last lumbar vertebra is pre- served so as to admit of the diameters of its body being taken as in the following table. VEETICAL DIAMETERS IN MM. OF LAST LUMBAR VERTEBRAE. Skeleton. Parkhill. (a) l-arkhill. (6) Stoneywood. Clinterty. Poveran. Sex Male Male Male Male Female Anterior vertical diameter of vertebra 30 30 28 29 30 Posterior vertical diameter of vertebra 26 25 22 23 24 Index of fifth lumbar ver- tebra 86-6 83-3 78-5 79 '3 80- In these five last lumbar vertebra* there is an average difference of i>-4 mm. between the anterior and posterior vertical diameters, a difference distinctly greater than what obtains in the average modern SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 29 European. The mean index for the last lumbar vertebra; is HI -5, an index a good deal lower than usual. Sacrum. — There is no quite complete specimen of a sacrum. One female sacrum, which only wants the fifth piece, is remarkably flat and ape-like in appearance. The base of the sacrum in four males has an average transverse diameter of 122-7 mm., while in two females this diameter averages 107 -5 mm. The jtclrw bones are too fragmentary to admit of measurement. Clariclv. — There are two clavicles, a right and a left, and both male 1 tones. They measure 155 and 142 mm. respectively. They are comparatively slender bones, remarkably straight and with a large flat surface for the origin of the pectoralis major muscle. HtniH-rtix. Eight bones in all are preserved, six male and two female. The shortest bone measures 297 mm. and the longest 335 mm. They are short stout bones with well-marked deltoid impres- sions. BoiH'x <>/' Fnrcnrni. — There are seven radii. The average maximum length of six male bones is 232'1 mm., while one female bone meas- ures 228 mm. Two male ulnae average 254 mm. and a female bone measures 251 mm. in length. The radio-humeral index ranges from 71 to 751. The average index is 74'1, practically that of the modern European. Femur. — The average length of six male bones is 450-6 mm. The longest male bone measures 472 and the shortest female bone measures only 408 mm. The average platymeric index is 77 "1 and the average pilasteric index is 104 'D. Tibia. — Its maximum length varies from 356 to 327 mm. The condylar surface on the external tuberosity is in most cases distinctly convex from before back, and at the same time the head of the tibia is somewhat retroverted. There is a marked degree of platycnemia in the majority of the male bones, but not so marked in the female pair. Fibula. — The fibuhe are mostly broken, only pieces of the shaft remaining. There are three male bones intact, and these show PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AM) ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANT- SURF- External surface. (Peronei.) External border. Interosseus ridge. Anterior surface. (Extensors of toes.) Anterior border. txr- SURF- POST- SURF- I'm. 2 — Transverse section through the middle of the shaft of a modern European fibula (natural size). POST SuRF Subcutaneous area. Fir,. 3. — Transverse section through the middle of the shaft of the fibula from the Auchindoir short cist (natural s\s.e). FIG. 1.— Right fibula, from before. (Reduced one half.) From Auchindoir short cist. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 31 remarkable fluting of the shaft ; this is especially well seen in the fibula? of the Auehindoir skeleton (Figs. 1 and 3). A section across the middle of the shaft of this bone measures li> mm. in its antero- posterior diameter and _>0 mm. in its transverse diameter. The anterior border is a projecting ridge bounding a large hollow " per- oneal" surface, looking more forwards than usual. Again, on the posterior aspect of the shaft the surface for the flexor longus hallucis is very extensive. Stut lire. — The stature can be estimated with a fair degree of accuracy in six male skeletons and in one female skeleton. In the males the stature is mostly very low ; the average for the six is about 5 feet 3 inches, while the female must have been barely 5 feet. TABLE III.— MEASUREMENTS IN MM. OF BONES OF EXTEEMITIES. Parkhill (a). Parkhill (6). Stoneywood. Clintcrty. Auehindoir. Foveran. Sex - Male Male Male Male Male Female Side - E. L. E. L. E. L. E. L. E. L. E. L. Humerus - 310 — 335 — 297 321 — 322 323 304 307 Ulna - - 252 — — — — — — 256 — — 251 — Eadius 233 — — — 227 222 228 — 241 242 228 — Radio-humeral Index • 75-1 — — — — 74-7 71- — 74-8 74-9 75- — Femur : — Maximum length — . — 463 472 — 423 422 — 458 466 408 415 Oblique length - — — 450 457 — 420 420 — 456 463 400 405 Upper tliird of shaft : — Ant. post. diam. 27 25 27 27 24 25 27 28 25 26 22 22 Trans, diam. - 36 34 34 33 32 31 34 34 32 34 30 31 Middle of shaft : — Ant. post. diam. 29 29 30 29 26 26 28 31 30 31 23 24 Trans, diam. - 27 25 ! 28 28 27 25 28 29 28 28 23 24 riattj-mcria index 75 73-5 79-4 81-8 75 80-6 79-4 82-3 78-1 76-4 73-3 70-9 Pilasteric index - 107-4 116- ! 107-1 103-5 96-2 104 100 106-8 107-1 110-7 100 100 Tibia : — Maximum length - : 327 — — — — _ — — 356 354 330 328 Condylar-astragaloid length • 323 — — — — — — — 340 344 321 324 Ant. post. diam. 35 34 37 — — 35 38 — 38 38 28 28 Trans, diam. 21 20 22 — — 24 23 28 27 21 21 I'/ntycnem'ic index 60- 58-8 59-4 — 68-5 65-2 — 73-6 71- 75 75 Femoro-tibial index — — — — i 74-5 74-3 80-2 80- Fibula 330 — — — — — — 347 352 — — 3'J PROCKKDINUS OF THK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL STKUtTrKK OF THK ClSTS. The Durris cists may be taken as examples showing the structural characters of these short cists. Notes of these cists were taken by Mr. James Smith, Crathes, at the time of their discovery, and we are indebted to him for the following particulars. Three cists were unearthed in a natural mound ; the cists lay with their long axes from east to west. Cist No. 1 was built of four large Hat stones and completely covered over with a fifth. The cist was nearly full of fine sand, and in this was found parts of a skeleton and an urn. The urn was found in the north-east corner of the cist and was full of fine sand. Amongst the fine sand in the cist were found pieces of charred wood. Cist No. '2 (Plate I.) had its sides formed of five flat stones instead of four, the western end of the cist being formed by two stones meet- ing at an angle. The length of the cist measured to the apex of the angle was 58 inches, the width of the broad end was 28 inches and at the base of the angle 17 inches, while the depth of the cist was 24 inches. The cist contained, besides parts of bones, fragments of two urns, one at the apex of the cist and the other at the south-east corner. There were also found in the cist fragments of charred wood. Cist No. 3 was oblong and measured 30^ inches long, 2l£ inches wide and 24 inches deep. Besides fragments of bones the cist con- tained some charred wood and an urn. The other cists so far as recorded had much the same structural features. POTTERY. There are records of urns having been present in eight out of thirteen cists. There may have been fragments of urns in some of the cists, but there are no records of such. Seven urns have been measured and photographed. The two urns from the Durris cists are preserved at Durris House, and we SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 33 have to thank H. R. Baird, Esq., for permission to measure and photograph these two urns. The following table gives the principal measurements of the urns : — MEASUEEMENTS IN MM. OF URNS FROM SHORT CISTS. Cist in which urn found Parkhill (a) Stoneywood Porslcy Clinterty Auchindoir Durris (a) Durris (6) Height - 174 133 155 199 199 163 150 Diameter at brim 142 133 143 135 154 131 142 Diameter at neck 117 115 118 123 130 111 124 Diameter at widest part 142 126 132 142 154 125 138 Diameter at base 80 71 79 85 100 73 83 The urns are all of a wonderfully uniform appearance and have the usual characters of urns of the " drinking-vessel " type, with thin everted lip, bulging sides and flat bottom (Plates IV. and V.). The ornamentation of these urns is made up of lines or dots which have been imprinted on the moist clay probably by means of a pointed piece of wood. These dots and lines are formed into patterns arranged in horizontal bands round the urn. In the simplest form of pattern horizontal lines and rows of dots alternate (Plate V., Fig. 2). Zigzag lines passing horizontally round are seen in several of the urns, while fringes of short diagonals and cross-hatchings are also present. IMPLEMENTS. The implements found in these cists were flint arrow heads, flint knives or scrapers, and in one cist a small flint borer was found along with flint arrow heads. There is no record of bronze in any form having been present in any of the cists. From the Persley cist two flint implements have been preserved, one shaped like a small spear head, the other knife-shaped. The first 5 3-1 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AM) ANTHROPOLOGICAL measures 2 inches long by 1} inches at its base ; the base is unvvorked while the other sides are chipped. The second measures '2 inches by 1 inch, and has one side thick while the other is chipped to an edge. One of the Durris cists also contained a Hake of Hint with one edge worked. A small bone ring was found in the Clinterty cist along with Hint arrow heads and a small flint borer. About one fourth of the cir- cumference of the ring is broken. Figs. 4 and f> give an idea of the appearance of the ring. FIG. 4. — Bone ring from the Clinterty FIG. 5. — Bone ring from the Clinterty short cist. Viewed from the side. short cist. Viewed from above. (Natural size.) (Natural size.) The external diameter of the ring is 29 mm. and its depth 16 mm. On its outer surface three shallow grooves pass right round. At one part the central groove is interrupted by a slight uprising of bone through which a hole has been drilled. The hole has been care- fully drilled, evidently first from one side and then the other half from the other side. The upper and lower borders of the ring are bevelled off internally, and across these borders are a series of lines about 1 mm. apart. CONCLUSION. From an examination of the contents of these short cists we find evidence of a people of low stature — not more than 5 feet 3 inches. Their skulls are high, round and very broad, the superciliary ridges and glabella moderately developed, the orbital margins fine, malar bones not prominent, face short and broad, lower jaw rather small [Photo, by Mr. James Smith, Crathes. Short Cist at Balbridie, Durris, Kincardineshire. PLATE I. Fig. I.— Parkhill (a). Fig. 2.— Parkhill (n). Fig. 3.— Parkhill (a). Fig. 4.— Parkhill ( l'K(M'KKI)]N(iS OK THK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL Discussion followed the various papers. The meeting closed with votes of thanks to Mr. Andrew and Mr. Smith. ; i A CASE OF HERNIA INTO THE FOSSA DUOPENO-JE.TUNALIS. By CHARLES T. ANDREW, B.Sc., M.B., Ch.B., Aberd., Junior Assistant to the Professor of Anatomy, Aberdeen University. This rare form of hernia was found in an old male subject in the dissecting room. When the abdominal wall was opened by a crucial incision in the course of dissection it was noticed that no small intestine was visible when the great omentum was thrown upwards ; also that there was a large empty cavity in the pelvis between the sacrum and the bladder. As the parietal peritoneum was reflected on to the fundus of the bladder 1| inches above the symphysis pubis I thought at first that the space was due to the fact that the bladder, prior to hardening in formalin, had been greatly dilated and so pushed the small intestine out of the pelvic cavity. There appeared also to be a large empty space under the left dome of the diaphragm of such dimensions that the closed fist could with ease be slipped under the costal margin, a thing which cannot be done when the subject has been hardened by formalin. In this space the whole of the gastric surface and anterior border of the spleen could be seen from the outside without first drawing the stomach to the left. The whole of the small intestine, with the exception of the lower 6 inches of ileum, lay in a large sac of peritoneum, which ran across the abdomen, lying in the epigastric, umbilical, left hypochondriac, and left lumbar regions. To the left the sac extended to the extreme left of the abdomen ; to the right as far as the margin of the right rectus muscle. Situated 1 inch above the bifurcation of the abdominal aorta, and slightly to the left of the mid-line, there was found a distinct semilunar-shaped opening 1 Upon further examination the hernia was found to lie in the para-duodenal fossa.— (B. W. REID). SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. H7 looking downwards and to the right towards the ciccum, from which it was distant about 2 inches. The free margin of this ring was thickened and fibrous and stood out very distinctly as it arched over the entering bowel. At the left margin the inferior mesenteric artery came off the aorta and the left colic branch ran forward and upward in the left cornu of the opening. The right cornu, with the continuation of the left colic artery, arched over the bowel and then ran upward for a distance of of inches to end at the duodeno-jejunal flexure opposite the second lumbar vertebra. It so appeared that the opening of the peritoneal sac was displaced by the weight of the contents from the second to the fourth lumbar vertebra. The inferior mesenteric vein lay immediately to the left of the opening. The whole of the small gut with the exception of the lower 6 inches lay in a large hernial sac formed originally by the fossa duodeno-jejunalis described by Treves and situated at the commencement of the jejunum. This fossa, the orifice of which looked upwards and to the left and formed by a delicate fold of peritoneum passing from the beginning of the jejunum to the under surface of the transverse meso-colon, was found in five out of ten subjects. The size of the fossa is such that, as a rule, it scarcely admits the tip of the little finger. In four of the cases in which it was present the margin of the orifice was thin and delicate, but in one old female subject the opening was bounded by a distinct ring, as in the case described, which ended over the duodeno-jejunal flexure, the left cornu formed by the left colic artery which ran in the margin and the right by the commencement of the mesentery. In this case a fold of peritoneum passed from the duodeno-jejunal junction to the under surface of the transverse meso-colon, bounding a fossa which looked to the right but evidently quite apart from the fossa into which the commencement of the jejunum would slip at the first stage of the formation of the hernia, when the top of the jejunum slips into the fossa and is followed from above downwards by the rest of the small intestine. As the folds of peritoneum in this 38 I'KOCKKIMXCiS OK THK ANATOMICAL AND ANTII KOl'OMHilCA L region passing from the jejunum to the transverse meso-colon are very variable, and as it is necessary in the formation of this kind of hernia that the orifice of the sac should be distinct, I propose to name the ring which 1 have described the " annulus colicus sinister," as the left colic artery runs in its margin. The large intestine was greatly dis- tended and the transverse colon crossed the hernial sac near its lower margin, being markedly narrowed for a distance of 4 inches to the left of the mid-line. The descending colon was thrown into a huge sigmoid loop which occupied all the abdominal cavity to the right of the rectus muscle and flattened out the gall-bladder against the under surface of the right lobe of the liver. There were old peritoneal ad- hesions between the gall-bladder and the hepatic flexure of the colon. The liver appeared to have been thrown back by the pressure of the colon, the lower margin crossing the sternum at the seventh costo- sternal junction, and the gall-bladder was situated opposite the eighth rib in the anterior axillary line. The under surface of the right lobe was deeply indented by the hepatic flexure of the colon. The trans- verse colon crossed the abdomen from the tip of the ninth right costal cartilage to the left anterior superior spine, situated (5j inches below the tip of the xiphoid cartilage. Unfortunately, during manipula- tion the sac was torn slightly, so that an attempt at reduction without first incising the wall was impossible, but as it stood, reduction of the whole of the contents was easy, the bowels being empty and collapsed but showing no evidence of strangulation. I am indebted to Professor It. W. Reid and Mr. H. M. W. Gray for kind assistance in making these observations. THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. By C. M. SMITH. Professor lieid, Ladies and Gentlemen, — The finding of a subject for a student to read a paper upon is always a matter of some difficulty, for he may know a little about a lot of things but not enough on one particular branch of study to speak with confidence or from ex- SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 39 perience. I was lucky enough, however, to have the matter for this paper placed before me by a friend, and trust it will be of some interest to this society. It treats of that subject which for the past hundred years or more has engaged the serious attention of many learned and deep-thinking men, namely, " The Antiquity of Man," or, in other words, how long has man inhabited this globe. Until, comparatively speaking, recent times it was the universal belief that man's earthly existence did not extend beyond a period of (5,000 years from the present time. The data on which this was based were drawn chieHy from the Bible. But that Scripture record is not designed to teach chronology, any more than to teach science, is now generally accepted, I think. The general belief, however, in the correctness of chronological deduction from the Bible had the effect of foreclosing the question of the antiquity of man and of preventing its investigation for centuries, notwithstanding that from time to time interesting discoveries were cropping up which could receive no adequate explanation owing to this preconceived opinion. Such were the discoveries of human fossil bones associated with those of the extinct hyena, bear, elephant and rhinoceros, buried deeply in cave breccias and overlaid with stalagmite in various localities in England and on the Continent. The explanation which was offered and for long accepted as satisfactory was that these caves formed the dens of the animals during a geological period long anterior to man's advent to these lands, and that in a subsequent age they had been used by man as places of sepulchre, or even domicile, or that on occasion of land floods the remains of human beings had been swept into the caves and thus mingled with the bones of these animals. But the facts brought to light between forty to fifty years ago during the systematic investigation of Brischam Cave in Devonshire excited anew the curiosity of the public and led scientists and geologists to the con- clusion that man and these extinct animals must have co-existed at one period. Since that time many of the facts adduced in favour of this contention and hitherto persistently rejected have been 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL re-examined, and many new cases have been brought to light bearing on the same question, both relating to caves and to alluvial strata in valleys. The belief that those beautiful Hint arrow heads so frequently turned up by the plough all over the country were the work of fairies, however conclusive to a primitive and superstitious age, can only be considered as on a par with the notion that the fossils of plants and animals embedded in rocks were marks of satanic agency executed for the purpose of perplexing and misleading mankind. Now that the question was started afresh, a widespread interest in its investigation sprang up, and the leading geologists and men of science in Britain, France, Germany, Denmark and America threw themselves heartily into the movement. In this country it was especially taken up by the late eminent geologist, Sir Charles Lyell, and subjected to a most thorough searching, but nowhere was the work more systematically carried out than by the scientists of Denmark. In order to present to ourselves the salient features of this investigation in as clear and concise a manner as possible, let us suppose that we are in the company of intelligent explorers with whom we will visit various countries and localities all over the globe, and examine with them such evidences as they have succeeded in unearthing in elucidation of this interesting question, our vehicle of conveyance being the power of imagination, by which we can move from place to place with greater rapidity than the electric telegraph. To begin with, let us transport ourselves to that interesting little country composed chiefly of islands, Denmark, where, as I have said, this work has been most carefully carried out. Numerous peat mosses, varying in depth from 10 to 30 feet, are found scattered all over this country, which have been formed in hollows or depressions in the drift or boulder formation. Around the border of the bogs and at all depths lie trunks of trees, which must have grown on the margin of the mosses and have frequently fallen into them. Now, in the upper stratum SOOIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 41 of these mosses the prevailing tree is the beech, which flourishes there at this day in great forests, and has done so as far back as history goes. Under this upper section of beech a number of oak trees take their place, while in the lowest section the Scots fir predominates. The conclusion to which this investigation points is that there have been, broadly speaking, three periods in which forests of these trees successively prevailed extensively over the country, first the fir, then the oak, and lastly the beech, and as this last still prevails, and has been known to prevail for the last two thousand years or more, how much longer we do not know, it is inferred that the other two must have each embraced a period quite as long, if not longer, and this is substantiated by observations of the rate at which peat mosses grow. Below and amongst the fir layer, the lowest of the three layers, flint instruments were found buried in the peat at great depths. By collecting and studying a great variety of such implements and other articles of human workmanship preserved in peat, and in sand dunes and shell mounds along the coast, the Danish and Swedish antiquaries have succeeded in establishing a chronological succession of periods which they have called the ages of Stone, of Bronze and of Iron, named from the materials which have each in their turn served for the fabrication of implements. The age of Stone in Denmark coincides with the period of the Scots fir, and in part at least with that of the oak. But a con- siderable portion of the oak period coincides with the age of Bronze, for swords and shields of that metal, now in the Museum of Copen- hagen, have been taken out of peat in which oaks abound. The age of Iron corresponds more nearly with that of the beech tree. The number and variety of objects belonging to the Bronze period indicate its long duration, as they do the progress in the arts, implied by the rudeness of the earlier tools, which were often mere copies of the stone implements preceding them, as contrasted with the more skil- fully worked weapons of a later stage of the same period. It has been supposed that an age of Copper intervened between 42 PROCEEDINGS OK THE A N A I ( )M K'Al, AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL that of the Stone ami Bron/e, as hatchets of copper have been found in the Danish peat in such positions as to give rise to this supposition. The next stage of improvement that manifested by the substitu- tion of iron for bronze— indicates a vast stride in the progress of the arts, for iron does not, practically speaking, present itself in a native state, so that to recognise its ores and then to separate the metal demands no small exercise of the powers of observation and invention. Also to fuse the ore requires an intense heat not to be obtained without artificial means, such as blow-pipes, bellows or some other suitable machinery. Besides the peat mosses another class of memorials found in Denmark has thrown light on the prehistoric stage. Along the shores of nearly all the Danish islands mounds may be seen con- sisting chiefly of thousands of shells of the oyster, cockle, and other molluscs. These shells are plentifully mixed up with bones of various quadrupeds, birds and fish which served as the food of the rude hunters and fishers by whom the mounds were accumulated. Such accumulations are called by the Danes " kitchen-refuse heaps ". Scattered all through them are Hint knives, hatchets and other imple- ments of stone, horn, wood, and bone, with fragments of coarse pottery mixed with charcoal, but no implements of bronze or iron. The stone knives and hatchets have been sharpened by rubbing, and are a degree less rude than those of an older date found in France associated with the bones of long-extinct mammalia. The mounds vary in height from 3 to 10 feet, and some of them are as much as 1,000 feet long and from 150 to 200 feet wide. These mounds are of great age as shown not only by the stone implements found in them but also by the geographical fact that they are not found along the shores bathed by the German Ocean, where the waves are slowly eating away the land. Even stronger evidence of their great age is furnished by the character of their embedded shells. The oyster cannot live in the Baltic Sea now owing to the water not containing a sufficiency of salt, and the cockle, mussel and periwinkle attain only a third of their natural size from the same SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OK ABERDEEN. 43 cause, whereas those of the mounds are of full size and the oyster is found plentifully in them. Hence we may infer that in the days of these aboriginal hunters and fishers the ocean had much freer access to the Baltic than at present or even within historic times, probably by way of Holland and Northern Germany. At first sight it might be thought that the Baltic Sea would be more salt than the open ocean, due to concentration, but when we consider that it is practically a lake with several large rivers draining the north- western part of Europe running into it, it is obvious how the amount of salts has diminished in the course of ages. Such a geological change must have taken a very long period for its accomplishment ; it shunts back the time when these mounds must have been formed very con- siderably and furnishes the strongest proof of their great antiquity. That this ancient race ventured out to sea in canoes such as are found in the peat mosses, hollowed out of the trunk of a single tree, is testified by the bones of herring, cod, fiounder and other ocean animals found in the "kitchen-refuse heaps". They do not seem to have been cannibals, for no human bones are mingled with the spoils of the chase. Skulls, however, have been found not only in peat but in accumulations of the Stone period. These skulls are small in capacity, round, and have very prominent superciliary ridges. This race was probably small of stature, as is evidenced by limb bones, round-headed with overhanging eyebrows, not unlike the modern Laplander. The human skulls of the Bronze age are of a more elongated form and larger in size than the foregoing, pointing to the arrival of a new race — probably from the South — and a driving out of the older in- habitants. Only a few of these have been found, owing, no doubt, to the custom prevalent among them of burning their dead and col- lecting the remains in funeral urns. No traces of grain of any sort have hitherto been discovered, or any other indication that the ancient people of the Stone age had any knowledge of agriculture. Having collected so much data from Denmark and its pictur- II l'UIN<;s OK T11K ANATOMICAL AND A.NTHBOPOLOGICAL esque islands let us accompany our explorer in fancy across Kurope to another scene, and perhaps an unexpected one, of ancient human habitation — I mean Swit/erland. This country, as you all know, abounds with lakes large and small, and the ancient people, evidently for the sake of safety and security from the attacks of their enemies, constructed their dwellings on platforms raised on piles driven into the bed of the lake. In shallow parts of many of the Swiss lakes, varying in depth from 5 to 15 feet, these wooden piles have been observed, in some cases worn down to the surface of the mud, in others projecting slightly above it. The Greek historian, Herodotus, describes just such a lake dwelling which existed in his time in a small lake in Paconia, now forming a part of modern Houmania, The Swiss lake dwellings first attracted attention during the dry winter of 1853-54, when the lakes and rivers sank lower than had ever been previously known, and when the inhabitants on Lake Zurich resolved to raise the level of some ground and turn it into arable land by throwing mud upon it got by dredging in adjoining shallow water. During these dredging operations they discovered a number of wooden piles deeply driven into the bed of the lake, and among them a great many hammers, axes and other instruments of stone. Fragments of rude pottery fashioned by the hand were abund- ant, also masses of charred wood. ( )f this burned timber, on this and other sites afterwards explored, there was such an abundance as to lead to the conclusion that most of the settlements had perished by fire. It must be doubtless owing to this circumstance that so many precious tools and works of art have been preserved in the mud. It is believed that as many as 300 wooden huts sometimes constituted one settlement containing about 1,000 inhabitants. The number of these lake villages is wonderful, and they occur on all the larger and most of the smaller lakes. Some are exclusively of the Stone age and others of the Bronze period. On the site of a settlement of the Bronze period on the Lake of Geneva no less than forty hatchets of that metal have been dredged up. In the settlements of this age the wooden piles are not so much decayed as are those of the Stone SOCIETY OP THK UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 4o period. In the Stone age the bones of the animals, used doubtless as food, are mostly those of wild animals, whilst in the bronze settlements those of domesticated animals, cattle, sheep, etc., are more numerous, showing in the latter case a considerable advance in civilisation. Re- mains of charred grain are also found in considerable abundance in settlements of the Bronze age, sparingly in those of the Stone age, contrasting in this respect with what we have already seen to be the case in Denmark. Several attempts have been made to estimate as definitely as possible in years the antiquity of the Bronze and Stone ages. Here is one of these. At the mouth of a stream falling into the Lake of Gen- eva a small delta composed of gravel and sand has been formed to which the stream makes annual additions of fine layers of soil. A railway cutting has been made through part of this delta disclosing its internal structure. The regularity of its structure throughout implies that it has been formed very gradually and by the same causes. Three distinct layers of vegetable soil have been cut through at differ- ent depths, each of which formed the surface of the delta in turn. The first of these is about 4 feet from the present surface, the second 10 feet, and the third 19 to 20 feet. The upper layer contained Roman tiles and a coin of the Roman period, thus fixing the date of this layer. In the second layer were found fragments of unvarnished pottery and a pair of bronze tweezers indicating- the Bronze period, and in the third layer were fragments of rude pottery, pieces of char- coal, broken bones and a human skeleton having a small, round and very thick skull, corresponding to the Stone epoch. Now assuming the Roman period to represent an antiquity of from sixteen to eighteen centuries, a calculation would assign to the Bronze age a date of be- tween 3,000 to 4,000 years, and to the Stone age of from 5,000 to 7,000 years. These ages are only relative. Another mode of calculation is based upon the rate at which a lake is receding from the shore by the constant deposition of sediment brought down by the rivers. Some of the settlements mentioned above are situated in marshes a long way from the lake they are con- 46 I'KOCKKWNas OF TIIK ANATOMICAL ANI> ANTII Kol'Ol.oCICA I, nected with, though when the piles supported the ancient dwelling's in question they must have been surrounded by its waters. Doubtless a considerable element of uncertainty is involved in these computations, but when we consider the uniform way in which Nature generally carries on her operations, they cannot by any means be lightly estimated in value or cast aside as wholly unreliable. Lake dwellings are numerous in Britain, but they have not yet been so much explored as to throw any light on their age. There are the remains of a small one on Loch Kinnord, near Dinnet, from the bottom of which two log canoes were fished out some years ago. They are also numerous in Ireland. For the further following up of the subject in hand our explorers now take a voyage across the Atlantic Ocean, and, penetrating to the heart of North America, visit the earth mounds of the Mississippi, and especially the valleys of the Ohio and its tributaries. When about 280 years ago the first European settlers entered the valley of the Ohio they found the whole region covered with what was con- sidered the primeval forest and tenanted by the Red Indian hunter, who roamed over it without any fixed abode. No one then imagined that below this forest there lay the memorials of a race of older date and more advanced in the arts than the Indians, who had not even the slightest traditionary knowledge respecting their more civilised pre- decessors. It is not more than about sixty to seventy years since these mounds were discovered. There are hundreds of them, and they have served some for temples, others for defence, and others for sepulchres. Judging from the form of the skulls dug out of the burial-places this ancient people was of the Mexican race. Some of these earth- works are on so grand a scale as to embrace areas of i>0 to 100 acres, and from them have been extracted numerous specimens of pottery and ornamental sculpture, various articles in silver, copper and stone and weapons very similar in shape to some Hint implements found near Amiens in France, and to which I shall draw your atten- tion further on. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 47 This race must have had commercial intercourse with the natives of distant regions, for amongst the articles unearthed some are made of native copper from Lake Superior, and there are also found mica from the Alleghanies, and sea shells from the Gulf of Mexico. The extraordinary number of these mounds implies a long period during which a settled agricultural population had made considerable progress in civilisation. The mounds are almost all confined to fertile valleys, and some at least are so ancient that rivers have had time to encroach on the lower terraces which support them, and again to recede for the distance of nearly a mile after having undermined a part of the works. The only data as yet obtained for calculating the probable time since these mounds have been abandoned have been derived from the age and nature of the trees found growing on them. One of these has, when cut down, displayed no less than 800 rings of annual growth, and Harrison, a late President of the United States, who was well skilled in woodcraft, has remarked in a paper on this subject that several generations of trees must have lived and died before the mounds could have been overspread with that variety of species which they supported when the white man first beheld them. A somewhat similar mound in Brazil was visited by Sir Charles Lyell, in which was found a large number of human skeletons regu- larly arranged from east to west and embedded in solid rock. This mound, about 3 acres in extent and 14 feet in height, was covered with trees. It had been undermined by the river Santos, thus exposing the skeletons to view. The presence of oysters and other sea shells in the mound led Sir Charles at first to suppose that it had been submerged under the sea and again upheaved, but he afterwards came to the conclusion that the shells had been brought there and heaped up with other materials when the bodies were buried, and that subsequently the whole artificial earthwork may have become infiltrated with carbonate of lime, and the mound may there- fore be of no greater antiquity than those on the Ohio. We will now return home and notice the occurrence of canoes from time to time brought to light in works of excavation on the 48 PROCEEDINGS OF THK ANATOMICAL AM) ANTHROPOLOGICAL hanks of the Clyde. About twenty of these have been discovered at various levels above the present bed of the river. Five of them lay buried in silt under the streets of Glasgow, one in a vertical position with prow uppermost as if it had sunk in a storm. Nearly all of them were formed out of a single oak trunk hollowed out by blunt tools, probably stone axes aided by the action of tire. A few were cut beautifully smooth, evidently with metallic tools. Hence a gradation can be traced from a pattern of extreme rudeness to one showing no small mechanical ingenuity. Two of them were built of planks. In one of the canoes was found a beautifully polished celt or axe of greenstone, and in another a plug of cork which Geikie pointed out could only have come from Southern Europe. There can be no doubt that some of the buried canoes are of more ancient date than others. Those most roughly hewn may be relics of the Stone period, those more smoothly cut of the Bronze age, and those built of planks probably come within the Iron age. At the time when this ancient craft was navigating the waters where the city of Glasgow now stands, the whole of the Lowlands which border the present estuary of the Clyde formed the bed of a shallow sea. It is evident, therefore, that the south-west district of Scotland has gradually risen to a higher level. In connection with this gradual upheaval, geologists assure us that there is conclusive evidence in marine deposits far up mountain sides to show that the whole of the British Islands have been submerged beneath the sea, not once, but in three successive epochs, with as many subsequent upheavals, and that at one time there was no German Ocean, but that Britain formed a part of the continent of Europe, and from this it would seem that the lines from a once popular song— When Britain first at Heaven's command Arose from out the azure main — is no mere poetical fancy but a statement of a matter of fact. In these far-off ages the mountains were covered with perpetual snow, the valleys filled with glaciers and the surrounding seas with icebergs. It is conjectured that primeval man may have hunted the seal over the SOCIETY OP THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 49 ice and paddled his canoe amongst the Hoes and borgs precisely as the Esquimaux does at the present day in Greenland. Before leaving the subject of the Clydeside canoes, I would briefly indicate to you the attempts made to estimate their probable age. It was at first supposed that all this upheaval of land took place previous to the Roman invasion, but careful examination on the part of Geikie and others of the foundations of the Roman wall built by Antonine, has led to the conclusion that about 25 feet of elevation has occurred since the Roman occupation, i.e., during a period of seventeen centuries. Now, from the position of some of the buried canoes and other indications, there is evidence of at least 30 feet of upheaval, and assuming that the rate of upheaval has been uniform throughout, though there may have been longer or shorter periods of rest, this would imply 3,400 years, or, in other words, carry us back to the time of the exodus of the children of Israel from Egypt. Up to this point tho relics giving clues to the age of prehistoric man, which we have been considering, have been associated with shells and remains of animals in deposits of recent geological for- mation, but let us now go a step further back and examine the evidences of man's existence at a much earlier date — to the alluvial or river deposits of the post-pliocene period. About the beginning of last century M. Tournal wrote an account of human bones and teeth together with fragments of rude pottery which he found in a cave in Bize in France. In the cave mud, cemented by stalagmite, land shells and the bones of mammalia, some of extinct and some of living species were embedded. M. C-hristol, who was engaged in similar researches, described some human bones as occurring in the cavern of Pondres near Nismes in the same mud with the bones of an extinct hyena and rhinoceros. The cavern was in this instance filled up to the roof with mud and gravel in which fragments of two kinds of pottery were detected, the ruder below the level of the extinct mammalia. But the researches of Dr. Schmerling in 1832 in the Belgium 7 50 IM;O<:KKI>IN<;S OK THK ANATOMICAL AND ANTH KOI'OI.OCiK'A I. caves which he explored have yielded more interesting results. Many of the caverns had never before been entered by scientific observers and their floors were encrusted with stalagmite. He found the bones of man so scattered about as to preclude all idea of their having been intentionally buried on the spot. Their colour too and condition were the same as those of the accompanying animals, many of which are extinct. No gnawed bones were found. He therefore inferred that the caverns had not been the dens of wild beasts, but that their organic and inorganic contents had been swept into them by rivers. The occurrence here and there of bones in a very perfect state, or of several bones of the same skeleton lying in their natural positions and having all their more delicate parts uninjured, was accounted for by supposing that portions of carcases were sometimes floated in during floods while still clothed with flesh. The remains of at least three human individuals were disinterred in the Engis cavern. The skull of one of these was embedded by the side of a mammoth's tooth. It was entire but so fragile as to fall to pieces during its extraction. Numerous rude flint implements were found also all through the cave mud, and though human skeletons were found in but a few caverns the flint implements were universal, and Schmerling declared that none of them could have been subsequently introduced, being pre- cisely in the same position as the remains of accompanying animals. He has therefore no hesitation in coming to the conclusion that man once lived in these districts of France contemporaneously with the cave bear and other extinct quadrupeds. At first Sir Charles Lyell was very sceptical as to the great anti- quity claimed for these bones, but about a quarter of a century after- wards he revisited these caverns and found reason to be convinced of the truth of Schmerling's assertions, and speaks thus of the work :— " To be let down as Schmerling was day after day by a rope tied to a tree so as to slide to the foot of the first opening into the Engis cave, where the best preserved human skulls were found, and after thus gaining access to the first subterranean gallery, to creep on all fours through a contracted passage leading to larger chambers, there SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 51 to superintend by torchlight week after week and year after year the workmen who were breaking through the stalagmite crust as hard as marble in order to remove piece by piece the underlying stone breccia nearly as hard, to stand for hours with one's feet in the mud and with water dripping from the roof on one's head in order to mark the position and guard against the loss of each single bone of a skeleton, and at length, after finding leisure, strength and courage for all these operations, to look forward as the fruits of one's labour to the publi- cation of unwelcome intelligence opposed to the preconceptions of the scientific as well as of the unscientific public : when all the circum- stances are taken into account we need scarcely wonder, not only that the passing traveller failed to stop and scrutinise the evidence, but that a quarter of a century should have elapsed before even the neighbouring professors of Liege University came forth to vindicate the truthfulness of their indefatigable and clear-sighted countryman." In speculating on the probable antiquity of these human bones there are two classes of evidence to which appeal is made : firstly, con- siderations of the time required to allow of so many species of car- niverous and herbivorous animals becoming first scarce, and then so entirely extinct as they had evidently become before the era of the Danish peat and Swiss lake dwellings ; secondly, the very long period necessary for the conversion of the physical geography of the Liege district from its ancient to its present configuration ; as, for instance, so many underground channels, through which rivers and brooks once Howed, being now dry and choked up, the present rivers flowing 200 or 300 feet below. Many interesting investigations of the same nature as the above were carried out at the Brixham caves in Devonshire by Dr. Prest- wick in 1858. He was afterwards commissioned to visit the gravel pits of Amiens and Abberville to examine discoveries there made with regard to their claims to antiquity. Here excavations were being made for fortifications and road building, and magnificent sections from 100 to 200 feet high were laid open. In the gravel at a depth of 17 feet Dr. Prestwiek found a Hint 52 I'KoCKKIMNUS OF THK AXATOM Jt'AL AND A NTH KOl'Ol.( MJK' hatchet. There were no signs of vertical rents in the gravel or in the overhanging beds of sand and loam, so that it was impos- sible to imagine that the tool had gradually worked its way down- wards. In one place tools were so numerous find the Hakes chipped off in their fabrication were lying around in such abundance as to give rise to the belief that they had come upon an ancient manu- factory of these implements. Geologists alone can appreciate the age of these gravel beds, and even they can only guess at it. The least figure that could be estimated would be 100,000 years. Gravel beds are also found in the valley of the Thames, but the stone imple- ments in them are ruder and different in shape from those belonging to the Danish peat and Swiss lake dwellings, so that the Stone age is divided into an earlier and later period. A lapse of time lies be- tween them, but how long is not yet quite known. I may here refer to some interesting human skeletons believed to belong to the older Stone age. One is the Neanderthal skeleton found in 1857 in a cave near Dusseldorf on the Rhine. It was found during quarrying operations. The workmen ignored the value of the discovery, scattered and lost many of the bones. A German scientific meeting at Bonn, where the skull was first exhibited, expressed doubts as to whether it was truly human, the cranium being of such a low tyi>e, with narrow receding forehead and strong projecting superciliary ridges. The other bones were unusually thick, and the elevations and depressions for muscle attachments were very marked and showing great muscular development. This ancient skull approaches in char- acter much nearer to the Chimpanzee than the modern European, and this is generally regarded as a mark of very low intelligence. The limb and other bones of this skeleton showed the height to be that of a modern European, and thus we can form a picture of this prehistoric man. Imagine a man, a Sandow in muscular development and stature, covered probably with dark strong hair, crowned with the head of an intelligent Chimpanzee, the face probably of a low animal type in expression, more or less buried in hair, and you have a mind's eye view of the Neanderthal fairly complete. The exact age SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 53 to which the skeleton belonged is not fixed definitely, but it is at least as old as the remains found in the Belgian caves. Another human relic was found in the form of a fossil and is known as "the man of Denise," which comprised part of a skeleton enveloped in volcanic tufa and which was dug out of a vineyard by a peasant near the top of the extinct Volcano Le Pery. The inference drawn from this fact is that primeval man must have witnessed the eruptions of the now extinct volcanoes of Central France, and that this particular specimen had been overtaken by and perished in one of them. Then there is the human skeleton said to have been found buried under four superincumbent cypress forests in the delta of the Mississippi, and to which an age of 50,000 years has been ascribed. The last case I will describe is a very interesting one. It is that of the sepulchral grotto of Aurignac in the champagne-growing dis- trict of the south of France. It is situated on a limestone spur of the Pyrenees about 40 feet above the brook which runs below. The circumstances of the discovery of this grotto are rather peculiar. The opening into it and the terrace in front of it were filled up and hidden by earthy matter washed down the slope by rain. In the year 1852 a labourer employed in repairing roads observed that rabbits when hotly pursued ran into a hole which they had burrowed in the d6bris. On reaching into the opening as- far as the length of his arm he drew out to his surprise one of the long bones of a human skeleton. His curiosity being excited he commenced digging a trench and very soon came upon a large heavy slab of rock placed vertically against the entrance. Having removed this he found an arched cavity 7 to 8 feet high, 10 feet wide and 7 feet from before backwards. It was almost filled with bones, among which were two entire skulls which he recognised as human. The people of Aurignac, astonished to hear of the occurrence of so many human relics in so lonely a spot, flocked to the cave, and the mayor ordered the bones to be taken and buried in the parish cemetery. Being a medical man he ascertained on examining and counting the bones that there o4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND A M II K< U'OLOGICAL must have been no less than seventeen skeletons of both sexes and all ages. He also remarked that the si/e of the adult bones was such as to imply a race of small stature. It was not till eight years afterwards that this cave was critically examined, when M. Larlet undertook the work. Having been shown remains of extinct animals and works of art found in the vault, he determined to investigate what was left intact of the deposits inside and outside the grotto. He found a layer of ashes and charcoal about 7 inches thick on the sloping terrace but none inside. Among the ashes he found a great variety of bones and more than a hundred articles of flint and some flat pieces of sandstone which seemed to have served as a hearth. There were a few bone implements, as arrow heads and a well-shaped bodkin, sharp-pointed and made out of the horn of the roe-deer. The bones were those of the cave bear, brown bear, badger, cave lion, cave hyena, mammoth rhinoceros, horse, ass, pig, roe-buck, etc. Many of them were split open, evidently for the marrow, and all bore marks of having had the flesh scraped off them. A number were gnawed as if by wild animals. On the other hand the bones found in the grotto, which were human, were entire as if laid there with the flesh on them. No human bones were found outside the vault. Besides some flint knives with no marks of having ever been used, there were several articles of ornament in the grotto, such as a bear's tusk with the enamel removed from the top and something like a bird carved upon it, also a number of flattened pieces of siliceous substance supposed to be cockle shells perforated in the centre, which had evidently been strung together as a necklace. The various relics point to some interesting conclusions regard- ing this ancient people. The presence of the bones of extinct animals shows that the human bones belonged to a people long anterior to those either of the Danish shell mounds or Swiss lake dwellings. The ashes and the hearth in front of the grotto and other evidences of the con- sumption of animal food point to the sacred rites of burial and accom- panying funeral feast. The flint implements, the ornaments and pottery SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 55 found with the human bones were probably meant for the use of the departed spirit on its long journey, and thus we see that in the dim and distant past, long before the days of Moses or Noah, religion formed no small part of the thoughts of ancient man, however gross, rude and superstitious it may have been. These are some of the ways in which the length of man's exist- ence on earth has been estimated. It is quite impossible to make definite statements on the question, because we are dealing with a science which is as yet in its youth, and of which not enough is yet understood to enable one to speak with any certainty whatever. However I trust that from the foregoing you may have been able to form some conception of the Antiquity of Man, though when one's mind wanders away into thousands of years it is hard to grasp the exact significance of the terms used to express such periods of time. But if it is so difficult to realise the antiquity of man when at most we can only calculate back to the post-pliocene and glacial epochs, how much harder a task is it to gain even a faint glimmering of conception of the antiquity of this world we call Earth, when we think of the dozen or more layers of the stratified rocks laid down before those periods, involving incalculable numbers of years, to say nothing of the ages required for the consolidation of the igneous rocks. To take a proportion in illustration : man's antiquity is to earth's antiquity as one minute is to five years, and this is probably far too large a proportion on man's side. ORDINARY MEETING. 21sT FEBRUARY, 1903. Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.R.C.S., President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. Mr. James Adams, M.A., read a paper on the characteristics of five Wa Kamba skulls presented to the Anatomical Museum by Mr. 56 i'uorKKi>iN<;s OF TIIK ANATOMICAL AND AN riiKoi'oi.o<;irAi, Lin Hose, late Medical OHicer, I'gamla Railway. Mr. Adams also dealt shortly with the customs of the tribe to which these people had belonged Several members of the society read notes on the various anatomical variations found in dissecting-room subjects during the course of the present winter session. The meeting closed with votes of thanks to those who had contributed papers. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF FIVE WA KAMBA SKULLS. By JAMES ADAMS, M.A. The five skulls were found at Kui Station on the Uganda Hail- way by Mr. Ian Rose, A.M., M.B., D.P.H., Medical Officer, Uganda Railway, in 1900, and presented by him to the Anatomical Museum, Aberdeen University. The individuals came from Wa Kamba Province, East Africa, and died of starvation at Kui Station. In No. III. the right zygomatic arch and in No. IV. the right zygomatic arch and a part of the right malar bone are broken ; while in No. V. the right superior maxilla is damaged. Wormian bones are practically absent. Sex. — No. III. has been classed as female because, although it has the smallest orbital index, and not the smallest cranial capacity, the external characters are fairly well marked : small size, vertical forehead, thin supraorbital arch and non-projecting mastoid processes. Cubic cd/xiciti.!. — In No. IV. and No. V. the figures given are too small because of a small quantity of some dried clay-like extraneous matter (containing particles of glossy coal-black chitinous scales) affixed to the interior. Tt't-th. — In a good state of preservation. In No. I. the middle right incisor is lost, while the other three incisors are pointed (they seem to have been filed to more or less sharp points : almost characteristic of S.E. of Nyassaland). In No. II. the middle right incisor and second left bicuspid are lost. The three incisors and two canines are pointed. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 57 I. II. III. IV. V. Average of the five. Age - Adult Aged Adult Adult Adult Sex - - Male Male Female Male Male Cubic capacity - - .- 1374 1208 1238 1412( + ) 1378( + ) 1322( + ) Glabello-occipital length - 181 179 170 179 182 Ophryo-occipital length - 181 179 170 180 180 Basi-bregmatic height 133 125 127 139 131 Vertical index - 73-5 69-8 74-7 77-2 72-8 73-6 Minimum frontal diameter - 86 96 90 93 96 92 Stephanie diameter - 99 101 104 105 99 102 Asterionic diameter - - | 101 107 104 109 98 104 Greatest parieto-squamous breadth - 136s. 13ip.d-s. 129 j». UOp. 133 134 Cephalic index - 75-1 74-9 75-9 77-8 73-9 75-5 Horizontal circumference - 501 500 486 506 498 498 Frontal longitudinal arc - ] 123 124 121 135 131 127 Parietal longitudinal arc - 129 119 121 116 135 124 Occipital longitudinal arc - ! 106 113 104 110 103 107 Total longitudinal arc 358 356 346 361 369 358 Vertical transverse arc 300 292 292 324 303 302 Length of foramen magnum 39 34 35 39 35 36 Basi-nasal length 104 97 96 100 100 Basi-alveolar length - - 104 93 100 97 97 Gnathic index - -i 111 95-9 lOi-2 97-0 97-0 98-8 Interzygomatic breadth - 137 133 122 (?) 128 (?) 139 132 Ophryo-alveolar length - \ 91 92 75 96 95 Naso-alveolar length - 70 68 60 68 71 Facial iiidex 66-4 69-2 62-3 75-0 68-3 68-2 Nasal height 50 49 44 45 56(?) Nasal width 22 26 29 25 29 Nasal index 44-0 53-1 65-9 55-6 51-8(?) 54-1 Orbital width - 37 40 35 33 39 Orbital height - 33 36 29 37 33 Orbital index 89-2 90-0 82-9 102-8 84-6 89-9 Palato-maxillary length 51 49 55 55 53(?) Palato-maxillary breadth - 63 59 58 58 70 Palato-maxillary index 123-5 120-4 1055 105-5 132-1(?) 117-4 The measurements taken are mostly those recommended by Turner (Challenger Report, vol. x., part xxix., 1884). p. indicates that the point is on the parietal bone. p. £ s. that the point is on the squamous suture. In No. III. four incisors, right canine, two right bicuspids and second left bicuspids are lost. In No. IV. left central incisor is lost while three incisors and left canine are broken. 8 •")« l'll()CKKl)IN5 twins. The jejunum is 40 cm. in length and terminates quite natur- ally in the ileo-crccal junction. The large intestine is perfectly regular in both twins. With the exception of the foregoing points and the fact that the gall-bladder was suppressed, the twins are normal and well formed, and had it not been for the embryological error responsible for these variations, there can be no doubt that two perfectly normal and well-nourished twins would have resulted from the pregnancy. CASE II. — As regards the second specimen a reference to Plates XIII. and XIV. shows that the condition of fusion of the twins is very similar to that in the first case, but is here more extensive. The fusion involves not only the lateral abdominal walls but also the lateral thoracic walls and two of the four upper limbs as far as the wrist. It will be unnecessary to pursue the successive stages of the dissection in this instance, as they were identical with those of the first case. Precisely the same variations were found in connection with the alimentary canal and liver, the only alteration being that there was a gall-bladder in the second case and none in the first. The heart and great vessels, as is only to be expected from the thoracic fusion, present, however, some remarkable and interesting variations (See Fig. 1). To take the great vessels first, there is, in the case of the right twin, a right-sided aorta and a pulmonary trunk both of which arise from the same ventricle. The aorta gives off a large branch which communicates with the left pulmonary artery by means of a patent ductus arteriosus, and then breaks up in an axis- like manner into a left subclavian, a left common carotid and a right common carotid. The arch of the aorta thereafter gives off the right subclavian artery as a separate trunk. In the case of the left twin there is a left-sided aorta and a pul- monary trunk. The aorta gives off in the first instance a single trunk which divides into the right and left common carotid arteries. Im- mediately beyond the origin of this carotid trunk the arch gives off the right subclavian, and beyond that again the left subclavian. Having given off these three branches the aorta communicates with r,u PROCEEDINGS OF TUK ANATOMIC AL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL the left pulmonary artery by means of a patent ductus arteriosus. As regards the veins each twin is provided with its own superior vena eava, but, the inferior venic cava?, just prior to their termination in the auricle, fuse together to form a single vessel. Passing next to the consideration of the heart (Fig. 1) there is what at first sight appears to be a single viscus common to both twins. As this apparently single structure contains two auricles, four Fig. 1. — Diagram of cardiac and vascular abnormalities-. auricular appendages and four ventricles, it is fairly certain that there have been two hearts which have become partially fused in the region of the sinus venosus. As just stated there are but two auricles. One of these is a functional right auricle for both twins. Opening into it there are the two superior vena? cavse, the fused inferior vena1 cava1 and a single coronary sinus. Opening out of it there are the aper- tures of three of the four auricular appendages, and the openings into the right and left ventricles of the heart of the right foetus. There is SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF AHERDEEN. 67 also a well-marked fossa ovalis leading into what is functionally the left auricle and which undoubtedly belongs to the heart of the left foetus. The left auricle, much smaller than the right, receives the four pulmonary veins, probably one from each of the four lungs, that is to say, the common pulmonary trunk from each lung has not divided into two, and hence there are only four pulmonary veins instead of eight. Opening out of the left auricle there is the orifice of one of the four auricular appendages and the openings into the right and left ventricles of the heart of the left foetus. The ventricles are four in number, their order from right to left is as follows : Right ventricle, left ventricle, right twin ; left ventricle, right ventricle, left twin. The right and left ventricles of the right twin communicate with each other and with the right auricle common to both twins. The aorta and pulmonary artery of the right twin arise from the right ventricle. The right and left ventricles of the left twin communicate with the left auricle common to both twins, but do not communicate with each other. The aorta and pulmonary artery arise normally from their correct ventricles. The Developmental Explanation of the Foregoing Variations. — The chief variations to be explained may be tabulated as follows :— A. Common to both cases :— 1. Lateral fusion, more extensive in one case than the other, and the common epiblastic covering of the fused areas. 2. The single duodenal and jejunal tubes and the single liver. 3. The suppression of the gall-bladder in the one case and its presence in the other. B. Special to the second case :— 4. The partial fusion of the heart and the peculiar condition of the auricles and ventricles. 5. The condition of the great thoracic vessels. Bearing in mind the strong similarity which exists between the two cases as evidenced by the lateral fusion, more extensive in the second example than the first, and the precisely similar nature of the intes- tinal variations, it is fairly obvious that whatever explanation is 68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL attempted must suffice for both cases. A further consideration of the alimentary variations shows that they are to l>e referred to that portion of the embryonic gut termed the mid-gut, and in my opinion these variations are entirely referable to the mid-gut, though this, as will be presently shown, is open to question ; but putting the debatable point on one side, that is the origin of the liver whether from fore-gut or mid-gut, it is certain that the jejunum is a mid-gut development, ami as both cases have only one jejunum it is safe to assume that the two embryos in each case have had only one yolk-sac between them, that is to say, they have been developed from one ovum. Fig. 2. — Diagram to illustrate the body fusion. Commencing upon this hypothesis, and remembering the lateral nature of the fusion of the twins, I first assumed that two primitive grooves had been lying side by side upon a single ovum. I en- deavoured to account for these two primitive grooves by assuming bilateral segmentation of the ovum, but I was forced to abandon this position as untenable inasmuch as if worked out it will be found to necessitate the formation of two yolk-sacs and two amnions, and their subsequent conversion into single structures by fusion. Quite apart SOCIETY OF THK UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 69 from these objections there are others of an even more insuperable character, and consequently this supposition of bilateral segmentation of a single ovum was subsequently abandoned in favour of the follow- ing theory, which appears to offer a more satisfactory explanation of the phenomena, 1. The Explanation of the Lutenil l<'itxion und the Common Ei>il>lastic CoreriiHj of t lie /-V/.W . I IVHU. — This explanation is based on the supposi- tion that the two embryos have been developed from a single ovum without bilateral segmentation. The two primitive grooves were placed side by side in such a way that the caudal ends of the embryos have been rather nearer to each other than the cephalic ends, or at all events the central portions of the primitive grooves have either been nearer each other than any other portions, or have been in actual contact. What I then suppose to have taken place is illustrated in Fig. 2, and granting the original hypothesis — two embryos developed from a single ovum without bilateral segmentation— an easy explana- tion results as to the lateral fusion of the twins, even to the greater fusion in the second example than the first, and also as to the common epiblastic covering of the fused areas and the single jejunal tube. All are easy of explanation on this hypothesis, and difficult, if not actually impossible, upon any other. 2. The Explanation of the Single Duodenal and Jejunal Tubes and the Single Liver. — The hypothesis adopted in the preceding paragraph assumes the presence of a single yolk-sac common to both embryos, and Fig. 3 illustrates my conception of the evolution of the single duodenal and jejunal tubes from this common yolk-sac. Both the pyloric ends of the duodenal tube have undoubtedly been developed from the independent fore-guts, whilst the intermediate portion, with the biliary duct and the single jejunum have, in my opinion, been developed from the common yolk-sac or mid-gut. I say " in my opinion " because such an assumption necessitates the liver being a mid-gut development, and the numerous works upon embryology which have been consulted appear to me to leave the question an open one. Keith, in his Human Embryology and Morphology, states that the fore- 70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL gut becomes the pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, and that part of thr duodenum situated in front of the opening of the common bile duct, that is to say, he appears to regard the liver as a mid-gut develop- ment. With this I entirely agree, inasmuch as in both these cases there is but one common bile duct which opens into the intermediate portion of the single duodenal tube. Thus the liver is proved to be Fig. 3. — Diagram to illustrate evolution of single duodenum and jejunum from one yolk-sac common to both embryos. Fore- and hind-guts shaded, mid-gut dotted. The ducts of the pancreas — Wirsung and Santorini— are also seen. a single structure common to both twins and not two liver buds fused together, and as an additional argument in support of this view it may be stated that each liver has but one Spigelian lobe. For these various reasons I am, therefore, of opinion that these cases prove the liver to be a mid-gut development, and that Keith is perfectly correct SOCIETY OP THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 71 in his views upon this point. The hypothesis upon which the lateral fusion was explained suffices, therefore, for the single duodenal and jejunal tubes as well as for the single liver. 3. The Suppression of the Gall-bladder in the one ruse mid it.** /'y v.svwr in tin' other. — As the gall-bladder is known to be developed normally as a diverticulum from the common hepatic stalk in the second month, it is perfectly easy to understand the suppression of this viscus in the one case and its presence in the other ; it is at the same time impos- sible to offer any theory as to why the gall-bladder diverticulum should thus grow out in the one case and not in the other. 4. The, Partial Fuxioti of the Heart and the Peculiar Condition of the Auricle* and Ventricles. — From the description which has already been given of the apparently single heart it will be sufficiently obvious that it is in reality a question of the partial fusion of two originally dis- tinct tubular hearts. As the inferior vena; cava; unite to form a single structure just before their termination in the functional right auricle, and as there are but two auricles with four auricular appendages, it seems fairly certain that the two originally distinct tubular hearts have fused together in the region of the sinus venosus (see Fig. 4). This is further borne out by the condition of the ventricles. On this assumption it is not very difficult to understand what has taken place. Under normal conditions the sinus venosus shifts towards the right side of the primitive auricle, and so eventually opens into that part of it which becomes the right auricle of the adult heart, forming its atrium and the coronary sinus. The primitive auricle sends out an appendix on each side which grows forwards around the bulbus arteriosus, whilst the primitive auricle itself becomes differentiated into a right and a left chamber by the growth of two septa — the septum primum and the septum secundum — the foramen ovale being- nothing more than the interval left between these two auricular septa. In this particular instance the sinus venosi of the two twins have fused together to form a common cavity (Fig. 4), but this fusion has not affected, or perhaps only very slightly, the primitive auricles, as is evidenced by the presence of the four auricular appendages. The 72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL primitive auricle of the left twin has been divided in the ordinary way, as is further evidenced by the presence of a well-marked foramen ovale, and its left division has become the functional left auricle com- mon to both twins. The primitive auricle of the right twin has not been divided at all, or to be more accurate only the merest attempt has been made at such division as is shown by the presence of a thin strand, not unlike the moderator band, which is found crossing the cavity of the functional right auricle. This undivided primitive auricle of the right twin has been thrown into free communication with the (L.T.* Fig. 4. — Diagram to illustrate the fusion of the two hearts in the region of the sinus venosus. right auricle of the left twin through the fusion in the region of the sinus vinosus. Hence the functional right auricle common to both twins represents what should have become the right and left auricles of the right twin and the right auricle of the left twin. This is still further borne out by the fact that three of the four auricular appen- dages are connected with this functional right auricle. The fusion of the tubular heart of each embryo having occurred in the region of the sinus venosus the ventricles have altogether escaped, and hence the ventricles of the two twins are altogether SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 73 separated, and those of the left twin are almost normal. An acquaint- ance with the normal V-shaped bend made under ordinary conditions by the ventricular part of the embryonic tubular heart to the right and a reference to Fig. 5 will explain the order of the ventricles from right to left as previously described. The communication which exists between the two ventricles of the right twin is explained by the non-development of the pars membranacea septi, and the origin of the Fig. 5. — Diagram to illustrate the development of the ventricles. aorta and the pulmonary artery from the one ventricle by the partial failure in the division of the aortic bulb and the imperfect separation of the ventricles. The explanation of all the cardiac abnormalities is therefore re- ferable to, first, a fusion in the region of the sinus venosus, and there- after to the imperfect separation of the auricles and ventricles of the right twin, and it is not without interest to note that it is the right twin which is mainly at fault. 10 74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL 5. The Condition of the (Iri'iit Tlior., Viet'- 1 'resident, in the Chair. The Minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. The anatomical variations found in the dissecting room during the session were described by several members of the society. The reports of the Secretary and the Treasurer for the past year were read and approved. The office-bearers for the year 1903-04 were elected as follows :— President — PROFESSOR K. W. EEID, M.D., F.E.C.S. Vice-Presiden ts — ALEX. Low, M.A., M.B., C.M. ; GEORGE STODDART, M.B., Ch.B. ; ROBERT H. SPITTAL. Secretary — J. F. GILL, B.Sc. Recording Secretary — W. McKERHOW. Treasurer — W. H. WISH ART, M.A., B.Sc. The retiring office-bearers received a hearty vote of thanks for their services. RECOED OF ANATOMICAL VARIATIONS. Date of observation, June, 1903. Sex, Male. High division of the popliteal artery. The popliteal divides into two parts at the upper border of the popliteus muscle. One branch continues on as the posterior tibial artery. The other branch runs between the popliteus and the tibia, and at the upper end of the interosseous space divides into the anterior tibial artery and the peroneal artery. (Signature of observer) J. J. A. NEIL. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 75) Date of observation, July, 1903. Sex, Female. Downward displacement of several viscera and enlargement of the liver. In this subject the .stomach, great omentum, duodenum and transverse meso-colon were displaced downwards, while the liver was enlarged. The liver consisted of three lobes. The left lobe extended into the left hypochondriac region, its extremity lying in a depression on the anterior surface of the spleen. Part of the lobe immediately above this extremity was slightly overlapped by the spleen. The right lobe was also enlarged. Instead of being in line with the costal arch, this lobe ran parallel to the arch and 2 inches inferior to it. About 2 inches from the junction of the tenth costal cartilage with the other cartilages on the right side there lay a Riedel's lobe. It was triangular in shape with its base directed upwards and con- tinuous with the right lobe. The apex was blunt. It measured about 3 inches in breadth by 2£ inches in length, and reached from the eleventh rib to the crest of the ilium which it touched. The stomach was normal in size but displaced, lying in the left lumbar and the umbilical regions. The great curvature extended down on the left side as far as the anterior superior spine of the ilium. The great omentum was proportionately displaced, descending into the pelvis 2 inches and lying behind the symphysis pubis. In it an accessory spleen was found about the size of a hazel nut. The duodenum was also displaced downwards. The relations of the first part were normal owing to the corresponding descent of the liver, but instead of ending on the right side of the first lumbar vertebra, it ended at the middle of the right side of the body of the fourth lumbar vertebra. The descending portion passed from the latter point across the right iliac vessels and prominence of the sacrum to enter the pelvis for the distance of an inch. 80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL The transverse portion lay wholly in the pelvis over the first part of the sacrum. The ascending portion crossed the left iliac vessels, passing upwards to terminate at the duodeno-jejunal flexure at the lower border of the fourth lumbar vertebra. The transverse meso-colon commenced in the right inguinal region, and in reaching to the left inguinal region described a curve with its convexity forwards, the curve being on a level with the symphysis pubis in the middle line. The ascending and the descending portions of the colon were virtually absent. (Signature of observer) MARY W. DURNO. Date of observation, July, 1903. Sex, Female. Accessory 'muscle of the pharynx. In the dissection of the pharynx two accessory muscles were found — one on each side and exactly similar in all respects. Each arose by a narrow tendinous slip from the under surface of the apex of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, just external to, and in close contact with, the origin of the levator palati. Each was about 3 inches in length and descended almost perpendicularly behind the stylo-pharyngeus, gradually increasing in thickness, to be inserted by a long narrow muscular band into the side of the pharynx, from about half an inch above the highest point of the insertion of the stylo-pharyngeus down to the level of the middle of the thyro-hyoid space. The upper fibres decussated with those of the superior and the middle constrictors, while the lower fibres passed under the inferior constrictor. (Signature of observer) ANDREW S. LESLIE. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 81 ORDINARY MEETING. 14TH NOVEMHEK, 1903. Professor R. W. REID, M.D ., F.R.C.S., President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. Accounts of anatomical variations found in the dissecting room were read. Mr. W. H. Wishart, M.A., B.Sc., exhibited a number of human bones which he had found in a cliff in Orkney and gave some account of the early inhabitants of the islands. EECORD OF ANATOMICAL VARIATIONS. Date of observation, November, 1903. Sex of the six cases examined : 4 male, 2 female. Variations in the course of the sciatic nerve. In four of the six subjects the course of the nerves was normal below the pyriformis muscle. In the fifth subject (male) the external and internal popliteal nerves were separate up to their origin from the sacral plexus. On the right side the external popliteal nerve pierced the pyriformis, while on the left side both nerves entered the gluteal region below the muscle and quite separate from one another. In the sixth subject (female) the great sciatic nerve on both sides appeared in the gluteal region in two divisions, one of which passed below the pyriformis, the other perforating that muscle. The two parts blended at the upper border of the superior gemellus muscle. On the left side the course of the small sciatic nerve was similar to that of the great sciatic, but was internal or mesial to it. Express- ing the variations of these twelve nerves in percentages :— 11 K-J PROCEEDING OF THE ANATOMICAL AND AXTHROl'l )L( XMCAL Per cent. (a) Those passing below the pyriformis as a single trunk - - 66-6 (b) ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, as two distinct nerves - 8-3 (c) Those passing through and under the pyriformis, but not joining - 8'3 (/Kt!i<- ///: Strictly defined, the cephalic index is the breadth multiplied by 100 and divided by the length. The cephalic index has been accepted by most anthropologists as one of the best criteria of race from the time of Retzius down till quite recently. There are now, however, a number of anthropologists who have expressed doubts as to its value. Retzius divided races into dolichocephalic and brachywphalic, and subdivided these again into orthognatkwts and prognathous. The classes of skulls denoted by the terms dolichocephalic and brachycephalic are denned differently by different anthropologists. Retzius used centres to define his groups, the centre of the dolicho- cephalic group being a cephalic index of 75, and of the brachycephalic group, an index of 837. Welcker used limits, and introduced an intermediate group, viz., orthocephalic. Dolichocephalic skulls (ac- cording to Welcker) were those with a cephalic index of 72 and under ; orthocephalic, those with indices from 72 to 80 ; and brachy- cephalic, those with indices of 80 and over. Broca's dolichocephalic and brachycephalic groups correspond very closely with those of Retzius, but he introduced a considerable number of intermediate groups. All these subdivisions are purely arbitrary. There appears to be no special reason for fixing the limits of the groups at one index more than at another. Welcker and others following Retzius have greatly extended the SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. H7 use of ratios or indices. Among those recommended as characteristic may be mentioned the nasal index, the facial index and the ratio of height to length of head, and there are many others in use. Anthropologists of the empirical school usually consider the absolute dimensions to be of very little importance, except for the purpose of calculating an index or ratio. For example, Livi, in his report on the measurements of the Italian conscripts, publishes no absolute dimensions of the head, but only the cephalic indices. Gustav Retzius ' and Ammoy have both recently emphasised the superiority of the cephalic index to absolute measurements of length and breadth of head. Stature appears to be the only important absolute dimension of the human body which has escaped the tendency of the empirical school to reduce all dimensions to ratios. Nobody yet, as far as I know, has recommended an index to represent the ratio of the breadth of the body to its length. Angles such as the facial angle are also measured by the empiri- cists, and it is by means of these that prognathism or orthognathism is determined. Angles, as every mathematician knows, are also funda- mentally equivalent to ratios. The analysis of anthropometric statistics by the empirical method becomes in view of what has been said comparatively simple. Calculate the cephalic and other indices for each individual, and find the average or mean index for the whole group of people measured. The highest and lowest index is also usually stated with the view of indicating the range of variation on each side of the mean. In the case of stature the mean and extreme values of the absolute dimensions are usually calculated. It is difficult to understand on what experimental data the belief of the empirical school in the value of indices is based. The range of variation of the cephalic index is usually quite as great as the range of variation of the absolute dimensions. The cephalic indices of the 1 Eetzius u. Ki'rst, Anthropologia Sueica, 1902, p. 116. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL earliest prehistoric races are usually lower than those of living civilised races, but some of the living lower races (''.//., the Andaman Islanders) have higher. indices than the higher or more civilised races. The belief is gaining ground among anthropologists at the present day that the value of indices as criteria of race has been greatly exaggerated. 2. THE RATIONAL METHOD. The rational method of treating anthropometric statistics aims at determining in a group of people the frequency curve for each dimension, the variability about the mean, the mode or most frequent dimension and the correlations between pairs of dimensions by the application of rigid mathematical analysis. Another very important question which is dealt with by the rational method is the estimation of the deviations (due to random sampling) of observed values from true values. It is seldom that an anthropometrician is able to measure the whole population of any district which he is surveying. He has to be content, usually, with a very small fraction of the whole popula- tion. This sample is selected at random, and the measurements ob- tained from one sample are not likely to be exactly identical with the measurements of the next sample which might be selected. Allow- ance must therefore be made for possible deviations due to random sampling before we can regard any conclusions indicated by the observations as significant. This testing of the significance of de- viations of mean values, frequencies, standard deviations, correlations, etc., obtained from random samples is one of the most important parts of the rational method of treating statistics. The founder of the rational method of treating anthropometric statistics was Quetelet, who, in his Lettres sur In Theorie des Prob- dbilites published in 1846, has shown that in certain anthropometric statistics, as those of stature and chest measurements, the curve of frequency is approximately of the same form as the " binomial curve ". Quetelet's theory was practically neglected by anthropologists till quite recently, when it has been taken up and greatly extended by Francis Galton and Karl Pearson. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 89 In the binomial curve the ordinates are proportional to the coefficients of a binomial expansion. Let us suppose that we toss 6 coins 2" or 64 times, then since the probabilities of a head and of a tail turning up are each equal to ^, the frequency or number of times which 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 heads will turn up is represented by the following binomial expansion : — 64 (>- + i)" = 1 + 6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1. The result may be stated as follows :— No. of heads 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Frequencies 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1. According to this if we toss 6 coins 64 times, 3 heads (the mean number) ought to turn up 20 times ; 0 and 6 heads once ; 1 and 5 heads 6 times ; 2 and 4 heads 15 times. The results of tossing will not correspond exactly with this theory unless the number of coins is very large. If a curve be drawn using the frequency at each unit on the base line as an ordinate we get a binomial curve. (See sketch. ) , , 01 23456 If we measure, say, the head breadths of a large number of people and classify our measurements so as to find the frequency of each dimension, and then draw a frequency curve, we shall find that it is approximately of the same form as the binomial curve. The binomial curve which we have discussed is symmetrical about the mean, that is the mean, dimension corresponds with the dimension which is most frequent. This dimension which occurs most fre- quently is called the Mode. If the pennies with which we toss are loaded so that the chances of a head or a tail turning up are not equal, then our curve would not be symmetrical about the mean 12 90 riKH'KKDINUS OF THK ANATOMICAL AXI) ANTHROPOLOGICAL ordinate, i.e., the mode would not coincide with the mean. The curve obtained in this latter case has been called the Skeir Hi mutual. The curve of frequency obtained from measurements sometimes takes the form of the skew binomial. This might happen, for ex- amide, if there were two races among the group of people measured. The binomial curves are not convenient to work with on account of the difficulty of calculating the coefficients when the number of terms in the expansion is very large. We use, therefore, instead of the binomial curves smooth curves which make a very good fit with the binomial curves, and which can be represented by equations which are much more convenient to work with than a long binomial expansion. Normal Curre. — The smooth curve, which corresponds to the symmetrical binomial, is called the Normal Curve, and its equation about the mean is z2 9-9*- w In this equation y0 represents the maximum ordinate or fre- quency, e is the base of the Napierian logarithms, and o- is the standard deviation, a term which we shall discuss later on. If we can fit a normal curve to the curve of frequency obtained from our observations, we can calculate by this equation the fre- quency y at any distance x from the mean dimension. The normal curve can also be shown to represent the frequency curve of deviations of other samples of the population from the observed sample, and its properties are therefore utilised in cal- culating what is called the probable errors of the various quantities evaluated from anthropometric statistics. Standard J)eriation. — In measuring a large number of individuals, even when they all belong to one pure race, we always find that there are a certain number of individuals whose dimensions are greater or less than the mean dimensions. It is very desirable to find some expression for the value of this deviation from the mean. What is the best expression for the deviation of the whole group that has SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 91 been measured ? We might take the average value of all the devia- tions from the mean, but this involves the assumption that the probability of a deviation is inversely proportional to its distance from the mean. A little consideration will show that the probability of a deviation occurring decreases more rapidly than its distance from the mean increases. Take as an illustration the case of bullets fired at a target. The bull's-eye here represents the mean position. The marksman who hits the target 1 foot from the bull's-eye is four times as good a shot as the marksman who hits the target 2 feet from the bull's-eye, because the latter requires a target four times the area of that required by the former in order to be sure of hitting. In order, therefore, to estimate the value of a man's hits on a target each hit should be multiplied by the square of its distance from the bull's-eye, and the sum of these products divided by the total number of hits. This expression gives the square of what is called the standard deviation of his shooting, and his skill is, of course, inversely propor- tional to this standard deviation. This method of estimating the value of the total deviation from the mean is used in treating anthropometric statistics. Designating the standard deviation by a, the distances from the mean on both sides by JC^K^ . . . JCP, and the frequency at each distance by z^z^ . . . zp, we get . . . + ZpX,? ' _ N N being the total number of persons measured, using the symbol for summation, the above expression may be written more shortly :— N To illustrate the manner of carrying out the calculations involved in the method so far explained, let us take as an example the measure- ments of the head lengths and head breadths of 364 peasantry of East Aberdeenshire.1 1 See " Physical Characteristics of Adults and School Children in East Aberdeen- shire," Gray and Tocher, Jour. Anth. Inst., 1900, p. 104, 92 PROCEEDING.* OF THE ANATOMICAL AM) A M IIR()l'()l,(KiICAL In the following table column L contains head lengths and column B head breadths arranged in series ; columns » contain frequencies of the L's and B's ; columns ,K contain distances from an arbitrary point near the mean (in case of the lengths 195 and of the breadths 155) ; columns z<£ contain first moments about the arbitrary points ; and columns c.r the second moments about these points. The results of the calculations in the table enable us to get very easily the mean values and the standard deviations of the lengths and breadths. Since ^i (for the lengths) is the arm of the first moment about 195, it represents the distance of 195 from the mean, and the mean is found by adding p.i (with its proper sign) to 195 ; so with fii for the breadths. To find the standard deviation, we have to find p.2 about the mean by the equation given above, namely : — ^•2 = Pi ~ /V For lengths = 32-863 - (1-0165)2 = 32-863 - 1-033 = 31-830 Now fjL2 = o'2 Therefore a = v/3 1-830 = 5-642, is the standard deviation of the head lengths. For breadths f,2 = 28-24 - (2O879)2 = 23-881 (T -=- \/23T881 = 4-887, is the standard deviation of the head breadths. To TEST WHETHER THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Two MEANS is SIGNIFICANT. Let us assume that we have calculated the average stature of two groups of people, and that we find there is a small difference between the two averages. We have no right to assume that the difference between the averages of the two groups indicates a real difference in the class or race from which they are taken till we have calculated the greatest difference that is practically possible between SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 93 Head Lengths. Head Breadths. L. z. x. zx. zx\ B. z. X. zx. *?. 179 1 -16 - 16 256 141 3 -14 - 42 538 180 3 - 15 45 675 142 3 -13 39 507 181 1 -14 - 14 196 143 4 -12 48 576 182 '2 - 13 - 26 338 144 9 -11 99 1089 183 6 - 12 72 864 145 14 -10 - 140 1400 184 2 - 11 - 22 242 146 7 - 9 63 567 185 15 -10 - 150 1500 147 10 - 8 80 640 186 6 - 9 - 54 486 148 15 - 7 - 105 735 187 11 - 8 - 88 704 149 10 - 6 - 60 360 188 9 - 7 - 63 441 150 39 - 5 - 195 975 189 11 - 6 - 66 396 151 36 - 4 - 144 576 190 30 - 5 - 150 750 152 17 - 3 - 51 153 191 19 - 4 - 76 304 153 21 - 2 - 42 84 192 34 - 3 - 102 306 154 34 _ 1 - 34 34 193 23 - 2 - 46 92 194 25-1 - 25 25 155 35 0 -1142 0 195 31 0 - 1015 156 28 + 1 + 28 28 157 19 + 2 + 38 76 196 20 + 1 + 20 20 158 14 + 3 + 42 126 197 17 + 2 + 34 68 159 10 + 4 + 40 160 198 20 + 3 + 60 180 160 14 + 5 + 70 350 199 13 + 4 + 52 208 161 10 + 6 + 60 360 200 20 + 5 + 100 500 162 4 + 7 + 28 196 201 12 + 6 + 72 432 163 4 + 8 + 32 276 20J 8 + 7 + 56 392 164 1 + 9 + 9 81 203 5 + 8 + 40 320 165 0 + 10 + 0 0 204 5 + 9 + 45 405 166 1 + 11 + 11 121 205 5 + 10 + 50 500 167 2 + 12 -r 24 288 206 8 + 11 + 88 968 207 0 + 12 + 10 0 208 1 + 13 + 13 169 364 + 382 10276 209 0 + 14 + 0 0 210 1 + 15 + 15 225 364 + 645 11962 , 2(20;) _ -1015 + 645 1-0165 M , -1142 + 38 -= -20879 Mi - N 364 364 , 2(«a;2) 11962 = 32-863 , 10276 OQ 24 ^ N 364 - ! 364 8 Mean length = 195 - 1-0165 = 193-9835 Mean breadth = 155 - 2-0879 = 153-881 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL ANJ) ANTHROPOLOGICAL any two samples drawn from the same material. This maximum possible difference of sampling is calculated by the formula :— where (the numbers chosen in our last example). Calling distances from these axes ac' and y' we find -('f'y') This is done by multiplying the frequency in each small square on the chart by the product of its .*' and t/', then adding them all together. In doing this we must remember that the products are SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 97 positive in two quadrants and negative in the other two quadrants, as indicated in the figure. In getting the total we of course subtract the negative products from the positive products. For the 364 Aberdeenshire peasantry I have found 2(zy) = 4933. We obtain £(•«/) about the means by the formula where -7 and y are the distances of the arbitrary axes from the mean axes. This gives %(xy) = 4933 - 364 x xy. = 4933 - 772-53. = 4160-47. 4160-47 " 364 x 5-64 x 4-88' = -41454. Seeing that the maximum possible correlation is unity, this in- dicates a fairly high correlation between breadths and lengths of head, or, strictly speaking, between their deviations from the means, among the East Aberdeenshire peasantry. PROBABLE ERROR. Every value calculated from the statistics of a sample is liable to be different when calculated from another sample of the same M P population. The frequencies of deviations from the mean value follow the normal curve just as they do in tossing pennies or throwing dice. A deviation MP, which makes the two cross-hatched areas equal, is 13 (JH i'KOCKEDINOS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTII KOl'OLOGICA I, called the I'rolmlilc Error. It means that if a measurement is made of a person taken at random from the whole population, the chances of this measurement being a greater or less distance from the mean than the probable error are equal. The probable error = standard deviation x -(37449. The mathematical theory of the law of error is too extensive to be expounded in this paper. I shall content myself therefore by giving the formula1 for finding the probable errors of the leading anthropometric values :— '67449 Probable error of a mean = - or. ^ Take for example the mean head length of the 364 persons already found to be 19:5 '0835. Probable error = - ~ x 5-642 v/364 = -1993. The mean length should therefore be written 193*9835 ± *1993. Probable eiror of standard deviation = —, - o-. N/2N The general formula for finding the probable error of any /*„. •67449 _ Probable error in «„ = — — - ./„ _ U2 VN The mean and (standard deviation)- are ^ and /t.2, so that their probable errors can be deduced from the general formulae. The probable errors of all values calculated from the statistics of samples should invariably be calculated and stated as ± after the value, otherwise we are liable to deduce erroneous conclusions from our results. I have not been able to give more than a very general exposition of the new method of treating anthropometric statistics as the subject is very extensive and would require a course of lectures rather than a single paper to give you a real working knowledge of it. What I have said may, however, stimulate some of you to pursue the subject further, SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 99 ORDINARY MEETINd. BOTH JANUARY, 1904. Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.K.C.S., President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. Accounts of anatomical variations found in the dissecting room were read by the various observers. Professor Reid exhibited a series of frozen sections of the human head which he had prepared for exhibition in the Anatomical Museum. He first pointed out the anatomical details shown in each section, and then by means of the lantern he transferred the section to the screen, where the details were viewed on an enlarged scale. With a vote of thanks to Professor Reid for his interesting de- monstration the meeting closed. SAGITTAL AND COEONAL SECTIONS OF THE HUMAN HEAD. By R. W. RKID, M.D., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy, Aberdeen University. (With Plates XV. -XXV III.} The following reproductions of photographs taken in the Ana- tomical Department of sagittal and coronal sections of the head, recently placed upon the shelves of the Anatomical Museum, are of interest from a topographical point of view. The sections were made with the view of showing the undisturbed relations of portions of the head in certain planes which were con- sidered to be of advantage in the study of the anatomy of that part of the body, more especially from the medical and surgical point of view. They form an addition to the already numerous representations of the human head in fro/en section. They do not pretend in any way to take the place of a careful study of the original specimens themselves, for the sections are replete with information which no reproduction can possibly display. 100 I'UOCKKDINlis OF TMK ANATOMICAL AND AN THKOl'OUXJICA I. The heads from which the sections have been made were pre- viously hardened in a solution of formalin, subsequently frozen, and thereafter cut with a saw whose teeth made a rent of i.th of an inch as they passed to and fro. A considerable amount of tissue consequently went as debris, and was on this account inevitably lost. The vacancy thus caused accounts for the apparent discrepancy between the appearances pre- sented by the opposing surfaces of sections illustrated in certain of the plates. A detailed description of the various structures exposed to view in the individual reproductions seems unnecessary, for the key placed over each plate with leading lines to the prominent landmarks more or less takes such a place. I have to thank my senior assistant, Mr. Alexander Low, M.B., for the help which he gave in the whole matter, and Messrs. Andre & Sleigh, Limited, for the care which they bestowed in reproducing the photographs which were submitted to them. EECOKD OF ANATOMICAL VAEIATIONS. Date of observation, December, 190:5. Sex, Male. Abnormal atlas vertebra. In this case there is on the left side an arched spiculum, coming out from the superior articular process and curving backwards, but not reaching to the posterior arch. The spiculum is about ^ inch long and } inch broad, and is quite hard and firmly attached to the bone. On the right side there is a small oval mass of bone, which lias evi- dently been developed from a separate centre of ossification. It is attached by ligamentous fibres to the back of the superior articular process, and is smaller and more cancellous in structure than the process on the left side. (Signature of observer) NORMAN S. GIWHRIST. PLATE XV. — Photograph of head of female subject, aged 63 years, with dark lines indicating planes of sagittal sections. Section 1. Through right lachrymal papillae. „ 2. Immediately to right of middle line, „ 3. Through middle of left pupil. Frontal sinus. Upper eyelid. Internal carotid artery. Antrum i if Highmore. 3rd molar tooth. Body of lower jaw. Submaxillary }>land. Fissure of Rolando. Insula. Lenticular nucleus. Descending horn of lateral ventricle. Hippocampus major. Tentorium cerebelli. Lateral sinus. Cerebellum. Lateral sinus. Atlas. External carotid artery. Internal PLATE XVI. — Sagittal section of head through right lachrymal papillae viewed from the left side. Line of section is marked 1 in plate XV. .obni .fcual'juii n.lu^iln-j.l i lh)n3v *uqms-joqqiH muiiulrrjT .•urn* l lernsJ/H lantalnl l£)riOt>I .bil3(3 isqq'J to rnu-ilnA .riloot •o.lurn bit: •jill mo-ii |j3//aiv j.Jliqsq iKmyirljBl Jrijil rij(uo'irl1 bB3rl '' sMigJig— .1VX 3TAJ<1 .3bi* rtsl .7X alKlq ni I bsjhErn m noilos* 1o 3niJ If, ' Fissure of Rolando. Choroid plexus. Caudate nucleus. Hippocampus major. Internal carotid artery. Right occipito-atloid joint. External carotid artery. Internal ,, ,, Lenticular nucleus. Frontal sinus. Sclerotic. Lachrymal canaliculus. Opening of antrum. Antrum of Highmore. 2nd molar tooth. Margin of tongue. Body of lower jaw. Submaxillary gland. PLATE XVII.— Sagittal section of head through right lachrymal papillae viewed from the right side. Line of section is marked 1 in plate XV. .muiJriB 1o irtjjiH to .riloot iKlorn bfii.' .3U v .auxslq bioioriO .lojem ; biloisa .Iniuj, biolls-o)iqi330 IsnisixS Ifim-jlnl moil bsv/aiv 3Klliqsq lum/irl-jKl Irish rfjjuoirlj besrl lo noitaoe IsiligsH — .1I'/X .•ib<* trlyh .VX 3lelq ni I birf-inrn ^.i noitoae 'to sniJ Corpus Right frontal lobe, callosum. Superior longi- tudinal sinus. Fissure of Rolando. Frontal sinus. Caudate nucleus. Optic thalamus. Anterior commissure. Optic tract. Pituitary body. Ethmoidal bulla. Middle turbinal. Inferior turbinal. Eustachian tube. Soft palate. Atlas. Axis. Right central incisor tooth. 3rd cervical vertebra. Hyoid bone. Thyroid cartilage. •— Calloso marginal sulcus. Int. par. occ. sulcus. Lateral ventricle. Fornix. Post, calcar. sulcus. Tentorium cerebelli. Sphenoidal sinus. Cerebellum. 5th PLATE XVIII. — Sagittal section of head immediately to right of middle line viewed from the left side. Line of section is marked 2 in plate XV. .«U3lu» lenigism lli.D .aualuij jji/ .'u;q .tnl • nln-jv ImaJB.l ./irnoH . Jeo1! t fnuinoJn'jT -igm .obru. .sdol lsJn.n1 .aunig iKtrioil .i!U3l3Un 9Jl: .xumBluri) .•jTua^irrtmo'j lohaJnA .13BT> ailqO .ybod ^Bliuiil .Blluri lubiomrlia .lenidnui -MAuli .IcniriiuJ loh-jlnl .riJool rno-il btiv/uiv anil olbbim to Irigh ol ylaleiti-jmmi bssrl lo nuila'j* lKJ«ijj(i2 — .IIIVX .•jbi* rtal aril .VX slslq ni S; bsilism «i noilaae lo aniJ Corpus callosum. Fissure of Rolando. Optic thalamus Left frontal lolie. Superior longitudinal sinus. Calloso marginal sulcus. Right callosal gyrus. Int. par. occ. sulcus. Right lateral ventricle. Fornix. Post, calcar. sulcus. Mesencephalon . Tentorium cerebelli. Corpus dentatum. Pyramidal fibres of pons. Medulla oblongata. Atlas. Spine of 2nd cerv. vertebra. 3rd „ 4th „ 5th Falx cerebri. Frontal sinus. Septum lucidum. Foramen of Munro. Anterior commissure. Anterior pillar of fornix. Optic tract. Basi-sphenoid. Nasal septum. Basi-occipital. Opening of Eustachian tube. Soft palate. Atlas. Body of axis. 3rd cervical vertebra. Body of jaw. Hyoid bone. 4th cervical vertebra. Laryngeal pharynx. Thyroid cartilage. Body of 5th cervical vertebra. PLATE XIX.— Sagittal section of head immediately to right of middle line viewed from the right side. Line of section is marked 2 in plate XV. 31: *unrf; lulnonH .rnuboul mu)qa«! .tnnul/. trljjh 3ft» ni ! .XJO .n«q .Inl iin .i&3le3 1 muhoJnsT :n>q Id -fJV\'A Isbi BflubaM bnS lo • bifi illl- rl)R — ./IX HTAjl utii.I Frontal sinus. Posterior chamber of eyeball. Antrum of Highmore. Body of lower jaw. Fissure of Rolando. Insula. Lateral sinus. Middle ear. Styloid process. Lateral mass of atlas. PLATE XX.— Sagittal section of head through middle of left pupil viewed from the left side. Line of section is marked 3 in plate XV. .obn •nq tjittl iH 1o muiinA .WBl I3'f/Ol \0 moil bswsiv liquq list 1o albbim rigucnrfJ bsarl 1o noiJD3« lB»i8js8— .XX .abia JHI .VX slBlq ni G ba^lism «i noi}j-« lo anij .3-iomrigiH 'to rnuilnA .IB) i .V/BJ, 13Wol to 3riJ moil bswsiv Iiquq flal 1» albbim Hgoo-iril bsatl lo noiJaas I»;JJia68— .IXX .3bis )dgii .VX 3J«lq ni 8 bs>l-iBm *i noil33« 1o sniJ ,8uivly8 >.t;l)K 'to tenm 1 PLATE XXII.— Photograph of head of female subject, aged 33 years, with dark lines indicating planes of coronal sections. Section I. Through external angular process. ,, 2. Through middle of zygomatic arch. „ 3. Through depression in front of tragus. „ 4. Just behind posterior attachment of pinna. ,, 5. Midway between external auditory meatus and external occipital protuberance. (No section made in plane marked 6.) LEFT SIDE. Left frontal lobe. Symphysis menti. RIGHT SIDE. Superior longitudinal sinus. Falx cerebri. r.nrhrymal gland, / roc. frontal bone, lens, si. Ext. ang. p \ Inferior turbinal. Highmore. i tooth, d tooth. — .— • — Antrum of Septum linguae \ / 1 * U* • . / I' U"P PLATK XXIII. — Coronal section of head through external angular process of frontal bone viewed from behind. Line of section is marked 1 in plate XXII. Isnibuiign ;rid ' 1 .S"K •>x^1 .*ri3l anil,- :n rnutqsfi .1-jub .•jTomrijjiH In munin/-. .rlJoo) biq^u'jid >*I .clioiil ljK)*Lrjirj bnl! .bfiiil^ liiij^nilduK riaJ .adol iBlncnl .BnitaM .mijlijrlibnulnl .iKnirliuJ slbbif/ .Isnidiu) lohslnl .ylivu'j IinO .rljool biq^u-jid bnS lulnoil 1o *ao:xxiq islujjn/! li>niatxi> rigwnril buarl l .bnirijfi mini b'j'//3r/ .II/X aielq ni [ b-jJ-iKm ni noirj-jn to -jni.l IsnoioO— .IIIXX HTAJ*? RIGHT SIDE. Right frontal lobe. Frontal sinus. Crista galli. Hiatus semilunaris. Opening of antrum. Superior maxillary nerve. 2nd bicuspid tooth. Sublingual gland. LEFT SIDE. Superior longitudinal sinus. Falx cerebri. Frontal sinus. Lachrymal gland. Retina. Middle turbinal. Septum nasi. Inferior turbinal. Oral cavity. Septum linguae. 1st molar tooth. 2nd bicuspid tooth. Symphysis menti. PLATE XXIV. — Coronal section of head through external angular process of frontal bone viewed from the front. Line of section is marked 1 in plate XXII. .30 lg T-. iBnil uljj Urnv irl-ji;.! lunidiu) a j 1/r •j.nil rn "in lei rllool Liq«ujid LnL' TIIOlJI ?„ ir)SJH .*nfinit! .rnuunis ?o ^ninsqO .dlool biqeuaid bnS bneljj Jno-il -jrlj mini b-. .IIXX -jJ<;Iq ni I bail-iem RIGHT SIDE. Right frontal lobe. Fissure of Sylvius. Temporo-sphcnoidal lobe. Right sphenoidal sinus. Inferior turbinal. Opening of Eustachian tube. Coronoid process. Soft palate. Inferior lingualis muscle. Lingual artery. Genio-hyo-glossus muscle. Genio-hyoid muscle. Mylohyoid muscle. LEFT SIDE. Superior longitudinal sinus. Falx cerebri. Corpus callosum. Ant. horn lat. vent. Lesser wing of sphenoid. Optic nerve. Left sphenoidal sinus. Great wing of sphenoid. Zygoma. Nasal septum. Left nasal fossa. [palate hot Pterygoid plates and tub. Coronoid process. Alveolar proc. of sup. maxilla. Cavity of mouth. Superior lingualis muscle. Lingual septum. Hyoglossus muscle. Submaxillary gland. Mylohyoid muscle. Submaxillary gland. Digastric muscle. PLATE XXV. — Coronal section of head through middle of zygomatic arches viewed fr the front. Line of section is marked 2 in plate XXII. •om .mu«>llEO •>H . i :qO broriarlqa 'io yriiv/ ;> .mu . osvIA .i -iol-1'jquf! . jlv - i .!•{!/. :nrJu2 .adol lebi< ig Itbiorisriqe Jrl •jlnl .ol'jaum bin in /// .M/X jir.lq rii i '^1 RIGHT SIDE. Right frontal lobe. LEFT SIDE. Superior longitudinal sinus. Falx cerebri. Nucleus caudatus. Fornix. Optic thalamus. Insula. Lenticular nucleus. mporo-sphenoidal lobe. Basi-occipital. Condyle of lower jaw. Internal carotid artery. Atlas. Parotid gland. 7 Corpus callosum. Lateral ventricle. Third ventricle. Internal capsule. External capsule. Squamous part of temporal bone. Pons varolii. Petrous bone. Internal carotid artery. External auditory canal. Odontoid process of axis. External carotid artery. Common carotid artery. Lymphatic gland. PLATE XXVI.-Corona. section of head through depression in front of tragus viewed from the front. Line of section is marked 3 in plate XXII. Hvl .i-iHs-i THOlH .sclol Iclno-ri itiav biirlT n-jiril no*] l£-i<>qin-JJ 1" .an . jKil 1 /•, .ilqmv.l .moil utll .ll/X uJiilq ni t: baihum «i " bun-j Kual .nluenl ^ff-.^K> ,. ,. lap8iM0. ) RK;HT SIDE. Fissure of Rolando. Calloso-marginal sulcus. Parietal lobe. Fissure of Sylvius. Lateral ventricle. uamous part of temporal. Tentorium cerebelli. Right cerebellar lobe. Mastoid cells. Occipital bone. Styloid process. Spinal cord. LEFT SIDE. Superior longitudinal sinu Falx cerebri. Fissure of Rolando. Inferior longitudinal sinus Corpus callosum. Temporo-sphenoidal lobe. Mastoid antrum. Inferior vermiform proces; Lateral sinus. Atlas. Artie, proc. 2nd cer. vertel ,, 3rd „ „ 4th „ Body of oth cer. vertebra. PLATE XXVII. — Coronal section of head just behind posterior attachment of pinna viewed from the front. Line of section is marked 4 in plate XXII. .ob qfnaT . rnu "I rrnoiirnvj/ -mi- till- .obnBloi .alahlnsv neq awon srlgifl .IflOl .!!/./ -jJi;lq ni t- b-jthEii "iij RIGHT SIDE. Lateral sinus. Falx cerebelli. LEFT SIDE. Superior longitudinal sinus. Occipital lobe. Parietal bone. Tentorium cerebelli. Cerebellum. Occipital bone. Ligamentum nuchae PLATE XXVIII. — Coronal section of head midway between external auditory meat us and external occipital protuberance viewed from the front. Line of section is marked 5 in plate XXII. (The plane of the section is somewhat oblique.) .HCJlg THOl! .mulla lj;]i 'in-\-jtyj t; ilulo-rrj lu:. .IIXX 3li;!q rii r ij-j/hi;rn A m ,m.I "'''" Ji;rlv/ ,,:| SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 101 Date of observation, December, U»0:>. Sex, Male. Abnormal insertion of the extensor ossis metacarjti pollicis. In this case the tendon split into two parts about ~2 inches from its insertion. The larger part went to the base of the first metacarpal, while the other split into two — one going to the abductor, while the other went to the trapezium and adjacent ligament. (Signature of observer) NOKMAX S. GILCHRIST. Date of observation, December, 1900. Sex, Female. Abnormal bursa on back of knee-joint (rir/kt). The bursa is kidney-shaped, having two lobes and a constriction separating them, and lies with its longest axis supero-inferiorly, and curved so that the poles are more internal than the body of the bursa. The upper and smaller lobe runs from without, inwards and down- wards towards the attachment of the bursa, whilst the lower lobe runs horizontally from without inwards to the same attachment. The constriction runs from without inwards and slightly downwards to within \ inch from the attachment of the lobes, and is deeper and wider externally than near the attachment. The bursa measures .")•.") cm. in its greatest length, 3'8 cm. in its greatest breadth and 34 cm. in its greatest depth, and lies between the semi-membranosus and the inner head of the gastrocnemius, and overlaps the internal popliteal nerve and popliteal vessels. It is external and inferior to the inner condyle of the femur. The bursa is attached externally to the inner margin and lower surface of the inner head of the gastroc- nemius for about 1 inch, and to the oblique ligament, while internally it is attached to the outer margin and lower surface of the semi- membranosus for about t inch. Its relations posteriorly are the fascia and integument, externally the inner head of the gastrocnemius, internally the semi-membranosus and anteriorly the posterior and oblique ligaments. (Signature of observer) JAMES GORDON DANSON. 102 PROCKKPINOS OK T1IK ANATOMICAL AND AN TH Koi'Ol.OUICAL Date of observation, January, Sex, Female. Side, Left. Supra-condylar process. The process was found on the internal surface of the humerus, midway between the anterior and internal borders, and '2 inches above the internal condyle. It was triangular with the apex, which was hook-shaped, directed downwards, forwards and inwards. The length was 1£ inches, the height g inch. The process was composed almost entirely of cancellous tissue. A band of ligament was found passing from the apex to the internal intermuscular septum a little above the internal condyle. A few fibres of the pronator radii teres and of the braehialis anticus arose from the process. The brachial artery showed a high division, both trunks passing in front of the process. The median nerve passed behind the process. A slight ridge was found in a corresponding situation on the right humerus. (Signature of observer) WILLIAMINA ABEL. Date of observation, January, 1004. Sex, Male. Artflry from superior mesenteric to right lobe of liver. An artery about the size of an average radial artery arose from the superior mesenteric about £ an inch from its origin. Passing upwards and to the right behind the head of the pancreas it crossed behind the bile duct and so gained its right side. It retained this relation to the duct as far as the junction of the cystic and hepatic ducts. At this point the artery broke up into two branches, both of which entered the right lobe of the liver at the junction of the transverse fissure with the fissure for the gall-bladder. Two branches were given oft" from the artery during its course, one to the gall-bladder and one to the pancreas and second stage of the duodenum. (Signature of observer) A. .S. LESLIE. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 103 Date of observation, January, 1904. Sex, Male. Abnormality in the inferior vena, cavo,. The left common iliac vein did not cross behind the artery as usual, but continued its course along the left side of the aorta till it met the left renal vein. The union of these two veins formed a dilated sinus in front of the aorta. This dilated sinus then joined the right common iliac vein at its junction with the right renal vein, and so formed the inferior vena cava at the level of the body of the second lumbar vertebra. The right spermatic vein entered the right common iliac at its junction with the right renal. The left spermatic vein entered the left common iliac about an inch below its junction with the left renal. (Signature of observer) A. S. LESLIE. Date of observation, January, 1904. Sex, Male. Mesentery to descending colon. The length of this mesentery from the splenic flexure to the level of the anterior superior spine of the ilium was 4 inches. Horizontally it measured just below the splenic flexure 2^ inches, in the middle 3^ inches, and at the level of the anterior superior spine 2^ inches. There was an, intersigmoid fossa along the floor of which the left ureter lay. Between the two layers of peritoneum forming the mesentery there was a tine sheet of tissue resembling peritoneum and readily separable from both peritoneal layers. The blood-vessels of the bowel lay between this sheet of tissue and the anterior layer of the peritoneum. (Signature of observer) A. S. LESLIE. 104 1'ROUKKDIXGS OF THK ANATOMICAL AM) ANTHROPOLOGICAL ORDINARY MEETING. •27 Til FKIJWAUY, 1904. Professor R, W. RKID, M.D., F.R.C.S., President, in the Chair. Mr. F. W. Moir, M.B., Medical Officer of the Ashanti Gold Fields Corporation and of the Colonial Office, delivered a lecture on the people of Ashanti, and exhibited a number of curiosities of Ashanti manufacture, including gold weights, jujus, drums, carving and pottery, all of which he presented to the Anthropological Museum. The meeting concluded with a cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Moir for his interesting lecture. THE PEOPLE OF ASHANTI. By Mr. F. W. Mom, M.B., Medical Officer of the Ashanti Gold Fields Corpora- tion and of the Colonial Office. Ashanti is on the Gold Coast of West Africa, The whole of that country was generally designated as Guinea. On the west side is the Ivory Coast, belonging to France, and on the south-east is Dahomey, again belonging to France. To the north is Togoland, belonging to Germany. The principal ports from west to east (in the Gulf of Guinea) are Axim, Sekondi, Cape Coast Castle, and Accra, Until quite recently Cape Coast Castle was the chief port for traders in rubber, cocoa, kolo, palm oil, gold dust, etc. Swanzy Bros., who are very old traders on the coast, were asked by the Colonial Office how much gold had been exported from Cape Coast Castle in their time, so far as they could tell. They replied that they could only speak for themselves, and that for the past hundred years they had exported 2,000,000 ounces of gold dust got by trading with the natives. T may mention that the price or equivalent given was 7'2s. per ox. in silver or goods. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 105 From between the years lH99and 1900 gold ceased to be brought to the coast from Ashanti for barter, and also ceased to be the currency of the country, the reason being that syndicates began to take up concessions from the kings and chiefs, consequently they stopped all native workings. A native would give a chief, say, 50 ounces for the privilege of working for gold within the said chief's boundary. Now that the railway has been opened from the port of Sekondi to Kumasi, the capital of Ashanti, it has become the chief port on the Gold Coast, but the Ashantis, who are a most conservative people, continue to carry their goods to Cape Coast Castle for trading purposes. The country, from the coast to nearly two hundred miles north, was inhabited at one time by the Fantees, a tribe of very finely de- veloped men and women, who have been in great demand for slaves in Northern Africa and America, or wherever slaves were required. The Ashantis came from the north and drove the Fantees to the coast, helping themselves to slaves from amongst them when they thought fit. The result is that the Fantees are a clever, cunning, deceitful and cowardly people. The headquarters of the Fantee people is at Anamabo, near Saltpond, on the coast. There is to be found probably the purest breed on the coast, the purest Fantee language spoken and the handsomest and best-featured women. From their long intercourse with the Fantees the Ashantis, to a great extent, have become mixed, with the exception of reigning families and families of chiefs, also the inhabitants of towns (e.g., Agogo) and villages away in the north-east Hinterland, where one may see the pure-bred Ashanti, many of them having well-marked Arab features. The average Ashanti is tall, thin and wiry, not capable of great immediate bodily exertion, but of great endurance. Some of them have a very fierce appearance, with widely dilated and laterally curved nostrils, the curve being so marked in some cases as to appear like a slit separating the ala from the cheek. The women are well shaped for the most part, but not comely to look at. Relatives of 14 10(5 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANA I OMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL kings and chiefs are better looking, having better features and smaller and better shaped hands and feet. Their dress, men and women, is simply a native or European cotton cloth surrounding the body and thrown over the shoulder ; beneath this both men and women wear a loin cloth. The women generally have a girdle of beads, and wear a piece of cloth fastened to this back and front. For ornaments men wear rings and bracelets made of gold. The rings are worn on all the fingers, some of them very large and of artistic designs — designs taken from the stars seem to be the favourite, also Zodiac rings are worn. The women wear rings, earrings, bracelets with gold nuggets and anklets of beads made from agate. Every village of any size has its goldsmith, and every king has his court jeweller. The staple food of the country is plantain, in appearance very much like banana, but very different in taste. The plantain is prepared in the following manner for food : It is stripped of the husk, and a sufficient quantity for the family is put into a wooden trough ; it is then pounded and beaten with a long stick by one of the females, while another keeps turning it between each stroke, dipping her hands in water all the while. This is done until it becomes like a piece of dough in appearance and consistence. The pounding seems to bring it into a homogeneous mass and at the same time mixes it with air. After this it is boiled for a time, and then may be eaten with the product of bruised palm nuts, which may have been boiled with it or separately. Plantain in this form is fu fu = our porridge. Plantain is rich in potash salts, starch, etc. Palm nuts are rich in oils. Flesh meat is eaten when- ever it can be had. Fowls make a favourite dish served up with palm oil and fu fu. Deer (sheep), monkeys, bush rats, inquanas, porcupines, are all eaten by the Ashantis and all West African tribes. They are very fond of " stink fish," which they get from the coast. The fish is in a half-cured, half-decomposed state. / hate seen no leprosy in the country a* a rcsit/l. Yams, cassava, koko, ground nuts, paw paw, all help to form the food of the country. The first three are roots after the potato in taste and in feeding properties. The paw paw is the fruit of a succulent tree, and can be cooked as a vegetable SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 107 when unripe, and used as a fruit when ripe. If tough meat is rubbed with a paw paw it becomes tender. When the food is cooked it is put into a large earthenware dish, then each member of the family helps himself with a large wooden spoon, that is to say, he places his portion on a plate and eats it with his fingers. The female portion of the household, as a rule, have their meals by themselves. The principal meal of the day is taken at night, and for this the greatest preparation is made. When the men go to the bush to hunt or cut timber they take yams, plantain or koko and roast them at a fire ; this, along with a drink of palm wine or water, satisfies them during the day. They carry their fire with them in the form of a smouldering stick. The Ashantis are polygamous, a man having one, two, three or more wives according to his means. Each wife has her own estab- lishment for herself and family. For the most part they seem to get on without friction, and the husband is kind to his wives and children. I have never seen an Ashanti Hog or ill-treat a child, nor have I seen marks of ill-treatment on the children. Boys accompany their fathers, girls their mothers. The former generally go to the bush and learn all about bushcraft, finding paths, making and setting traps for monkeys, rats, leopards, bush cats, etc., fishing, timber-cutting, house-building and such like, while girls learn all about farming, clearing away weeds and undergrowth, cutting down plantain, planting and all work pertaining to the farm. The hard work is done by the women. All carrying is done on the top of the head and by the women and girls. There is a very strong likeness to the father in families of chiefs extending to the lateral branches. This may strike one because one does not always see the mothers. Only once have I seen albinos, that was at Dounelerei, 100 miles north-east of Kuniasi. There were two brothers there, and a history of two in a former generation, males also. Malaria does not appear to affect the Ashantis to any great extent. I have seen a Kroo boy and Fantees very ill with malaria 10H F'Kot'KKDINUS OF TIIK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL but never an Ashanti, although I have no doubt that they do suffer from it. The Ashantis arc proud and haughty and cany themselves ac- cordingly. They never have been made slaves. For a West African people they are brave and do not fear death. Many of the chiefs are perfect heathen gentlemen, most hospitable and kind, and their superi- ority to the ordinary native in breeding and manner is very marked. The Ashantis are a very prolific people, hence the country is thickly populated. I never heard of a girl having a child before marriage. This may be accounted for by the fact that many of the girls are married before reaching puberty, up to which time they continue to live with their parents. They are as a whole a moral people, a wife rarely being unfaithful to her husband. Such a crime is punishable with death, that is, the husband can kill the woman if he likes, and get the other guilty party fined by bringing him before the king or chief. A girl reaches the age of puberty about twelve years. She is then decorated with all the family gold or- naments, fine cloth to the waist, above the waist she is painted fetish, then paraded through the village accompanied by her female com- panions singing, chanting and dancing. It is a great feast. The older women accompany her to the river or nearest stream where she washes every scrap of clothing belonging to her. Then the old women wash her and shave her head. Other ceremonials having been gone through she is ready to join her husband if she has one, if not she waits until some young man fancies her and is willing to work for money to buy her. The consent of the chief has to be obtained. A sheep cannot be sold by the owner without the chief's permission. When women become pregnant they do not live apart from their husbands. Labour is easy, and is accomplished in the erect posture, the woman holding on with both hands to a fn fu stick or a house support and the legs apart. In multipart- the child is frequently born rather suddenly, and may be suspended by the umbilical cord. This weakens or mayhap tears the abdominal wall, the result being umbilical hernia. Nearly 30 per cent, of the children in Ashanti SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 109 suffer from this. During lactation the mother is separated from her husband, all her powers being devoted to the nourishing of the child. A woman is not supposed to be able to rear twins, therefore one is sacrificed, sometimes both. If both then the father of one was an evil spirit, and not being able to decide which both are thrown into the bush. A child is weaned within a year. Like the women of many African races the women purposely elongate their breasts so that they can throw them over their shoulder to the child behind or under the arm as most convenient. They do not elongate the nipple. When the child is born its head is bandaged tightly so as to com- press it into a conical shape. This custom prevails chiefly among the pure-bred Ashantis and higher castes. In the adult it gives an appearance very like that seen in Egyptian sculpture. This is the only deformation I have observed amongst the Ashantis. A child is named apart from the family name, according to circumstances, e.g., Mensah is a common name, it means the third son in succession, Quashie means Sunday, because the child was born on that day, Tamalmv means tardy of development, or long in coming, and so on. The average span of life is not long ; not many men reach the age of sixty. The King of Bompata is an old man, decrepit, blind and toothless. I thought he must be over ninety, but was surprised to learn he was only sixty. Women age rapidly, and when they cease to be able to carry water and cook they soou die. The pathology of West Africa includes for the most part that of tropical medicine. As regards the Ashantis they are perhaps more immune from disease than any of the other races met with on the Gold Coast. If one finds syphilis it can be traced to a visit to the coast ; yaws and the like to their intercourse with the Fantees. I have seen one case of goundon beyond Kumasi in a small bush hamlet, but on inquiry 1 found this place, Barabadoe, to be the remains of an old Apollonian mining camp, and that the inhabitants were not pure Ashantis. They are all subject to skin diseases such as " craw craw," dhobic itch, tuica imbricata, " chiggers," caused by the pulex penetrans. I have frequently met with " ainhum " (nigger's ring toe) amongst the 110 PROCEEDINGS OP THK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL Fantees, but never amongst the Ashantis, neither have I met with Guinea worm amongst them. It may he mentioned here that the Kroo boys inoculate their children for yaws. Like all African races the Ashanti's most vulnerable site for disease is the lung. Acute disease of the lungs is the most frequent cause of death. They know this and a slight attack of bronchitis, pleurisy or pneumonia is quite sufficient to make them turn their face to the wall and die. In isolated villages where intermarriage is prevalent one finds a great deal of physical deformity and dementia. One village I have in mind is Odumassi, 30 miles north-east of Knmasi. I saw hunchbacks, club feet, dements, and one man with rudimentary legs and feet so that he had to get about on all fours, his hands being protected by sandals. The chief of this village was a dement and had to be looked after. Tetanus is of common occurrence in Ashanti as it is in other parts of Western Africa. Certain soil known to the natives seems to be a sure cause of this disease, so much so that tribes who use arrows or spears in warfare poison them by sticking them into the soil or smearing them with it. The Ashantis are good carpenters, carvers, house-builders and potters. In all this they are superior to the Fantee and South African races. The better class of house (Fig. 1) is built of a double framework of wood. This framework is filled in and Hushed with " swish," a mixture of clay, wood and vegetable ash, this again being smoothed over with a grey clay which becomes hard and impervious to rain, giving the house the appearance of being built of concrete. The houses are thatched with palm branches and plantain leaves. The thatch is fixed on to a frame with " tie tie," each frame being 10 x (5 feet or more. Each of these is hoisted on to the roof by ropes made of " tie tie," the thatching being thus done in sections. The thatch would not keep out the rain were it not that the roof is of a high pitch. The rooms are all separate, no room opening into another. The cooking may be done in a kitchen in the back yard if it rains, but it is mostly done in the courtyard (Fig. 4). SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. Ill FIG. 1.— Ashanti native room. FIG. 2. — Clay pillar on either side of door of chiefs house. FIG. 3. — Clay panel on native house. Cat. 10 >""'"' FIG. 4. — Plan of Ashanti native house. 112 ]'K<>('KKl>IN<;s OF TIIK AXA1 < ).M 1CAI, AND ANTH KOl'OIXMilCAl, Weaving, basket-making and mat-making are done by the men, ] tottery by the women. Next year I hope to be able to show you native cloth, baskets and mats. In connection with house-building I omitted to mention that some of the older houses exhibit ornamental designs on the outside walls panels with curved corners, the centre being filled in with a sort of diamond-shaped pattern (Figs. 2 and 5J). " Tie tie " is the name of the string or twine used by the natives. It is a thin wiry creeper found in the forest on certain trees. Five or six strands make a very strong rope capable of lasting a long time as damp does not affect it. Pottery is made in most villages, generally from two kinds of clay but sometimes from a mixture of both. One clay is red, the other which is finer is bluish-grey, not unlike the blue clay of Staffordshire. The coarser pots are made from the first ; the dishes for food and those for boiling water and cooking purposes are made from the second. The pots are of various shapes, the shape depending upon the use the pot is to be put to. The most ornamental are those intended for water-carrying and for holding water for drinking pur- poses in the house. The pots are moulded with the hand then dried in the sun before being put into the kiln. When baked sufficiently the kiln is allowed to cool, then the pots are taken out and dyed black with a vegetable dye obtained from the seeds of a shrub. Then they are polished with very fine sand and a cloth. The metals in use are gold, iron, brass and bronze. Most of the gold and brass ornaments are cast in moulds made thus : The de- sign is made of bamboo pith ; this is surrounded with clay then heated until the pith is destroyed, then the molten metal is poured in through a hole left for the purpose. In Laye villages there is usually to be found a primitive forge and a blacksmith. They make and repair farm implements, knives, cutlasses for cutting paths through the bush, and in former days instruments of torture such as iron thumb-rings for hanging a man up by the thumbs. The ring is double, one for tying the rope to, the SOCIKTV OK THK UNIVERSITY OK AUKRDERN. 113 othei' for tho thumb ; the part 1'or the thumb has small spikes inside. These were used and are still occasionally used for suspected thieves to make them discover where they had hidden stolen property. I know of one instance where this treatment was most effectual. The Ashantis are most conservative. Fantees, Kroo boys and other tribes will give a great deal to get European dress, but I have never seen an Ashanti in such dress. The same applies to their religion and all their customs and all their traditions. As regards the two last named thev are most reticent. FIG. 5. — Plan of Ashanti native gold mine. Gold mining has been a staple industry of the country for gener- ations. The workings are alluvial and have been worked by the Ashantis and their slaves. Native workings are found all through the country by streams and forest paths, some extensive, others a few solitary pits by the path side. The modtix opei'autli is a round pit sunk to water level just big enough for one man to work in. The soil is raised by a man on the bank with basket and rope. When water level is reached, i.e., about 40 ft., a tunnel is driven for about 15 to 20 ft. This may be done in four directions, then other shafts are sunk all joining each other like this. If the soil is rich they keep on digging and washing. Three shillings worth of gold per dav is good recora- 15 Ill I'UOCKKPINOS OK TIIK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL pense : the average might be -Js. At Cape Coast Castle after the heavv rains a great deal of soil is washed down from the rocks to the shore. Old women wash this soil and get Is. <>d. worth of gold pel- day out of it. The Ashantis had a most elaborate system of gold weights. They could weigh from 3d. worth of gold up to £6 worth. The smaller quantity was weighed by seeds, the larger by brass weights. These are to be seen in the Anthropological Museum. The gold industry so far as the native is concerned is very nearly a thing of the past, along with their weights and goldsmiths. I have only once seen sculpture in stone in Ashanti, although I have reason to believe that there are specimens here and there to be seen and more hidden for safety. What I saw were heads and busts at the foot of a very high tree in a Ju Ju grove between Bompata and Donva. They appeared to me to be Egyptian. I inquired as to their history, but all I could learn was that they had been there as long as the village, and that they came down from the top of the tree. The Ashantis generally speaking are not cannibals, but upon several occasions and on good authority I have been told that the Ju Ju men at Apyalium, formerly the royal town of the King of Jaulim, used to eat children on great occasions. The Kroo boys are still cannibals and file their teeth to show that they are. The religion of the Ashantis is simple in essence but elaborate in practice. They believe in a Supreme Being — God — the Creator of all things and who is their last end. They also believe that they are sur- rounded by evil spirits in this life, and that every evil that can come to them is from one or other evil spirit. Sickness, injury, death, fire, destruction of house, crops, in short, any adverse circumstance that can befall one in this life is attributed to an evil-disposed spirit, all of which are antagonistic to the Creator and to the shades of their an- cestors. This is the key to and motive of all religious practice and what is called fetish (Ju Ju). Ju Ju is simply the term or name applied to all pertaining to what is sacred. Ju Ju is not a god as is generally supposed. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 115 Fetish is a code of offerings calculated to propitiate the different evil spirits. Some of the spirits are not evil, but they have to be pro- pitiated, and, as I have been able to ascertain, they are the spirits of ancestors, and for the most part offerings of meat, <•'.//•> fowls, sheep, eggs and plantain, propitiate them and assure their services against evil spirits. Evil spirits are also in request to do harm to an enemy or to find out a thief or to punish a thief. Fetish, to put it simply, is votive offerings to good or bad spirits as the case may require. There is no such thing as worship of fetish as is frequently said. It would take up too much space in a short paper like this to go into the whole code of fetish or even part of it. As an example of fetish for sick- ness, I remember on going through Jansu, a town 130 miles north of Kuniasi, I saw on the path a weaver-bird's nest. I took it up to have a look at it and found a round flattish stone inside. I asked my boy what it meant, and after some trouble he admitted it was "medicini," i.e., Ju Ju. I asked what for. He replied, " Man live. Water he had." Upon reaching Jansu I made the boy find the man who was sick. He did so, and I found that the man was suffering from stone in the bladder. Later on, when I made another visit to Jansu, I heard that this man's daughter by number four wife had disappeared. He was the chiefs brother, and she was sacrificed at a big Ju Ju palaver. Ekcheva was her name, and she would have been about fourteen years old. I knew her because I bought a native doll from her on a former occasion. Tomtoms or native drums are Ju Ju, and at night, moonlight nights by preference, there are regular religious dances and chanting, to the accompaniment of the tomtoms. In many villages the people get worked up into a state almost approaching mania. To become a Ju Ju man an apprenticeship has to be served lasting from seven to eight years. No special vocation is necessary, such as celibacy or the giving up of ordinary daily life, but certain ordeals have to be gone through of which I never have been able to discover anything. In a nutshell the religion of the Ashantis (and I believe of many of the African races) is this : God and man, with evil Hi) ri;< ><•]•;]•: i >IN<;S OF THK ANATOMICAL AND A.vniuoroi.o<;i< AI, spirits at large against both ; good ,s])irits, for the most part ancestral, protecting from evil spirits and helping them on words through life. They can be propitiated, and in certain cases they must be propitiated even though it cost human life. Sheep are used for sacrificial purposes, and if there is a hill near a village, with large rocks and stones on the top, then this is used for an altar, and is called the Ju Ju mount. I know and have visited two such places. A sheep is sacrificed once a year and oftener if the chief has any special reason for doing so. For that reason large stones are always considered sacred. Ancestor worship enters a great deal into the religion of the Ashantis. In some cases bodies have been [(reserved for generations, and annually feted and meat and drink brought to them. A well- known example of this is the preservation of the remains of the former kings of Kumasi, who were premier kings of Ashanti and occupants of the great Ju Ju stool. Places selected for religious sites (public) are at road sides, that is to say 10 or 20 yards off the forest path. They are circular in shape (circular clearings), with a palm tree in the centre. From the groves paths lead to the bnrying-groiuid of the village. In con- nection with burying-grounds I ought to have mentioned that they are divided into sections for young men and young women (the ages of these would range from twelve to sixteen), then sections for older men and women. Women who die in childbirth are in many cases buried at the roadside, a short distance from the village, as are also young children. Women who die during actual labour are thrown into the bush. When a woman dies all her belongings, such as beads and household utensils, are placed on her grave. Everything in the shape of clothing is buried with her. When a man or woman dies, guns are fired at intervals during the night or day, as the case may be, also chanting, wailing by women, and beating of drums, all this to frighten away evil spirits and to enable the spirit of the departed to safely join those of his ancestors. As regards animals, natives have got peculiar notions. In many SOCIETY OF THK UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 117 planes monkeys arc sacred. To see a chameleon on a branch means that a brother or relative is dead or will die soon. No native Ashanti will touch a chameleon. There is a squirrel which is the doctor to all the .smaller bush animals, and natives believe all sick animals go to this squirrel for advice and medicine. The tail of this squirrel is suspended over the door of houses to keep away sickness, just as a horseshoe is used at home to keep away witches. Both are fetish. The Ashanti shaves his or her head on the anniversary of a death or on the death of a relative, also upon the occasion of any special agreement, taking an oath or the like. Native Ashanti law is very complicated, and takes note of what to us would appear of the most trifling significance. To make a man appear ridiculous before his fellows is punished by a fine. To call a man a fool is the same. A man who tells a woman she is dirty endangers his life by the hand of a relative of the woman. A man may be fined for cursing a neighbour, also for calling a man a slave. In most cases the chief decides those cases and takes half the fine imposed, the other half going to the injured party. If a man does not wish to have the case tried before the local chief, he may take the king's oath that he is innocent of any offence. Then the case is tried before the king of the district. If a man swears the king's oath that he is innocent, and is then found guilty, he is liable to a fine of £20. I have known the King of Jaulim collect no less than £200 during a fortnight's visit to one of his big villages, hearing and passing judgment on disputes and palavers. The sentence of death is not allowed to be passed by kings or chiefs by the British Government. But in those isolated districts away from the seat of Government many things happen, and will happen for some time to come, which are not allowed. Kingship and chieftainships and property appertaining thereto descends in the female line, e. to 1 !)<):>. The examinations were conducted under the following condi- tions: The person undergoing examination with regard to aciiteness of vision, refraction and si/e of pupil, stood looking at Snellen's test types at a distance of <> metres from them. The test-types were illumined by two electric lamps of 10 c.p. each, one at the top, the other at I lie foot of the types. Both lamps were distant H feet from the typos and were shaded from the eyes of the person examined. The room was also lit by four electric lamps, each of Hi c.p., suspended S feet above the level of the floor. One of the lamps was 3 feet in front of the person examined and 11 feet to the right; a second lamp was :5 feet in front and 22 feet to the right ; a third was 13 feet in front and 11 feet to the right, and a fourth was 13 feet in front and 22 feet to the right. In addition to these four there' was an electric lamp used for illuminating the Holmgrens wools and for writ- ing purposes, close on the right of the person examined. This lamp was shaded so that its direct light did not affect in any way the fundus of the eye examined. All were examined under these conditions, which must necessarily be stated, as it has been found ' that a person can distinguish an object better in a room which is full of light than when the room is dark and only the object illuminated. ACUTENESS OK VlSloN. This was determined by means of Snellen's test-types in the manner above alluded to. Amongst the 400 students there was no case of absence of eye. Of the 800 eyes there were none with no perception of light. The number of eyes with normal vision (able to read D = 6 of Snellen's types at a distance of (5 metres, or to distinguish an object subtending a visual angle of five minutes) before the adjustment of suitable cor- i E. H. Shein, Bonn ; Trans. Heidelberg Ophthal. Society, in Ophthalmic Review, 1901. SOCIETY OK THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN'. 121 recting lenses was 548 or (58'5 per cent., after their adjustment 741 or 92'ti per cent. The difference between those is 193 eyes or 24'1 per- cent, of the total number of eyes, so that nearly one fourth of the eyes had normal vision only after an error of refraction had been corrected. The number of eyes with vision below normal before any error of refraction was corrected was 252 or 31-5 per cent., and of those 252 eyes 193 or 70 per cent, of them obtained normal vision after the proper correcting lenses had been adjusted. The number of eyes with vision less than ,,';(y (which could not read the type at 6 metres which an eye with normal vision could read at 00 metres) was, before the correction of refractive errors, 43 or 5'37 per cent., after their correction 3 or '27 per cent. The following table shows the proportion of students with vision normal in both eyes, normal in one eye only, or below normal in both eyes :— Without Correction. With Correction. Number. Percentage. Number. Percentage. Individuals with normal vision in both eyes - Individuals with normal vision in 245 61-25 353 88-25 one eye only Individuals with vision below normal 58 14-5 35 8-75 in both eyes 97 24-25 12 3-0 The above table shows that 3875 per cent, of the students had vision below normal in one or both eyes without correction. It also shows that 27 per cent, of the students with vision below normal in one or both eyes without correction had vision improved to normal in both eyes with correction ; 23 students or 5-75 per cent, had vision improved to normal in one eye, the other eye having normal vision before correcting lenses were tried, and 85 students or 21 '25 per cent, had vision improved to normal in both eyes. Now, the number of students with vision below normal in both eyes without correction is 16 122 I'liorKKiHMis OK THK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHUOPOUKJICAL seen in the table to he 1»7, and of these 97 students 80 or 87 per cent. had their vision improved to normal in one or both eyes after suitable correcting lenses had been adjusted. Comparison of the acuteness of vision of the 400 students with other statistics of acuteness of vision. In two groups of (500 school children, between the ages of six and fifteen, examined in Aberdeen and in Edinburgh, the percentage of those with normal vision (in both eyes) was found l to be 81-f> at the former place and 68-33 at the latter. Of the 400 students the percentage of those with normal vision (in both eyes) was 61 "25. Of 17,245 London school children, examined between the ages of six and thirteen, serious visual defect or less than a of normal vision was found '- to be present in 8 per cent, of the boys and in 11 percent, of the girls, and to maintain this proportion through- out school life. Of the 400 students 7 '6 per cent, of the males and 10 per cent, of the females had less than ' of normal vision. REFRACTION. The forms of refraction were recorded in the following groups : Emmetropia, hypermetropia, myopia and mixed astigmatism. Hyper- metro pic astigmatism was included in the hypermetropic group and myopic astigmatism in the myopic group. The groups of emmetropia and hypermetropia are in this paper classed together, because by the method that was adopted for estimating the refraction it was difficult in many cases to say to which group they should belong. The following table shows the frequency of the different forms of refraction in the 800 eyes :— Number. Percentage. Hypermetropic including emmetropic eyes 605 75-625 Myopic eyes - 150 18-75 Mixed astigmatic eyes - 45 5-625 The number of emmetropic eyes was 183 or 22-87 per cent. The number of hypermetropic eyes was 422 or 52-75 per cent. 1 Report of the Royal Commission on Physical Training (Scotland). 8 British Medical Journal, Oct., 1902. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 123 The following table gives the number of individuals with hyper- metropia, emmetropia, myopia or mixed astigmatism in both eyes, and the number of individuals with anisometropia :— Number. Percentage. Individuals with both eyes hypermetropic 173] 43-i Individuals with both eyes emmetropic 60 j~" 15 •( Individuals with both eyes myopic 60 15'0 Individuals with both eyes mixed astigmatic - 11 2-75 Individuals with anisometropia - 96 24-0 When the refraction of the right eye was compared with that of the left, Hypermetropia was present in 217] • •- (right eyes and in 205] - - • ("left eyes. Emmetropia was present in 85 / . - . [right eyes and in 98 j . . . \left eyes. Myopia was present in 73 right eyes and in 77 left eyes. Mixed astigmatism was present in 25 right eyes and in 20 left eyes. The above table shows little difference in the frequency of each of the different forms of refraction in the right eye compared with that of the left. The following table shows the relation between refraction and locality, giving the comparison of the prevalence of each of the different forms of refraction in students coming from town and in those from country districts. A town was here reckoned a place of over 5,000 inhabitants. Students from Town. Students from Country. Number. Percentage. Number. Percentage. Hypermetropia and emmetropia pre- sent in 110 55-3 123 61-2 Myopia present in - 35 Mixed astigmatism present in - 5 Anisometropia present in 49 17-6 2-5 24-6 25 6 47 12-5 2-9 23-4 Myopia is found from the above table to be 1'4 times more fre- quent in students coming from town than in those from country districts. 124 rUOCKKDINliS ()K TIIK ANATOMICAL AND AN THROI'OLOGICAL With regard to myopia Oliver states : ' "It is said to be unknown among the Nubians, Laplanders and Patagonians, and is said not to be seen among the peasant classes of Europe. In America it is often seen among the advanced student types of negroes." Fuchs says : - " Near sight is an attribute of culture ; fewer cases are found in the country than in the city. In the new-born myopia is never found, they are hypermetropic. In schools it is most common. The school most dangerous is the high school. In Germany 20 per cent, are myopic in the lowest standards, and (50 per cent, in the higher classes of the higher schools. In the universities the conditions are more unfavourable. Among lithographers 45 per cent, are myopic, among compositors 51 per cent. Males and females are equally predisposed." Colin states in five schools the percentage of myopes was 1'4, 26 "2 in two gymnasiums, in the students of the University of Breslau 59 '5 pel- cent. Callam in 1875 found in a negro school in New York, at ages between five and nineteen, the percentage of myopes was 3, a per- centage not so high as in the older civilisations of Europe. Norris and Oliver give3 some statistics on the percentage of myopes in American universities. At Amherst College, Boston, in 1877 the proportion of myopes in 1,800 students, between the ages of fifteen and twenty- four, was 28 per cent., and at Howard College, in 122 students between the same ages, 29 per cent. Seggel, in 1,000 soldiers in the Munich gar- rison, found4 "that among peasants 2 per cent, were short-sighted, among day labourers and town dwellers 4 per cent, among artisans and those engaged in trades 9 per cent., among merchants and writers 44 per cent., among those who had completed their studies at public schools 65 per cent, had myopia ". The following table shows5 the percentage of myopia in two groups of 600 school children examined at Aberdeen and at Edinburgh. 1 Norris and Oliver, System of Diseases of the Eye. 2 B. Fuchs, Textbook of Ophthalmology. 3 Norris and Oliver, System of Diseases of 'the Eye, vol. ii., p. 356. 4 The Prevention of Disease, p. 734. Translation by W. Evans. 5 Report of the Royal Commission on Physical Training (Scotland). SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 125 in years 6-9 9-12 12-15 Jmale 0 2 3 'n {female 1 4 6 fmale 3 6 11 At Aberdeen At Edinburgh j , This gives an average of 27 per cent, at Aberdeen and 6-5 per cent. at Edinburgh. Of 150 policemen examined in the Anthropometrical Laboratory, Anatomical Department, Aberdeen University, in 7i per cent, of their eyes was myopia present.1 From these and other statistics it is apparent that myopia in- creases with the length of school life, and although it seems that the eyesight of Aberdeen students compares favourably with that of the students in the universities referred to, it must be noted that the average age at which the Aberdeen student was examined might have been somewhat less than that of the other students, the ages of the Aberdeen students being mostly between sixteen and twenty-four, but the greater number between seventeen and nineteen. If this were so, then with a smaller average age a smaller proportion of myopes would be expected. The following table shows the comparison of acuteness of vision, after correction of refractive errors, in the various forms of refraction. Percentage of the Number, respective refractions. Hypermetropic eyes with normal vision after correction 390 92-4 Myopic eyes with normal vision after correction - 126 84-0 Mixed astigmatic eyes with normal vision after correction 39 86'7 The above table shows that in hypermetropia the proportion of those with normal vision, after the error of refraction had been corrected by suitable lenses, was larger than that in the other abnormal forms of refraction. SIZE OF PUPIL. During the measurement of the size of pupil each student stood 0 metres from the Snellen's types and looked towards them. The pupil 1 Transactions of the Buvhan Field Club, vol. v. \.-2(\ PROrKKDINGS OF TIIK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL of the right eye only was measured, and the measurement was made by comparing the size of the pupil with that of the discs of a pnpilo- meter on the back of an ophthalmoscope. These discs could be rotated in succession until one of equal size to that of the pupil was adjacent to it, and this disc gave the diameter in millimetres. The conditions of light were as previously stated, and that has an im- portant bearing on the average size, as different averages given by different observers are in a great measure due to the conditions of light. Coppez,1 in measuring the size of pupil, seated the person examined facing a clear window but out of the sunlight. Under these conditions he found the physiological diameter of the pupil varied from 2 to 4 mm., the greater number being between 2| and 3 mm. Woinow - found the size of pupil to vary between 2-44 and 5-82 mm. M. Lans,3 after allowing accommodation to rest by keeping the person examined fifteen minutes in a dark room, took an instantaneous photograph of the pupil by magnesium light, before the pupil had time to react. He obtained an average diameter of 7 to 8 mm. Among the 400 students the average size of the pupil among the males was 6'4 mm., and among the females 5'9 mm. Thus the average size of the pupil was larger among the males than among the females by '5 mm. Tanger, however, states that females have larger pupils than men. In reference to the size of the pupil in the different forms of refraction it has been stated that hypermetropic eyes are apt to have small pupils, owing to the constant effort of accommodation, while in myopia the pupils are said to be wide. Among the students the average size of the pupil in hypermetropic eyes was (37 mm., in myopic eyes 6 '3, in mixed astigmatic eyes 6 '9. In these groups the refraction in anisometropic individuals was taken as that of the eye the pupil of which was measured. This result gives a larger average 1 Revue Generale d' Ophthalmoloijic, 1903. - Ophthalmometrie, Vienna, 1871. 3 Revue Generate d'Ophtlialmoloyic, 1899. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 127 size of pupil in hypermetropia than in myopia. Silberkuhl l also states that his experience afforded denial of the statement that in myopia the pupil is generally larger than in hypermetropia, but gives no statistics. Schadow,- from his own observations, finds that the refraction has no influence on the size of pupil, while Elbach of Marburg states 3 that the pupil is not wider in myopia than in hypermetropia. The following table shows the relation of the acuteness of vision, without correction by lenses of the errors of refraction, to the size of the pupil. Naturally one would expect the smaller pupil to have the better vision as in it the diffusion circles are cut off. The students are divided into three groups according to whether the pupil measured from 3 to o mm., ;V5 to 7'5 mm. or 8 to 10 mm., and each of these is subdivided into three as the vision is better than «, between -*• and rV, and A- and less. Size of Pupil. With Pu pil 3-5 mm. With Pup 1 5-5-7-5 mm. With Puj )il 8-10 mm. Acuteness of Vision. Number. Percentage in Group. Number. Percentage in Group. Number. Percentage in Group. Better than f 6 « T'TF -.-."j- and less - 45 18 5 66-2 26-4 7-4 180 68 30 64-7 24-4 10-9 30 19 5 55-6 35-2 9-2 Total 68 17-0 278 69-5 54 13-5 From the above table it appears that the percentage of those with vision better than § — and these formed the majority of the students — is greater in the groups with pupils from 3 to 5 mm. and 5-5 to 7-5 mm., than it is in the group with pupils from 8 to 10 mm. in diameter. A striking point shown by this table is that those having the largest pupils form a group which shows a considerably smaller 1 Archiv fiir Ophthalmologie, 1896. - Ibid., 1882. 3 Ophthal. Review, 1902. In Males. In Females. Total. Percentage. 98 2 100 25 191 15 206 51-5 91 3 94 23-5 12H PROCKKDIWS OK THK ANATOMICAL AND ANTH KOI'i H.OtiK'AI, percentage of students with best vision— i.e., better than "—than those with smaller pupils. CoLOl'K OK lltls. This was determined by means of Dalton's eyes ; the dark irides include the brown and ha/el eyes, the medium the grey and the green eyes, and the light the blue eyes of other classifications. Colour of Iris. Dark Medium Light - In the above table dark and light eyes are about equally numerous, the number of medium-coloured eyes being about double either of them. Dark and light eyes are less common among the females than among the males. The following table shows the relation of the size of the pupil to the colour of the iris, giving the average size of -the- pupil in the dark, medium and light eyes. In Males. In Females. Dark - 6'3 G Medium G'29 G Light - 6-4 5-8 In the male group, which is by far the larger, a light iris has a slightly larger pupil than a dark or medium iris. Swan/.y,1 however, states that persons with blue irides have in general smaller pupils than those with dark eyes, for in them more light reaches the retina, and hence the pupil reflex is stronger. The following table shows the relation of the acuteness of vision (without correction of refractive errors) to the colour of the iris. The students are divided, according to the colour of iris, into three groups which are each subdivided into three according to the acute- ness of vision. 1 Handbook of Diseases of the Eye, p. 283. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 129 Colour of Iris. Dark. Males. Females. Medium. Light. Acutcness of Vision. Percentage in Group. Males. Females. Percentage in Group. Males. Females. Percentage in Group. "- and better - a n •I ' i sr .,",- and less 73 2 15 0 10 0 75 15 10 150 21 20 13 0 2 79'1 10-3 10-6 69 15 7 2 0 75-6 16 8-4 The percentages for each of the different grades of vision are seen to be very close for all colours of iris, so that the acuteness of vision (without correction) seems to depend little, if any, on the colour of the iris. In the following table is shown the relation of the colour of the iris and the colour of the hair. The three groups of the colours of the iris are each subdivided into five, according to the colour of the hair — black, dark, brown, fair, red. Colour of Hair. Black. Dark. Brown. Fair. Red. Colour of Iris. Number. Percentage. Number. Percentage. Number. Percentage. Number. Percentage. Number. Percentage. Dark Medium Light 9 0 1 90 0 10 2-5 33 35 14 40-2 42-7 17-1 41 96 46 22-4 52-5 25-2 15 65 31 13-5 58-6 27-9 2 10 2 14-3 71-4 14-3 Total - 10 82 20-5 183 45-75 111 27-75 14 3-5 In the red-haired group the medium irides are in greater pro- portion than in the other groups of colour of hair. The following table shows the relation between the colour of the iris and the colour of the skin. The three groups of colour of iris are each divided into three, according to the colour of the skin — dark, ruddy, pale. 17 PROCEEDINGS OF TIIK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL Colour of Skin. Dark. Ruddy. Pale. Colour of Iris. Number. Percentage. Number. Percentage. Number. Percentage. Dark - Medium Light 8 2 1 72-7 18-2 9-1 11 27 10 22-9 56-3 20-8 81 177 83 23-7 52-0 24-3 Total 11 2-75 48 12-0 341 85-25 From both of the last tables it is apparent that the greater the amount of pigment present in hair and in skin, the darker are the irides. COLOUR VISION. The number of colour-blind amounted to twelve, i.e., 3 per cent. This is about the percentage obtained by other observers. None of the females had colour-blindness. The test was made by means of Holmgrens wools, a test which the Colour Vision Committee of the British Medical Association report ' was sufficient for the detection of a large number of cases of colour-blindness, but that some cases could not be detected. Some of the more important results shown by the statistics are :— The eyes with vision below normal before correction of their re- fractive errors amounted to 31 '5 per cent, of the total eyes ; 76 per cent, of those eyes with vision below normal, before any errors of refraction had been corrected, were able to obtain normal vision after their refractive errors had been corrected by suitable lenses. The proportion of the students with vision below normal in both eyes before correction by lenses of their refractive errors amounted to 24 "25 per cent. 87 per cent, of those students with vision below normal in both eyes, before correction by lenses of their errors of refraction, had 1 British Medical Journal, Feb., 1904. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 131 normal vision in one or both eyes after the adjustment of suitable correcting lenses. Myopia was present in 1875 per cent, of the eyes. 15 per cent, of the students had myopia in both eyes. The average size of the pupil was found to be greater in hyper- metropia than in myopia. Vision better than || was more common in those with a small or with a nearly average pupil than in those with a larger one. In the male students an eye with a light iris had a slightly larger pupil than an eye with a dark or medium iris. Acuteness of vision did not seem to depend on the colour of the iris. The dark irides were directly proportional to the amount of pigment present in the hair and in the skin. NOTES ON TEN WASOGA CEANIA. By W. A. H. McKKEBOw. These crania from the Anatomical Museum were found at Kui Station on the Uganda Railway in 1900 by Mr. Ian Rose, M.B., D.P.H., Medical Officer to that railway. They belonged to individuals who came from Northern Uganda and who died of starvation at Kui Station. Skulls from this part of the world have hitherto been difficult to obtain. Consequently it is important that their measurements should be duly recorded. From the following table it will be seen that the majority of the crania have a very low cubic capacity ; seven are markedly microcephalic, two are mesocephalic and one megacephalic. The cephalic index shows that five are dolichocephalic and five are mesaticephalic. The vault of the cranium is markedly scaphoid in No. 1. In Nos. 3, 7 and 9 the squamous portion of the tem- poral bone articulates on both sides directly with the frontal bone. Wormian bones are present in many of the crania. The superciliary ridges are poorly marked except in No.J>, 132 I'KOCEEDIXOS OF THK ANATOMICAL AM) ANTH Koi'Ol.l >(,!< 'A I, TABLE OF MEASUEEMENTS OF TEN WASOGA CEANIA. 1. 2. 3. 4. ;".. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. AUK Adult. Adult. Adult. A.lult. Adult. Adult. Adult. Adult. Adult. Adult. SKX Female (?). Female. hYiiiiilc'.. Male (.'). Male. Male. Male. Female. (Doubtful). Female. 1 Cubic capacity 1090 1240 1270 1090 1250 1460 1400 1260 1410 1140 Ophryo-occipital length Glabello-occipital length 176 177 174 175 178 175 179 180 178 185 188 190 176 180 176 185 177 186 174 173 Basi-bregmatic height - 123 130 130 128 121 136 129 130 129 119 Vertical index 69-8 74-7 73-0 71-5 67-2 72-3 73-3 73-8 69-7 68-3 Minimum frontal diameter - 95 96 93 88 91 95 96 97 98 98 Stephanie diameter 104 110 110 105 101 109 115 112 116 114 Asterionic diameter 110 106 101 112 105 99 106 108 111 107 Greatest parieto-squamous breadth 125s. 131 s. 134 p. 133s. 131 p. 141 p. 139s. 131 p. 133 s. 133 p. Cephalic index - 71-0 75-2 75-2 74-3; 72-7 75-0 78-9 74-4: 71-8 76-4 Horizontal circumference - 485 490 501 496 498 524 513 495 518 490 Frontal longitudinal arc 122 127 133 115 121 137 125 113 124 120 Parietal longitudinal arc 119 116 122 121 126 139 120 120 134 100 Occipital longitudinal arc 110 108 106 116 110 101 106 — 118 121 Total longitudinal arc - 351 351 361 352 357 377 351 — 376 341 Vertical transverse arc 280 293 298 285 280 310 290 290 300 283 Length of foramen magnum 34 34 34 36 40 41 36 — 41 36 Basi-nasal length 98 100 94 100 98 96 103 100 96 96 Basi-alveolar length — 100 93 100 106 89 105 97 102 99 Gnathic index — 100 98-9 100 108-1 92-7 101-9 97-0 106-2 103-1 Interzygomatic breadth 125 — 123 — 124 128 136 129 137 122 Intermalar breadth 115 115 114 113 116 108 124 117 120 116 Ophryo-alveolar length 73 85 94 75 96 87 96 76 88 89 Naso-alveolar length - — 68 72 65 69 71 80 61 77 70 Facial index 58-4 — 76-4 — 77-4 67-9 70-5 58-9 64-2 72-9 Nasal height 46 48 52 47 50 50 55 45 52 50 Nasal width 25 26 22 30 27 25 26 26 23 26 Nasal index 54-3 54-2 42-3 63-8 54-0 50-0 47-3 57 8 44-2 52-0 Orbital width 37 40 40 38 40 38 38 33 38 33 Orbital height 30 33 38 33 36 38 39 36 38 39 Orbital index 81-1 82-5 95-0 115-2 900 100-0 97-4 91-7 100-0 84-6 Palato-maxillary length 49 55 52 52 59 47 59 54 56 57 Palato-maxillary breadth 69 72 58 58 64 60 69 62 66 61 Palato-maxillary index 140-8 130-9 111-5 111-5 108-5 127-6 117 115 117-8 10702 1 As regards face, three are prognathous, four mesognathous, two orthogiiathous, and in the case of No. 1 as the alveolar process is wanting in front the basi-alveolar length cannot be ob- tained. SOCIETY OF THE rMVEUSJTY OF ABERDEEN. 133 The nasal aperture is platyrhine in five, mesorhine in two and h'ptorhine in three of the crania. Most of the teeth have dropped out, but those which remain are normal in appearance. ORDINARY AND BUSINESS MEETING. •25'fH JUNE, 1904. Professor K. W. REID, M.I)., F.R.C.S., President, in the Chair. Accounts of anatomical variations found in the dissecting room were read. A paper entitled " The Myology of Troglodytes Niger," by J. (.'. G. Ledingham, A.M., M.B., Ch.B., B.Sc., was taken as read, and it was agreed to publish it in the proceedings of the society. The paper was accompanied by a preparation illustrating the musculature of the chimpanzee. The Treasurer's report for the past year was read and adopted. The following office-bearers were appointed for the ensuing year :— President — PBOFESSOB K. W. KEID, M.D., F.B.C.S. Vice-Presiden ts — ALEX. Low, M.A., M.B., C.M. ; JAMES CLARK, M.B., Ch.B. ; J. F. GILL, B.Sc. Secretary — E. W. A. SALMOND. Recording Secretary — N. S. GILCHBIST, M.A. Treasurer — A. H. SKINNER. The retiring officers were cordially thanked for their services. 134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORD OF ANATOMICAL VARIATIONS. Date of observation, February, 1904. Sex, female. Abnormal insertion of pectoral is minor muscle (left}. In this case the tendon of insertion passes over the coracoid process nearer the inner extremity of the horizontal portion, and piercing the coraco-acromial ligament, is inserted into the capsular ligament of the shoulder joint below the tendon of the supra spinatus muscle. On the right side it was quite normal. (Signature of observers) BASIL W. MARTIN. W. J. GERRAIID. Date of observation, February, 1904. Sex, male. Abnormal bruchial artery (left). In this case the brachial artery divided about 2 inches from its origin into two branches, superficial and deep. The deep branch lay behind the median nerve as far as the elbow. About 2^ inches above the elbow and to the internal border of the anterior surface of the shaft of humerus there was a slight ridge, a rudimentary supra- condyloid process. From this ridge a ligamentous band crossed over the median nerve and deep brachial artery, and passing obliquely down and inwards, blended with the internal intermuscular septum and the fascia covering the origin of the pronator radii teres. On the right side the artery was quite normal. (Signature of observer) ADAM GILCHRIST. Date of observation, June, 1904. Sex, female. Abnormal brachial artery. Ill this case the artery extends down the arm as a single vessel as far as the middle of insertion of the coraco brachialis, where it divides into two equally sized branches. The median nerve on its SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 135 way to the inner side of the arm passes through the fork of bifurca- tion. The superior profunda leaves the main stem ; the inferior profunda and anastomotica magna leave the inner division. (Signature of observer) B. McHARDY. Date of observation, June, 1904. Sex, male. Abnormal lung (right). The middle lobe is partially subdivided into two by the inferior lobe. The upper and anterior division corresponds to the normal middle lobe, while the lower and posterior division projects hori- zontally outwards for 3^ inches like a tongue below the root of the lung and behind the front and lower part of the inferior lobe. The branch of the bronchus supplying this latter division came off from the branch that supplied the middle lobe. The division probably represents the lobus impar of certain mammals. The inferior lobe shows an incomplete fissure, running horizontally outwards from the junction of the oblique and horizontal fissures for 2 inches in length and I inch deep. The corresponding left lung showed three lobes, and the eighth pair of ribs were separate from the seventh and articulated with the ensiform cartilage. (Signature of observer) R. W. A. SALMOND. Date of observation, June, 1904. Sex, male. Abnormal costal attachments to sternum. In this case the eighth costal cartilages were prolonged almost to the middle line. The extremities of the two costal cartilages did not quite meet in front of the metasternum but were bound to one another, to the ensiform and to the lower extremity of the gladiolus by fibrous bands. The cartilage of the eighth rib articulated slightly with that of the seventh rib on the right side. The cartilages on the left side did not correspond in their attachments with those on the right, but were more crushed together and '2 cm. lower down. The sternum 130 PROCKK DINGS OK TMK ANATOMICAL AND ANTI[ROI'OLOGICAL was narrower and thinner than normal. Nothing unusual was noticed in regard to the lumbar vertebra;. There were extra lobes in the lungs. (Signature of observer) ALEX. H. SKINNKK. THE MYOLOGY OF TROGLODYTES NIGER. By J. C. G. LEDINGHAM, A.M., M.B., Ch.B., B.Sc. The chim})anzee, whose musculature forms the subject of this short memoir, was very kindly given to me for dissection purposes by Prof. li. W. Reid in the summer of 1899. A good deal of the dissection was completed in the autumn of that year, but through stress of other work it had to be discontinued till some months ago. The animal has been divided mesially from occiput to coccyx, and the dissection preserved in the accompanying trough is that of the com- plete left side of the animal. The brain and the skin coverings of the left hand and foot are also enclosed, and may be useful for purposes of comparative morphology. The animal is a male with dentition complete. Preparatory to dissection the hair covering of dark brown colour was singed off, but the accompanying photographs kindly taken in 1899 by Mr. Alexander Low, A.M., M.B., show very clearly the general distribution of hair on the body of the animal. An attempt was made to obtain finger and toe prints with only partial success owing to the crinkled condition of the palmar and plantar skin. It was perfectly plain, however, that simple loop forms con- stituted the prevailing patterns. In the following description of the musculature it is not intended to give a detailed account of the origin and insertion of all the muscles, as these, in the great majority of cases, present no essential points of difference from the condition found in man. My object is rather to note the most striking peculiarities in chimpanzee myology as compared with human, and their importance in comparative morphology. In compiling this memoir I have consulted the following works, and compared my results with those therein detailed : — SOCIETY OP THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 137 Champneys. " On the Muscles and Nerves of a Chimpanzee and Anubis." — Journal of Aitatoni// mid Physiology, vol. vi. Hepburn. " The Comparative Anatomy of the Muscles and Nerves of the Superior and Inferior Extremities of the Anthropoid Apes." — Journal of Anatomy and Phyniolofiy, vol. xxvi. Wiedersheim. "Structure of Man." Bland-Sutton. " Ligaments," etc. MUSCULATURE OF THE FACE. Platysma my aides. This muscle had a wide distribution on the face. It extended over the chin where it was with difficulty separable from the de- pressor mass of the lower lip to the angle of the mouth, becoming almost continuous with the zygomaticus. Stretching across the face it overlapped the lower three-fourths of the facial surface of the parotid. Zygomaticus. This muscle was exceedingly well differentiated, forming a flat muscular band inserted into the angle of the mouth along with the other muscles meeting there. Orbicularis oculi. Consisted of four or five well-marked muscular rings surrounding the orbital margin and sending down expansions to the upper lip, con- stituting a levator anguli oris and part of the levator labii superioris. Corresponding to the position of the pyramidalis nasi was a thin slip of muscle which sent off expansions to the orbicularis oculi, and further to the upper lip and side of nose, forming a levator labii superioris alaeque nasi. Fibres also arose directly from the bone below the in- ferior orbital margin to form part of the levator labii superioris. The l>alpebralis consisted of well-marked muscular rings. Frontalis. Ill-defined. 18 US PROCKKPINlis OK THK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL Muscles of the, Ear. Of the extrinsic muscles of the ear the retrahens was the most clearly differentiated. The attrahens was only slightly developed. The r<'sxtir HI tw/c* of the loircr //// were exceedingly difficult to separate, but indications of several strata were noted, differing in direction and approaching more or less to the condition found in man. Buccinator. Was a well-marked muscle and pierced in the usual way by the parotid duct. Regarding the facial musculature generally it may be noted that though exceedingly well developed it shows a great tendency to fusion of the various strata, especially round the mouth and orbit — exactly the condition one would expect when one considers the lesser develop- ment of facial expression in the anthropoid. MUSCLES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. Trapeziums. Origin as in man. The mastoid insertion was purely fibrous. The clavicular insertion came in contact with the cleido-occipitalis muscle. The insertion of the trapezius was pierced in the usual way by the great occipital nerve. Latissimus dorsi. Arose by fleshy fibres from the anterior half of outer lip of iliac crest as far as the anterior superior spine, also from three ribs inter- digitating with the external oblique. There was no addition from the inferior angle of scapula. A small bundle of fibres passes from the belly of the muscle to join the teres major. This bundle was also noted by Hepburn (Fig. 1 ). From the flattened tendon of insertion there arose the dorso-epitrochlearis or latissimo-condyloideus muscle. This was a well-marked flattened thin muscle stretching down the inside of the arm to be inserted into the internal condyle of the humerus. It appears that this muscle may sometimes fail to reach the internal SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 139 condyle, and that its lower part is represented by a fibrous band from which fibres of the pronator radii teres take origin. It seemed to me, however, that the insertion of this muscle passed directly into the fibres of origin of the palmaris longus as the dissection will show. Thus the palmaris longus and dorso-epitrochlearis may have originally belonged to one and the same muscular sheet. Rhomboideus major and minor. These muscles formed a thick undivided mass with insertion extending from the inferior angle of scapula to 1 inch below the Pnlmans, (01 FIG. 1. posterior scapular angle. According to Macalister the undifferen- tiated condition of the rhomboids may sometimes occur in man. Levator anguli scapulte. This muscle was made up of four individual fasciculi. The upper two join near their insertion and so do the lower two, and the second and third fasciculi are also connected by a fibrous band. The upper slip also joins the cleido-occipitalis muscle above. It has the usual insertion into the scapula. 140 PROCEEDINGS <)F THE ANA TOM K 'AL AM) ANTII KOl'OLOGICAL Pectoraiis major. There is no cellular interval between the clavicular and sternal portions. The anterior surface of the tendon is muscular, containing the fibres from the clavicle. The under portion of the tendon con- taining the fibres from the ribs, etc., is tendinous. Its insertion mingled with that of the deltoid. Pectoraiis minor. Arose from three ribs close to the costo-chondral junction. The tendon was long and thin and passed above the coracoid under the coraco-acromial ligament to be inserted along with the supraspinatus into the capsule of the shoulder joint. This behaviour of the peetoralis minor tendon is exceedingly interesting and is noted by most of the observers. In man also it has been seen to send a slip to the great tuberosity of the humerus. Its disposition in this chimpanzee corre- sponded exactly to that found in a female human subject by Messrs. Martin and Gerrard and described by them to the society in February, 1904. Subclavius. As in man. Deltoid. The fibres of origin from the clavicle passed directly above into those of the cleido-occipitalis. At its insertion it mingled with the peetoralis major. A pennate arrangement of the fibres from the acromion was not observed. Supraspinatus. Very small muscle in comparison with the infraspinatus. Infraspinatus. As in man. Teres minor. Was attached to the upper two-thirds of the axillary border of scapula as in man. Champneys found it arising only from the middle third. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 141 Teres major. Arose from the inferior angle and lower third of axillary border of scapula. It was joined as above mentioned by a muscular slip from the latissimus dorsi and its insertion blended with that of the latter. Subacapidaris. As in man. Serratus magnus. Arose by digitations from eleven ribs. There was no cervical portion. The upper two fascicles were by far the thickest and most powerful. Coraco-brachialis. This muscle has received a great deal of attention since Wood pointed out the variations that may occur in it. It was divided in my case into two distinct portions (separated by a cellular interval) between which passed the musculo-cutaneous nerve. These two por- tions correspond to Wood's coraco-brachialis longus and medius. Biceps. The coracoid head was intimately fused with the coraco-brachialis. At the lower end of the muscle a Hat fibrous expansion was sent off as in human anatomy. Triceps. The long head arose from the axillary border of scapula between teres major and teres minor, being also overlapped by the latter muscle. Otherwise as in man. Pronator radii teres. The coronoid head is well developed and the median nerve ran between the two heads of the muscle. The insertion, which was fleshy, extended lower down than in man. Flexor carpi radialis. There was an additional origin from and fibrous septum situated 142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL inside the insertion of the pronator radii teres, and which gave fibres also to the flexor sublimis digitoruin. Otherwise as in man. Palmaris lomjas. Has been already referred to. The condition of the flexor muscles of the fingers is of the highest importance from the morphological point of view. Flexor sublimis diyitorum. The flexor sublimis digitorum supplies tendons to the index, middle, ring and little fingers. The tendon for the index has a distinct belly separable up to its origin from the coronoid process of the ulna, and accordingly the tendon has to pass under the tendons to the third, fourth and fifth fingers to get to the index. The tendon for the middle finger had also a distinct belly trace- able to the ulna, but it received also a large flattened reinforcement of muscular fibres from the septum behind pronator radii teres, and which also gave fibres to the flexor carpi radialis. The belly proper (ulnar) had already become tendinous when it received this radial reinforcement, and this latter was inserted into the side of the tendon. The tendons for the fourth and fifth fingers joined to form one common tendon at the level of the carpus. Flexor longus pollicis. The flexor longus pollicis, though corresponding in position to the muscle of the same name in man, is really a misnomer in the case of the chimpanzee. It supplied the index only and gave no offshoot to the thumb. Champneys found a tendon to the thumb in his case but Vrolik did not. It is said to be represented often by a fibrous band, and in my case there was a distinct tendinous band traceable from the middle of the thumb metacarpal to the base of the last phalanx. The main use of the hand as a grasping organ, combined with the small size of the thumb, will explain this peculiar disposition of the flexor longus pollicis in the chimpanzee. SOCIETY OP THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 143 Flexor profundus diyitorum. This muscle supplying the remaining third, fourth and fifth digits proceeded from the ulna. At the level of the wrist joint there was a very pronounced fusion of all the tendons by fibrous bands. The disposition of the tendons of the sublimis and profundus on the digits was exactly as in man. Lumbricales. These muscles were four in number. The first arose from the radial side of the profundus tendon to the index. The second arose from the radial side of the tendon to the middle finger. Also a small slip joins it from the sublimis tendon to the middle finger. The third and fourth arose together from the radial side of the profundus tendon to the ring finger, and from the fibrous tissue joining the tendons. The belly of the fourth lumbrical split into two at the level of the interdigital space, each belly being provided with a minute tendon. One was inserted into the fourth extensor expansion, and the other into the adjacent side of the fifth. I cannot find notes of a similar behaviour of the fourth lumbrical. Supinator radii longus. Its origin extended up to the insertion of the deltoid, and its tendon of insertion was attached for a distance of 1 inch above the styloid process, thus differing somewhat from the human condition. Hepburn makes a similar observation. Extensor carpi radialis longior. As in man. Extensor carpi radialis brevior. This muscle received fibres also from the external lateral ligament of the elbow joint. Extensor minimi digiti. Was divided into two parts on the dorsum of the carpus. One tendon passed to the fifth and the other to the fourth finger. 1-1-1 PROCKKmXCJS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHKOPOMHilOAL Extensor indicia. Was supplied mostly to the index, but a slender tendon was also sent off to join the tendon to the ring finger. This was found also in Hepburn's case. Extensor ossis metoeorpi pollici*. Was intimately associated with the extensor brevis pollicis, both passing under the same fibrous ring. We shall compare this condition later with that of its homologue, the tibialis anticus of the lower extremity. The extensor hwri* /Hill'irix was inserted into the base of the metacarpal of thumb and did not reach the first phalanx. Extensor longus pollicis. The exact homologue of the muscle of same name in man. It supplied the deficiency of the extensor brevis pollicis by being inserted also into the first phalanx. Abductor pollicis. As in man. Opponens pollicis. Only slightly developed. Flexor brevis pollicis. This muscle had two distinct heads, an inner and an outer. Adductor pollicis. Was a flattened triangular muscle arising from a fibrous septum attached to the centre of the middle metacarpal. Flexor brevis minimi digiti. Was fused partly with the abductor minimi digiti. It ended in two tendons one of which passed to the outer side of the first phalanx of fifth and the other partly into the head of the metacarpal. Opponens minimi digiti. Was also distinguishable but blended at its origin with the flexor brevis minimi digiti. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 145 Interossei. There were four dorsal interossei and five palmar, the basal line of abduction and adduction being, as in man, the middle digit. Champneys counted six palmar interossei. It must be noted, how- ever, that of the five interossei seen from the palmar surface only three are adductors proper. The two accessory muscles are united at origin, but their tendons pass to adjacent sides of middle and ring fingers, so that one may be considered an accessory adductor while the other is really an abductor. Hepburn, in discussing these accessory interossei, takes the view that they are properly to be considered as accessory slips to the dorsal interossei. Vide also Cunningham on the " Dorsal Interosseous Muscles of Thylacinus Cynocephalus ". — Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1878. MUSCLES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. Tensor vagina femoris. Arose from an aponeurosis common to it and the gluteus medius and minimus externally and the fascia separating it from the trans- versalis internally. Its origin reaches nearly to the anterior superior spine and its posterior border is associated with the fascia covering the gluteus medius. The muscle is thin and about ^ of an inch in breadth. Its insertion is into the fascia lata of thigh where its fibres intersect with those fibres of the gluteus maximus which are also inserted into the fascia lata. Gluteus maximus. Compared with the same muscle in man this muscle is of very insignificant size in the chimpanzee. It arose from an aponeurosis common to it and the gluteus medius and covering the outer surface of the latter muscle. This aponeurosis extended from the crest of the ilium down to the tuberosity of the ischium. It is a relatively thin muscle, especially in its upper part, and the muscular fibres do not reach higher than the level of the sacro-sciatic notch. The lower part 19 146 PROCEEDINGS OF THK ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL arising from the tuberosity of the ischium in common with the com- bined tendon of long head of biceps and semi-membranosus is much thicker. The fibres from the aponeurosis are inserted into the fascia lata mingling with those of tensor vagina; femoris. The rest is in- serted into the linea aspera extending down to within 1£ inches of the knee joint. From the lowest fibres a septum extends right down to the external condyle (remains of the septum cruris). The portion of the muscle arising from the tuberosity of ischium may be the representative of an agitator caudse. Glutens medius. The largest and thickest of the glutei. It arose from the fossa ilii below the crest and extending as far down as the upper margin of the sacro-sciatic notch. It also arose from the fibrous aponeurosis covering it externally. It was a single muscle with a tendon 1 inch in breadth and inserted into the great trochanter. Its anterior border was attached to the, tensor vagina' femoris. Its insertion also mingles with that of the vastus externus. Gluteus minimus. This muscle was multifasciculate. Four distinct parts can be differentiated, two superficial and two deep. The first portion or most anterior and superficial portion situated between the tensor vagina? femoris and the rest of the gluteus minimus is really to be considered the scansorius muscle. It is of triangular shape and 1 inch broad at origin, tapering to J of an inch at its in- sertion, which is slightly tendinous. Its insertion is into the anterior margin of the great trochanter, close to the lower edge of the tendon of the gluteus minimus. The other three portions are perfectly distinct at origin, but join later to form a common tendon (Fig. 1). Pyriformis. Is ^ an inch broad at its origin but tapers to form a long thin tendon £ of an inch broad. The muscle is quite separate from the SOCFKTY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 147 glutens medius in this chimpanzee. Its insertion is just behind the posterior edge of the tendon of the glutens medius, and a bursa lies between the two. Obturator intermix. A well-developed muscle with the two gemelli, one on each side. Its tendon was united to that of the obturator externus at its inser- tion. Of the two gemelli the inferior is slightly the larger. Glut mei- nnraiii Great suadc new FIG. 2. Quadratus femoris. The two insertions of this muscle are peculiar, as in Hepburn's case. One of them, the larger, is inserted horizontally and the other vertically, being overlapped by the adductor brevis. Biceps. Has two heads. The femoral or short head joins the ischial tendon about 1 inch from its insertion. The ischial or long head arose in common with the semi-tendinosus and semi-membranosus muscles. At the insertion of the muscle an expansion was sent off covering the outer head of the gastrocnemius. 1-IH I'KOCEEDIXCS OK T1IK ANATOMICAL AND AM II Kol'OI.OUH'A 1. Semi-tend inosus. There was no trace of an inscription in this muscle. At its origin it fused with biceps and semi-membranosus, and its insertion, though lower than that of the gracilis, was overlapped by the fascia! expansion of the latter. ,sv ini-membranosus. Had a rounded tendon which gave off no expansions to the fascia or to the knee joint. Only in the gorilla did Hepburn find such expansions. Psoas parous. This muscle was present. It was united with the psoas magnus at its upper end, and was tendinous for H inches above its insertion into the ileo-pectineal line. Psoas ma(/nus. Its muscular fibres were intimately united with those of the iliacus for nearly the whole length of the muscle. Sartorius. Was attached to the anterior border of the ilium lower down than in man, between the iliacus and scansorius. It had the usual oblique course across the front of the thigh to reach the inner side of the knee, where it was inserted superficially to the tendons of gracilis and semi- tendinosus. From its upper border near its insertion a fascial expansion was sent off over the knee joint, Ili'i-tus femoris. In my case there was apparently only a single head of origin. Corresponding to the second head in man, however, a few fibres were observed to pass from the margin of the acetabulum to join the main head. Hepburn found the origin of the rectus double in all anthro- poids except the gibbon. Pectineus. Was a very narrow muscle, being only about H inches wide at its origin, which extended from the ileo-pectineal eminence to the origin of adductor longus. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 149 Gracilis. This appeared to be a very powerful muscle. At its origin it had a breadth of 1| inches, and at its insertion it gave oft' a considerable fascial expansion to the leg, which extended much lower down than the corresponding expansion in man. Hepburn notes that such expansion is more fully developed in the orang and gibbon than in the gorilla and chimpanzee owing to their more dis- tinctively arboreal habits. Adductor lone/us. The round tendon of origin of this muscle, such as we meet with in human anatomy, was not at all marked in the chimpanzee. In fact, the origin was almost entirely by fleshy fibres. It was a much wider muscle than the pectineus. Adductor brevis. As noted by other observers this muscle was multifasciculate and three portions could be distinguished. The lower portion, which was very flattened and possibly represented an adductor minimus, overlapped the other two portions at their insertion. Adductor maynus. This muscle showed an extraordinary tendency to fasciculation. The portion which passed to be inserted into the adductor tubercle was quite distinct from the other portions. These latter were three in number and may be denoted from above downwards by the letters (i, l> and i: ; a and h join at a distance of 1 inch from their insertion ; l>, which is the largest of the three, sends off at a distance of ^ of an inch from its origin the muscular slip c, which is inserted quite inde- pendently immediately below the insertion of adductor brevis. The insertion of c stood highest of the three insertions on the femur, a and ?> send fibres downwards as far as the popliteal space. Regarding the origins of the various portions, it may be noted that the origin of a lies underneath the aponeurotic origins of gracilis and adductor 150 i'i;ocKKi)iN(is (IK TIIK ANATOMICAL ANII ANTIIKOPOLOCICAI. longus, while the origin of /> is overlapped l>y the origin of the portion which passes to the adductor tubercle. initials. This muscle presented a distinctly cleft condition and is in all probability the homologue of the extensor ossis inetcarpi pollicis and the extensor brevis pollicis. It had two tendons and two bellies which could be separated nearly as far as the tubercle of the tibia. A few fibres run from one to the other near the point where the bellies become tendinous. The one tendon is inserted into the ecto- cuneiform, while the other or lower tendon passes to the inner side of the head of first metatarsal. Extensor proprius kallucis. The tendon of this muscle in its course to the last phalanx is intimately bound down to the dorsum of the first metatarsal, thus acting as an abductor of the great toe. Extensor loncjus dic/itorum. As in man. Intertendinous bands were present over the dorsum of the foot. Peroneus tertius. There was no trace of this muscle. Extensor brevis diyitorum. This was a well-developed muscle situated in the usual position. It possessed four tendons for the four inner digits. That supplying the great toe had to take a transverse course across the dorsum of the foot to gain its insertion and thus looked almost like a separate muscle. Peroneus lonyus. The insertion of this muscle was confined to the base of the first metatarsal bone and did not, as in man, send slips to the internal cuneiform and base of second metatarsal bone. Huge considers that the peroneus longus reaches its most specialised condition in the anthropoids and that in man it shows a tendency to reversion. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 151 Peroneus brevis. As in man. Its tendon commenced on one side of the muscle about 7j an inch from the external malleolus. Gastrocnemius. The inner head was slightly the larger of the two and extended further down the leg, forming, in fact, the bulk of the muscle at the level of its insertion. The fibres of the outer head become slightly tendinous at their insertion. Plantaria. Hepburn found no plantaris in either of the four anthropoids he dissected. Charnpneys found it in his chimpanzee. In fact, its occurrence seems to be very variable even in the anthropoids. In my case, however, the plantaris was fairly well differentiated. It arose in common with the outer head of gastrocnemius and its belly became tendinous at a distance of 2 inches from its origin. The tendon was exceedingly fine and only ^th of an inch in width. It ran along the under surface of the outer head of gastrocnemius in a sort of fascial tunnel from which it was, however, readily separable. It was inserted by an expanded tendon into the os calcis between the insertion of gastrocnemius and the origin of the abductor hallucis. Soleus. This muscle arose entirely from the fibula and was muscular right down to the os calcis. Tendo Achillis. The tendo achillis of human anatomy can hardly be said to exist in the chimpanzee as the combined insertion of soleus and gastro- cnemious was tendinous only for about ^th of an inch. The line of insertion was very slightly oblique. Popliteus. This muscle had two origins :— 1. By the usual round tendon. '2. By fibres arising from the capsule round the external condyle. 152 PROCEEDING OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL Flexor lun(}u# di<)itorum and flexor We shall treat these two muscles together. The flexor longus digitorum arising from the tibia supplies tendons to the second and fifth toes, while the flexor longus hallucis arising from the fibula supplies tendons to the first, third and fourth toes. At the point where the main tendons of the flexor longus digitorum and flexor longus hallucis cross, they are connected with each other by a strong tendinous band (Fig. 3). />/>onens minimi digiti. This muscle, though poorly developed, was fairly well differ- entiated. Interosaei. There were seven interossei, of which four were dorsal and three plantar. The basal line of abduction and adduction was the middle toe and not the second metatarsal as in the foot of man. Champneys found the same condition, but in Hepburn's case the basal line was as in man, the second metatarsal. Regarding the shifting of the basal line of abduction and adduction from the middle toe to the second metatarsal Hepburn observes that " so long as the foot remained distinctly a grasping organ the arrangement of its basal line for ab- duction and adduction harmonised with that of the hand, but when the sole of the foot becomes more and more applied to the ground, and the organ is utilised for support and progression, its basal line moves inwards so as to become associated with the second digit, at which the freedom of movement is maintained after the third digit has become applied more directly to the ground ". MUSCLES OF ABDOMINAL WALL. Regarding the muscles of the abdominal wall it may be noted that the external oblique, internal oblique and transversalis are all well-developed muscles. In the rectus abdominis four inscriptiones tendineui were observed. The posterior wall of the rectus sheath was formed by the transversalis aponeurosis only, and the anterior by the aponeurosis of the external and internal oblique muscles. There was no pyramidalis. The cremaster consisted of several well- developed muscular bundles arising in connection with the lower fibres of the internal oblique. SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. MUSCLES OF NECK. 155 The musculature of the neck does not present many peculiarities. The most striking feature was the long sternal tendon of the sterno- cleido-mastoid and the considerable interval that existed between the sternal and clavicular portions of the muscle (Fig. 4). Deltoid Clavicle FIG. 4. The cleido-occipitcUis or acr&mio-basilar muscle must also be re- ferred to as it sometimes occurs in the human subject. Its insertion in my case was immediately anterior to the clavicular insertion of the trapezius. C'hampneys notes that it is found in all mammals below man, and seems to be correlated with a quadrupedal gait (Fig. 4). THE ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY PRESS LIMITED. Aberdeen University Studies : No. 13 Report on the Alcyonaria UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS. Convener: Professor JAMES W. H. TRAIL, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Curator of the University Library. UNIVERSITY STUDIES. General Editor: PETER JOHN ANDERSON, M.A., LL.B., Librarian to the University. No. I. — Roll of Alumni in Arts of the University and King's College of Aberdeen, 1596-1860. Edited by P. J. Anderson. 1900. No. 2. — The Records of Old Aberdeen, 1157-1891. Edited by Alexander Macdonald Munro, F.S.A. Scot. Vol. I. igoo. No. 3. — Place Names of West Aberdeenshire. By the late James Macdonald, F.S.A. Scot. 1900. No. 4. — The Family of Burnett of Leys. By the late George Burnett, LL.D., Lyon King of Arms. igoi. No. 5. — The Records of Invcrcauld, 1547-1828. Edited by the Rev. John Grant Michie, M.A. 1901. No. 6. — Rectorial Addresses delivered in the Universities of Aberdeen, 1835-1900. Edited by P. J. Anderson. igo2. No. 7. — The Albemarle Papers, 1746-48. Edited by Charles Sanford Terry, M.A., Professor of History in the University. 1902. No. 8. — The House of Gordon. Edited by John Malcolm Bulloch, M.A. Vol.1. 1903. No. g. — The Records of Elgin. Compiled by William Cramond, LL.D. Vol. I. 1903. No. 10. — Avogadro and Dalton: The Standing in Chemistry of their Hypotheses. By Andrew N. Meldrum, D.Sc. 1904. No. ii. — The Records of the Sheriff Court of Aberdeenshire. Edited by David Littlejohn, LL.D., Sheriff Clerk. Vol. I. 1904. No. 12. — Proceedings of the Aberdeen University Anatomical and Anthropological Society. 1902-04. President: Robert William Reid, M.D., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University. 1904. No. 13.— Report on the Alcyonaria collected by Professor Herdmau at Ceylon in 1902. By John Arthur Thomson, M.A., Professor of Natural History in the University, and William Dawson Henderson, B.Sc., Carnegie Scholar. 1905. No. 14. — Researches in Organic Chemistry. By Francis Robert Japp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University, and William Maitland, B.Sc., Carnegie Fellow, Joseph Knox, B.Sc., James Wood, M.A., B.Sc., Carnegie Scholars. 1905. No. 15. — Meminisse Juvat : with Appendix of Alakeia. By Alexander Shewan, M.A. 1905. No. 16.— The Blackhalls of that Ilk and Barra. By Alexander Morison, M.D., F.R.C.P., L. and E. 1905. No. 17. — Roll of the Graduates of the University of Aberdeen, i86o-igoo. Edited by Colonel William Johnston, C.B., M.A., M.D. (/« the press.) No. 18. — The Registers of the Scots Colleges on the Continent : Douai, Rome, Madrid, Valla- dolid, Ratisbon, 1581-1900. Edited by the Rev. William Forbes Leith, S.J. (In the press.) No. 19. — Bulletins of the Agricultural Department of the University. (In the press.) Report on the Alcyonaria Collected by Professor Herdman at Ceylon in 1902 By John Arthur Thomson, M.A. Professor of Natural History and William Dawson Henderson, M.A., B.Sc. Carnegie Scholar Aberdeen Printed for the University 1905 [CEYLON PEARL OYSTER FISHERIES-1905-SUPPLEMENTARY REPORTS, No. XX.] REPORT ON THE ALCYONARIA COLLECTED BY PROFESSOR HERDMAN, AT CEYLON, IN 1902. BY PROFESSOR J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A.. UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN, AND W. D. HENDERSON, M.A., B.Sc., CARNEOHE SCHOLAR,* UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. [WITH SIX PLATES.] THE rich collection of Ceylonese Alcyouariansf here reported on was made in 1902 from the Pearl Oyster Banks in the Gulf of Manaar, by dredging within the 100-fathom line oft' Trincomalee and oft' Galle, and in adjacent littoral areas. The localities are more precisely referred to in Professor HERDMAN'S " Narrative " in Part I. of the general Report (1903). As only a few Alcyonarians from Ceylon have been previously recorded, e.g., by THURSTONJ (1890) and RIDLEY§ (1883), Professor HERDMAN found an almost fresh field, which his faunistic genius recognised as extraordinarily rich. We have not been able to exhaust the material which his skilful collecting has garnered. His collection * It is more than a formal duty to make grateful acknowledgment of the assistance of the Carnegie Trust : Mr. HENDERSON did part of his share in this Report as a Carnegie Scholar, and I received from the Trust £30 towards the expenses of preparations and drawings. — J. A. T. t The " fleshy " Alcyoniidic, e.g., Alcyonium, Lobophytum, Sarcophytum, SckropJtyliim, are reported on separately l»y Miss EDITH M. PiiATT, D.Sc. (see this volume, p. 247). \ THUR.STON'S list is as follows : — Echinorjoryia pscudosasappo, E. sasappo, E. cerca, E. fiirfurami, Pkxcmra fldxllnm, Junffllajuncca, Gonjonia, (L-ptvyoryia) miniaccu, Gorgonclla umbella, Suberogorgia suberosa, Pterwi KuKENTHAl, FAMILY : Ncphthyidse. „ armata, HOLM., var. ceijlonensia, n. Nephthya clmbrolii, AITD., var. rfiflimrnsi*, n. „ dendrophyta, WRIGHT and STUDER. „ Mulifrra, HOLM. „ splendent, KUKENTHAL. * The forms with an asterisk are reported as new. 272 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. FAMILY : Siphonogorgiidae. *I\tniiifi>)itlii/ii frtitti, n. sp. Cliironi'j>litlit/it rdriuliilix, HiCKSOX. Siphoitogorgia jmJ>ilt>.nt, WRIGHT and STUDEK. „ iiiiilitimi, Ki'KKNTHAL. 'ri, WIMCHT and STUDER. ORDER III. : PSEUDAXONIA. FAMILY: Briareidse. Solenwaulan ftirtiiomim, GRAY. FAMILY : Sclerogorgidae. Kerofiili-s granite, WHITELEGGE. Siiheragort/in n-ffifiilnfa, ESPER. ORDER IV. : AXIFERA. FAMILY : Primnoidse. Primnoa i-Uisii, v. KOCH. FAMILY : Muriceidse. * 4emdhogargia nwdia, n. sp. „ murifttia, VERRILL, var. teylonrnsis, n. „ rft/Jonfnsin, n. sp. *Aitromurieea ramosa, n. sp. Erlmwimtrirea indo-maJaccenn*, RIDLEY. „ eei/lonensis, n. sp. Efhiiwyorgia psevdosasaj)po, KOLIJKER. „ multispinosa, n. sp. * Hetnogmgia wrrilli, n. sp. *Bebrycf. hicksoni, n. sp. * Ammptogorgiii atra, n. sp. „ spinosa, HILES. „ „ var. ceylonensis. *Aris indifa, n. sp. * ,, alba, n. sp. „ nrientalis, ElDLEY. * „ ceylomenste, n. sp. *Mvricella ramosa, n. sp. * „ ceylmensis, n. sp. „ nitida, VERRILL. „ complanata, WRIGHT and STUDER. FAMILY : Plexauridse. Pl?.mwa pmlonga, var. iyjnra (RIDLEY). „ „ „ elongata, n. „ antipatJies, var. flexuosa. FAMILY: Gorgonidse. ogwgiii IMcni, WRIGHT and STUDER. ntbrritinfta, n. sp. *Laphogwgia in-i-i/nliii-ix, n. sp. Li-jitut/oi-i/iti iiitdriilienM, RIDLEY, var. flarotincta. „ per/lam. „ (1) sp. *Stenfignrgin ri't/loni-tmi*, n. sp. Garr/oiiiit ntjii'iiai*, HICKSOX. sp. FAMILY : Gorgonellidae. *8firpearcUa /n/rn/ifinni, n. sp. „ iHi-isa, n. sp. „ sp. a. „ sp- P- sp. y. Scirpearia sp. Jitncflhi grmmacfa, VALENCIENNES. „ juncea, PAT,I^S. „ fragilis, RIDLEY. „ „ „ var. riilra, n. * „ irilineata, n. sp. *Jre'mirella 'ruljra, n. sp. „ flexwsa, KLUN7., var. aurantiaca, n, ,, „ var. gaU<"nsis, n. ORDER V. : STELECHOTOKEA. SECTION I. : ASIPHON ACEA. FAMILY: Telestidse. Tfkxlo rubm, HICKSON. ,, (Carijoa) trichostemma, WRIGHT and STUDER. SECTION II. : PENNATULACEA. FAMILY : Umbellulidae. Umhflhila sp. FAMILY : Virgularidse. Firgularia multiflora, KNER. „ loveni, KOLLIKER. „ tuberculata, n. sp. ,, sp. FAMILY : Pennatulidse. *Halisceptrum periyense, n. sp. „ gustavianum, HERKLOTS. Pteroeides lacazei, var. spirwsum, KOLLIKER. FAMILY: Veretillida. Cavernnlaria obesa, VALENCIENNES. *Stylobi>lt>mnoides htnlmam, n. gen. et sp. * The forms with an asterisk are reported as new. ALCYONAEIA. 273 DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES. ORDER I. : STOLONIFERA. FAMILY: COENULAEIID^. Clavularia margaritiferae, n. sp. — Plate III., fig. 8. The stolon consists of a number of thin and narrow branching threads, forming a network on the surface of a pearl-oyster shell. The strands of the stolon vary in breadth from 0*4 millim. to 0'6 millim. They do not form any membranous expansion. The polyps arise vertically from the branches of the stolon at intervals of 2 millims. to 2 '5 millims. ; there does not seem to be any interpolation of new polyps among the older. The polyps measure 3 millims. in height, with a distal diameter of 0'9 millim., and a proximal of O'o millim. to 0'65 millim. They are thus broader than the stolon branches, cf. Clavularia reptans, HICKSON (1895). They have, in all cases, their crowns retracted ; there is no indication of longitudinal grooves or lines. The walls of the polyps and of the stolons show thickly crowded spicules of minute size (0'06 millim. to 0'07 millim. X 0'03 millim. to 0'04 millim.) interlocked by their wart-like projections, cf. Clavularia flava, HICKSON (1895). Most of the spicules are substantial rods bearing blunt wart-like projections often in a whorl of four towards each end. The short and simple tentacles, bearing a few blunt pinnules (not sufficiently fixed to allow of precise examination) are supported by numerous longitudinally disposed elongated and curved rods, which may measure O'l millim. in length. They are smooth and only occasionally bear projections. All the spicules are colourless, and the whole colony is white in its preserved condition. Locality :— Pearl banks, Gulf of Manaar. FAMILY: XENTIDyE. Xenia ternatana, SCHENCK. A single specimen attached to a sandy worm-tube, with polyps in three groups, agrees on the whole with Xenia ternatana, SCHENCK, notably in having only two rows of pinnules on each side of the tentacles, and about 1 8 slender pinnules in each row, as also in the measurements of the polyp-body and of the tentacles. Xenia umbellata, SAV. Attached to the substratum of another specimen, which we unfortunately omitted to note in the business of assortment, there was a species of Xenia which appears to be referable to X. umbellata. The locality was low water at Pamban. We assume that the presence of only two species of Xenia in the collection simply means that Professor HERDMAN'S work was outside the Xenia-zoue. There must be many species of Xenia in Ceylon. 2 N 274 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. ORDER II. : ALCYONAOEA.* FAMILY: ALCYONIID^. The genera Sarcophytum, Sclerophytum, Lobophytum, and Alcyonium are discussed in Miss PRATT'S Report, this volume, p. 247. There has been left to us to describe what seems to be a new species of the little-known genus Bellonella. Bellonella indica, n. sp. — Plate VI., fig. 5. A small cylindrical specimen of a crimson-vermilion colour with yellow calyces and white polyps. It is attached to a fragment of rock and stands 24 millims. in height, with a basal diameter of 10 millims. and an apical diameter of 6 millims. The lower half is a sterile trunk, the upper half bears crowded polyps, whose white colour contrasts well with the red of the general coenenchyma and the rich yellow of the calyces. Many of the calyces measure 1 millim. in diameter, and the interval between them is often the same. Smaller forms occur among the larger, but there is no evidence of dimorphism of zooids. The margin of the calyx is neatly 8-lobed, and here and there the white polyps are expanded. The tentacles, which seem to run somewhat markedly to a triangular point, bear on each side about 18 finger-like pinnules. A longitudinal cut shows the large longitudinal canals traversing the bright red coenenchyma, and the eight longitudinal strands in each canal stand out sharply as bright white lines. The spicules of the coenenchyma are of an orange-red to yellowish colour, mostly like knobbed capstans, or double clubs with large warty heads, or double wheels with a very slight constriction between them. They form a granular pavement over the surface and densely fill the coenenchyma. In the sterile trunk there seem to be no double clubs in the strict sense ; the form is more like a knobbed dumb-bell with an exceedingly slight and short constriction in the middle. In all cases the warts are few, large, and blunt. The spicules are thus unlike the fusiform echinate forms reported as characteristic of Bellonella, but the genus has not been well defined, and it may be noted that two isolated polyps showed a few colourless or faintly yellowish fusiform spicules with a few thorns. It is not certain, however, that these belonged to the polyp ; they may have been artificial inclusions. The following measurements of the typical spicules were taken, length and breadth, in millimetres :— 0-08 X 0-06 (0-04 at middle) ; 0'06 X 0'06 (0"04 at middle) ; 0'06 X 0'045 ; 0-06 X 0-04; 0'05 X 0'04 (0'03 at the middle); 0'045 X 0'0375 (0'025 at the middle). The specimen is very different from Bellonella (Cereopsis) bocagei, SAV. KENT, and B. variabilis, STUDER, but neither of these agrees conspicuously well with GRAY'S * Exclusive of the Alcyoniidse described by Miss PRATT (this vol., p. 247). ALCYONAEIA. 275 original definition. GRAY'S description of Bellonella granulatum (' Proc. Zool. Soc.,' 1862, p. 35) is unfortunately short and vague. He speaks of the " angular tips" of the calyces; he figures longitudinal furrows on the stem, and these features are here absent. It seems hetter, therefore, to start afresh with a new species. Locality : — Deep water south of Galle. FAMILY: NEPHTHYID^E. SUB-FAMILY : SPONGODIK/E. Nephthya chabrolii, AUD., var. ceylonensis, n. To this species, known to include several varieties (KUKENTHAL, 1903, p. 157), we refer a specimen which differs from ordinary forms of N. chabrolii in being dull greyish-white, and in having a " Stiitzbiindel " spicule projecting beyond the polyp for 0'5 millim. The following comparison with KUKENTHAL'S description of N. chabrolii may serve to illustrate dimensional variability. Polyp. Polyp spicules. Stem spicules. Length. Breadth." Length. Breadth. Length. Breadth. KUKENTHAL'S measurements . millims. 0-5 to 0-7 millims. 0-5 to 0-7 millims. 0-08 to 0-45 millims. 0-015 to 0-06 millims. 1-1 to 1-9 millims. 0-12 to 0-26 HERDMAN'S specimen . . . 0-6 „ 0-7 0-6 „ 0'65 0-15 „ 0-35 0-02 „ 0-06 0-65,, 2 0-16 „ 0-26 For description, see HOLM (1895). Locality: — Pearl banks, Gulf of Manaar, March, 1902, and DONNAN'S Paar. Nephthya lobulifera, HOLM. From an elongated base attached to an oyster shell there rise 7 main branches apparently flaccid in character, bearing numerous lobes of unequal size and variable arrangement. On these the polyps occur in groups often united by a few individuals scattered in the intervening spaces. The polyps are light yellow and stand out prominently against the general white colour of the colony. They measure 0'7 millim. to 1'3 millims. in length. The " Stiitzbiindel " spicules are strong, slightly curved, warty spindles up to 1'9 millims. in length; the three longest project beyond the polyp. The polyp spicules measure 0'06 millim. to 0'25 millim., and the stem spicules I'l millims. to 1*95 millims. in length. For description, see HOLM (1895). Locality : — 1£ miles off Old Dutch Modragam Paar, Gulf of Manaar. Nephthya ceylonensis, n. sp. — Plate I., fig. 4. A small rigid colony fixed to a stone rises to a height of 38 millims., giving off 2 N 2 276 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPOET. three lobes crowded with polyps. The general colour of the lower part of the stem is greyish-white, but in the region of the polyps the colour is light violet, and the polyps themselves are canary-yellow. The lower part of the stem has a stiff leathery character and a granular appearance ; the upper part is entirely covered with large spicules which are for the most part disposed longitudinally. The polyps occur in small almost contiguous groups or singly. Each is an elongated cylinder, standing at right angles to the " Sttitzbtindel," measuring 1'2 millims. in length by 0'8 millim. in breadth. The spicules of the lower part of the stem consist of short thick spindles (I'l millims. to 1'4 millims. in length by O'l millim. to 0'2 millim. in breadth), sometimes bifurcate or trifurcate at one end, and also of triradiate and quadriradiate forms. All exhibit numerous blunt warts. In the upper part the spicules are spindle-shaped, covered with numerous spines, and tinged with violet. Some of them are forked at one end, and a few give off a short branch about the middle of their length. They vary in length from I'l millims. to 2 '4 millims., and in breadth from O'l millim. to O'l 8 millim. Those of the " Stiitzbundel" measure 1'55 millims. to 1'8 millims. There is only a slight projection beyond the polyp. The polyp spicules are very small, deeply tinged with yellow, measuring 0'4 millim. by 0'08 millim. Eunephthya purpurea, n. sp. — -Plate I., fig. 3 ; Plate V., fig. 5. This species is represented by several specimens which present a striking appearance owing to the contrast between the yellow polyps and the purple-red of the stem and branches. The stem is large and flaccid, and gives off numerous small branches and twigs. The superficial coenenchyma is rough, and has a granular appearance due to the arrangement of the numerous small spicules. The twigs, however, have a different appearance, for there the spicules are longer and are mainly disposed transversely. Two good specimens measured in centimetres, — 11 X 7 and 12 X 3. The spicules of the lower part of the stem are very short, irregularly branched rods with prominent spines. They measure O'l millim. in length by 0'08 millim. in width. The spicules of the twigs and the tip of the stem are slender spindles, varying in length from 0'23 millim. to 0'25 millim. and in breadth from 0'02 millim. to 0'023 milh'm. The polyps are scattered over the stem and branches, occurring either singly or in small groups. They are yellow in colour, and they contrast well with the red colour of the twigs and branches. The length of the polyps is 0'9 millim. to 1 millim. and the width varies from 0'5 millim. to 0'6 millim. The polyp spicules are very small yellow spindles with prominent warts and spines. Their measurements are 014 millim. to 0'3 millim. in length and 0'015 millim. to 0'03 millim. in breadth. Below the anthocodial part of the polyp there is a collar formed of several rings of spicules, red ALCYONARIA. 277 in colour, which measure from 0'5 millim. to 07 millim. in length by 0'04 raillim. to 0'06 millim. in breadth. Localities : — Pearl banks off Aripu, Gulf of Manaar ; and deep water off Galle. Paraspongodes striata, n. sp. — Plate II., figs. 2 and 7. A specimen without " Stutzbiindel," with no spicules in the canal walls, and polyps disposed in well-defined bundles must be referred to the genus Paraspongodes (see KUKENTHAL, 1896). The colony studied stands 67 millims. high by 49 millims. in maximum breadth ; the general colour is whitish. A short substantial stem gives off three main branches which divide and re-divide, so that the appearance of an irregular corymb of umbels results. The average length of a terminal branch is 4 millims. The polyps occur in bundles of 6 to 7, and these bundles are grouped to form an umbel. A much finer specimen, which was left at Liverpool, measured 22 centims. in height, 11 centims. before the first branching, and 4 centims. across at the base. The superficial coenenchyma of the branches is deeply striated transversely, we may almost say ringed, and is tough in character ; on the main stem the surface is irregularly wrinkled and rough in texture. The polyps vary in length from I'l millims. to 2 '3 millims., and in breadth from 0'65 millim. to 0'9 millim. They are supported by spindle-shaped spicules uniformly disposed in contiguous longitudinal rows, and measuring 0'18 millim. to 0'6 millim. in length by 0'04 millim. to 0'06 millim. in breadth. The tentacles measure 0'6 millim. in length, and two or three pairs of plump pinnules are visible. In the coanenchyma the spicules are minute but very numerous. They occur as rough spindles or rods irregularly branched, and also as what may bo called irregular stars. They vary in length from 0'09 millim. to 0'16 millim., and in breadth from 0'03 millim. to 0'06 millim. Locality : — Deep water outside pearl banks, Gulf of Manaar. Another larger specimen, 169 millims. in length by 69 millims. in maximum breadth, from the same locality seemed at first different. It had a relatively much longer stalk with basal rhizoid branches ; it showed greater transparency of texture, less abundant superficial spicules, less marked transverse wrinkling, and a larger number (7 to 11) of polyps in each bundle. Closer examination showed essential agreement as to spicules, polyps, tentacles, &c. The measurements for this specimen show considerable variation, as the following table indicates : — 278 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. Polyps. Polyp spicules. Length. Breadth. Length. Breadth. millimB. inillims. millims. millims. 1-2 0-8 0-6 0-63 0-05 0-05 1-3 0-85 0-7 0-05 0-9 0-7 1-0 0-9 0-10 0-08 1-0 0-8 0-25 0-18 0-016 0-03 Capnella manaarensis, n. sp. — Plate II., fig. 4 ; Plate V., fig. 14. A specimen without " Stiitzbundel," with numerous spicules in the canal walls, and with the polyps arranged not in bundles but in conical lobes or catkins, we refer to the genus Capnella, as reconstructed by KUKENTHAL (1902). The colony is fairly rigid and stands 79 millims. high by 75 millims. in maximum breadth. The general colour is a greyish-white or a dirty white. A short stem gives off several main branches, which in their ultimate divisions give rise to polyp- bearing lobes or catkins. The superficial coenenchyma of the branches and the main stem is rough in texture and has a stringy appearance owing to the arrangement of the spicules. The polyps have an average length of 0'95 millim. by an average breadth ot 0'65 millim. They are supported by spindle-shaped spicules which are arranged longitudinally, and vary in length from 0'29 millim. to 0'55 millim. and in breadth from 0'04 millim. to 0'08 millim. In the coenenchyma the spicules are spiny spindles. They are usually straight or curved, but several show a bifurcation at one end, or give off a short branch near their middle point. They show considerable variation in size, measuring from 0'5 millim. to 1'35 millims. in length and O'lO millim. to 0'16 millim. in breadth. Locality : — Pearl banks off Aripu, Gulf of Manaar. Spongodes pulchra, n. sp.* — Plate I., fig. 5 ; Plate V., fig. 10. This species is represented by many specimens, 3 of which give the following measurements :— *• The third instalment of Professor W. KUKENTHAL'S "Versuch einer Revision der Alcyonarien" (' Zool. Jahrb.,' xxxi., 1905, pp. 503-726, 7 pis., and 61 figs.) appeared while this report was being passed for press, and it could not be utilised. He splits the old genus Spongodes, with which one is loth to part, into the two new genera Dendronephthya and Stereonephthya, with 90 species to the former and 8 species to the latter. Everyone will welcome KUKENTHAL'S important contribution to the study of a difficult and polymorphic genus, but what is gained by trying to do away with the old title Spongodes, which is practically equivalent to Dendronephthya, just as Spongodia is to Stereonephthya ? KUKENTHAL has studied ALCYONAKIA. 279 (A.) (B.) (C). Total height 66 millims. 66 millims. 36 millims. Length of trunk . ... 14 „ 13 9 „ head .... 52 „ 53 27 Maximum width of same . 39 ,, 43 ,, 21 The trunk or bare part of the stem is granular in appearance and leathery in texture. In (B.) and (C.) it is greatly wrinkled, owing to the large canals and the weak partition walls between. The branching is very profuse, the stem giving off a large number of primary branches which break up into secondaries, and these in their turn into the twigs bearing the polyps. The twigs or tertiary branches bear the polyps in corymb- fashion, so that they all reach the same level, and owing to the large number of the polyps the stem and branches are completely hidden. The polyps are arranged in groups of 4 to 6, and they in their turn are aggregated into larger bundles. They are red, with markedly white tentacles. Although some of the spicules close to the polyps become a little stronger, none of them project, so that the colony has not the slightest appearance of being spiny. The surface of the stem is rough to the touch and has a granular appearance. In the primary and secondary branches, however, the spicules appear more prominently and give the surface an irregular stringy appearance, and finally they take an almost longitudinal arrangement in the twigs. In (A.) the stem, primary and secondary branches are almost white, while in (B.) and (C.) they are yellow. In (A.) the twigs are white, but become pinkish below the polyps, while in (B.) and (C.) they are yellowish, but also become pink below the polyps. Thus there is considerable colour- variation. The spicules of the trunk are very short and furnished with long spines. They are very varied in shape — short rod-like bodies, 3 -rayed stars, and irregular crosses: In all, however, the spines are well developed. They measure, length by breadth, in miUimetres, as follows :— 0'15 X O'l ; 0'2 x 0'05 ; 0'20 X O'l ; 0'5 X 0'15. All these measurements include the spines, which often measure 0'04 X 0'02 ; 0'03 X 0'02 ; and 0-045 X O'Ol. The spicules of the stem and branches are long slender spindles, usually curved or bent and covered by fairly prominent spines. They measure, length by breadth, in 213 specimens in all, but in many cases he only studied one (32) or two (21). He makes 30 new species, some of which may correspond to those here described as new, though we have not been able as yet to satisfy ourselves as to any identity. We venture to predict, however, that further study of this prolific genus, whether it be called Spongodes or Dendrmepkthya, with say ten specimens of each species, will increase the number of quite distinct species, and will lessen the number of closely adjacent species, reducing them to varietal forms. Even on a single colony there is often great diversity, and the impression of great lability is increased when we compare different specimens of the same species collected on the same date from the same locality.— J. A. T. 280 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. millimetres, as follows :— I'O 5 X 0'56 ; 0'55 X 0'06 ; 073 X 0'04 ; and 0'47 X 0'05. The longest reach a length of 17 millims., 1*6 millims., and 1'5 millims. The specimens differ markedly from all the previously described species of this large and difficult genus. Locality : — Station LXVI., off Mutwal Island, 10 to 35 fathoms ; Cheval Paar, Gulf of Manaar. Spongodes bicolor, WRIGHT and STUDEE. This species is represented by a fairly large complete colony, which consists of a short trunk and a long head, formed by a large number of branches given off on all sides. The base is formed of numerous rhizoid-like offshoots, which are attached to grains of sand, to sponge spicules, and to particles of shells. The stem is soft and flaccid, and gives off flabby branches on all sides. The majority of the lower branches are flattened, the flattening taking place not from above downwards but from side to side. The stem and branches have thin semi-transparent walls with numerous fine spicules scattered all over, some of them projecting so as to give the surface a pubescent appearance. The measurements of the polyps and of the spicules agree with those given by WRIGHT and STUDER (1889). Locality : — Deep water off Galle. Spongodes bicolor, WRIGHT and STUDER, var. ceylonensis, n. The trunk of this specimen is very short, and does not seem to be distinctly marked off from the stem except in the spiculation. Small branches are found coming off to within a few millimetres of the lower end of the trunk. The spicules are more distinct in the stem and give a net-like appearance to its surface, while the surface of the trunk is granular. Two of the lower branches are flattened from above downwards and nearly surround the stem, but just below the two spaces left between them there are two ordinary branches. The polyps are red, with white tentacles, and a " Stiitzbimdel " spicule projects behind each polyp. The colour of the trunk, stem, and branches is a yellowish-white, that of the polyps and twigs being red ; the lower part of the twig may be yellowish. This form differs from Spongodes bicolor in several respects, but yet comes very near it. Spongodes bicolor, WRIGHT and STUDER, var. dubia, n. — Plate V., fig. 13. Another variety is represented by a specimen measuring 71 millims. in height and 61 millims. in maximum breadth. It may be a portion of a larger colony or an entire colony in which the base is wanting. ALCYONAEIA. 281 The stem is flaccid and gives off branches almost to the base, the lower branches are flattened and give off ordinary branches from their upper surfaces. The polyps are arranged in umbels of 10 to 13 polyps. The polyps are white, but have a red appearance, owing to the spicules ; the tentacles have white or colourless spicules. The spicules of the stem are long, slender, colourless spindles covered with spines, and varying in length from 1'55 millims. to 0'6 millim., and in width from 0'12 millim. to 0'08 millim. The spicules of the terminal twigs and polyps are slender spindles, yellowish-red in colour and thickly beset with spines. They vary in length from O'l millim. to 1'65 millims., and in breadth from 0'02 millim. to 0'09 millim. As this form agrees in many respects with Spongodes bicolor, we have ranked it provisionally as a variety. Spongodes aurantiaca, n. sp. — Plate I., fig. 9 ; Plate V., fig. 6. In this species the trunk is long, stiff, leathery in character, and granular in appearance, but the individual spicules become evident at the upper end. The stem is divided into two main branches, from which the primary and secondary branches arise. The four lowest branches are flattened from above downwards, and so form a complete collar to the trunk. They are also recurved, so that they hide the upper part of the trunk. Their edges are very much divided, and they carry the polyps singly on the edges. From their upper surface spring ordinary branches. The other branches stand at right angles to the stem, but the upper ones are directed obliquely upwards. The polyps are borne singly at the ends of the twigs, and also in bundles of 6 to 7, all reaching the same level. They are white in colour and backed by strong " Stutzbiindel " spicules. The colony presents a striking appearance, due to the marked contrast between the orange-coloured stem and branches and the white polyps. The trunk is orange- coloured at the upper end, but it gradually becomes a whitish-grey as the lower end is reached. The "Stutzbiindel" spicules vary in length from 27 millims. to 3 '3 millims., while the stem and branch spicules vary from 0*5 millim. to 2'1 millims. in length. Spongodes rosea, KUKENTHAL — Plate V., fig. 1. What we regard as a variety of this species is represented by a stiff colony, with a bare stalk very much shrunken, owing to the large canals and the thin partitions between them. Height of colony, 70 millims. ; length of stalk, 22 millims. ; diameter of same, 1 1 millims. The lower branches, 6 in number, are flattened from above downwards, breaking up at their edges into single polyps and groups of polyps, and giving off cylindrical branches from their upper surfaces. Immediately above these the stem gives off a 2 o 282 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. large branch which repeats the structure of the stem. Over the whole surface of stem and branches smaller branches are given off which also branch. The colour of the stem is greyish-white below, white above, while the smaller branches are orange-coloured. The polyp-cups ai*e a dark purple-red, the tentacles white. The surface texture of the specimen presents two quite different aspects. On the bare stalk the surface has a granular appearance caused by the large number of very small closely packed spicules which grow larger as the upper part of the stalk is reached. On the branch-bearing part, and also on the branches, a stringy appearance is produced by the larger spicules. The polyps occur in bundles of 4 to 8. The projecting spicules are usually red throughout, but sometimes the lower part is yellow. The spicules are as follows :— (a.) Of polyps and terminal tivigs. — Yellow, or red, or partly yellow, partly red, covered by numerous small spines; Stutzbiindel, 2'6 millims. X 0'17 millim. ; polyp spicules, 0'03 millim. X 0'04 millim. ; others, 1 '5 millims. X O'l millim., 17 millims. X 0'12 millim. (£>.) Of the stem, upper part. — Similar to those of (a.), but the majority are colourless, or very faintly tinged with yellow. Spines more prominent and appear rougher, (c.) Of the bare lower part of stem. — Shorter, thicker, and with more prominent spines than (a.) and (&.). Spines more numerous and of greater diameter than the above. The spicules of (c.) measure 076 millim. to 0'69 millim. X 0'16 millim., 0'42 millim. X 0'18 millim., 0'26 millim. X O'lO millim. Many of the spicules in (c.) are in the form of crosses. In several an X -shaped marking is seen as if the 4 arms of the cross were dovetailed into one another. Another specimen similar in appearance to the above has its branching restricted to one plane. In its texture and flattened branches, &c. , it agrees with the above. The tentacles are white, but owing to their state of retraction they do not show so much. The base of attachment shows the rhizoid outgrowths frequent in Spongodes and allied genera. While these specimens do not rigidly correspond to the description given of Spongodes rosea, the resemblance is too close to warrant separation. Localities : — -Deep water outside pearl banks, Gulf of Manaar ; and Trincomalee. Spongodes armata, HOLM, var. ceylonensis, n. — Plate I., fig. 6. This foliate divaricate colony consists of a cylindrical barren trunk, attached at its base by means of rhizoid outgrowths to sand and fragments of Mussel shells, and a much branched upper portion which forms an irregularly oval-shaped head. Everywhere spicules project, thus giving a spiny appearance to the head portion. The little violet coloured polyp heads contrast well with the orange coloured twigs. ALCYONARIA. 283 Specimen A. Specimen B. Length of trunk (bare part of stem) . 21 millims. 32 millims. Diameter of same 10 ,, 13 ,, Length of head 52 ,, 55 ,, Maximum width of same 32 ,, 41 ,, The trunk (or bare part of the stem) has a leathery rigid character and a rough granular appearance. It is slightly thicker at the top, and at its lower end gives off thin rhizoid-like outgrowths. In specimen B these are also given off for a short distance up the trunk. The stem gives off larger and smaller branches, and divides at the tip into 2 or 3 branches. It appears longitudinally streaked, owing to the disposition of the large spicules. The lower branches are flattened (6 in one, 4 in the other). The others rise at right angles to the stem, the upper ones being directed obliquely upwards. Some of the lower ordinary branches are slightly flattened. The 4 to 6 flat branches are recurved and directed downwards. Locality : — Deep water off Galle. Spongodes dendrophyta, WRIGHT and STUDER. This species is represented by several specimens, one of which is evidently a young form. The base of attachment consists of rhizoid-like outgrowths. The lowest branches are flattened from above downwards, and bear the polyps on the edge of the flattened portion. The appearance of the stem in the older specimens is quite granular, but this gives place in the younger form to a slightly stringy appearance, due to the spicules being larger. In the older specimens the polyps are more markedly arranged in bundles, while they have a tendency to stand singly in the younger. Several of the lower branches are -colourless, and there is a great variability in the colour of the spicules. The geographical range of this species is worthy of note, as its previous record is from the Philippines. Locality : — Gulf of Manaar. Spongodes splendens, KUKENTHAL — Plate I., fig. 2. This species is represented by numerous stiff and rigid colonies. The following measurements are taken from two of them :— - A. B. Length of trunk 2 9 '5 millims. 17 millims. Diameter of same 13'5 „ 12 ,, Length of head 69 „ 30 Maximum width of same .... 61 ,, 40 ,, The stem in its lower portion is tough and rigid in character and granular in 262 284 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. appearance, which in the upper portion gives place to a streaked appearance due to the larger spicules being disposed for the most part longitudinally. The lowest branches, two in number, are flattened from above downwards, and are bent downwards so as to hide the upper portion of the trunk. The other branches are more or less cylindrical and rise at right angles to the stem, the uppermost being directed obliquely upwards. The secondary branches give rise to the twigs which bear umbels of 6 to 8 divergent stipitate polyps. The lower portion of the stem has a yellowish-white colour, the upper portion of the stem and the branches are yellow, while part of the twigs and the polyp spicules are brick red to dull red in colour. Several of the spicules consist of a colourless sheath surrounding a central core of a deep yellow to orange-yellow which extends for about half the length of the spicule. The spicules vary very much in the specimens. The " Stiitzbiindel " spicules vary in length from 2 '9 millims. in some to 2 '2 millims. in others, and even to 1'5 millims. The stem spicules vary from 0'75 millim. to 2'3 millims. in length, but in one specimen they reach 4'5 millims. in length. The polyp spicules also show considerable variation, but it does not cover such a range as in the others. Some other specimens correspond more closely than the above do to previous descriptions of this species. It appears to us that many of the species of Spongodes are exceedingly variable, and we have therefore refrained from accentuating minor differences. Locality : — Cheval Paar ; pearl banks, Gulf of Manaar. SUB-FAMILY : SIPHONOGORGIN^. Paranephthya pratti, n. sp. — Plate II., fig. 6 ; Plate V., fig. 18. A peculiar specimen with only the basal attachment missing was included in the collection. We are indebted to Miss PRATT for a figure and the following notes. The colony, which is apparently young, is small and measures as follows :— Height 21 millims. ; stalk 15 millims. Breadth of stalk, 13 millims. to 11 millims., of capitulum, 24 millims. to 20 millims. The capitulum is lobate, with deep grooves between the digitate lobes. The lobes (7 in number) are digitate and are comparatively large. The largest is 13 millims. in height by 7 millims. to 5 millims. in diameter. The smallest is 3 millims. in height by 5 millims. to 4 millims. in breadth. Some of the lobes are beginning to branch dichotomously. The capitula are dotted with minute tubercles, and when observed under the microscope have a curious polyzoon-like appearance. These tubercles indicate the presence of the zooids which are small, degenerate in character, and are so overgrown with minute spicules as to be only slightly contractile. They have apparently only rudiments of tentacles. The mesenteries, are crowded with brown cells which are ALCYONAKIA. 285 probably zoochlorellse. In many cases there appears to be no aperture to the exterior. The colony is extremely hard, the surface being rough and granular to the touch. The colour of the spirit specimen is medium brownish-grey, which becomes deeper towards the base of the stalk. There is no doubt that this interesting form is near Paranephthya capitulifera, WBIGHT and STUDER ; but it is a quite distinct species. Chironephthya variabilis, HICKSON. This species is represented by a magnificent specimen, measuring 21 centims. by 20 centims. The base measures 3 '5 centims. by 4 centims. There is a very marked " weeping willow " appearance, as almost all the twigs are pointing downwards. This is probably the finest specimen of its kind that has been hitherto obtained. There are also numerous fragments, and one or two specimens which may be complete young forms. The colour is very variable in the different specimens and even in the different parts of the same specimen. In several fragments the general coenenchyma is white with red spots here and there on the surface ; in others it is yellowish-white with red spots. When the general ccenenchyma is white in colour, a pinkish tinge becomes gradually more marked in the branches until it finally predominates, thus giving the tips of the branches and twigs a deep pinkish -red colour. In the specimens with a yellowish -white general coenenchyma the pinkish tinge increases as before, but in this case the tips of the branches have an orange colour. In other cases the tips of the branches may be pinkish-red with the projecting edges of the calyces an orange- yellow. There is also great variation in the colour of the polyp spicules ; in some the spicules of the crown and points are red, in others they are yellow, while in others the crown spicules are red and the point spicules orange-yellow. Considerable variation is also found in the measurements of the crown and the point spicules ; so great is the range of variation, in fact, that they do not appear to be of any value as a specific distinction. The crown spicules vary in one specimen from 0'24 millim. to 0'5 millim. in length, and the point spicules from 0'3 millim. to 0'55 millim. in length, while in the same specimen the breadth of the crown spicules varies from 0'026 millim. to 0'06 millim. Locality :— Deep water off Galle ; Pearl banks, Gulf of Manaar. Siphonogorgia pustulosa, WBIGHT and STUDER. Locality : — Ceylon seas. Siphonogorgia miniacea, KUKENTHAL. Locality : — Ceylon seas. 28fi CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. Siphonogorgia kollikeri, WRIGHT and STUDER — Plate L, fig. 7. Locality : — Deep water off Galle. In the examination of the specimens in the collection belonging to the genera Chironephthya and SiphonoffOrgia the following distinction suggested by HICKSON (" Fauna of Maldives, 1900") has been adopted : "That the name Chironephthya be retained for the species or facies with a form and mode of branching resembling that of the genus Ncphthya, with anthocodise rarely completely retracted in preserved specimens and with four principal spicules arranged en chevron in the points of the anthocodise ; and that the name Siphonogorgia be retained for species or facies of more massive Gorgonia-like form of growth, with anthocodise capable of complete retraction within the general coenenchym and with spicules irregularly placed or arranged in a fan-like manner in the points of the anthocodise." While adopting this suggestion we have been impressed by the great similarity of the two genera. There are many reasons for thinking that they ought to be merged in one. ORDER III. : PSEUD AXONIA. FAMILY: BRIAEEID^E. Solenocaulon tortuosum, GRAY. The collection includes magnificent specimens of a brilliant red Solenocaulon, probably a variety of S. tortuosum. We have studied a representative piece about 8 inches in length. The substantial axis, measuring 5 millims. in diameter at the base of the specimen, is composed of closely packed colourless spinose needles, all of the same type, varying from 0'4 millim. to 1 millim. in length by O'OIG millim. to G'018 millim. in breadth, and thus much longer than those measured by HICKSON. When boiled with caustic potash the axis remains coherent, but crumbles readily. In a section 20 nutritive canals are seen between the coenenchyma and the axis across the base of the specimen. Towards the top of the stem the axis gradually decreases in size and finally disappears. The rest of the stem forms a continuous tube with large lateral openings, the margins of which are prolonged into the slender polyp-bearing branches. These are mainly directed away from the side bearing the axis ; they often measure 17 millims. in length by 2 millims. in breadth. The coenenchyma of the tubular stem contains (a.) colourless needles from 0'4 millim. to 07 millim. in length by O'OIS millim. in width, with few and short spines; (/>.) shorter and broader rods (0'28 millim. to 0'4 millim. in length by 0'06 millim. to 0'07 millim. in width), both coloured and colourless, thickly beset with rough wart- like projections ; and (c.) coloured somewhat irregular ovals (O'l millim. to 0'12 millim. by 0'06 millim. to 0'07 millim.), covered with blunt tubercles. The coloured spicules are pale yellowish-red ; and an orange variety occurs among the other brilliant red specimens. ALCYONARTA. 2S7 The polyps are white, and are for the most part restricted to the twigs. A few occur on the stem on the side away from the axis. The polyp-spicules are arranged in a crown with slightly projecting triangular points. Each point consists of about 7 spicules, the longest median one being supported by three on each side. Below these running transversely are the rows of crown spicules. All the spicules are colourless warty spindles, varying in length from 0-2 millim. to 0'6 millim., and in breadth from 0'02 millim. to 0'08 millim. The verrucse are truncated cones, with a height of 1 millim. to 2 millims., and a basal diameter of 2 millhns. A small crab was found in the lumen of the tubular stem. Localities : — Station LTX., 6 to 9 fathoms ; deep water outside banks, Gulf ot Manaar ; Periya Paar, 9 fathoms ; deep water off Galle. Keroeides gracilis, WHITELEGGE. This species is represented by a complete colony and several fragments. The complete specimen stands 85 millims. in height, with a maximum width of 56 millims. The verrucse alternate on the sides of the stem and branches. They are low and conical in shape, 1 millim. in height and in basal diameter. The cosnenchyma is thin, smooth, and filled with large closely packed compound-tuberculated spicules. The irregularity of the spicules is fairly well marked and agrees with WHITELEGGE'S description. By transmitted light they are of a bright red brick colour. The spicules are on the whole slightly larger than those of WHITELEGGE'S specimen. The measurements obtained were: — (1) For the spindles, 1'4 millims. to 2 '2 millims. in length by 0'2 millim. to 0'5 millim. in width ; (2) Irregularly shaped spicules of verrucse up to 1'6 millims. in length by 0'5 millim. in width ; (3) Spicules of the axis from 0'3 millim. to 0'6 millim. in length. With the exception of the slightly larger measurements of the spicules, the specimen approximates very closely to that described by WHITELEGGE (1897), and also to that described by Miss HILES (1899). Locality : — Deep water off Galle, Ceylon. Previously recorded from : — Milne Bay, British New Guinea, depth 20 fathoms, and Funafuti, Ellice Islands. FAMILY : SOLEROGORGID^E. Suberogorgia verriculata, ESPER. Several incomplete specimens, mostly about 7 centims. by 5 centims., forming networks in one plane. One colony with its base complete has a height of 9 centims. In a portion measuring 5'5 centims. by 3'5 centims., there were 22 complete meshes and 11 incomplete meshes. The meshes differ widely in size, but 7 millims. by 5 millims. is a size which occurs very frequently. The average thickness of branch is 1'5 millims. The colour is brown or drab, and the general texture of the ccenenchyina is granular. The verrucas are thickly crowded and occur all round the branches. They project 288 CEYLON PEAEL OYSTER EEPORT. very slightly and have a diameter of 1 millim. They are often separated about 1 millim. from one another. The verruca is a truncated cone, in some cases like a widely open crater, in other cases with eight spiculated lobes projecting inwards like small sepals in an almost open bud. A low-power view shows that there are eight opercular coverings formed from spindle-shaped spicules. Careful dissection of the included polyp, under low power, shows a cylindrical body with eight vertical external muscle-strands and with a low conical apex. Around the base of this apex there seems to be a ring of horizontally disposed spindles in two or three rows, and from this there arise the eight triangular converging opercular coverings, with spicules more or less at right angles to those of the basal ring. But the specimens were extremely brittle, and the gentlest touch of the dissecting needle almost invariably shivered the microscopic architecture. The extremely calcareous sclerogorgic axis is densely packed with more or less spindle-like spicules embedded in the matrix of horny fibres. It varies from 1 millim. to 2 millims. in diameter. The coenenchyma spicules are mostly minute spindles with numerous regularly arranged blunt tubercles; a common measurement is O'l millim. to 0'125 millim. in length by about 0'025 millim. in maximum thickness. There are also minute warty double clubs or capstans, with a very short middle zone and broad disc-like ends ; they measure about 0'025 millim. by 0'02 millim. Some of the spindles have very few tubercles. We have given these details to supplement the previous descriptions of Suberogorgia vemculata, to which, we believe, these specimens must be referred. Locality : — Deep water off Galle. Another specimen is 281 millims. in height and 134 millims. in maximum breadth, but this does not represent the full size of the specimen, as a part has been broken off the main stem. The branching is confined to one plane, and there is a very complete anastomosis of the branches, thus giving rise to a fine reticulate fan- shaped colony. The chief branches rise at an acute angle and are directed upwards, and assume a position roughly parallel to the main stem. The tips of the branches are clavate. The polyps come off from all sides of the stem and branches and appear to be spirally arranged in some parts. They are completely retractile, and in the specimen they are all withdrawn within the small verrucse. The spicules are small spindles with prominent rough warts, larger spindles and minute double wheels or capstans. The measurements length by breadth in milli- metres are as follows : — Capstans, 0'037 X 0'02 ; 0'035 X 0'02 ; 0'03 X 0'02. Slender spindles with few warts, 0'09 X 0'018 ; 0'15 X 0'02 ; O'lO X 0'03. Other spindles, O'lO X 0'03 ; 0'12 X 0'037 ; 0'16 X 0'045. The axis measures 6 '4 millims. in diameter at the base. ALCYONARIA. 289 We were at first inclined to record this specimen as a new species of Suberogormct, but further study has convinced us that it is only a variety of S. verriculata. [Note. — FAMILY : CORALLIIDyE. RIDLEY reported with some hesitation the alleged occurrence of a specimen of ComUiuni mbniin on the Ceylon shore. It is interesting, therefore, to record that Professor HEKDMAN found in deep water (34 fathoms) off Galle a specimen which he named Coralliwii (?). It was scarlet in colour, with yellow polyps, and measured about an inch in length. The sketch in his note-book suggests a young specimen of the noble coral, but the unsatisfactory point is that the specimen has not been found in the collection.] ORDER IV. : AXIFEBA. FAMILY: PEIMNOID.E. Primnoa ellisii, VON KOCH. This beautiful species is represented by two specimens, the larger of which measures 68 millims. in height by 39 millims. in maximum width. The specimens agree with the description given by VON KOCH (1890), and the measurements obtained are in absolute accord with those given by him. The geographical distribution of the species is interesting, ranging as it does from the Mediterranean to the Andaman Isles. The exact localities from which it has been recorded are : The Gulf of Naples and the coast of Sardinia in the Mediter- ranean ; deep water off Galle, Ceylon ; and the Andaman Sea, 275 to 45 fathoms (ALCOCK'S " Investigator " Collection). Acanthogorgia media, n. sp. — Plate II., fig. 8 ; Plate III., fig. 7. The specimens are similar to A. ridleyi in mode of branching and in the arrange- ment of the polyps, but they are like A. muricata, HILES, in the disposition of the spicules on the calyces. But they do not seem referable to either species, or to any other whose description is known to us. In the figure on Plate III. the gracefulness of the colony has been inadequately represented. The dimensions of the polyps are as follows : — Height 1 '3 millims. I'l millims. 0'8 millim. Diameter at base . . 0'95 millim. 0'95 millim. 0'7 „ „ apex . . 0-8 „ 0'8 „ 0'6 „ The polyps and the coeneiichyma of the stem and its branches have many projecting spicules. Bound the apex of the polyp a number of spicules project. The polyps are arranged in some parts opposite one another, in other parts spirally. The arrangement is complicated by the interpolation of smaller polyps between the older ones. The branching is irregular and not confined to one plane. On the whole, the branching is alternate. The distances between branches varies from 8 millims. to 2 millims., and even to 1 millim. The axis measures 0'35 millim. in its thickest part, 2 P 290 CEYLON PEAEL OYSTER REPORT. is brownish -yellow in older, yellow in younger portions, and is chambered. The spicules are long slender spindles, with few warts, and tri- and quadri-radiate stars. Among the spicules a considerable number are seen with an abrupt bend and one arm long in comparison to the other (golf-club-like). In these there is a poor development of the warts, the long shaft being free from the warty protuberances for a considerable portion of its length, while the short head has a good number of rough warts. The spicules measure, length by breadth, in millimetres :— Projecting opercular spicules, 0'4 X 0'05 ; 0'45 X 0'04 ; 0'4 X 0'045. Ordinary spindles, 0'5 X 0'036 ; 0'3 X 0'04 ; O'G X 0'045. Quadri-radiate forms, 0'25 X 0'15 ; 0'25 X 0'02 ; arms about O'l millim. in length. Tri-radiate forms, 0"3 X 0*25 ; the arms being about 0'12 millim. in length. Some apparently sex-radiate and quinque-radiate forms occur. Locality : — Trincomalee. Acanthogorgia muricata, VERRILL, var. indica, n.— Plate IV., fig. 11. As a variety under this species we rank a beautiful complete colony, which has a height of 78 millims. and a maximum width of 105 millims. The basal attachment is a flat spreading portion from which the main stem rises. The axis is dark brown in colour, fading to a light yellow in the younger part. It is covered with close set furrows at the base, and at that point has a diameter of 3 millims., but it becomes extremely thin at the ends of the branches. The branching is very profuse and is confined to one plane, but the type of branching gives the main stem a slightly zig-zag arrangement. The calyces are densely crowded all round the stem and branches. They measure from 2'5 millims. to 3 millims. in height and have a basal diameter of 0'9 millim. and a width of I'l millims. to 1'2 millims. at the crown. At the free end of the calyces there are 8 projecting spicules. The crenenchyma on the stem and branches is very thin. The specimen comes near Acanthogorgia spinosa, but differs from it in having only 8 single projecting spicules, while A. spinosa has 8 groups of 2 or 3. The spicules also differ slightly. It agrees closely with A. muricata except for slight differences in the polyps and spicules. The species A. muricata illustrates wide distribution ; it has been previously recorded from Barbados and Funafuti. See HILES (1899), p. 48. Locality : — Trincomalee. Acanthogorgia ceylonensis, n. sp. — Plate IV., fig. 6 ; Plate V., fig. 12. This species is represented by one specimen which measures 55 millims. in maximum height and 30 millims. in maximum width. The branching is both alternate and opposite and is confined to one plane. The polyps are arranged in threes or in twos or in loose spirals. The verrucas vary in height from O'G millim. to 07 millim. and are placed at intervals of about 1 millim. The spicules are arranged on the verrucas ALCYONAEIA. 291 in 8 rows en chevron. The figure (Plate IV., fig. 6) is unfortunate in exaggerating the thickness of the stem and branches. The spicules are of two types : (1) spindles which vary in length from 0'5 millim. to 0'6 millim. and have an average diameter of 0'04 millim. ; and (2) quadri-radiate forms which measure length by breadth in millimetres as follows : 0'08 X 0'06, 0'13 X 0'12, 0'14 X 0'12. We have been unable to refer this specimen to any of the described species. Locality : — Trincomalee. Astromuricea ramosa, n. sp. — Plate I., fig. 8 ; Plate V., fig. 17. A beautiful deep crimson colony, 8 centims. in height by 4 centims. in maximum breadth, but lacking its basal portion. Most of "the numerous branches spread out laterally, but a few project forwards and a few backwards. Most of the branches arise at an acute angle and rapidly attain a vertical direction, giving off short secondary branches, almost always to the outside. The almost uniform thickness is 2 millims. ; there is a slight swelling at the tips. The surface of the coenenchyma is rough with stellate spicules ; the slightly prominent verrucse (about 1 millim. in diameter) occur all round the axis ; from their summits the yellowish polyps are projecting (about 0'5 millim. in diameter). The horny axis is bright yellow, with apparent longitudinal striation ; it has a basal diameter of 1 millim. The crimson spicules are mostly irregular, warty stars, with 4, 5, 6, or more rays. Some of the measurements taken are 0*2 millim. by 0'15 millim. ; 0'2 millim. by 0'2 millim. ; 0'3 millim. by 0'3 millim. ; 0'3 millim. by 0'2 millim. There are some irregular triangles, numerous discs, too irregular to be called stellate, and some small double wheels. A few straight or curved spindles of diverse dimensions occur, 0'3 millim. by 0'03 millim. ; 0'4 millim. by 0'05 millim. ; 0'25 millim. by O'l millim. ; 0'2 millim. by 0-025 millim. The species is nearly related to Astromuricea theophilasi, GERMANOS, but is quite distinct. There is superficial resemblance to EcMnogorgia pseudosasappo. Locality : — Off Patani (ANNANDALE and ROBINSON). Echinomuricea indo-malaccensis, RIDLEY. This species is represented by a single specimen, from the upper part of which the coenenchyma has been rubbed off. The specimen measures 57 millims. in total height. The basal attachment consists of a flat, spreading portion, from which the stem arises. The axis is dark in colour in the older parts, but becomes lighter in the younger branches. Branches arise from all sides of the larger branches, but the 2 P 2 292 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. primary brandies arise from the stem in one plane. The arrangement of the branches gives the colony a bushy appearance. The specimen agrees closely with the description of Echinomuricea indomalaccenxis given by RIDLEY (1884). There are several differences, however, thus (1) the verrucse in this specimen are fully twice as long as in RIDLEY'S, thev measure 0'8 millim. instead of 0'3 millim. in height ; (2) the verrucse spicules with ramifying basal portion vary in this case from 07 millim. to 0'9 millim. in length instead of a maximum length of 0'65, as given by RIDLEY. For discussion of four known species, see HEDLUND (1890), pp. 14 and 15. Locality : — Pearl banks, Gulf of Manaar. Previously recorded from Port Curtis, 5 fathoms to 1 1 fathoms ; Port Molle. 12 fathoms to 20 fathoms ; Warrior Reef, Torres Straits, Australia. Echinomuricea ceylonensis, n. sp. — Plate VI. , fig. 6. Colony much branched in one plane, 11 centims. in height by the same in breadth at its broadest part. The colour is reddish-chocolate to crimson. The polyps may occur all round the branches, but in one specimen they are absent from the concave side of the plane of ramification. There is no regularity in the manner in which the branches arise from the stem. The verrucse, which project almost at right angles, are about 1 millim. in height. The whole surface of the verrucse and of the branches is rough with the sharp projecting points of crimson spicules, which are sometimes imbricating. Within the verruca cup there is a distinct special cone of tapering spicules forming an opercular covering. The polyps are entirely retracted. The horny axis is almost black at the base, about 1 millim. in breadth ; it tapers to a breadth of 0'35 millim. near the tips of the twigs, where it shows a horny yellow colour. The coenenchyma is relatively thin. The following types of spicule occur :— (a) Numerous roughly triradiate forms, with a usually tuberculate main spine and with irregular foliaceous and ramifying expansions connecting the two other rays ; 0'3 millim. to 0'5 millim. in length by 0'275 millim. to 0'3 millim. in breadth at base are common measurements ; (b) irregular approximately stellate forms ; and (c) curved spindles and boomerangs bearing a few tubercles and spines and sometimes forked or irregularly trifid at one end. Locality : — West of Periya Paar. Echinogorgia pseudosassapo, KOLLIKER. A single specimen of a crimson-red colour. It rises from a spreading base, about 15 millims. by 5 millims., and consists of two branches, about 50 millims. and 20 millims. in height. The longer branch gives off a branch at its base and another a third of the way up ; the shorter branch gives off a branch near its end. The diameter varies from 2 millims. to 3 millims. It is probably a young specimen. The surface is very rough owing to the sharp projecting points of the large spicules. ALCYONARIA. 293 There are practically no verrucse. The polyps appear yellowish, and the mouth is seen in most cases as a very precise oval aperture. The red spicules are very variable : — (I.) Fusiform, pointed at both ends, with distant tubercles; common lengths are Q"2 millim., 0'3 millim., 0'4 millim. (2.) Larger fusiform, with tubercles and a few teeth, up to 07 millim. (3.) Large and variable " Blattkeulen," often roughly triangular, with a shaft often divided into tubercled branches and a foliar expansion with 2 to 5 teeth ; some measure 0'6 millim. in length. (4.) Irregular stellate forms, witli transitions to irregular discs ; 0'2 millim. hy 0'3 millim. is a common size. (5.) Triradiate to hexradiate forms, with transitions to the stellate type. The spiculation is not quite in agreement with the description and figures given by WRIGHT and STUDER, but the differences do not seem important. Echinogorgia multispinosa, n. sp. — Plate VI., fig. 1. An imperfect colony, branching irregularly in one plane without anastomosis, 11 centims. in height by 6 centims. in breadth. The horny axis measures 3 "5 millirns. in diameter at the base. Some of the twigs bear galls. The surface of the coanenchyma is finely granular and of a cream-white colour. Verrucae occur mostly on the sides of the branches, and are almost quite absent from the convex surface of the plane of ramification. In some regions they are ' crowded, almost touching one another, in other parts they are separated by intervals varying from 2 millims. to 4 millims. A few spines project slightly round the margin of the verruca opening, and there is an opercular covering with small spicules arranged in eight rays. Under low power the surface is seen to be uniformly covered with what seem to be tuberculate spindles irregularly arranged. When these spindles are examined an extraordinary diversity of form is disclosed. (1.) Large tuberculate or spiny spindles, straight or curved, 0'4 millim. in length by O'l millim. in maximum breadth ; some show a prominent spine on one side. (2.) Small tuberculate spindles, 0'2 millim. by 0'05 millim. (3.) Small almost smooth spindles, 0'2 millim. in length by 0'05 millim. ; 0'3 millim. by 0'05 millim. ; 0'275 millim. by 0'04 millim. (4.) Slender boomerangs, 0'35 millim. by 0'05 millim. (5.) Irregular tuberculate and denticulate clubs, 0'4 millim. by 0'2 millim. ; 0'45 millim. by 0'15 millim. (6.) Foliate clubs, 0'4 millim. in length by 0'2 millim. at broadest part; 0'3 millim. by 0'2 millim. ; 0-275 millim. by 0'2 millim. (7.) Irregularly -shaped warty scales with denticulate margins, e.g., 0-3 rnillim. by 294 CEYLON PEAEL OYSTER REPORT. 0'2 millim. ; 0'25 millim. by 0'2 millim. ; 0'2 millim. by 0'2 millim. ; 0'25 millim. by O'l 5 millim. (8.) Almost stellate scales, 0'25 millim. by 0"25 millim. ; 0'15 millim. by 0'15 millim. (9.) Warty triradiate forms, 0'25 millim. by 0'2 millim. ; 0'2 millim. by O'l 3 millim. ; 0'2 millim. by 0'2 millim. (10.) Tetraradiate forms, 0'23 millim. by O'l millim. ; 0'25 millim. by 0'15 millim. The variety of spicules is greater than we have seen in any other Alcyonarian. Heterogorgia verrilli, n. sp. — Plate VI., fig. 2. A handsome branched colony, greyish-black in colour, 20 centims. in height by 8 centims. in maximum breadth. The short common stem, from which two main branches arise, is 5 millims. in diameter. The branches are generally alternate, and there is a tendency to swelling at the tips of the twigs. The surface of the coenenchyma appears granular and bears many sponge spicules. The verrucse are usually, but not constantly, disposed on the sides of the branches ; they are conical warts under 1 millim. in height. In some cases the upper part of the anthocodia protrudes from the cone, and is seen to bear spindle-shaped spicules. In the retracted state a whorl of spindles is seen projecting vertically outwards within the margin of the crater-like verruca. The characteristic spicules of the coanenchyma are more or less regular, bluntly tuberculate crosses of varying dimensions, e.g., O'l millim. by O'l millim. ; 0'2 millim. by 0'2 millim. There are also tuberculate double clubs and rough discs of various sizes, like crosses with the arms scarcely discernible. The specimen, apparently a Muriceid, is very difficult to locate ; we have referred it to VERRILL'S genus Heterogorgia (' Am. Journ. Sci.,' xlv. (1868), p. 413). Bebryce hicksoni, n. sp. — Plate III., fig. 1 ; Plate VI., fig. 9. An imperfect specimen, irregularly branched in one plane, about 6'5 centims. in height by 6 '5 centims. in breadth. There are four branches, measuring about 2 millims. to 2 '5 millims. in diameter, which is thicker than the main stem at its base (1'5 millims.). There is distinct flattening of the branches and twigs. The cortex has a smoothly granular punctate appearance and a greyish-white colour. The verrucse, which are disposed mainly on the sides of the branches and twigs, usually with intervals of 2 millims. to 2'5 millims. separating an adjacent pair on the same side, are truncate rounded cones, crater-like when the polyps are dislodged. In many cases the anthocodia? of the polyp project at the apex of the cone, and are supported by triangular strands of small spicules longitudinally and transversely disposed. Under low power the superficial spicules appear like rounded grains of sand or like fish -roe, each grain appearing as if it had a clear nucleus surrounded by a whitish rim. Higher magnification shows that there are multi-lobate warty spheroidal discs, some of which show a short central boss projecting inwards ; the ALCYONARIA. -295 diameter of the disc varies considerably, O'l millim., 0'15 millim., 0'2 millini., and 0'25 millim. In some cases the boss is borne on a distinct stalk, and this type measures 0'25 millim. in height by 0'2 millim. in the diameter of the disc Some small spicules are capstan-like, double clubs in fact, and various transitional forms show a gradual reduction of one-half of the capstan till only a boss is left, or not even that. In the polyps there are curved tuberculate spindles, 0'25 millim. in length. The spicules are so characteristic that we have no hesitation in referring this specimen to the genus Bebryce, and it cannot be identified with B. mollix, VON KOCH (1887), or B. studeri, WHITELEGGE (1897), or B. philippii, STUDER. HICKSON has reported Bebryce, sp. (?) from the Maldives ; B. mollis is Mediterranean ; B. studeri was obtained at Funafuti ; B. pJiilippii from the Arafura Sea — a remarkable distribution. This seems to be a somewhat variable species, and the five specimens obtained differ considerably in general appearance, in the degree of prominence assumed by the verrucae, in their distance apart, and in the shapes and sizes of the spicules. In all cases, however, the characteristic Bebryce spicules are unmistakable. In a fragment of a greyish colour, 23 rnillims. in length, with two short branches, the verrucas are usually about 1 millim. apart, along one line, and seem to occur equally all round the branches. Their diameter is 1 millim., and that of the light brown non-calcareous axis is the same. We made a study of two other specimens. The more complete of the two represents a young colony, the other is a fragment of a large colony. In both the branching is confined to one plane, the branches and twigs being given off at an angle which varies little from a right angle. The branches grow out for a short distance in this direction and then bend upwards. The tips of the twigs and the branches are clavate, but in one or two cases they are flattened. The two specimens present a greenish appearance, due to the presence of a siliceous sponge on the branches. The sponge has covered each branch with a thick coating, through which the tips of the verrucse are seen. The spicules of the sponge are monaxonial and are oxytylotes. The general coenenchyma is thin and granular in appearance, and is composed of small spherical or irregularly oval bodies covered with numerous rough warts. There are also some more definite spindles, but they are very few in number. The axis is horny and black in the lower parts, becoming lighter in colour in the twigs and younger portions of the branches. The axis is marked by irregular ridges and has a core of lighter coloured material. This core diminishes in size with the age of the portion of the axis. It is crossed by a number of bands, thus appearing to be chambered, and a longitudinal section shows a number of curved lamellaa crossing the core at about equal distances. The verrucas occur in the younger portions on all sides of the twigs and branches, but in the older portions they are confined more or less to the lateral faces. They 296 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. are small and seem to be conical in shape. After Carefully cutting away the sponge, we found that the verrucse were conical and truncated. There is no differentiation between the spicules of the general coenenchyma and those forming the verrucre ; in both eases they are mostly oval or spherical discs covered with rough warts and sometimes with an internal boss. There are also some rough warty spindles. The spicules measure, length by breadth in millimetres, as follows : — (1.) Globular discs, O'l X O'l ; 0'14 X 0'14 ; 0'14 X 0'08 ; O'll X 0'105. (2.) Spindles, 0'26 X 0"038 ; 0'12 X 0'025 ; 0'16 X 0'03. The colour of the colony when devoid of the sponge is a greyish- white. Acamptogorgia atra, n. sp. This species is represented by a complete colony, measuring 211 millims. in height and 98 millims. in maximum width. The axis is horny, almost black at the base, but light brown in the younger- branches. The stem is almost of the same diameter throughout its whole length. It measures 4 millims. in diameter at the base and 3 '9 millims. at the tip of the main branch. The branching is confined to one plane. The branches arise at a right angle, but soon turn upwards and run roughly parallel with the main stem. The polyps are restricted to the lateral edges of the stem and branches, but here and there they appear either on the back or on the front. They stand out almost perpendicularly to the stem and branches at intervals of about 2 millims. Each branch bears close to its tip 3 or 4 polyps, none of which can be said to occupy the end of the branch. The colony is black in colour, though it presents a greyish appearance owing to its being closely coated with a sponge. Locality : — Ceylon seas. Acamptogorgia spinosa, HILES. This species is represented by several colonies, two of which give the following measurements :— (A.) (B.) Height of colony 76 millims. 74 millims. Maximum width of same . . 39 ,, 42 ,, A finer, but much weathered specimen afterwards found in the collection measured 15 centims. by 15 centims. ; it was branched in one plane and showed much anastomosis. The polyps on the branches vary from 0-6 millim. to 07 millim. in length and from 0'5 millim. to 0'6 millim. in diameter. In a few of the polyps a height of 0'9 millim. may be reached. The spicules in the present specimens are slightly larger than in ALCYONAEIA. 297 Acamptogorgia spitioxa, but even then the relation of length to breadth is almost the same. The specimens agree with Acamptofjorgia Kpiiwm in axis, colour, and thick- ness, and in the chambered central core. For description, see HILES (1899). Locality : — Deep water off Galle. Acamptogorgia spinosa, var. ceylonensis, n. — Plate I., fig. 1. This variety is represented by one complete colony and a colony in which the base is wanting. The complete colony has the following measurements :— Maximum height 114 millims. and maximum breadth 176 millims., while the incomplete one measures 154 millims. in maximum height and 142 millims. in maximum width. The colony is fan-shaped, caused by the profuse branching which is strictly confined to one plane. Anastomosis of the branches is, however, common. The stem is dark in colour near the base, but gradually becomes lighter in the younger parts of the stem and branches. The axis in the stem and principal branches is oval in shape, the longest diameter being perpendicular to the plane of branching, but it gradually becomes more cylindrical in shape in the younger branches and in the younger part of the stem. The co3nenchyma is thin and allows the axis to shine through ; it presents a very rough appearance under the lens. The verrucse are arranged on three sides of the axis, they have a series of spines projecting round the mouth, and have a maximum height of 0'8 millim. and a maximum diameter of 0'6 millim. A few expanded polyps were found at the end of a branch, but almost all were withdrawn within the verruca? and showed a tentacular operculum, conical in shape, formed by the spindle-shaped spicules which lie on the aboral surface of the tentacles. The spicules are (1) triradiate, with large irregular processes in the angles which often fuse, thus leaving plate-like portions with perforations ; (2) a modified form of the triradiate with a long arm, which gradually thickens and then gives off two smaller arms from the thicker end ; and (3) spindles and club-shaped half-spindles, curved or straight, either with very rough projections or fairly smooth. Locality : — Deep water off Galle. Acis indica, n. sp.— Plate II., fig. 3 ; Plate V., fig. 7. The colony is large and fan-shaped, rising to a height of 149 millims. and having a maximum width of 167 millims. From a conical base, which has a flat spreading margin and is attached to a mass of worm-tubes, the short main stem arises. At a distance of 14 millims. from its origin, where it has a diameter of 3 '5 millims., it divides into two principal branches. The branching is for the most part confined to one plane, but several of the smaller branches and twigs arise at right angles to the 2 Q 298 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. principal plane of branching. The branching is very profuse and at several points shows anastomosis of the branches, but this is by no means common. The branches are cylindrical, but there are traces of slight flattening in the plane of branching. The twigs arise usually at right angles to the branches, and their tips as well as those of the branches are slightly clavate. The polyps are small and are scattered over the whole surface of the stem and branches. In no place can it be said that they are confined to three surfaces, nor can any attempt at lateral arrangement be seen. The verrucse are very small and the polyps can be completely retracted within them. The edges of the verrucae show a variable number of spines which project above the slightly conical operculum formed by the tentacular spicules when the polyps are withdrawn. The superficial coenenchyma of the stem and the branches presents a striking appearance, due to the arrangement of the large flat whitish spicules and to their being outlined against the darker ground-colour of the stem and branches. The spicules of the general coenenchyma are flat and multituberculate, varying very much in size and shape. The tubercles are low and rough and very numerous. Many of the larger spicules extend the whole distance between two adjacent polyps, and sometimes even exceed this length. They fall into three groups, fairly distinct in shape : (a) large modified fusiform spicules, which taper more or less towards the ends and measure from 0'9 millim. to 3 millims. in length by 0'25 millim. to 0'45 millim. in breadth ; (b) squamous or scale-like spicules, often with slightly lobed margins, which measure from 0'8 millim. to I'l millims. in length by 0'4 millim. to 0'6 millim. in breadth ; and (c) large modified squamous spicules, consisting of a flattened tuberculate basal portion and of a projecting part which forms the projecting spine of the verrucse. They measure, in length by breadth in millimetres, as follows:— 07 X 0'5; 0'6 X 0'4 ; 0'5 X 0'3. In the polyps there are slender spindle-shaped and club-shaped spicules. They are often slightly curved and either taper to both ends or are blunt and rounded at one end and pointed at the other. Many of these exhibit fairly prominent spines towards the thicker end. They vary considerably in size, being from 0'3 millim. to 0'5 millim. in length and from 0'02 millim. to 0'06 millim. in breadth. They are found chiefly in the tentacles, where they form an operculum to the retracted polyp ; but an incomplete and irregular crown or collar is formed by them at the base of the tentacles. In colour the spicules vary from white to semitransparent, while the whole colony has a whitish-brown appearance. This species differs from Acis pustulata in not having violet-coloured opercular spicules and in the branches not being compressed in the plane of branching. It also differs from Acis oriental/if in having the polyps on all sides of the stem and branches and in the branching not being confined to one plane. Locality : — Deep water off Galle. ALCYONARIA. 299 Acis alba, n. sp.— Plate III, fig. 9 ; Plate V., fig. 4. This species is represented by a complete colony which gives the following measure- ments : —Height of colony, 127 millims. ; maximum width of same, 115 millims. ; diameter of axis at base, 2 '5 millims. The basal attachment consists of a flat plate-like expansion from which the main stem rises. The stem reaches a height of 26 millims. and then divides into two principal branches, but branching is represented between this point and the base by a stump. The branches are given off at an angle which closely approaches a right angle; they soon turn upwards, however, and run roughly parallel to the main branches. The tips of the branches and the twigs are sometimes slightly clavate. The colony presents a fan-shaped appearance, due to the branching being strictly confined to one plane. The axis is horny, greyish-black in colour in the older parts, and amber-yellow in the twigs and younger portions of the colony. It is cylindrical and marked by a number of irregular ridges in the lower part. The polyps occur on all the faces of the stem and branches, and are arranged so that they give the appearance of three or four irregular lines. The verrucee are small, slightly conical in shape, with a blunt tip and fairly wide base. They are covered by spicules similar to those of the crenenchyma. In several cases a verruca seems to occupy the tip of a branch or twig. The general ccenenchyma is thin and granular in appearance, the surface appearing scaly owing to the arrangement of the large flat spicules. The spicules appear to be in two layers, the outer consisting of thick irregularly shaped flattish spicules, closely covered with rough warts, while the inner layer consists of spindles often with blunt ends and more irregularly formed spicules. The measurements, length by breadth in millimetres, are as follows : — (1.) The outer layer, 0'48 X 0'23 ; 0'5 X 0'4 ; 0'43 X 0'29 ; 0'45 X 0'2 ; 0'2 X O'l. (2.) The inner layer, 0-25XO-07; 0-18X0-05; 0'22x0'08; 0'14XO'04 ; 0'12x0'04. The appearance of two layers may be due to the fact that the flattish spicules are thicker and so stand up above the level of the other spicules. If this be so, then the spicules are in one layer only. Towards the base of the1 tentacle on the aboral surface two slender converging spicules are present and at their base one or more transversely placed, thus giving a triangular arrangement of spicules at the base of each tentacle. Galls are present on several of the branches, mostly caused by cirripedes. The colour of the colony is greyish-white. Localities : — Trincomalee ; deep water off Galle. Acis ceylonensis, n. sp. — Plate VI., fig. 3. A small specimen, 4 centims. in height, with five branches, three of which are broken. The stem measures 2 millims. in diameter at the base and is scarcely 2 Q 2 300 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. reduced in thickness higher up. Verrucae occur all round and have the form of truncated coues, about 0'5 millim. in height and about 1 millim. in diameter at the base. The intervals between them vary greatly, from 2 millims. to almost nil. The surface is covered with pebble-like spicules predominantly oval in shape and neatly fitted together like a mosaic of rounded fragments, which show almost no trace of overlapping or imbrication. Smaller oval scales occur outside the verrucae and spindles project very slightly from within. The large coenenchyma spicules are mostly warty irregular ovals, but some are almost rectangular and others are like flint axe-heads. They give the following measurements in length and breadth in millimetres :— 0-55 X 0-35; 0'5 X 0'32 ; 0'4 X 0"3. Various kinds of spindles occur : («) large thick forms, very warty, measuring 0'3 millim. by 0'15 millim., 0'45 millim. by 0'175 millim. ; (b) long thin curved or straight forms, with smaller tubercles or almost smooth, measuring 0'5 millim. by 0'03 millim., 0'45 millim. by 0'03 millim. ; and (c) minute warty spindles, O'OG millim. by 0'02 millim.; 0'08 millim. by 0'02 millim. Besides these forms there are others which approach the club-type, and are probably modifications of the large spindles. Locality : — Deep water off Galle. Acis ceylonensis, n. sp., var. imbricata, n. Another specimen, measuring 4 centims. in height, with only hints of branches, showed a general superficial resemblance to Acis ceylonensis, 11. sp., except that the large coanenchyma spicules were much less regular in form and were much imbricated. An examination of the spicules showed the following forms :— (1.) Large, modified fusiform, elaborately tuberculate, of very various dimensions, e.g., 0'5 millim. by 0'25 millim.; 0'65 millim. by 0'4 millim.; 1 millim. by 0'5 millim. ; without the monticular prominences characteristic of Acis orientalis. (2.) Large rounded or almost oblong tuberculate scales, of various dimensions, e.g., 0*35 millim. by 0'4 millim. ; 0'5 millim. by 0'45 millim. (3.) Tuberculate clubs, with the ends often much swollen, often 0'45 millim. in length by 0'2 millim. in maximum width ; 0'35 millim. in length by 0'2 millim. in maximum width. (4.) Tuberculate spindles, about 0'35 millim. to 0'4 millim. in length by O'l millim. in breadth, some 0'25 millim. in length by 0'05 millim. in breadth. This specimen obviously differs markedly in the details of its spiculation from that which we have named Acis ceylonensis, but it may be sufficient to erect a variety within the species. Until more data accumulate it seems quite impossible to tell how far marked differences in spiculation can be relied on as specific. Locality : — Trincomalee. ALCYONARIA. 301 Acis orientalis, RIDLEY. This species is represented by three complete specimens, of which the largest measures 136 millims. in height by 86 millims. in maximum breadth. The specimens agree with the description given by RIDLEY [1882 (II.), pp. 126-128]. The terminal branches reach a length of 45 millims. to 50 millims., and the tips of the branches and twigs are clavate, measuring 3 '5 millims. to 4 millims. in diameter, and are occupied by three polyps. The axis measures 3 millims. at the base, but in branches which have a diameter of 2'6 millims. it measures only 0'5 millim. or 0'45 millim. in diameter. The spicular measurements agree very closely with those given by RIDLEY (1882), the differences being so slight as not to be of any importance. We may perhaps, having found other Ceylonese species of Acis, quote RIDLEY'S note : — " The occurrence of this otherwise West-Indian genus in the Indian Ocean, and in its western portion in particular, has a peculiar significance for the student of geology, as showing that a communication probably existed between these two areas at a period later than that at which the genus was differentiated from the main stem of the family." Locality : — Deep water off Galle. Previously recorded from Mauritius, 80 fathoms. Muricella ramosa, n. sp. — Plate III., figs. 2 and 3. The colony is branched in one plane, and forms a beautiful network with abundant anastomoses. The branches and twigs are given off, sometimes opposite, sometimes alternate, at an angle which varies little from a right angle. One of the specimens, though not complete, measures 170 millims. in height and 273 millims. in maximum width. The axis is black in colour in the lower part, but becomes brownish-yellow in the tips of the branches and in the twigs. It is rather irregular in shape, being some- what oval shaped, the longer diameter being at one place in the plane of branching, at another place at right angles thereto. The general coenenchyma is thin and practically composed of warty spindles which may be either straight, curved, or slightly S-shaped. The verrucse are small and vary greatly in appearance. A number of spicules horizontally arranged form the lower part of the verruca, and a number of longi- tudinally disposed spicules form the upper part. The appearance of the upper set of spicules varies according to the stage of retraction of the anthocodial part of the polyp. The spicules composing the verruca? do not differ from those of the general cosnenchyma except in size. They are smaller, but are as closely covered with warts as the other spicules. The polyps are arranged on the stem and branches in what appear to be short spirals, but on some of the twigs they assume a more or less bilateral disposition. The spicules are thick spindles, either straight or curved, or slightly S-shaped, 302 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. covered with numerous rough warts. Their measurements, length by breadth in millimetres, are as follows:— 1'6 X 0'2 ; 0'8 X 0'14; 1 '3 X 0'2 ; 0'9 X 0'16 ; 0-25 X 0-06; O'l X 0'02 ; 2'1 X 0-20. In the complete colony the outer spicules often *t retch the whole distance between the polyps. In certain conditions of the polyps there appear to be 8 projecting spicules on each calyx. Localities : — Deep water outside pearl banks, Gulf of Mannar ; and deep water off Galle and onwards up West Coast of Ceylon. Muricella ceylonensis, n. sp. — Plate VI., fig. 4. The colony is branched in one plane, with a strong tendency to anastomosis even between twigs of different main branches. It measures 12 centims. in height by 8 centims. in breadth. Most of the twigs arise at right angles from the main branches and almost all the short ones remain perpendicular. Many arise in opposite pairs, others are alternate, and in other regions the twigs may be restricted for an inch or more to one side of the branch. A common interval between the origin of two adjacent branches on the same side is 4 millims. The verrucae stand out prominently at right angles to a height of about 0'5 millim., and the interval between two on the same side is on the average 1 millim. The surface of the colony is covered with huge white spicules readily visible to the naked eye. Spicules slightly curved at the base run up the sides of the verruca, and their tips project at the mouth. The black horny axis measures 2 millims. in diameter at the base, it tapers to a diameter of O'l millim. at the tips of the twigs, and in these delicate parts it shows a brownish tint. The general colour of the colony is grey. In another specimen measuring 8 centims. by 6 centims. the colour was whiter owing to the more densely packed large spicules; there was no hint of anastomosis, and the perpendicular mode of branching was not so pronounced. The spicules, which are longitudinally disposed, are straight or curved, densely tuberculate spindles, the largest of which seem here and there to be disposed in definite strands or lines. They vary in size from 3'5 millims. to 0'35 millim. Compared with M. ramosa this species is much less thickly branched; it shows much less anastomosis, it bears polyps at wider intervals, and has larger spicules. Muricella nitida, VEKBILL. This species is represented by a colony with a maximum height of 105 millims. and a maximum width of 80 millims. The base consists of a broad flattened portion from which the fan-shaped colony rises. The axis is dark brown, almost black in colour in the lower parts, but it becomes yellowish in the upper portions of the branches and in the twigs. It has a basal diameter" of 2 millims. The branches, which are confined to one plane, come off' at an angle which approaches a right angle and then bend upwards, so that they appear to be parallel ALCYONARIA. 303 to one another. The younger branches and twigs often present a pinnate appearance, which is sometimes disguised by a larger development of one of the branches. The stem and branches are flattened in the plane of branching, and the tips of the twigs form blunt broad expansions due to the two divergent terminal polyps. The polyps are more or less confined to the lateral edges of the branches ; they are all withdrawn, but their tentacular portions are yellowish in colour. The spicules vary in length from 0'9 millim. to T65 millims., and in breadth from O'l millim. to 0'2 millim. The colour of the colony is a deep coral-red ; and the spicules of the coenenchyma are visible to the naked eye. The specimen presents close resemblances both to Muricella perramosa and M. nitida, but because of the greater resemblance in the arrangement of the polyps and the more marked coral-red colour, it was thought best to place it under M. nitida. Locality : — Ceylon seas. Muricella complanata, WRIGHT and STUDER. This species is represented by a fragment of a colony, consisting of the lower part of the stem with basal attachment, and a branch bearing secondary branches or twigs. The basal attachment consists of a slightly conical spreading portion, from the summit of which the stem arises. The stem measures 2 '2 millims. near the base, and at a distance of 1 1 millims. from the base the first branch, which is represented by a fragment, was given off. The secondary branches or- twigs are given off at right angles, and may reach a length of 25 millims. to 37 millims. The polyps are arranged on the lateral edges of the stem and branches, and are directed some to the front and some to the back. On the whole they are arranged alternately, but this is not quite constant. The polyps measure 0'95 millim. in height by 0'74 millim. in width, and are contained within verrucae which measure 0'35 millim. in height by 0'8 millim. to 1 millim. in width at the base. The stem is of a violet tint with yellow polyps and verrucse, but this tint gives place gradually on the twigs to an orange-yellow. The tips of the twigs end in two divergent polyps, and this expansion measures 3 millims. in width. The spicules of the coanenchyma vary in length from 0'7 millim. to 1'3 millims., and in breadth from O'l millim. to O'l 6 millim. They are straight spicules covered with warts. This specimen, though not agreeing with Muricella complanata in every detail, may be included in this species, which is variable in the colour and the size of its spicules. We studied a second specimen of a more pronounced violet colour and with much larger spicules. It was a complete colony which is attached to a piece of coral, and measures 68 millims. in height and 53 millims. in maximum width. The basal 304 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. attachment consists of a flattened portion spreading over the surface of the coral. The stem measures 2 millims. at the base, and at a height of 17 millims. the first branch is given off. The brandling is confined to one plane, the primary branches being given off almost at a right angle. They in turn give off secondary branches or twigs at an angle which approximates even more closely to a right angle. The verrucse are placed on the lateral edges of the stem and branches, and are arranged more or less alternately. They are conical and abruptly truncated, with usually a few of the spicules projecting at the opening. The spicules in the calyces are much smaller than those of the general coenenchyma. The colour of the whole colony is a beautiful violet tint, with the tentacles of the polyps yellowish in colour. The spicules of the coanenchyma are spindle-shaped, either straight or curved and sometimes broad and flat in comparison to their length, or bluntly rounded at the two ends. They can be divided into two fairly distinct types : — (1.) The larger spicules with rough warts, which vary from 07 millim. to 27 millims. in length and from 0'075 millim. to 0'32 millim. in width ; and (2.) The smaller spicules with warts more pointed than rough, which vary in length from O'll millim. to 0'55 millim., and in width from 0'03 millim. to 0'05 millim. Another very beautiful form with large violet and colourless spicules seems at first sight very different from the foregoing species and variety. This is mainly due, however, to the fact that there is a prominent opercular covering of small but very conspicuous rose-red spicules sometimes disposed in eight rays. Localities : — West of Periya Paar, Gulf of Manaar ; deep water oft' Galle and onwards up West Coast of Ceylon. FAMILY: PLEXAURID.E. Flexaura praelonga, var. typica (RIDLEY). Plexauroides prselonga (WRIGHT and STUDER). This species is represented by one specimen, which reaches a height of 425 millims. The branching is confined to one plane and forms an irregular dichotomy. The main stem is 4 millims. in diameter at its base, tapering to 3 millims. at its termination, thus agreeing with the measurements given by WRIGHT and STUDER. The verrucse are numerous and irregularly scattered and the polyps are completely retractile. The ccenenchyma is comparatively thin and very friable. The spicular measurements are. the same as those given by WRIGHT and STUDER. The colour is a deep brownish-red in spirits. Locality : — Outside pearl banks, Gulf of Mauaar. Previously recorded from Port Curtis, 5 fathoms to 11 fathoms; Port Denison, 4 fathoms; and Station 186, Cape York, 8 fathoms. (See WRIGHT and STUDER (1889), '"Challenger" Reports,' vol. xxxi. : RIDLEY (1884), '"Alert" Expedition,' p. 339, Plate xxxvi., fig. F, and Plate xxxviii., fig. y, g'.) ALCYONAKIA. 305 Plexaura praelonga, RIDLEY, var. elongata, n. Several incomplete specimens, dull crimson in colour, with two or three elongated cylindrical branches, 3 millims. to 4 millims. in diameter and up to 30 centims. in length. The axis, blackish-brown, 1 millim. to 2 millims. in diameter, is entirely horny. The surface of the colony is covered with the pore-like apertures of the polyps; around each aperture the spicules are disposed in a ring 0-3 millim. to 0'5 millim. in diameter. The most characteristic spicules are very variable discs, " Blattkeulen," 0'4 millim. to O'o millim. in length, with a rounded foliaceous expansion (0'3 millim. in breadth) at one end and an irregular ramification at the other. The surface of the disc bears a few large blunt tubercles. When the thin foliaceous expansions are broken off, the rest of the spicule may be described as irregularly stellate. Actually stellate forms also occur, and 3- to 6-rayed forms are represented. A few tuberculate spindles occur here and there. As regards types of spicules, this form resembles Plexaura pralonga, but the details of the " Blattkeulen," the rough cortex and the crimson colour, and some other features, mark it as quite distinct from RIDLEY'S varieties typica and cinerea. Plexaura antipathes, KLUNZINGER, var. flexuosa, n. To a variety of this species we refer two specimens, the larger of which measures 120 millims. in height and the same in width. The colonies are bush-shaped and very profusely branched, with the branching not confined to one plane. The branches are sometimes thickened during a part of their length, while all are swollen at the tip into a knob or club-shaped portion, which measures from 2 millims. to 3 millims. in diameter. The polyps are scattered over the whole surface of the stem and branches. No projecting calyces are present, but the position of the polyp is marked by an oval or circular opening, round which the coanenchyma is slightly raised. The axis is thick at the base, measuring 3 '5 millims. in diameter, but it becomes slender and thread-like at the tips of the branches. The colour is a dark brown, very little difference being seen throughout the whole ramifications of stem and branches. The base consists of a broad, flat, spreading portion, from which in one specimen several stems rise in addition to the main stem. The spicules are short, many branched, rod-like needles or small spherical bodies, which bear many protuberances. They measure, length by breadth in millimetres, as follows :— 012 X 0-08 ; 0'12 X O'lO ; 0'14 X 0'08 ; 0'15 X O'lO ; 0'20 X OD8. The colour of the colony is a dirty greyish-white, with a light brownish tinge in many places. Though differing slightly from Plexaura antipathes, yet the differences are not sufficient to warrant the formation of a new species. See HILES (1899), pp. 51-2; WHITELEGGE (1897), pp. 317-8. Locality : Gulf of Manaar. 2 R 300 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. Lophogorgia lutkeni, WRIGHT and STUDER. — Plate III., fig. 6. This species is represented by many pieces of colonies ; the largest piece measures 33 centims. in height by 38 centims. in breadth, and has three main branches. It measures 18 millims. across at the base, narrows to 12 millims., and expands again to 28 millims. where the branches arise. The axis is dark brown in colour with a lighter coloured central core. It is very calcareous as well as horny and measures fully 2 millims. at the lower end of the branch which we studied. It has two shallow grooves which correspond to the two grooves on the stem and the branches. The branching is usually confined to one plane and is fairly profuse. In the largest specimen one of the branches comes off from the main stem almost at right angles to the plane ot branching, but it bends over almost directly and comes to lie in that plane. In this specimen, also, several of the secondary branches rise in a similar manner to the above. In the other specimens, however, the branching is strictly confined to one plane. The stem and the branches are flattened in the plane of branching and are marked on the flat sides by a narrow winding groove or furrow which is continued along the flattened surfaces of the secondary branches. The tips of the branches and twigs are almost cylindrical. In the twigs the nutrient canals occur all round, but in the larger branches and in the stem they correspond to the grooves on the flattened surfaces. The polyp-bearing surface is divided into two lateral bands by means of the two grooves. On both of the bands the polyps occur in irregular rows. Verrucas can scarcely be said to be present, as the general crenenchyma seems only to be slightly raised at the point where the polyp issues. On the polyp being retracted, the edge of the pore-like opening curves in and forms a star-shaped figure in which the rays are slightly variable. The slight thickening at the point of issue of the polyp seems more marked in some of the specimens than in others. The polyps are either completely or partially withdrawn into the general coanenchyma ; the expanded part in the case of those partially withdrawn is white in colour. On the body of the polyp there are eight bands of spicules running up towards the base of the retracted tentacles. In each band the spicules, which are numerous, are arranged en chevron. The spicules are spindle-shaped, but slightly flat in appearance, and sometimes curved and with fairly large prominent projections. They measure (in situ) from 0'18 millim. to 0'2 millim. in length. They are colourless. The general coanenchyma of the stem and the branches is thick, measuring about 1 millim. in depth, and friable in texture. In colour it is yellowish, with darker brownish patches scattered over the whole surface. It is composed of short spindle- shaped spicules with rough wart-like projections arranged in whorls, the whorls varying in number with the size of the spicules. They measure, length by breadth in millimetres, as follows :— O'l X 0 -04 ; 0-12 X 0-04 ; 0-14 X 0'05 ; 0'14 X 0'02 ; 0'13 X 0'035 ; 0'14 X 0'06. ALC YON ARIA. 307 The specimens agree with the description of Lopkogorgiti, lutkcni in most respects, e.g., the branching, the flattening, the absence of verrucse, the disposition of the polyps and nutrient canals. On the other hand, there are some peculiarities : (1) there is a distinct groove and not a wavy line; (2) the spicules of the general ccenenchyma are smaller in the Ceylon specimens ; and (3) the pore-like openings left by the retracted polyps form star-like figures, not slits. These differences do not seem important enough to warrant us in separating it from L. lutkeni. To this species two other fragments belong. The larger measures 168 millims. in height and has a diameter of 5 millims. at the lower end of the main stalk. These two specimens differ from those described above in having no projections of the ccenenchyma at the point of issue of the polyps. The openings left by the polyps when withdrawn are more like slits than in the former specimens. The specimens are also more brick-red in colour. In every other respect they agree with the specimens above described. As the two sets of specimens come from the same locality we are furnished with a good example of individual variation. Locality : — Cheval Paar, Gulf of Manaar. Lophogorgia rubrotincta, n. sp. — Plate IV., fig. 12. The base of the colony is expanded for 25 millims. on a shell ; the branching is approximately in one plane ; the measurements are about 100 millims. in height by a maximum of 30 millims. in breadth ; the longest branches are about 30 millims. in length ; the primary branches arise irregularly on the' two sides of the main stem and some give off secondary branches. As regards spicules and polyps, it seems to be a Lophogorgia. Most of the ccenenchyma spicules are rough spindles ; O'l millim. by 0'04 millim. is a common measurement, but many are much smaller. On the median line of each flattened surface of the stem and its branches there is a line of red spicules making a characteristic feature in contrast to the general orange-yellow. If it be not worthy of recognition as a new species, it is a very distinctive variety. Lophogorgia irregularis, u. sp. — Plate VI., fig. 7. An irregularly branching specimen of a dirty white colour, about 3 centims. in maximum breadth by 1'5 centims. in height. The extraordinarily quaint mode of branching may be described as somewhat antler-like, but the tips of the branches are mostly bent downwards. The branches expand, constrict, and re-expand in a peculiar way, and there is considerable flattening in the general plane of branching. The polyps occur all over, completely retracted within slightly prominent rounded verrucas, which are closest together and best defined towards the ends of the branches. Many of the verrucaa measure about 1 millim. in diameter, but the aperture of the polyp on the apex of the gently rounded elevation is usually very much less (about 0-25 millim.). 2 R 2 308 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. The axis is black in colour and seems to be non-calcareous. It measures 2 millims. in breadth at the base, soon expands to 4 millims., and then narrows again. It is markedly flattened. Towards the ends of the branches, which measure about 3 millims. in greatest breadth, the axis is thread-like, brown in colour, and very flexible. The coenenchyma is thick, its texture recalls that of Iciligorgia ; several sections through a branch showed three large longitudinal canals symmetrically disposed close round the axis. The spicules are broad spindles, 0'2 millim. by O'l millim. ; narrow spindles ; clubs ; and double clubs. Locality : — Pearl banks, "Quit of Manaar. Leptogorgia australiensis, RIDLEY, var. flavotincta. — Plate IV., fig. 10. This species is represented by numerous complete specimens, which differ considerably in size, the largest being 154 millims. in height and 130 millims. in maximum breadth. In all the specimens the coenenchyma is rubbed off near the base, thus exposing the axis to view. The axis rises from a flat spreading basal portion, it is black in colour and slightly oval in shape, measuring 2 '2 millims. in diameter at the base, but becoming lighter in colour and thread-like in form in the tips of the branches and in the pinnae. It is horny in texture and very tough. The branching is confined to one plane, and each of the branches has a pinnate appearance. On the main stem and branches there is a distinct groove running up both the surfaces, thus dividing the polyp-bearing part into two lateral bands. In some parts it seems as if the groove had disappeared and left a ridge in its place. Some of the specimens show galls. The verrucse are arranged on the two lateral faces of the branches and the pinnae in two alternating rows. They are scarcely elevated above the level of the general coenenchyma, and their openings are slit-like in shape, the slit running parallel to the long axis of the branch. In every respect the specimens agree with the description given by RIDLEY (1884). The spicules in the present specimens seem on the whole to be smaller than those measured by RIDLEY either for the species itself or for any of the varieties, varying, as they do, from 0'09 millim. to 0'16 millim. in length, and from 0'04 millim. to 0'05 millim. in breadth. Few of the spicules, however, attain the latter dimension in breadth. The colour of the specimen, not agreeing exactly with any of the colours given for the species, may be best described as deep crimson. The yellow verrucas stand out conspicuously in the younger branches, and also in two young colonies (Station I.) 30 millims. in height. Localities: — Cheval Paar, Gulf of Manaar ; Station I., off Negombo, 12 to 20 fathoms; deep water off Galle and onwards to Colombo. Previously recorded from Torres Straits (see RIDLEY, 1884, p. 342, Plate 36). ALCYONARIA. 309 Leptogorgia australiensis, RIDLEY, var. perflava — Plate IV., fig. 10. This variety is represented by a complete colony which has a maximum height of 80 millims. and a maximum width of 88 millims. The type of branching agrees very closely with that described, even to the pinnate arrangement of some of the pinnae themselves. The groove or furrow is more tortuous than in RIDLEY'S description, and in several places it shows the transition between a groove and a ridge. The size and the arrangement of the verrucse, and their manner of opening by longitudinal slits, are all in close agreement with RIDLEY'S descriptions. The axis just above the flat spreading basal portion has a diameter of 1'35 millims. The spicules are spindle-shaped, with whorls of warts, distinct free spaces being visible between the whorls near the middle portion of the spicule. Their measure- ments, length by breadth in millimetres, are as follows : — 0'12 X 0'04 ; 0'15 X 0'05; 0-11 X 0-04; 0-16 X 0'04 ; 0'17 X 0'03 ; 0"08 X 0'04. In this specimen the spicules show a greater range in size than is found in the specimen described by RIDLEY. Neither in this variety nor in the variety described above can any trace be found of the double-headed spicules which VERRILL has described. They are almost certainly, as RIDLEY has suggested, pieces of broken fusiform spicules. A point of some interest in regard to the varieties described above is, that the spicules of the crimson variety are wholly crimson and the spicules of the yellow variety are wholly yellow. In no case can any trace of both red and yellow spicules be found in one specimen. RIDLEY, however, found that red spicules occurred in the cortex of the yellow varieties, and that in the cortex of the main branches of the red form there were almost, if not quite, as many yellow as red spicules. We have examined our specimens very carefully, and it may be that we have here the initiation of a more definite splitting up of the species into distinct colour-varieties. Leptogorgia (?) sp. We have been unable to come to a definite decision in regard to an interesting form which we rank provisionally with the genus Leptogorgia. It is represented by an incomplete specimen showing two branches arising from a common basal portion. The longest branch is 84 centims. in length, 2 millims. to 2'5 millims. in breadth, and gives off two short branches at an acute angle. The branches are flattened, the edges show a crenate row of gentle elevations and depressions indicating the position of the verrucae and the minute intervals between them. The colour is greyish with a tint of vandyck brown ; the texture of the coenenchyma appears smooth to the naked eye, finely granular under the hand lens. The axis measures 0'85 millim. across at its base, and a surprising feature is its markedly calcareous composition. The spicules are : — (a) Small warty double spindles, measuring in length by maximum breadth in millimetres, 0'08x0'025; O'lxO'025; 0-15XO"03; 0-16x0'04; and (b) minute warty double clubs, 0'03 X 0'02 ; 0'05 X 0'03 ; 0'075 X 0'03 ; 0'08 X 0'03. 310 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. Stenogorgia ceylonensis, n. sp. — Plate IT., figs. 1 and lA; Plate V., fig. 9. This new species is represented by two complete colonies, which measure as follows :— . Height of colony ...... 125 millims. 73 millims. Maximum width of same ... 117 ,, 76 ,, The colonies are fan-shaped and, on the whole, branched in one plane. The basal attachment consists of a broad, flat, plate-like portion which spreads over the surface of the object to which it is attached. From the basal portion the • short main stem arises and soon divides into a number of principal branches. These give off secondary branches, which in their turn give rise to twigs of similar structure. The branches are, on the whole, given off in one plane, but several of the smaller branches and twigs come off in a different plane. The tips of the branches and twigs consist of flat expansions formed by two divergent terminal polyps ; the expansion in many cases measures as much as 4 millims. from side to side. The axis is horny, rigid in the lower part, but flexible and light brown in colour in the younger branches and twigs. The verrucse are very abundant on the branches and twigs, a little less numerous on the principal branches. They are cylindrical in shape, and measure, length by breadth in millimetres, as follows: — 1'9 X 1'2; 1'5 X I'l. They occur on all sides of the branches and twigs, and may be said to occur in short spirals which are closely crowded on the branch or twig. When the polyps are withdrawn the verrucse present all the phases between a mere pore with a lobed margin and a minute 8 -rayed star, in proportion to the extent of the retraction. The coenenchyma is thin and is easily rubbed off. It is mainly composed of short rough spindles closely covered with warts and spines. They are light yellow to deep yellow in colour, and measure, length by breadth in millimetres, as follows :— 0-4 X 0-08; 0-5 x O'lO; 0'41 X 0'079 ; 0'5 X 0'08. The colour of the colony is a chocolate-brown. Locality : — Trincomalee. Gorgonia capensis, HICKSON. Several complete specimens and many fragments belong to this species. Two of the complete specimens measure 428 millims. and 439 millims. respectively in length. The basal attachment is in the form of a flat, plate-like expansion, from which the thread-like axis arises. The axis is dark brown to black in colour, very tough and flexible, never measuring more than 0'5 millim. in diameter. In the larger complete specimen it has a basal diameter of only 0*15 millim. The branching is not profuse, the one specimen having two branches, the other only one, though in some of the broken fragments several branches are present. ALCYONAR1A. 311 The coenenchyma is moderately thick, both on the main stem and on the branches, the terminations of which are knob-like. The colour is practically white, not yellow as in HICKSOX'S specimens. Verrucas are absent, the position of the polyps being marked by oval-shaped openings. The spicules agree in measuring not more than 0'2 millim. From these specimens it has been possible to corroborate HICKSON'S discovery of viviparity in this species, but the disc-like embryos only measured 0'4 millim. by 0'39 millim. in size. Here we may be allowed to note our discovery of embryos in Juncoptilum sp., from ALCOCK'S Indian Ocean collection. Localities :— Station I., off Negombo, 12 fathoms to 20 fathoms; deep water off Galle and onwards to Colombo, hauls off Kaltura and off Mount Lavinia. Previously recorded from 10 miles south of Cape St. Blaize (HlCKSON, 1902). Rhipidogorgia (?) sp. A large fan-shaped reticulate colony was found, but so much weathered that secure identification was impossible. FAMILY : GOHGONELLIDyE. Scirpearella aurantiaca, n. sp. — Plate IV., fig. 7; Plate V, fig. 15. The collection included several portions of what seems a new species of this genus. We have studied a fork-shaped fragment which has a total length of 366 millims. The lower part of the colony is wanting, but the axis at the point wheie it divides measures 2 millims. in diameter. It is cylindrical in shape, very calcareous and smooth in the one branch, but marked by two or three slight winding grooves in the lower part of the other. The general colour of the branches is yellowish -white. A larger specimen, 470 millims. in length, bore a small comatulid on one of its branches. The verrucse occur on all sides of the branches. They are conical in shape, truncated at the tip, and measuring 2 millims. in maximum height and 1'5 millims. in basal diameter. In colour they resemble the stem in the lower part, but the tip is orange-yellow, thus standing out against the general colour of the branches. The edges of the oral end curve inwards, and all stages from an opening with an 8-lobed margin to a simple pore-like opening and finally to a completely closed tip may be seen. The polyps are all completely withdrawn into the coenenchyma. The general coenenchyma is yellowish-white in colour, granular in texture, and only of medium thickness. It is practically composed of spindles and double clubs. The spicules are small in size, and measure, length by breadth in millimetres, as follows : — (1.) Spindles, 0'06 X 0"02 ; 0'08 X 0'02 ; 0'085 X 0'03. (2.) Double clubs, 0"055 X 0'03 ; 0'07 X 0'04 ; 0'06 X 0'04. 312 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. This specimen does not agree with any described species of Scirpearella, but comes nearest to SdrpeareUa rnlint, with which, however, we cannot identify it. Locality : — Deep water outside pearl banks, Gulf of Manaar. Scirpearella divisa, n. sp. — Plate VI., fig. 8. A fragment of a reddish-orange colony with four branches, 7 centime, in height, about 2 millims. in diameter. The verrucse are very low and gently rounded ; towards the end of the highest branch, where they are closely crowded and very distinct, the arrangement appears to be in four rows with a suggestion of a spiral ; in the older parts the verrucas are very inconspicuous, not close together, and somewhat irregularly disposed. There are two enormous cirriped galls, the broadest almost 1 centim. across. The coenerichyma is finely granular, almost smooth to the naked eye. The axis is very calcareous, light yellow in colour, with ten shallow grooves on the part examined. It measured there about 1'4 millims. in diameter out of the total branch diameter of 2 millims. Thus the thickness of the coenenchyma is very moderate. The spicules are chiefly minute, warty, double clubs, measuring 0'04 millim. to O'OG millim. in length, but usually 0'05 millim. ; most are yellowish, a minority colourless. The bare middle part of the double club is very short. There are also yellowish and uncoloured warty spindles, measuring O'l millim. in length by 0'02 millim. in maximum breadth. Scirpearella sp. a. One specimen with a length of 307 millims. The stem is divided at a distance ot 39 millims. from the flat base, and is flexible. Prominent verrucae occur all round the stem in rows. The axis is deeply grooved in the lower part, but the grooving is hardly noticeable higher up. The fragment approaches Scirpearella monilifwme, but differs in colour and in predominance of warty clubs over spindles, and in not having shallow verrucse. Scirpearella sp. ft. Another fragment, measuring 205 millims. in length. Verruca? scarcely prominent, polyps white, a longitudinal white line is seen on one side. The axis is horny and very calcareous, faintly and irregularly marked by grooves. The spicules, length by breadth in millimetres, are as follows : — Stellate forms, 0'06 X 0'05 ; 0'07 X O'OG. Double clubs, 0'06 X 0'03. Spindles, 0'06 X 0'02 ; 0'08 X 0'025. This does not agree with any of the formerly described species. Scirpearella sp. y. Another fragment which measures 258 millims. in length is included in the collection. ALCYONARIA. 313 The stem has a groove on one side, and on the side directly opposite there is a bare strip. The polyps are in three rows on each side of the groove. The verrucse are very small. The following measurements were taken : — Diameter of stem at lower end, 3 '2 millims. ,, axis ,, ,, 2, ,, ,, stem at upper ,, 2 „ The spicules measure, length by breadth in millimetres, as follows :— Spindles, O'OG X 0'03 ; 0'07 X 0'03. Double clubs, 0'05 X 0'04; O'OG X 0'04. Double spindles, 0'06 X 0'04 ; 0'05 X 0'035. Scirpearia, sp. (?)— Plate IV., fig. 1 ; Plate V., fig. 16. This specimen is a fragment without the base. It measures 410 millims. in length and divides at a distance of 38 millims. from its basal end into two long whip-like branches. The axis is deeply grooved. There is a median bare space on each side. The polyps are darker in colour than the stem. The spicules measure, length by breadth in millimetres, as follows :— Double clubs, O'OG X 0'04 ; 0'063 X 0'04. Darker coloured, 0'08 X 0'025 ; 0-07 X 0'02. In its spicules it is quite distinct from any Juncella,. It may seem of little service to suggest problematical species based on a study of fragments, but as we have given some description of .each, our procedure is probably preferable to that of some other students of Alcyonacea, who have given names nude of any description. Our impression is that the elongated forms of Scirpearella, Juncella, and the like, so monotonous in general appearance, so perplexingly diverse when one gets beneath the surface, are subject to great variability. The same remark applies to Spongodes, Ads, Muricella, Verrucella, and many other Alcyonarians. Juncella gemmacea (VALENCIENNES) — Plate IV., figs. 4 and 5. There are several specimens of this species in the collection. The finest one was 3 feet 7 inches in length, with a yellow basal expansion 3 centims. across, and with a stem measuring 9 millims. in diameter at the base. The stem increased to 12 millims. in diameter, and 10 millims. was a fair average. The lateral lines were spirally twisted. Another specimen measures 193 millims. in length and tapers from 7 millims. in diameter at the base to 4 '5 millims. at the tip; another measures 292 millims. in length with a basal diameter of 4 millims. The thickest piece measured 9 millims. in basal diameter, the axis alone amounting to 5 millims., and had an apical diameter of 3 millims. The side-liue on either side of the stem is distinct. The axis is longitudinally grooved. 2 s 314 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. The spicules agree with those described and figured in the ' " Challenger " Report, and are (a) unsymmetrical double clubs, and (b) double stars. The measurements, length by breadth in millimetres, are of (a), 0'12 X 0'04 ; O'll X 0'04 ; O'lO X 0'04 ; and of (b), O'lO X O'OG. A few single clubs and rough needles were seen. The colour of the specimens in spirit is bright red with tints of orange when closely examined ; the polyps appear white. Locality : — Gulf of Manaar ; Vankali Paar ; Muttuvaratu. Previously recorded from Red Sea ; Torres Straits ; Queensland and Mermaid's Straits, N.W. Australia. / Juncella juncea, PALLAS. The collection includes numerous fragments of various species of Juncella, more numerous than we could examine ; some of these belong to Juncella juncea which RIDLEY reported from Ceylon (1883). Juncella fragilis, RIDLEY. This species is represented by several fragments, in which the axis is marked by longitudinal grooves or striae. In some of the fragments the verrucas measure nearly 2 millims. in height and the axis has a diameter of 1 millim., while in the other fragments the verrucas are much smaller and the axis measures 2 millims. in diameter. The spicular measurements in the one set of fragments are almost identical with those previously given for Juncella fragilis, but in the other set they measure as follows, length by breadth in millimetres :— Unsymmetrical clubs, 0'08 X 0'03 ; 0'OG5 X 0'03. Double clubs, 0'08 X 0'04 ; 0'075 X 0'03. Juncella fragilis (RIDLEY), var. rubra, n. This species is also represented by one complete specimen on which this new variety has been founded. The specimen shows no trace of branching, and measures 508 millims. in length. It is long and flexible, and tapers very gradually throughout its entire length to the pointed apex. The cortex is thick and red coloured, with numerous reddish-brown verrucse. There is no trace of a lateral line or groove throughout the entire length of the stem, but the cortex has been rubbed off the lower part. The verrucas are numerous and closely appressed, measuring about 1 millim. in height. The axis is grooved and very flexible, measuring 3 millims. in diameter at the base and becoming hair-like near the tip where the stem measures 2 millims. in diameter. The base consists of a broad flat plate which has a diameter of 14 millims. The spicules are double clubs and double stars, which measure, length by breadth in millimetres, as follows : — Double clubs, 0'08 X 0'03 ; 0'087 X 0'04. Stars, O'Oo X 0'03 ; O'OG X 0'03. ALCYONARIA. 315 The specimen approximates closely to the description of Juncella fragilis given by RIDLEY (1884). The only marked differences are in the colour and in the diameter of the axis at the base. The larger diameter can be easily accounted for by the large size of the specimen, 508 millims. But it seems useful to record a new colour variety. Locality: — Gulf of Manaar. Previously recorded from Port Denison, Queensland ; 4 fathoms. Juncella trilineata, n. sp. Height of specimen 238 millims. It is sparingly branched in one plane, the first branching occurring at a height of 67 millims. There is a distance of 1G'5 millims. between this and the next branching. The colony is exceedingly flexible and very graceful. The base is wanting, but the stem at its lower end measures 3 '5 millims. in diameter. Polyps arise in three different bands, leaving three narrow bare strips, each of which has in its centre a slight rib or keel. Under each bare strip lies a large longitudinal canal. The axis shows longitudinal grooves. The polyps, which measure from I'l millims. to 1*5 millims. in height, are arranged in transverse rows of 3 or 4, but many smaller polyps occur which break this regularity. The spicules resemble those of Juncella gemmacea in several of their forms. Unsymmetrical clubs, length by breadth, 0'08 millim. by 0'03 millim. ; 0'065 millim. by 0 03 millim. ; 0'07 millim. by 0'04 millim. ; 0'07 millim. by 0'03 millim. Double stellate forms, 0'08 millim. by 0'04 millim. ; diameter of spindle, 0'02 millim. „ 0-09 „ „ 0-035 „ „ „ 0-02 „ Locality : — Patani, Siam.* Verrucella rubra, n. sp.— Plate IV., fig. 13 ; Plate V., fig. 8. A fragment of a colony, which has a total height of 98 millims. and a maximum width of 69 millims., appears to require the establishment of a new species. The base and the lower part of the colony is wanting, and many of the branches seem to be without the upper portion. The axis, which measures 2 '2 5 millims. in diameter at the lower end, is greyish- brown in colour, with a white central core, very calcareous, rigid, and brittle. The branching of the colony is very profuse and is confined to one plane. The branches and twigs are given off at a right angle or at a close approximation thereto. There does not appear to be any fixed arrangement in the branching. * This specimen, along with two others (Astromuricea ramosa, n. sp., .and Tehsto trichostemma), was given to me on a visit to Professor HKRDMAN'S laboratory by Mr. NELSON ANNANDALE, who asked that it might be incorporated in this Report. — J. A. T. 2 S 2 316 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. The verrucse are small, low, conical, wart-like bodies. They are confined on the whole to the lateral faces, but on the older branches, and on some parts of the stem and of the twigs, they seem to be scattered over three surfaces. The general ccenenchyma is thin and easily rubbed off (in several places the axis is laid We) ; it is mainly composed of double clubs, spindles, and double spindles. The spicules are covered with large rough warts, which are arranged in whorls. The spicules measure, length by breadth in millimetres, as follows :— Double clubs, O'lO.X 0'047 ; 0'09 X 0'05 ; 0'09 X 0'06. Spindles, O'lO X 0'035 ; 0'08 X 0'03 ; 0'09 X 0'035. Double spindles, 0'07 X 0'04 ; O'OS X 0'04 ; 0'06 X 0'035. The colour of the specimen is a bright crimson. Locality : — Gulf of Manaar. Verrucella flexuosa, KLUNZINGER, var. aurantiaca, n. — Plate TIL, fig. 4 ; Plate IV., fig. 8. This form is represented by several complete specimens and many fragments. One complete colony has a height of 210 millims. and a maximum width of 180 millims. ; another is 74 millims. by 80 millims. The colonies rise from a flat portion which spreads over the surface of a stone. In the largest specimen branching begins at the base, in a smaller the stalk rises to a height of 30 millims. before it gives off the first branch. In the lower portion of the stalk, which has a diameter of 2 millims., there are no polyps present. The verrucse begin to appear at a height of 14 millims. from the base, but they are not abundant in the older basal region. There are numerous galls. The branching is profuse and confined to one plane, i he branches are given off at various angles — acute for some of the main branches, and almost always a right angle for the minor branches or twigs. The tips of the branches and the twigs are sometimes slightly flattened in the plane of branching. The branches and the twigs come off very irregularly. The verrucse on the younger portions of the branches and on the twigs are some- what more numerous towards the lateral edges, but on the stem and the older portions they occur all round. The verrucae are conical in shape and truncated, measuring about 075 millim. in height and having a basal diameter of 1 millini. The general coanenchyma is granular in appearance, not of great thickness, and composed of spicules in the form of spindles and double clubs. They measure, length by breadth, in millimetres, as follows : — Spindles, 0'08 X 0'03 ; 0'07 X 0'02 ; O'lO X 0'04 ; 0'08 X 0'02. Double clubs, 0'065 X 0'04 ; 0'08 X 0'04 ; 0'08 X 0'045. The specimens described here approach very closely to Verrucella flexuosa, KLUNZINGER. but as this species appears to be very variable, it may be useful to class them as an orange variety. ALC YON ARIA. 317 In another specimen the branching was not at all in one plane ; in another there was abundant anastomosis. Locality : — -West of Periya Paar. Verrucella flexuosa, var. gallensis, n. — Plate III., fig. 9 ; Plate V., fig. 11. This variety is represented by a slightly damaged colony and several large and small pieces of colonies. The complete specimen has a height of 47 millims. and a maximum diameter of 53 millims. The basal attachment consists of a flat plate-like spreading portion from which the main stem rises. The stem is rigid and brittle, very calcareous in nature, and rises to a height of 13 millims. before it gives off the first branch. The branches are given off at right angles and they in their turn give off branches in a similar manner. The tips of the twigs and branches are occupied by two divergent polyps which gives them a slightly flattened appearance. The branches are given off in an irregularly alternate manner from the main stem and from the larger branches. The branching is confined to one plane. The colour varied from rose-red to vermilion. The verrucse are blunt and conical shaped, measuring 0'7 millim. in height and having a basal diameter of 0'8 millim. to 1 millim. They are confined to the lateral surfaces of the stem and branches, but are directed a little more to one surface than to the other. They are arranged in such a way that the verrucas on the one lateral face alternate with the verruca on the other face. The general coenenchyma is very thin and is composed of spindles, double clubs and double spindles. This variety is represented by a large number of fragments, mostly small. The branching in some of the fragments is confined to one plane, but in others the branches are given off on all sides. The axis is cylindrical, white in colour and very calcareous. In the several fragments it shows considerable differences in diameter. The verrucse are small, conical shaped, with a wide base. They measure 0'5 millim. in height and have a basal diameter of fully 1 millim. They occur all round the main stem or branch and also on the other branches, but on portions of the older branches and on the younger branches they are more or less confined to the lateral surfaces. The general ccenenchyma is thin and is chiefly composed of spindles and double clubs. They are covered by whorls of rough warts. In the double clubs there is a very short bare shaft in the middle. Their measurements, length by breadth in millimetres, are as follows :— Spindles, O'lO X 0'04 ; 0'08 X 0'03 ; O'lO X 0'03 ; 0'12 X 0'03. Double clubs, 0'08 X O'OG ; O'lO X 0"04 ; 0'07 X 0'04 ; 0'085 X 0'04. Localities :— Deep water off Galle ; Gulf of Manaar. Verrucella sp. (?). A small fragment, from which several branches are given off in one plane, measures 63 millims. in height. 318 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. The axis is very calcareous and brittle. The polyps on the main stem or branch .are more or less restricted to the lateral edges, but on the younger branches they occur on the four surfaces in such a way that they all alternate and appear as if arranged in a spiral manner. They are contained in verrucse which are small, slightly conical and truncated at the top. The polyps themselves are all withdrawn into the verructe, but they present yellowish-white apices at the opening of the verrucaB. Towards the base of the tentacles on the aboral surface two or three pairs of spicules are arranged en chevron, and at their bases a few are arranged transversely so as to form a collar. These spicules are short warty spindles, either straight or slightly curved. The oenenchyma is thin and is composed of two layers of spicules, the outer layer being coloured and giving the characteristic colour to the colony, while the inner layer is colourless. In the coloured layer the spicules show a considerable range in shades, varying from a light to a deep amber tint. The spicules are spindle-shaped, thick in comparison to length, or slender, and covered with rough warts. The coloured, or outer layer, contains the bigger spicules. Their measurements, length by breadth in millimetres, are as follows : — (a.) Coloured, 0'3 X 0'075 ; 0'4 X 0'08 ; 0'22 X 0'05 ; O'll X 0'05 ; O'lO X 0'03 ; 0-08 X 0-02. Colourless, 0"14 X 0'04 ; 0'175 X 0'04 ; O'lO X 0'035 ; 0'28 X 0'025. ORDER V.— STELECHOTOKEA. SECTION I.— ASIPHONACEA. FAMILY: TELESTID^E. Telesto rubra, HICKSON. This species is represented by two fragments, one of which (A) measures only 30 millims. in height. Specimen A agrees closely with the description given by HICKSON. Thus, in the basal portion of the youngest calyces, the spicules are fused to form tubes, the axis has eight longitudinal ribs, and prolonged boiling in caustic potash does not disintegrate it. Specimen B seemed at first sight to have a black axis, but this was found to be due to debi-is which had collected in the hollow tube. The whole surface of specimen (A) is covered by an encrusting sponge, which has completely destroyed the coanenchyma. The spicules of the sponge are monaxonial and triaxonial. Locality : — Trincomalee. ALCYONARIA. 319 Telesto (Carijoa) trichostemma, WRIGHT and STUDER. This species is represented by one specimen, which agrees with the description given by WRIGHT and STUDER. The spicules are of two distinctly marked types : — (1.) Long slender spicules with few lateral processes, often bifurcated at the end ; (2.) Strong, relatively broader spicules, with prominent lateral processes which interlock and form a felted covering. They measure, length by breadth in millimetres, as follows : — (1.) 0-3 X 0-02; 0-28 X 0'019 ; 0'15 X 0'012 ; 0'26 X 0'014. (2.) 0-2 X 0-03 ; 0'25 X 0'02 ; 0'23 X 0'03. The distance between the bifurcations at the ends of the spicules of type (1) often measured 0'02 millim. Locality : Patani (Siam). This was one of Mr. NELSON ANNANDALE'S three speci- mens already referred to. SECTION II. : PENNATULACEA. FAMILY: UMBELLULID^E. Umbellula, sp. The collection included* a small specimen, doubtless a young colony, of a species of Umbellula. As the specimen is a poor one, we have not studied it in any detail. We may refer to our forthcoming report on Professor ALCOCK'S " Investigator " collection of deep-sea Alcyonacea from the Indian Ocean, which includes numerous Umbellulids of large size. FAMILY : VIEGULARIID^E. Virg-ularia multiflora, KNER. The specimen representing this species is fragmentary. It consists of a piece of the rachis, which seems to come from the lower portion of the colony. It measures 51 millims. in length and has 20 pairs of pinnules. The pinnules are crescent-shaped, 3 millims. in breadth and 2 millims. in height, with 1 1 polyps X)n each. The axis is white, almost perfectly cylindrical, with a pitted appearance on the surface and with a diameter of 1 '2 millims. The specimen agrees very well with the description given by KOLLIKER. The following comparison will show the close similarity between the specimens :- KOLLIKER'S. HERDMAN'S. Breadth of pinnule . . . . 3 '3 millims. to 4 millims. 3 millims. Height ,, „ .... 2 millims 2 Number of polyps in a pinnule . 11 to 15 11. Diameter of axis 1 '2 9 millims T2 millims. Locality : — Trincomalee. * From Station LX., Gulf of Manaar, 20 to 30 fathoms. See Professor HEKDMAN'S " Narrative," this Report, Fart I. (1903), p. 75. 320 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. Virgularia loveni, KOLLIKER. This species is represented by three fragments, the largest of which measures 106 millims. in length, and appears to consist of nearly the whole rachis, while the other two fragments represent the upper portions of two specimens. The axis shows slight differences in form ; in one it is cylindrical, in another quadrangular, with two of the sides rounded, while in the third it returns to the cylindrical shape, but with one surface slightly flattened. It is covered by transverse ridges or by tubercles, which gives it a pitted appearance. On the prorachidial face of the rachis there is a well-defined narrow groove. The diameter of the axis is 1*5 millims. ; the rachis measures 106 millims. in length by 5 '3 millims. in width. The pinnules are folded so as to form a double S-shaped figure. They are almost touching one another near the tip, but lower down they stand considerably apart (3'5 millims.). They vary from 3'5 millims. to 4'8 millims. in breadth, and from 2 millims. to 2 '5 millims. in height. The polyps are well defined, arranged in one row on the pinnule, and vary in number from 19 to 24. The specimens agree with the description of Virgularia loveni given by KOLLIKER (1872), although there are a few slight differences. Locality : — Trincomalee. Virgularia, sp. — Plate IV., fig. 2. The collection includes two fragments which approach Viryvdaria loveni. As they may be young fomns, in regard to which little is known, and as they are only fragments, we have been content to give a brief description. The measurements are stated in the following table :— Rachis. Pinnules. Number of Number n( Axis Stalk Length. j Width. Breadth. polyps on Height. pinnule. rows. diameter. diameter. miHims. millims. | millims. millims. millims. millima. (A.) . . . ; 53 4-5to5-5 4-8 2-5 23 1 1-5 2 (B.) ... 56 4-5 ,,5-5 4-7 2-4 24 1 1-5 2 (white in colour). i i The pinnules are folded so as to form a double S-shaped figure. The polyps are well defined. There is a distinct groove on the prorachidial surface which measures 0'4 millim. from edge to edge. At the tip the pinnules are almost touching, but lower down the distance between them is 3 '4 millims. The axis is almost rectangular in one specimen, with two shorter sides slightly ALCYONARIA. 321 rounded. In the other it is almost circular, but one surface is slightly flattened. In both cases it is covered by tubercles, which gives it a characteristic appearance. The tip of the axis is blunt. A third specimen gave the following measurements :— Total Stalk. Rachis. Number Number length. of polyps. of rows. Zooids. Length. Width. Length. Width. millims. millima. inillims. millims. niillims. 57 22-7 1-5 34-3 At base 26 1 Occurring 2, over the half-way up whole surface 3, of rachis. near top Brownish 5. colour. Specimen is club-shaped and tapers gradually from base till it reaches maximum width at a point near the tip of rachis. Abundant spicules both in the stalk and in the rachis. Calyx ridged. A distinct groove runs the whole length of the rachis. Locality : — Trincomalee. Virgularia tuberculata, n. sp. — Plate II., figs. 5 and 9. This species is founded to include six fragments which it was found impossible to place under any of the known species. The fragments are very incomplete and are not in good preservation. The two largest specimens are 110 millims. and 81 millims. in length. The axis is cylindrical and presents a characteristic pitted appearance, due to the tuberculated structure of the surfaces. The tubercles appear at some parts to be irregularly arranged, at other parts to be arranged in whorls. The colour of the axis is a deep coral red shading into a yellowish-red. The diameter is 0'6 millim. One of the fragments represents the lower part of the rachis, while other two represent the upper extremity. In the lower part the pinnules are small and appear as ridges, which run across the lateral surfaces of the rachis. The polyps are borne in one row on the edge of the pinnule and number six on each pinnule. Higher up the pinnules become more mature, larger, and separated by a longer interval. They present a quite different appearance, becoming slightly crescent-shaped. The polyps are somewhat barrel-shaped and are quite distinct, except for a small portion at their bases, which are fused together to form the pinnule. The ccenenchyma is very thin, but on the pararachidial surface it is produced into two 2 T 322 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. ridges, on which the siphonozooids are found. Their arrangement cannot be exactly ascertained, hut they seem to form an interrupted line on each of the ridges, and also occur either singly or in small groups below each pinnule. The polyps on the separated parts vary from barrel- to flask-shape in the retracted condition, and measure in this state from 0'5 millim. by 0'4 millim. to 0'65 millim. by 0'4 millim. In their expanded condition they are more cylindrical in shape and measure 0'9 millim. by 0'4 millim. They still present a slightly swollen appearance about the middle of their length. The six fragments represent parts of the rachides of at least three different specimens. In no case is there any part of the stalk left, so that it is impossible to give any idea of its shape and size. Locality : — Trincomalee. FAMILY: PENNATULID^E. Halisceptrum periyense, n. sp. The collection included a couple of specimens of what appears to be a new species of Halisceptrum. Both specimens were complete and the natural colour is recorded by Professor HERDMAN as pink and white. The lower portion of the stalk is curved and stands at right angles to the axis of the rachis, with its lower extremity marked by a ball-shaped swelling. The stalk passes almost imperceptibly into the lower portion of the rachis, which forms a long spindle-shaped swelling marked by two narrow V-shaped lines of pores, one on each lateral surface. The upper part of the rachis bears the pinnules, which show a marked difference in appearance. On the upper portion they are fairly large and show well-marked polyps on a wavy outline, while on the lower part they are reduced to straight ridges across the lateral faces of the rachis. The proportion of the mature to the immature pinnules is rather striking, there being in one specimen 14 mature to 53 immature, and in another 10 mature to 36 immature. The piSnules in the immature state have the polyps arranged in one row, but soon the pinnule begins to get folded and the polyps begin to alternate, thus giving the appearance of multiple rows of polyps. The distance between the origins of the pinnules is 2 '5 millims. in the case of the mature, but the immature lie almost touching one another. The pinnules are translucent, and they show a stringy appearance when held between the eye and the light. The prorachidial surface of the rachis is free from pinnules and is marked by a distinct narrow groove. This groove fades away and disappears entirely between the immature polyps. We add a table of measurements of the two specimens. There is in each a single row of polyps on the pinnules, but they alternate in arrangement so as to appear like two or more rows. ALCYONARIA. 323 Stalk. Raehis. Pinnules. Number of polyps on each lower pinnule. Distance between origins of pinnules. Length. Width. Length. Width. Breadth. Height. (A). miHims. 41 36 minims. 3 2-2 millims. 78 49 millims. 6-5 6 millims. 3-3 3 millims. 3-1 2-8 29 to 31 28 „ 30 millims. 2-5 2-5 (B) . Locality : — Periya Paar, Gulf of Manaar, 9f fathoms. Halisceptrum gustavianum (HERKLOTS). This species is represented by one complete specimen. Of the 23 millims. forming the stalk the lower 1 1 millims. consist of nothing but the axis which tapers to a point. At the upper end of the 1 1 millims. the axis has a diameter of 1 '3 millims. and is cylindrical in shape. In the rachis the stalk becomes grooved and approximates to a quadrangular shape. A groove is distinctly seen in the prorachidial face of the rachis, but this fades away and disappears in the lower part of the rachis. The pinnules show a large number of polyps which appear to be arranged in a number of rows. In the immature pinnules the polyps are in a single row, but they soon begin to alternate, and in the mature pinnules they seem to be in six rows. The number of mature pinnules is very small compared with that of the immature, the numbers being 16 pairs to 40 pairs. Pinnules: Breadth, 2'5 millims. ; height, 2'5 millims. Distance between origins of pinnules, 4 millims. Length of whole colony, 86 millims. Locality : Station LIL, Gulf of Manaar, 3 to 6 fathoms. Pteroeides lacazei, var. spinosum, KOLLIKEE. This species is represented by a fragment only of the upper- portion of the rachis, measuring about 36 millims. in length, with 15 pinnules on one side, 16 on the other. The principal measurements are as follows : — -Width of rachis, 48 millims. ; breadth of pinnule, 20 millims. ; height of pinnule, 12 millims. ; number of main rays, 12. There is a single row of zooids running down the centre of the meta-rachidial surface. The wart-like termination of the rachis is almost completely hidden between the two uppermost pinnules. The rachis seems to have been swollen towards the tip and the fragment seems to be a part of the swelling. The zooid plate is basal. The pinnules are marked by a number of V-shaped black markings on their margins. The polyps are situated both on the upper and on the lower surface of the pinnule, but they are more abundant on the upper surface. 2 T 2 324 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. This specimen resembles Pteroeides lacazei, var. spitiosum, in having one row of zooids, in the termination of the axis, in the number and composition of the main rays and in the texture of the pinnules. Locality :— Station XXL, Back Bay, Trincomalee, 8 to 12 fathoms ; Station LXIIL, West of Periya Paar, 40 fathoms. FAMILY: VERETILLID^. Cavernularia obesa, VALENCIENNES. This species is represented by a number of specimens obtained from shallow water in the northern part of the Gulf of Manaar. The largest specimen is evidently only the upper portion of a large colony. The part measures 61 millims. in height, and has a diameter \vhich varies from 10 millims. near the tip to 17 millims. near the lower end. In shape it is irregularly elliptical. The autozooids are scattered over the surface, and the parts not occupied by the autozooids are thickly beset with siphonozooids. The position of the autozooids, which are all retracted, is marked by bluish- to brownish -black spots. A cross-section in the lower part shows four large central canals which run parallel to the long axis of the specimen and are apparently continuous. Radiating from the central part thus formed numerous canals can be seen, some of which run down to the central canals, others end blindly, and others join with one another. Some of the larger canals seem to open into one or other of the four central canals. The spicules are perfectly smooth rods, with blunt ends, some cut abruptly across, others slightly tapered and rounded. Another specimen, which is quite complete, probably belongs to the same species. It has a total length of 53 millims. and a rachidial diameter of 7 millims. near the tip. The rachis is slightly elliptical in cross-section, but becomes almost cylindrical near the tip. The whole surface not occupied by the autozooids is covered by numerous minute wart-like bodies which represent the upper parts of the siphono- zooids. The autozooids occur scattered over the whole surface, and all are almost com- pletely withdrawn. The incurved tentacles are just visible on the surface as brownish- to bluish-black circles. There is a marked difference between the autozooids in size, but this is probably due to a difference in the state of retraction. The stalk is marked off from the rachis by an abrupt diminution in size, and it, with the lower part of the rachis, is marked by a number of grooves which run parallel to the length of the specimen. Localities: — Station LIL, near Vankali Reef, Gulf of Manaar, 3 to 6 fathoms; and Cheval Paar. ALCYONARIA. 325 Stylobelemnoides, n. gen. Veretillid with polyps over the whole surface ; spicules long, rod-like spindles ; axis cylindrical ; calyces with 8 double rows of spicules. Stylobelemnoides herdmani, n. sp. — Plate III., fig. 5 ; Plate IV., fig. 3. The specimen is a broken club, 32'5 millims. in length, 2 '8 millirns. in breadth at thickest upper part, 2 millims. at lower end. The axis is straw coloured, square, with somewhat prominent angles, 0'85 millim. in thickness. The whole surface of the club is covered with small rod-like spicules, which fonn tubular calyces with 8-lobed apertures. The polyps are arranged all round the club, in two intersecting (but not exact) spirals. They form nine irregular rings. The siphonozooids fill up the interstices, and no bare streak is left. The radial disposition of the polyps indicates a Veretillid ; that they cover the whole surface indicates a Veretillean. As the limy bodies are long rod-like spindles, the specimen must be near Stylobelemnon. But it differs from Stylobelemnon in many ways : e.g. , the axis is round not square ; the calyces show 8 double rows of spicules ; and the spicules are much larger, 2 -25 millims. in length. Under a magnification of 32 diameters the surface is seen to be closely covered with small straight spicules, among which the siphonozooids can be seen. The polyp calyces are built up of similar spicules very closely packed together, and lying with their long axes parallel to the length of the calyx, thus forming a stift' protective case. The spicules are present both in the cutis and in the deeper tissue. Locality : — Trincomalee. LITERATURE REFERRED TO. 1900. ASHWORTH, J. H.— " The Xeniidse." ' WILLEY'S Zoological Results,' Peart iv. 1896. GERMANOS, N. K. — " Gorgonaceen von Ternate." ' Abhandl. Senckenberg. Nat. Ges.,' Band xxiii. 1890. HEDLUND, T. — "Einige Muriceiden der Gattungen Acanthogorgia, Paramuricea und Echinomuricea." 'Bihang Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl.,' xvi., afd. iv., No. 6, pp. 1-18, 3 pis. 1895. HICKSON, S. J. — "A Review of the Genera of the Alcyonaria Stolonifera." 'Trans. Zool. Soc. London,' vol. xiii. 1900. HICKSON, S. J.— " The Alcyonaria and Hydrocorallinse of the Cape of Good Hope." ' Department of Agriculture : Marine Investigations in South Africa,' vol. i., pp. 67-96. 1900. HICKSON, S. J.— " The genus Telesto," &c. ' Fauna of the Maldives,' vol. ii., Part I., p. 480. 1900. HICKSON, S. J., and HILES, ISA L.— " Stolonifera and Alcyonacea from New Britain." ' WILLEY'S Zoological Results,' Part IV. 1899. HILES, ISA L.— "Report on the Gorgonacean Corals collected by Mr. J. STANLEY GARDINER at Funafuti." 'Proc. Zool. Soc. London,' 1899, pp. 46-54, 4 pis. 326 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. 1899. HILES, ISA L.— " The Gorgonacea collected by Dr. WILLEY." ' WILLEY'S Zoological Results,' II., pp. 195-206. 2 plates. 1895. HOLM, OTTO. — "Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Alcyoniden-Gattung Spongodes, Less." 'Zool. Jahrbiicher,' Rand viii. 1877. KLUNZINGER, C. B. — ' Die Korallthiere des Rothen Meeres.' Erster Theil. " Die Alcyonarien und Malacodermen." 1887. KOCH, G. VON. — "Die Gorgoniden des Golfes von Neapel." 'Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel,' Band xv. 1890. KOCH, G. VON. — " Die Alcyonacea des Golfes von Neapel." ' Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel,' Band ix., Heft 4. 1865. KOLLIKER, A. VON. — "Icones Histiologies," Leipzig. 1872. KOLLIKER, A. VON. — " Anatoraische systematische Beschreibung der Alcyonarien. — I. Abth. Die Pennatuliden." ' Abhandl. Senckenberg. Nat. Ges.,' Band vii. und viii. 1877. KOREN and DANIELSSEN. — 'Fauna littoralis Norvegise,' Heft. iii. Bergen. 1883. KOREN and DANIELSSEN. — ' Nye Alcyoniden.' Bergen. 1896. KUKENTHAL, W. — " Alcyonaceen von Ternate." 'Abhandl. Senckenberg. Nat. Ges.,' Band xxiii. 1902. KUKENTHAL, W. — "Versuch einer Revision der Alcyonarien. — I. Die Familie der Xeniiden." ' Zool. Jahrbiicher,' xv., pp. 635-662. 1902. KUKENTHAL, W.— " Diagnosen neuer Alcyonarien aus der Ausbeute der Deutschen Tief-See- Expedition." ' Zool. Anzeig.,' xxv., pp. 229-303. 1903. KUKENTHAL, W.—" Versuch einer Revision der Alcyonarien.— II. Die Familie der Nephthyiden." 'Zool. Jahrbucher,' xix., pp. 99-172. 1899. MAY, W. — "Beitrage zur Systematik und Chorologie der Alcyonaceen." 'Jenaische Zeitschrift f. Naturwiss.," xxxiii. 1862. MO'BIUS, K. — " Neue Gorgoniden des Natur-Histor. Museums zu Hamburg." 'Nova Acta Akad. Leopoldina,' Band xxix. 1900. PUTTER, H. — " Alcyonaceen des Breslauer Museums." ' Zool. Jahrbiicher,' Band xiii., Heft 5. 1882. RIDLEY, S. O. — "Contributions to our Knowledge of the Alcyonaria." 'Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IX., Part I., p. 184; X., Part II., pp. 125-133, 1 pi. 1883. RIDLEY, S. O. — "The Coral Fauna of Ceylon, with Descriptions of New Species." 'Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,' vol. xi., pp. 250-262. 1884. RIDLEY, S. 0. — ' Report on Zoological Collections made in H.M.S. " Alert." ' 1887. RIDLEY, S. O. — " Report on the Alcyonid and Gorgonid Alcyonaria of the Mergui Archipelago. ' Journ. Linn. Soc. London.,' vol. xxi. 1896. SCHENCK, A. — " Clavulariiden, Xeniiden und Alcyoniiden von Ternate." 'Abhandl. Senckenberg. Nat. Ges.,' Band xxiii. 1887. STUDER, A. — " Versuch eines Systems der Alcyonaria." ' Archiv Naturges.,' liii. 1889. STUDER, A.—" Supplementary Report on the Alcyonaria." ' " Challenger " Reports,' vol. xxxii. 1890. THURSTON, E.— "Notes on the Pearl, &c., Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar." > Government Central Museum, Madras.' 1863-1869. VERRILL, A. E.— "List of the Polyps and Corals." 'Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard,' vol. i. 1883. VERRILL, A. E. — "Report on the Anthozoa and on some Additional Species dredged by the 'Blake '(1877-1879), and by the U.S. Fish Commission Steamer 'Fish Hawk' (1880-1882)." 'Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard," vol. xi., No. 1. 1897. WHITELEGGE, T.— " Alcyonaria of Funafuti." ' Mem. Australian Museum,' iii., pt. 5, pp. 307-20, 3 pis. 1889. WRIGHT, E. P. and STUDER, A.—" The Alcyonaria." ' " Challenger " Reports,' vol. xxxi. ALCYONAEIA. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE I. Fig. 1. Expanded polyps of Acamptogwgia spinosa, var. ceylonensis, n. x 25. ,, 2. Spongodes splendens. x 20. „ 3. Eunephthya purpurea, n. sp. x 20. „ 4. Nephthya ceylvnensis, n. sp. x 20. „ 5. Spongodes pukhra, n. sp. x 20. ,, 6. Spongodes armata, var. ceylonensis, n. x 20. „ 7. Siphonogorgia kollikeri. x 4. „ 8. Astromuricea ramosa, n. sp. x 12. „ 9. Spongodes aurantiaca* n. sp. x 20. PLATE II. Fig. 1. Stenogorgia ceylonensis, n. sp. x 12. „ lA. Branching of Stenogorgia ceylonensis, n. sp. Nat. size. „ 2. Paraspongodes striata, n. sp. x 1£. „ 3. Ads indica, n. sp. x 15. „ 4. Capnella manaarensis, n. sp. x 15. „ 5. Virgulwria tubercufata, n. sp. x 20. ,, 6. Paranephthya pratti, n. sp. x 25. „ 7. Paraspongodes striata, n. sp. x 15. „ 8. Acanthogorgia media, n. sp. x 20. „ 9. Virgularia tuberculata, n. sp. x 12. PLATE III. Fig. 1. Bebryce hicksoni, n. sp. x 12. „ 2. Branching of Muricella ramosa, n. sp. Nat. size. ,, 3. Muricella ramosa, n. sp. x 8. ,, 4. Verrucella flexuosa, var. aurantiaca. x 2J. ,, 5. Stylobelemnoides herdmani, n. gen. et sp. x 5. „ 6. Lophogorgia lutkeni. x 1J. ,, 7. Acanthogorgia media, n. sp. x 20. ,, 8. Clavularia margaritiferce, n. sp., spreading on an oyster shell, x 2. ,, 9. Ads alba, n. sp. x 12. PLATE IV. Fig. 1. Scirpearia sp. Nat. size. „ 2. Virgularia sp. x 1 £. „ 3. Stylobelemnoides herdmani, n. gen. et sp. x 2. ,, 4, 5. Juncella gemmacea. Nat. size. „ 6. Acanthogorgia ceylonensis, n. sp. x 3. The stem and branches have been made much too substantial. * This has been by mistake printed S. flabellifera on the plate. 328 CEYLON PEARL OYSTER REPORT. Fig. 7. Sdrpearella aurantiaca, n. sp. Nat. size. „ 8. Vt/meettit flemosm, var. aurantiaca, n. Nat. size „ 9. Verrucella flexuosa, var. gallensis, n. Nat. size „ 10. Leptogorgia austmlitnsis. x 2. „ 11. Amnthogoi-gia muricata, var. indica, n. Nat. size „ 12. Lephoyoryia rubi-oiinrta, n. sp. x 2. „ 13. Verrucella rubra, n. sp. Nat. size. PLATE V Fig. 1. Spongodes rosea. „ 2. Muricella ramosa, n. sp. ,, 3. Amnfhogorgia muricata, var. indicu, n. „ 4. Ads alba, n. sp. ,, 5. Eunephthya purpurea, n. sp. „ 6. Spongodes aurantiaca, n. sp. „ 7. Ads indica, n. sp. „ 8. Femtcella rubra, n. sp. „ 9. Stenogorgia ceylonensis, n. sp. „ 10. Spongodes pidchra, n. sp. (From stem and branches only. ) „ 11. Ferrucella flexwsa, var. galknsis, n. „ 12. Acantkogorgia ceylonensis, n. sp. „ 13. Spongodes bicolor, var.