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Lat a bCMited ORY 210 SA gy Deg Rath LYN MS Mita VEYA aw NAN SAAS AA WD MUN LLY og oti A EATON) whe BAL kde why Y oboe SPA WRENN EN Vogts EMAL TeV A NER Mi AVR te ON RE Ra iMesh #W gibogTh aint RIEM AS Oy Nagi Pay Baa hee a7 Re oG At ASSP eit! beeline, ee WORCESTER S sis ! i ! 7 7e° Ae Fee Ficure 1.—Map of Maryland showing the 23 counties, Baltimore City, and the District of Columbia. TEMPERATURE The mean annual temperature for Maryland is 53 to 54 degrees. It varies from area to area, the greatest difference being between Worces- ter County on the Eastern Shore and Garrett County in the Alle- gheny Mountains: according to Shreve et al. (1910), the average an- nual temperature at Sunnyside in Garrett County is 47.1 degrees, whereas at Pocomoke City in Worcester County it is 58, a difference of 11 degrees. At intermediate points the average annual temperatures are also intermediate; the differences that exist are due to such factors as elevation and proximity to the ocean and Chesapeake Bay. The average date for the last killing frost in spring in western Maryland is the first week in May; farther east it is the last 10 days of April. In western Maryland the average time for the first killing frost in autumn is late September; in the eastern part of the State it is early November. AVERAGE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION Precipitation is distributed throughout the year, but with a some- what greater amount in the warmer months than in the cold season. The heaviest rainfall, from 38 to 46 inches, occurs in western Maryland. 4 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 The Coastal Plain receives between 40 and 44 inches each year. Calvert County is one of the driest areas of the State and receives only about 36 inches yearly. EFFECTS OF CIVILIZATION Maryland, like most other eastern States, has no truly virgin areas. Even in the remotest regions of the western part of the State, logging has been conducted, and fields and pastures range well up onto the sides of the mountains. Some of the wildest parts of the State, until quite recently, were the marshes that lined both the eastern and the western sides of Chesapeake Bay and those along the Atlantic Ocean. With the expanding populations of both Washington and Baltimore seeking areas for summer recreation, many of these marshes are being drained and “improved” for human habitation. In addition, easy access is now available to the outer barrier beach on Assateague Island. The subur- ban communities of all the larger cities of the State are spreading farther and farther into the countryside and have eliminated some fine woods, swamps, and meadows. This is particularly true of Balti- more and Washington, the suburbs of which now extend 25 miles or more into the surrounding country. As a result, the site where the only specimen of the rare pigmy shrew, Iicrosorex hoyi winnemana, has ever been taken in Maryland is now part of a housing project, and the southeasternmost Coastal Plain locality for the southern bog lemming, Synaptomys cooperi, has met the same fate. Nevertheless, a number of areas remain in Maryland which are relatively isolated and which support a varied and abundant mammal fauna. Some species, such as the white-tailed deer and the cottontail rabbit, have actually profited by the changes man has brought to the State. PRINCIPAL BIOTIC OR NATURAL AREAS IN MARYLAND Maryland les in 5 major physiographic provinces (Fenneman, 1938) : Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Ridge and Valley, and Appalachian Plateaus. There are three major forest regions (as described by Braun, 1950) in Maryland which correspond roughly to these physiographic prov- inces. They are the Oak-Pine Forest, the Oak-Chestnut Forest, and the Mixed Mesophytic Forest. Stewart and Robbins (1958) divide these major forest regions of Maryland into biotic or natural sections that represent areas showing floral or faunal differences of a secondary nature. They divide the Oak-Pine Forest region into an Eastern Shore section, an Upper Chesapeake Bay section, and a Western Shore sec- MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 5 SCALE ce) 10 20 3OMILES Sd w © ° ' Ke PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF MARYLAND SS Appalachian Plateaus / \ R 5 ee idge and Valley Ss a 5} Ox ‘ Blue Ridge Om 36 BZ Piedmont 38°- (a Coastal Plain 1 | 1 ! 73° 7e° WUE 76° FIGURE 2.—Physiographic provinces of Maryland. tion. The Oak-Chestnut Forest region is split into a Piedmont section and a Ridge and Valley section, while the Allegheny Mountain section comprises the Mixed Mesophytic Forest region in Maryland. In general, mammal distribution in Maryland correlates well with these natural areas or sections, and reference is made to them through- out the text. An exception is that of the Upper Chesapeake Bay section (comprising the northern portion of the Eastern Shore, and the Coas- tal Plain of Baltimore and Harford counties) which seems to be too weakly differentiated as a biotic area from adjacent sections to have any relevance with regard to mamma] distribution. This section has been deleted herein, the northern portion of the Eastern Shore being assigned to the Eastern Shore section, and the Coastal Plain of Balti- more and Harford counties being treated as part of the Western Shore section. The following is primarily a condensation of Stewart and Robbins’ description of Maryland’s biotic sections. Eastern Shore Section The upland forests of this section are composed chiefly of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) stands and oak-hickory forests or a mixture of the two. Along the tidal marshes, loblolly pine is found generally without deciduous associates. The Eastern Shore section is poorly drained and 6 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 ASS lver SCALE Oo 10 20 3OMILES ees BIOTIC SECTIONS IN MARYLAND By Eastern Shore NY Western Shore = Piedmont Ridge and Valley 1H Allegheny Mountains FIGURE 3.—Biotic sections of Maryland. there are many upland and lowland swamps in which occur sweetgum (Liqguidambar styraciflua), blackgum (Vyssa slyvatica), red maple (Acer rubrum), pin oak (Quercus palustis), and American holly (Zlex opaca). Along the Pocomoke River there are many plants with south- ern affinities such as bald cypress (Zacodiwm distichum), red bay (Persea borbonia), horse-sugar (Symplocos tinctoria), water oak (Quercus nigra), cross vine (Bignonia capreolata), and laurel-leaved greenbriar (Smilax laurifolia). In the northern part of this section the upland forests are almost entirely deciduous and of the oak-hickory type. In addition there are such habitats as barrier beaches, salt marshes, and brackish marshes. Elevation is under 100 feet, and the topography is flat. Western Shore Section The upland forests of the Western Shore section are composed of scrub pine (Pinus virginiana) stands, oak-hickory forests, or a mix- ture of the two. In the southern part loblolly pine is common, and in the sandy soil of the northern part pitch pine (Pinus rigida) fre- quently predominates. Rich moist upland forests of white oak (Quercus alba) and tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) occur lo- cally throughout the section. Small seepage areas are frequent and usually support an upland swamp forest type that contains a well- MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 7 developed understory. Flood-plain forests are particularly luxuriant in the Western Shore section. Tidal marshes are commonly found around the numerous estuaries. Elevation is from 100 to 300 feet, and the topography is rolling. Piedmont Section The Piedmont section occupies the area of the Piedmont physiologi- cal province (Fenneman, 1938) and a small part of the Coastal Plain known as Elk Neck in Cecil County. The forests in this section con- sist mostly of white oak, black oak (Quercus velutina), tulip poplar, smoothbarked hickories (Carya sp.), and flowering dogwood (Cornus florida). In some areas chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) or scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea) is common, and occasionally stands of scrub pine or pitch pine are found. Beech (Fagus grandifolia) is often encoun- tered on ravine slopes, and mixed mesophytic forest communities occur in some of the larger valleys with steep north slopes. These communi- ties contain a mixture of central and northern hardwoods and some- times hemlock (7suga canadensis). Elevations in this section range between 300 and 800 feet, and the topography is gently rolling. Much of the land has been cleared for farming. Ridge and Valley Section Chestnut oak is the common tree throughout most of the section, and in the higher elevations it is often found in nearly pure stands. In dry areas and on slopes with southern or western exposure there is scarlet oak, interspersed with occasional stands of scrub pine, pitch pine, or Table Mountain pine (Pinus pungens). Most of the ravines and steep northern slopes are occupied by mixed mesophytic forest communities in which the common species are hemlock, white pine (Pinus strobus), beech, sweet birch (Betula lenta), basswood (Tilia americana), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), tulip poplar, white oak, and northern red oak (Quercus rubra). On the valley floors, white oak, black oak, tulip poplar, and flowering dogwood communities occur. Groves of red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) are found in the limestone areas of the Hagerstown Valley. The section consists of a series of parallel ridges that range up to 2,000 feet in elevation. Allegheny Mountain Section This area is a high, undulating plateau, averaging about 2,500 feet above sea level. Several ridges, some 500 feet high, cross this plateau diagonally from northeast to southwest. The highest point in the State, Backbone Mountain (3,342 feet), is in this section. Hemlock 8 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 and white pine are occasionally encountered on the slopes and in the valleys, but deciduous trees predominate. These include sweet birch, sugar maple, red maple, black cherry (Prunus serotina), basswood, beech, shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), white oak, and northern red oak. On higher ridges, northern red oak and red maple predominate, with chestnut oaks, black oak, and yellow birch (Betula lutea) inter- spersed. Scattered red spruce (Picea rubens) is sometimes also found. In valleys above 2,400 feet, there are some relict bogs consisting of sedge meadows and bog heaths interspersed with patches of alder (Alnus sp.), great laurel (Rhododendron maximum), red spruce, hemlock, yellow birch, and red maple. MARYLAND’S MAMMALIAN FAUNA These biotic sections of Maryland are not sufficiently differentiated to support widely divergent mammalian populations. Some forms are confined to one or two sections of the State, but in general the mam- malian fauna does not differ greatly from section to section. The average-fauna formula (Long, 1963) discussed below, reveals that the most significant division in the State is between the Piedmont sec- tion and the Ridge and Valley section. The most diversified mam- malian fauna is in the Allegheny Mountain section, the most impov- erished in the Eastern Shore section. Long (1963, p. 139) recommends the average-fauna formula, 20 (100)/(N,+N,), for deriving a numerical expression of the faunal resemblance of one area to another (in this formula, C=number of kinds common to both faunas, V,=number of kinds in smaller fauna, 4.=number of kinds in larger fauna). Using this formula, and sub- stituting the number of species and subspecies for each section of Maryland, the following comparisons were obtained : Western Piedmont Ridge and Allegheny Shore Valley Mountain Eastern Shore_____________---_- 90 83 73 62 Western Shore: 2.2.5. 2 fos eR ete 92 1G 67 Bieri ort 8 eA nae i ee ie ee 83 68 Ridge.and Valley... 2.2 0 a ee ee DONE ES ee 8&7 These percentages show, as is to be expected in an area of this small size, that the mammal fauna of all the sections of Maryland rather closely resemble one another. Naturally, the most distant sections of the State geographically and ecologically, the Allegheny Mountain and the Eastern Shore, differ the most faunistically. Nevertheless 75 percent of the species and subspecies are common to both sections. The MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 9 closest resemblance between two sections is that between the Western Shore and the Piedmont. Surprisingly, the two Coastal Plain sections, the Western Shore and the Eastern Shore, show slightly less resem- blance to each other. This is probably due to the isolating effect of the Chesapeake Bay on the Eastern Shore. The percentages show clearly that the Allegheny Mountain and Ridge and Valley sections have close faunal resemblance, and that as a unit they stand somewhat apart from the three eastern sections. Thus, while the resemblance ratio of the Eastern Shore to the Western Shore is 90 percent, and that of the Western Shore to the Piedmont is 92 percent, the Piedmont has a resemblance to the neighboring Ridge and Valley section of only 83 percent. The resemblance of the Ridge and Valley to its neighboring Allegheny Mountain section returns to 87 percent, indicating that these two sections differ to some extent from the three eastern sections, which in turn appear to form a closely allied mammalian fauna unit. Therefore, the most strongly marked division with regard to mammal distribution in Maryland is that between the gently rolling Piedmont of Montgomery, Howard, Baltimore, Harford, Carroll, and eastern Frederick Counties and the upland Blue Ridge Mountains (Ridge and Valley section) to the west in Washington and western Frederick Counties. Taken as a whole, Maryland’s mammal fauna seems to be more northern than southern in origin. Only a few distinctly southern species (represented usually by small numbers of individuals) reach Maryland. Some of these are Reithrodontomys humulis, Sorex longi- rostris, and Spilogale putorius. On the other hand, a number of distinctly northern species reach south to Maryland (Sorex cinereus, Mustela erminea, Lepus americanus, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, and a number of others) and extend even farther south, particularly in the Appalachian Mountains, where many of them range as far south as North Carolina and Tennessee. KEYS The following keys employ external and easily observable or measur- able characters when possible. In a few instances it has been necessary to resort to dental characters when external ones were not sufficiently marked to separate forms. The keys are designed for use on adult animals only. Key to the Orders of Maryland Land Mammals fa Horelmbs modified as wings 221-2. 2 ee ee Chiroptera (bats) Peborcimbs Not modified as wints=.-—. 22.0... oo 2-2. e nL eK 2 2a. Feet provided with hoofs__-_-____-_ Artiodactyla (even-toed hoofed mammals) PEeeOLoVvided with cClaws..-- 2) on ee eee 3 10a. NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 ; Canine teeth absent; incisors. chisel-likes. 2.2.24. 2 See eee 4 . Canine teeth present; incisors not chisel-like_______________________-_ 5 Upper Meisorsus 2208 2 Us ao See ee Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, etc.) Upper mcisors) ll. 22” ee oe eee Rodentia (gnawing mammals) . Canine teeth similar in appearance to other teeth; eyes inconspicuous-____ Insectivora (moles, shrews, etc.) . Canine teeth well developed; eyes not rudimentary _________________ 6 . Tail prehensile; first digit on fore and hind limbs opposable; abdominal pouch present in female_-__________-_- Marsupialia (pouched mammals) . Tail not prehensile; first digit not opposable; no abdominal pouch pres- nbs 9 22 Si a eee Carnivora (flesh eating mammals) Key to the Order Insectivora in Maryland . Forefeet greatly enlarged and adapted for digging_________________-_- 9 . Forefeet similar in size to hind feet and not adapted for digging______-_ 2 . Tail short, less than 25 percent of total length of animal____________~_ 3 . Tail long, more than 30 percent of total length of animal____________~- 4 . Coloration grayish; size more than 100 mm.; 32 teeth in mouth Blarina brevicauda (short-tailed shrew) Coloration brownish; size small, less than 100 mm.; 30 teeth in mouth Cryptotis parva (least shrew) . Third and fifth upper unicuspid teeth minute so that only three of the five upper unicuspids are visible when skull is viewed laterally Microsorex hoyi (pigmy shrew) Only fifth unicuspid tooth in upper jaw minute so that four unicuspids are visible when skull is viewed laterally __________________-_____- 5) . Total length 145 mm. or more; hind feet large and fringed with stiff hairs; third and fourth toes of hind feet thinly webbed for about half theirvlengghe.< — 2 cj. ocd Be ee ee Sorex palustris (water shrew) Total length 135 mm. or less; hind feet not conspicuously large and not fringed with stiff hairs; no webbing on any toes__________________- 6 . Tail more than 55 mm. in length; coloration uniform dark gray through- OULU STs AR he 2 ee eee Sorex dispar (long-tailed shrew) . Tail less than 55 mm. in total length; coloration not uniformly dark STAY. ooo 2 ee ee 7 . Total length greater than 110 mm__________-_ Sorex fumeus (smoky shrew) ; Total length under 100 mm. 94.2 3 ee eee 1 8 . Coloration reddish brown__________-_ Sorex longirostris (southeastern shrew) . Coloration dull brown or grayish brown__-__- Sorex cinereus (masked shrew) . Snout fringed with fleshy projections; tail long, more than 50 mm. in Jeng the 2 ars) Pela ee: sie, oe ee Condylura cristata (star-nosed mole) Snout not fringed with fleshy projections; tail less than 40 mm. in lengths) 2 See, fe eee ee Ms eee 10 Tail thin, flesh-colored and scantily haired Scalopus aquaticus (eastern mole) . Tail thick, blackish and well haired Parascalops breweri (hairy-tailed mole) Key to the Order Chiroptera in Maryland . Interfemoral membrane wholly or partially furred on upper surface _ _ - -- 2 . Interfemoral membrane not furred on upper surface______-_-_---------- 4 MAMMALS OF MARYLAND ial 2a. b. 3a. la. 2a. Coloration reddish-orange---_--.------------ Lasiurus borealis (red bat) Coloration brownish to black, frosted with white____________________-_ 3 Total length greater than 125 mm.; interfemoral membrane wholly furred; coloration brownish, heavily frosted with white; individual arespbanded sis (5 Bese 2 oa fei es Lasiurus cinereus (hoary bat) . Total length less than 120mm.; interfemoral membrane only partially furred; coloration blackish, lightly frosted with white; individual hairs HOMbAHGed ek sess Qe ee Lasionycteris noctivagans (silver-haired bat) . Ears reaching considerably beyond end of nose when laid forward_____ 5 . Ears not reaching noticeably beyond end of nose when laid forward___ 6 . Ears greatly enlarged, over 35 mm. from crown in length Plecotus townsendi (big-eared bat) . Ears not noticeably enlarged________-------- Myotis keeniz (Keen myotis) . Over 100 mm. in total length________--_- Eptesicus fuscus (big brown bat) able ereeOO mim. in total length). . 2 348 es we ek 7 . Under 85 mm. in total length; distinct black facial mask Myotis subulatus (small-footed myotis) . Over 85 mm. in total length; no black facial mask_____________________ 8 . Pale golden brown in coloration; nose, ears, and wings reddish-brown Pipistrellus subflavus (eastern pipistrelle) . Coloration dark brown; ears, nose, and wings nearly black____________- 9 wer lone thick, and shinys:._—...-.-- M yotis lucifugus (little brown bat) CEH GOECAOMNANG SPATSClt ooo et ee ee LB 10 10a. Coloration dark brown; ears thick and leathery Nycticetus humeralis (evening bat) . Coloration pinkish brown; ears not thick and leathery Myotis sodalis (Indiana myotis) Key to the Order Lagomorpha in Maryland Length of hind foot greater than 115 mm (as much as 150 mm. in some specimens); coloration white in winter Lepus americanus (showshoe rabbit) Length of hind foot less than 115 mm.; coloration brownish in all SERS TIGL. 5 Lae cece ee ee eee ge es Nr gh, Se OF ree A 2 Black on forward edge of ear sharply defined from brown of rest of ear; distinct black patch betweep ears Sylvilagus transitionalis (New England cottontail) . Black on forward edge of ear not sharply defined; no dark patch between ears. ...22 222-22 Sylvilagus floridanus (eastern cottontail) Key to the Order Rodentia in Maryland meppenaincisors with longitudinal grooves.._..__--_--. ---.-.-+_-—--- = Upper incisors without longitudinal grooves: ._2__._- 2.22 _=2 22.122. 5 . Tail very short, equal to about one-sixth of total length Synaptomys cooperi (southern bog lemming) Beheiclonserthan one-sixth of total length... . 222 222. kL ee eee 3 . Tail less than one-half of total length Reithrodontomys humulis (harvest mouse) aebsiecreater than one-half-of total length--.2.0 04.0.0 te eee bale 4 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 . Coloration of sides orange; tail often tipped with white Napaeozapus insignis (woodland jumping mouse) . Coloration of sides yellowish; tail never tipped with white Zapus hudsonius (meadow jumping mouse) . Pail bushy 222.2225 Yes snose ee eb eee ee 6 . Tail-not bushy 222 22o% Jee) Ses 2 ee es ee eee 10 . Fore and hind limbs connected by a loose fold of skin; adapting the ani- malifor glidings>s29ce = Glaucomys volans (southern flying squirrel) . Fore and hind limbs not connected by a loose fold of skin_____________~- 7 . Tail less than one-quarter of the total length__ Marmota monax (woodchuck) . Tail greater than one-third of the total length___________._.___________~- 8 . Coloration reddish-brown above; under 325 mm. in total length Tamiasciurus hudsonicus (red squirrel) . Coloration not radish: brown; over 325 mm. in total length___________- 9 . Coloration of upper parts gray, darker along middle of back; under 550 mm. in total length; upper premolars 2—2 Sciurus carolinensis (gray squirrel) . Coloration of upper parts variable-grayish, reddish, or buffy, but sides not noticeably paler than back; over 550 mm. in total length; upper premolars» t—loaes Sebiey | phe e R Sciturus niger (fox squirrel) . Coloration on back reddish, marked with several longitudinal black and wWhite?stripes=.esct owe 2 See Tamias striatus (eastern chipmunk) . Back not:striped___ 2 2 a ee Lt . Tail flattened horizontally, paddle-like_________ Castor canadensis (beaver) : Tail not horizontally flattened: .__..__._.._.___.._ Eee 12 . Lail compressed. laterally 3222 2526s See eee oe Ondatra zibethicus (muskrat) . Tail not compressed:laterally_...=-..2-..-_....2_.. - 3 13 . Total length over 325 mm... 2. ae ee eee 14 . Totallength less than 275.mm2s2.5.2 _. 2522) 2 eee We . Total length over 500 mm.; aquatic in habits.. Myocaslor coypus (nutria) . Totallength less than: 500: mms. O22 225) 598208 2 eee 15 . Tail length equal to, or more than, half total length of animal Rattus rattus (black rat) . Tail length less than half total length______________ ee 16 . Tail well haired, and not conspicuously scaly Neotoma floridana (eastern woodrat) . Tail scantily haired and noticeably scaly_ Rattus norvegicus (Norway rat) . Tail very short, equal to about one-sixth of total length Pitymys pinetorum (pine vole) . Tail longer than one-sixth of total lencth____-__ _ 92 > | See 18 . Tail only moderately short, equal to about one-third of the totallength__ 19 . Tail longer than:one-third of total length: “+5225 _2 113 = = 20 . Back marked with a wide band of dull red from forehead to rump Clethrionomys gapperi (red-backed vole) . Back dark brown to nearly black__ Microtus pennsylvanicus (meadow vole) . Line of demarcation between coloration of back and abdomen indistinct; coloration often uniform gray throughout__ Mus musculus (house mouse) . Sharp line of demarcation between coloration of back and abdomen; abdomen always white_._._ 2224.2 bh 42223. eee 21 Lotaly leneth:-overs225ammissstet aoe Oryzomys palustris (rice rat) . Total length under 200 mm. __2=...._ 2222522522. eee 22 MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 13 22a. b. la. Coloration on back chestnut brown Peromyscus leucopus (white-footed mouse) Coloration on back grayish brown__ Peromyscus maniculatus (deer mouse) Key to the Order Carnivora in Maryland Coloration black, or black and white_._-=.-._-_--.-.----=------+--- 2 Mea TATIGHEMO teDI AC Kes 6 eos eee ER ee ee 4. . Size large, over 1,200 mm. in total length; tail short and not bushy Euarctos americanus (black bear) Under 800 mm. in total length; tail long and bushy-_-------------__-- 3 . Upper parts marked with no more than two white stripes Mephitis mephitis (striped skunk) Upper parts marked with four or more white stripes Spilogale putorius (spotted skunk) . Black facial mask; tail ringed_-_----____---------- Procyon lotor (raccoon) Noiblack facial mask: tail not ringed_._-_._-.__._-..-_....-.-=----- 5 Pulotaleleneth under 700 mm 9225-1 = 2.22242 S222 ol le ee ese le 6 iatalelength over 900 mim) 2222) ee oe Le eee ee eee ese + 9 . Underparts brown except for white spots on chin and throat Mustela vison (mink) Winderparts whitish or yellowish.=.--..---..--=__~.--------------- 7 . No black tail tip; tail less than one-quarter of total length Mustela nivalis (least weasel) . Black tail tip; tail more than one-quarter of total length____-_-------- 8 . Black tail tip nearly 50 percent of tail vertebrae length Mustela erminea (ermine) . Black tail tip 40 percent or less of tail vertebrae length Mustela frenata (long-tailed weasel) . Claws retractile; pupils of eyes elliptical; tail short, less than 165 mm Lynz rufus (bobcat) Claws not retractile; pupils of eyes not elliptical; tail long, over 300 FH ES a yc gE ce ORTOP On a 10 . Toes of fore and hind feet webbed; tail thick and heavy; aquatic in ealoitseeeene st war a eS Lutra canadensis (otter) . Toes not webbed; tail not thick and heavy; not aquatic in habits_ _- _- ‘11 . Coloration reddish; tail tip white__________- dye aur Vulpes vulpes (red fox) . Coloration grizzled grayish; no white tail tip______________________- 12 Talotal length over. 1,050 mm... .... 222.2 Canis latrans (coyote) . Total length under 1,050 mm________- Urocyon cinereoargenteus (gray fox) Key to the Order Artiodactyla in Maryland Back brownish, or reddish-olive in coloration, speckled with indistinct white blotches; antlers narrow and standing erect above head; small canine teeth. im upper jaws. 2-22-22 Cervus nippon (Sika deer) . Back reddish-brown (summer) or grayish (winter) in coloration, not speckled; antlers heavy, and curving forward over head; no canine teeth present in upper jaws_-_-_-_-__- Odocoileus virginianus (Virginia deer) 336-897 O—69——_2 14 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES Order MARSUPIALIA (pouched mammals) Family DIDELPHIDAE (opossums) OPOSSUM Didelphis marsupialis virginiana Kerr Didelphis virginiana Kerr, The animal kingdom .. ., p. 193, 1792. Type localtity.—Virginia. General distribution.—In the eastern United States from Vermont, New York, central Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, south to central Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Distribution in Maryland—Oceurs abundantly in all sections of the State. Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 5/4, 1/1, 3/3, 4/4, = 50; tail naked and prehensile; five toes on each foot, the first on each hind foot clawless and thumblike; outer hair long and coarse, underfur short and soft; general coloration grizzled-grayish. Measurements—Three adults from Cabin John, Montgomery County, measure: Total length 780, 737, 795; tail vertebrae 298, 325, 333; hind foot 70, 63, 70; greatest length of skull 117.7, 98.6, 111; zygomatic breadth 63.5, 538.5, 54.7. Habitat and habits—The opossum prefers densely forested areas. Llewellyn and Dale (1964, pp. 120-121) found that at the Patuxent Research Center, near Laurel, Prince Georges County, this species was primarily an animal of the low, dense woodland, favoring sections near water. They found that well-drained upland woods were less desirable, and the open cleared or cultivated lands seemed to be of slight value for the opossum. Nevertheless, it will frequently wander into meadows and cultivated fields in search of food. The prehensile tail and opposable first toe on the hind foot make this animal almost as much at home in trees as on the ground. The opossum apparently does not favor the pine woods and salt marshes along the Atlantic coast. One specimen was taken on the Virginia portion of Assateague Island in the early 1930’s, but local residents report that none have been seen there in a number of years. The species is abundant in the Rock Creek Park area of the District of Columbia, often wandering into nearby regions of the city at night, searching for food and sometimes rummaging in garbage pails in residential areas considerably distant from the wooded areas. One such wanderer recently made his abode in the backyard of a row- house near the center of the city where he remained for many weeks, MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 15 visiting a nearby porch in the evenings to eat the pet food set out by the owner for her cat. The opossum is a marsupial, distantly related to such animals as the kangaroo and the koala of Australia. It gives birth to live young, but the young are born in a premature condition and are nursed in the pouch or marsupium of the mother. When born, they are naked or grublike in appearance, but the forelimbs are well enough developed to be used for crawling into the pouch. Development is rapid in the pouch, and within 4 to 5 weeks the young are ready to leave for short periods. Llewellyn and Dale (1964, pp. 118-121) found that in Mary- land the opossum begins to breed in early February, and young are found in the pouch until August. Hartman (1952, p. 73) estimates the gestation period as slightly under 13 days. Evidently two litters are produced during a breeding season, but the first litter accounts for the majority of young. Llewellyn and Dale found that the average number of young for 57 litters in pouch was 7.74. The opossum makes its home in almost any shelter where it can be dry and safe from enemies. This may be under sheds or buildings, in brush piles, or in holes in trees. In its eating habits the opossum is as unselective as it is in finding a shelter. Hartman (1952, p. 62) lists the frequency of foods taken in the following order: insects, fruits, invertebrates (other than insects), mammals, reptiles, grains, birds, and eggs. It also eats carrion. Specimens examined.—Montgomery County: Bethesda, 2; Boyds, 1; Cabin John, 3; Plummers Island, 2; no exact locality, 2. Prince Georges County : Beltsville, 2; Bladensburg, 1; Branchville, 4; Green- belt, 2; Laurel, 836; Patuxent Research Center, 2; T.B., 1. District of Columbia: 25. Other records and reports—Opossums have been killed in every Maryland county (LeCompte, 1942). Remarks.—As noted by Gardner (1950, p. 65), Maryland opossums are indistinguishable from Virginia topotypes of virginiana. Order INSECTIVORA (shrews, moles, etc.) Family SORICIDAE (shrews) MASKED SHREW Sorex cinereus Kerr This species closely resembles the southeastern shrew (Sorex longi- rostris) and the pigmy shrew (Microsorex hoyi). The differences between the masked shrew and these other species are discussed under the species accounts of the other two. There are two subspecies of Sorex cinereus in Maryland. These are: 16 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Sorex cinereus cinereus Kerr Sorex arcticus cinereus Kerr, The animal kingdom .. ., p. 206, 1792. Type locality.—Fort Severn, Ontario, Canada. General distribution—This is a wide-ranging subspecies, distributed over much of the northern part of North America. In the eastern United States it ranges throughout New England, New York, and western Pennsylvania, and south in the Appalachian Mountains to North Carolina. Distribution in Maryland.—Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Moun- tain sections. (See fig. 4.) Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 3/1, 1/1, 3/1, 3/3, = 32; third unicuspid usually larger than, or equal in size to, fourth unicuspid; size very small; snout elongated and pointed; tail long, slightly less than half the total length of the animal; ears short and hidden in fur; coloration in winter pelage dark brown to almost black on upper parts, lighter brown or grayish on underparts; in summer, coloration is some- what lighter and more brownish. Measurements—An adult female from 9 miles east of Oldtown, Allegany County, measures: Total length 88; tail 40; hind foot 11; ear 7; condylobasal length of skull 15.7; cranial breadth 7.4; inter- orbital breadth 2.3; maxillary breadth 3.9; crown length of upp:-r toothrow (exclusive of first incisors) 5.4. Habitat and habits—This shrew is most common around rocks in moist or damp coniferous or deciduous woods. Sometimes it lives in grassy bogs and swamps, but rarely if ever in dry fields or woods The nest is located on or near the surface of the ground, in a cavity under a log, rock, or other object. It is composed mainly of leaves, and in shape resembles a flattened sphere some 3 inches in diameter. In its ramblings this shrew utilizes surface runways that it constructs itself and subterranean runways that have been dug by mice. The masked shrew is a voracious eater and consumes a wide variety of foods. These include beetles, moths, caterpillars, bugs, flies, crickets, spiders, worms, and the flesh of mice and other shrews. It also eats. some vegetable matter such as moss and seeds. Little is known of the breeding habits of the masked shrew. The breeding season may extend from March to September, and as many as three litters may be produced in a single season. The gestation period is probably about 18 days, and from 4 to 10 young are produced per litter, the usual number being 7. The male stays with the female before and after pregnancy and during the early development of the young. A young shrew is able to shift for itself within 20 to 25 days after its birth. The shrew is physically strong for its size, but being extremely active it seems to burn itself out at an early age. Its longevity is probably not over 2 years if it is allowed to live its full life span. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND Mi, SCALE ; Oo 10 20 30MILES ——E—EE Sorex cinereus cinereus A Specimens examined A Specimens reported Sorex ePaper fontinalis @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported Figure 4.—Distribution of Sorex cinereus fontinalis and S. c. cinereus. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Mount Savage, 1; Old- town, 3 miles E, 1; Oldtown, 9 miles HK, 1. Garrett County: Bittinger, 2; Cunningham Swamp, 4 (Coll. U. Md.). Sorex cinereus fontinalis Hollister Sorex fontinalis Hollister, Proc. U.S. National Museum, 40: 378, 17 April 1911. Type locality.—Cold Spring Swamp, near Beltsville, Prince Georges County, Maryland. General distribution.—Piedmont and Coastal Plain of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and northern Virginia. Distribution in Maryland.—Piedmont, Western Shore, and Eastern Shore sections. The characters of this race seem to be best developed in the lower Piedmont section near Washington, D.C. (near the type locality). Specimens from the Coastal Plain sections of the Eastern Shore and upper Western Shore are less typical and apparently represent inter- grades with S. c. cinereus, which is distributed to the northeast in New Jersey. In the upper Piedmont the subspecies intergrades with 8. c. cinereus. No specimens of masked shrew have been taken in the southern part of the Western Shore section (Calvert, St. Marys, and Charles Counties) and perhaps the species does not range this far south in the State. 18 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Distinguishing characteristics—This subspecies is very similar to S. c. cinereus and differs from it only in minor details which are most evident on the skull. Externally, the only apparent differences are somewhat smaller size and shorter tail. The skull is smaller, with a narrower braincase and a shorter, relatively wider rostrum. The uni- cuspid toothrow is shorter than in S. c. cinereus, and the teeth in the unicuspid row are more crowded. This subspecies of masked shrew closely resembles the southeastern shrew (Sorex longirostris), which in the eastern United States reaches the northern limits of its range in Maryland. Differences between the two are discussed under the species account for Sorex longirostris. Measurements.—External measurements of eight adults from the vicinity of Rockville, Montgomery County, are as follows: Total length 81.7 (76-89) ; tail vertebrae 33.7 (80-85); hind foot 10.6 (10-11). Cranial measurements of five adults from the vicinity of Rockville are: Condylobasal length 14.9 (14.7-15.2) ; cranial breadth 7.0 (6.7— 7.1); least interorbital breadth 2.7 (2.6-2.8) ; maxillary breadth 4.1 (4.0-4.2) ; crown length of upper toothrow (exclusive of first incisors) 5.5 (5.3-5.7). Habitat and habits—Bures (1948, p. 62) collected 14 masked shrews (which he incorrectly believed to be Sorex longirostris) near Lake Roland, Baltimore County. He says that, with two exceptions, all of these shrews were taken in a mixed deciduous woods bordering a rail- road siding. Of the two exceptions, one was trapped in a dense tangle of sumac and honeysuckle bordering a marsh, and the other in similar habitat along a small stream paralleling Falls Road. He states that systematic trapping throughout the area confirmed his opinion that this shrew does not wander far from deciduous woods. Hampe (1939, p. 5), however, trapped this shrew in the Patapsco State Park in the marshy pastures near Glenartney, and the type specimen of the subspecies was collected in a cold spring swamp in Prince Georges County. This shrew apparently does not occur on the outer barrier beaches of the Atlantic Coast. Many weeks of trapping there failed to produce a single specimen. It does inhabit the adjacent mainland, and the skull of one was found in an ow] pellet on Mills Island in Chincoteague Bay, Worcester County. The shrew had undoubtedly been captured by the owl on the nearby mainland. Regarding the nesting habits and young of this species, Hampe (1936) writes that he examined the nest of one which was under a discarded trash-filled box among the leaves about 6 feet from the road between Glenartney and Vineyard, Baltimore County. It was com- posed of a small bundle of dried and broken leaves loosely packed in a small depression in the ground. It was fairly dry, but the surround- ing ground was very damp. This nest was found on 18 October 1936 MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 19 and contained six blind and hairless young. At the time of this dis- covery the young were probably a week old, and one of them measured 43 mm. in total length with tail and hind foot measurements of 12 and 6 mm. respectively. The nest was visited again in about 2 weeks, and the young had developed to a size of 77 mm. in total length with tail and hind foot measurements of 33 and 10 mm. They were well furred and quite active. When the nest was visited for the final time on 8 No- vember, only 3 young could be found, and they quickly scampered away into the surrounding brush. The mother was seen in the nest only when it was first investigated on 18 October, and she scurried away very rapidly when the nest was opened. With regard to feeding and breeding habits of this race not much is known, but they probably are similar to those of Sorex c. cinereus. As with cinereus, this subspecies appears to be cyclical as far as abund- ance in particular areas is concerned; some years they are scarce, in others numerous. An example of how abundant these shrews may be in some years is provided by Kyle Barbehenn who collected 60 of them near Germantown, Montgomery County, between November 1958 and January 1959, and more than 150 near Rockville, Montgomery County, from February to April 1959. Specumens examined.—Anne Arundel County: Annapolis, 3 miles NW, 1; Severn Run, 1. Baltimore County: Lake Roland, 11; Lock Raven, 5; Pretty Boy Reservoir (near Middletown), 1. Dorchester County: Cambridge, 1. Montgomery County: Ashton, 1; Bethesda, 1; Cabin John, 1; Chevy Chase, 1; Germantown, 60; Glen Echo Heights, 1; Great Falls, 1; Rockville (near), 153; Sandy Spring, 1. Prince Georges County: Beltsville, 1; Bowie, 1; Hollywood, 1; Hy- attsville, 5; Landover, 1; Laurel, 3; Patuxent Wildlife Research Cen- ter, 3; Tuxedo, 1. Worcester County: Mills Island, 1 (from ow] pellet). Other records and reports—Kent County: Chestertown (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service files). Baltimore County: Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1936). Remarks.—This shrew was for many years considered a distinct spe- cies. Poole (1937, p. 96), however, showed that in Pennsylvania there is an unbroken gradation between this form and Sorex cinereus and that the two are only subspecifically separable. In Maryland, the most typical specimens of fontinalis are found in the vicinity of the type locality. Farther to the northwest, near Rockville and Germantown, Montgomery County, specimens, although still referable to fontinalis, are somewhat larger than typical of the race, and are approaching cinereus. The real dividing line for the 2 subspecies in Maryland is that between the Piedmont and the Ridge and Valley sections, those to the west being referable to cinereus, those to the east to fontinalis. Specimens from north of Baltimore and from the Eastern Shore sec- 20 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 tion also appear to be intergrading with S. c. cinereus. S. c. fontinalis appears to represent the end of a cline with regard to small size, shortening of the rostrum, crowding of the unicuspid toothrow, and short tail. Maryland represents the southern terminus for the distribution of the species Sorex cinereus east of the Appalachian Mountains. SOUTHEASTERN SHREW Sorex longirostris longirostris Bachman Sorex longitrostris Bachman, Journal Acad. Nat. Science, Philadel- phia, ser. 1,7 (2) : 370, 1887. Type locality Hume Plantations, swamps of the Santee River (= Cat Island, mouth of Santee River), South Carolina. General distributionThe southeastern United States from southern Mary- land and the District of Columbia to central Florida, and westward, around the southern end of the Appalachian Mountains to Kentucky, central Indiana, and Illinois. Distribution in Maryland —tThe southern portion of the Western Shore section, and perhaps extending into the lower Piedmont section. Maryland is the northernmost limit of the distribution of the species in the eastern United States. Distinguishing characteristics —This shrew may be easily confused with Sorex cinereus, particularly the race fontinalis, and with Wicro- sorex hoyi. It is distinguished from Sorex cinereus by the following: size smaller; tail shorter; coloration more reddish in winter pelage; feet smaller; rostrum shorter and blunter; unicuspid toothrow more crowded; and a greater tendency for the fourth unicuspid to exceed the third in size. From Microsorex hoyi it differs in a major dental character. In Microsorex the third upper unicuspid is minute and disk-like, and not visible when the jaw is seen in side view. The fifth unicuspid is also minute and not visible in side view, so that only 3 unicuspids are visible laterally in the upper jaw, the first, second, and fourth. In Sorex longirostris (and Sorex cinereus) 4 or 5 unicuspids are always visible when the skull is viewed laterally. In addition, Sorex longirostris is somewhat larger, more reddish in coloration, and has a longer tail than W/tcrosorex hoy. Measurements ——One specimen from Chesapeake Beach, Calvert County, has the following cranial measurements: Condylobasal length 14.3; cranial breadth 6.6; least interorbital breadth 2.9; maxillary breadth 4.1; crown length of upper toothrow (exclusive of first in- cisor) 5.1. Three specimens from Raleigh, N.C., average 82.6 mm. in total length and have an average tail length of 30.2mm. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 21 SCALE ° 10 20 3OMILES _—EEE—E——EE Sorex longirostris longtrostris @ Specimens examined FIGgurE 5.—Distribution of Sorex longirostris longirostris. Habitat and habits—Al|though this shrew prefers moist situations such as bogs and damp woods, it has on occasion been taken on com- paratively high ground. It is a rare species, and little is known of its habits, although they probably do not differ much from those of S. cinereus. An interesting sidelight on the specimen from Chesapeake Beach, Calvert County, is a notation on the original label that says “fell over cliffs to bayshore.” Specimens examined.—Anne Arundel County: Shadyside, 1. Calvert County: Camp Roosevelt, 2; Chesapeake Beach, 1. Prince Georges County: Hall, 1. District of Columbia: 1. Remarks.—It is interesting to note that, in the eastern United States at least, the ranges of Sorex cinereus and Sorex longirostris do not at present seem to overlap anywhere. North of a certain line (in Mary- land this line lies in the Western Shore section between Washington, D.C., and Shadyside, Anne Arundel County) all specimens collected have been S. cinereus, whereas south of this line S. longirostris only has been taken. There does not appear, however, to be any evidence of intergradation between the species. Specimens of S. Jongirostris from Calvert and Anne Arundel Counties, Md., are just as typical of that species as are those from farther south in North and South Carolina, whereas specimens from Rockville, only a few miles away, are clearly S. cinereus. That the two are distinct species is further demonstrated 22 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 by the fact that both have been taken in the same field in central Indiana. In all probability Sorex cinereus will eventually be found to be a resident. of the southern portion of the Western Shore section, and S. longirostris may be distributed through more of the Piedmont and northern Western Shore section than is currently indicated. (WATER SHREW) Sorex palustris punctulatus Hooper Sorex palustris punctulatus Hooper, Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., 463: 1, 15 September 1942. Type locality. West Virginia, Randolph County, 6 miles northwest of Durbin, Shavers Fork of the Cheat River, 3,600 feet elevation. General distribution.—‘Allegheny Mountains of eastern West Virginia, and probably also of southwestern Pennsylvania, western Maryland, and northwestern Virginia.” (Hooper, 1942, p. 1). | Distribution in Maryland.—Not recorded for the State, but undoubt- edly occurs in the higher elevations of the Allegheny Mountain section. Distinguishing characteristics Largest of all the eastern long- tailed shrews; hind feet large, and with a fringe of stiff hairs; third and fourth hind toes joined by thin web at the base for slightly more than half their length; grizzled coloration on upper parts, and pale gray underparts in winter pelage; tail markedly bicolored. Tooth formula as in Sorex cinereus, but third unicuspid smaller than fourth. This is an amphibious species, well adapted for an aquatic life. Measurements—Hooper (1942) gives some measurements of the type and two paratypes (from Randolph and Preston Counties, W. Va.) as follows: Total length 152, 153, 155; tail 64, 70, 71; hind foot 19, 20, 20; condylobasal length of skull 21.1, 21.2, , cranial breadth 10.6, 10.3, ; interorbital breadth 3.9, 3.8, 3.9; maxillary breadth 6.5, 6.4, 6.5; maxillary toothrow 7.9, 8.0, 8.1. Habitat and habits—This species prefers very wet areas along the borders of streams, lakes, and ponds. Often it is found in marshes and bogs, and in beaver and muskrat houses, particularly in winter. It favors heavily wooded areas and is rarely found in marshes that are devoid of bushes or trees. According to Hooper (1942), the type specimen of the subspecies punctulatus was collected under a log at the base of a yellow birch sapling, in a forest of spruce, hemlock, yel- low birch, maple, and beech, about 100 yards from Shavers Fork, the nearest body of water. The paratypes were taken at the edge of streams feeding or draining spruce swamps, one specimen among bracken, rhododendron, and hemlock, the other among sedges, rushes, willow, and spruce. There are many areas similar to this in Garret County MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 23 which the water shrew may inhabit, and one of the specimens men- tioned by Hooper was taken one mile south-southeast of Cranesville, Preston County, W. Va., at an altitude of 2,600 feet, only a few yards from the Maryland State line. This shrew does not hibernate and is active all winter. It is primarily nocturnal in habits, but occasionally is abroad during daylight hours. It is well adapted to an aquatic life and is one of the best swimmers of the nonmarine mammals. It can swim, dive, float, run along the bottom of a pond or creek, and actually run upon the surface of the water for some distance. Jackson (1961, p. 38) says that he once saw a water shrew run a distance of more than 5 feet across the surface of a pool. The body and head of the animal were entirely out of the water, the surface tension of the water supporting the shrew, and at each step the animal took there appeared to be a little globule of air held by the hair fringe on the hind feet. Conaway (1952), writing of the western subspecies navigator, says that it apparently has an extensive breeding season since pregnant females have been collected in March, suckling females the first week in June, half grown young early in July, a female with five small embryos on August 2, and a male with enlarged testes on 9 August. The number of embryos varies from 4 to 8, and the gestation period is probably about 21 days. These shrews do not live long; Conaway estimates that the maximum age of any specimen obtained would not be in excess of 18 months. The food of the water shrew consists largely of insect matter, chiefly beetles and their larvae, flies, caddisflies, and mayflies. Snails, leeches, small fish, and fish eggs are also consumed. Vegetable matter probably supplies only a small part of the diet. SMOKY SHREW Sorex fumeus fumeus Miller Sorex fwmeus Miller. North American Fauna, 10: 50, 31 December 1895. Type locality.—Peterboro, Madison County, N.Y. General distribution—Eastern North America, from southeastern Ontario and central New England to the Smoky Mountains and northern Georgia. It has also been reported from central Kentucky (Barbour, 1951, p. 102) and south- eastern Wisconsin (Jackson, 1928, p. 65). Distribution in Maryland.—Higher elevations (above 2,000 feet) in the Allegheny Mountain section; may also occur at higher elevations in the Ridge and Valley section. It is not a common species in Maryland. Distinguishing characteristics —In summer pelage resembles Sorex cinereus, but is larger, has a longer tail, bigger feet, and somewhat 24 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 SCALE paps © 10 20 30MILES oo 39°- Sorex fumeus fumeus @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FIGURE 6.—Distribution of Sorex fumeus fumeus. paler coloration. In winter pelage, coloration is grayish, and this shrew resembles Sorex dispar, but has a shorter tail. Tooth formula as in Sorex cinereus ; third unicuspid larger than fourth. Measurements.—Six adults from Finzel, Garrett County, 6 miles north of Frostburg, average as follows: Total length 110.8 (104-118) ; tai] 44.5 (42-50) ; hind foot 13.2 (18-14) ; condylobasal length of skull (average of 3) 17.9 (17.7-18.2) ; cranial breadth (average of 4) 8.7 (8.6-8.9) ; least interorbital breadth 3.7 (3.6-3.9) ; maxillary breadth 5.0 (4.8-5.3); length of maxillary toothrow (average of 5) 6.7 (6.5-6.8). Habitat and habits—The smoky shrew is essentially a northern and. mountain species and reaches its greatest abundance in the cool forested regions of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania. Most of Mary- land apparently does not provide suitable habitat, for it is not a com- mon species in the State. It prefers damp woods and bogs at the higher altitudes, where it lives under moss-covered logs and rocks. E. A. Preble’s field notes report that the specimens collected at Finzel were taken in a hemlock and rhododendron swamp, and those at Bittinger, Garrett County, deep in a hemlock forest. This shrew does not hibernate, and in general is active at all hours of the day and night. Its weak feet are not adapted for digging bur- rows, and it occupies those made by larger mammals such as the hairy- tailed mole, short-tailed shrew, red-backed mouse, and pine mouse. The MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 25 nests are located at various places in these tunnels, a favorite being under a log or stump. These nests, usually made of shredded leaves, are roughly spherical in shape and about the size of a baseball. They gen- erally are situated some 4 to 19 inches below the surface of the ground. Breeding in this species may begin in late March and the earlier litters appear in early May. As many as three litters may be produced each season, the last appearing in late August. The gestation period is about 20 days, and the young number from 3 to 10, 5 or 6 being the most common. Hamilton (1940, p. 480) lists the foods of the smoky shrew as the following: insects, earthworms, vegetables, centipedes, snails, sala- manders, mammals, sowbugs, spiders, and birds. Hamilton (1948, p. 486) believes that adults, after completing their reproductive duties, die of old age when 14 to 17 months of age. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Mount Savage, 4 (Coll. U. Md.). Garrett County: Bittinger, 3; Finzel, 6; Swallow Falls State Forest, 3. Other records and reports—Garrett County: Cranesville Swamp, one mile SE (Coll. U. Mich.) ; Sang Run (Coll. Maryland Nat. Hist. Soc.). LONG-TAILED SHREW Sorex dispar dispar Batchelder Sorex macrurus Batchelder, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10: 133, 8 December 1896. Not S. macrourus Lehmann, 1822. Sorex dispar Batchelder, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 24: 97, 15 May 1911. (A renaming of 8S. macrurus Batchelder.) Type locality.—Beede’s (sometimes called Lenne Heights), in township of. Keene, Essex County, N.Y. General distribution.—Mountainous regions of the eastern United States, from Maine south into North Carolina and Tennessee. Distribution in Maryland—Allegheny Mountain section ; may occur at higher elevations in Ridge and Valley section. It has been taken in Maryland only at Muddy Creek Falls, in Swallow Falls State Forest, Garrett County (Mansueti and Flyger, 1952, p. 250). It is one of the rarest shrews in Maryland. Distinguishing characteristics—Similar to Sorex fumeus, but with a longer tail, somewhat smaller size, and a uniform slate-gray colora- tion in all pelages. Tooth formula as in Sorex cinereus, with third _ unicuspid equal to fourth in size. | _ Measurements—External measurements of the type as given in the _ original description are : Total length 130; tail 60; hind foot 15; ear 10. 26 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 SCALE Oo 10 20 30MILES —EEE—EEEE ee | Sorex dispar dispar O Specimens reported FicurE 7.—Distribution of Sorex dispar dispar. Some cranial measurements of the type as given by Jackson (1928, p- 90) are: Condylobasal length of skull 18.2; cranial breadth 8.1; interorbital breadth 3.5; maxillary toothrow 6.1. Habitat and habits—This shrew prefers moist rocky areas and the crevices between boulders, and large masses of rocks. It has also been taken under moss-covered logs in damp coniferous forests. Mansueti and Flyger (1952, p. 250) report that the three specimens they col- lected on 6 September 1950, at Muddy Creek Falls, in Swallow Falls State Forest, Garrett County, at an altitude of 2,200 feet, were taken in snap traps placed on ledges in crevices of outcropping sandstone 2 or 8 feet above a small stream’s level in a relatively cool moist hemlock and rhododendron forest. Charles O. Handley, Jr. (1956, p. 485) says that the Virginia specimen he took on Big Mountain, Giles County, in September of 1955 was secured in a trap set about 12 inches below the surface in a patch of talus. Very little is known of the habits of this species, but in all proba- bility it differs little from other long-tailed shrews. Hamilton (1948, p. 39) says that G. H. H. Tate collected a female with 2 embryos in late August in the Adirondack Mountains of New York. Records and reports —Garrett County: Swallow Falls State Forest, — at Muddy Creek Falls (Mansueti and Flyger, 1952). | MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 27 PIGMY SHREW Microsorex hoyi winnemana Preble Microsorex winnemana Preble, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 23: 101, 24 June 1910. Type locality—Bank of Potomac River near Stubblefield Falls, Fairfax County, Va. General distribution—Maryland, south into western North Carolina. Distribution in Maryland.—May occur in all sections, but is rare. It has been taken in Maryland only at Berwyn, Prince Georges County. Distinguishing characteristics—This is the smallest mammal in North America and possibly the smallest in the world with respect to weight. Externally it resembles Sorex cinereus and Sorex longirostris, but is smaller and darker (less reddish) and has a shorter tail. Al- though the tooth formula is the same as that of the genus Sorex, there are certain peculiarities in the upper unicuspid toothrow which dis- tinguish it. The third upper unicuspid is minute and disklike, com- pressed anteroposteriorly between the second and fourth unicuspids, and is not visible when the jaw is viewed laterally. The fifth unicuspid is minute and peglike, and is also not visible in side view, so that only three unicuspids can be seen in the side view of the upper jaw (first, The ° 77° i pir = K | dt [ A i 39°- SCALE © !0© 20 3OMILES a a ee Mterosorex hoyi winnemana @ Specimens examined FIGuRE 8.—Distribution of Microsorex hoyi winnemana. 28 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 second, and fourth). This differs from the genus Sorex in which four or five unicuspids are always visible when the skull is viewed laterally. M easurements——External measurements of the Berwyn specimen are as follows: Total length 86; tail 29; hind foot 9.5. The skull of this specimen is crushed, but some cranial measurements of the type, as given by Jackson (1928, p. 210) are: Condylobasal length of skull 13.0; cranial breadth 6.1; interorbital breadth 2.7; maxillary toothrow 4.1, Habitat and habits——These rare shrews are little known. The type specimen was dislodged from the decayed interior of a large fallen log, and the specimen from Berwyn was found in the decayed heart of a dead chestnut tree, cut from a dry hillside at some distance from water. Specemens examined.—Prince Georges County: Berwyn, 1. SHORT-TAILED SHREW Blarina brevicauda kirtlandi Bole and Moulthrop Blarina brevicauda kirtlandi Bole and Moulthrop, Sci. Publ. Cleve- land Mus. Nat. Hist., 5: 99, 11 September 1942. Type locality.—The Holden Arboretum, Kirtland Township, Lake County, and Chardon Township, Geauga County, Ohio. (The county line bisects the type locality. ) ; General distribution.—Ranges from northwestern Michigan, eastern Wisconsin, and Illinois, east throughout most of Pennsylvania to central New Jersey and southward through Delaware, Maryland, and West Virginia to southwestern Virginia. Distribution in Maryland.—Abundant in suitable habitat in all sections of the State. Distinguishing characteristics—A large, short-tailed, slate-colored shrew, with a shorter blunter muzzle than any of the shrews previously discussed. The tooth formula is as in Sorex, with the fifth unicuspid being minute. The teeth are generally darkly tinged with reddish brown. Measurements.—Thirty-seven adults from the vicinity of Annapolis, Anne Arundel County, average as follows: Total length 115.2 (107- 122) ; tail 23.3 (19-27) ; hind foot 14.4 (13-15). Seventeen adults from the vicinity of Annapolis have the following cranial measurements: Condylobasal length 21.9 (20.8-22.7) ; mastoidal breadth 12.1 (11.4— 12.8) ; interorbital breadth 5.8 (5.3-6.1) ; maxillary breadth 7.7 (7.3- 8.0) ; unicuspid toothrow 8.6 (7.9-8.9). Measurements of eight adults from Cambridge, Dorchester County (Coll. K.U.), are: Total length 103.6 (101-107) ; tail vertebrae 23.1 (20-25.5) ; hind foot 13.6 (13-14.5) ; condylobasal length of skull 21.0 MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 29 | SCALE fe} 10 20 3OMILES EES Blarina brevicauda kirtlandt @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FIGURE 9.—Distribution of Blarina brevicauda kirtlandi. (20.5-21.7) ; mastoidal breadth 11.3 (11.0-11.7) ; interorbital breadth 5.4 (5.8-5.6) ; maxillary breadth 7.3 (7.1-7.6) ; unicuspid toothrow 7.6 (7.2-8.2). Habitat and habits.—This is one of the most abundant mammals in Maryland. It is found in a wide variety of habitats, but is most numer- ous in damp woods where there is a thick understory. It is also en- countered in meadows and old fields, but not on the Atlantic barrier beaches of the Delmarva Peninsula, where many weeks of trapping on Assateague Island failed to uncover a single specimen. Elsewhere in the State, this shrew vies with the meadow mouse and the white-footed mouse in abundance, but does appear to be cyclical as regards numbers, and in some years is more plentiful than in others. The short-tailed shrew, like other Maryland shrews, is active the year around, neither hibernating nor migrating. It is abroad both during daylight hours and at night. It is quick and energetic in its actions, and appears to be constantly on the go during its periods of activity. Its runways zigzag in all directions and lie on the surface of the ground just beneath the vegetation or litter. In these runways, the short-tailed shrew constructs two types of nests. One of these is a small resting nest, and the other a much larger breeding nest. The lat- ter may be some 6 to 10 inches long and averages about 4 inches in diameter. The nests are made of leaves, shredded grasses, and other 336-897 O—69-—3 30 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 vegetable fibers. In general, these nests are not as finely made as most mouse nests. The breeding season for this species extends from March to Sep- tember, and usually two or three broods of young are reared each season. The gestation period is from 21 to 22 days, and between 3 and 10 young may be produced, although the average number is slightly below 7. These young leave the nest in 18 to 20 days, and by the time they are 3 months of age they are essentially mature animals. This shrew may live up to 3 years, but the life span is usually less than this, probably not more than 18 or 20 months. This species has a voracious appetite. Hamilton (1930, p. 30) found that an examination of 244 intestinal tracts from New York State Blarina yielded the following food percentages : Insects 47.8, arachnids 2, millipedes 1.7, vertebrates 4.1, crustaceans 6.7, mollusks 5.4, annelids 7.2, centipedes 3.8, plant matter 11.4, inorganic matter 2.3, and un- determinable material 5.2. Only 1.7 percent of the stomachs examined were empty. The bite of this shrew is poisonous. Pearson (1942) found that a poisonous extract could be prepared from the submaxillary salivary glands of this species and that a toxic material is also present in the saliva and may be introduced into wounds made by the teeth, but because of the small size of the animal its bite probably would have little if any effect on man. There have been reports, however, of distress following the bite of a shrew. Maynard (1889) says that when he was bitten by one of them he experienced considerable pain and swelling in the vicinity of the wound which persisted for a week or longer. Others have been bitten repeatedly by shrews of this species and have experienced no after effects whatsoever other than the distress accompanying the actual breaking of the skin by the sharp teeth. These shrews appear to be somewhat more gregarious than most other species of shrews. It is not uncommon to capture a specimen each night for 4 or 5 consecutive nights in a trap set in the same place, indicating that the animals are using the same runways if not actually associating with each other. It may be stated, however, that in general this shrew is solitary and pugnacious both to its own kind and to any other creature it may encounter. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Frostburg, 1 (Coll. Frost- burg State College); Mount Savage, 42; Oldtown (near), 7. Anne Arundel County: Annapolis (near), 40; South River and U.S. Route 50 (junction of), 1. Baltimore City: 1. Baltimore County: Dulaney Valley, 1; Loch Raven, 1. Calvert County: Breezy Point, 2; Chesapeake Beach, 1; Cypress Swamp along Battle Creek, 2; Hungerford Creek, 314 miles N of Solomons, 1; Marine Training Base, 34 mile N of Solomons, 13; Plum Point, 1; Scientist Cliffs, 2; Solomons, 2. Charles MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 31 County: Benedict, 1; Marshall Hall, 1; Newport, 7. Dorchester Coun- ty: Cambridge, 15 (14 in Coll. K.U.). Garrett County: Bittinger, 5; Cranberry Swamp, 1; Finzel, 13; Grantsville, 5; Mountain Lake Park, 2; Swallow Falls State Forest, 2; Swanton, 4; Wolf Swamp, 2. Mont- gomery County: Burnt Mills, 2; Cabin John, 1; Cropley, 2; German- town, 1; Kensington, 1 mile N, 2; Plummers Island, 3; Poolesville, 1; Rockville, 17; Rockville, 2.3 miles NE, 6; Sandy Spring, 6; Seneca, 3; Sececa Creek at Clopper Road (Route 117), 1; Silver Spring, 6; Takoma Park, 1. Prince Georges County: Northwest Branch Ana- costia River, 1; Hyattsville, 5; Lanham, 1; Laurel, 4; Mitchellsville, 1 mile W., 2; Oxon Hill, 12; Prince Georges County Sphagnum Bog, 1. Worcester County: Mills Island, 2 (skulls from ow] pellets) ; Snow Hill, 5 miles NE, 1. District of Columbia: 107. Other records and reports—Baltimore County: Lake Roland (Bures, 1948, p. 62) ; Towson (Gentile, 1949, p. 11). Frederick County: Locust Grove (Merriam, 1895, p. 13). Kent County: Chestertown (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service files). Prince Georges County: Bladensburg (Bailey, 1896, p. 100). Remarks.—This species is in need of revision throughout its range. Pending this, only tentative conclusions may be reached regarding the various races and their distribution. At present it appears that three subspecies are distributed along the northeastern coast of the United States. The most northerly race, talpoides, ranges throughout most of New England, New York, extreme northern Pennsylvania, and north- ern New Jersey. It is a large pale race, with an elevated cranium and a long slender rostrum. Distribtued along the east coast to the south of talpoides is kirtlandi from northeastern Ohio, ranging throughout most of Pennsylvania, central and southern New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and West Virginia into southwestern Virginia. It is some- what smaller and darker than talpoides and has a shorter, broader rostrum. Distributed to the south of kirtlandi is the very small dark southern race carolinensis. Several authorities have considered the range of carolinensis to extend north to Cambridge, Dorchester County, Md. (Bole and Moulthrop, 1942, p. 108; Gardner, 1950a, p. 67; Jones and Findley, 1954, p. 210). I have examined a number of specimens from this locality (as well as series from farther south on the Delmarva Peninsula) and consider them to be intergrades between carolinensis and kzrtlandi, but closer to kirtlandi and referable to that race. The intergrading character of this population is reflected primarily in smaller size, particularly as regards external measurements. The aver- age total length of eight specimens from Cambridge is 103.6 mm. as contrasted with 97.4 mm. for eight specimens from South Carolina (near the type locality of carolinensis) and 116 for the type specimen 32 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 of kirtland: from northeastern Ohio. Cranially, eight adults from Cambridge average closer in size to kirtlandi and have an average con- dylobasal length of 21.0 and a mastoidal breadth of 11.3, contrasted with an average condylobasal length of 18.4 and mastoidal breadth of 10.1 in typical carolinensis (25 specimens from Raleigh, N.C.) and 21.0 and 11.9 in the type specimen of kirtlandi. Apparently the entire south- ern portion of the Delmarva Peninsula is an area of intergradation be- tween kirtlandi and carolinensis. Specimens I have examined from near Wattsville, Accomack County, Va., and Cape Charles at the southern tip of the Delmarva Peninsula in Northampton County, Va., although still decidedly referable to kzrtlandi, are smaller in size both externally and cranially than typical kzrtlandi and appear to’be ap- proaching carolinensis. LEAST SHREW Cryptotis parva (Say) Sorex parvus Say, in Long, Account of an expedition from Pittsburg to the Rocky Mountains, . . . 1: 163, 1823. Type locality.—West bank of Missouri River, near Blair, formerly Engineer Cantonment, Washington County, Nebr. General distribution.—The species is distributed over most of the eastern and midwestern United States, from central New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Min- nesota, and South Dakota, south to Florida in the east, and northeastern Mexico in the west. Distribution in Maryland.—Occurs in all sections of the State. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 3/1, 1/1, 2/1, 3/1, = 30; small size; brownish coloration; short tail. Most closely resembles Blarina brevicauda but is smaller, more brownish, and has 30 teeth instead of 32. It may be distinguished from all other shrews in Maryland by its short tail. Measurements.—Six adults from 3/4 mile N of Solomons Island, Calvert County, measury as follows: Total length 76.3 (74-80) ; tail 15.2 (14-16) ; hind foot 10(10-11) ; condylobasal length of skull 15.2 (15.0-15.6) ; palatal length 6.5 (6.46.9) ; cranial breadth 7.7 (7.6— 8.0); interorbital constriction 3.6 (3.5-3.7); maxillary breadth 5.0 (5.0-5.1) ; molar toothrow 5.4 (5.2-5.6). Habitat and habits—Most commonly found in dry fallow fields and stubble in the uplands, and in the marshes in the coastal areas. This shrew appears to be abundant in some places, and scarce or absent in almost identical habitat elsewhere. Along with Microtus pennsyl- vanicus, it is the most frequently taken small mammal on Assateague Island, where it occurs everywhere except on the sparsely vegetated beach dunes. Another area of abundance for the species is the dry fallow fields of southern Maryland. In such a field, three-fourth mile MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 33 79° | Y VF SCALE fe) 10 20 3OMILES SES | Cryptotis parva parva @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported ‘1 aro. o Om FIGurRE 10.—Distribution of Cryptotis parva parva. N of Solomons, Calvert County, this shrew was taken in traps as often as the short-tailed shrew and the house mouse. This small shrew generally follows the runways of larger mice and shrews, but it also constructs runways of its own. In soft ground it sometimes uses its snout to push dirt away, and by worming its way along may make a tunnel. These small burrows are not much different from those made by certain large beetles or other insects and are diffi- cult to identify. The nest of this species is usually placed in a slight hollow on the surface of the ground, or under a rock or log. Rarely is it located beneath the ground and then only at a depth of 4 or 5 inches or less. Sometimes it will utilize artificial objects such as tin cans in which to nest. The structure of the nest is globular, and com- posed of dry grass and leaves. The breeding season for this species is from March to November, and young, born early in the spring, usually breed within the year. The gestation period is about 16 days, and between four and five broods may be produced during a season. The number of young per litter varies from three to nine, with the usual number being four to six. The food of this species, like that of other shrews, consists primarily of insects and other animal matter. It is known to eat beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, earthworms, millipedes, and snails. It is also said to be fond of salamanders, frogs, and broods of young honeybees. 34 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Unlike most other shrews, the least shrew is gregarious, and may be said to be almost colonial in habits. Jackson (1961, p. 58) says that often when a log, slab, or rock is overturned four to eight or more of these little shrews may be found living together underneath. Maurice K. Brady of Washington, D.C., told Jackson that in Virginia near Washington in 1925 he uncovered a nest of this species which con- tained 25 Cryptotis, allin a pile. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Oldtown, 9 miles E, 1. Anne Arundel County: Annapolis (vicinity), 2. Baltimore County: Lock Raven Reservoir, 1. Calvert County: Solomons, 1; Solomons, 3%, mile N, 7. Charles County: Newport, 1. Dorchester County: Black- water National Wildlife Refuge, 1. Montgomery County: Bethesda, 1; Kensington, 13; Poolesville, 1; Sandy Spring, 19. Prince Georges County: Laurel, 6; Oxon Hill, 1; Patuxent Research Center, 5. Queen Annes County: Parson Island, 1. Worcester County: Ocean City, 4 and 5 miles S, 7; Ocean City, 15 miles S, 1; Chincoteague Bay, 2. District of Columbia: 8. Other records and reports —M ontgomery County : Seneca (Kilham, 1954, p. 252). Remarks—This species is in need of revision over its entire range. Until this revision is completed, all specimens from Marvland are provisionally referred to Cryptotis parva parva. Family TALPIDAE (moles) HAIRY-TAILED MOLE Parascalops breweri (Bachman) Scalops breweri Bachman, Boston Jour. Nat. Hist., 4: 32, 1842. Type locality—Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts (there is some question, however, whether this species ever occurred on Martha’s Vineyard Island). General distribution.—Northeastern United States and adjacent Canada, south in the Appalachians to western North Carolina. Distribution in Maryland—Occurs at higher elevations in the Allegheny Mountain and Ridge and Valley sections. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 3/3, = 44; tail short and hairy; coloration dark slate to black dorsally, slightly paler below; pelage soft and thick, but somewhat coarser than in the eastern mole (Scalopus aquaticus); palms enlarged and nearly circular in out- line; toes not webbed. This species can readily be distinguished from the eastern mole by its hairy tail, and from the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) by the absence of nasal projections. Measurements.—Jackson (1915: 80) gives external measurements of eight males from Magnetic City, N.C., as follows: Total length 149.5 MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 35 79° I ye [ee ii ; SCALE Oo !0 20 30MILES Sl Parascalops brewert @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FicurE 11.—Distribution of Parascalops brewer. (139-152) ; tail vertebrae 30 (23-86) ; hind foot 19.5 (18-20). He gives some measurements of the skulls of 10 adult males from Magnetic City as follows: Greatest length 32.4 (31-33.8); mastoidal breadth 14.5 (13.9-15) ; interorbital breadth 7.3 (7.1-7.5) ; maxillary toothrow 9.9 (9.2-10.2). Females average smaller than males. A male (probably immature) from Vale Summit Road, between Clarysville and Vale Summit, Allegany County, has the following external measurements: total length 136; tail 22; hind foot 16. This animal weighed 35.7 grams. Habitat and habits—In Maryland this mole is found only at high elevations in the western part of the State, where it lives in loose well-drained light soils. It may be found in pastureland, as well as in the deep woods, but is seldom encountered in damp areas or in clay soils. Although the eastern mole (Scalopus aquaticus) also occurs in western Maryland, it appears to be ecologically or at least altitudin- ally separated from the hairy-tailed mole. The eastern mole has been taken in the lowlands; the hairy-tail only at higher elevations. This species makes irregular subsurface runways which form an elaborate network. In the winter these tunnels are deep so as to avoid the freezing temperatures of the upper layers of earth. Nests are con- structed in these deep burrows, some 10 to 20 inches below the surface of the ground. These are made of dried grasses and leaves, and are some 6 inches in circumference. 36 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Mating occurs in March or April, and four to five young are produced in late April or May after a gestation period of probably a month. The young moles develop rapidly and are able to shift for themselves within a month. They are sexually mature and able to breed the following spring. The primary foods of this species are earthworms, insects, insect larvae, and other arthropods. They are very voracious eaters, and Hamilton (1943, p. 27) reports that a captive mole of this species weighing 50 grams consumed 66 grams of earthworms and _ insect larvae within a 24-hour period. Specimens examined —Allegany County: Mount Savage, 1. (Coll. U. Md.) ; Vale Summit Road, between Clarysville and Vale Summit, 1 (Coll. U. Md.). Other records and reports—Allegany County: Warrior Mountain (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service files). Garrett County: Grantsville, near (Coll. U. Mich.). Remarks.—Two specimens of this species from Grantsville, Garrett County, collected 28-29 August 1949 by J. A. King, and now stored in the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, are the first actually taken in this State. The species, however, is probably not as rare in western Maryland as the few trapping records and reports would indicate. EASTERN MOLE Scalopus aquaticus aquaticus (Linnaeus) (Sorex) aquaticus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 1: 53, 1758. Type locality Philadelphia, Pa. (Fixed by Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna 38, p. 33, 30 September 1915). General distribution.—Eastern United States, from southern New England, and New York State, south to Virginia, and in the Appalachian Mountains south to Tennessee, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Distribution in Maryland—Kastern Shore, Western Shore, and Piedmont sections and at lower elevations in the Ridge and Valley and Allegheny Mountain sections. Rare or absent apparently in the Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections at elevations over 2,000 feet. Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 3/2, 1/0, 3/3, 3/3, = 36; fore- feet broad and greatly enlarged, adapted for digging; body stout and cyclindrical; pelage soft and velvety, black to brownish black in coloration; tail short and naked; eyes and ears small and not visible on superficial examination. Differs from the hairy-tailed mole (Parascalops brewer) in that the tail is short and naked, and from the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) in that the snout 1s without fleshy projections. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 37 SCALE Oo 10 20 30MILES ———E— Sealopus aquaticus aquatticus @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported Figure 12.—Distribution of Scalopus aquaticus aquaticus. Measurements.—Jackson (1915, p. 34) gives external measurements of 15 adult males from Washington, D.C., as follows: Total length 163.4 (154-175) ; tail vertebrae 26.5 (22-29) ; hind foot 19.8 (18-21). Cranial measurements for 21 adult males fromWashington and vicinity are: Greatest length 34.3 (33.2-35.6) ; mastoidal breadth 17.7 (17-18.3) ; interorbital breadth 7.4 (7.2-7.8) ; maxillary toothrow 10.8 (10.4-11.3). Females average smaller than males in size. Habitat and habits—The eastern mole normally lives in sandy soils and light loams in meadows, pastures, cultivated fields, gardens, lawns, and thin woods. Rocky areas and swamps are generally avoided since they are barriers to the mole’s burrowing activity. It does, however, prefer moist situations to dry ones. Very sandy regions, such as the barrier beaches that line Maryland’s ocean front, are apparently un- favorable to the eastern mole, and many weeks of searching for their signs near Ocean City, Worcester County, and on Assateague Island to the south proved fruitless. Bures (1948, pp. 61-62), found moles in the Bare Hills—Lake Roland area of Baltimore County to be restricted to the moist or wet soil bordering the Lake and along the two streams that empty into Jones’ Falls. He says that numerous individuals were observed at work on the lawns of property fronting Falls Road. In the Ridge and Valley and Allegheny Mountain sections, there is evidence that this species occurs only in the lowlands, whereas higher up on the 38 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 mountains it is replaced by the hairy-tailed mole. In Mason County, W. Va., McKeever et al. (1952, p. 25) found an eastern mole inhabit- ing the sandy soil of the Ohio River bottomland and a hairy-tailed mole in the nearby forest-covered hills. This distribution occurs in the Appalachians in general, including the Ridge and Valley and Alle- gheny Mountain sections of Maryland. The eastern mole does not hibernate, but is active the year round. It constructs a series of burrows just beneath the surface of the ground during wet weather to facilitate the capture of earthworms which form a major part of its diet. In dry and cold weather this species digs deeper permanent burrows some 10 or more inches below the surface. Rarely does the eastern mole emerge from its subterranean burrows and prowl about above ground. A nest is built in one of the permanent burrows, which may be from 5 to 18 inches down, usually under the © roots of shrubs or stumps. It is most often made from grass and root- lets, but occasionally leaves are employed. This nest is placed on the bottom of a flattened ellipsoidal enlargement of the tunnel, the length of which is about 8 inches and the diameter about 5. Mating in this species takes place in March and continues into April. The young are born in the latter part of April or in May. The gesta- tion period is about 45 days, and from two to five young are born each season. By the time a young mole is 5 weeks of age it is more than half the size of the mother. Eighty percent of the diet of the eastern mole is animal matter, con- sisting primarily of worms, insects, and insect larvae. Some of the favorite foods are beetles, earthworms, wireworms, white grubs, spi- ders, centipedes, millipedes, slugs, and insect and mollusk eggs. Some of the plant matter consumed are corn, potatoes, grass, tomatoes, ap- ples and occasionally wheat and oats. The eastern mole is a voracious eater and in 24 hours may consume a quantity of food equal to its weight. Moles are harmful when they disfigure lawns and provide highways in gardens for field and pine mice. Their destruction of insects places them in a more favor- able light. A friend once told me that these moles had almost eliminated the larvae of Japanese beetles on his grounds. Tunneling activities of moles aid in the formation of soil. (Hamilton, 1943, pp. 23-24). Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Cumberland, 3 (Coll. U. Md.). Anne Arundel County: Annapolis, 3 miles NW, 1; no exact lo- cality, 2. Baltimore City: 2. Calvert County: Chesapeake Beach, 1; Plum Point, 1; Solomons, 4 miles N, 1. Charles County: Newport, 3. Howard County: no exact locality, 1 (embryo in alcohol). Montgom- ery County: Cabin John, 2; Capitol View, 1; Chevy Chase, 1; Plum- mers Island, 5; Rockville, 2; Seven Locks, 1; Silver Spring, 4; Wood- side, 4. Prince Georges County: Beltsville, 2; Berwyn, 1; Branchville, MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 39 4; Brookland, 1; Highland, 1; Landover, 2; Laurel, 13; Mount Rainier, 1; Patuxent Research Center, 1. District of Columbia: 838. Other records and reports—Anne Arundel County: Severna Park (Cooper, 1953, p. 79). Baltimore County: Lake Roland (Bures, 1948, p. 61); Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 5). Montgomery County: Forest Glen (Bailey, 1896, p. 100). STAR-NOSED MOLE Condylura cristata cristata (Linnaeus) (Soren) cristatus Linnaeus, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1:53, 1758. Type locality.—Eastern Pennsylvania. Gencral distribution.—Southeastern Canada, and northeastern United States, south to central Minnesota, Wisconsin, Indiana, Ohio, eastern West Virginia, and northern Virginia. Distribution in Maryland —tLocally abundant in all sections of the State although apparently rare or absent in some areas with suitable habitat. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 3/3, = 44; body form mole-like, but more slender; forefeet broad and enlarged for digging, but not to the same extent as in Scalopus; pelage black in coloration, somewhat harsher in texture than that of Scalopus; tail long, and at certain times of the year enlarged. The most distinctive feature of this mole is the snout, which is fringed with 22 pink pro- jections, or tentacles, and is responsible for the popular name of the animal. | Measurements—Two adults from the District of Columbia measure as follows: Total length 183, 185; tail vertebrae 65, 66; hind foot 28, 28; greatest length of skull 33.9, 33.4; mastoidal breadth 12.8, 12.8; interorbital breadth 6.8, 6.7; maxillary toothrow 6.6, 6.3. Habitat and habits—The star-nosed mole prefers damp habitat in meadows, fields, woods, or swamps, but is sometimes taken in the leaf mold of dense forests, or in relatively dry fields in which there are a few damp spots from which its tunnels radiate. Occasionally it is found at a considerable distance from any water. One specimen was captured in June 1958 in the lower Eastern Shore section near Watts- ville, Accomack County, Va., a few miles from the Maryland boundary. It was taken in a museum special mouse trap set in a surface runway in dry meadow at Jeast a fourth of a mile from the nearest water. Generally, however, the star-nosed mole will be encountered in very wet situations, and its tunnels frequently lead directly into a stream or pool. This animal is an efficient swimmer, using its broad forefeet as oars and its tail as a scull. 40 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 79° SCALE 39°- °o 10 20 S3OMILES eee Condylura eristata eristata @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FIGURE 13.—Distribution of Condylura cristata cristata. The star-nosed mole is less fossorial than the eastern or hairy- tailed moles; it is active both day and night, summer and winter. It often uses surface runways, and sometimes in the winter it will burrow in the snow, or even run across it. The tunnels that this species digs are more irregular in pattern than those of other Maryland moles. These burrows are deep in places, and then abruptly rise to near the surface. Frequently the tunnels enter the bank of a stream a foot or more below the water line. The nest of the star-nosed mole is constructed of leaves and grass and is located in a flattened spherical chamber about 5 or 6 inches in diameter and some 4 or 5 inches high. It is usually placed 3 or 4 inches below the surface of the ground, but may be as much as 10 inches down. It is always, however, above the high water level. It is believed that star-nosed moles pair in the autumn and remain together until the young are born. Breeding occurs in the spring, and birth is from April to June, the gestation period being about 45 days. There is only a single litter per year, and the size of the litter varies from three to seven, six being the usual number. The young mature rapidly and are ready to leave the nest within about a month’s time. Star-nosed moles are more gregarious than other eastern moles, and may perhaps, be colonial, although colonies are probably formed through family lineage. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 41 Star-nosed moles are amphibious, and spend a good deal of time in water. They are excellent swimmers and divers, and a large portion of their food consists of aquatic insects and worms, only about one fourth of the diet being composed of terrestrial forms. Specimens examined.—Charles County: Marshall Hall, 1. Garrett County: Cranesville Swamp, 1. Howard County: Ellicott City, 1. Montgomery County: Brookeville, 1; Burnt Mills, 1; Cabin John, 1; Chevy Chase, 1; Chevy Chase Lake, 1; Oakdale, 1; Plummers Island, 1; Potomac P.O., 1; Sandy Spring, 1; Silver Spring, 1; Woodside, 2. Prince Georges County: Beltsville, 1; College Park, 2; Glenndale, 1; Lanham, 1; Laurel, 2; Patuxent River Marsh, 1; no exact locality, 1. District of Columbia: 10. Other records and reports —Prince Georges County: Branchville (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service files). Washington County: Wil- liamsport (Jackson, 1915, p. 91). Remarks—Maryland specimens average somewhat smaller in size, both externally and cranially than typical C@. c. cristata, and are tend- ing in this character toward the smaller southern subspecies C. c. parva. Order CHIROPTERA (bats) Family VESPERTILIONIDAE (vespertilionid bats) LITTLE BROWN MYOTIS Myotis lucifugus lucifugus (Le Conte) V [espertilio]. lucifugus Le Conte, in McMurtrie, The animal kingdom . . . by the Baron Cuvier, vol. 1, App., p. 481, 1831. Type locality—Georgia; probably the Le Conte plantation near Riceboro, Liberty County. 3 General distributionWastern and northern North American from Alaska and Labrador south in the Appalachians to Georgia, and west into Arkansas. Distribution in Maryland—Abundant in all sections of the State. Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 2/3, 1/1, 3/3, 3/3, = 38; face covered with fur except for lips and nostrils; ears moderately long, not extending beyond nostrils when laid forward; tragus slender and peinted; wing membrane between humerus and knee sparsely furred; interfemoral membrane not furred; coloration rich brown, almost bronze; young animals much darker in coloration; sagittal crest usually lacking on skull. Measurements —Kight adults from the District of Columbia have external measurements as follows: Total length 85.6 (80-95); tail vertebrae 38.5 (36-42) ; hind foot 8.9 (8.0-10.5). Some cranial meas- urements of seven adults from Washington, D.C., are as follows: 42 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 76= our “ee mS SCALE ONO Baie 10 20 3OMILES Myotts luetfugus luetfugus @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FigurRE 14.—Distribution of Myotis lucifugus lucifugus. Greatest length 14.0 (138.7-14.2); zygomatic breadth 8.4 (8.0-9.1) ; interorbital breadth 4.0 (3.9-4.2) ; length of maxillary toothrow 5.1 (5.0-5.2). Habitat and habits—This species occurs almost everywhere, roost- ing’ in the attics of houses, in hollow trees, or in caves. It is gregarious by nature; in the attic of one house near Seneca Point, Cecil County, over 9,000 were found roosting at one time. The little brown myotis hibernates in winter and, in some areas at least, is migratory in habits, traveling “flyway” routes from winter hibernating quarters to summering areas. During these migrations they may travel as far as 100 to 150 miles or more, returning by similar routes to their winter quarters. The migratory patterns of Maryland’s little brown myotis have not been studied, but the files of the Bat Banding Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, contain two records of movements of this species into the State. In both instances, the little brown myotis were banded in Hellhole Cave, Pendleton County, W. Va., in March 1964 and were picked up in the vicinity of Deep Creek Lake in Garrett County in June and July of 1964. Perhaps some of Maryland’s Myotis lucifugus population winters in caves in West Virginia and Virginia, and travels north to forage in Maryland during the summer. Others that winter in Maryland may venture further north into Pennsylvania in the summer months. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 48 Mating in this species usually occurs in the autumn, before the bats enter hibernation. Normally the spermatozoa survive in the uterus throughout the winter, and fertilization occurs the following spring. Copulation, however, may occur during the winter or in the spring. The gestation period probably is about 80 days, and the young are born in late May or early June. Usually only a single offspring com- prises a litter, but occasionally two are produced. In about 4 weeks after their birth, the young are flying and foraging for their own food. Sexual maturity is achieved at about 8 months. There is only one litter per season. The food of the little brown myotis appears to ie composed entirely of insects, particularly nocturnal species of moths, beetles, and bugs. It has a voracious appetite, consuming large numbers of insects nightly. This bat is long-lived; there are records of banded animals recovered in good health as much as 20 years after banding. Specimens examined—Cecil County: Seneca Point, 1. Garrett County: Oakland, 1. Montgomery County: Plummers Island, 1. Dzs- trict of Columbia: 29. Other records and reports—Baltimore County: Patapsco State Park (Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. Maryland 10 (1), p. 5, 1939). Garrett County: Deep Creek Lake (banding recovery record). Montgomery County: Edwards Ferry (banding recovery record). Washington County: Round Top Mountain, near Hancock (banding record). Remarks.—This bat is far more common than the few locality records above would indicate. It is probably the most abundant bat in Maryland. KEEN’S MYOTIS Myotis keenti septentrionalis (Trouessart) [Vespertilio gryphus| var. septentrionalis Trouessart, Catalogus mammalium ... , fasc. 1, p. 131, 1897. Type locality —Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. General distribution—Hastern North America, from Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Quebce, and Ontario, south to northern Florida and west to Manitoba, North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Arkansas. Distribution in Maryland.—Occurs in all sections of the State, and is common. Distinguishing characteristics —This bat is similar in size and color to the little brown myotis (Myotis lucifugus), but may be distinguished trom that species by its long ears, which extend some 4 to 5 millimeters beyond the tip of the nose when laid forward. The skull is narrower in proportion to its length than that of the little brown myotis. 44 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 7.25 °. ° 7© ° tl 39°- fe) 10 20 30MILES fe Ue . Y Myotis keentt septentrtonalis @ Specimens examined (pay ‘ty Y © EAN odhnaciacteteia CS Ren WG TTT i oa gulp 8 le J} (G3 Ss mM FieuRE 15.—Distribution of Myotis keenii septentrionalis. Measurements——External measurements of three adults from Plummers Island, Montgomery County, are as follows: Total length 81, 87, 75; tail vertebrae 38, 35, 35; hind foot 9, 9, 10. Some cranial measurements of four adults from Plummers Island are: Greatest length 14.5 (14.4-14.7); zygomatic breadth 8.9 (8.8-9.0) ; interor- bital breadth 3.6 (3.6-3.7) ; length of maxillary toothrow 5.9 (5.76.0). Habitat and habits——This species roosts in small colonies in caves, and under loose bark on trees. Frequently it is found in association with the little brown myotis, from which it differs little in habitat selection or habits, except that it seems to be more solitary. Mansueti (1941, pp. 56-57) found one sleeping under the bark of a dead stand- ing tree near Arbutus, Baltimore County. When he peeled the bark away, the bat flew to a nearby tree and crawled up under some loose bark on it. This species is more abundant than the few Maryland records indicate. Specimens examined.—Baltimore County: Bare Hills, 1. Mont- gomery County: Cabin John Bridge, 1; Plummers Island, 5. Prince Georges County: Muirkirk, 1. District of Columbia: 4. Other records and reports—Baltimore County: Arbutus (Man- sueti, 1941); Lake Roland (Bures, 1948: 63). Montgomery County: Forest Glen (Miller, 1897: 76). Washington County: Round Top Mountain, near Hancock (bat banding record, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 45 INDIANA MYOTIS Myotis sodalis Miller and G. M. Allen Myotis sodalis Miller and G. M. Allen, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 144: 130, 25 May 1928. Type locality Wyandotte Cave, Crawford County, Indiana. General distribution—Eastern United States from central New England west to Wisconsin, Missouri, and Arkansas, south into northern Florida. It occurs on the Atlantic Coastal Plain, however, only in the New England area. Distribution in Maryland—Apparently very rare in the State. Its distribution is probably limited to limestone caves in the Ridge and Valley and Allegheny Mountain sections. Distinguishing characteristics—Resembles Myotis lucifugus, but differs in coloration, the fur being a dull grayish chestnut rather than bronze, with the basal portion of the hairs of the back dull lead colored; coloration of underparts pinkish to cinnamon; hind feet smaller and more delicate than in J/. lucifugus; slight, but well-de- fined sagittal crest usually present on skull. Measurements——Two adults from the type locality in Indiana have measurements as follows: Total length 86, 87; tail vertebrae 35, 38; hind foot 9, 9; greatest length of skull 14.1, 13.9; zygomatic breadth 8.7, 8.3; interorbital breadth 3.8, 3.7; length of maxillary toothrow 5.5, 5.3. 72° | SCALE Oo 't0 20 30MILES SS) Myotts sodalts @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FIGuRE 16.—Distribution of Myotis sodalis. 336-897 O—69—_4 46 NORTH AMERICAN. FAUNA 66 The skull of an adult from Oakland, Garrett County, measures: Greatest length 13.7; zygomatic breadth 8.1; interorbital breadth 3.7; length of maxillary toothrow 5.0. Habitat and habits—This bat roosts almost exclusively in lime- stone caves, preferring those in which there are considerable bodies of water. It forms large colonies and is often found in association with M. luctfugus. It is known from only 2 localities in Maryland. Hall (1962) has thoroughly studied the life history of this bat. He found that at Blackball Mine, La Salle County, Il., the earliest date for entrance into hibernation was 14 September. The major buildup of the hibernating colony was during October and the first part of November. The hibernating colony starts diminishing in early April, and by the first week of June no sodalis are in hibernation. He esti- mates that the average hibernation period for this species would be from 15 October to 20 April, or 187 days. He found that large num- bers of Indiana myotis accumulate in a few caves to hibernate, and that for five consecutive winters the species was found in the same seven caves and in no others in Edmondson County, Kentucky. This species also occupies caves during the nonhibernating summer months, and may be considered a true cave species. As far as movements and migrations are concerned, Hall says that the same individual may be present in one area winter and summer whereas others may move as much as 250 miles between seasons. He says that the few band recoveries indicate that certain movement areas exist for certain populations. For instance, he found that one such population range includes Kentucky, Indiana, [linois, and south- ern Ohio, and that no movement takes place between this area and the Ozark area of Arkansas and Missouri. Little is known regarding the feeding and breeding habits of M. sodalis, but probably they are quite similar to those of IZ. luctfugus. Like that species, MW. sodalis is long-lived. One specimen banded in Carter County, Ky., on 12 March 1950, was recovered in good health 14 years later on 8 January 1964, in the same cave. Specemens examined.—Garrett County: Near Oakland, 1. Other records and reports—Washington County: Round Top Mountain, near Hancock (bat banding record, U.S. Fish and Wild- life Service). Remarks.—The skull of the Maryland specimen is small in all measures, but otherwise appears to be typical M/. sodals. It has the slight but perfectly defined sagittal crest which is generally present in this species and lacking in M. lucifugus. Unfortunately, the skin is missing from the Nationa] Museum collections. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND: 47 SMALL-FOOTED MYOTIS Myotis subulatus leibii (Audubon and Bachman) Vespertilio leibtt Audubon and Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia, ser. 1, 8 : 284, 1842. Myotis winnemana Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., X XVI: 183, 8 August 1913. (Type from Plummers Island, Maryland.) Type locality.—Erie County, Ohio. General distribution.—Ontario and southwestern Quebec, south to western North Carolina, and west to southern Iowa, eastern Kansas, and northeastern Oklahoma. Distribution in Maryland.——Recorded from Plummers Island, Montgomery County, and Round Top Mountain near Hancock, Wash- ington County. This species probably hibernates in caves in the Alle- gheny Mountain section, and passes through the rest of the State during migrations. Distinguishing characteristics—Similar to Myotis lucifugus, but differs in its smaller size, golden tinted fur, black ears, black facial mask, and shorter forearm. The skull is much flatter than that of 1. lucifugus, and the braincase narrower. Measurements——Two adults from Plummers Island, Montgomery County (the first the type of /. winnemana Nelson) measure as fol- lows: Total length 82, 80; tail vertebrae 39, 35; hind foot 8, 7; greatest SCALE Oo 10 20 30MILES ——————— nd Myotis subulatus letbit @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FicureE 17.—Distribution of Myotis subulatus leibii. 48 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 length of skull 13.7, 13.1; interorbital breadth 3.4, 3.8; length of maxillary toothrow 5.1, 5.0. Habitat and habits—tThese bats probably hibernate in caves in the wild forested regions of the Allegheny Mountains and migrate else- where in the State during late winter and early spring. Most specimens have been taken in caves located in hemlock forests. The position of these bats as they hang on the walls or ceilings of the caves is a definite means of identification. The arms, instead of hanging parallel to the body, as generally found in I/. wcifugus and other bats, are extended about 30 degrees from the vertical. Little is known of the feeding and breeding habits, but they are presumed to be similar to M. lucifugus. Specimens examined —Montgomery County: Plummers Island, 2. Other records and reports—Washington County: Round Top. Mountain, near Hancock (bat banding record, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). SILVER-HAIRED BAT Lasionycteris noctivagans (Le Conte) V[espertilio|. noctivagans Le Conte, in McMurtrie, The animal king- dom . .. by the Baron Cuvier, vol. 1, App., p. 431, 18831. Type locality—Eastern United States. General distribution—Nearly all of North America, from the tree line in northern Canada, south to Georgia, Texas, New Mexico, and California. Distribution in Maryland.—Probably breeds only in the Allegheny Mountain section, but occurs in all sections of the State as a migrant in the spring and the fall. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 2/3, 1/1, 2/3, 3/3, = 36; pelage dark brownish-black, the ends of the hairs tipped with silver, giving a somewhat frosted effect, particularly along the middle of the back; fur extends onto dorsal surface of interfemoral membrane; ears short and rounded with broad, blunt tragus; skull flattened, and rostrum broad. Measurements.—An adult male from Plummers Island, Montgomery County has the following external measurements: Total length 116; tail vertebrae 47; hind foot 10. Some cranial measurements of four adults from Washington, D.C. are: Greatest length 15.8 (15.6-16.2) ; zygomatic breadth (2 specimens) 9.9, 9.1; interorbital breadth 4.1 (4.0-4.3) ; length of maxillary toothrow 5.7 (5.6-5.8). Habitat and habits—This bat is found most frequently flying about ponds and streams in wooded areas. It roosts in hollow trees, in dense foliage, and occasionally in buildings. It is sociable and often en- countered in large groups. As in many species of bats, there is a marked MAMMALS OF MARYLAND: 49 THE) 7e 77° Peed Oo !0 20 30MILES ae ee \y Lastonycterts noetivagans @ Specimens examined © Specimens reported US ss roe FicgurRE 18.—Distribution of Lasionycteris noctivagans. segregation of the sexes and the large colonies seem to be composed primarily of females. Solitary animals are usually males. The breeding habits of this species are not well known, but accord- ing to Jackson (1961, p. 86) it usually has two young, born blind and nearly naked, the last part of June or early in July. The young remain clinging to the breast of the mother until they are about 3 weeks old, when they are able to fly and shift for themselves. A single litter is produced each year. The silver-haired bat feeds entirely on nocturnal insects, particularly those that fly high in the woodlands or over the borders of watercourses with wooded banks. Specimens examined.—M ontgomery County: Great Falls, 1; Plum- mers Island, 1. Prince Georges County: Laurel, 1. District of Colum- bia: 5. Other records and reports.—Prince Georges County: Patuxent Re- search Center (Gardner, 19500, p. 112). EASTERN PIPISTRELLE Pipistrellus subflavus subflavus (F. Cuvier) V[espertilio|. subflavus F. Cuvier, Nouv. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, 1:17, 1832. Type locality — Georgia, restricted to the LeConte Plantation, 3 miles SW Rice boro, Liberty County, by Davis (1959, p. 522). 50 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 General distribution.—From central Minnesota and southern Quebec south into Georgia and western Florida; west to Oklahoma, Texas, and Tamaulipas. The center of its abundance is the Ohio River Valley; north of this it occurs locally in summer (Davis and Mumford, 1962, p. 396). Distribution in Maryland.—Probably ranges throughout all sections of the State, although there are no records of it from the Eastern Shore section. Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 2/3, 1/1, 2/2, 3/3, = 34; smallest bat in Maryland; coloration of dorsum grayish to reddish- brown, each hair tricolored, plumbeous at base, dark brown at tip, with central portion yellowish-brown; flight weak and erratic, giving the animal somewhat the appearance of a large fluttering moth. Measurements.—External measurements of 11 adults from Washing- ton, D.C., are as follows: Total length 81.6 (75-90) ; tail 39.5 (87-42) ; hind foot 8.5 (8.0-9.0). Some cranial measurements of 10 adults from Washington are as follows: Greatest length 12.8 (12.4-13.1) ; zygo- matic breadth 7.9 (7.7-8.2) ; interorbital breadth 3.5 (3.4.8.6) ; length of maxillary toothrow 4.3 (4.24.4). Habitat and habits——This is a wide-ranging species that hibernates in caves, mine shafts, and rock crevices. During the summer months it probably spends the daylight hours in trees, although it is sometimes found in buildings. It is most frequently encountered in wooded areas near water. The pipistrelle is believed to have a feeding range of at least 5 er 6 miles, and a homing instinct has been demonstrated by tracing banded bats for distances up to 80 miles. Individuals roost year after year in the same cave. Mating occurs in November, and young are born the last part of June or early July. Usually two constitute a litter, but there are occasionally triplets, and sometimes only a single offspring. By the time they are about a month old they are able to fly, and shortly thereafter begin to shift for themselves. Since pipistrelles are so small their food is proba- bly restricted to insects such as flies, moths, and the smaller bugs and beetles. Despite their diminutive size, pipistrelles apparently have a long life span. Banded individuals have been recovered in good health as long as 10 years after they were originally tagged. Specimens examined.—Anne Arundel County: Magatha R. (= Ma- gothy River?), 2. Charles County: Marshall Hall, 13. Garrett County: Near Oakland, 1. Wontgomery County: Capitol View, 1; Glen Echo, 1; Great Falls, 1; Plummers Island, 2. Prince Georges County: Hyatts- ville, 1; Laurel, 1; near D. C. line, 6. St. Marys County: St. George Island, 4; District of Columbia: 40. Other records and reports—Baltimore County: Bare Hills (Bures, 1948: 64); Orange Grove (Hampe, 1939: 5). Washington County: MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 51 i SCALE o 10 20 3O0MILES —— ee | Pipistrellus subflavus subflavus @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FigurE 19.—Distribution of Pipistrellus subflavus subflavus. Keedysville, Snively’s Cave No. 1 (bat banding record, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) ; Round Top Mountain (bat banding record, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). Remarks—Two subspecies of Pipistrellus subflavus have been named from the eastern United States, P. s. subflavus, the typical form as described above, and P. s. obscurus Miller (Type locality : Lake George, Warren County, New York). Miller (1897, p. 93) described obscurus as differing from swbflavus only in coloration, being somewhat darker, duller, and more yellowish. Several specimens from the vicinity of Washington, D.C., in the national collections, are darker than typical P. s. subfiavus and were referred by Bailey (1923, p. 136) and Gardner (1950b, p. 112) to obscurus. Bailey (1928, p. 137) says that “They may have migrated from their northern habitat, or merely wandered out of their regular range after the breeding season was over.” As pointed out by W. H. Davis (1959, p. 523), who has synonomyzed P. s. obscwrus with P. s. subflavus, there is a wide range of individual variation in color in this species, and dark specimens are found throughout the entire range of P. s. subflavus. The dark specimens from the vicinity of Washington, referred to obscurus by both Bailey and Gardner, fall within the range of individual variation of color in the subspecies subflavus. Another Maryland specimen which exhibits atypical coloration is from St. George Island, St. Marys County. It is similar to P. s. florid- 52 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 anus Davis, which is distributed over peninsular Florida and south- eastern Georgia. W. H. Davis (1957, p. 215) speculated that perhaps this animal actually was a floridanus that had wandered northward. In a later publication (1959, p. 524), however, he says that unless it can be shown that this actually happened it is best to refer this specimen to P. s. subflavus. The specimen has been in the National collections for many years (collected 20 August 1887), and the unusual coloration is perhaps due to fading. BIG BROWN BAT Eptesicus fuscus fuscus (Palisot de Beauvois) Vespertilio fuscus Palisot de Beauvois, Catalogue Raisonné du Muséum de Mr. C. W. Peale, Philadelphia, p. 18 (p. 14 of English ed. by Peale and Beauvois), 1796. Type locality.—Philadelphia, Pa. General distribution.—Eastern North America, from Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba, south into Florida and Nuevo Leon, México. Distribution in Maryland—Abundant in the lower Piedmont and upper Western Shore sections in the vicinity of the fall line. Uncom- mon in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, and Eastern Shore sections. 76° yp PT MN y os oe ih Eptestcus fuscus fuscus @ Specimens examined q] - a O Specimens reported Ure OS =i Mijjre mao . CG 4 SCALE ° 10 20 30OMILES —eE——E eS 39°=" FIGURE 20.—Distribution of Eptesicus fuscus fuscus. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 53 Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 2/3, 1/1, 1/2, 3/3, = 32; size large, exceeded in Maryland only by the hoary bat; coloration uni- formly dark brown; ears thick and heavy, somewhat rounded and medium in size, naked except for some fur at the base; wings and inter- femoral membrane lacking fur; skull larger and heavier than any other local bat except Lasiurus cinereus, from which it differs in being notice- ably narrower. Both E’ptesicus and Lasiurus have 32 teeth, but in Eptesicus there are 2 upper incisors and 1 upper premolar, while in Lasiurus there are 2 upper premolars and 1 upper incisor on each side. Measurements External and cranial measurements of 15 adults from Washington, D.C., are as follows: Total length 113.2 (110-122) ; tail 43.6 (40-48) ; hind foot (average of 9) 12 (10-13) ; greatest length of skull 18.5 (17.5-19.6) ; zygomatic breadth (average of 10) 12.6 (12.1-13.4) ; interorbital breadth 4.2 (3.94.5); length of maxillary toothrow 7.1 (6.9-7.4). Habitat and habits—This bat usually occurs around buildings and dwellings where it roosts in the daytime under windowsills, in the eaves of roofs, in cracks or crevices, or behind doors, blinds, and awnings. It is sometimes found in hollow trees, under loose bark, and occasionally in caves or crevices in cliffs. This species is common in parts of Mary- land; it is an unusual year when at least one specimen is not captured in the Natural History building of the National Museum and added to the study collection. The big brown bat does not form large colonies as do some species of bats. Probably it isin part migratory, but does not engage in extensive seasonal migrations, other than to find a suitable place for hibernation. This is one of the last bats to hibernate in the fall, and it is on wing again in early March. During mild spells of winter it may be seen flying in the sun at midday (Hamilton, 1943, p. 90). These bats are long-lived; records of banded animals recovered 10 to 15 years later are numerous. The homing instinct seems to be developed to some degree. Cohen (1944) found several adults behind the shutter of a house in Berwyn, Prince Georges County, and after banding them released them on 4 October 1941, in Baltimore City. Twelve days later, on 15 October 1941, one of these bats was found hanging on the same shutter from which it had been removed in Berwyn. It had travelled a distance of 26.56 miles, over the congested city of Baltimore, and heavily travelled high- ways, to return to its home roost. The mating season for the big brown bat is September, and young are born the following June. Normally two comprise a litter, although there may occasionally be only one. The young grow rapidly and 3 or 4 weeks after birth are able to shift for themselves. This species, like all Maryland bats, is primarily insectivorous. Hamilton (1933a) examined 2,200 summer fecal pellets from northern 54 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 West Virginia and concluded that the most common insects consumed by the big brown bat in summer are (in order of abundance of re- mains) : Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Plecotera, Ephemirida, Hemiptera, Tricoptera, Neuroptera, Mecotera and Northoptera. No lepidopterous remains were discovered by Hamilton in the pellets. Specimens exwamined.—Baltimore City: 1. Baltimore County: Ca- tonsville, 1. Montgomery County: Kensington, 1; Plummers Island, 2; Silver Spring, 1; Takoma Park, 2. Prince Georges County: Laurel, 3. District of Columbia: 86. Other records and reports —Anne Arundel County: Jessup (Silver, 1928, p. 149). Balttémore County: Bare Hills (Cohen, 1942, p. 96) ; Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 5). Montgomery County: Washington Grove (Christian, 1956, p. 66). Prince Georges County: Berwyn (Cohen, 1944, p. 65); Patuxent Research Center (Gardner, 19500, p. 112). Washington County: Round Top Mountain, near Han- cock (banding record). RED BAT Lasiurus borealis borealis (Miller) Vespertilio borealis Miiller, Des Ritters Carl von Linne.. . voll- standiges Natursystem nach der zwolften lateinischen Ausgabe. ... Suppl. (Mammalia), p. 20, 1776. Type locality.—New York General distribution.—Eastern North America, from southern New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, south to Florida and Texas. Distribution in Maryland.—Abundant in all sections of the State. Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 1/3, 1/1, 2/2, 3/3, = 32; size medium; color bright rufous or fulvous, hairs plumbeous at base and whitish at tips, producing a slight frosted effect; ears broad and blunt, rounded at tip, reaching about halfway from the angle of the mouth to the nostril when laid forward; tail moderately long; interfemoral membrane thickly furred on upper surface. This bat is easily distinguished from all other bats in Maryland by its bright rufous coloration and the furred interfemoral membrane. Males generally are darker and more reddish than females. Measurements.—An adult male from Doubs, Frederick County, and an adult female from 8 miles NW of Annapolis, Anne Arundel County, measure respectively: Total length 109, 118; tail 49, 50; hind foot 10, 7; greatest length of skull 13.0, 12.6; zygomatic breadth 9.5, 9.5; interorbital breadth 4.4, 4.2; length of maxillary toothrow 4.5, 4.4. — Habitat and habits—This bat shows a preference for deciduous | woodlands, orchards, and city parks with trees and tall shrubs. It © generally chooses the branch of a shady tree in which to roost, some- MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 5d iO Mi : a o— oo Oo '!0 20 30MILES [nf SCALE . wl Lasiurus borealis borealis @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FIGuRE 21.—Distribution of Lasiurus borealis borealis. times within a few feet of the ground, and conceals itself in the foliage. It is well known that the red bat is migratory in habits, spending summers in northern areas and flying south in the autumn. They are not found in the winter in the more northern areas, while their num- bers appear to increase in the south. In Maryland they apparently occur the year round, specimens having been taken in all months from April through December, and in nearby Arlington, Va., on 1 March. Whether the same population occurs here in the summer as in the winter is not known. Perhaps the summer population migrates farther south and its place is taken by a more northern population which has migrated in. It appears that this bat migrates southward in the fall behind an advancing cold front. David Bridge, a Maryland bird bander, tells me that he often takes red bats in the autumn in his bird nets at Kent Point on Kent Island, Queen Annes County, for several days following the movement of a cold front through the area. The red bat is a strong swift flyer. Jackson (1961, p. 96) states that observational timing he made of it would indicate an ordinary _ straightaway flying speed of near 40 miles per hour. It has sometimes _ been observed flying far out to sea as much as 500 miles from the _ nearest land. Usually it migrates at night, but occasionally it is ob- _ served during the day. A. H. Howell (1908, p. 386) observed over a o6 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 hundred bats, most of which were probably of this species, passing over a part of Washington, D.C., between 9 and 10 a.m. on the cloudy mild morning of 28 September 1907. Red bats mate during early August; copulation occurs while the bats are in flight. The female apparently stores the sperm, and the young are not born until the following June after a gestation period of 80 to 90 days. Three are the usual number of young per litter, although there are occasionally two or four. Like other Maryland bats, the red bat is insectivorous and catches most of its prey while on wing. Some insects, however, are probably taken from the foliage or even near the ground, since remains of crickets have been found in stomachs. Additional items of diet are flies, bugs, beetles, cicadas, and other insects. Specimens examined—Anne Arundel County: Annapolis, 1; An- napolis, 3 miles NW, 1; no exact locality, 2. Baltemore City: 1. Calvert County: Solomons, 1. Charles County: Port Tobacco, 114 miles SW, 2. Dorchester County: Cambridge, 1. Frederick County: Doubs, 1. Montgomery County: Forest Glen, 6; Glen Echo, 1; Plummers Island, 7; Silver Spring, 2. Prince Georges County: College Park, 1; Laurel, 14. Somerset County: off Tangier Island, Virginia, 1; Washington County: Hagerstown, 2; Sandy Hook, 1. District of Columbia: 838. Other records and reports.—Baltimore County: Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 5). Queen Annes County: Kent Point (bird bander David Bridge in verbis, 16 September 1964). Remarks.—A closely related species, the seminole bat, Lasiurus semt- nolus (Rhoads), which normally is found in Florida, southern Geor- gia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, has been reported twice from southeastern Pennsylvania (Poole, 1932, p. 162; 1949, p. 80) and once from central New York (Layne, 1955, p. 453). Layne suggests that individuals of this species may wander northward far out of the normal range in summer, and if this is so, the seminole bat may eventu- ally be taken in Maryland. This species is distinguished from the red bat by its much darker coloration, a rich mahogany brown slightly frosted with white. HOARY BAT Lasiurus cinereus cinereus (Palisot de Beauvois) Vespertilio cinereus (misspelled linereus) Palisot de Beauvois, Cata- logue raisonné du muséum de Mr. C. W. Peale, Philadelphia, p. 18, 1796. Type locality.—Philadelphia, Pa. General distribution—Most of North America, from the Atlantic to the Pa- cific, north into Canada, and south into Mexico. Breeds in the northern part of | its range, mostly north of the United States. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 57 TAD por =y i | SCALE Oo tO 20 30MILES ——S 39°- Lasturus cinereus cinereus @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FIGuRE 22.—Distribution of Lasiurus cinereus cinereus. Distribution in Maryland.—Occurs as a migrant in all sections of the State; may breed in the higher portions of the Allegheny Mountain section. Distinguishing characteristics—Teeth as in L. borealis; size large (averaging 135 mm in total length) ; wingspread averaging around 14 inches; coloration a mixture of grayish umber and chocolate brown, heavily tinged with white, so as to produce a hoary effect, especially on the back; head blunt, with ears large and rounded, conspicuously _ rimmed with black or dark brown; tail medium length, about 40 per- cent of total length of the animal; interfemoral membrane thickly furred on upper surface nearly to the edge; anterior edge of under- side of wing furred for about half its length. This bat is easily dis- tinguished from all other Maryland bats by its large size and unique — coloration. Measurements —Measurements of an adult male from Washington, D.C., are as follows: Total length 135.5; tail 61.5; hind foot 13; great- est length of skull 16.1; zygomatic breadth 12.0; interorbital breadth 4.9; length of maxillary toothrow 6.2. An adult female from Washington, D.C., has the following cranial measurements: Greatest length of skull 16.9; zygomatic breadth 12.7; interorbital breadth 5.5; length of maxillary toothrow 6.2. Habitat and habits—This is a migratory species. It breeds and _ spends the summer in the northern part of its range, from southeast- 58 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 ern Pennsylvania and possibly the higher mountains of the Appa- lachians, north into Canada. It migrates southward quite late in the season. It prefers to roost in coniferous forests, but may also be found in farmyards, city parks, and yards, particularly where coniferous trees are growing. The hoary bat has an extensive home range and may fly a mile or more from its roosting site in search of food. It is a strong and rapid flyer, and Jackson (1961, p. 100) estimates that it can achieve speeds of up to 60 miles an hour. The scarcity of records and specimens from Maryland indicates that it 1s rare here. In the summer, it occurs in the higher mountains of the Allegheny Mountain section. In other seasons, it may be encountered throughout Maryland. Little is known of the breeding habits of this bat. Jackson (1961, pp. 100-101) says that mating probably occurs in September or Octo- ber and the young are born in May or June, thus giving an apparent gestation period of about 8 months. It seems probable, however, that as in some other species of bats spermatozoa survive in the uterus through the winter, and that fertilization takes place early in the spring, giving an actual gestation period of about 90 days. Usually, two young comprise a litter, although it is possible that as many as four may be produced. The hoary bat is primarily an insect feeder, but occasionally preys on smaller bats. Specimens examined.—Baltimore County: Cockeysville, 1. Prince Georges County: Laurel, 1. District of Columbia: 3. Other records and reports —Baltimore City (Merriam, 1887, p. 86). Prince Georges County: Berwyn (Tromba, 1954, p. 253). EVENING BAT Nycticeius humeralis humeralis (Rafinesque) Vespertilio humeralis Rafinesque, American Monthly Mag., 3 (6) : 445, October 1818. Type locality Kentucky. General distribution—From Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Illinois, south into Florida and Texas, and west into eastern Oklahoma and Kansas. Distribution in Maryland.—Probably absent in the higher moun- tains of the Allegheny Mountain and Ridge and Valley sections, but elsewhere it may occur sparingly as a summer resident. Distinguishing characteristics—Teeth 1/3, 1/1, 1/2, 3/3, = 30; super- ficially resembles Myotis but can be easily distinguished by the reduced number of teeth and the short sparse brown fur which is dull umber above and plumbeous at the base; fur on abdomen paler than ~ on dorsum; ears small and thick. The young of this species are con- ~ siderably darker than the adults. i MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 59 SCALE te} 10 20 30MILES [Ld Nyectteetus humeralis humeralis @ Specimens examined Figure 23.—Distribution of Nycticeius humeralis humeralis. Measurements.—Three adults from the vicinity of Washington, D.C., have external measurements as follows: Tota] length 90, 95, 94; tail 39, 35, 85; hind foot 10, 9, 8. Six adults from the vicinity of Wash- ington have the following cranial measurements: Greatest length 14.2 (13.7-15.5) ; zygomatic breath 9.7 (9.6-10.0) ; interorbital breadth 3.9 (3.84.0) ; maxillary toothrow 5.2 (5.0-5.4). Habitat and habits.—This is essentially a southern species that wan- ders north in summer sometimes as far as Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Illinois. It prefers to roost in hollow trees, flying out with a slow and steady flight as darkness falls. It gives birth to two young, generally in late May. Little else is known of its habits or life history. Specimens examined—M ontgomery County: Linden, 1; Plummers Island, 1; Silver Spring, 1. Prince Georges County: Hyattsville, 2; Oxon Hill, 1; near D.C. line, 1. District of Columbia: 6. (BIG-EARED BAT) Plecotus townsendii virginianus (Handley) Corynorhynus virginianus Handley, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 45 (2) : 148, 23 May 1955. | Type tocality.—Schoolhouse Cave, 4.4 miles NE of Riverton, 2,205 feet, Pendle- - ton County, W. Va. General distribution.—Central part of the Appalachian highlands in eastern Kentucky, western Virginia, and eastern West Virginia. 60 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Distribution in Maryland.—Not as yet recorded, but should be looked for in the higher portions of the Allegheny Mountain section. To date it has not been found resident in any Maryland caves, but it probably enters the State on feeding forays from caves in nearby West Virginia and Virginia. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 2/3, 1/1, 2/3, 3/3, = 36, ears very long; glandular masses on nose appear as lumps; fur long and limp; colored a dark brown above, and pinkish buff on belly, inter- femoral membrane naked. The very large ears serve to distinguish this bat from any others that may be encountered within Maryland. Measurements—Handley (1959, p. 233) gives some measurements of a series of adults from West Virginia as follows: Total length 101 (98-103) ; tail vertebrae 50 (48-52) ; hind foot 11 (10-12) ; ear from notch 34 (31-38) ; greatest length of skull 16.5 (16.2-16.8) ; zygomatic breadth 8.8 (8.6-9.0) ; interorbital breadth 3.7 (38.6-3.9); length of maxillary toothrow 5.3 (5.2-5.4). Habitat and habits—This is a true cave bat usually roosting in small groups and emerging at dusk to fly at considerable heights. After dusk it descends nearer the ground, sometimes at an elevation of only sev- eral feet, searching for insect prey. When roosting in the caves during the day, the long ears are spirally coiled and flattened against the neck. It is a shy bat, quick to take alarm. With its large ears, it can detect the least sound and seems to be more wary than other species. Although Pearson et al. (1952) have made a detailed study of the life history of the western subspecies of Plecotus townsendit, little is known concerning the habits of the eastern race. Since the two are widely separated geographically, much of Pearson’s findings may not be applicable to the eastern form. Hamilton (19438, pp. 102-103) says that the eastern race bears its young during late June and that the mother carries the single offspring until it becomes too heavy. As with other vespertilionid bats, the spermatozoa are probably stored over winter in the uteri of the females and are capable of fertilizing in the spring. This species is Insectivorous, and Hamilton (1948, p. 104) says that those examined for a clue to their feeding habits contained only the remains of Lepidoptera in their stomachs. Remarks.—This bat has never been taken within Maryland, but has been found in several caves very close to the border of the western part of the State, in Grant, Preston, and Tucker Counties, W. Va. During the Pleistocene, a bat very similar to this species did inhabit Maryland caves. Gidley and Gazin (1938, p. 345) described Corynor- hynus alleganiensis (=Plecotus alleganiensis) from Pleistocene de- posits in Cumberland Cave, Allegany County, Md. Handley (1959, p. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 61 210) states that P. alleganiensis was similar in many respects to (and possibly directly ancestral to) P. townsendiz. Order LAGOMORPHA (rabbits, hares, etc.) Family LEPORIDAE (rabbits, hares) EASTERN COTTONTAIL Sylvilagus floridanus mallurus (Thomas) Li epus]. n[uttalli]. mallurus Thomas, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, 2: 320, October 1898. Type locality.— Raleigh, N.C. General distribution.—Primarily east of the Appalachian Mountains, from Massachusetts, south into central Florida, west to Tennessee and Alabama. Distribution in Maryland.—Occurs abundantly in all sections of the State. Cottontails have been introduced into parts of Maryland from areas outside the range of mallurus, and hence all population in the State may not be referrable to that race. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 2/1, 0/0, 3/2, 3/3, = 28; size small; ears large, pelage long and coarse, reddish brown, mixed with black on the dorsum; underparts white, including the underside of the tail; nape and legs cinnamon-rufous. This species differs from the New England cottontail (S. transitionalis), which has not yet been taken in Maryland but which probably occurs in the mountains of the western part of the State, in several external and cranial characters which are described under that species. Measurements——External measurements of three adults from the three adults from Washington, D.C., are: Basilar length 57.5, 57.0, 458; tail 60, 64, 75; hind foot 99, 84, . Cranial measurements of three adults from Washington D.C., are: Basilar length 57.5, 57.0, 56.5; zygomatic breadth 36.9, 36.5, 36.3; interorbital breadth 19.1, 18.5, 17.9; length of maxillary toothrow 14.1, 14.0, 13.2. Habitat and habits—This rabbit occupies a variety of habitats from the marshes of the Delmarva Peninsula to the fields and meadows of western Maryland. It is seldom encountered in heavy woods. It occurs on Assateague Island, off the Atlantic coast of Maryland, where it is particularly abundant in the wooded thickets and dry sandy areas adjacent to the marshes. These rabbits are found in the tall grass and thickets in villages and towns and even in the large cities such as Balti- more and Washington. The summer food consists of almost any type of green vegetation, but it seems to be especially fond of legumes, dande- lions, plantains, and lettuce. During winter it eats tender parts of many shrubs and trees and will gnaw away the bark of some species of 336-897 O—69_5 62 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 SCALE ° 10 20 3O0MILES SSS Sylvilagus floritdanus mallurus @ Specimens examined : li ©O Specimens reported =~ I] , eel FIGuRE 24.—Distribution of Sylvilagus floridanus mallurus. trees. With the deforestation of much of Maryland since Colonial times the cottontail has found more suitable habitat and today is abundant throughout the State. The cottontail is both diurnal and nocturnal, but is most active during the first 3 or 4 hours after daylight and from 2 to 3 hours be- fore sunset to about 1 hour after sunset. It does not hibernate, but is active yearlong. Cottontails are solitary and seldom are two or more found together except in the case of mother and young. The female builds a brood nest of grass combined with fur plucked from her own abdomen. The nest, placed in a depression in the ground, is about 4 or 5 inches in diameter and depth. It is usually well con- cealed in grass, weeds, thickets, or scrubby. woods. In addition to the brood nest, the cottontail makes forms that are used as hiding or rest- ing places. These forms are made by scratching or trampling a shallow oval hollow in the ground and sometimes lining it with grass, leaves, or fur. Cottontails in Maryland mate in late winter. The gestation period varies from 28 to 32 days, and the first litter of the year appears by mid-March. Two or three litters are produced each season, and the number of young per litter varies from three to six, with five being the most frequent. Specimens examined—Charles County: Marshall Hall, 1; Rock Point, 1. Garrett County: Grantsville, 1. Howard County: Long Cor- MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 63 ner, 2. Montgomery County: Kensington, 1; Plummers Island, 2; Ta- koma Park, 1; no exact locality, 1. Prince Georges County: Clinton, 1; East Riverdale, 1; Lanham, 1; Westwood, 1; no exact locality, 3. District of Columbia: 24 (many of these are labeled “purchased in Washington Market” and were probably taken outside the District of Columbia area). Other records and reports.—Allegany County: Oldtown, 9 miles E (personal observation). Baltimore City: (personal observation). Baltimore County: Bare Hills-Lake Roland area (Bures, 1948, p. 68) ; Loch Raven (Kolb, 1938) ; Gwynnbrook State Game Farm (Sheffer, 1957, p. 90); Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 7). Howard County: Atholton (personal observation). Kent County: Chestertown (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service files). Prince Georges County: Pa- tuxent Research Center (Herman and Warbach, 1956, p. 85). Worces- ter County: Assateague Island, near the Virginia border (personal observation) ; Ocean City, 1 mile N (personal observation). Remarks.—Nelson (1909, p. 168) considers the specimen from Grantsville in the extreme western Allegheny Mountain section to be a distinct intergrade with S. 7. mearnsi, nearly pale enough to be clas- sified with mearnsz. (NEW ENGLAND COTTONTAIL) Sylvilagus transitionalis (Bangs) Lepus sylvaticus transitionalis Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., XX VI, pp. 405-407, 31 January 1895. Type tocality.—Liberty Hill, New London County, Conn. General distribution—Distributed from southeastern Maine, southern New Hampshire, and Vermont, south through eastern New York, New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania and along the Allegheny Mountains through West Virginia to northern Georgia and northeastern Alabama. Distribution in Maryland.—There are no valid records of the New England cottontail from Maryland, but it almost certainly occurs in the Allegheny Mountain section at higher elevations. Distinguishing characteristics—Similar in coloration to the eastern cottontail, except that the underfur is a much darker gray. The back is ochraceous buff, overlaid with a wash of black-tipped guard hairs which give it a dark appearance. The ears are short and round and have a black margin on the outside edge, making a distinct black line which does not blend gradually into the browner color of the ear as in the eastern cottontail. A definite black patch is between and just in front of the ears. Cranially this species differs from the eastern cottontail in that the skull is lighter and slenderer, the interorbital breadth narrower, and 64 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 the rostrum thinner. The supraorbital process is very slender, narrow- ing anteriorly so that the notch is absent, or virtually so. The posterior portion of the process is very narrow and in some instances is free of the skull, leaving a distinct foramen. The auditory bullae are notice- ably smaller in this species than in S. floridanus. Measurements—Nelson (1909, p. 168) gives average measurements of five adults from Wilmington, Mass., as follows: Total length 388; tail vertebrae 39; hind foot 96; basilar length of skull 54.8; interor- bital breadth 17.1. Since geographic variation appears to be slight in this species, Maryland specimens, if taken, probably would not differ greatly in size from the Massachusetts series. Habitat and habits—Llewellyn and Handley (1945, p. 384) say that in Virginia All specimens examined were taken at elevations above 3,000 feet in the Alle- gheny Mountains. Signs indicate that these cottontails occupy the woods and brush along most of the higher crests and ridges of the state. They believe that the species will be found in Virginia only at ele- vations above 3,000 feet. Since the species occurs in the Alleghenies to the north and south of Maryland, and since there are several moun- tains in western Maryland that exceed 3,000 feet in altitude, it is almost certain that the New England cottontail is resident in Maryland and will eventually be taken there. This species is similar to Sylvilagus floridanus with regard to breeding habits and food preferences. Remarks.—The records of Nelson (1909, p. 199) for the occurrence of the New England cottontail in Washington, D.C., and in nearby Alexandria, Va., have been shown by Bailey (1923, pp. 120-121) to be erroneous. He says: They have been recorded from the District .. . and from Alexandria, but the record based on 2 young taken in a nest in the Soldiers Home grounds by Dr. C. W. Richmond on 20 June 1886 was erroneously included under this species, and a specimen which I bought on 1 January 1904 of a colored man on the street who said he killed it at Alexandria, probably came from West Virginia where they are common and are often included in shipments of rabbits to market. SNOWSHOE RABBIT Lepus americanus virginianus Harlan Lepus virginianus Harlan, Fauna Americana, p. 196, 1825. Type locality. Blue Mountains, near Harrisburg, Pa. General distribution—Southern Ontario, and northeastern United States, from southern Maine, south in the Appalachian Mountains to North Carolina and Tennessee. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 65 y ee Wy SCALE fe} 10 20 30MILES —EE—E | Lepus americanus virginianus @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FIGURE 25.—Distribution of Lepus americanus virginianus. Distribution in Maryland.—Occurs in the Allegheny Mountain and Ridge and Valley sections where it is now uncommon. Distinguishing characteristics —A_ medium-sized rabbit with large hind feet and thick fur. Coloration in summer pelage, dull rusty brown varying to buffy brown, always more or less darkened by a wash of black. In winter, coloration is sometimes pure white with a little dusky around tips of ears; but frequently a dull brownish wash is present on the feet and terminal half of the ears. Cranially, this species differs from Sylvilagus floridanus and S. transitionalis in its larger size and heavier build, with much stronger development of the supraorbitals which are subtriangular and stand out broadly winglike with a broad open notch between the posterior process and the skull. Measurements——Nelson (1909, p. 86) gives average measurements of five adults from Pennsylvania as follows: Total length 518; tail vertebrae 49; hind foot 414; basilar length of skull 65.0; interorbital breadth 22.0. Habitat and habits—This rabbit prefers areas of spruce in the highest regions of the Allegheny Mountain and Ridge and Valley sections, where it has been observed in open woods and thickets. Spruce areas are small and scattered districts in the upland swamps and on some of the mountain tops. Mansueti (1953, pp. 72-73) says that 66 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 The varying hare seems to be destined to permanent extirpation in Maryland. It is a species with specialized habitat requirements and one of limited distribu- tion. Its environment is being encroached upon by civilization gradually in some and swiftly in other places... . The optimum habitat is forest of the high inter- mountain Allegheny Plateau which has at least a moderate understory of small trees and shrubs to provide food and cover. These areas are gradually being destroyed by an increasing deer herd as well as human expansion in Garrett County. The last reliable reports of snowshoe rabbits in Maryland were by John Hamlet, formerly with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, who reported that in 1945 he observed a female in Garret County but did not record the exact locality, and by John Smith of Mountain Lake who shot one near the Holy Cross Camp, Deep Creek Lake, Garrett County, in March 1957. This latter animal was probably one of 18 that had been shipped into the country from the Adirondacks of New York and released in March 1952. (Maryland Conservationist 34 (2), p. 25, March 1957.) The snowshoe rabbit is active in the summer and winter, primarily early in the morning and late in the evening. Although it constructs no nests, it returns to the same spot regularly so that a form is even- tually hollowed out. This form is nearly always concealed under grass, brush, shrubbery, or a fallen log. This species breeds promiscuously. Mating begins early in March and may continue well into April. The first litter appears in April after a gestation period of about 36 days; as many as four litters a year are possible during a breeding season, although there are usually only two. The number of young may range from one to five or more, but most frequently three or four. Food of the snowshoe rabbit in summer consists of dandelion, grasses, clover, ferns, and the tender parts of certain shrubs and trees. In winter, when many summer foods are not available, it feeds on bark and shoots of woody plants. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Cumberland, 1. Other records and reports—Garrett County: Cranesville Swamp area (Mansueti, 19538, p. 72) ; Deep Creek Lake (Maryland Conserva- tionist 34(2), p. 25, March 1957) ; Finzel (Mansueti, 1953, p. 72, says that a specimen from this locality is in the collections of the U.S. National Museum and lists it among his specimens examined. There is no record, however, that a specimen from Finzel has ever been in the National Museum collections. Rhodes (1903, pp. 119-120) quotes Merriam as saying that Preble was told of the occurrence of Lepus virginianus at Finzel, Md., only half a mile from the Pennsylvania line. Mansueti may have confused this record with the specimen of Lepus a. virginianus from Cumberland, Md., which is in the National Museum collections, and which is probably the one he examined.) ; MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 67 Little Crossings, headwaters of North Branch of Castleman River (Browning, 1928, p. 242) ; Wolf Swamp, SE of Grantsville (Mansueti, 1953, p. 72). Remarks.—Several hundred snowshoe rabbits have been stocked at various times in several localities in western Maryland. None of these introductions appear to have been very successful, although the speci- men taken by John Smith at Deep Creek Lake in March 1957 seems to be one of those stocked in 1952. Order RODENTIA (gnawing mammals) Family SCIURIDAE (squirrels) EASTERN CHIPMUNK Tamias striatus (Linnaeus) [Scturus] striatus Linnaeus, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1: 64, 1758. The eastern chipmunk is distributed from Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, south into Georgia and Louisiana, west to eastern Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, North and South Dakota, and Saskatch- ewan. In Maryland, two subspecies are recognizable. They are— Tamias striatus fisheri A. H. Howell Tamaas striatus fisheri A. H. Howell, J. Mammal., 6(1) : 51, 9 Febru- ary 1925. Type locality.—Merritts Corners, 4 miles E of Ossining (Sing Sing), West- chester County, N.Y. This type locality has been the source of some confusion in the literature. It has been listed by various authorities as ‘‘Merritt’s Corners, four miles W of Sing Sing [= Ossining] New York,” (Howell, 1925, p. 51) ; ‘“Merritts Corners, 4 miles E of Ossining (Sing Sing), N.Y.,” (Howell, 1929, p. 16); ‘‘Merritts Corners, 4 miles W of Sing Sing (Ossining), Westchester County, N.Y.,’ (Poole and Schantz, 1942, p. 560) ; ‘““Merritts Corners, 4 miles E of Ossining (Sing Sing), Westchester County, N.Y.” (Miller and Kellogg, 1955, p. 218) : ‘“Merritts Corners, 4 miles W Ossining (Sing Sing), Westchester County, N.Y.,’”’ (Hall and Kelson, 1959, p. 294). The confusion involves whether Merritts Corners, a small New York State village not found on current maps of the region, actually lies west or east of Ossining, N.Y., and hence west of the Hudson River in Rockland County or east of the Hudson in Westchester County. The locality as listed on the original label of the type specimen (U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 1938370, collected on 23 August 1884, by A. K. Fisher) reads: “Sing Sing, N.Y.” and on the back is written “Merritts Corners 4 miles E of Sing Sing.” U.S. Geological Survey maps of the region (1893 edition, reprinted 1897) reveal that Merritts Corners, the type locality of T. s. fisheri, is located east of the Hudson River, in Westchester County, N.Y., at 41°11’27”’ N lat., and 73°47’51’’ W long., and is approximately 334 miles E and 1% miles N of Ossining, N.Y. General distribution.—Middle Atlantic States, from the lower Hudson River Valley in New York, south to Virginia and West Virginia. 68 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Distribution in Maryland—Uncommon in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; abundant locally in the Piedmont and Ridge and Valley sections. In the Allegheny Mountain section it is replaced by the subspecies 7’. s. Zyster2. (see fig. 26.) Distinguishing characteristics—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 1/1, 3/3, = 20; a small, heavyset ground squirrel with dense, moderately fine fur; pelage marked by two pale and three dark stripes on sides of face and five blackish and four pale stripes extending down the back; rump rusty in coloration; top of head and dark facial stripes near russet, light facial stripes pale buffy; dark stripes on back nearly black in color, paler stripes near smoke-gray shading posteriorly into russet; center or inner pale stripe is the broadest and always gray in coloration; tail moderately long, grayish red and not bushy. This species may be distinguished from any other in Maryland by the striping pattern of the pelage. Measurements—Four adults from the District of Columbia have the following external measurements: Total length 243.2 (234-255) ; tail 90.2 (83-99); hind foot 34.1 (83-35). Cranial measurements of nine adults from the vicinity of Washington, D.C., are as follows: Greatest length 39.5 (38.9-40.3) ; zygomatic breadth 22.0 (21.3-22.8) ; postorbital breadth 11.2 (10.6-12.2) ; length of nasals 13.2 (12.5-14.0). Habitat and habits—The chipmunk is largely a ground dweller, only rarely climbing trees. It prefers to live on wooded hillsides or mountain slopes, but is also fond of stone walls and rail fences. Though usually favoring dry situations, it is occasionally found in moist bot- tom land woods. It spends a good deal of time in burrows which it digs beneath a rock, stone wall, tree roots, or a building. The burrow is sometimes as much as 20 feet in length and 1 to 3 feet below the sur- face of the ground. The chipmunk in Maryland remains more or less active during the winter. All summer long, and especially in the autumn, it is busily engaged in storing food, primarily seeds and nuts for winter use. This food is kept in a “storeroom” adjoining the rooms where the animal is spending the winter. The food of the chipmunk consists of smal] seeds, berries, fruits, and nuts, and occasionally small birds, mice, snakes, snails, slug, insects, and other small animal life. Chipmunks are polyestrous and breed from March onward. The num- ber of young is three to five, and the gestation period 31 days. Puberty is reached at the age of 214 to 3 months. Specimens enamined.—Anne Arundel County: Epping Forest (near Annapolis), 2. Frederick County: Catoctin State Park, 1. Harford County: Fallston, 3. Howard County: Long Corner, 2. Montgomery County: Bethesda, 1; Chevy Chase, 2; Dickerson, 1; Rockville, 3; Takoma, 1; Washington Grove, 2; Linden, 1. Prince Georges County: Laurel, 5. District of Columbia: 42. S85 MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 69 Other records and reports—Baltimore County: Bare Hills—-Lake Roland Area (Bures, 1948, p. 67) ; Lock Raven (Kolb, 1938) ; Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 6). Montgomery County: Sligo; Piney Branch; Silver Spring; Sandy Spring (all from Bailey, 1896, p. 95) ; Plummers Island (Goldman and Jackson, 1939, p. 133). Prince Georges County: Patuxent Research Center (Herman and Warbach, 1956, p. 87). Worcester County: near Milburn Landing (Vagn Flyger, per- sonal communication, 22 June 1964). Tamias striatus lysteri (Richardson) Sciurus (Tamias) lysteri Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1 181, pl. 15, June 1829. Type locality.—Penetanguishene, Ontario. General distribution.—Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and southeastern Ontario, south into Connecticut and Pennsylvania and in the Appalachian Mountains to western Maryland. Distribution in Maryland.—Occurs in the higher mountains (above 2,000 feet altitude) of the Allegheny Mountain section where it is abundant. Distinguishing characteristics—This subspecies is similar to 7. s. fisheri, but has paler upper parts, especially the rump and the median grayish bands. This paler coloration is most marked in the northern 79° WEY XG [SS WP SZ \ LS nus Zs -39 Oo 10 20 30MILES N CZ fea LIL \ re Ce a ; Bve?. 4s Ze Kk eZ ZS Tamtas striatus ftsherr LEE é AG @ Specimens examined Zé Za iy ss eS © Specimens reported A: eae) xf AIG Tantas striatus lystert akc. S* IE A Specimens examined oe Me Za A Specimens reported a ay Tg Cie ©) aS 1 1 | [A= eS 7e° FIGURE 26.—Distribution of Tamias striatus fisheri and T. s. lysteri. 70 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 part of the range of the subspecies in the vicinity of the type locality. Maryland specimens are not so pale as typical lysteri. Cranially the differences between the two subspecies are very slight. T. s. lysteri averages somewhat smaller, and has relatively longer nasal bones. Measurements.—External measurements of five adults and cranial measurements of four adults from Garrett and Allegany Counties, Md., are as follows: Total length 233.4 (220-247); tail 87.8 (81-100) ; zygomatic breadth 21.2 (19.9-22.2); postorbital breadth 10.9 (10.5- 11.2) ; length of nasals 13.5 (12.7-14.0). Habitat and habits——Similar to T. s. fishere. Specimens examined —Allegany County: Dans Mountain (4 miles northwest of Rawlings), 1. Garrett County: Bittinger, 1; Cunning- ham Swamp, 1 (Coll. U. Md.) ; Finzel, 4; Grantsville, 1; Herrington Manor, 1. Other records and reports—Allegany County: Accident (Howell, 1929, p. 19). Remarks.—All Maryland specimens assigned to this subspecies represent intergrades between 7’. s. lystert and T. s. fisheri in colora- tion, size, and relative length of nasals, and assigning them to lysteri is somewhat arbitrary. Specimens from Fallston, Harford County, are also intergrades but are closer to fisher? and have been assigned herein to that subspecies. WOODCHUCK Marmota monax monax (Linnaeus) [Mus| monax Linnaeus, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1: 60, 1758. Type locality.—Maryland. General distribution.—Middle eastern United States from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Lower Peninsula of Michigan, and Iowa, south to Arkansas and the northern parts of Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina. Distribution in Maryland.—Abundant in all sections except the Eastern Shore, where it has until lately been unknown. There is recent evidence, however, that the species is extending its range into that section. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 2/1, 3/3, = 22; the heaviest member of the squirrel family found within the State (weight 5 to 12 lbs.); tail short and somewhat bushy; fur thick and coarse; coloration above grizzled brown, with top of head, face, legs, and tail dark brown to blackish brown; under parts lighter in coloration, and pelage not so thick; incisor teeth white; ears short and rounded. The large size, grizzled brownish coloration, and short bushy tail readily distinguish this animal from any other rodent in Maryland. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 71 79> ° Ure 76° i) ty py 39°- | SCALE Oo !10 20 30MILES (he ; Marmota monax monax hf @ Specimens examined Uf i, y ou O Specimens reported Figure 27.—Distribution of Marmota monaz monaz. Measurements.—Males average larger than females in overall size. Two adult females, one from Sparks, Baltimore County, and the other from Washington, D.C., have external measurements as follows: Total length 628, 615; tail 157, 148; hind foot 88, 86. Cranial measurements of three adult males from the District of Columbia and nearby Mary- land are as follows: Condylobasal length 102.6, 97.5, 95.7; palatal length 59.3, 56.2, 55.3; zygomatic breadth 69.3, 65.8, 65.9; least inter- orbital breadth 27.3, 25.9, 27.2; maxillary toothrow 21.7, 21.6, 22.0. Cranial measurements of five adult females average: Condylobabal length 91.3 (89.0-94.2) ; palatal length 53.5 (51.0-56.0) ; zygomatic breadth 62.5 (59.6-64.8) ; least interorbital breadth 24.6 (23.3-26.3) ; maxillary toothrow 21.1 (20.4-21.8). Habitat and habits—This is primarily a forest border and open field mammal, seldom found in heavy dense woods. It prefers the edges of brushy woodlands, and particularly open fields along streams. Woodchucks are found along poorly cleared fence lines, in meadows, cow pastures, and grainfields, especially where rocky outcroppings or old stumps occur. They are common on the bluffs that line the Mary- land side of the Potomac River, and occur in great numbers in the farming country of Montgomery and Frederick Counties. Hampe (1939, p. 6) reports that they are very abundant throughout the Patapsco State Park, and that numerous burrows are found in the hill- sides along the river. In the Bare Hills—-Lake Roland region of Balti- 72 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 more County, Bures (1948, p. 67) found that they were not very common, their range being limited to areas of cultivation and the region between the deciduous woods and the marsh. Woodchucks abound in Garrett County, particularly in the vicinity of Deep Creek Lake. This species is active both day and night and is frequently seen in grassy shoulders and rocky outcroppings that border Maryland highways. On many occasions it falls victim to modern high-speed traffic and is one of the most frequently encountered road-kills in the State. The woodchuck inhabits an extensive burrow which sometimes ex- tends to a depth of 5 feet and may be some 30 feet in length. The burrow usually has several entrances, which may be located beneath a wall or tree stump. Within the burrow, there is usually one chamber in which a bulky grass nest is situated. In this chamber the female gives birth to four or five young in April or May after a gestation period of about 4 weeks. The babies remain in the den for about a month, after which their eyes open, and they become completely independent of the mother by early July. Principal food of the woodchuck consists of grasses and succulents such as clover, alfalfa, plaintain, and various perennials, in addition to beans, peas, corn, and apples; seldom does the woodchuck consume flesh, although it has been known to pursue poultry and eat insects and snails. During the summer it becomes fat on these foods, and early in the autumn when the first frost is on the ground it descends into its burrow and goes into hibernation. It usually emerges again in late February or early March. Specimens examined.—Baltimore County: Sparks, 1. Howard County: Simpsonville, 1. Montgomery County: Plummmers Island, 4; Sandy Spring, 1. Prince Georges County: Laurel, 5; near Wash- ington, D.C., 1. Washington County: Hagerstown, 1. Destrict of Columbia: 6. Other records and reports.—Allegany County : Mount Savage (Coll. U. Md.). Baltimore County: Bare Hills-Lake Roland area (Bures, 1948, p. 67) ; Lock Raven (Kolb, 1938) ; Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 6). Garrett County: Cranesville Pine Swamp (Mansueti, 1958, p. 88). Kent County: Galena (Allen, 1950, p. 28). Prince Georges County: Patuxent Research Center (Grizzell, 1949, p. 74). Washing- ton County : Sharpsburg, 1 mile W (personal observation). Remarks —Allen (1950, p. 28) says that the Eastern Shore is one of those regions that has been invaded by the woodchuck in the last 50 years. It first appeared on the Prettyman Farm near Galena in Kent County around 1900. Evidently it is spreading southward around the Chesapeake Bay from Pennsylvania. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 13 GRAY SQUIRREL Sciurus carolinensis pennsylvanicus Ord Sciurus pennsylwanica Ord, in [Guthrie], a new geographical, histori- cal and commercial grammar; . . . , Philadelphia, ed. 2, 2: 292, 1815. Type locality. Pennsylvania, west of the Allegheny Ridge. General distribution.From southern New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario, south into Virginia and in the Appalachians to Tennessee, west into eastern Iowa and southern Minnesota. Distribution in Maryland.—Abundant in all sections of the State. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 2/1, 3/3, = 22; size large; tail bushy and flattened; coloration variable both in summer and winter; upper parts usually yellowish brown in summer, with a slightly grayish cast to the sides of the neck, the shoulders, and thighs; face clay colored to cinnamon buff; forelegs gray above, hind legs reddish; tail brown at base, hairs blackish near middle and tipped with gray; in winter pelage, paler and more grayish. A melanistic color phase occurs frequently in this species, par- ticularly in S. c. pennsylvanicus. Albinistic animals are also often encountered. Measurements.—External and cranial measurements of three adult males from Cambridge, Dorchester County, are as follows: Total length 462, 486, 465; tail vertebrae 201, 216, 190; hind foot 64, 64, 61; 79° I [POR "Uy SCALE fe} 10 20 30MILES AEA SS esa) Seturus carolinensis pennsylvantcus @ Specimens examined © Specimens reported FIGuRE 28.—Distribution of Sciurus carolinensis pennsylwanicus. 74 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 greatest length of skull 62.6, 62.4, 62.8; zygomatic breadth 33.4, 33.4, 33.6; least interorbital breadth 16.9, 19.2, 18.2; length of maxillary toothrow 10.9, 11.6, 11.2. Habitat and habits—This is a squirrel of the hardwood and mixed coniferous-hardwood forests, particularly those with nut-bearing trees and bushy undergrowth. It is quite common in the parks of Washing- ton, D.C., particularly Rock Creek Park. Most of these are descended from introduced stock. Bailey (1923, p. 108) says: The late Dr. William L. Ralph purchased many gray squirrels and liberated them in the Smithsonian grounds, where up to the time of his death in 1907 he fed and cared for them... They soon became common in the Mall... and spread to the White House grounds, LaFayette Square, and other city parks. Melanistics squirrels were introduced and liberated into the Na- tiona] Zoological Park and are still frequently seen there. Of these, Bailey (1928, p. 109) says: The first shipment of 10 (black squirrels) was from Rondeau Provincial Park, Morpeth, Ontario, 18 May 1906; and these squirrels were immediately liberated in the northwestern part of the zoo where they were very much at home. They have since been constanly in the park, especially from the vicinity of the great flight cage to the Klingle Valley and they have spread northward to Cleveland Park and nearly to Chevy Chase. Five of the 31 skins of gray squirrels in the National Museum collec- tions from the District of Columbia show melanistic tendencies. The gray squirrel is common throughout Maryland. Hampe (1939, p. 6) says that it is the most common squirrel in the Patapsco State Park and has been observed in the Park every month of the year; young squirrels are numerous there after the first of July. Bures (1948, p. 67) says the gray squirrel is quite common in the Bare Hills- Lake Roland area. I found them numerous on the Delmarva Penin- sula; in southern Maryland; in the Piedmont region, particularly in the vicinity of Sugar Loaf Mountain; and in the mountains of the western part of the State. Gray squirrels do not occur on Assateague Island, but I have seen them in the thickets back of the dunes several miles north of Ocean City. The gray squirrel is most at home in trees and descends to the ground only when necessary to obtain food and bury nuts. It does not hiber- nate, even in the coldest northern portions of its range. This squirrel is diurnal and is most active in the early morning and late afternoon. Its bulky nest is generally constructed in an enlarged natural cavity of an old oak tree, but sometimes an outdoor nest of firmly woven leaves 1s constructed among the branches or in the crotch of a tree. Squirrels mate during midwinter, and the gestation period is about 40 days. A second mating usually occurs sometime in May or June. The young are two to five (generally four) in number. When 2 months MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 75 of age, they are weaned, but remain with the mother until she has her second litter. The gray squirrel is generally vegetarian in habits, its food consisting of many kinds of nuts (including acorns), seeds, fruits, buds, fungi, inner bark of certain trees, and occasionally corn and other grains, and fleshy parts of plants. Sometimes it eats small amounts of animal food such as insects or an occasional bird’s egg or small bird. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Mount Savage, 1 (Coll. U. Md.). Anne Arundel County: Priest Bridge, 1. Calvert County: Little Cove Point Area, 2; Prince Frederick, 1. Charles County: Marshall Hall, 1; Newport, 1; Port Tobacco, 2. Dorchester County: Cambridge, 3. Garrett County: Friendsville, 14 mile NW, 1 (Coll. U. Md.) ; Grantsville, 2; Meadow Mountain, 1 (Coll. U. Md.). Harford County : Fallston, 5. Montgomery County: Dickerson, 1; Germantown, 2; Kensington, 1; Takoma Park, 2; Woodside, 1. Prince Georges County: Beltsville, 1; Bladensburg, 2; Branchville, 1; College Park, 1; Fort Washington, 1; Laurel, 22; (Upper) Marlboro, 2; Muirkirk, 1; Oxon Hill, 1; Patuxent River (fork), 2; Piscataway Creek, 2; Scagg’s Swamp, 1. District of Columbia: 40. _ Other records and reports—Allegany County: South end of Town Hill Mountain (personal observation). Baltimore City (Flyger, 1960b, p. 366). Baltimore County: Bare Hills-Lake Roland area (Bures, 1948, p. 67) ; Loch Raven (Kolb, 1938) ; Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 6). Prederick County: Thurmont (Coll. U. Md.) ; Sugar Loaf Mountain (personal observation). Garrett County: Keyser’s Ridge (Coll. U. Md.) ; Alontgomery County: Plummers Island (Goldman and Jackson, 1939, p. 133). Prince Georges County: Aquasco (Herman, and Reilly, 1955, p. 402). Worcester County: Ocean City, 2 miles N (personal observation). Remarks.—Al\ of Maryland was formerly included within the range of the southern subspecies of gray squirrel, Sciwrus carolinensis caro- linensis Gmelin (see Bangs, 1896, p. 153, and Miller, 1924, p. 223). Patton (1939, pp. 75-76), however, in a study of the distribution of the gray squirrel in Virginia, concluded that S. c. carolinensis occupies the southern half of the Piedmont Plateau and the entire Coastal Plain region in that State. He says that in Virginia the area of intergradation between S. c. carolinensis and S. c. leucotis (= pennsylvanicus) lies along a line drawn from central King George County to southeastern Patrick County, and he assigned a specimen from FKastville, on the Virginia portion of the Delmarva Peninsula, to S. c. carolinensis. This suggests that, although most of Maryland lies within the range of S. ¢. penmnsylvanicus, the southern portions of the Western Shore and Eastern Shore sections are within the range of S. c. carolinensis, and the range of the species in Maryland has been mapped in this way by (6) NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Hall and Kelson (1959, p. 371). However, a careful comparison of specimens from Calvert and Charles Counties in the Western Shore Section and Cambridge in the Eastern Shore section with specimens of typical pennsylvanicus from central Pennsylvania and New York show that they differ in no essential respect from that subspecies, whereas they are considerably larger and paler than typical carolinen- sis. I have also examined the specimen from Eastville, Va., assigned by Patton (1939) to carolinensis, and consider it to be referable to pennsylvanicus. It is somewhat darker than typical pennsylvanicus, but can be matched in coloration by many specimens in similar prelage from the northern portion of the range of pennsylvanicus. In size it is indistinguishable from typical pennsylvanicus and considerably larger than carolinensis. Consequently, all of Maryland falls within the range of S. ¢. pennsylvanicus, and this range extends at least as far south as Kastville on the Virginia portion of the Delmarva Penin- sula and probably as far as the tip of that peninsula. FOX SQUIRREL Sciurus niger Linnaeus [Sczurus] niger Linnaeus, Syst. nat. ed. 10, 1: 64, 1758. This is our largest tree squirrel and one of the most spectacular rodents in Maryland. It resembles the gray squirrel but is considerably bigger and heavier, and less often observed. Mansueti (1952, p. 31) comments that a ratio of 40 grays to one fox squirrel may be high, but that few fox squirrels have been reported in recent years and the species appears to be becoming scarce in all the Atlantic Coast States. The distribution of fox squirrels in Maryland has been reviewed by Mansueti (1952, pp. 31-41), and most of the following is based upon his records or records cited by him. Two subspecies occur within Maryland. They are: Sciurus niger cinereus Linnaeus [Sceurus]| cinereus Linnaeus, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1: 64, 1758. Sciurus niger bryanti H. H. Bailey, Bailey Mus. Libr. Nat. Hist., Newport News, Virginia, Bull. No. 1 [p. 1], 1 August 1920. (Type locality : Dorcester County, Md.) Type locality.—Restricted to Cambridge, Dorchester County, Maryland, by Barkalow (1956, p. 13). General distribution—Formerly from Northampton County in Virginia to southeastern Pennsylvania, but now confined to the Eastern Shore section of Maryland. It has been listed by the Department of the Interior as an endangered form. Distribution in Maryland—Occurs in limited numbers in Dor- chester, Queen Annes, Talbot, Wicomico, Somerset, and Worcester MAMMALS OF MARYLAND V7 Counties. The present center of population appears to be in the vicinity of Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge where it is still common. (See fig. 29.) Distinguishing characteristics—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 1/1, 3/3, = 20; coloration uniform light grizzled-gray above with a steel blue cast; belly and feet white; tail with a pronounced black stripe on outer edges. A melanistic form occurs in which the belly and back are blackish. May be readily distinguished from the gray squirrel, which it resembles somewhat in coloration, by its much larger size and reduced dentition. Measurements.—F ive adults from Dorchester County have external measurements as follows: Total length 579 (560-605) ; tail 273 (263- 285); hind foot 77 (73-81). Cranial measurements of four adults from Dorchester County are: Greatest length 68.5 (67.7-69.8) ; zygo- matic breadth 38.8 (37.9-39.8) ; least interorbital breadth 20.8 (19.4— 22.3) ; length of maxillary toothrow 11.9 (11.8-12.0). Habitat and habits—This subspecies prefers mature forests of mixed hardwoods and conifers in which mast-producing trees such as oaks, hickories, and pines are present. It is particularly partial to old-growth loblolly pine forests, many of which, however, have been cut over or burned through forest fires. This squirrel spends much time on the ground but generally doesn’t stray far from the home roost. It lies close to the body of a tree or limb, seldom leaping from tree to tree as does the gray squirrel. Nests, which serve as home during summer and winter, are placed near the tips of branches in old pines, generally from 30 to 50 feet above the ground. Mating may occur at any time throughout the year, but is most frequent during the latter part of February or early March. Usually, four young comprise a litter and are born in April. Fox squirrels feed more on the ground than do gray squirrels. Food consists primarily of acorns, hickory nuts, walnuts, and particularly the seeds of loblolly pine. They seldom, if ever, cause damage to corn or other domestic crops. This squirrel has become greatly reduced in numbers and has entirely disappeared from some areas of its former range. One of these areas 1s the northern portion of the Eastern Shore section; this is the area where this subspecies would be expected to intergrade with Sciurus niger vulpinus, the form inhabiting the Western Shore of Maryland. Specimens examined.—Dorchester County: Airey (near), 1; Black- water Refuge, 1; Bucktown, 1; Cambridge, 9. Kent County: East Neck Island, 3. Eastern Shore (no exact locality), 3. Other records and reports (with dates of capture or sighting when available).—Dorchester County: Big Blackwater Section, 1932, 336-897 O—69—6 78 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 (Dozier and Hall, 1944, p. 5) ; Gibbs Marsh, between Golden Hill and Church Creek, near Blackwater River (Mansueti, 1952, p. 33) ; Grif- fins Neck (Dozier and Hall, 1944, p. 10); Milton (Dozier and Hall, 1944, p. 10); Salem Woods, 14 Miles from Cambridge on road to Salisbury, 1933, (Dozier and Hall, 1944, p. 5) ; Secretary (Dozier and Hall, 1944, p. 10); Taylors Island, 1963, (James B. Trefethen in correspondence to Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, 12 Novem- ber 1964). Queen Annes County: Church Hill (near), 4 miles below Chestertown, 1943, (Dozier and Hall, 1944, p. 3). Somerset County: Big Swamp, 2 miles E of Kings Creek, 1922, (Dozier and Hall, 1944, p. 3); Westover, due west of, 1940, (Dozier and Hall, 1944, p. 3); Loretto, near, 1944, (Dozier and Hall, 1944, p. 3). Talbot County: Trappe, near, 1948, (Mansueti, 1952, p. 33). Worcester County: New- ark, 1951, (Mansueti, 1952, p. 33) ; Pocomoke City, near, (Dozier and Hall, 1944, p. 3). Sciurus niger vulpinus Gmelin [ Scturus] vulpinus Gmelin, Syst. nat., ed. 13, p. 147, 1788 (based on specimens from the eastern United States, including the Blue Mountains of Pennsylvania). General distribution—Formerly occurred from central New York, south through south-central Pennsylvania, western Maryland, eastern West Virginia, western Virginia, and in the Appalachian Mountains to western North Carolina. Distribution presently reduced to south-central Pennsylvania, Maryland, western Virginia, and eastern West Virginia. Distribution in Maryland.—F¥ound locally in heavily forested re- gions in the Western Shore, Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and Alle- gheny Mountain sections. Distinguishing characteristics —Similar in size and general charac- teristics to S. n. cinereus, but differs in coloration. The body is general- ly buffy brown above, in contrast to the bluish grizzled gray of c7n- ereus; tail grayish white above, rufous below; feet and ears rufous; top of head more blackish than the back. May be distinguished from the gray squirrel by its larger size. Measurements.— No external measurements are available for any of the Maryland adults in the National Museum collections. Two adults from White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, which are typical of this subspecies have the following measurements: Total length 615, 603; tail 299, 298; hind foot 77, 79. Four Maryland specimens (two from Laurel, Prince Georges County; one from Priest Bridge, Anne Arundel County; and one from North Chesapeake Beach, Calvert County) have the following cranial measurements: Greatest length 67.7 (66.6-68.2) ; zygomatic breadth 38.6 (38.2-39.4) ; least interor- MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 79 N 0 ° omac Oo 10 20 30MILES a ee ee Seturus niger cinereus @ Specimens examined © Specimens reported © Type locality Seturus ntger vulptnus A& Specimens examined A Specimens reported | 78 Ficure 29.—Distribution of Sciurus niger cinereus and S. n. vulpinus. bital breadth 20.3 (20.1-20.5); length of maxillary toothrow 11.9 (11.0-12.3). Habitat and habits—Not much has been published concerning the habitat and habits of this subspecies. It is said to prefer open deciduous woods, wood borders, and orchards, but as noted by Bailey (1928, p. 110) it is skillful in keeping out of sight. Mansueti (1952, p. 35) states that the subspecies has been considerably decimated in recent years, and the remaining fox squirrels are strictly local in distribution and are more or less relic populations where they occur. Bailey (1923, p. 110) reported that at various times fox squirrels were released in the National Zoological Park in Washington, D.C. These apparently never flourished, since none have been observed in the park in years. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Between Clarysville and Red Hill, 1 (Coll. U. Md.). Anne Arundel County: Patuxent River at Priest Bridge, 10. Calvert County: North Chesapeake Beach, 1. Gar- ret County: Friendsville, 1/4 mile NW, 2 (Coll. U. Md.). Harford County: Fallston, 1. Prince Georges County: Laurel, 4. District of Columbia: 4 (these were either purchased at the Central Market or trapped in the National Zoological Park, and probably are not actually from the District of Columbia area). Other records and reports (from Mansueti, 1952, except where otherwise noted.— Allegany County: Green Ridge State Forest, 1935. 80 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Calvert County: Governors Run, 1948 (?). Garrett County: Accident 1945 and 1951; Bittinger, 1948; Meadow Mountain, 1947. Montgomery County: Great Falls, 1916; Plummers Island (Goldman and Jackson, 1939, p. 183). Prince Georges County: Bladensburg (near), 1949 (7). College Park, 1948; 1/2 mile east of intersection of Highways 214 and 301, 1940. Washington County: Fort Frederick State Park, 1950. Remarks.—Mansueti (1952, p. 35) lists on a provisional basis a third subspecies of the fox squirrel in Maryland, the. more western Sciurus n. rufiventer. He and Vagn Flyger in 1950 examined the tail of a fox squirrel shot on a hill near Storey’s Landing, Deep Creek Lake, Garrett County, several years before, and found that its colora- tion was similar to that of rufiventer. This subspecies normally occurs west of the Allegheny Mountains and prefers open or parklike upland woods rather than heavily forested sections. It commonly occurs along fence rows in cultivated fields or in pastures where there are only scat- tered trees. Mansueti claims that these conditions are found in many parts of Garrett County, particularly around Deep Creek Lake and that rufiventer may be moving into this area from further west. He states that possibly as the heavily forested areas are cut, and S. n. vulpinus vacates, S. n. rufiventer invades the area vacated. On the other hand, he notes that numbers of S. 7. rufiventer have been re- leased in southwestern Pennsylvania in an effort to restock the area and some of these may have migrated south into Maryland. The two specimens from Garrett County that I have examined, however, are typical S. n. vulpinus and exhibit none of the characters of rujiventer. RED SQUIRREL Tamiasciurus hudsonicus loquax (Bangs) Sciurus hudsonicus loquaw Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10: 161, 28 December 1896. Type locality.—Liberty Hill, Conn. General distribution.—Southern Ontario, southern Vermont and New Hamp- shire, south to northern Virginia and West Virginia, west to eastern Iowa and southeastern Minnesota. Distribution in Maryland.—Occurs locally in the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections; scarce or absent over. most of the Western Shore section; apparently absent in the Eastern Shore section. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 2/1, 3/8, = 22; anterior upper premolar frequently lacking, and when present so reduced as to be easily overlooked; size small. the smallest of our local tree squirrels; tail relatively short and bushy; general coloration in winter bright rufous above, white below; ears tufted with black; in summer, coloration more olive dorsally, with ears untufted. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 81 72° 78° i) Wee SCALE °o 10 20 3OMILES ———E—E_ EEE | Tamiasciurus hudsonicus loquax @ Specimens examined © Specimens reported FIGuRE 30.—Distribution of Tamiasciurus hudsonicus loquaz. This squirrel] is differentiated from all others in Maryland by its small size and reddish coloration. Measurements——Two adults from the vicinity of Bethesda, Mont- gomery County, have external measurements as follows: Total length 810, 303; tail 1380, 1380; hind foot 50, 51; ear 22, 27. Cranial measure- ments of 10 adults from Laurel, Prince Georges County are: Greatest length 45.2 (44.4-46.0); zygomatic breadth 26.2 (26.0-27.2); least interorbital breadth 13.9 (13.1-14.6) ; length of maxillary toothrow 7.2 (6.6-7.8). Habitat and habits—This squirrel prefers spruce and hemlock forests, but is often found in deciduous woods and in rural areas in the northern hardwoods region where it sometimes builds nests in the attics of houses. It is more terrestrial than the gray squirrel, spend- ing a great deal of time on the ground searching for food. It is also more omnivorous than the gray squirrel, eating almost any kind of seed, nut, or berry. Various kinds of fungi are consumed and even an occasional egg when the nest of a songbird is raided. Hamilton (1943, p. 224) says that it has been known to kill and partially devour young cottontail rabbits. The bulky nest of the red squirrel, made of grass and moss, is usually placed high in the branches of a tree and can be distinguished from that of the gray squirrel by its smaller size and the finer material used in its construction. The red squirrel is active throughout the year. 82 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 It produces litters of from three to six young early in the spring and often a second litter in late summer. The center of Maryland’s red squirrel population is the spruce and hemlock forests of the Allegheny Mountain section of the State. It is scarce or absent over most of the Western Shore section and apparently lacking in the Eastern Shore section. David H. Johnson, formerly Curator of Mammals, U.S. National Museum, tells me that he is very familiar with pine woods near Greenbelt, Prince Georges County, and never observed a red squirrel there. J. C. Lingebach, Division of Mam- mals, U.S. National Museum, advises me that in his many years of field experience in the Annapolis area of Anne Arundel County he never observed a red squirrel. Flyger (1957, p. 1), however, reports that he trapped a red squirrel on 23 February 1957 near the Naval Academy in Annapolis and that there had been a colony there for several years. This is probably an artificially introduced population. Red squirrels have, however, been taken at such Western Shore section localities as Laurel, Bladensburg, Oxon Hill, Riverdale, and College Park, in Prince Georges County, and Marshall Hall in Charles County. These localities are not very distant from the fall line and the begin- ning of the Piedmont section, and elsewhere in the Western Shore section the red squirrel appears to be exceedingly scarce. Even in the Piedmont section the species is only locally abundant, being completely absent over large areas. At one time it was numerous in Rock Creek Park in Washington, D.C., but none have been seen there in recent years. It is still plentiful in some suburban areas north- west of Washington. A lactating female was found dead by David H. Johnson on a road adjacent to a pine woods a few miles northwest of Bethesda, Montgomery County, in October 1955, and another near this general area in September 1957. Johnson tells me that it is the common squirrel in some of the pine woods in the Bethesda area, being more often seen there than gray squirrels. In the Piedmont sec- tion of Baltimore County, Hampe (1939, p. 6) reported red squirrels uncommon in the pine woods of the Patapsco State Park, but Bures (1948, p. 67) found that it was a common resident of the Bare Hills— Lake Roland area a few miles to the northeast. Evidently, the red squirrel has a scattered distribution in Maryland and is only abundant locally. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Frostburg, 1; Mount Savage, 2 (Coll. U. Md.). Charles County: Marshall Hall, 1. Frederick County: Middletown, 6. Garrett County: Bittinger, 1; Finzel, 2; Grantsville, 1; Swallow Falls State Park, 1. Harford County: Falls- ton, 1. Howard County: Long Corner, 1. Montgomery County: Be- thesda, 314 miles NW, 1; Bethesda, 5 miles NW, 1; Kensington, 8; Linden, 2; Plummers Island, 1; Takoma Park, 3. Prince Georges MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 83 County: Bladensburg, 2; College Park (near), 1; Laurel, 16; Oxon Hill, 1; Riverdale, 1. District of Columbia: 25. Other records and reports.—Allegany County: Dans Mountain (Coll. U. Md.). Anne Arundel County: Annapolis (Flyger, 1957, p. 1). Baltimore County: Bare Hills—Lake Roland area (Bures, 1948, p. 67) ; Loch Raven (Kolb, 1938) ; Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 6). Cecil County: Northeast (Coll. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia). Mont- gomery County: Silver Spring (files of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv- ice). Prince Georges County: Hyattsville (Bailey, 1923, p. 107). Remarks.—Specimens from Garrett County and Allegany County appear somewhat darker in summer and winter pelage than specimens from farther east in the State and may represent intergrades with the southern Appalachian subspecies 7’. h. abieticola. SOUTHERN FLYING SQUIRREL Glaucomys volans volans (Linnaeus) [Mus] volans Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 1:63, 1758. Type locality.—Virginia (fixed by Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Zool. Ser., 2: 109, 1901). General distribution.—From central Minnesota, Upper and Lower Peninsulas of Michigan, southeastern Ontario, New York, and southern New Hampshire, south to North Carolina and Tennessee, west to eastern Kansas and Nebraska. Distribution in Maryland.—Probably abundant in all sections of the State where there is suitable habitat. No specimens or records are available, however, from the Eastern Shore, Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections, but this probably indicates that these sections have not been systematically trapped for the species rather than a scarcity of the animals themselves. Flying squirrels are noc- turnal, shy, and seldom observed. Distinguishing characteristics.— Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 2/1, 3/3, = 22; a small squirrel that is characterized by a “flying membrane’’, a loose fold of fully furred skin connecting the fore and hind limbs from wrists to ankles. The tail is broad, flattened, and almost parallel-sided, with the tip rounded; pelage extremely soft and dense; coloration of upper parts varies with season and age, but is generally grayish brown; under parts ususally white or creamy white in coloration, with the white extending from the base of the hairs to the tip; dark brown streak extending along side edge of ‘flying membrane’; tail grayish above, cinnamon below; forefeet white, hind feet brown except for some white on toes. This species may be distinguished from all other squirrels in Mary- land by the distinctive “flying membrane.” The northern flying squir- rel, Glaucomys sabrinus, has not as yet been reported from Maryland, 84 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 SCALE Oo 10 20 3OMILES EEE Glaucomys volans volans @ Specimens examined © Specimens reported FIGURE 31.—Distribution of Glaucomys volans volans. but may occur in spruce and fir forests in the highest elevations of the Allegheny Mountain section. It differs from the present species pri- marily in that it is much larger in size and the basal portion of the white hairs of the belly are colored grayish. Measurements.—External and cranial measurements of eight adults from Newport, Charles County, are as follows: Total length 221.9 (211-240) ; tail vertebrae 97.9 (90-110) ; hind foot 26.6 (21-30) ; great- est length of skull 34.6 (33.5-35.6) ; zygomatic breadth 20.5 (19.7- 21.3); interorbital breadth 6.9 (6.5-7.5) ; length of maxillary tooth row 6.4 (6.2-6.5). Habitat and habits.—This is essentially a species of the heavy timber and is never found at any great distance from water. It prefers forests of deciduous trees, but is sometimes encountered in woodlands of mixed conifers and hardwoods. Occasionally it may occupy an old orchard. The species is probably abundant in all sections of the State where there is suitable habitat, but because of its secretive habits it is seldom noticed. Bures (1948, p. 67) says that in the Bare Hills-Lake Roland area of Baltimore County it is as common as the chipmunk, but because of its nocturnal habits is less often observed. Hampe (1939, p. 6) found that it was fairly common in the Patapsco State Park. He observed one at twilight on 22 May 1936. Bailey (1923, p. 112) found the species common in the woods of the District of Columbia, right up to the edge of the city. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 85 The flying squirrel is one of the most nocturnal mammals in Mary- land, rarely leaving its nest before the sun is well down. It remains active throughout the night, foraging for hickory nuts, beechnuts, acorns, maple and wild cherry seeds, apples, and buds and blossoms of some trees. It is carnivorous to some extent and occasionally feeds on insects, young birds, and birds’ eggs. This squirrel is highly social. The favorite nesting site for the flying squirrel is a hole in a dead or dying tree. A cavity made by a woodpecker is often preferred, although occasionally a natural one will be utilized and artificial bird nest boxes are sometimes used. The nest is composed of finely shredded leaves and inner bark. This species probably does not hibernate in Maryland, although farther north it becomes inactive during colder weather (Sollberger, 1940, p. 285). Mating may occur in late February or early March and the gestation period is about 40 days. Three young usually comprise a litter, and a second mating sometimes occurs in July (Sollberger, 1943, p. 163). Specimens examined—Anne Arundel County: Annapolis, 3 miles NW, 1. Charles County: Marshall Hall, 2; Newport, 10. Wontgomery County: Cabin John Creek, 1; Capitol View, 1; Chevy Chase, 1; Dick- erson, 1; Garrett Park, 1; Glen Echo Heights, 1; Great Falls, 1; Kens- ington, 2; Plummers Island (near), 1; Silver Spring, 4. Prince Georges County: Anacostia River, NW Branch, 1; Branchviile, 1; Laurel, 2; Upper Marlboro, 1; no exact locality, 3. St. Marys County: Tall Timbers, 1. Other records and reports—Allegany County: Mount Savage (Coll. U. Md.) ; Town Hill (Coll. U. Md.). Baltimore County: Bare Hills-Lake Roland area (Bures, 1948, p. 67); Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 6). Cecil County: Bacon Hill (3 specimens in Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci.). Montgomery County: Forest Glen (Bangs, 1896, p. 166). Prince Georges County: Patuxent Research Center (Herman and Warbach, 1956, p. 87). Family CASTORIDAE (beavers) BEAVER Castor canadensis Kuhl Castor canadensis Kuhl, Beitr. z. zool. u. vergleich. Anat., Abth. 1, p. 64, 1820. Type locality.—Hudson Bay. General distribution.—Formerly ranged over most of the forested regions of North America, north of Mexico. It was exterminated in many areas of its range and later successfully reintroduced into some sections. 86 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Distribution in Maryland—Formerly occurred in all sections of the State, but was exterminated around the turn of the century or earlier. It has been deliberately restocked in some areas and naturally invaded others from neighboring States where animals were stocked or rem- nant populations survived. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 1/1, 3/3, = 20; largest rodent in Maryland; body thickset and compact; legs short; ears small; hind feet large with the toes webbed; tail broad, flat, nearly hairless, and covered with large scales; pelage with very soft dense underfur, overlaid with long coarse guard hairs; coloration dark rich brown above, lighter below. Measurements—‘Nine adults from the Allegheny National Forest, Pennsylvania, average: Total length, 1,031 mm. (970-1,090 mm.) ; tail vertebrae, 358 mm. (260-440 mm.); greatest width of tail, 129 mm. (112-150 mm.) ; hind foot, 169 mm. (156-183.).” (Handley and Patton, 1947, p. 158). “The skull is large and massive, that of the adult more than 120 mm. long and 85 mm. broad; . . . length of upper molar series about 28 to 30 mm.” (Jackson, 1961, p. 192). Habitat and habits—This species prefers forested areas wherever there are suitable watercourses for the construction of dams and lodges. The sluggish fresh-water streams of the Eastern Shore section are especially suited to their needs. The beaver feeds on a wide range of plants. These may be sedges, rushes, water grasses, various roots and tubers, and bark, leaves, and twigs of bushes and trees. In winter it feeds primarily on green branches that it stores under water near the lodge. In Maryland its favorite trees appear to be sweetgum, pine, ash, dogwood, oak, and maple. These animals are monogamous, and it is believed that they mate for life. Breeding begins about mid-January and extends to the end of February. The gestation period is approximately 120 days, and a single litter of from one to eight kits is produced a year (the most frequent number being four or five). The beaver’s most important activity is felling trees for dams and lodges. A large beaver lodge is about 5 to 6 feet high and 15 or 20 feet wide at the water level. More often, however, smaller lodges are built, some 3 to 4 feet in height and 8 to 10 feet in diameter. The inside of a lodge consists of one room about 2 to 3 feet in height, and as many. as 8 to 10 beaver may occupy it. The opening to the lodge is always under water. Many beavers, however, that inhabit lakes or deep streams live in bank dens rather than constructing lodges and dams. The beaver is active throughout the year, but is seldom active during daylight hours. Its routine workday begins at dusk and ends at dawn. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 87 Young beavers in their second year leave the parental colonies and emigrate to establish themselves in new colonies by pairs. Sometimes they may move as much as 30 miles to a new home. Most of this movement is accomplished in the water, because the animal is quite clumsy and slow moving on land. According to Mansueti (1950, p. 33) no one knows when Maryland’s native beavers were finally exterminated. He judges that on the basis of when they disappeared in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, they prob- ably were gone from the Maryland lowlands about 150 years ago and that there were probably some native beavers left in western Maryland less than 100 years ago. Their extirpation was due to a number of reasons, the primary ones being heavy trapping pressure for their pelts, and elimination of suitable habitat. Beaver have reap- peared in Maryland in recent years either through deliberate intro- ductions or as a result of their natural migrations from other states where they had not been entirely extirpated or had been stocked. They are flourishing now in certain areas, presumably because low pelt value makes trapping unprofitable in the State. Recent records and reports.—Bonwill and Owens (1939, pp. 36-37) mention 3 areas of Maryland where these animals were thriving in 1939. One was on the Upper Potomac River near Gormania, Garrett County ; the second on Town Creek in Allegany County; and the third at a point where the Andover and Sewell Creeks meet at the head of the Chester River in Kent County. They believe that the first two colonies were the result of migrations from colonies in Pennsylvania or West Virginia that had escaped extermination in those States or had been reintroduced there. The Kent County colony was a result of migration from a colony in Delaware which had been stocked with animals from Maine by the Delaware Board of Game and Fish Com- missioners in 1935. Arner (1949, p. 23) says that the beaver migrated into the western Maryland Counties of Garrett and Allegany from colonies in West Virginia and are firmly established in eight streams in Garrett County and three streams in Allegany. They may be found in Garrett County in the Youghiogheny River, Laurel Run, Harrington Creek, and Broad Ford Run. In Allegany County they inhabit Evitts Creek and Town Creek; and beaver cuttings have been found on Sideling Hill in Washington County. He estimates that in 1949 there were 150 beavers in western Maryland. Remarks.—Authorities are in agreement that Maryland’s native beaver population probably represented the subspecies C. c. cana- densis. It is impossible to assign subspecific rank to Maryland’s present beaver population since they come from so many different sources, and even some of the areas from which they have been stocked were 88 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 themselves stocked at an earlier period with animals from elsewhere. No specimens of the native population or the present population of beavers have been available to me for examination. Family CRICETIDAE (deer mice, harvest mice, voles, etc.) MARSH RICE RAT Oryzomys palustris palustris (Harlan) Mus palustris Harlan, Silliman’s Amer. Jour. Sci., 31: 385, 1837. Type locality —‘‘Fast Land” near Salem, Salem County, N.J. General distribution.—In the Coastal Plain from southeastern Pennsylvania and southern New Jersey, south to northern Florida, west to the Mississippi River and north in the Mississippi Valley to southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois, and central Kentucky. Distribution in Maryland.—Recorded only from the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections. Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 1/1. 0/0, 0/0, 3/3, = 16; ratlike in general appearance, but considerably smaller than adult Norway rat; tail long, nearly half the total length; fur long and coarse; color of upper parts grizzled grayish brown, mixed with blackish, sides paler with less blackish; underparts white to pale buff; tail sparsely haired and scaly, brownish above and whitish below. Young animals are more grayish than adults. SCALE Oo 10 20 30MILES ————EE Oryzomys palustris palustris @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FIGURE 32.—Distribution of Oryzomys palustris palustris. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 89 Marsh rice rats superficially resemble young Norway rats from which they may be distinguished by the upper cheek teeth. These teeth have two longitudinal rows of tubercles in rice rats; in Norway rats there are three such rows. Measurements.—An average-sized female from West Ocean City, Worcester County, has measurements as follows: Total length 247; tail 120; hind foot 30; ear 10; greatest length of skull 30.4; zygomatic breadth 16.4; interorbital breadth 4.9; length of upper molar toothrow 4.4. An adult female from Nanjemoy Creek, Charles County, has the following external measurements: Total length 262; tail 127; hind foot 30. There is a peculiar size variation often encountered in this species. Males and females generally average about the same size, but often an apparently adult female may be strikingly smaller than the average. Habitat and habits—This species is partially amphibious and shows a great preference for wet meadows, marshy areas, watercourses, cane breaks, and swamps, and is only rarely encountered in dry fields. Marsh rice rats are polyestrous and breed from March to November in Maryland (Harris, 1953, p. 485). The gestation period is 25 days and the female mates again immediately after parturition. Litter size varies from one to five with the average being three. This species is an accomplished swimmer and does not hesitate to dive and swim under water for great distances when alarmed. It makes nests of grasses and weeds which may be placed under a mass of tangled debris or woven into the rushes a foot or more above the high water level. Its presence may usually be detected by the extensive and well-defined runways it makes and by the mats of cut vegetation float- ing at irregular intervals in the tidal waters. Sometimes, however, there may be little evidence of rice rats in an area. Harris (1953, p. 481) says that in the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge in Dor- chester County 40 percent of the 86 rice rat captures were made at trap stations showing no signs of small mammals, but some were taken at muskrat houses. Also, he was never able to locate any rice rat nests in this area, and noted that only a few of the runways found ‘night have been made by this species. Rice rats are primarily nocturnal, and Harris states that only rarely was this species observed in the daytime. In Maryland, rice rats are confined in distribution to the fresh and salt water marshes of the Western Shore and Eastern Shore sections. They seem to be particularly numerous in the fresh, brackish, and salt water marshes of the lower Eastern Shore section and occur in great numbers on Assateague Island, where they occupy the wetter portions of these marshes, 90 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Specimens ewamined.—Anne Arundel County: South River, at U.S. Route 50, 1. Charles County: Nanjemoy Creek, 5. Prince Georges County: Oxon Hill, 2 miles NW, 2. Worcester County: Ocean City, 4 and 5 miles S (Assateague Island), 2; West Ocean City, 4. Other records and reports——Dorchester County: Blackwater Na- tional Wildlife Refuge (Harris, 1953). EASTERN HARVEST MOUSE Reithrodontomys humulis virginianus A. H. Howell Reithrodontomys humulis virginianus A. H. Howell, Jour. Mammal., 21 (3) : 346, 13 August 1940. Type tocality—Amelia, Va. General distribution.—Known from central Virginia north to Maryland. Exact northern limits of range unknown. Distribution in Maryland—Rare in Maryland; probably occurs only in the Western Shore and southern Piedmont sections. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3, = 16; upper incisors with conspicuous grooves; mouselike in form; tail about half total length; coloration grayish-brown above with a distinct band of blackish along the median line; sides of head and body paler, more or less washed with light pinkish cinnamon, this color forming a definite lateral line next to the belly; underparts grayish white; tail bicolored, fuscous above, grayish white below; ears fuscous, feet white. This species closely resembles the house mouse (J/us musculus) im general appearance, but may readily be distinguished from that species by the deeply grooved upper incisors. In the eastern United States the harvest mouse is the only long-tailed cricetine rodent with grooved mcisors. Measurements —An adult female from Takoma Park (near Riggs Mill), Prince Georges County, measures as follows: Total length 132; tail 59; hind foot 15.5; ear 12; greatest length of skull 20.0; zygomatic breadth 10.1; least interorbital breadth 2.9; upper molar toothrow 2.5. Howell (1940, p. 346) gives external measniements of 10 specimens trom the type locality as follows: Total length 117.2 (110-125) ; tail vertebrae 51.8 (45-56); hind foot 16.2. The greatest length of skull of these 10 specimens is 18.7 (18.38-19.1). It can be seen that the Mary- land specimen is considerably larger both externally and in the great- est length of the skull than topotypes of the subspecies from Amelia, Va. Habitat and habits—The harvest mouse prefers nonforested land, particularly cultivated fields where grain crops are growing. It seems to be equally at home in dry fields or in bogs, provided there is thick growth of tall grasses or sedges. | MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 91 SCALE °o 10 20 30MILES a Retthrodontomys humilis virginianus @ Specimen examined FIGURE 33.—Distribution of Reithrodontomys humulis virginianus. Little is known of the habits of this species. It lives in the cover of grass, weeds, and grains where it makes little runways over the surface of the ground. According to Lewis (1940, p. 426), in Amelia County, Va., it generally makes nests of fine grass blades on top of the ground in tall grass or sedges. These nests are globular and average larger than a croquet ball. The breeding season is from May to November; the number of young from one to five; the gestation period is about 23 days. The food of the eastern harvest mouse consists largely of seeds and erains with considerable green vegetation and occasionally fruit (Howell, 1914, p. 11). According to Bailey (19238, p. 118), many skulls of harvest mice were found in ow] pellets in the Smithsonian tower in Washington, D.C. The owl, or owls, however, may have been feeding in nearby Virginia and thus the skulls may not represent District of Columbia or Maryland records. This rodent species has been trapped at only one locality in Maryland. Specimens examined—Prince Georges County: Takoma Park (near Riggs Mill), 1. Howell (1940, p. 346), reported examining two speci- mens from Riggs Mill, and records in the files of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service indicate that Ray Greenfield actually took three spe- cimens in that same area on 26 January 1934. Only one specimen from that locality, however, is now in the National collections, 92 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 DEER MOUSE Peromyscus maniculatus (Wagner) Hesperomys maniculatus Wagner, Arch. Naturgesch., Jahrg. 11, 1: 148, 1845. This is a wide-ranging species that occurs over much of North Amer- ica. Numerous subspecies have been described; of these, two are known to occur in Maryland. They are: Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii (Hoy and Kennicott) Mus bairdi Hoy and Kennicott, in Kennicott, Agricultural Report, U.S. Commissioners Patents, 1856, p. 92, 1897. Type locality Bloomington, McLean County, Ill. General distribution.—Prairie region of the upper Mississippi Valley, from eastern Kansas and Missouri; north to southwestern Manitoba, Canada; east- ward through southern Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan to the man-made prairie of central New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and northern Virginia. Distribution in Maryland—The distribution of this subspecies within the State is unknown. It has been taken in Maryland only at the Patuxent Research Center, Prince Georges County. (See fig. 34.) Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3, = 16; coloration of upperparts brownish gray, mixed with darker hairs; underparts white, the basal gray of the underfur often conspicuous; tail short and distinctly bicolored, upperparts brownish black, white beneath; feet white. Immature animals are more grayish dorsally. This subspecies is readily distinguished from Peromyscus manicula- tus nubiterrae by its much shorter tail. It is easily confused with Peromyscus leucopus, but may be distinguished by several characters which are discussed under that species. Measurements —External measurements of two adults from the Patuxent Research Center, Prince Georges County, (a wild-caught female and one of her laboratory-raised offspring) are as follows: Total length 152, 149; tail 63, 59; hind foot 18, 19; ear 13.5, 14.0. Cranial measurements of three adults from the Patuxent Research Center (the wild-caught female and two of her laboratory-raised off- spring) are: Greatest length 23.1, 23.3, 23.0; zygomatic breadth 11.5, 12.1, 11.9; interorbital breadth 3.7, 3.9, 3.9; length of maxillary tooth- row 3.0, 3.3, 3.3. Habitat and habits—This subspecies inhabits prairies, open fields, and arable land and is entirely absent from dense forests. It was un- known in Maryland until 1949, when Lucille F. Stickel and Oscar Warbach live-trapped several in crop fields at the Patuxent Research Center. These fields are about 1.9 miles north of Bowie and are situated on a wide bench of sandy clay near the Patuxent River. From May —————————————— eee MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 93 1949 to June 1950, 23 of these mice were captured by Stickel and Warbach. According to W. H. Stickel (1951, p. 26) the Maryland specimens of this race were most often caught in corn and in young wheat; only occasionally were they found in hay or tall wheat. He says that the subspecies seems to be precariously established at the Patuxent Re- search Center and was not common, nor did the numbers appear to increase, during the year the area was extensively studied. Peromyscus m. bairdii is essentially a subspecies of the prairie re- gion of the upper Mississippi Valley. In recent years it appears to have been extending its range eastward consequent with the deforestation of wide areas of land in the eastern United States. In 1909, Osgood (1909, p. 79) knew it only from as far east as Ohio. In 1934, Mitchell (1934, p. 71) recorded it from Meadville, Pa., and in 1938, Moulthrop (1938, p. 503) listed it from Elba, Genesee County, N.Y. Hamilton (1950, p. 100) recorded the first appearance of bairdii in 1947 at Ithaca, N.Y., an area that had been heavily trapped for the previous 20 years, and mentioned the capture of the subspecies at North Harrisburg, Dauphin County, Pa., the first record from east of the Appalachian Mountains. More recently, Peacock and Peacock (1962, p. 98) have taken specimens from the area being developed into Dulles Airport, near Chantilly, Fairfax County, Va. Stickel (1951, p. 26) states that no doubt the animal is expanding its range by natural means in consequence of artificially created habi- tats, but the possibility of accidental transportation is considerable. It may be that the mouse has succeeded in crossing the heavily forested Appalachian Mountains by following the grass-lined banks and shoulders that line the roads in that area. It would in this way remain ecologically separated from Peromyscus m. nubiterrae, the race in- habiting the dense forests of the Appalachians. Just how widely bazrdiz is distributed in Maryland is unknown. No additional specimens have been taken since Stickel and Warbach col- lected those at the Patuxent Research Center in 1939. I have trapped many cultivated fields in central Maryland and grassy roadsides in the western part of the State with the hope of obtaining additional records, but without success. The recent records from nearby Chantilly, Va., however, lead me to believe that the subspecies is probably widely distributed, although perhaps scarce as regards total numbers, in open fields throughout Maryland. These mice feed largely on seeds, grain, and the ripe heads of grasses; berries and numerous insects are also consumed. The nest is built slightly underground, or on the surface, and usually placed under some object, such as a board, fallen tree limb, rock, or old pasteboard carton. The breeding season generally begins in early March and ex- 336-897 O—69-—_7 94 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 tends through November. A female may breed three or four times yearly, and a litter may contain from two to nine young, although four to six is the most common number. Specimens examined.—Prince Georges County: Patuxent Research Center, 3 Peromyscus maniculatus nubiterrae Rhoads Peromyscus leucopus nubiterrae Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia, 48: 187, April 1896. Type locality.—Summit of Roan Mountain, Mitchell County, North Carolina. Altitude 6,370 feet. General distribution.—Allegheny and Blue Ridge Mountains and adjacent ranges from western Pennsylvania and New York, south to western North Caro- lina and northeastern Georgia. Distribution in Maryland —Found in the Allegheny Mountain sec- tion at elevations usually above 2,500 feet. Distinguishing Dhiinae termes ernie in coloration and size to P. m. bairdii, but is readily distinguished from that subspecies by its much longer tail, which is more than half the total length of the ani- mal. Usually nubiterrae has larger ears and feet than batrdi. In general, nubiterrae can be distinguished from Peromyscus leuco- pus by certain subtle differences in coloration. Some specimens of nubiterrae, however, are confusingly similar to Peromyscus leucopus, oO 10 20 3OMILES —— ee Peromyscus mantculatus batrdit & Specimens examined Peromyscus mantculatus nubtterrae @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FIGURE 34.—Distribution of Peromyscus maniculatus nubiterrae and P. m. bairdii. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 95 and their distinguishing characteristics are discussed in more detail under that species. Measurements —Thirteen adults from Finzel, Garrett County, have external measurements as follows: Total length 179.3 (172-190) ; tail 93.1 (82-102) ; hind foot 20.5 (20-22). Eleven adults from Finzel have the following cranial measurements: Greatest length 24.6 (24.3-25.3) ; zygomatic breadth 12.3 (11.7-13.3); interorbital breadth 3.7 (3.5- 3.9) ; maxillary toothrow 38.3 (3.2-3.5). Habitat and habits—This subspecies prefers dense woods and is most abundant among mossy boulders and logs in moist spruce and fir forests at higher elevations. E. A. Preble (in field notes) gives information about where he took specimens in Garrett County. He says that they were common in a tract of hemlock woods about 3 miles east of Grantsville. One specimen was taken in a small strip of decidu- ous trees and shrubs adjoining a field where Peromyscus leucopus was also taken. At Finzel, at an elevation of about 2,600 feet, he found that these mice were abundant and inhabiting all sorts of situations from the dry hillsides and edges of fields to the deep hemlock swamps, while at Bittinger (elevation about 2,600 feet) they were abundant only in the deep woods. This mouse nests in burrows under rocks and logs and sometimes in hollow trees. It is somewhat arboreal and may build tree nests as high as 50 feet above the ground (J. W. Bailey, 1946, p. 216). Two or three litters, of from two to seven young, are produced each season. Food consists of seeds, nuts, and berries, supplemented with insects, snails, and occasionally dead birds and other mice. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Frostburg, 1. Garrett County : Bittinger, 6; Finzel, 18; Grantsville, 16; Swallow Falls State Forest (near Muddy Creek Falls), 1. Other records and reports —Garrett County: New Germany (Coll. Nat. Hist. Soc. Maryland). WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis (Fisher) [Mus. sylvaticus| noveboracensis Fisher, Synopsis Mammalium, p. 818, 1829. Type locality.—New York. General distribution.—F rom eastern and southern Ontario, east to Maine, south along the Atlantic coast into Virginia, West Virginia, and northern Kentucky, westward, south of Great Lakes, to eastern North Dakota, South Dakota, Ne- braska, northeastern Oklahoma, and northwestern Arkansas. Distribution in Maryland.—Occurs abundantly in all sections of the State. 96 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 79° Vad pe | WA [Yr “emac SCALE 39°- Oo 10 20 SOMILES EE Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensts @ Specimens examined © Specimens reported FIGURE 35.—Distribution of Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis. Distinguishing characteristics —The white-footed mouse closely re- sembles the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), from which it may be distinguished as follows: From Peromyscus m. bairdii it differs in being larger, longer tailed, lighter and more brightly colored with more reddish on sides and back, and in having noticeably larger ears and feet; the tail is less distinctly bicolored. Cranially, P. 2. noveboracensis is larger than P. m. bairdi, and the incisive foramina are differently shaped. These foramina are anteriorly constricted in noveboracensis, and open and evenly curved in bazrdzi. A detailed comparison of these two forms is given by Stickel (1951, p. 25-82). From Peromyscus m. nubiterrae, P. 1. noveboracensis differs in being larger, shorter tailed, (tail less than half the total length of the animal) and more brightly colored, with more reddish on sides and back. This color difference is subtle in individual specimens but becomes apparent when large series of both species are examined. The tail in novebora- censis is less distinctly bicolored than in nubzterrae. Some specimens of nuditerrae and leucopus are so similar in external characteristics that only by a detailed examination of the skull can they be separated. The skull of nwbdzterrae is slender and elongated, the braincase considerably flattened, whereas cranially noveboracensis is broader and heavier with the braincase more inflated. As in P. m. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 97 bairdi, the incisive foramina of nubiterrae are open and evenly curved, while in noveboracensis they are anteriorly constricted. The teeth in the latter form, even in juvenile animals, are noticeably larger and more robust than in nubiterrae. Measurements——External measurements of eight adults from Alle- gany County (Dans Mountain State Park, and vicinity of Oldtown) are aS follows: Total length 174.4 (170-188) ; tail 76.2 (70-92) ; hind foot 21.1 (20-22) ; ear 15.7 (18-18). Nine adults from the same locali- ties have the following cranial measurements: Greatest length 26.2 (26.0-26.7) ; zygomatic breadth 13.4 (12.7-14.0) ; interorbital breadth 4.1 (3.9-4.3) ; maxillary toothrow 3.6 (3.43.8). Habitat and habits—This species is primarily a woodland inhab- itant, but is often found in brushy regions and sometimes in grassy areas that border woodlands. It is one of the most abundant mammals in Maryland. On Assateague Island their tracks have been observed even on the bare sand dunes a few yards from the ocean beach. Usually, however, this mouse will be found not more than 50 feet from woods or forests, of which it seems to prefer the deciduous woods, especially oak-hickory forest. Nests are built almost anywhere. Although it apparently does not dig its own burrow, or make a trail, this mouse will utilize burrows or trails of other small mammals. Jackson (1961, p. 218) says that it seems to prefer a tree site for its nest, usually about 6 to 8 feet from the ground, but that he has found them in abandoned squirrel nests as high as 20 feet above ground. He says that often the nest is built in a hollow tree or limb, and that another favorite site is under an old stump or log. The nest itself is composed of soft material such as grass, leaves, or other vegetation. It is usually about 10 or 12 inches in diam- eter and 6 or 8 inches deep. Breeding takes place in late February or early March, and the first litter is born in April. The gestation period is variable, but is usually between 23 and 25 days, and the litter size varies from one to seven, usually three to six, with four the most frequent number. Each female may produce as many as four litters during the breeding season. The principal food for the species is seeds of various grasses, weeds, clover, small fruits, and grain as well as acorns and hickory nuts. In- sects form a small portion of the diet as does green herbage. This mouse sometimes occupies houses, where it may be bothersome. On Assateague Island in 1957 and 1958, white-footed mice were inhabiting the houses and outbuildings, while house mice (A/us musculus) occurred in the woods and marshes, but apparently not in the houses. Specimens examined—Allegany County: Dans Mountain State _ Park, 13; Green Ridge, 4; Mount Savage, 11; Oldtown, 4 miles E, 98 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 31; Oldtown, 9 miles E, 12; Rawlings, 2; Sideling Hill Creek, 8. Anne Arundel County: Annapolis, 3 miles NW, 12; Priest Bridge, 4; South River (at U.S. Route 50), 10. Baltimore County: Lake Roland, 5; Loch Raven, 7; Notch Cliff, 1. Calvert County : Battle Creek (Cypress Swamp), 4; Cove Point, 3; Drum Point, 2; Scientist Cliffs, 1; Solo- mons, 2; Solomons, 314 miles N, 17. Charles County: Nanjemoy Creek, 2; Newport, 6; Zekiah Swamp, 4. Dorchester County: Cambridge, 5. Garrett County: Cranberry Swamp, 7; Grantsville, 4; Swallow Falls, 2 miles 8, 2; Swanton, 3. Howard County: Atholton, 6. Montgomery County: Burnt Mills, 2; Cabin John (vicinity of), 4; Cupids Bower Island (vicinity of), 5; Forest Glen, 1; Great Falls, 1; Kensington, 5; Linden, 2; Plummers Island, 4; Rockville (vicinity of), 6; Seneca Creek (at Clopper Road), 5; Silver Spring, 26; Takoma Park, 1; Woodside, 1. Prince Georges County: Anacostia River, NW Branch, 3; Bladensburg, 7; Branchville, 2; Broad Creek (Indian Head Bluff), 4; Collingwood (= Collington?) 1 mile S, 2; Hyattsville, 4; Lanham, 4; Laurel, 10; Oxon Hill, 12; Riggs Mill, 1; Riverdale, 3. Washington County: Bear Creek, just N of U.S. Route 40, 2. Wicomico County: Powellsville, 1. Worcester County: Snow Hill, 1 mile NE, 1; Ocean City, 5 miles S, 1. District of Columbia: 62. Other records and reports—Allegany County: LaVale (Coll. U. Md.). Anne Arundel County: Dorsey (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv- ice files). Cecil County: Rising Sun (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service files). Garrett County: Muddy Creek Falls (Mansueti and Flyger, 1952, p. 250). Kent County: Chestertown (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service files). Prince Georges County: Bowie (Lucille F. Stickel, 1946, p. 301). Remarks.—Specimens from the Eastern Shore section (Cambridge, Powellsville, Snow Hill, and Assateague Island), as well as Virginia specimens from Accomack and Northampton Counties on the lower Delmarva Peninsula, are not typical noveboracensis but are somewhat darker in coloration, and smaller in size, and appear to be intergrades with P. 7. leucopus (Rafinesque). The type locality of P. 7. leucopus is in western Kentucky, which is also an area of intergradation. Mary- land specimens from the Eastern Shore section are only slightly larger and paler than specimens from western Kentucky near the type lo- cality of P. 7. leucopus. Nevertheless, they are considerably different from P. 1. leucopus from southern Louisiana (where the subspecies is best characterized) both in size and coloration, and are more closely related to P. 1. noveboracensis from central New England where nove- boracensis is best characterized) than to Louisianan P. Jl. leucopus. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 99 EASTERN WOOD RAT Neotoma floridana magister Baird N[eotoma]. magister Baird, Mammals, in Repts. Expl. Surv... , 8 (1) : 498, 14 July 1858. Type locality.—Cave near Carlisle, Cumberland County, or near Harrisburg, Dauphin County, Pa. General distribution.—Appalachian Mountain region, from extreme western Connecticut and southern New York, south through western Virginia and Ten- nessee to the Tennessee River in northern Alabama, west to central Kentucky and northward to extreme southern Indiana. Distribution in Maryland—The Allegheny Mountain and Ridge and Valley sections; occurs east of the Blue Ridge Mountains in the Piedmont section along the cliffs and bluffs of the Potomac River to the vicinity of Washington, D.C. It may occur among the cliffs and bluffs of river valleys elsewhere in the Piedmont section. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3, = 16; size large; coloration grizzled grayish dorsally, with some buffy intermixture, paler and more buffy on sides; underparts and feet white; ears large and naked; tail long, hairy, and distinctly bicolored, black dorsally and white underneath; vibrissae very long, and black or white in coloration. The young are similar to the adults, but are orayer. This species may be confused with the Norway rat, which it resem- bles superficially. It may be distinguished from that species by its larger naked ears, its much longer vibrissae, its longer, more hairy, and bicolored tail, and its softer, more grizzled grayish coloration. In addition, the molar teeth of the two species differ. In the eastern wood rat the crowns are flat, with the enamel thrown into prismatic folds; in the Norway rat the molars are tuberculate. Measurements—An adult male from 9 miles E of Oldtown, Al- legany County, measures as follows: Total length 430; tail 188; hind foot 42; ear 30; greatest length of skull 56.2; interorbital breadth 6.8; length of nasals 21.5; length of molar toothrow 9.3. Hamilton (1948, p. 306) gives the following external measurements for 10 adults from New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia: Total length 423 (405-441) ; tail 186 (170-200) ; hind foot 43.5 (40-46). Habitat and habits—The eastern wood rat prefers cliffs, rock slides, | caves, and bare patches in the mountainous regions of the State. It ranges into the Piedmont section at least in the Potomac River Valley, where it lives in the cliffs and rocks that border the river. It may occur in the bluffs that border other rivers in the Piedmont section, and has been reported from Woodside, Montgomery County (Wetmore, 19238, p. 187). In the Potomac River Valley, it has been found as far south 100 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 79° 7e° i Neotoma floridana magister 39° @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FIGURE 36.—Distribution of Neotoma floridana magister. as Plummers Island, Montgomery County, and on the Virginia side of the river at Chain Bridge. Wood rats were particularly abundant in the vicinity of Oldtown, Allegany County, in the fall of 1961, where virtually every rocky out- cropping contained signs of them. They had taken up residence under the front porch of a hunting cabin 9 miles east of Oldtown, and the sounds of their activity could be heard all night. They are inquisitive animals, and one had thoroughly explored an automobile that was parked nearby, even crawling into the engine compartment, leaving tracks everywhere in the dust. The eastern wood rat appears to have moved into Maryland’s Pied- mont section only within recent years. Wetmore (1923, p. 187) reports that although Plummers Island had been under observation by Wash- ington naturalists since 1902, it wasn’t until 1921 that the species was discovered to be resident there. It was known, however, to inhabit the cliffs along the Virginia side of the Potomac River as far south as Chain Bridge for many years before it was first reported from Plum- mers Island, and it seems probable that the Plummers Island popula- tion crossed over from Virginia during a winter when the Potomac was frozen over. Wetmore (1923) says that one was killed on Plum- mers Island on 25 June 1921, by Mr. W. R. Maxon, but was not pre- served. On 26 September and 15 October 1921, two specimens were collected and preserved in the Biological Survey collection. In the MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 101 same year, five nests of this species were discovered beneath the cabin on the island. Wetmore (1923) describes the nests of the eastern wood rat on Plummers Island as being composed of bits of finely shredded cedar bark and similar materials that formed a flattened mass 12 to 15 inches across with a small depression in the center. As it was warm weather the cavities were open above, but the walls were so arranged that they could be pulled out to form a domed covering if the need for greater warmth arose. Wood rats eat practically any vegetation they can obtain, including fruits and berries, fungi, ferns, rhododendron, and a host of others. The species breeds from spring until fall, and as many as three broods may be raised annually. The gestation period 1s 30 to 36 days, and one to three young are usually born. Specimens examined—Allegany County: Mount Savage, 1 (Coll. U. Md.) ; Oldtown, 9 miles EK, 1. Garrett County: Backbone Mountain, Savage River Dam Site, 2 (Coll. U. Md.). Montgomery County: Plum- mers Island, 2. Washington County: Bear Creek, just north of U.S. 40,1 (Coll. U. Md.). Other records and reports—Montgomery County: Perry’s Island (Wetmore, 1923 : 187) ; Woodside (Wetmore, 1923 : 187). RED-BACKED MOUSE Clethrionomys gapperi gapperi (Vigors) Arvicola gappert Vigors, Zool. Jour., 5: 204, 1830. Type locality Between York [Toronto] and Lake Simcoe, Ontario, Canada. General distribution.—Massachusetts south in the Appalachians to western Virginia and west through New York, northern Michigan, and southern Ontario to eastern Minnesota. Distribution in Maryland.—Occurs on the cooler forested slopes in the Ridge and Valley and Allegheny Mountain sections. Distinguishing characteristics—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3, = 16; cheek teeth rooted in adults; size medium; coloration of upper parts rusty red, becoming buffy on the sides and around the face; under- parts buffy white; tail less than a third of total length of animal, and bicolored, blackish above, paler below. This mouse may be distinguished from most other Maryland mice by its reddish coloration and short tail. It resembles the pine mouse, however, in both these characters, but differs in that the reddish coloration is confined to the dorsum, whereas in the pine mouse the reddish coloration extends onto the sides. In addition, the ears of the red-backed mouse are larger, the tail is considerably longer, and the fur is longer, coarser, and less mole-like, | 102 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 [rr ay | °o 10 20 3OMILES _—EEE Clethrionomys gappert gappert vadVYSIH . awy ‘ @ Specimens examined FIGURE 37.—Distribution of Clethrionomys gapperi gapperi. Measurements —Ten adults from Garrett County have the follow- ing external and cranial measurements: Total length 147.3 (140-155) ; tail 42.9 (38-48) ; hind foot 19.5 (19-20) ; condylobasal length of skull 24.9 (24.1-25.8); zygomatic breadth 13.3 (18.0-18.7); interorbital breadth 4.0 (3.9-4.2) ; length of molar toothrow 5.4 (5.2-5.6). Habitat and habits—This mouse prefers cool, damp, forested areas where it lives among the mossy rocks and rotten logs. In the northern part of its range it is widely distributed, but in Maryland it is re- stricted to the higher mountains, where it is locally abundant. Preble (field notes) took the red-backed mouse at Finzel on the border of a hemlock woods, and at Grantsville he found that it was very common in a tract of hemlocks 3 miles east of the town. It was also abundant in the mixed forest covering the steep slopes on the east side of the Castleman River, and in the hemlock woods near Bittinger. At Moun- tain Lake Park, Preble took a specimen among rocks in an oak woods, and at Swanton he trapped a very dark individual in deep hemlock woods. Bookhout tells me that he trapped one in Allegany County in a rock outcrop in a second-growth oak-hickory forest. This species does not make elaborate tunnels, but will occupy those made by moles and shrews. Jackson (1961, pp. 227-228) has described a nest in detail. It was located among the rootlets of small trees and was some 3 inches in diameter. The nest was merely a small carpet of grass stems and a few particles of dead leaves and moss, the entire MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 103 bulk of which would be no larger than a man’s thumb. Another nest was located at a depth of about 18 inches under a rotten elm stump. It was situated on top of the soil underneath a root of the stump, and was 4 inches in diameter and about 1 inch in depth, slightly hollow and without cover other than the log above. It was composed of small pieces of dry leaves, bark, hazelnut shells, hemlock cones, twigs, dry sphagnum, and green moss. According to Hamilton (1941, p. 259), in New York State about three-fourths of the food of this species is composed of green vegeta- tion. In addition, a large part of the diet consists of nuts and seeds. Insects are not as often eaten as they are by white-footed mice. The red-backed mouse does not hibernate, but it does actively gather stores in the fall in preparation for winter. The breeding season is protracted, beginning in the late winter or early spring and extending well into fall. One litter follows another during the breeding season, and from two to eight young comprise a litter. The gestation period is 17 to 19 days. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Mount Savage, 6 (Coll. U. Md.) ; Town Hill Mountain, near beacon light, 1 (Coll. U. Md.). Garrett County: Bittinger, 7; Cranberry Swamp, 4 (Coll. U. Md.) ; Finzel, 5; Grantsville, 3 miles K, 15; Mountain Lake Park, 1; Swallow Falls State Forest (near Muddy Creek Falls), 1; Swanton, 1; Thayer- ville Swamp, 2 (Coll. U. Md.) ; Wolf Swamp, 1. Remarks.—Maryland C. g. gapperi average somewhat darker and slightly larger than specimens of this subspecies from Ontario and central New York. They appear tobe intergrades between C’. g. gappert and C’. g. carolinensis but are more closely related to the former. The specimen collected by Preble in the deep hemlock woods at Swanton is as dark and large, however, as typical carolinensis. MEADOW VOLE Microtus pennsylvanicus (Ord) Two races of this widespread and abundant small mammal are recognizable in Maryland. They are: Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus (Ord) Mus pennsylvanicus Ord, in Guthrie, a new geogr., hist., comm. grammar ... Philadelphia, 2d Amer. ed., 2: 292, 1815. Type locality Meadows below Philadelphia, Pa. General distribution—From Quebec and New Brunswick, south into Georgia, and west into Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota. Distribution in Maryland.—Distributed in the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections, Intergrades with Microtus 104 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 p. nigrans in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections, and is re- placed by that subspecies in the southern Eastern Shore and southeast- ern Western Shore sections. (See fig. 38.) Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3, = 16; molar teeth rootless and persistently growing; coloration of upper- parts dull chestnut brown, darkest along the middle of the back; underparts grayish white, or buffy white; feet grayish brown; tail dusky above, paler below, fur overlaid with coarse guard hairs; tail less than a third of total length of animal. This vole is similar in appearance to the red-backed mouse (Clethrionomys gapperi), but is larger and more brownish in colora- tion, and lacks the red dorsal band. It is also similar in appearance to the pine vole (Pitymys pinetorum) but has coarser pelage, bigger ears, and a longer tail. It differs from the southern bog lemming (Synap- tomys cooperi) in its coarser, shorter pelage and much longer tail, and in lacking grooved upper incisors. Measurements—Eleven adults from the vicinity of Oldtown, Allegany County, have the following external and cranial measure- ments: Total length 169.2 (161.0-187.0) ; condylobasal length of skull 28.5 (28.1-29.0); zygomatic breadth 15.4 (14.8-15.9); interorbital breadth 3.6 (3.44.0) ; maxillary toothrow 6.9 (6.5-7.3). Males average somewhat larger than females. Habitat and habits—This vole is numerous in fields and meadows throughout the State. It is also common in marshes and similar areas with heavy growth of grass; occasionally it is found in orchards and open woodland if the ground cover is grassy. This is one of the most abundant mammals in Maryland. Meadow voles construct extensive runways on the surface of the ground. These runways are about 114 inches in diameter and run in a network under the cover of dead grass. They are sometimes the only sign of the presence of these voles in an area. If the runway is fresh and is being used, there will generally be droppings and cut pieces of grass at various intervals along it. The nest of the meadow vole is usually constructed on the surface of the ground in one of the runways. It is bulky, generally about 5 or 6 inches in diameter and 3 or 4 inches deep, usually covered, but sometimes not. The meadow vole is active both day and night. It is cyclic in nature and the reproductive habits vary from year to year (Hamilton, 1937). It is polyestrous and may breed the year round, although in Mary- land there is a tendency not to breed during the coldest part of win- ter. The females reach puberty and begin to breed at 25 days of age, and from six to eight young generally comprise a litter. The gestation period in this species is 21 days, or a little less, and as many as 17 litters may be produced in a year. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 105 The food of the meadow vole consists chiefly of fresh grass, sedges, grains, and seeds. Green vegetation comprises the major portion of its diet in the spring and summer, while in the fall, grains and seeds are an important commodity. In winter, bark and roots of shrubs and trees are sometimes consumed. Hamilton (1943, p. 327) says that the meadow vole is of great eco- nomic importance. By girdling fruit trees and nursery stock it causes monetary loss to the horticulturist. The amount of forage crops it consumes, while difficult to measure, is in the aggregate a very great loss to the farmer. It does, however, perform a useful function in providing predatory birds and mammals with an abundant source of food. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Cumberland, 2; Mount Savage, 8; Oldtown, 4 miles EK, 19; Oldtown, 9 miles E, 74; Sideling Hill Creek, 3. Anne Arundel County: Annapolis, 1 mile W, 6; Annap- olis, 83 miles W, 4; Annapolis, 4 miles W, 2; Lake Shore area, 1. Baltimore County: Loch Raven, 2. Charles County: Nanjemoy Creek, 2; Newport, 5. Garrett County: Finzel, 1; Grantsville, 1; Mountain Lake Park, 2. Howard County: Atholton, 1% mile S, 5; Long Corner, 1. Montgomery County: Cabin John Bridge, 1 mile N, 1; Kensington, 1; Rockville, 2.8 miles NE, 3; Seneca, 114 miles NW, 26; Seneca, 2.9 miles W, 52; Silver Spring (vicinity), 5. Prince Georges County: Col- lingwood (=Collington?), 14 mile S, 2; Hyattsville, 10; Lanham, 1; Laurel, 30; Oxon Hill, 11; Riggs Mill, 1. Queen Annes County: Parson Island, 2. District of Columbia: 91. Other records and reports—Allegany County: Dans Mountain (Coll. U. Md.); La Vale (Coll. U. Md.) ; McCoole (Coll. Carnegie Museum). Anne Arundel County: Dorsey (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service files). Baltimore County: Bare Hills-Lake Roland area (Bures, 1948, p. 67) ; Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 6). Gar- ret County: Cranberry Swamp (Coll. U. Md.). Cranesville Pine Swamp (Mansueti, 1958, p. 83) ; Cunningham Swamp (Coll. U. Md.). Prince Georges County: Patuxent Research Center (Herman and Warbach, 1956, p. 87). Remarks—This subspecies intergrades with Microtus p. nigrans in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections. Specimens from the northern portion of these sections (Parson Island, Annapolis vicinity, Laurel, Oxon Hill) are, however, clearly referable to I/. p. pennsyl- vanicus, aS is a small series from Newport, in the south central Western Shore section, 106 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Microtus pennsylvanicus nigrans Rhoads Microtus pennsylvanicus nigrans Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 49 : 307, 18 June 1897. Type locality Currituck, Currituck County, N.C. General distribution.—Near the coast from southeastern Maryland to north- eastern North Carolina. Distribution in Maryland.—Southern Eastern Shore section at least as far north as Cambridge, Dorchester County, and southeastern Western Shore section in Calvert and probably St. Marys Counties. This subspecies intergrades with Microtus p. pennsylvanicus in the central portion of the Western Shore section and in the northern part of the Eastern Shore section. Distinguishing characteristics—Similar to Microtus p. pennsylva- nicus except that it is somewhat larger and has a darker coloration, almost black in some pelages. 72 I we ee HH 77° [ H | | i 10 20 3OMILES Wy 3ge- SCALE U V di lft fa) Xie Microtus pennsylvantcus pennsylvantcus @ Specimens examined © Specimens reported Microtus pennsylvantcus nigrans & Specimens examined FIGURE 38.—Distribution of Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus and M. p. nigrans. Measurements.—External and cranial measurements of seven adults from Drum Point, Calvert County, are as follows: Total length 173.1 (168-184) ; tail 47.8 (42-52); hind foot 22.6 (22-23); ear 14.3 (12- 16) ; condylobasal length of skull 29.1 (28.1-80.5) ; zygomatic breadth MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 107 15.9 (15.4-16.6) ; interorbital breadth 3.8 (3.5-4.0) ; maxillary tooth- row 6.8 (6.6-6.9). Habitat and habits—In the southern Eastern Shore section, this subspecies abounds in the dryer portions of brackish and salt marshes along the Atlantic seacoast and the Chesapeake Bay. It is probably the most abundant mammal occurring on Assateague Island. As an ex- ample of its numbers on this outer barrier island, it may be noted that in a single night in the spring of 1956, 60 specimens were taken in 100 traps set in tall grass and myrtle on the edge of a fresh water impoundment on the Virginia portion of the island a few miles south of the Maryland line. It also lives in the marshes of the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge in Dorchester County where it builds nests in muskrat houses (Harris, 1953). In the Western Shore section, in Calvert County, this vole has been taken in dry meadows and brushy fields. The habits of this subspecies apparently differ in no essential respect from those of Microtus p. pennsylvanicus. Specimens examined—Calvert County: Breezy Point, 1; Drum Point, 12; Scientists Cliffs Road (1 mile E Route 2), 2. Dorchester County: Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, 5; Cambridge, 5. Wor- cester County: Assateague Island, 4 and 5 miles S Ocean City, 10. PINE VOLE Pitymys pinetorum scalopsoides (Aud. and Bachman) Arvicola scalopsoides Audubon and Bachman, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1:97, October 1841. — Type locality.—Long Island, N.Y. General distribution.—Northeastern United States, from central New England, south to Virginia and western North Carolina, west to Illinois and Wisconsin. Distribution in Maryland—Common in all sections of the State. Mstinguishing characteristics—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3, = 16; molar teeth not rooted, and grow persistently; tail very short, buffy brown above, lighter below; ears very short, and hidden in fur; pelage short, soft and glossy, almost mole-like; coloration russet to chestnut brown on dorsum, becoming lighter on sides; underparts grayish buff; feet grayish brown. This species resembles the meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) from which it may be distinguished by its shorter tail, shorter ears, and finer, more russet pelage. It differs from the red-backed mouse (Clethrionomys gappert) in that the reddish coloration of the dorsum extends onto the sides and is not confined to a band on the dorsum; smaller ears; shorter tail; fur shorter, softer and more mole-like. 108 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Te 76° ) Me oe Pitymys pinetorun scalopsoides SCALE Ripa oY Oo 10 20 3OMILES EE @ Specimens examined s IN 3 Th NJ t 4 f O Specimens reported FIGURE 39.—Distribution of Pitymys pinetorum scalopsoides. From the southern bog lemming (Synaptomys cooperi) this species may be readily distinguished by the lack of grooves on the upper incisors. Measurements.—Ten adults from the District of Columbia have the following external measurements: Total length 124.8 (120-181) ; tail 22.1 (15-25); hind foot 16.6 (16-18). Eleven adults from the District of Columbia have cranial measurements as follows: Con- dylobasal length 24.9 (24.2-25.9) ; zygomatic breadth 15.5 (14.2-16.3) ; interorbital breadth 4.2 (3.9-4.6) ; length of maxillary toothrow 6.1 (5.8-6.5). Habitat and habits—This species is not particular with regard to habitat preference, being found in old fields, wood borders, and culti- vated fields, especially in loose sandy soils. It is often found in old apple orchards where the soil is mellow and sandy, and the grass and weeds have been allowed to grow, forming a heavy protective carpet of vegetation. The fallen apples also provide the mice with food in autumn, and the bark of apple roots supply a favorite winter food. Contrary to its name, the pine vole is seldom found in pine woods in Maryland. Hamilton (1938, pp. 163-170) in his life history study of the spe- cles says that the animal] threads its way just beneath the thick carpet of leaves which forms a ceiling to its burrow. Rarely the pine vole tunnels to a depth of a foot or more, but by far the greater number MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 109 of burrows are shallow, descending to a depth of only 3 or 4 inches. In orchards it tunnels its way to fallen apples, and then burrows up from underneath to feed on the fruit. These mice seldom leave their subterranean burrows. The nest of the pine vole is globular in shape, and composed of almost any material the animal can procure, generally dead leaves and grasses. The nest may be just below the ground surface, or, oc- casionally under some shallow-rooted stump. Usually there are three or four exits. 3 This species feeds largely on roots and tubers, bulbs, and the bark of trees and shrubs. It seldom eats green vegetation, seeds, or most kinds of fruit, although it does relish apples and pears. Generally, considerable quantities of roots and tubers, which presumably are utilized as the bulk of the winter food, are stored in its burrows. Pine voles often are responsible for depredations in orchards, where they frequently girdle apple trees severely. This species is cyclic, and according to Hamilton (1938, p. 166) its reproductive behavior undoubtedly varies from year to year as does that of A/tcrotus. The breeding season is from early March to mid- November, and small litters of from two to four young are produced. The gestation period in all probability approximates the 21 days of Microtus. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Oldtown, 9 miles E, 4. Anne Arundel County: Annapolis, 3 miles NW, 2; Lake Shore area, 2. Calvert County: Plum Point, 2 miles W, 1; Solomons Island, 314 miles N, 1. Carroll County: Hampstead, 1. Charles County: Newport, 3; Port Tobacco, 3 miles SW, 1. Dorchester County: Cambridge, 3. Garrett County: Grantsville, 1. Howard County: Long Corner, 1. Montgomery County: Chevy Chase, 1; Kensington, 2; Montgomery Knolls, 1; Plummers Island, 5; Poolesville, 1 mile NE, 1; Rockville, 2.3 miles NE, 10; Seneca, 1.8 miles W, 1; Seneca, 114 miles NW, 1; Silver Spring, 1; Takoma Park, 1; Woodside, 5. Prince Georges County: Bladensburg, 1; Laurel, 9; Oxon Hill, 1. District of Colum- bia: 61. Other records and reports.—Allegany County: Green Ridge (Coll. U. Md.). Baltimore County: Bare Hills-Lake Roland area (Bures, 1948: 68) ; Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939: 7). Prince Georges County: Patuxent Research Center, along Patuxent River (Stickel, Lucille F., 1948: 506). MUSKRAT Ondatra zibethicus macrodon (Merriam) Fiber macrodon Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11: 148, 13 May 1897. 336-897 O—69——_8 110 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 Type locality—Lake Drummond, Dismal Swamp, Norfolk County, Va. General distribution.—Reported from Chester County, Pennsylvania, south in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont to the lower Cape Fear drainage of southeastern North Carolina. Distribution in Maryland—Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Piedmont. sections. Muskrats are especially abundant in the fresh-water and brackish marshes of the Eastern Shore section. The subspecies macrodon inter- grades with O. z. zibethicus in the Piedmont section and is probably replaced by that subspecies in the Ridge and Valley and Allegheny Mountain sections. Distinguishing characteristics—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3, = 16; tail long and laterally compressed; hind feet partially webbed; ears small and almost hidden in fur; pelage dense, underfur soft and thick, overlaid with long smocth guard hairs; usual colcration a rich brown, with considerable bright russet to red tinge, darker on head, nese, and back; sides grayish brown to russet; underparts considerably lighter, varying from grayish drab to bright cinnamon rufous. There is a black color phase of this subspecies which in some Mary- land marshes runs as high as 65 percent of the population (Dozier, 19480, p. 393). These animals are not uniformly black, but have a modified agouti pattern shown in the lighter ventral surfaces and on the lower side areas where the hairs are subapically banded with the Ondatra ztbethicus @ Specimens examined 4//) p / } TT 5 / 4// j ; O Specimens reported 5K ke C) “di LALLA 3 > oFN\b Figure 40.—Distribution of Ondatra zibethicus. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND lid yellow. The dorsum, however, is a uniform glossy black with no hairs banded with red and yellow. Rarely an albinistic individual is encoun- tered, and Dozier (19480, p. 394) has reported upon a nonalbino white mutation (“Maryland white”) occurring in some of the marshes in Dorchester County, and fawn colored mutants from the vicinity of Chestertown, Kent County. The muskrat is readily distinguished from other Maryland rodents by the combination of its aquatic habits, large size, and laterally com- pressed tail. The beaver, which the muskrat resembles in aquatic habits, is larger and has a broad, horizontally compressed tail. Measurements——External measurements of an old male and two young adult females from Laurel, Prince Georges County, are as fol- lows: Total length 675, 600, 570; tail 280, 275, 266; hind foot 87, 86, 79. Cranial measurements of 11 adults from Laurel are: Condylobasal length 67.6 (63.9-72.2); zygomatic breadth 41.8 (39.8-44.5) ; least interorbital breadth 5.9 (5.0-6.6) ; length of maxillary toothrow 16.1 (14.9-17.2). Dozier et al. (1948, p. 180) found that the average weight of 13,421 male muskrats trapped on the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, Dorchester County, was 2 pounds 4 ounces, and the average weight of 10,090 females was 2 pounds 2 ounces. Adult males varied in weight from 6 ounces to 4 pounds, and females from 6 ounces to 3 pounds 12 ounces. Habitat and habits—Muskrats are most abundant in the extensive marshes that line the Chesapeake Bay. Elsewhere in Maryland they are found in streams that wind through pastures, and in swamps. The muskrat is essentially vegetarian, but occasionally will make use of animal food such as fish, mussels, insects, crayfish, and snails. Martin et al. (1951, p. 236) report that at the Patuxent Research Cen- ter near Laurel, the most important plant material eaten is burreed, cutgrass, arrowhead, waterlily and panicgrass. Smith (1938, p. 12) found that muskrats in Dorchester County would eat, to some extent, almost any plant found in the marshes there. Certain favorities, how- ever, form their staple diet, and no area lacking these will support a large muskrat population. Three square sedge and broadleaf and nar- rowleaf cattails constitute four-fifths of the animal’s diet, and all parts of these plants are eaten at one time or another during the year. Other foods that are at times utilized by the muskrat in the Dorchester marshes are saltmarsh, wild reed, saltgrass, beak-rush, spikerush, big cordgrass, wild millet, and sweet sedge. Also occasionally eaten are saltmarsh fleabane, marshmallow, waterlily, dodder, iris, waxmyrtle, small pine trees, and poison-ivy. Smith found that Dorchester County muskrats sometimes consumed turtles, blue crabs, fish (chiefly sluggish kinds such as carp), salt-water mussels, and possibly dead birds, 112 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 In the Maryland marshes, muskrats are active at all hours, in the spring and throughout the summer. Muskrat homes are of two general types depending on the topog- raphy of the area in which they live. In the uplands they dig burrows into the banks of streams and other bodies of water, while in the marshes they build dome-shaped structures. The entrance hole to a bank burrow is always below the normal level of water. The burrow turns upward above water level and ends in a nest of grass. The dome- shaped structures that they build in the marshes may be as much as 7 or 8 feet in diameter and more than 4 feet high. They are constructed of stalks, roots, and peaty remains of plants and are built on or around a firm foundation such as a stump or the base of a tree. Each house con- tains one or more nests from which passages lead to plunge holes in the floor. These holes in turn lead to underground tunnels that connect with the surface several feet from the house. Muskrats are primarily aquatic and construct elaborate canals, 6 inches to a foot wide, and sometimes a foot or more deep, which are not visible when the water is high. Those canals which are used as main arteries of travel are always wider and deeper than those used only as temporary leads made in search of food. In dry areas the muskrats use surface trails concealed in the grass that lead in all directions, and except for size, resemble those made by the meadow mouse. In addition to surface canals and trails, muskrats construct elaborate systems of underground burrows and tunnels that spread out in all directions and are connected with the surface and the canals by plunge holes scattered at convenient intervals. Smith (1938, p. 16) found that in Maryland the muskrat may breed in any month with the possible exception of November and December. Most of the young are born from mid-April to mid-September. Most Maryland trappers report that there are three litters a year, but Smith (1938, p. 16) was only able to obtain two a year in pen-raised animals. The number of young is variable; in the Maryland investigations con- ducted by Smith, the number averaged 4.4, seven being the most found in any one uterus. The gestation period appears to be about 29 or 30 days, and muskrats probably first breed at the age of 1 year. The population of muskrats in Maryland marshes apparently has been decreasing since 1939. The number of muskrats trapped in the marshes from year to year may not reflect the actual muskrat popula- tion since many factors such as food, predation, salinity, and breeding, which are not readily observable, together with the value of pelts, act together to affect muskrat abundance, and may be different from year to year. Furthermore, these factors may cause different reactions on the part of the muskrat populations at different levels of abundance. Nevertheless, trapping records probably give an adequate index of the MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 113 larger fluctuations in population level in Maryland. With this in mind, Harris (1952, p. 13) lists the muskrat catch on approximately 600 acres of marsh. on the Nanticoke River, Dorchester County. In 1937, the total catch of muskrat on this marsh was 2,417 animals (4.0 animals per acre). By 1950 the catch on this same marsh had dropped to 150 animals, or 0.2 animals per acre. On a Statewide level, the total catch of muskrat was estimated at 2 million in 1938. In 1949, when Maryland first began to keep accurate records of the muskrat catch, only 228,548 animals were reported trapped throughout the State. By 1957 this figure had dropped to a low of 112,348 muskrats. The 1967-68 catch was reported as 139,000. These figures show that the muskrat population has been experi- encing a decline over the past 25 years, and since the muskrat is an economically important animal, there has been considerable ‘specula- tion and research devoted to the reason, or reasons, for this decline. Hardy (1950, pp. 8-9, 27) records the opinions of the trappers them- selves regarding this decline, which includes such ideas as there being a definite ecological relationship between muskrats and domestic hogs. These trappers stated that with the fencing in of property in Dor- chester County the hogs were no longer able to root in the marshes and, hence, the ecological relationship of the two species was destroyed and the muskrat population declined. Another theory maintained by some of the trappers is that owing to various causes there has been a great increase in the number of eels in Dorchester County waters and that eels enter the muskrat houses and consume young. Other ideas are that the muskrat decline is due to increased predation by raccoons and foxes; a “dreadful disease”; floristic changes; “trapping under” (placing the trap in underground leads); and high water. Hardy (1950, p. 27) notes that some of these factors may have been operative, but that it can safely be assumed that the diminishing population of the muskrat in Dorchester County has been brought about by a com- bination of ecological and environmental changes rather than by any single factor. Harris (1952, p. 36) points out that his study on Dor- chester County muskrats did not answer the question why there has been a decline in their numbers, but it did show that the combination of predation and a reduced capacity of the marsh to support muskrats may prevent a rapid increase in the muskrat population. Specimens examined.—Anne Arundel County: Broadwater, 1. Dor- chester County: Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, 8. Frederick County: Jefferson, 1. Montgomery County: Forest Glen, 1; Kensing- ton, 1; Sligo Branch, 1. Prince Georges County : Beaverdam Creek, 1; Beltsville, 1; Branchville, 3; Lanham, 2; Laurel, 147. District of Columbia: 6. 114 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 Other records and reports (from Dozier, 19485, unless otherwise noted).—Baltimore County: Bare Hills-Lake Roland area (Bures, 1948, p. 68) ; Loch Raven (Kirkwood, 1931, p. 317); Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 7). Dorchester County: Best Pitch Ferry; Elhotts Island; Fishing Bay; Joe’s Point; Robbins, near; Taylors Island; World End Creek, near Golden Hill. Garrett County: Piney Run, near Piney Dam (trapping record, Maryland Nat. Res. Inst.) ; Pawn Run, as it enters Deep Creek (trapping record, Maryland Nat. Res. Inst.). Hent County: above and below Chestertown, on the Chester River; Chestertown (specimens in Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. collection) ; Fairlee Creek near its Chesapeake Bay Mouth. Montgomery County: Mainland across from Plummers Island (Goldman and Jackson, 1939, p. 1383). Prince Georges County: Patuxent Research Refuge (Uhler & Llewellyn, 1952, p. 81). Queen Annes County: Booker’s Wharf. Remarks.—I have not been able to examine specimens from the Ridge and Valley and the Allegheny Mountain sections, but one specimen I examined from Jefferson, Frederick County, just to the east of the Blue Ridge Mountains, is clearly an intergrade with Ondatra 2. zibethi- cus in size and coloration, and almost near enough to typical zibethicus to be assigned to that subspecies. On the basis of this specimen, and because of the known distribution of O. 2. zébethicus in Virginia and Pennsylvania, the muskrats of the Ridge and Valley and Allegheny Mountain sections probably are referable to the subspecies 2ibethicus. This subspecies appears to intergrade with the Coastal Plain sub- species macrodon throughout most of the upper Piedmont section. Published reports of this species in western Maryland are by Brown- ing (1928, p. 213) who saw muskrats around 1825 in the vicinity of Deep Creek Lake in Garrett County, and by Mansueti, (1958, p. 83), who observed them in Cranesville Swamp, Garret County, in the 1950’s. The species is present in suitable streams and ponds through- out the Ridge and Valley and Allegheny Mountain sections at the present time, and according to Flyger (in verbis, 22 June 1964) trap- pers report that they are not uncommon. Ondatra 2. zibethicus differs from O. 2. macrodon in its darker pelage (in normal color phase), and in its smaller size. It is of in- terest to note that Merriam in his original description of macrodon (specimens from Dismal Swamp, Virginia) considered the subspecies to be a much darker form than zébethicus. Merriam’s specimens, how- ever, were mostly dark phase animals, and as Hollister (1911, p. 18) has shown, macrodon (in normal color phase) is actually a lighter and brighter colored subspecies than 2¢bethicus. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 115 SOUTHERN BOG LEMMING Synaptomys cooperi stonei Rhoads Synaptomys stonei Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 27: 53, January 1893. Type locality. May’s Landing, Atlantic County, N.J. General distribution.—Southern Appalachians of eastern Kentucky and Ten- nessee, western North Carolina and Virginia and western Maryland to the Atlantic Coastal Plain of Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey, and northward to Connecticut and coastal Massachusetts. Distribution in Maryland—Statewide in distribution. The most southeasterly record for the subspecies stonez is in Worcester County (Poole, 1948, p. 103). Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3, = 16; size medium; tail short; fur rather long and shaggy; head broad; ears short, rising slightly above the fur; upper incisor teeth grooved. Color- ation of upper parts brown to chestnut, grizzled in appearance; underparts silvery, with no sharp line of demarcation on the sides; tail grayish black, not sharply bicolored; feet brownish black. This is the only short-tailed mouse in Maryland which has grooved upper incisors, and may thus be distinguished from all others. Crani- ally, the southern bog lemming has a shorter rostrum than any other Maryland mouse. SCALE oO !10 20 SOMILES Ee Synaptomys coopert stonet @ Specimens examined © Specimens reported FIGURE 41.—Distribution of Synaptomys cooperi stonei, 116 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 Measurements External measurements of five adults, and cranial measurements of six adults from Laurel, Prince Georges County, are as follows: Total length 127.4 (120-135) ; tail 21.2 (18-23) ; hind foot 19 (18-20); greatest length of skull 24.7 (24.3-24.9); zygomatic breadth 17.0 (16.5-17.5) ; interorbital constriction 2.9 (2.7-8.1) ; length of maxillary toothrow 7.5 (7.4-7.8). Habitat and habits—tThis species has a preference for sphagnum bogs, and this is where most Maryland specimens have been collected. It is sometimes found, however, in woodland habitats, including beach-maple, oak-hickory, and pine. Specimens have even been taken in grassy areas, orchards, weedy fields, and marshes, and in shocked corn. According to Conner (1959, p. 171) the chief requirement of Synap- tomys seems to be the presence of green succulent monocotyledonous plants, primarily sedges and grasses, which are its main source of food. This species may breed throughout the year, although Conner (p. 203) found that in southern New Jersey there was a spring peak in the breeding cycle, with some breeding continuing through summer and autumn. Poole (19438, p. 103) found a lactating female in Wor- cester County, Md., in late November. Conner (p. 202) found that litters of from two to five were usual for the species, although a single embryo is not uncommon, and as many as seven young have been reported. His data suggest that in the spring and summer females produce a litter every 67 days. Wherever the southern bog lemming occurs, it is found in com- pany with other small mammals such as red-backed mice, deer mice, shrews, and moles, and it often occupies the same burrows as these others, The nests are constructed of shredded grasses and sedges and are often concealed some distance beneath the ground. Less often, they are placed directly on the ground where there is sufficient ground cover. Conner (p. 227) found that most of the nests in southern New Jersey were located just under the surface, concealed in either hemlock or moss or in other elevated mounds in the bogs. Most of the nests were balls of dry shredded leaves of sedge, and had two entrances. The diameters ranged from 314 to 6 inches, and the hollow spaces within the nests averaged about 214 inches. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Oldtown, 9 miles KE, 1. Prince Georges County: Beltsville, 1; Beltsville, 214 miles W (sphagnum bog), 5; Hyattsville, 8. District of Columbia: 1. Other records and reports—Montgomery County: Sandy Springs [skull removed from stomach of red-tailed hawk] (Bailey, 1923, p. 118). Worcester County: Snow Hill, 6 miles SW (Poole, 1943, p. 103). MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 117 Remarks.—The specimen from 9 miles E of Oldtown, Allegany County, is somewhat smaller in size and less grizzled in coloration than those from farther east in the State. This animal may represent an intergrade in these characters with S. c. cooperi, the subspecies dis- tributed to the north of stoned, or may actually be referable to that form. As Wetzel (1955, p. 12) has pointed out, however, the ranges of all measurements in these two subspecies overlap, and the variation in coloration within only one sample of cooperi for one season is much greater than between the various subspecies of S. cooperi. This illustrates the difficulty in assigning individual specimens to sub- species. Because of this, the specimen from Allegany County is pro- visionally assigned to S. c. stonei, the range of which is herein considered to encompass the entire State. When more specimens from the Piedmont and the Ridge and Valley sections become available for study, however, it may be found that S. ¢. cooperi is distributed in those sections, and that the specimen from Allegany County should properly be assigned to that race. Family CAPROMYIDAE (hutias and coypus) NUTRIA Myocastor coypus (Molina) Mus coypus Molina, Sagg. Stor. Natur. Chili, p. 287, 1782. Type locality.—Rivers of Chile. General distribution—Ranges widely over southern South America; intro- duced into the United States in the 1930’s, and now is established in the wild in at least 16 states. Distribution in Maryland.—A few nutria are established in the Dorchester County marshes. Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 1/1, 3/3, = 20; size large (sometimes attaining a weight of 21 lbs.); pelage consisting of 2 types of hair, dense underfur, and long glossy overlying guard hairs; coloration rich brown or chestnut on dorsum, paler underneath; tail long and cylindrical; middle toes cf hind feet connected by a basal web, This species superficially resembles the muskrat, from which it may be readily distinguished by its larger size, cylindrical as opposed to laterally compressed tail, and greater number of teeth. Measurements—An adult male and female from the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, Dorchester County, measure externally as follows: Body length 571, 518; tail 418, ; hind foot 156, 137. Dozier (in correspondence) reports that the heaviest animal he examined at the Fur Animal Experiment Station in Cambridge, Md., weighed 21 pounds. 118 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 No skulls of this species are available from Maryland for measure- ment. Habitat and habits——The habitat of the nutria in its South Ameri- can home is in marshes, swamps, and along the margins of rivers and lakes in fresh-water plant associations. Bednarik (1958, p. 2) says, however, that Randall Rhodes, Curator of Collections at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, has told him (in personal communication 1954) that in South America he observed that nutria were mostly as- sociated with marine waters. The temperature of the water seems to be of little importance to them, and in the United States they are now found as far north as Michigan and Washington State, where they prosper in the same type of habitat as the muskrat. The nutria is a vegetarian, consuming a variety of aquatic plants, rushes, reeds, grasses, seeds, cattails, and sedges. In captivity it shows a marked preference for alfalfa and clover and is fond of practically all root crops except Irish potatoes. Because of its voracious appetite it has posed a serious threat to waterfowl marshes in some areas where it has been introduced. Nutria living in streams or ponds which have steep banks burrow into them close to the water level. Each pair makes its own burrow, which is dug in and upward until well above the water level. The den is lined with grasses, and as the family grows, the burrow is enlarged. If the nutria are living in a marsh which does not have steep banks, floating nests of aquatic vegetation are built, which resemble those made by the muskrat. Where conditions permit, part of a colony may live in floating nests in the marsh, while other animals will build bank burrows. The gestation period of this species in Maryland is between 130 and 134 days (Dozier, unpublished data, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). The young seem to be born during all seasons, and there are probably two or three litters a year per female. In Louisiana, litter size averages 4.4 young (Harris, 1956). Nutria apparently became established in the Dorchester County marshes of Maryland sometime in the early 1940’s. There are no rec- ords of their occurrence there earlier, and Herbert L. Dozier, formerly Director of the U.S. Fur Animal Field Station at the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, does not mention their presence in the Mary- land marshes in his extensive nutria correspondence in the files of the Fish and Wildlife Service dating back to the period 13 March 1939, to 3 June 1941. It is possible that Maryland’s nutria population may have originated as escapees from the U.S. Fur Animal Field Station, al- though there is no certain proof of this. In the late 1930’s and early 1940’s Dozier was conducting experiments at the Blackwater Refuge on the feeding, care, and breeding of captive nutria. In one of his let- MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 119 ters dated 18 November 1940, now in the files of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, he says: We have recently completed two new large 100 sq. ft. inclosures in marsh and pond edge and have released a pair of nutria in each to study their reactions to various types of local habitat, etc. There is no record of what became of the inclosures or animals, and Dozier never published, to my knowledge, the results of his study. Maryland kept no accurate records of its annual fur catch until 1949. Prior to that, only rough estimates were made each year as to the num- ber of animals trapped in the State, and no mention was ever made of nutria. In 1949, when trappers were first required to report their catches, four nutria were among the animals taken. No further nutria were reported until 1956, when two were trapped in the Dorchester marshes. The following year the catch was 45 and in 1958 the number had risen to 52. Since then the number reported has declined. Thirty- four were reported for 1959, none for 1960, and five in 1961. It appears that nutria in the Maryland marshes are only precariously established. Specimens examined.—Dorchester County: Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, 8. Family MURIDAE (Old World rats and mice) BLACK RAT Rattus rattus (Linnaeus) [Mus] rattus Linnaeus, Syst. nat., ed. 10,1: 61, 1758. Type locality. Uppsala, Sweden. General distribution.—This is an introduced species. In the United States, it is well established and abundant in the south Atlantic and Gulf Coast ports. In the northeastern United States it is found in buildings along the docks of some sea- ports, and at several isolated inland localities. Distribution in Maryland—May occur at present in some buildings along the docks in Baltimore City. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3, = 16; size medium; general build slender; muzzle sharp; ears large, almost naked, reaching or covering the eyes when laid forward; tail slender and long, at least as long as the combined length of the head and body, and sometimes longer; pelage soft, but covered with coarse guard hairs, giving it a harsh appearance. There are three color phases of this species. Some authorities have considered these as distinct subspecies because of their general associa- tion with distinct geographic areas. One of these color phases, known as BR. r. frugivorous, has a yellowish or reddish brown dorsum, with a white or yellowish abdomen, and is most commonly encountered in the Mediterranean area. Another color variation, 7. r. alecandrimus, has a 120) NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 brownish dorsum, similar to that of frugivorous, but with a gray venter, and is most abundant in the Middle East and North Africa. The third color phase, known as A. r. rattus, has a black dorsum, with a dark gray venter, as in alexandrinus, and is mostly associated with the cold temperate countries of northern Europe. In general, &. 7. frugivorous is a wild-living animal, whereas alexandrinus and rattus are nearly always associated with man and his habitations. None of these varieties, however, is exclusively limited to any of the geographic or habitational areas mentioned above, and all three forms may occur at any one locality or in any one habitat. Because of this it seems advisable at present to consider them as color phases rather than as distinct subspecies (Caslick, 1956, pp. 255-257). All of the color phases may be encountered in the United States. Rattus rattus is most easily confused with the Norway rat (Pattus norvegicus). It may be distinguished from that species by its smaller size, more slender build, more elongated nose, larger longer ears, and much longer and more slender tail (as long as, or longer than, the combined length of the head and body). Cranially, the two species differ in that the braincase of FR. rattus is shortened and rounded, whereas that of 2. norvegicus is narrow and elongated, the well-devel- oped temporal ridges extending parallel to each other for a consid- erable distance on each side of the cranium. Measurements—Two adults from Washington, D.C. (taken on a river boat at the Seventh Street Wharf on 23 April 1923) measure as follows: Total length 405, 423; tail 218, 238; hind foot 37, 39; great- est length of skull 43.6, 43.2; zygomatic breadth 20.8, 20.9; interorbital constriction 6.4, 6.7; length of maxillary toothrow 7.0, 6.9. Habitat and habits.—This rat is essentially an arboreal animal and seldom inhabits burrows. Where it infests buildings and houses, it is found usually in the walls, ceilings, or roof, but seldom in basements or in sewers. It shuns water and seldom enters it voluntarily. This is, how- ever, the common rat on ships, to which it gains access by climbing the moorings. It is occasionally introduced with shipments of grain or fruit. In diet, the black rat is omnivorous, consuming a wide variety of grains, fruits, vegetables, and animal matter. The species is polyestrous all the year round. The duration of ges- tation is about 21 days, and the average litter size is seven to nine. Black rats enter into close relations with man wherever they occur, and for this reason they are often involved in the transmission of dis- eases, principally the bubonic plague. Specimens examined.—District of Columbia: Five (three taken on river boat at Seventh Street Wharf, and two taken in the Central Market in a box of fruit from Egypt in February 1912). MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 121 Remarks.—It is generally believed that the black rat was the com- mon rat of the eastern United States before the late 18th century. Around that time, it is said, the Norway rat was introduced, and be- cause it is a larger and more aggressive animal it drove the black rat out except near shipping ports (see Bailey, 1923, p. 114). There is however, no real evidence that the black rat was ever well established in Maryland or in any other Northeastern State. This animal prefers a warm climate and probably found Maryland too cold for its liking. Moreover, it is known that in areas in the South the black rat and the Norway rat live in the same habitations without one species driving away the other. In areas where the two species live together, however, there seems to be an ecological separation in that the black rat usually is found in the upper stories of a building, while the Norway rat in- habits the basement and adjacent sewers and tunnels. At the present time there are no known colonies of this species in Maryland, although perhaps a few animals inhabit some of the build- ing along the docks in Baltimore City. In 1949 Davis and Fales (1949, p. 248) reported them present in only three Baltimore buildings and estimated the population as not more than 1,000. This rat, however, is the common ship variety and probably has been, and will continue to be, repeatedly introduced into the Baltimore wharf district. As far as is known, none are established now in Washington, D.C., although here again they may leave boats and take up residence in nearby buildings. Five specimens have been taken in the District of Columbia. Three of these were removed from a boat that had docked at the Seventh Street Wharf in April 1923, and two were trapped in January and February of 1912 at the old Central Market, to which they apparently had been brought in baskets of fruit from Egypt. NORWAY RAT Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout) Mus norvegicus Berkenhout, Outlines of the natural history of Great Britain and Ireland, 1: 5, 1769. Type locality. England. General Distribution—This is an introduced form that has become widely established throughout North America. Distribution in Maryland.—Statewide. Distinguishing characteristics —Similar to R. rattus, but differs in being larger, heavier, and shorter tailed. In coloration it is grayish - or reddish brown on the back, heavily lined with black hairs along the middorsal line. The belly is silvery gray, but in some specimens it may be washed with a dingy yellowish - brown. Cranial differences between this species and attus ratius are described under the latter species. 122 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 Young Norway rats superficially resemble the native American rice rats (Oryzomys palustris). They may always be distinguished from this species, and from other cricetines, by the upper molar teeth, which in the genus Rattus (and in the other introduced Murid genus Mus) are provided with small rounded cusps (tubercles) arranged in three longitudinal rows in contrast to two rows of longitudinal cusps in most cricetines. Measurements.—An adult from the District of Columbia measures as follows: Total length 470; tail 208; hind foot 43; ear 21; greatest length of skull 52.6; zygomatic breadth 27.6; interorbital breadth 7.4; length of maxillary toothrow 7.3. Habitat and habits—This is essentially a water-loving and burrow- ing animal. In the spring of 1963, large numbers of them were inhabit- ing burrows in the banks bordering the Loch Raven Reservoir north of Baltimore. They would emerge from the burrows in broad daylight, dive into the reservoir, and swim considerable distances to obtain scraps of bread thrown into the water by visitors who were feeding the numerous carp which swim in the area near the dam. In Wash- ington, D.C., the population of Norway rats has recently risen to alarming proportions. Their burrows may be seen around many of the downtown government buildings and monuments, and at dusk they come into the open and actively forage for food among the refuse and rubble left by tourists during the day. The city of Baltimore has always had a Norway rat problem, but these animals are not as numerous as was thought at one time. In a careful study of Baltimore’s rat population in 1949, Davis and Fales (1950, p. 146) estimated there were approximately 43,000 animals, with a range of from 26,000 to 68,000, of which about 15,000 were in commercial areas. They had estimated that the population in 1947 was 165,000, so that there was a considerable decline in the period 1947 to 1949. With improved sanitation and methods of extermina- tion developed during the intervening years it may be assumed that _ the rat population of the city at present is no higher, and probably lower, than in 1949. Nevertheless, rats are still a serious economic and public health problem in Washington and Baltimore. The Norway rat is known to occur throughout the State both in commercial buildings and habitations, and in some places in the wild, particularly in the summer. The species is extremely adaptable, and about the only factor essen- tial for its success is the presence of water; it drinks freely, and is a good swimmer and diver. It will eat virtually anything, and finds sewers particularly attractive places to live because of the abundant water supply and the offal usually found therein upon which it can MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 123 feed. From the sewers it will readily pass into buildings where it may cause considerable damage. The species is an efficient burrower, and out-of-doors its bank bur- rows consist of winding galleries furnished with several escape holes. On farms, it frequently makes burrows in manure piles, rubbish mounds, wheat stacks, and hay ricks. Many Norway rats spend the summer months in fields and meadows, and at the approach of cold weather migrate into towns and villages where they seek the warmth of commercial buildings and other habitations. The gestation period in the Norway rat is 21 days. Studies in England (Hinton, 1931, p. 13) indicate that the average number of young per litter is eight or nine, but that there are records of as many as 23. Usually the number ranges between 6 and 19, and the females may produce five or six litters annually. It is generally believed that the Norway rat and the black rat are incompatible, and that the larger, more aggressive Norway rat will drive out or kill the smaller, weaker black species wherever they are occupying the same area. There is no proof of this, however, and there are even cases known where the two species have lived together in the confines of a small ship (John Jones, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in verbis). The fact that they only infrequently occur together is probably the result of their preference for different climatic situa- tions. The Norway rat is essentially a northern, cool climate animal -and prospers in the temperate regions of northern Europe and North America. The black rat originated in warm, semitropical areas and find its optimum conditions in the warm Mediterranean regions and in the southern portions of the United States. It seems probable that the black rat, although repeatedly introduced, has never been firmly established in the northeastern United States and that the Norway rat has been the common house rat in Maryland since early colonial times. Speciments examined—Anne Arundel County: Fort Meade, 1. Bal- temore City: 1. Calvert County: Solomons Island, 1. Montgomery County: Silver Spring, 1 mile N, 3. District of Columbia: 77. HOUSE MOUSE Mus musculus Linnaeus Mus musculus Linnaeus, Syst. nat., ed. 10, Vol. 1, p. 62, 1758. Type locality. Uppsala, Sweden. General distribution.—This is an old world species that has been introduced into the United States and is now found in a commensal and feral state through- out the country. 124 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 Distribution in Maryland.—Occurs abundantly as a commensal or as a feral animal in all sections of the State. Distinguishing characteristics—This small mouse is well known and needs no extensive description. The upper molar teeth of the house mouse are essentially like those in Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus, that is, with three rows of longitudinally arranged cusps. This distin- guishes the species from all other Maryland mice of small size. Externally, the house mouse superficially resembles American mice of the genera Peromyscus and Reithrodontomys. It differs from Mary- land Peromyscus externally in its smaller size and in coloration. In adult pelage, Peromyscus is generally a brownish gray in coloration on the dorsum, with a white venter, the line of demarcation between the two being sharply marked. The tail also is distinctly bicolored, darker above, pale below. In the house mouse, the coloration is more grayish and the abdomen is generally paler than the dorsum, but there is no sharp line of demarcation between the two, the abdomen seldom being pure white as in Peromyscus. In addition, the tail of the house mouse is not distinctly bicolored. The dorsum of the juvenile Peromyscus is colored a uniform slaty gray, which is totally unlike the grizzled gray of the house mouse, and the venter is a snowy white as in adults, with a sharp line of demarca- tion between the two. Externally, the house mouse is very smiliar in appearance to the harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys humulis). The most certain way of separating the two species is through an examination of the upper incisor teeth. In Retthrodontomys there is a longitudinal groove which runs the length of each incisor, while in the house mouse these teeth are smooth. In addition, the biting edges of the upper incisor teeth of the house mouse usually are notched, and the tips of the lower incisors fit into the notches when the jaws are closed. Measurements——Seven adults from the vicinity of Ocean City, Worcester County, have the following external measurements: Total length 149.3 (140-167) ; tail vertebrae 73 (58-88); hind foot 17.4 (16-18). Cranial measurements of five adults from the vicinity of Ocean City are: Greatest length 20.9 (19.8-21.8) ; zygomatic breadth 11.0 (10.6-11.5) ; interorbital breadth 3.4 (3.3-3.6) ; length of maxil- lary toothrow 3.2 (3.1-3.4). Habitat and habdits—This is a very plastic animal, and it has adapted itself to a wide variety of habitats. Like the black rat and the Norway rat, it is most often encountered in or near human habita- tions, but is also found in the wild throughout Maryland. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 125 This species probably is of Asiatic origin. It is efficient at climbing, jumping, and swimming; and it will eat and thrive on practically any food that man consumes. Its nest is made of soft materials and is placed in any convenient location, such as in walls, under floors and steps, in bookcases or furniture, and, in the wild, under logs or stones and other convenient recesses. The house mouse is very prolific. It attains sexual maturity at the age of 3 months and the breeding season is of long duration. The gestation period is from 19 to 21 days, and the number of young per litter is usually five or six. The young are born blind and naked, but they mature rapidly and are able to leave the mother in about 3 weeks. When these mice inhabit houses in large numbers, they do consider- able damage by eating large quantities of food, or tainting it with their droppings. They will consume linen clothing of all types, gnaw on books, and chew holes in the woodwork. In shops, warehouses, grain- erles, and on farms, they are usually abundant and destructive. In Maryland, the house mouse is found everywhere, even on marshes and dunes of the Atlantic outer barrier beaches. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Green Ridge, 1; Mount Savage, 7. Anne Arundel County: Annapolis, 3 miles NW, 1. Calvert County: Drum Point, 1; Plum Point, 2; Plum Point, 2 miles W, 6; Scientists Cliffs, 2; Solomons Island, 34 mile N, 11. Charles County: Nanjemoy Creek, 1; Port Tobacco, 4. Howard County: Long Corner, 2. Montgomery County: Cabin John Bridge, 2; Chevy Chase, 3; Forest Glen, 5; Gaithersburg, 5 miles NE, 1; Kensington, 7; Seneca Creek, 1; Silver Spring, 1 mile N, 2. Prince Georges County: Beltsville, near, 1; College Park, 1; Lanham, 1; Laurel, 5; Mitchellville, 1 mile W, 9; Oxon Hill, 6; River View, 1; sphagnum bog, near District line, 1. Queen Annes County: Parson Island, 1. Washington County: Fort Frederick State Park, 2. Worcester County: Ocean City, 3; Ocean City, 5 miles S, on Assateague Island, 3; West Ocean City, 4. Destrict of Columbia: 83. Remarks.—Schwarz and Schwarz (19438, pp. 59-72) reviewed the species and suggest that all house mice in the United States are re- ferable to two commensal subspecies M/. m. brevirostris and IM. m. domesticus, the latter being the one that supposedly occurs in Mary- land. In all probability, however, house mice have been introduced into Maryland from many different areas and at many different times. The range of variation in size, tail length, and coloration in Maryland specimens is so great that I am unable to assign them a subspecific name. 336-897 O—69——_9 126 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 Family ZAPODIDAE (jumping mice) MEADOW JUMPING MOUSE Zapus hudsonius americanus (Barton) Dipus americanus Barton, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 4: 115, 1799. Type locality —Schuylkill River, a few miles from Philadelphia, Pa. General distribution.—Southeastern United States, east of central Indiana, and south of central New York, southward into northern Georgia. Distribution in Maryland—Occurs in all sections of the State. Distingushing characteristics—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 1/0, 3/3, = 18; upper incisors grooved; tail very long, blackish above, white below (not white tipped); hind legs greatly elongated; pelage short and coarse; coloration yellowish orange, suffused with blackish, the blackish particularly concentrated in the middorsal area and generally forming a rather broad band from nose to tail; coloration of underparts white, sometimes suffused with yellowish orange. This mouse is readily distinguished from all other Maryland mice, except the woodland jumping mouse (Vapaecozapus insignis), by its very long tail and powerful elongated hind legs. It is distinguishable from NVapaeozapus by the presence of a premolar in the upper jaw, the absence of a white tail tip, and the more yellowish coloration (as opposed to orange in Vapaeozapus) on the flanks. Measurements.—Measurements of three adults from the vicinity of Seneca, Montgomery County, are as follows: Total length 195, 194, 194; tail 120, 110, 110; hind foot 26, 28, 28; ear 11, 10, 10; greatest length of skull 21.6, 22.0, 22.7; zygomatic breadth 10.5, 10.9, 10.6; in- terorbital breadth 4.2, 3.9, 4.0; length of maxillary toothrow 3.6, 3.7, 3.0. Habitat and habits—Krutzsch (1954, pp. 349-472) revised this genus, and gathered together its natural history data. Most of the following is based on his account. The meadow jumping mouse inhabits thick vegetation, usually grasses or forbs, or both, in areas near running water. It is found both in woodland and farmland, but is most abundant in open moist areas. In Maryland, the species occurs throughout the State in suitable habitat, although nowhere does it seem particularly abundant, except perhaps on Assateague Island, where it is common in the mixed cord- grass and myrtle back of the ocean dunes. The species is cyclical in abundance, being more numerous in some years than in others. It is ordinarily a nocturnal animal, appearing in the early dusk and remaining active until predawn. Occasionally, individuals will be active during daylight hours. Meadow jumping mice hibernate in the winter. It appears that it is necessary for this MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 127 79° | SCALE ° 10 20 SOMILES ——— EE ee Zapus hudsonius anericanus {RSL y 4 fe 3 ~ Y - @ Specimens examined SO U/ LS { wi J © Specimens reported SYN /y ae f, , Wy yO >t. re 4 4 y CJ y S 4 GL A FigurRE 42.—Distribution of Zapus hudsonius americanus. mouse to accumulate a certain amount of fat before it is capable of hibernation (Hamilton 1935, p. 193), and thus those taken in autumn are usually fat. Almost invariably, meadow jumping mice hibernate in burrows in which nests are constructed of grass, leaves, or other vegetation. Grizzel (1949, pp. 74-75) found two of these animals hibernating in woodchuck dens at the Patuxent Research Center in January 1948. One animal was found 4 feet from the entrance to the burrow and about 40 inches below the surface of the ground. The second was found in another burrow 5 feet from the entrance and 26 inches below the surface. Both animals were curled up in the center of large leaf nests and well insulated from the cold. In the vicinity of Washington, D.C., these mice remain active well into November, and emerge from hibernation in early April. In the Allegheny Mountain section, and the Ridge and Valley section, the hibernation period is more prolonged. Occasionally, during mild spells in midwinter they merge from their burrows and become active. Barbehenn tells me that he collected one jumping mouse in an old orchard with honeysuckle and poison-ivy ground cover near Rock- ville, Montgomery County, on 11 February 1960, in very mild weather. During their active part of the year, meadow jumping mice wander freely and seldom make well-defined trails or runways. They con- 128 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 struct nests of grass and leaves under logs or occasionally in a clump of shrubs a few inches above the ground. Krutzsch (1954, p. 428), citing various investigators, lists the fol- lowing foods consumed by these mice: Insects, berries, seeds, nuts, fruits of various kinds, and roots. It has been noted that meadow jumping mice are highly insectivorous (Quimby, 1951, pp. 85-86). According to Krutzsch (1954, p. 429), meadow jumping mice com- mence to breed shortly after they come out of hibernation, and the breeding season is prolonged until just before they reenter hiberna- tion in the autumn. There are probably two litters produced each breeding season, and the number of young per litter varies from three to eight. Bailey (1923, p. 120) reported a specimen from Sandy Springs, Montgomery County, taken on 19 May 1906, that contained six large embryos. The gestation period is approximately 18 days. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Dans Mountain, 1. Charles County: Marshall Hall, 1; Newport, 2. Garrett County: Cunningham Swamp, 4; Finzel, 1. Montgomery County: Cabin John Bridge, 2; Kensington, 1; Rockville, 2 miles W, 1; Sandy Springs, 2; Seneca 4% mile N, 1; Seneca, 3 miles W, 2. Prince Georges County: Branchville, 1; Laurel, 8; Patuxent Research Center, 2; Tuxedo, 1. Worcester County: Ocean City, 5 miles S (Assateague Island), 1. Destrict of Columbia: 7. Other records and reports—Baltimore County: Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 7). Montgomery County: Forest Glen (one seen by G. S. Miller and reported by Bailey, 1896, p. 98). Prince Georges County: College Park (Krutzsch, 1954, p. 439). Remarks.—According to Krutzsch (1954, p. 439), specimens from Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina are more nearly average representatives of the subspecies americanus than are those from the region of the type locality. WOODLAND JUMPING MOUSE Napaeozapus insignis insignis (Miller) Zapus insignis Miller, Amer. Nat., 25: 742, August 1891. Type locality.—Restigouch River, New Brunswick, Canada. General distribution.—HKastern Canada, from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Quebec south of St. Lawrence River, south into northeastern Ohio, northern West Virginia, and western Maryland. Distribution in Maryland—Allegheny Mountain section; may also occur in the Ridge and Valley section, but has not been reported from there as yet. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3, = 16; closely resembles the preceding species, but somewhat larger in size; coloration MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 129 Y oe SCALE Oo !0 20 3OMILES es es ca x ey) aXe > AS m > me ar FIGurE 43.—Distribution of Napaeozapus insignis insignis. similar to that of Zapus, but with a more brilliant orange on flanks tail grayish above, white below, with a distinct whitish tip; upper incisors grooved as in Zapus; only 3 molars present in maxillary, as oppos:d to 3 molar and 1 premolar in Zapus. Measurements——Measurements of six adults (Coll. U. Mich.) from 5 miles SE of Grantsville (alt. 2,500 ft.), Savage River State Forest, Garrett County, are as follows: Total length 223 (215-230) ; tail 134.7 (130-138) ; hind foot 80 (29-31) ; ear 16.2 (16-17) ; greatest length of skull 23.1 (22.2-23.7) ; zygomatic breadth 12.1 (11.8-12.3) ; interor- bital breadth 4.5 (4.14.7) ; length of maxillary toothrow 3.6 (3.4-3.8). Habitat and habits—This species prefers the moist, cool forests where it 1s particularly abundant along the banks of mountain streams. One of the Maryland specimens was taken along Muddy Creek, near Swallow Falls, in a Rhododendron and hemlock forest which is typical woodland jumping mouse habitat. Handley and Patton (1947, p. 184) found that in Virginia they are most common at high altitudes among ferns, blackberry, and St.-Johns-wort in clearings surrounded by forest. The woodland jumping mouse is seldom found in open meadows, fields, or marshes where this is no heavy forest within close proximity. This species makes no well-defined trails or runways, but utilizes the burrows of moles and larger shrews, or seeks shelter under rotting logs and fallen trees. Nests are usually placed several inches below 130 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 the ground and are made of leaves and dry grass. Sometimes the en- trance to the nest is closed when the animal is in the burrow. During the colder months of the year, woodland jumping mice hibernate, and their life processes are reduced to a mininum. In the autumn they eat heavily and accumulate large stores of fat on the body to carry them over the long period of hibernation. Their hibernation, deep and prolonged, is usually half of the year. Hamilton (1941, pp. 260-261) lists the food of the woodland jump- ing mouse as insect larvae (particularly lepidopterous and dipterous forms), spiders, small soil worms, centipedes, various small inverte- brates, small seeds, tiny nuts, small green leaves, blueberries, rasp- berries, and fragments of Asplenium fronds. This species normally raises but one litter a year. The gestation period is between 20 and 23 days, and from two to six young, possibly eight, comprise a litter; the most frequent number appears to be five. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Dans Mountain, 2. Garrett County: Finzel, 1; Grantsville, 5 miles SE (Savage River State For- est), 8 (Coll. U. Mich.) ; Muddy Greek Falls, 3 (Coll. U. Md.) ; Swal- low Falls State Forest (along Muddy Creek), 1. Remarks.—Although Preble (1899, p. 35) noted that the specimen he collected at Finzel showed no approach to JW. 7. roanensis (type locality: Roan Mountain, N.C.), it is my opinion that this specimen and one from Swallow Falls State Forest and eight from 5 miles SE of Grantsville show traits that are characteristic of roanensis. They are smaller in size and darker in coloration than typical inszgnés, and they appear to represent intergrades with roanensis. However, they are closer to insignis than roanensis in these characters and are herein assigned to the former subspecies. Order CARNIVORA (flesh-eating mammals) Family Canidae (dogs, foxes, etc.) COYOTE Canis latrans Say Canis latrans Say, in Long, Account of an exped. . . . to the Rocky MS .cs 5 dG S823) Type locality—Engineer Cantonment, about 12 miles southeast of the present town of Blair, Washington County, Nebr., on the west bank of the Missouri River. General distribution—Distributed primarily west of Mississippi River, from Alaska to Central America, with the center of population in the Great Plains of the United States. The species has recently been reported from a number of Eastern States, and apparently has been expanding its range eastward. Some of the eastern populations, however, may be derived from animals that escape from captivity, particularly those populations in Southern States. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 131 SCALE Oo !0 20 3OMILES SS Cants latrans @ Specimens examined FicurE 44.—Distribution of Canis latrans. Distribution in Maryland.—May be expected anywhere in the State. See discussion in Remarks section. Mstinguishing characteristics —Teeth 3/8, 1/1, 4/4, 2/3, = 42; closely resembles a small police dog, but with shorter legs, a bushier tail, and a more slender muzzle. Some feral dogs are so similar to coyotes that it is a difficult task for even an expert to distinguish them. The problem is further compounded because the coyote and dog may interbreed in the wild, although authentic reports of such crosses are scarce. There does not appear to be any certain way to distinguish coyote-dog hybrids from pure domestic dogs. The coyote is grayish in coloration, and the dorsal hairs are tipped with black. There is a rusty or yellowish tint on the neck and along the sides, particularly on the flanks. The head is grizzled gray; the ears brownish. The feet are fulvous, and the throat and belly white. Since some domestic dogs may be similar to this in coloration, it is sometimes necessary to examine the skull to determine the species of the animal In question. The most important cranial difference between the two is that in the coyote the frontal region of the skull is always flattened, whereas in the dog it bulges to some degree. In some varieties of domes- tic dog this bulge is quite pronounced, in others it is less so, but it is generally more developed than in the coyote. The second most notice- able difference is found in the rostrum, which is slender and elongated 132 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 in the coyote and usually shorter and more blunt in the dog. In addi- tion, the tips of the upper canines of the coyote fall below the level of the anterior mental foramina when the jaws are closed; in the dog they terminate above these foramina. The premolar teeth in the coyote are generally widely space; in the dog they are crowded. The ventral surface of the mandibular ramus is flattened in the coyote, whereas in the dog it is generally rounded. Various indexes have been developed to express numerically some of the above-mentioned cranial] differences (see Howard, 1949, p. 171; Bee and Hall, 1951, pp. 73-77; Burt, 1946, pp. 61-62). Certain specimens exhibit a confusing combination of dog and coyote characteristics. 'These animals may represent hybrids, but the characteristics of known hybrids have not been adequately documented. Until the problem of hybridization between the coyote and dog is thoroughly studied it seems advisable to refer any questionable speci- mens to the latter species. The domestic dog is one of the most variable animals with regard to its physical structure, whereas the coyote is a very uniform one (except for size). Because of this, it is possible for the domestic dog to exhibit some coyote traits without having any ad- mixture of coyote blood, whereas it is far less likely that a coyote would exhibit dog traits without some dog intermixture. In the field, the coyote at a distance may resemble a gray wolf (Canis lupus). 'The coyote, however, is much the smaller animal, has a more yellowish cast to the pelage, and carries its tail lower when running. The skull of the coyote is smaller than that of the gray wolf, and more: lightly built; the teeth are much smaller, and the frontal region of the skull is flat, whereas in the gray wolf it is bulging as in the domestic dog. Both the red fox and the gray fox are less doglike in general appear- ance than the coyote, and both are considerably smaller in size, and different in coloration. Measurements.—Externally the coyote ranges in total length from 1,052 to 1,320 mm. with a tail varying from 300 to 394 mm. The hind foot averages between 177 and 220 mm. (Hall and Kelson, 1959, p. 843). Animals from southwestern localities are smaller than those from farther north, and males are larger than females. A male from 5 miles northwest of Poolesville, Montgomery County, and a female from Cecil County, near the Delaware State line, west of Middlebury, Del., have the following cranial measurements: Condy- lobasal length 180.4, ; zygomatic breadth 99.8, 87.8; interorbital breadth 29.6, 31.5; length of maxillary toothrow 82.3, 78.7. Habitat and habits—The coyote prefers open or semiopen country. Young (Young and Jackson, 1951, p. 11) calls the coyote an “edge” animal, and believes that it has expanded its range as the forested MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 133 areas of the country vanished either through natural means such as forest fires or through manmade means such as logging etc. With the clearing of the land in the Northeastern United States, the coyote probably found habitat there to its liking, and has extended its range eastward. The habits of the coyote are thoroughly discussed by Young and Jackson (pp. 47-105). The following is compiled primarily from their findings. The home of the coyote is usually a den which it constructs on a bank or hillside, in wheat or corn fields, under houses, shacks, drainage pipes, or in hollow logs in thickets. Often the animal makes use of a fox or skunk den, enlarging it to suit its needs. As a rule, coyotes do not mate for life, but some pairs may remain together for a number of years. There is evidence that the female may breed when she is 1 year of age. The breeding season is from February to March or April, being earlier apparently in northern than in south- ern latitudes (Hamlett, 1938). The gestation period is 60 to 63 days, and females have been known to deliver as many as 17 to 19 young, although 5 to 7 is the usual number. Sperry (1941) examined the stomachs of 8,339 coyotes from western and midwestern localities and found that the principal food of the species is anima] matter, of which more than 90% consists of mammals. In addition to carrion (25.1%), the chief mammals consumed are rab- bits (33.2%), rodents (17.5%), domestic livestock (13.5%), big game mammals, principally deer (3.6%), and miscellaneous mammals such as skunks, badgers, weasels, shrews, moles, foxes, raccoons, cats, etc. (1%). Birds comprise some 2.9% of the coyote’s diet, and other verte- brates 0.08%. Insects account for 1% of the diet, and vegetable matter, principally wild fruit and cultivated fruit, some 1.7%. These percent- ages vary according to seasonal availability. Specimens examined.—Cecil County: Near Delaware line, west of Middletown, Delaware, 1. Montgomery County: Poolesville, 5 miles NW, 1. Remarks.—The coyote has been reported from nearly all of the Eastern States. It is known that the species has been extending its range eastward. Probably the coyotes of our Northeastern States are a result of the natural expansion of the range of the species. On the other hand, coyotes have been introduced accidentally, or on purpose, into some of the Southeastern States, and present populations in those States may derive from these artificial introductions. The first coyote discovered in Maryland was taken on 5 F abraary 1921, on a farm 5 miles NW of Poolesville, Montgomery County. J Woesoni (1922, p. 187) in a discussion of this animal says: 134 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 The question naturally arises as to how a coyote reached this eastern locality. It is, of course, impossible to say definitely. The animal probably escaped from cap- tivity. Or it may represent an extreme eastern extension of the geographic range of coyotes. There is no direct evidence for or against either of the suppositions. It is known that the range of the coyotes has gradually extended northward and eastward, but it would seem hardly probable that the species has, as yet, ingressed a region as far east as central Maryland. The area in which this animal was taken was transversed by a ma- jor east-west arterial highway (U.S. Route 40) and it seems highly likely that the animal was brought into the area artifically. This view is supported by the fact that nearly 40 years elapsed before another coyote was discovered in Maryland. If the Montgomery County coyote really represented a southward or eastward extension of the range of the species, there probably would have been at least occasional reports of their presence in the State in later years. As it is, not until 21 April 1961 was another coyote discovered in Maryland. On this date, a coyote was shot in Cecil County near the Delaware border by employees of the Delaware Board of Game and Fish Commissioners. Here again, the area where the animal was shot is near a major east-west highway system and not very distant from the cities of Baltimore, Wilmington, and Philadelphia. It seems likely that the animal was brought east as a pet, and either was released or escaped from captivity. On the other hand, the increasing number of reports of coyotes from New England, New York, and other Northeastern States make it more probable now than it was 40 years ago that the species has reached Maryland in its natural range expansion. It is still, nevertheless, impossible to say definitely. RED FOX Vulpes vulpes fulva (Desmarest) Canis fulvus Desmarest, Mammalogie . . ., pt. 1, p. 208, in Encyclo- pédie méthodique . . . 1820. Type Locality.—Virginia. General distribution.—Most of the Eastern United States, from southern Maine, southern Ontario and Wisconsin, south to Alabama, Georgia, and the Carolinas. Distribution in Maryland —Occurs in all sections of the State. Distinguishing characteristics—Dental formula as in Canis; sim- ilar in size and general characteristics to a small dog; nose sharply pointed ; ears prominent and erect; tail long and bushy, fulvous, but strongly streaked with black, and always with a white tip; pelage long and soft; coloration rusty on face and occiput, usually mixed with whitish; upper parts colored bright yellowish red, or fulvous, darker on the median line, with the rump grizzled with whitish; cheeks, chin, MAMMALS OF MARYLAND: 135 ° °o 77 7e Ujja* SCALE fe} 10 20 30MILES EE SS | Vulpes vulpes fulva @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FicureE 45.—Distribution of Vulpes vulpes fulva. throat, and a band down the abdomen white; feet and outside of ears black. Cranially, this fox differs from the gray fox (Urocyon) in that the temporal ridges enclose a narrow V on the top of the skull, whereas in the latter they are distinctly lyrate in shape; the upper incisors are lobed, in contrast to the unlobed condition in Urocyon. Measurements.—Three adult males from Montgomery County have the following external measurements: Total length 1030, 1000, 995; tail 370, 372, 360; hind foot 170, 165, 160; ear 83, 86, 85. Cranial meas- urements of seven adults from Montgomery County are as follows: Basal length 139.7 (133.8-143.6) ; zygomatic breadth 72.0 (69.7-74.0) ; postorbital constriction 23.9 (22.0-28.8); alveolar length of upper maxillary toothrow 61.8 (59.5-63.4). Females average smaller than males in size. Habitat and habits—The red fox is cosmopolitan in its distribution, except that it is not generally found in dense forests and woods. It prefers rolling farmland, sparsely wooded areas, brushlands, and dense weed patches, usually in the vicinity of a stream or lake. The species is now abundant in all sections of the State, although at one time it apparently was not found here. According to Mansueti (1950, pp. 27-28), the early American settlers hunted the gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus). The Indians were unanimous in claim- ing that before the coming of the Europeans there were no red foxes 136 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 in the area. Sometime around 1650, red foxes were imported from England and released along the Eastern Shore of Maryland. These foxes apparently thrived and by the late 1670’s had spread down the peninsula into Virginia. Today the species is widely distributed in Maryland, and is found even within the limits of metropolitan areas such as Baltimore and Washington, D.C. Whether the fox which now occurs throughout the State is the variety introduced by the English, or the native eastern North American form which has extended its range southward, will be discussed under the Remarks section. The red fox is extremely abundant in some areas of the State. Ac- cording to the League of Maryland Sportsmen (Rally Sheet 4(10), p. 6, December 1946) 79 were caught in a 5-week period at Mount Savage, Garrett County, in 1946. At the eastern end of the State on the outer barrier beach of Assateague Island, it is also abundant, and does some damage to nesting birds and their eggs. This species still roams in Rock Creek Park in the heart of Washington, D.C. The food of the red fox varies from season to season. Llewellyn and Uhler, (1952, p. 198) found that in their Maryland sample, compris- ing mostly November, December, and January animals, 17 percent of the food was plant material consisting of fruits, berries, and other plant items. Persimmon, pokeberry, and wild grape were most often consumed, while in the fall beechnuts were heavily utilized. Apple, pear, and corn were eaten to a minor extent. The bulk of the red fox’s food consists of animal foods, the most important part of which ap- pears to be rabbit. Also consumed are rodents (meadow mice, musk- rats, pine mice, gray and flying squirrels, house mice) and shrews. Birds and occasionally insects are eaten. In the spring and summer months the food consists of woodchucks, poultry, rabbits, small ro- dents, birds, snakes, turtles, eggs and varying amounts of vegetable matter particularly raspberries and blackberries. There is no question that red foxes prey to some extent on domestic livestock, particularly poultry when it is not properly housed. Sometimes red foxes may be- come quite bold. Vernon Bailey (unpublished report in files of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 25 April 1936) tells of a pair raiding the henhouse of a farm in Brookville, Montgomery County; they were so bold that they often raided in broad daylight and took the hens before the eyes of their owners. The red fox is monogamous and is believed to remain mated for life. The species is monestrous, with one season a year. Most matings take place in late January or February, and the gestation period is between 49 and 55 days. Litter size varies between one and eight, with four or five being the usual number. The breeding or family den of the red fox is nearly always in a burrow, often that of a woodchuck, and is more often located in more MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 137 open land, such as a pasture, fence border, or cultivated field. Vernon Bailey (unpublished report, 1936) described one such den at Brooke- ville as follows: The den had four openings, or doorways, 10, 15, and 20 feet apart, really the old doorways of a woodchuck den enlarged to fox size. Two opened out on each side of a big chestnut log, 3 or 4 feet in diameter. The burrows had been dug out by the foxes to about twice the diameter of the woodchuck burrows and en- larged to a comfortable fox nest room 20 feet back from the main entrance and 10 feet back from the other doorways. They ran 3 or 4 feet below the surface through hard clay full of rocks that necessitated many crooks and turns but ran uphill so the nest chamber was actually higher up than the actual doorway. All of the burrows centered at the nest, beyond which the original woodchuck burrow extended about 10 feet further but did not come to the surface. There was no nest material in the nest chamber, but semidry earth made a comfortable bed for the young foxes with their dense woolly coats, and a uniform temperature that I should guess was around 55° F. gave them a healthy home in the den. Both parents hunt for food to provide for the young. Bailey de- scribes the food found in the den at Brookeville: Much food had been brought into the den by the parent foxes. One white rooster had been all eaten but the wings and head and telltale feathers scattered around the doorway; one large house rat was lying near the doorway and two others were found in the nest chamber and parts of four others in the pantry, an excavation half full of food at one side of the upper entrance. It was about four feet below the surface and so cool that all of the meat was fresh though some of it several days old. From this were taken out part of a cottontail, half a crow, and a mouse. Specimens examined.—Anne Arundel County: Fort George G. Meade, 1; Priest Bridge (near), 1. Charles County: Waldorf, 1. Dorchester County: Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, 9. Pred- erick County: Jefferson, 2. Garrett County: Oakland, 1. Howard County: no exact locality, 1. Montgomery County: Bethesda, 1; Brookeville, 1; Fairland, 1; Poolesville, 5 miles SW, 3; Potomac, 1; Rockville, 1; Sandy Spring, 1; no exact locality, 1. Prince Georges County: Laurel, 5; Patuxent Research Center, 4. Worcester County: Ocean City, 3 miles S (Assateague Island), 2. District of Columbia: 8. Other records and reports.——Allegany County: Mount Savage (League of Maryland Sportsmen, Rally Sheet 4(10), p. 6, December 1946). Baltemore County: Loch Raven (Kolb, 1938) ; Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 6). Garrett County: Finzel (EK. A. Preble in field report). Montgomery County: Laytonsville (rabid red fox re- ported in Washington Evening Star, 28 December 1956) ; Plummers Island (Goldman and Jackson, 1939, p. 132). femarks.—lIt is well established that the red fox was either scarce or did not occur in Maryland prior to the colonization of the State by Europeans. Churcher (1959, p. 514) states that “a red fox was native 188 NORTH AMERICAN, FAUNA 66 to North American north of Lat. 40° N or 45° N, but was either scarce or absent from most of the unbroken mixed hardwood forests (to the south of this) where the gray fox was paramount.” The early Maryland colonists originally hunted the gray fox, but apparently at a very early date the European red fox was imported for hunting purposes and was released at various localities, one of which was the Eastern Shore. Since the red fox is now found throughout the whole of Maryland, as well as much of the Southeastern United States, the question arises whether these southern red foxes are the European variety or native North American red foxes which have extended their range southward. Churcher (1959, pp. 513-520) has established that the European red fox and the North American red fox are subspecies of the same species Vulpes vulpes, the various subspecies intergrading in several major characters (shape of upper first molar, breadth of rostrum, develop- ment of sagittal crest) from western Europe, through Siberia, Alaska, Canada, to eastern North America. The two end products, the west- ern European red fox and the eastern North American red fox are, however, quite different animals even if only subspecifically distinct. The European red fox is larger and has a more robust skull than its eastern American relative. It also has a shorter, broader rostrum, a relatively narrower interorbital region, and a well-developed sagittal crest which forms a distinct ridge along the top of the skull. In the native eastern American red fox the sagittal crest is occasionally de- veloped but usually not into a conspicuous ridge. It narrowly diverges anteriorly into the temporal ridges which enclose a conspicuous V on the top of the skull. This conspicuous V formed by the temporal ridges is usually not as well developed, or is lacking, in the European form. The shape of the first upper molar also differs in the two subspecies. In the European variety this tooth is large and square in general out- line, the buccal cingulum is rounded, the talon broad, and the mesial face convex. In the American form, the tooth gives the general appear- ance of being elongated laterally; the buccal face is deeply indented, the talon elongated, the mesial and distal faces concave, and there is a small protoconule. All the Maryland red foxes (and those from farther south) that I have examined show the characters of the native eastern North Amer ican form, and there seems to be no indication of intermixture with European fox blood. In fact, Maryland specimens appear to be indistin- guishable from those of Wisconsin, Michigan, southern Ontario, and New England, where I presume there was little or no importation of Kuropean stock by early colonists. It is possible that with the clearing of land in the Southeastern United States, the habitat became well suited to the native American red fox, which then invaded the area MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 139 from the north. The European red foxes, which may never really have been well established in the United States, were perhaps swamped by the influx of native American foxes and left no recognizable char- acteristics on the present fox population in Maryland or elsewhere in the Southeast. GRAY FOX Urocyon cinereoargenteus cinereoargenteus (Schreber) Canis cinereo argenteus Schreber, Die Saugtheire . . ., Thiel 2, Heft 13, pl. 92, 1775. Type locality.—Eastern North America. General distribution.—Distributed from southern New York and Lower Peninsula of Michigan, south to South Carolina and Tennessee, west to eastern Illinois. Distribution in Maryland.—Occurs in all sections of the State. It 1s more abundant, however, in the rolling hilly country of the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections than in the low, flat, mashy country of the Eastern Shore section. Distinguishing characteristics —Dental] formula as in Canis; colora- tion grizzled gray above with hairs banded with black and grayish white; inner sides of legs, sides of belly, neck, and band across chest reddish brown; belly and throat white; chin black; underfur soft and wooly, overlaid with short, coarse guard hairs; tail bushy, laterally compressed with a concealed mane of stiff black hairs on its upper side, near the base; legs short, feet equipped with well-curved claws that adapt the animal for climbing; skull with temporal ridges whose divergent branches enclose a lyrate area and never coalesce to form a distinct, sharp central sagittal crest. This fox is somewhat smaller in size, has shorter legs, and is differ- ently colored, than the red fox. Measurements—An adult male from Washington, D.C., has exter- nal measurements as follows: Total length 996; tail 356; hind foot 143; ear 71. The animal weighed 101, lbs. Six adults of both sexes from Laurel, Prince Georges County, have the following cranial measurements: Basal length 112.7 (110.8- 114.0); zygomatic breadth 67.0 (63.0—70.8); interorbital breadth 24.9 (23.8-27.3) ; alveolar length of maxillary toothrow 51.6 (50.9- 52.9). There does not appear to be any appreciable size difference between the sexes. Habitat and habits——This animal is essentially a southern and west- ern species that has apparently only recently invaded this northern portion of its range (Hamilton 1948, p. 176). It prefers timbered and rocky regions. Because of its relatively short legs, it has no great 140 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 The SCALE Oo 10 20 30MILES Hd Urocyon etnereoargenteus cinereoargenteus @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FIGURE 46.—Distribution of Urocyon cinereoargenteus cinereoargenteus. speed and would perhaps have difficulty surviving 1n wide open areas. On the other hand, it is quite at home in the trees, being more arboreal than the red fox. For protection, it depends to some extent on rocky or brushy cover to which it can retreat, or forests where it can quickly climb a tree to escape a predator. Of 60 gray foxes trapped at the Patuxent Research Center, Prince Georges County, in the 1940's, the majority were taken in hedgerows and margins habitat, and most of the others in bottomland forests (Uhler and Llewellyn, 1952, p. 84). This species selects a hollow tree or log for a den; occasionally it may use a burrow in the ground. It breeds but once a year, usually in February. Young are born from March to May and may number from two to seven, with the average being four. Both parents take part in caring for the young. The food of the gray fox varies from season to season. Studies at the Patuxent Research Center (Llewellyn and Uhler, 1952, p. 199) indicate that in late fall and early winter approximately 30 percent of the gray fox’s food is plant material, while about 70 percent is animal. Of the plant food consumed, persimmon was the most important item, while corn, pear, apple, and beechnut were also taken. Rodents were by far the most important animal food, but rabbits, birds, and insects were also consumed. Hamilton (1948, p. 177) lists rabbits as the most important food for the species. He also lists birds, small mammals, MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 141 particularly field mice, deer mice, wood rats, and shrews, snakes, tur- tles, and their eggs, lizards, insects, apples, beechnuts, corn, grapes, hickory nuts, persimmons, carrion, wild cherries, and grasses as addi- tional food items. The species is abundant in the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections. Forty gray foxes were taken in only 5 weeks in 1946 at Mount Savage, Garrett County (League of Mary- land Sportsmen, Rally Sheet 4(10), p. 6, December 1946). The species, however, is not abundant in the Eastern Shore section. In fact, the first gray fox ever taken on the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, Dorchester County, was obtained as late as 22 October 1943. Appar- ently much of the Eastern Shore section is too low, flat, and marshy for the animals’ liking. 3 Specimens examined.—Anne Arundel County: Fort George G. Meade, 1. Charles County: La Plata, 1; Rock Point, 1. Dorchester County: Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, 1 (baculum). Mont- gomery County: Plummers Island, 1; Silver Spring, 1. Prince Georges County: Beltsville, 1; Berwyn, 2; Landover, 1; Largo, 1; Laurel, 11; Marlboro, 1; Oxon Hill, 1; Patuxent Research Center, 11. Other records and reports—Allegany County: Mount Savage (League of Maryland Sportsmen, Rally Sheet 4(10), p. 6, December 1946). Montgomery County: Cupids Bower (Bailey, 1923, p. 123.). Family URSIDAE (bears) BLACK BEAR Ursus americanus Pallas Ursus americanus Pallas, . . . Spicilegia zoologica, . . . fasc. 14: 5, 1780. Type ltocality—EHastern North America. General distribution.—Wooded areas of North America, from Newfoundland to Alaska, and south into central Mexico. Distribution in Maryland.—The black bear was once distributed throughout the State, but today is on the verge of extirpation and is found only in restricted areas in the Ridge and Valley and Allegheny Mountain sections. Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 2/3, = 42; largest wild mammal in Maryland; toes armed with strong claws; normal color both above and below black or very dark brown, except for cimnamon patch across muzzle and sometimes a white blotch on throat; pelage harsh and coarse. The black bear is so familiar as to scarcely need description. Measurements.—‘Total length, adult males, 1375 to 1780 mm. (54 to 70 in.) ; tail, 90 to 125 mm. (3.5 to 5 in.) ; hind foot, 215-280 mm. 336-897 O—69-—10 142 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 (8.5 to 11 in.). Weight, adult males, 250 to 500 pounds, rarely 600 pounds or more, normally 300 to 400 pounds. Skull, adult males, length, 270 to 298 mm.; width, 158 to 185 mm. Total length, adult females, 1270 to 1475 mm. (50 to 58 in.) ; tail 80 to 115 mm. (3 to 4.5 in.) ; hind foot, 190 to 240 mm. (7.5 to 9.5 in.). Weight, adult females, 225 to 450 pounds. Skull, adult females, length 255 to 285 mm.; width, 148 to 172 mm.” (Jackson, 1961, p. 313). Habitat and habits—The black bear prefers heavily wooded areas, and is now confined to the wildest and most inaccessible forests of the Allegheny Mountain section. Individuals may occasionally visit well-populated agricultural areas, but they usually do not remain in the neighborhood of humans for any length of time. Except for females with cubs, the black bear is solitary in habits. It is nocturnal but usually does not wait until full darkness to ven- ture forth; occasionally an individual may be seen abroad in the day- time. These bears remain dormant from about the end of November or early December until March or April, usually in a cavity dug under an overturned tree, most often at the roots. Sometimes other sites are chosen, such as a cave in rocks, a hollow tree, or dense thickets. The female gives birth in January or February; the gestation period is about 225 days. One to five young may comprise a litter, but the usual number is two. Black bears normally breed only every other year. The black bear is an omnivorous animal, consuming a wide variety of foods. It is especially fond of fruits and eats large quantities of blueberries, blackberries, strawberries, and raspberries. It also con- sumes quantities of mice, insects, and fish and occasionally will kill and devour sheep and pigs. In the autumn, when nuts are available, it feeds extensively on acorns and beechnuts. In addition, it will occa- sionally eat grass, roots, and fungi. Remarks.—Mansueti (1950, pp. 14-16) has thoroughly investigated the former and present distribution of this species in Maryland. According to him, the black bear was at one time distributed through- out the State and was plentiful. Early settlers considered it the bane of their existence. Today the black bear still exists in restricted por- tions of the western part of the State, but in the past 2 or 3 decades it has been on the verge of extinction. A 1937 report by the U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey (Big-Game Inventory of the United States, 1937, Wildlife Research and Management Leaflet BS-122, January 1939) placed the total number of bears in Maryland at 150. The 1938 summary (Big-Game Inventory of the United States, 1938, U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey, Wildlife Leaflet BS—142, August 1939) placed the number at 50. By 1946 (Big-Game Inventory of the United States, 1946, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Leaflet MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 143 308, March 1948) the estimate was down to 25; in 1951 (Inventory of Big-Game Animals of the United States, 1950 and 1951, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Leaflet 342, October 1952) to 20; and by 1956 to 12. Bears are still occasionally seen in Allegany and Garrett Counties. Theodore A. Bookhout, formerly with the University of Maryland’s Natural Resources Institute, has informed me of several recent sight- ings. In the fall of 1963, one was seen near Murley’s Branch, a few miles south of Flintstone, Allegany County; in October 1963, one was seen on Maryland Route 55, approximately 2 miles north of Cor- riganville, Allegany County; on January 3, 1964, bear tracks were seen on Wagner Road just north of Oldtown, Allegany County. As Mansueti (1950, p. 16) notes, however, western Maryland is becoming more densely populated and the extensive forests are being laid waste, and the black bear will disappear mainly because it is unwanted. At most it will remain in only the most remote and inac- cessible of Maryland wildlife sanctuaries. Family PROCYONIDAE (raccoons, coatis, etc.) RACCOON Procyon lotor lotor (Linnaeus) [Ursus] lotor Linnaeus, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1: 48, 1758. Procyon lotor maritimus Dozier, J. Mammal., 29(3): 286, August 1948. (Type locality : Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, Dor- chester County, Md.) Type locality—Pennsylvania (fixed by Thomas, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 140, March 1911). General distribution—‘Nova Scotia, southern New Brunswick, southern Quebec, and southern Ontario, south through the eastern United States to North Carolina from the Atlantic coast west to Lake Michigan, Indiana, southern IIli- nois, western Kentucky and probably eastern Tennessee.”’ (Goldman, 1950, p. 33.) Distribution in Maryland—Common in all sections of the State, but particularly abundant in the Eastern Shore section. Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 2/2, = 40; size medium; form robust; fur long and coarse; coloration of upper parts grizzled gray, brownish, and blackish, there being considerable individual variation; sides paler than upper parts; under parts dull grayish brown, tinged with yellowish gray or white; black band, or mask, extends through eyes and across cheeks; remainder of face yellowish gray; tail alternately banded brownish gray or blackish and yellow, with five to seven dark rings, always terminating in a dark band. 144 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Oo 10 20 30MILES a at Procyon lotor lotor @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FicurE 47.—Distribution of Procyon lotor lotor. The racoon is easily distinguished from all other Maryland mam- mals by the dark facial mask and the long-haired tail ringed with black and yellow. Measurements.—External and cranial measurements of four adult females from the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, Dorchester County, are: Total length 749.5 (718-762) ; tail 236.7 (210-254) ; hind foot 108 (102-114) ; condylobasal length of skull 110.9 (107.1-114.2) ; zygomatic breadth 67.1 (62.7-69.7) ; postorbital breadth 23.3 (22.5- 23.8) ; length of maxillary toothrow 41.3 (39.9-43.8) ; breadth of ros- trum at incisors 23.7 (23.1-24.2). External measurements of three and cranial measurements of four adult males are: Tota] length 736, 736, 762; tail 229, 229, 254; hind foot 102, 102, 102; condylosabal length of skull 114.1 (110.9-117.9) ; zygomatic breadth 67.4 (64.9-69.9) ; post- orbital breadth 22.5 (21.0-24.7) ; upper maxillary toothrow 26.1 (25.3— 26.5). Three adult males and three adult females from Laurel, Prince Georges County, measure cranially : Condylobasal length 109.6, 112.7, 111.7, 106.3, 104.4, 108.8; zygomatic breadth 67.4, 67.8, 74.9, 67.7, 68.4, 65.1; postpalatal breadth 24.2, 22.1, 23.5, 22.1, 22.4, 23.2; length of maxillary toothrow 40.9, 41.6, 41.1, 40.7, 39.0, 40.1; breadth of rostrum at incisors 25.6, 25.1, 26.1, 28.5, 22.5, 22.8. Habitat and habits—The raccoon is cosmopolitan in habitat pref- erence, being found in woods, swamps, and marshes, including salt- MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 145 water marshes of the Atlantic barrier beaches. Uhler and Llewellyn (1952, p. 83) report that at the Patuxent Research Center, near Laurel, Prince Georges County, the outstanding habitat type was bottomland forest, followed by cultivated fields (mainly those with corn), hedge rows and wood margins, particularly if leading to cornfields. Rac- coons were also abundant around marshy lake borders and in swamps. The raccoon is a very adept climber. Although it usually makes its home in a hollow tree, it sometimes will utilize a fissure in a cliff, or a hole among rocks. Raccoons rapidly diminish in numbers when trees are cut over, and will either die off or leave the area after all the trees are gone. The raccoon is nocturnal, and forages for its food after sunset. Its diet consists of fish, crayfish, frogs, and mussels, as well as poultry, mice, birds, eggs, reptiles, and insects. In season, it eats considerable amounts of vegetable matter such as nuts, fruits, berries, and corn. In more northern climates the raccoon hibernates, but in Maryland it remains active the year round except in the coldest portions of the western part of the State. The species breeds in January and Febru- ary, and some 63 days later females give birth to two to six young. The cubs are born blind and remain so for about 19 days; they suckle for 2 months, and remain in the family circle through the winter. Remarks.—Maryland raccoons differ in no significant way from Pennsylvania and New York specimens. Dozier (1948a, p. 286) sep- arated the raccoons inhabiting the marshes of the Delmarva Peninsula from those living in the surrounding woods as a distinct subspecies, Procyon lotor maritimus. I have examined the type of this race, as well as the series designated by Dozier as representing it, and am unable to separate it from raccoons inhabiting other parts of Mary- land. All the diagnostic characters mentioned by Dozier (paler colora- tion; longer but more sparse guard hairs; much smaller size; shorter, more pointed and less prominently banded tail; relatively shorter caudal vertebrae; smaller and more distinctly curved baculum; and various cranial characters) are either within the limits of individual variation of P. l. lotor, or are so slightly marked that I have been unable to distinguish them. Consequently, I consider Procyon lotor maritimus Dozier to be a synonym of Procyon lotor lotor (Linnaeus). Specimens examined.—Anne Arundel County: Rutland, 1. Calvert County: Prince Frederick, 1; St. Leonard (near), 1; Sollers, 9. Charles County: Marshall Hall, 1; Newport, 1. Dorchester County - Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, 69; Cambridge, 1; Castlehaven Point, 3; Crapo, 1; Crocheron, 1; Golden Hill, 2; House Point, 11; Kirwan’s Neck, 2; Meekins Neck, 1; Punch Island, 6; Robbins (near), 1; Shorters Wharf, 1; Vienna, 1; Worlds End Creek, 1. Frederick 146 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 County: Jefferson, 2. Kent County: Chestertown, 2; Millington (4 miles NE), 1. Montgomery County: Cabin John, 1. Prince Georges County: Bowie, 1; Branchville, 1; Laurel, 39; Patuxent Research Center, 4. Somerset County: Cokesbury, 4; Marumsco, 3; Rehoboth (near), 2; Westover, 2; Whitehaven (across Wicomico River from), 3. Talbot County: St. Michaels, 1. Wicomico County: Bivalve (near), 1; Whitehaven, 1. Worcester County : Assateague Island, 1; Pocomoke City (vicinity), 17. District of Columbia: 1. Other records and reports—Baltimore County: Bare Hills—Lake Roland area (Bures, 1948, p. 66); Loch Raven (Kolb, 1938); Pa- tapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 5). Garrett County: Blooming Rose (Browing, 1928, p. 26); Cranesville Pine Swamp (Mansueti, 1958, p. 88). Montgomery County: Burtonsville (Herman et al., 1957, p. 118-114) ; Plummers Island (Goldman and Jackson, 1939, p. 132). Wicomico County: Salisbury, a few miles east (Kilham and Herman 1955, p. 499). Family MUSTELIDAE (weasels, skunks, otters, etc.) ERMINE Mustela erminea cicognanii Bonaparte Mustela cigognani [sic] Bonaparte, Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist., 2: 37, 1888. Type locality—Eastern United States. General distribution.—Southeastern Ontario, southern Quebec, and Maine, south through extreme northeastern Ohio and Pennsylvania into Maryland. Distribution in Maryland —Probably very rare in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, and Piedmont sections, and absent from the Western Shore and Eastern Shore sections. The species is most numerous in the coniferous forests of the northern portion of its range, but even in the north it is uncommon in coastal regions and con- sequently it probably does not occur in Maryland’s coastal plain. It has been reported from the State only once. Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 3/3, 1/1, 3/3, 1/2, = 34; size medium; body long and slender; legs short; tail moderately short, averaging about 35 percent of head and body length, well haired and slightly bushy, tipped with black above and below; coloration of upper parts in summer dark brown extending to the outer parts of the legs and feet; color of underparts whitish, usually tinged with yellow; winter coloration white except for tip of tail which remains black. This species resembles the long-tailed weasel (I/ustela frenata) in general appearance and in coloration, but is considerably smaller, and shorter tailed. When using size as a criterion in separating the two species, it is necessary to take into account the sex of the individual. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 147 Ue 39°- SCALE Oo !0 20 30MILES ee Mustela erminea cicognanit @ Specimens examined FIGuRE 48.—Distribution of Mustela erminea cicognanii. Male and female long-tailed weasels are larger than male and female ermines, but since the males in both species are larger than the fe- males, a large male ermine may approach in size a small female long- tailed weasel. Measurements——Hall (1951, p. 119) gives the averages and extremes of external measurements of seven adult and subadult males from New York and Pennsylvania as follows: Total length 266 (240-295) ; length of tail 74 (66-80) ; length of hind foot 36 (33-39). He gives the external measurements of 12 adult and subadult females from Maine and the area south to central Pennsylvania as: Total length 243 (225-260) ; length of tail 63 (55-72); length of hind foot 29.8 (26-82). Some cranial measurements given by Hall (1951, pp. 484435) of nine adult and subadult males from New York and Pennsylvania are: Basilar length (of Hensel) 35.7 (33.8-87.6) ; zygomatic breadth 20.3 (19.0-20.6) ; interorbital breadth 8.6 (7.7-8.9) ; mastoidal breadth 18.2 (17.3-18.8). Four adult and subadult females from New York and Pennsylvania measure cranially: Basilar length (of Hensel) 32.4 (31.4-33.3) ; zygomatic breadth , ——, 17.5, 18.0; interorbital breadth 7.5 (7.2-7.8) ; mastoidal breadth 15.7 (average of 8, 15.3- 16.0). 148 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Vasquez (1956, p. 114), who collected the only Maryland record of this species, says that no external measurements are available for the specimen, but he does give the following cranial measurements for the female: Condylobasal length 38.1; basilar length (of Hensel) 34.3; mastoidal breadth 17.1; depth of skull at first molars 9.1. Habitat and habits—tThis animal is most abundant in the northern United States and Canada where it inhabits the deep spruce stands. In the southern part of its range it is often encountered in brushy fields and hedgegrows, and it is particularly fond of stone walls, where it can elude its enemies and catch the small mammals and birds which form its prey. This weasel generally does not make its own home, but prefers to occupy the chambers of some other mammal, most often a chipmunk’s cavity beneath a stump or pile of rocks. Its nest is composed of fur and feathers from the animals on which it feeds. According to Hamilton (1948, p. 186) all the evidence suggests that these weasels mate in the early summer, and the fertilized eggs, after undergoing a short development remain quiescent for several months. Embryonic development continues in the late winter, and the four to nine young are born usually in mid-April. Hamilton states that the male weasel assists in bringing food to the young during their infancy and that there is much evidence that weasels remain paired throughout the year. Hamilton (1933b, p. 333) reports fall and winter food of 191 ermine in New York State as composed of the following: Meadow mice 35.7 percent; undetermined mammals (principally mice) 16.3 percent; short-tailed shrews 15.1 percent; white-footed mice 11.4 percent; rab- bits 9.0 percent; long-tailed shrews 4.9 percent; rats 4.4 percent; and chipmunks 3.6 percent. In addition, birds comprised some 2.1 percent, and reptiles and amphibians 1.2 percent of the fall and winter food of weasels (354 Mustela ermineaand Mustela frenata). Remarks.—This species has been recorded only once from Maryland. Vazquez (1956, pp. 1138-114) reports that a cat killed an ermine on the heavily wooded grounds of the Honeywell School, 4 miles northwest of Bethesda, Montgomery County, on 27 May 1954. Prior to this, Maryland was considered far south of the normal range of the ermine, and it is possible that the animal escaped from captivity. Vazquez states that the coloration is peculiarly grayish, and that its cranial measurements are slightly larger than those of female I/ustela erminea cicognanti and approach those of males of this race. The skin and skull of the specimen are in Vazquez’ private collection and I have not ex- amined them. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 149 LONG-TAILED WEASEL Mustela frenata noveboracensis (Emmons) Putorius Noveboracensis Emmons, a report on the quadrupeds of Massachusetts, p. 45, 1840. Type locality.— Williamstown, Berkshire County, Mass. | General distribution—From Wisconsin east through Michigan, southwestern Ontario, southern Quebec, and southeastern Maine, south through the eastern United States to North Carolina, western South Carolina, northern Georgia, and Alabama, west to the Mississippi and St. Croix Rivers. Distribution in Maryland.—Occurs in all sections of the State. Distinguishing characteristics—A large weasel, similar in colora- tion and general appearance to the ermine, but larger and with a longer tail. It is generally believed that except in the coldest portions of the Allegheny Mountain section, most Maryland long-tailed weasels re- main in brown pelage the year round, and the majority of winter- killed specimens from Maryland that I have examined are in brown pelage. There is, however, one male from Gaithersburg, Montgomery County, and another from Patuxent, Prince Georges County, in the National collections that are entirely white except for the customary black tail tip. Male long-tailed weasels are strikingly larger than females. So pronounced is this secondary sexual trait that some early writers SCALE ° 10 20 30MILES —EEE | Mustela frenata noveboracensts @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FicurE 49.—Distribution of Mustela frenata noveboracensis. 150 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 thought the two sexes must represent distinct species. Since the female long-tailed weasel is so small, it is possible to mistake her for an er- mine, and due allowance must be made for sex when separating these species on the basis of size. Measurements——External measurements of 12 adult males from various parts of Maryland are: Total length 382 (340-429) ; tail 131.6 (110-155) ; hind foot 48 (3448). Seven females from various parts of the State have the following external measurements. Total length 286.6 (253-815) ; tail 93.1 (80-122) ; hind foot 34 (32-38). Cranial measurements of 10 adult males from Laurel, Prince Georges County, are: Basilar length 42.7 (40.8-44.3) ; zygomatic breadth 25.6 (23.5-27.3) ; interorbital breadth 9.8 (9.0-10.8) ; mas- toidal breadth 22.4 (21.4-24.0). Cranial measurements of three adult females from Laurel are: Basilar length 36.1, 36.4, 36.5; zygomatic breadth 21.5, 21.7, ; interorbital breadth 7.9, 9.1, 9.1; mastoidal breadth 18.9, 19.0, 18.2. Habitat and habits ——This weasel prefers bushy field borders, brush- land, open woodland, and woodland bordering cultivated fields and pastures. It is quite adaptable and willing to live in close proximity to man as long as suitable prey is available. Recently, I found one dead on a road in the middle of Kensington, Montgomery County, where the only suitable habitat for some distance was the bushy area bordering a railroad track that runs through the center of town. Uhler and Llewel- lyn (1952, p. 81) report that during a study made at the Patuxent Research Center in Prince Georges County, only four weasels were taken in three trapping seasons. Of these, two were taken along hedge- rows, one in upland forest, and one along the Patuxent River. In the Bare Hills—Lake Roland area, Bures (1948, p. 66) thought these weasels were quite rare at first. Subsequent investigation revealed, however, that they were more common than he suspected, and that they range throughout the area except for the marsh and Serpentine. He says that they seem to use the railroad right-of-way as a natural highway regu- larly; their mortality rate was high there, since an average of four specimens a year were recorded killed by passing trains. In an area as small as that in which Bures was working, this is a high number of weasels. This species generally does not make its own burrow, but uses an abandoned one of a chipmunk or mole. Sometimes it will utilize a hole among rocks or under a stump. The nest center is usually filled with grass and lined with fur and feathers from the weasel’s prey. Mating in this species occurs in July and August. The gestation period is very prolonged, averaging about 279 days, but as in the ermine, the embryo remains quiescent throughout most of this period and only begins to develop rapidly during the last 27 days. The young, MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 151 numbering between six and eight, are born from mid-April to mid- May. Hamilton (1933b, p. 328) states that the male stays with the female and assists in caring for the young. He says that he has several times seen a male of this species carrying food to a den of young ones. Like the ermine, the long-tailed weasel is strictly carnivorous in diet. Hamilton (1933b, p. 333) lists the percentages of fall and winter food of this species in New York State as follows: Meadow mice 33.6; cottontail rabbits 17.3; white footed mice 11.3; rats 9.1; short-tailed shrews 5.9; squirrels 2.7; chipmunks 1.0; star-nosed moles 0.8; musk- rat 0.8. In addition to this, a small percentage of birds and reptiles is consumed. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Piney Mountain, 2 (Coll. U. Md.). Anne Arundel County: Patuxent (2 miles S), 1. Howard County : Hanover, 1; Long Corner, 1. Montgomery County: Bethesda, 1; Chevy Chase, 1; Foxhall Village (D.C.? not located in Maryland), 1; Gaithersburg, 1; Garrett Park, 1; Kensington, 1; Linden, 1; Olney, 1; Plummers Island, 3. Prince Georges County: Andrews Air Force Base (near), 1; Bladensburg, 1; Branchville, 1; Laurel, 17; Oxen Hill, 1. Talbot County: Easton, 1. District of Columbia: 8. Other records and reports.——Baltimore County: Bare Hills—Lake Roland area (Bures, 1948, p. 66) ; Halethorpe (Hampe, 1943, p. 66) ; Loch Raven (Seibert, 1939, p. 21); Patapsco State Park (Hampe, 1938, p. 6). Calvert County: Plum Point (identified from photograph submitted by John F. Fales). Dorchester County: Cambridge (five specimens in collection of R. W. Jackson, examined by Hall, 1951, p. 228). Garrett County: Grantsville (EK A. Preble, in field notes, men- tions seeing one, June 1899). Montgomery County: Sandy Spring (Bailey, 1923, p. 126). (LEAST WEASEL) Mustela nivalis allegheniensis (Rhoads) Putorius allegheniensis Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 52: 751, 25 March 1901. Type locality. Near Beallsville, Washington County, Pa. General distribution.—From Wisconsin and northern Illinois eastward through northern Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio into southwestern New York and Pennsyl- vania, thence southward in the Appalachians to North Carolina. ‘ Distribution in Maryland.—This species has not been recorded as yet from Maryland, but it has been taken in nearby Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Virginia, and probably ranges through the Al- legheny Mountain section of Maryland and possibly in the Ridge and Valley section as well. Distinguishing characteristics—A very small weasel, similar to both M. frenata and MW. erminea in coloration and general form, but 152 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 considerably smaller than either. It may readily be distinguished from both these species by its very short tail and the complete lack of a black tail tip. Measurements —“Male: An adult or subadult from Fair Oaks, Pa., a subadult from Finleyville, Pa., and an adult from Huttonsville, W. Va., measure respectively as follows: Total length, 206, 194, 191 (average 197) ; length of tail, 37, 32, 28 (32) ; length of hind foot, 23 in each. “Female: Two young from Leasuresville, Pa., and Middle Paxton Twp., Pa., measure respectively, as follows: total length, 188, 172; length of tail, 33, 30; length of hind foot, 20.5, 21.” (Hall, 1951, p. 187-188.) Some of the cranial measurements listed by Hall (1951, p. 440-441) of an adult male from Huttonsville, W. Va., and an adult female from Beallsville, Pa., are Basilar length (of Hensel) 28.5, 28.0, zygomatic breadth 16.7, 14.6; interorbital breadth 7.1, 6.2; mastoidal breadth 15.1, 13.5. Habitat and habits—This species inhabits both the deep forests and the fields and pastures within its range. It is a rare mammal how- ever, and is seldom encountered. Little is known of its habits. Hamilton (1948, p. 139) says that nests have been found beneath corn shocks, in shallow burrows bordering streams, and in similar places. The few nests that have been dis- covered were composed of grasses and mouse fur. Hamilton states that the breeding habits of this species apparently differ from those of its larger relatives. He says that young with unopened eyes have been discovered in midwinter, while nest young and lactating females have been found in Pennsylvania during October, January, and February. These litters numbered from three to six young. The female parent was always in attendance. From this he says that the young are probably born at various seasons and there is a likelihood of more than one litter a year. Hall (1951, p. 177) says that food of the least weasel consists of harvest mice, deer mice, meadow mice, red-backed mice, and possibly insects. MINK Mustela vison mink Peale and Palisot de Beauvois Mustela mink Peale and Palisot de Beauvois. A scientific and descrip- tive catalogue of Peal’s museum, Philadelphia, p. 39, 1796. Type locality. Maryland. General distribution—HBHastern United States from southeastern Maine, south to coastal North Carolina, and inland (excepting the higher elevations of the Appalachians) through Pennsylvania, Michigan, Georgia, and Alabama to Missouri. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 153 Si 78° q7~ 76° Z. pwr ae i Ny rs Ne + : a : } SCALE -39° = © 10 20 3O0MILES a eee | ZB bo tl Be is _ i . ‘ k Mustela vison @ Specimens examined © Specimens reported 38°= 1 1 79° 7e° Tits 76° FicurE 50.—Distribution of Mustela vison. Distribution in Maryland.—The species is Statewide in distribution ; the subspecies mink occurs throughout most of Maryland, but may be replaced by the race vison at higher elevations in the Allegheny Moun- tain section. This very dark northern race, vison, has been reported in the Appalachians to the south of Maryland (Kellogg, 1939, p. 262), but the only specimen available from the Allegheny Mountain section of Maryland is a zoo animal and its subspecific affinities are indeter- © minable. Distinguishing characteristics—A very large weasel, with a fairly long, bushy tail; coloration dark glossy brown over entire body, except for a whitish chin spot and an occasional white streak on the neck or white spot on the chest or belly ; pelage thick and dense, adapted for an aquatic life. The mink may distinguished from the long-tailed weasel by its larger size, and absence of a white belly. It is similar to an otter in coloration, but is smaller and does not have a broad-based tail. Measurements.—Males considerably larger than females. A typical adult male and female from Montgomery County have the following external and cranial measurements: Total length 650, 547; tail 225, 193, hind foot 70, 54; basilar length 62.4, 56.0; zygomatic breadth 42.1, 36.3; interorbital breadth 12.9, 13.7; mastoidal breadth 34.4, 30.5. Habitat and habits—The mink always lives near water. It is found around lakes, in or near marshes, and along the banks of rivers or 154 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 streams. It prefers forested, log-strewn, and bushy areas. At the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center near Laurel, Prince Georges County, Uhler and Llewellyn (1952, p. 84) found them along lake margins, by a small stream, and along the Patuxent River. Bailey (1923, p. 125) reported that in the early 1920’s they were fairly com- mon along the banks of almost any stream in Washington, D.C., and that they followed Rock Creek well down into the city. Today, owing to stream pollution and other factors few, if any, mink occur along Rock Creek in Washington. Mink make their home under large trees which line banks of streams along which they live. They also inhabit muskrat lodges or natural cavities along the banks of streams, rivers, lakes, or marshes. Males and females build separate nests, but females build more elaborate ones, lining them with grass, feathers, and fur to make a snug home for the young. The breeding season for mink begins in January and extends through March; the gestation period is variable, from 39 to 76 days, depending on when mating has occurred; the later the mating, the shorter the gestation period. Three to six young are born in April or May, but as many as 10 have been reported. Mink range over a wide aréa to procure their food, which consists of any reptiles, amphibians, small mammals, and birds obtainable. In areas where muskrat abound, such as the muskrat marshes of the Delmarva Peninsula, mink may feed extensively on them. Llewellyn and Uhler (1952, p. 199), in studies conducted at the Patuxent Re- search Center, report that it is usually difficult to get food-habits material from trapped mink since their digestion is so rapid. They state that frequently stomachs of the animals studied were empty, and only digested blood was found in the intestines. They were only able to obtain six stomachs and four scats suitable for tabulation. In none of these was there any plant food except for a few poison-ivy seeds which were found in a stomach that contained flicker remains. Pre- sumably the bird had eaten these seeds before being captured by the mink. One mink sample in March and another in December con- tained rabbit hair only. Five other winter samples had 100 percent rodent remains consisting of one meadow mouse, three pine mice, and one “wood” mouse. In the two additional stomachs examined by Llewellyn and Uhler, one contained flicker remains and the other had a beetle fragment. The mink sometimes does considerable damage to poultry. Bailey (1928, p. 125) says that he was told of a mink in the Washington area that visited a henhouse and killed 22 chickens in one night and returned the next night to kill 16 more. The following night, as the mink was returning to the henhouse again, it was caught by a dog. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 155 Despite the great number being bred in captivity, wild-caught mink are still in some demand for their fur, and each year many are trapped throughout the country. Maryland does not rank high in wild mink production. In 1966, only 303 mink were reported trapped in the State (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fur Catch in the United States, 1966, Wildlife Leaflet 478). The high point in mink trapping in Maryland over the past decade was reached during the 1950-51 season when 4,370 animals were taken (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fur Catch in the United States, 1949-54, Wildlife Leaflet 367) for their pelage. Specimens examined—Anne Arundel County: Little Patuxent River, 1. Dorchester County: Bloodsworth Island, 1. Garrett County: Oakland (through National Zoological Park), 1. Montgomery County : Bethesda, 1; Cabin John, 2; Forest Glen, 2; Garrett Park, 1; Potomac, 1; Sligo Creek (near Takoma Park), 1; no exact locality, 2. Prince Georges County: Bladensburg, 1; Branchville, 2; College Park, 1; Lanham, 1; Laurel, 44; no exact locality, 1. Other records and reports—Montgomery County: Plummers Is- land (Goldman and Jackson, 1939: 132). Prince Georges County: Col- lege Station, 8 miles NE of Washington; Patuxent Research Center. (Uhler and Llewellyn, 1952, p. 84). STRIPED SKUNK Mephitis mephitis nigra (Peale and Palisot de Beauvois) Viverra nigra Peale and Palisot de Beauvois, A scientific and descrip- tive catalogue of Peale’s museum, Philadelphia, p. 37, 1796. Type locality.—Maryland. General distribution.—New England and southern Ontario south to Virginia, and west of the Allegheny Mountains from the lower peninsula of Michigan and southern Illinois south to central Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. Distribution in Maryland.—Distributed throughout the State, but most abundant in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, and Piedmont sections; scarce or lacking in many areas of the Eastern Shore section. According to the Service Survey (U.S. Fish and Wild- life Service, vol. 3(4), p. 15, December 1943), with the breaking up of the former dense forest cover the striped skunk seems to be slowly making its way southward along the Delmarva Peninsula into Dor- chester County from Talbot County. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 3/3, 1/1, 3/3, 1/2, = 34; size large; body heavy, particularly rearward; tail very thick and bushy; legs short; pelage dense and coarse; coloration black with a thin white stripe medially on the nose, and two white stripes running from head to tail. The amount of white on the striped skunk is subject 156 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 79° | | SCALE Oo !0 20 3OMILES [ Mephitis mephitis nigra @® Specimens examined O Specimens reported FicureE 51.—Distribution of Mephitis mephitis nigra. to considerable individual variation. Some animals are almost comp- letely black, while others are predominately white on the back. This species cannot be confused with any other Maryland mammal except possibly the spotted skunk (Splogale), from which it differs in larger size and in having two rather than four white dorsal stripes. In Mephitis the nose patch is always a slender stripe, whereas in Spilogale it is a broad triangular patch. : Measurements.—T wo adult males and two adult females from Cabin John, Montgomery County, have the following external and cranial measurements: Total length 597, 648, 568, 648; tail 228, 260, 235, 270; hind foot 64, 70, 57, 67; basilar length of skull 61.5, 60.5, 55.0, 60.0; zygomatic breadth 43.2, 46.7, 41.4, 41.9; least interorbital breadth 18.8, 19.6, 19.2, 18.1; maxillary toothrow 21.3, 20.7, 20.2, 20.5. Habitat and habits ——This skunk is found in brushland, sparse woods weedy fields or pastures, under wood piles and rock piles, and around buildings. It is most common along brushy borders of streams and in rock piles and thickets at the base of cliffs. The striped skunk makes its home in a burrow which it may dig in a brushy area or pasture, or it may occupy the burrow of some other animal such as a woodchuck. Occasionally the den may be in a cave or under a log or stump. Burrows average between 18 and 20 feet long and may reach to a depth of 3 to 4 feet below the surface of the ground. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 157 The nest within the burrow is a somewhat wider area lined with dry leaves and grass. The striped skunk is polygamous, and mating occurs from Febru- ary until March, with the young being born in May or June. Only one litter is produced annually, and between two and 10 (usually six or seven) kits comprise a litter. The gestation period is 60 to 62 days. Llewellyn and Uhler (1952, p. 200) studied the food habits of skunks at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Prince Georges County. The results of their examination of 63 digestive tracts and 38 scats mostly taken in fall and winter are summarized as follows: Plant material comprised some 10 percent of the food intake. The only plant item found regularly in the stomach was persimmon, which accounted for about 7 percent. Also occasionally found were beechnuts, acorns, corn, wheat, pokeberry, blackgum, smilax, and a few other fruits and berries; some of this plant material was apparently garbage. Animal matter comprised between 80 percent and 90 percent of the food intake; insects formed almost half of the total and were most prominent in the fall. About 20 percent of the insects consumed con- sisted of beetles, with scarabs such as June beetles (mostly larvae) and Japanese beetles (mostly adults) leading the list. Ground beetles were also found frequently. The next highest group (11 percent) was made up of grasshoppers and crickets. A large number (5 percent) of true bugs, chiefly stink bugs, were eaten. In later summer and fall, it was evident that in several instances the skunks had dug out yellow-jacket nests and eaten the occupants. Lamore (1953, p. 80) reports that he found a striped skunk dead on the highway near Beltsville, Prince Georges County, in August 1962. The animal’s stomach was filled with yellow jackets. Rodents, chiefly wood mice, meadow mice, and squirrels, comprised 15 percent of the diet; eight occurrences of rabbit totaled 5 percent. Llewellyn and Uhler (1952, p. 200) believe that the squirrels and rab- bits were probably road kills, carrion, or hunting cripples, although remains of rabbits that could have been nestlings were found in two scats. Birds were found in 14 stomachs or scats and made up 7 percent of the volume. One box turtle, one king snake, and several undeter- mined snakes and salamanders were also found. Millipedes v-ere found frequently in fall and winter and often made up entire meals. Spiders also appeared often, and centipedes occasionally, but their remains consisted mostly of legs, so that their volume constituted a small per- centage of the total. This skunk, like its spotted relative, possesses a powerful scent as a defense mechanism. The fluid which contains the scent can be ejected for a considerable distance, and if it should strike one’s eye it will cause burning and smarting. Burning can be relieved by washing 336-897 O—69—11 158 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 the eye in lukewarm water, followed by flushing with boric acid. Turpentine is useful for removing skunk odor from clothing and from skin, and tomato juice is also effective. Skunk fur is commercially valuable, and in the 1965-66 trapping season, 161 striped skunks were reported taken in Maryland by fur trappers (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fur Catch in the United States, 1966, Wildlife Leaflet 478). Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Mount Savage, 1 (Coll. U. Md.). Frederick County: Jefferson, 1. Montgomery County: Cabin John, 4; Forest Glen, 1; Silver Spring, 1. Prince Georges County: Laurel, 6; Patuxent Research Center, 2. Washington County: Boonesboro, 1. Other records and reports—Baltimore County: Bare Hills—Lake Roland area (Bures, 1948, p. 66); Loch Raven (Kolb, 1938); Pa- tapsco State Park (Hampe, 1939, p. 6). Dorchester County: Black- water National Wildlife Refuge (Service Survey, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 3(4), p. 15, December 1943). Garrett County: Cranesville Pine Swamp (Mansueti, 1958, p. 83). Montgomery County: Plummers Island (Goldman and Jackson, 1939, p. 182). Prince Georges County: Beltsville, near (Lamore, 1953, p. 80). EASTERN SPOTTED SKUNK Spilogale putorius putorius (Linnaeus) [Viverra] putorius Linnaeus, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1:44, 1758. Type tlocality.— South Carolina. General distribution—‘Southeastern United States from Alabama, Missis- sippi, and northern Florida northward through western and central Georgia and South Carolina and northward in the Appalachian Mountains to south- central Pennsylvania.” (Van Gelder, 1959, p. 225). Distribution in Maryland—Ridge and Valley and Allegheny Mountain sections. Distinguishing characteristics —Teeth 3/3, 1/1, 3/3, 1/2, = 34; size small; coloration striking, the background being black, striped with four white dorsal stripes which run about to the middle of the back, the center ones being somewhat narrower than the outer; stripes breaking up into patches on the hind quarters, giving the skunk a spotted appearance; broad triangular white patch on nose and forehead; small white patch in front of ears; tail long and full, broadly tipped with white. This skunk is readily distinguished from the striped skunk (J/ephi- tis mephitis) by the patterning of its coloration. Spilogale has four white stripes on the body whereas Mephitis has two (these may be highly variable, however, in length and breadth). Spilogale has a MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 159 SCALE ° 10 20 3O0MILES Lt Spilogale putorius putorius @ Specimens examined © Specimens reported FIGURE 52.—Distribution of Spilogale putorius putorius. broad triangular white nose patch, while Mephitis has only a thin white stripe medially on the nose. The spotted skunk is considerably the smaller species. Measurements.—Van Gelder (1959, p. 255) gives external and some cranial measurements of this subspecies as follows: Males: Total length 506.6 (453-610) ; tail 180.9 (152-211) ; hind foot 47.8 (41-51) ; condylobasal length of skull 57.2 (53.6-61.9); zygomatic breadth 35.3 (32.5-37.8) ; interorbital breadth 15.5 (13.5-16.9); length of maxillary toothrow 18.4 (17.0-20.5). Females: Total length 450.7 (403- 470); tail 171.9 (154-193); hind foot 44.0 (3947) ; basilar length of skull 47.6 (45.0-50.0) ; zygomatic breadth 33.2 (31.8-34.8) ; inter- orbital breath 15.0 (13.5-15.9); length of maxillary toothrow 17.7 (16.6-18.6). A male from Piney Mountain, one-quarter mile north of U.S. Route 40 at Clarysville, Allegany County, has the following external and cranial measurements: Total length 425; tail 155; hind foot 45; ear 13; condylobasal length of skull 55.1; zygomatic breadth 34.1; inter- orbital breadth 14.8; length of maxillary toothrow 17.7. Habitat and habits—tIn the northern part of its range this species prefers to live in rock piles and crevices in cliffs. In more southern areas of the southeastern United States it often inhabits wasteland and cultivated fields and sometimes build its nest under farm buildings or lives in deserted woodchuck burrows. All of the areas in which 160 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 spotted skunks have been taken or observed in Maryland are similar. They are at or near the summits of mountains at altitudes above 1,600 feet. They are characterized by rocky outcrops which run parallel to the summits and which may be several hundred feet in length. The vegetation consists of second-growth oaks (Quercus spp.) and hickor- les (Carya spp.), with black locust (Robinia pseudocacia), Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), and dense tangles of wild grape (V72tzs spp.) occasionally present (Bookhout, 1964, p. 214). Little is known of the breeding habits of the spotted skunk. Van Gelder (1959, p. 260-270) says that there is evidence that this sub- species has an exiended breeding period, or that two litters a year might be produced since there are records of females nursing in both the spring and fall. There are between two and six young, with the usual number being four or five. According to Hamilton (1943, p. 159) the food of this species during the winter months consists largely of rabbits, mice, and other small mammals; during the summer and fall it fattens on fruits, insects, and birds. Lizards, small snakes, and offal are not disdained, and the spotted skunk will steal eggs and kill chicks. It is fond of persim- mons and various other fruits in season. This skunk possesses a means of defense consisting of a characteristic evil-smelling fluid which is secreted by two anal glands. This fluid, or musk as it is sometimes called, can be ejected accurately up to several feet in the direction of attackers. It is more overpowering, blinding, and burning than that of Mephitis, and there are few animals that are not repulsed by it. Specimens examined.—Allegany County: Piney Mountain, 14 mile N of U.S. Route 40, at Clarysville, 1 (specimen taken 10 February 1964). Garrett County: Locklynn Heights, 1 (specimen taken in mid- January 1963). Other records and reports——Latham and Studholme (1947, p. 409) report a specimen from 4 miles west of Hancock, Washington County. James H. Beal, of Frostburg, tells me (in correspondence) that he col- lected a specimen on Town Hill (Mountain), Allegany County, near the beacon light in August 1962, and another near the same locality in 1959. The following records are from Bookhout (1964, p. 214) : Green Ridge Mountain (elevation 1,400 ft.), Allegany County (one animal seen in December 1957); and Dan’s Mountain (elevation 1,600 ft.), Allegany County (four specimens trapped since 1960). Remarks.—The spotted skunk is essentially a southern species and has apparently extended its range into Maryland and Pennsylvania only within recent years. The first record of a spotted skunk in Penn- sylvania was as recent as 40 years ago (Latham and Studholme, 1947, MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 161 p. 409) despite the fact that trappers, hunters, and collectors have been working in the Maryland and Pennsylvania mountains since Colonial times. RIVER OTTER Lutra canadensis lataxina F. Cuvier Lutra lataxina F. Cuvier, in Dictionnaire des sciences naturelle . . 27: 242, 1823. Type locatity.—South Carolina. General distribution.—Coastal Plain and Piedmont of the eastern United States, from western Connecticut and southern New York, south to South Carolina. Distribution in Maryland.—The species is statewide in distribution. The subspecies /ataxina inhabits the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Piedmont sections, but may be replaced by Lutra canadensis cana- densis in the Ridge and Valley and Allegheny Mountain sections where it is scarce or possibly absent (Bookhout, in correspondence). No speci- mens are available to establish the subspecific identity of the western Maryland otters (if they occur there), but since Z. c. canadensis has been reported from the mountains of Virginia to the south (Handley and Patton, 1947, p. 133) and West Virginia to the west (Kellogg, 1937, p. 453), western Maryland specimens, if and when obtained, probably will prove referable to L. c. canadensis. 79° 8 78° SCALE o 10 20 30MILES be 39°- Lutra canadensis @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported Figure 53.—Distribution of Lutra canadensis. 162 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Mstinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 3/3, 1/1, 4/3, 1/2, = 36; size large; body slender and elongated; head small, broad, and flattened; ears and eyes small and rounded; nose broad and flat; tail long, about a third of the total length of the animal, very heavy at the base and tapering toward the tip; legs very short, ending in large feet with webbed toes; pelage consisting of a dense underfur overlaid with silky guard hairs; coloration a rich deep brown, generally somewhat paler on the belly and often with a grayish mixture on the lips, chin, and throat. The subspecies L. c. canadensis is similar to the above but considerably darker in coloration. The combination of large size, flat, broad head, thick, heavy tail, and webbed toes distinguish the otter from similar mammals in Maryland. Measurements——No external measurements are available for the Maryland and District of Columbia specimens in the National collec- tions. Handley and Patton (1947, p. 184) give the range of external measurements in otters as follows: Total length 900-1,200; tail 300- 400; hind foot 100-120. A young male from Glen Echo, Montgomery County, and an un- sexed (but apparently a male) old adult from Washington, D.C., have the following cranial measurements: Basilar length 95.8, 101.6; zygo- matic breadth 65.8, ——; postorbital breadth 19.1, 20.7; mastoidal breadth 62.9, 66.7; length of maxillary toothrow 35.2, 38.8. Two un- sexed (but apparently female) adults from Washington, D.C., measure cranially : Basilar length 87.5, 90.6 ; zygomatic breadth 64.3, ; post- orbital breadth 17.2, 19.2; mastoidal breadth 56.7, 59.9; length of maxillary toothrow 32.9, 34.2. Habitat and habits—The otter occurs along rivers, streams, and lakes, and it appears to be quite common in the marshes that border the Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. It occurs on Assateague Island, where Jacob Valentine, former manager of the Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge, told me that as many as seven were living in 1958. Most of these, however, were in the Virginia portion of the island, on the Refuge. Maryland’s Eastern Shore supports a large population of otter. Audubon and Bachman (1851, p. 11) and Coues (1877, p. 211) re- ported them as common there in the 19th century. Brayton (1882, p. 58) says that the Eastern Shore of Maryland appears to have always been a favorite resort of the otter. Another area where this species is abundant is on the Proving Grounds near Edgewood Arsenal, Harford County. Otters were at one time relatively common along the Potomac River and its tributaries in the vicinity of Washington, D.C., and have often been reported from the city proper. Bailey (1923, p. 125) records an otter at the north end of Rock Creek Park in 1920 and one taken at MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 163 Eastern Branch near Bennings in 1895. In nearby Maryland he reports that otter tracks were seen on Plummers Island in 1910 and 1922, and that one was observed swimming across the Potomac River near Seneca in April 1920. Otters still are not uncommon along the Potomac River both to the north and south of Washington. L. G. Henbest observed one swimming in the Potomac near Great Falls in late January and February 1964 and obtained a photograph of the animal when it climbed out onto a rock on the Maryland side of the river. The otter may be active any time of the day or night, but tends to be more nocturnal than diurnal. Even though it may be common, it is seldom seen by the casual observer because it is shy and spends much of its time in water. These animals are powerful and graceful swimmers and dive with ease and agility. When swimming on the surface it holds its head high out of the water and both the forelegs and hind limbs are directed backward, progression being made primarily by twisting and moving the body and tail. The otter can reach a speed of 6 or 7 miles an hour on the surface, and nearly as great a speed when submerged. The otter inhabits a well hidden den along the bank of the stream or river in which it lives. According to Liers (1951, p. 4) these animals seldom dig their own dens, but utilize abandoned beaver lodges or wood-chuck or muskrat burrows, enlarging them to suit their needs. Often these dens are simply short tunnels, but sometimes they may be extensive and complicated. The main entrance is always under water. In marshes, the otter may prepare a nest from dry marsh grasses. Nothing has been published concerning the breeding habits of otters in Maryland. Liers (1951, p. 4) studied them in Minnesota under semiwild conditions and reports that otters breed there in winter and early spring. He found the gestation period to vary from 9 months 18 days to 12 months 15 days. Only one litter is produced a year, com- prising generally two to four young. The male is allowed to rejoin the family group after the young have left the nest, and he assists the female in teaching them to swim and hunt for food. The otter eats a variety of foods, but is primarily carnivorous, consuming crayfish, frogs, turtles, larvae of aquatic insects, angle- worms, and fish (Liers, 1951, p. 1). Jackson (1961, p. 388) says that the otter rarely eats muskrat, young beaver, or duck, and that the parts of land vertebrates occasionally found among its remains probably were eaten as carrion. On Assateague Island the otters appeared to be feeding largely on jumping mullet (I/ugil cephalus). Otter fur is currently commanding good prices on the market, being durable, soft, and dense. During the 1965-66 trapping season, 495 wild otters were trapped in Maryland for the fur market (U.S. Fish and 164 . NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Wildlife Service, Fur Catch in the United States, 1966, Wildlife Leaflet 478). Specimens examined —M ontgomery County: Glen Echo, 1. District of Columbia: 3. Other records and reports—Calvert County : Chesapeake Bay, near Stoakley (LeCompte, 1937: 15). Garrett County: Deep Creek Lake (Browning, 1928, p. 213). Harford County: Edgewood Arsenal] area (personal observation). Montgomery County: Great Falls (identified from photograph taken by L. G. Henbest, February 1964). Washing- ton County: near Leitersburg (Washington, D.C., Herald, 7 January 1909). Worcester County: Assateague Island (personal observation). Family FELIDAE (cats) BOBCAT Lynx rufus rufus (Schreber) Felis rufa Schreber, Die Saiugthiere .. . , Thiel 3, Heft 95, pl. 109b, rT Type locality.—New York. General distribution.—In the eastern United States, this race formerly oc- curred from central New England south to northern Georgia, and west into the Dakotas, Iowa, Kansas, and Oklahoma. It is now absent or rare in the Coastal Plain in the southern portion of its range except in Virginia’s Dismal Swamp. Distribution in Maryland.—Formerly statewide in distribution, but now confined primarily to the Allegheny Mountain and Ridge and Valley sections. It has been entirely exterminated in the Eastern Shore section and is only rarely encountered in the Western Shore and Pied- mont sections. This species 1s uncommon enough in Maryland to produce local newspaper accounts when one is taken. Distinguishing characteristics.—Teeth 3/3, 1/1, 2/2, 1/1, = 28; general appearance catlike, but considerably larger than a domestic cat, averaging about twice as much in size and weight; body short; ears prominent and with small conspicuous tufts on the tips; eyes large and with eliptical pupils; tail very short, less than a fourth of the total length of the animal; pelage fairly long and loose; coloration of upperparts grayish to brownish, darker along the midline, and spotted and blotched throughout; abdomen and inner sides of legs white, prominently marked with black spots; tail always tipped with black. The only Maryland mammal with which the bobcat may be con- fused is the domestic cat, from which it is readily distinguished by its larger size and short black-tipped tail. Measurements.—No external measurements are available for Mary- land or District of Columbia specimens in the National collections. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 165 SCALE Oo 10 20 3OMILES SE) Lynx rufus rufus @ Specimens examined O Specimens reported FIGuRE 54.—Distribution of Lyne rufus rufus. Kellogg (1937, p. 457) gives external measurements of 11 adult males from West Virginia as follows: Total length 870 (787-935) ; tail 146 (1338-165) ; hind foot 171 (162-195). According to Jackson (1961, p. 402) the male bobcat averages about 10 percent longer than the female and weighs about 30 percent more. A female from near Fort Washington, Prince Georges County, has the following cranial measurements: Greatest length 128.0; zygomatic breadth 83.7; interorbital breadth 23.2; maxillary toothrow 40.4. Habitat and habits—Bobcats prefer wild heavily wooded or brushy areas, particularly in rocky habitats and swamps. In Maryland the animal is still fairly numerous in the wilder areas of the Allegheny Mountain and Ridge and Valley sections, but is very scarce in the rest of the State. No specimens have been taken in the Eastern Shore section for many years, and presumably the animal is extirpated there. According to Mansueti (1950, p. 21) the species has been ruthlessly exterminated in Maryland as “vermin,” and is everywhere much scarcer than in the past. Mansueti (1950, pp. 22-23) has gathered together a number of bob- cat records in Maryland. He says that Meshach Browning is reported to have killed scores of bobcats in the early 19th century, and that they were an everyday occurrence in Garrett County then. Marye (1945) says that a generation ago bobcats were destructive to sheep near the Falls of the Patapasco River, and that in his time they were 166 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 occasionally killed in Baltimore County. He reports that in the 1920’s he saw a large bobcat in Day’s woods, between the Great and Little Falls of the Gunpowder River. He also cites some notes relative to the bobcat on the Eastern Shore and says that about 2 decades ago (also in the 1920’s), a wild animal of the cat family was treed by dogs on the borders of the Nassawango Swamp, near Nassawango Bridge in Worcester County. The animal escaped and Marye doubts that any domestic cat could have done so under the circumstances imposed. Mansueti (1950, p. 22) quotes an article from the Baltimore Evening Sun (18 February 1948) entitled “Bobcats Still Here,” which says that Thomas Leary, hunter of Beans Cover, Allegany County, trapped a bobcat in 1948 on Evitts Mountain in Allegany County and the news- paper published a photograph of the animal, thus substantiating the capture. Mansueti (1950, p. 23) says that John Hamlet, formerly with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, told him that a few years ago (1945 or 1946) a bobcat was known to be roaming the Cypress Swamp region of Calvert County, and Watson Perrygo of the Division of Mammals, U.S. National Museum, tells me that bobcats are presently residing in wild areas on his property near Port Tobacco in Charles County. Several interesting specimens of bobcats from Maryland and the District of Columbia are in the collections of the U.S. National Mu- seum. One of these, a young female, was shot along with five others in a swamp near Oxon Hill, Prince Georges County, in 1941 when the swamp was being razed for a housing development. Another (an old female) was found dead in December 1958 on the curb of a down- town Washington Street, not far from Rock Creek Park. ‘The animal was not examined for bullet wounds but probably was shot in the mountains west of Washington and then dumped from an auto onto the Washington Street, although it is remotely possible that it had wandered naturally into downtown Washington via Rock Creek Park. Bailey (1923, p. 121) lists several bobcat records from nearby Virginia. The Maryland Conservationist (27(1), pp. 9, 28, Spring 1950) re- cords the capture of a particularly large bobcat in Maryland. On Labor Day of 1949, Frank Wigfield killed the animal on Iron Mountain, about 5 miles east of Cumberland, Allegany County. It weighed 43 pounds and measured 53 inches from tip to tip. The bobcat is shy and retiring, and primarily solitary in its habits. It is almost entirely nocturnal and is seldom abroad in daylight. Gen- erally, it seeks shelter under shrubs or in rock crevices, but some- times it dens in hollows trees, stumps, or logs. The den is lined with grasses, leaves, moss, and other vegetation, which are scraped and scratched into a nest. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 167 Mating in this species occurs in February or March; the gestation period is about 50 days, and between one and four kittens are born, usually in April. At birth the young are blind; the eyes open after about 9 or 10 days. Although weaned when 60 to 70 days old, the young continue with the mother until autumn or sometimes late winter. The food of the bobcat is entirely animal in nature, and consists to a large extent of rabbits as well as squirrels, mice, muskrats, and various kinds of birds. Bobcats often feed on deer; fawns are especially vul- nerable prey, and no doubt deer carrion is often consumed. Domestic livestock, mainly calves and sheep but also occasionally poultry, are also eaten. Mansueti (1950, p. 23) says that the bobcat is undoubtedly vanish- ing in Maryland, but its wary and secretive habits will insure its per- manence in some of the more isolated portions of the State. Specimens examined.—Prince Georges County: Fort Washington, near, 1; Oxon Hill, 1. District of Cotumbia: 1. Other records and reports—Anne Arundel County: Annapolis, 3 miles NW near Severn River (John C. Lingebach, in verbis). Allegany County: Evitts Mountain (Mansueti, 1950: 22); Iron Mountain (Md. Conservationist, 27(1), pp. 9, 28, Spring 1950). Baltimore County: Day’s Woods between the Great and Little Falls of the Gunpowder River (Mansueti, 1950, p. 22). Calvert County: Cypress Swamp along Battle Creek (Mansueti, 1950, p. 23). Charles County: near Port To- bacco (W. M. Perrygo, in verbis). Howard County: Falls of the Patapsco River (Mansueti, 1950, p. 22). Prince Georges County: Patuxent River, near Upper Marlboro (Bailey, 1923, p. 121). Worcester County: Nassawango Swamp, near Nassawango Bridge (Mansueti, 1950, p. 22). Order ARTIODACTYLA (even-toed hoofed mammals) Family CERVIDAE (deer) SIKA DEER Cervus nippon Temminck Cervus nippon 'Temminck, Coup d’oeil sur la faune des iles de la Sonde et de ’empire du Japon, xxii, 1838. Type locality. Japan. General distribution —Native to Japan, eastern China, Korea, and Manchuria. Introduced into England, New Zealand, Denmark, France, Austria, Russia, and the United States. Distribution in Maryland—James Island, Taylors Island, and ad- jacent mainland in Dorchester County, and Assateague Island Worcester County. 168 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Mstinguishing characteristics —Teeth 0/3, 1/1, 3/3, 3/3, = 34; size small; coloration brownish olive or reddish olive with the middorsal area somewhat darker and forming an indistinct dark line from the forehead to the rump; underparts somewhat lighter; dorsum, parti- cularly posteriorly, faintly speckled with indistinct white blotches in both young and adults, the white blotches being more noticeable in summer than winter; prominent white rump patch with semierectile hairs; antlers in male narrow, seldom having over three points and standing erect over head. This species is distinguishable from the white-tailed deer by a num- ber of easily recognizable characters. It is considerably smaller, aver- aging a third less in weight; has speckled pelage in young and old of both sexes; has narrower antlers that stand erect above the head, rather than curving forward over head; and possesses a small canine tooth in both sides of upper jaw. Measurements.—No external measurements are available for any of the Maryland specimens. The species ranges in shoulder height from 32 to 438 inches (Tate, 1947, pp. 341-342). Cranial measurements of an adult male from James Island, Dor- chester County, are: Greatest length 231; zygomatic breadth 97.1; in- terorbital breadth 69.3; maxillary toothrow 68.6. Cranial measure- ments for two adult females from James Island are as follows: Great- est length 220, 224, zygomatic breadth 91.3, 93.4; interorbital breadth 53.0, 60.0; maxillary toothrow 62.5, 65.9. Habitat and habits——In its natural range, this species prefers hilly regions with mixed large-leafed forests. It does best in areas which are not subject to heavy snowfall (Flerov, 1952, p. 128). In Maryland, it has been introduced on Assateague Island, and on James Island, from which it has spread to neighboring Taylors Island and the adjacent Dorchester County mainland. According to Flyger (1960a), four or five sika deer were released on James Island about 1916 by Clemment Henry, who had kept them in an enclosure near Cambridge for an unknown period before releasing them on the island. They multiplied on James Island and spread to nearby Taylors Island, and eventually to the mainland. Flyger and Warren (1958) estimated that in the fall of 1957, 270 sika deer inhabited James Island. Regard- ing their introduction to Assateague Island, Flyger (1960a) says that Charles Law of Berlin, Md., stated that he purchased five sika deer (two males and three females) from a man in Cambridge in 1920. These deer were held in an enclosure near Berlin for several years, during which time three young were born and one of the original males died. Dr. Law sold these deer to a man who in turn released them on Assateague Island where they have prospered and grown into a herd MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 169 of over a thousand animals (Flyger, 1964, p. 213). Most of these, how- ever, are located in the southern portion of the island in Virginia. Sika deer can be hunted in Maryland during the regular deer hunt- ing season, and nearly every year a few have been taken in Dorchester County. However, these deer are wilder and more timid than native white-tailed deer, and are more difficult to stalk. Because they are primarily nocturnal in habits many local people are even unaware of their existence in their neighborhood. The sika deer has been introduced into various European countries, some of which are not pleased with the species since it is too secretive and wild to be a satisfactory game animal, and has a propensity for peeling bark from trees and competing with other species of deer for food (Flyger, 1959, p. 24). Whether it is a potential boon or threat to sportsmen in Maryland is still uncertain. Little is known of the biology of this species in Maryland. In the Soviet Union where the animal has been widely introduced, Flerov (1952, pp. 128-129) reports that they are gregarious and that during certain periods their herds consist of many dozens of animals. Rutting begins in September and lasts for 114 to 2 months. Rutting takes a very stormy course and is accompanied by roaring and terrific battles. After the rut, the males gather together in herds and remain apart from the females during the entire winter. Females with 2- or 3-year-old young also gather in separate groups just prior to winter. Calving occurs toward the end of May or June, generally one fawn, but occasionally twins, being produced. These deer swim readily and sometimes will cross large bodies of salt water. Their food in Maryland is probably similar to that of the white- tailed deer, and it is feared that in areas where the sika deer becomes well established the native white-tailed species will not be able to com- pete for the available food supply. Specimens examined.—Dorchester County: James Island, 8. Remarks.—Presnall (1958, pp. 48-49) listed sika deer as occurring on Assateague Island, but incorrectly identified the deer from Dor- chester County as hog deer (Axis porcinus). As pointed out by Flyger (1960a), not only are the Dorchester County animals Cervus nippon, but very probably they derive from the same stock as the Assateague Island populations. In addition to Sika deer, Maryland supports ‘small! populations of introduced fallow deer (Dama dama). Presnall (1958, p. 48) says that a few animals remain from introductions in Worcester County (Mills Island in Chincoteague Bay) between 1920 and 1930, and in Talbot County between 1935 and 1945. Fallow deer are native to the Medi- terranean region of southern Europe and western Asia, but have been widely introduced in northern Europe and the United States, where 170 ; NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 colonies exist in Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and elsewhere. This deer is about the size of a Maryland white-tailed deer, but with large palmate antlers which are directed upward. In summer pelage, the coloration is fawn, with numerous white spots; in winter, a uniform grayish (although melanism and albinism are not infrequent). Miller (1912, pp. 971-972) gives external measurements of a European adult male of this species as: Head and body length 1540; tail 190; hind foot (with hoof) 435; ear from crown 165. WHITE-TAILED DEER Odocoileus virginianus borealis Miller Odocoileus americanus borealis Miller, Bull. New York State Mus. Nat. Hist., 8: 83, 21 November 1900. Type locality.—Bucksport, Hancock County, Maine. General distribution—“Western Ontario, east across southern Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia; and from near James Bay (Newport, Abitibi River), Gaspé Peninsula, and Anticosti Island south to southern Maryland, . southern Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Southern boundaries fixed at Potomac and Ohio rivers and the western limits at the Mississippi and Red Rivers.” (Kellogg, 1956, p. 40). Distribution in Maryland.—At one time the white-tailed deer was nearly extirpated in Maryland. Today it is common in all sections of the State, and is found in the wilder areas of every county. Distinguishing characteristics—Size large, larger than sika deer; antlers heavy, and main beam directed forward, bearing the several tines behind; upper parts of body colored reddish brown in summer and grayish in winter, unspotted except in juveniles; underparts and underside of tail white; juvenile animals are reddish yellow and spotted with white. Measurement—Kellogg (1956, p. 40) gives external measurements of the largest male of this subspecies that he examined as: Total length 2400; tail 365; hind foot 538; height at shoulder 1041. Two adult males from Cumberland, Allegany County, have the following cranial measurements: Condylobasal length , 261.8; width of orbit at frontojugal suture 129.7, 120.9; least interorbital breadth 74.2; length of maxillary toothrow 71.8, 72.5. Females average smaller than males in size. Flyger (1958, p. 8) says that the average weight of 47 adult male deer from western Maryland was 127.5 pounds, and 17 from Worcester County averaged 125.4 pounds, whereas 6 from the Aberdeen Proving Grounds in Harford County averaged only 104.2 pounds. Wherever the deer population becomes so great that a scarcity of food results, the size and weight of the deer in that area become markedly reduced. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 171 This was the case with the Aberdeen herd, where at the time of Fly- ger’s study deer were over abundant. Habitat and habits—Deer are essentially animals of the “edges,” preferring burned-over areas and second-growth timber. They are much less common in heavily forested sections because the dense fo- liage discourages the growth of low forage on which the deer feed. Since much of Maryland today consists of edge habitat, deer are probably even more abundant in the State than they were before the coming of the white man when most of the area was heavily wooded. Even though much of Maryland was heavily forested in precolonial and colonial days, white-tailed deer were apparently numerous and supplied a good source of food for early settlers. According to Man- sueti (1950, p. 13) there are countless references to the abundance of deer in early letters and accounts of conditions of the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. Although deer originally occurred in every Maryland county, the species was almost exterminated from about 1900 until the early 1930's. This was due apparently to high hunting pressure and other factors. For example, Browning (1928) estimated that he killed between 1,800 and 2,000 deer during his hunting career in western Maryland, and that by 1839 the deer in Garrett and Allegany counties were beginning to become scarce. Other factors that were responsible for the decline in the deer herds in Maryland include wild dog packs and forest fires, both of which are known to have killed many individuals throughout the State. _ The population increase in recent years has resulted from stocking and intelligent conservation, as well as from the increased “edge” habitat in many areas of the State. Today, the white-tailed deer oc- curs in all sections of Maryland, and in some places is overabundant. Such an area is the Aberdeen Proving Grounds in Hartford County, where according to Flyger (1958, p. 3) counting 100 or 200 deer in a single morning’s observation is not at all unusual, and where a distinct browse line is evident in the woods. At the Proving Grounds, also, there have been several instances of mass die-off in recent years, an indication of overpopulation in a particular area. Flyger found that the deer herd in Cecil County, on the other hand, is still rapidly grow- ing and the range there is more understocked than in any other part of the State. The Maryland Conservationist (40(1), p. 15, Jan.Feb., 1963) lists the total deer kill in various Maryland counties for the 1962 season as follows: Garrett 577, Allegany 699, Washington 344, Frederick 214, Carroll 114, Howard 12, Montgomery 2, Anne Arundel 5 Calvert 93, Prince Georges 12, Charles 208, St. Marys 33, Baltimore 95, Cecil 172 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 351, Harford 70, Kent 619, Queen Annes 124, Caroline 106, Talbot 180, Dorchester 696, Somerset 192, Wicomico 161, Worcester 377. In addi- tion to the above, 418 deer were killed at Aberdeen Proving Grounds during the season. The Fish and Wildlife Service reports (Big Game Inventory for 1967, Wildlife Leaflet 481, September 1968) an esti- mated total of 75,000 deer in the State for 1967. White-tailed deer are primarily nocturnal, but are often abroad dur- ing daylight hours. With regard to feeding habits of this species in Maryland and the availability of food within the State, Bitely (1963, pp. 8-9) says: Deer require a varied diet and if you’ve ever watched them feed, they’ll nibble here and there, take a twig of witch hazel, then red maple, some huckle- berry and for dessert some greenbriar. ... Whenever possible, they prefer browse, such as greenbriar, maple leaf viburnum, blueberry, sassafras, black oak, red maple and blackberry. After several winters of heavy browsing these species begin to disappear and the deer are forced to shift to less nutritious food. During the winter a deer requires from 6 to 8 pounds of dry browse each day for body and heat maintenance. If the quality and quantity of food is in- sufficient they become victims of diseases (especially pneumonia) and parasites. Very few deer in this section of the United States ever actually starve to death ; disease usually gets them first. He says that surveys conducted in 1962 in western Maryland in- dicated heavy browsing pressure on the preferred foods. For instance, of the twigs within reach and available to deer, the following percent- ages had been browsed : Maple-leaved viburnum, 53.9; blackberry, 48.8; blueberry, 59.0; black birch, 38.8; black cherry, 14.3; dogwood 33.9; greenbriar, (7.6; hazelnut, 24.1; red maple, 25.9; black oak, 44.4; sassa- fras, 54.8. In the western three counties, an average of 29 percent of the annual growth was browsed each year. By contrast, on the Eastern Shore, only an average of 6.1 percent was taken. The statewide survey disclosed that a total of 58 species of woody plants had been browsed throughout Maryland. The following life history notes on the white-tailed deer are ex- tracted primarily from Severinghaus and Cheatum (1956, pp. 57-186). It is generally agreed that social organization in this species is limited to the family group, which usually consists of an older doe with her fawns, sometimes including those of the previous year. Leadership of the group appears to rest with the old doe. The oc- casional antlered buck that may be seen with the family group is usually the yearling offspring of the old doe. In the Northern States, the breeding season begins in November and the young are born in May or June. Antlers begin to appear on the bucks in the summer. They grow from a pedicle of the frontal bone and are covered with a true skin (the velvet) during their growth. Antler growth is rapid, MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 173 usually full size being achieved within 4 months or less. During the period of antler growth, the buck is very careful of the sensitive appendages, but after full size is reached, the velvet is scraped away, and the polished antlers are used by the bucks in battles for mates. The necks of the bucks also swell considerably during the mating sea- son. After the mating season the antlers are shed, usually in January or early February in Northern States, then the cycle continues. Gestation period in this species varies from 189 and 222 days, with the average being about 201 days. The usual number of young, for older does, is two, occasionally three. A young doe, however, usually gives birth to only a single offspring. The fawns are spotted, and re- main in thickets where they blend perfectly with the dappled shadows of the foliage. Both bucks and does generally achieve sexual maturity at 18 months of age, although well-nourished doe fawns, at least in northern areas, may breed at 6 to 8 months of age. Specemens examined.—Allegany County: Cumberland, 3. Other records and reports.—White-tailed deer have been reported from every county in Maryland. Remarks.—The subspecies of white-tailed deer that originally in- habited Maryland was Odocoileus v. borealis. By the turn of the present century, however, the species was nearly extinct in Maryland, as well as in most other eastern States. Widespread transplanting of deer from areas in which they were still abundant reestablished east- ern herds. Deer from many areas, and representing a number of sub- species, were brought into Maryland, and consequently today it is impossible to assign the State’s deer to any specific subspecies. Accord- ing to Hosley (1956, p. 228): “One effect of the widespread trans- planting of Lake States deer into the south and east and of other similar moves has been to mix up thoroughly the races existing in most of the deer range.” MARINE MAMMALS OF MARYLAND The following list of marine mammals comprises only those that have stranded on Maryland beaches, or have been observed in waters off the Maryland coast and in Chesapeake Bay. The list does not in- clude all the marine mammals that may occur in Maryland waters, and many additional species will eventually be discovered. Some of these unrecorded species have stranded on beaches to the north and south of Maryland and must also pass through Maryland waters. Only those, however, which have actually been reported from the State will be discussed in any detail. 7 336-897 O— 6912 174 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Order PINNIPEDIA (pinnipeds) Family PHOCIDAE (earless seals) HARBOR SEAL Phoca vitulina concolor De Kay Phoca concolor De Kay, Zoology of New York... , Vol. 1, pt. 1 (Mammalia), p. 53, 1842. Type locality.—Long Island Sound, near Sands Point, Nassau County, N.Y. General distribution—Along the Atlantic coast of North America from Ellesmere Island to South Carolina, but is rare in the northern and southern portion of this range. Description—A. small seal that averages in total length about 4 or 5 feet and weighs 75 to 150 pounds. The pelage is coarse and varies from yellowish gray, spotted with dark brown to almost black, spotted with yellowish. The spotted pelage and small size are distinctive char- acters of this species. Maryland records.—Harbor seals in Maryland waters are stragglers; they are not indigenous to the State. Mansueti (1950, pp. 28-29; 1955, p- 2) summarizes Maryland records as follows: One specimen taken in a seine in Chesapeake Bay near Elkton in August 1824; one animal feeding around Thomas Pouch Lighthouse, near Annapolis, in March 1894; one animal killed in Tangier Sound on 8 July 1898; one specimen sighted on 14 September 1898 on a beach above reach of heavy waves at Ocean City, Worcester County; several animals in Choptank River near Tilghman Island in the early part of February 1925 ; one specimen seen in Chesapeake Bay at Flag Pond in 1940; one animal sighted at Ocean City, Worcester County, in May 1955. In addition, there is a fragmentary skin and partial skeleton of a harbor seal in the National collections; the specimen was found on the beach at Assateague Island, 3 miles south of Ocean City, Worcester County, on 12 May 1959. HOODED SEAL Cystophora cristata (Erxleben) [Phocal cristata Erxleben, Systema regni animalis . . . , 1: 590, 1777. Type locality.—Southern Greenland or Newfoundland. General distribution—North Atlantic coast from Greenland to Labrador. Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Gulf of St. Lawrence, south as an accidental to Florida. Description.—A large seal, with males ranging up to 10 feet in total length and weighing up to 850 pounds. Females are smaller, averaging about 8 feet in length and weighing up to 400 pounds. Coloration slate- MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 175 gray to blackish dorsally, with sides paler and spotted with white. Males have a bladderlike protuberence on the nose which they can inflate in times of anger or danger. Maryland records.—One recorded in 1865 as taken near Cambridge, Dorchester County, on an arm of the Chesapeake Bay, 18 miles from salt water (Cope, 1865, p. 273) ; one animal killed at Worton Point, near Chestertown, Kent County, about 1860 (Mansueti, 1950, p. 31). It is possible that the seal from Tangier Sound previously listed as Phoca vitulina concolor may have been a hooded seal rather than a harbor seal. The Baltimore Sun of 9 July 1898, which reported the killing of the animal on 8 July 1898, said that it measured almost 614 feet in length. If this measurement was accurate, the animal would fall within the size range of the hooded seal rather than the harbor seal. Order CETACEA (cetaceans) The order Cetacea is divisible into two distinct suborders distin- guished primarily by the presence of teeth, or baleen in the mouth. Those that are toothed are classified as: Suborder ODONTOCETI (toothed whales) Toothed whales may have teeth in the lower jaws only, or in both upper and lower jaws. In some forms more than 100 teeth are present, while in others the teeth may be reduced to 2. Whales of this suborder never possess baleen. Family ZIPHIIDAE (beaked whales) GOOSE-BEAKED WHALE Ziphius cavirostris G. Cuvier Ziphius cavirostris G. Cuvier, Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles..., ed. 2, 5: 352, 1823. Type locality.—Near Fos, Bouches-du-Rhone, France. General distribution.—In the western North Atlantic, reported from Newport, Rhode Island, south to St. Simon Island, Ga. Description —A medium-sized whale, ranging up to 28 feet in length. The body is thickset and has a strongly marked median keel extending from the dorsal fin to the tail. The color pattern is extremely variable; the back is usually a purplish black and the underparts white. Males have a single tooth projecting an inch or more beyond the gum at the end of each lower jaw. Maryland records.—On 5 September 1959, a whale of this species was sighted alive north of Fenwick Island, Del. It stranded that night at 176 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Maryland Beach, Worcester County. This is the only Maryland record, although specimens have stranded at other localities to the north and south of the State. Family PHYSETERIDAE (sperm whales) SPERM WHALE Physeter catodon Linnaeus [Physeter] catodon Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 1: 76, 1758. Type locality—kKairston, Orkney Islands, Scotland (by restriction, Thomas, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 157, 22 March 1911). General distribution—In western North Atlantic from Iceland and Davis Straits, south to Gulf of Mexico, West Indies, Lesser Antilles, and coast of Venezuela. Description.—This species is the largest of the toothed whales, males sometimes reaching a length of 60 feet or more. Females are consid- erably smaller, generally under 40 feet in length. In coloration this whale is a uniform gray or dark bluish gray. The narrow lower jaw contains 20 to 30 heavy teeth. Usually no teeth are visible in the upper jaws. There is no dorsal fin. Maryland records—Only one sperm whale is known to have stranded on a Maryland beach. It came ashore at Green Run Inlet (now closed) just north of the Maryland-Virginia boundary on Assateague Island in December 1891. This specimen is preserved as a skeleton in the U.S. National Museum. At times, sperm whales are numerous off Ocean City. They attract the attention of passing boats by their habit of raising their flukes clear of the water when sounding. PIGMY SPERM WHALE Kogia breviceps (Blainville) Physeter breviceps Blainville, Ann. d’Anat. et de Physiol., 2: 337, 1833. Type locality—Region of Cape of Good Hope, Republic of South Africa. General distribution.—In western North Atlantic recorded from Halifax Har- bor, Nova Scotia, south to Jupiter Inlet, Florida. This is a pelagic species that is seldom found stranded on beaches. ~ Description.—A._ small edition of its larger relative the sperm whale, the pigmy sperm whale ranges in length from 9 to 13 feet. In colora- tion it is black above, white beneath. There are usually 14 or 15 small needlelike teeth in each lower jaw; no teeth visible in upper jaws. This species, unlike the large sperm whale, possesses a small dorsal fin. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 177 Maryland records.—The pygmy sperm whale is known from Mary- land by a live specimen that came ashore at Ocean City, Worcester County, in August 1959. Vacationers at the beach repeatedly tried to push the small whale back to sea. Eventually, during a high tide the animal worked its way into deeper water where it struggled away. The stranding of this whale is discussed in detail by Manville and Shanahan (1961, pp. 269-270). Family DELPHINIDAE (porpoises and dolphins) ATLANTIC DOLPHIN Delphinus delphis Linnaeus [Delphinus| delphis Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 10, 1: 77, 1758. Type tocality.— European seas. General distribution.—In western North Atlantic recorded from Iceland and Woods Hole, Massachusetts, south to Bahama Islands and Jamaica. Description.—This is a small Cetacean, reaching a length of about 8 feet. The animal possesses a slender “beak” about 6 inches long, which is sharply marked off from the sloping forehead by a deep V-shaped groove. The mouth contains many sharp pointed teeth that interlock perfectly and are adapted for catching and holding the fish upon which the dolphin preys. In coloration, this species is blackish dorsally, including the dorsal surfaces of the flukes and pectoral apendages. The sides shade in coloration to a grayish green, mixed with eliptical bands of whitish on the flanks. The abdomen is white and there is a whitish band over the forehead with a narrow black band in the center that connects the black eye rings. Often there is a black band from the snout to the leading edge of the pectoral fin. Marlyand records.—No records of strandings of this species are available from Maryland, but Charles O. Handley, Jr., says (unpub- lished manuscript) : “In September 1959, Mike Freeman of Washing- ton, D.C., told me of having seen two kinds of porpoises in unusual abundance off Ocean City, Md., and running the Ocean City Inlet into Sinepuxent Bay. His descriptions indicated Tursiops truncatus and Delphinus delphis.”’ This cetacean is probably one of the most abundant in Maryland waters, but 1t prefers deeper waters off shore, and hence is less likely to strand than several other less numerous species. BOTTLE-NOSED PORPOISE Tursiops truncatus (Montague) Delphinus truncatus Montague, Mem. Wermerian Nat. Hist. Soc., 3:75, 1821. 178 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 Type ltocality.—Totness, Devonshire, England. General distribution.—In the western North Atlantic recorded from Massa- chusetts south to Florida. Description.—Adults of this species reach a length of 11 or 12 feet, and may be recognized by the purplish lead-gray coloration of the upper parts, the short beak, seldom more than 3 inches long, and the lower jaw, which is slightly longer than the upper. There are 20 to 26 teeth on each side in both jaws of the mouth. Maryland records—True (1890, p. 197) says that he has been informed that this species ascends the Potomac River as far as Gly- mont, a fishing station on the Maryland shore about 18 miles below Washington, D.C. On 27 and 28 July 1884, a porpoise, presumed to be of this species, was observed in the Potomac River above the Aqueduct Bridge in Washington, D.C. It was chased by boats and shot at repeatedly, but not captured. The species has been seen at various times near Alex- andria (unsigned note in The Pastime, 3(2), p. 14, August 1884). In the Chesapeake Bay, 7wrsiops has been reported as far up as Havre de Grace, Harford County (Maryland Tidewater News, 8, p. 40, 1952). Specimens in the National collections are from the following Mary- land localities: Point Lookout, St. Mary’s County; Queenstown Creek, Queen Annes County; and Scientist’s Cliffs, Calvert County. In addition, bottle-nosed porpoises are often seen off Ocean City, Worcester County, and swimming in the Ocean City Inlet into Sine- puxent Bay. This is probably the most abundant marine mammal in Maryland waters. Suborder MYSTICETI (baleen whales) Whales of this suborder do. not possess teeth. Instead, they are equipped with whalebone, or baleen, which hangs down in the mouth from either side of the upper jaws in long strips, with hairlike bristles on the inner edges. The apparatus thus formed serves as a strainer. In feeding, the baleen whales swim open-mouthed through swarms of plankton; then closing the mouth, they press the tongue against the baleen plates, squeezing out the water and leaving the plankton inside the mouth to be swallowed. Family BALAENOPTERIDAE (fin-backed whales) LITTLE PIKED WHALE Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacépéde Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacépéde, Histoire naturelle des Cétacée . , p. 37, 1804. MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 179 Type locality.— European seas. General distribution. —Adults of this species apparently winter in tropical or warm temperate waters, and summer in cold temperate and boreal waters. Young animals, however, may frequent warm or temperate waters during the summer months. In the western North Atlantic, adults have been reported during the summer from Iceland and Greenland south to New Jersey and the Delaware River. There are records of this species in Florida waters during winter months. (see Schwartz, 1962, pp. 206-209). Description—tThe little piked whale resembles a small fin-backed whale in appearance, but is of somewhat stouter build. Adults reach a length of about 30 feet. ‘There are approximately 50 ventral grooves in the throat region, and the baleen is entirely yellowish white in color. The body is blue-gray on the back and white on the abdomen. Maryland records.—This species has been recorded from Maryland only once. On 12 July 1959, an immature female stranded at Dares Beach, Calvert County, in Chesapeake Bay. Schwartz (1962) dis- cusses this specimen and its stranding in detail. FIN-BACKED WHALE Balaenoptera physalus (Linnaeus) | Balaena] physalus Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 10, 1:75, 1758. Type locality.—Spitzbergen Seas (See Thomas, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1911, pt. 1, p. 156, 22 March 1911). General distribution.—In western North Atlantic, from Iceland and Greenland south to the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. Description.—This is a large baleen whale, the adults measuring be- tween 50 and 65 feet in total length. The coloration is velvety black except for a small ash-colored area at the tip of the lower jaws, a cream-colored chin and throat and occasionally white or piebald under- parts. The undersurface of the body in the region of the throat has numerous longitudinal grooves. The dorsal fin is high and triangular, usually with a concave posterior border. The baleen in this species ex- hibits asymmetry in coloration, the blades on the right side being white for more than a third of the distance from the tip of the snout and the remainder on that side, and all of the left side, being colored a dull blue-gray with streaks of white and yellow. This whale is known as the greyhound of the ocean because of its slender build and great speed in Swimming. Maryland records——The type specimen of Sibbaldius tectirostris Cope (a species now regarded as a synonym of Balaenoptera physalus) washed ashore on the Maryland coast near Sinepuxent Inlet, Worces- ter County, in the winter 1868-69. The skull of this specimen is now in the U.S. National Museum collections. 180 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 There is a report in the Maryland Tidewater News (1953) that a whale 60 feet in length was stranded at Ocean City, Worcester County, in the spring of 1953 which probably was of this species. Fin-backed whales are more numerous off the Maryland coast than these two stranding records would indicate. BLUE WHALE Balaenoptera musculus (Linnaeus) [|Balaena| musculus Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 10, 1: 76, 1758. Type locality.—Firth of Forth, Scotland (see Thomas, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1911, pt. 1, p. 156, 22 March 1911). General distribution.—In the western North Atlantic, from Iceland and Green- land south to Panama. Description.—This is the largest animal that ever lived, either on land or in water. Adults sometimes reach lengths in excess of 100 feet, the largest specimens usually being females. 'The color of this species is Slate blue over the whole body with the exception of the tip and undersurface of the flippers, where pigmentation is absent. The blue coloration may be modified by a pale mottling that is sometimes dif- fused and sometimes concentrated in patches in different parts of the body. There are between 80 and 100 ventral throat grooves and the baleen in the mouth is jet black. Maryland records —This species is known from Maryland by a sin- gle specimen that grounded near Crisfield, Somerset County, in the summer of 1876. The skeleton of this juvenile individual, identified by G. S. Miller, Jr., is now in the museum of the Natural History Society of Maryland in Baltimore. Remarks on Maryland Marine Mammals The above list is composed only of species that have stranded or been observed off the Maryland coast. Many other species undoubtedly pass through Maryland waters and will someday be recorded for the State. Some, such as the short-finned blackfish (Globicephala macrorhyncha) and the Atlantic blackfish (Globicephala melaena), have stranded on beaches only a few miles south of the Maryland State line. The follow- ing is a list of species, presently unrecorded for the State, which prob- ably occur at some time or other in Maryland waters: Harp seal, Phoca groenlandica Erxleben. Dense-beaked whale, Mesoplodon densirostris (Blainville). Gulf Stream beaked whale, Mesoplodon europaeus (Gervais). Northern beaked whale, Mesoplodon mirus True. Striped porpoise, Stenella coeruleoalbus (Meyen). MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 181 Atlantic killer whale, Grampus Orcinus (Linnaeus). Atlantic blackfish, Globicephala melaena (Traill). Short-finned blackfish, Globecephala macrorhyncha Gray. Harbor porpoise, Phocoena phocoena (Linnaeus). Sei whale, Balaenoptera borealis Lesson. Hump-backed whale, Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowsk1). Right whale, /ubalaena glacialis (Borowsk1). EXTIRPATED RECENT MAMMALS OF MARYLAND Mansueti (1950) has discussed in detail the extirpated Recent mam- mals of the State. He lists six species that at one time occurred within Maryland but have vanished since the coming of the white man. As pointed out by Handley and Patton (1947, p. 78) : Though it is regretable that man has had a hand in the extinction of these creatures, he is not to be blamed too much, for the ascendency of one species and the extinction of another is a regular process of nature which has been repeated over and over again all down through the ages. Probably man did not have much or anything to do with the disappearance of wild horses, mammoths, mastodons, tapirs, wild pigs, ground sloths and camels which once roamed our lands, but they are gone nevertheless. As surely as a species of animal comes into being, it is destined to eventual extinction, whether by geologic catastrophies such as voleanie eruptions or earthquakes; or by great climatic changes involving vast spreading glaciers or desert wastes, or by the hand of man. Our geologists have given us proof of all this by the fossil record in the rocks. The six species of extirpated Recent mammals of Maryland dis- cussed by Mansueti (1950) are: PORCUPINE Erethizon dorsatum (Linnaeus) This species apparently never was widely distributed in Maryland, nor was it ever abundant. Mansueti cites records from Allegany County ; Blue Ridge Mountains; Frederick-Washington Counties; and Ellicott City, Howard County (all of these prior to 1881). Rhoads (1903, p. 115) cites porcupine records from Fulton and Somerset Coun- ties, Pa., adjacent to Maryland on the north. The Cumberland (Mary- land) Sunday Times for 9 August 1964 reported that recently a por- cupine was shot on a farm at Rocky Gap, east of Cumberland. A pho- tograph of this animal accompanied the news release. This may repre- sent a valid state record, or the animal may have been brought to Maryland from elsewhere. This same article in the Cumberland Sun- day News reports that in 1912 a boy in Frostburg brought some quills 182 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 to school from a porcupine he found dead on Mount Savage. It also says that during the fall of 1948 a hunter reported his dogs found a porcupine on Martins Mountain for they returned to him with their noses full of quills. He was not able, however, to locate the porcupine. The foregoing serves to show that there are records and reports of the porcupine in the western part of Maryland right up to the present day. The general consensus of opinion, however, regarding the status of this animal is that it is no longer a native inhibtant of the State. GRAY WOLF Canis lupus Linnaeus The gray wolf originally inhabited the entire State of Maryland. Not only are there documents and publications to show that they were at one time statewide in distribution (see Mansueti, 1950, pp. 25-26), but the early settlers used the name “wolf” to designate many places throughout the State. The Gazeteer of Maryland (Maryland State Planning Comm., and Dept. of Geology, Mines and Water Resources, October 1941, p. 230) lists the following place names in Maryland that give a good idea of where early colonists found wolves: Allegany County: Wolf Gap, Wolf Rock; Baltimore County : Wolftrap Branch; Caroline County: Wolfpit Branch; Carroll County: Wolfpit Branch; Frederick County: Wolf Rock; Garrett County: Wolf Den Run, Wolf Gap, Wolf Swamp; Somerset County: Wolf Trap Creek. Mansueti (1950, p. 25) says that they even abounded on Assateague Island in Worcester County. All evidence seems to indicate that the gray wolf was exterminated in Maryland at a very early date, except for those in more inaccessible parts of western mountains. Here the species probably persisted until late in the 19th century, and perhaps even to the early part of the present century. MARTEN Martes americana (Turton) The marten was exterminated in Maryland as far back as 85 years ago. It apparently was not widespread in distribution, and never abundant. Heavy trapping pressure and destruction of suitable forest habitat appear to account for its demise. It was probably most abun- dant in the western part of the State, but there are reports from the District of Columbia and perhaps St. Marys County (see Mansueti, 1950, p. 23). MAMMALS OF MARYLAND 183 MOUNTAIN LION Felis concolor Linnaeus This species at one time occurred throughout the State, wherever there were white-tailed deer, which served as it principal food. The mountain lion was hunted with relentless energy by settlers and at very early date was exterminated from all but the wildest portions of the western part of the State. The date when the last mountain lion was killed in Maryland is not known, but it was probably sometime toward the end of the 19th century. In the 18th century, the species appears to have been abundant in the mountains of Maryland. Meshach Brown- ing (1928) estimated that he killed more than 50 of them during his active period as a hunter in Garrett County from 1790 to 1836. There is no question that today, however, the species is extinct in Maryland despite the fact that from time to time there are reports of them in some of the more remote portions of the State. None of these recent re- ports of mountain lions in Maryland have ever been verified, and it seems that the species has been extirpated in the entire Eastern United States, with the exception of Florida where a few still persist in the swamps and hammocks in the Everglades. WAPITI OR ELK Cervus canadensis (Erxleben) This species was at one time statewide in distribution. Mansueti (1950, pp. 11-12) lists a number of early references to it, not only from the mountains of the west, but also in the Tidewater. Its former oc- currence within the State is attested to by the number of places that bear the name “elk.” Thus, there is an Elklick Run in Anne Arundel County, Elklick Run in Garrett County, Elk Mills, Elk Neck, Elk River, and Elkton in Cecil County, Elk Mountain and Elkridge in Washington County, Elkridge in Harford County, Elkridge in How- ard County, and Elkridge in Baltimore County. The last of Mary- land’s wapiti were apparently exterminated long before the middle of the 19th century. McAtee (1918, p. 52) places the date of their extirpation in Virginia as 1844. BISON Bison bison (Linnaeus) According to Mansueti (1950, p. 10) the distribution of bison in Maryland and the District of Columbia must have been above the fall line. The bison thus was an inhabitant of the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections of the State. When the first settlers arrived, however, the species was already becoming scarce, and 184 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 66 these settlers hastened its demise, exterminating the bison in Maryland by 1775. The Glades Star (publication of the Garrett County Histori- cal Society) for 1948, says that around 1774 one of the Ashbys (early settlers in the Glades of Garrett County) and a neighbor were search- ing for the neighbor’s cows one day in early winter. 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W. 1956. A new southern record for Mustela erminea cicognaniti. Journal of Mam- malogy, 37 : 113-114. February. WETMORE, A. 1923. The wood rat in Maryland. Journal of Mammalogy, 4: 187-188. August. © WETZEL, R. M. 1955. Speciation and disperal of the southern bog lemming, Synapiomys cooperi (Baird). Journal of Mammalogy, 36: 1-20. SEES Youne, S. P., and H. H. T. JAcKson. 1951. The clever coyote. Stackpole Co., Harrisburg, Pa., and Wildlife Manage- ment Institute, Washington, D.C. 411 p. O ihe | Peasant, 1. ie, Me We wind, uit A Ke PO Lita Perernmenvernens 7h (eiiteranm, Jiwrnes ot Mamaneingy, yarn : en Kughitdinds 1 Nilitipe gafearcatanan: 1010 aa lod wer: Putaice Pan or Viale? 7 ra} (nih ah coments, Enea Rae. Se Trelyaiea’ Derrewpinnebiad dean a ait” rete Arar ‘Hepat Aird SNementregnt: ald sorton ott 8 (Oe /ovlark & papdeled bre: ‘Pehnaptinaotia, Temenos aga veoh deh ; piesa) Ny Sob oak meng oo Pe Te Nery oe aap idle —— "i ee aa j en ‘piety ib 5 Y 44 ht H, | a yt wo ay r MAE evs sk ie iscagad atest sicednget® yy rai! vcr ae ho, ED Be ais ee iadiaawe's oe Be nil ne aa rite” qeodieat ec Ae RO ‘belt er Gaeta wh une ; Cane ‘be alee aioe of tae eae ty nig ed ad ite Here ityty OPM ete Cues bl = aaa Sey: act nw hte bt: tei | wince? OUR ang rer aS mart boven i ag ; Sait itt wa " “ey ah ' ‘x +¥ ay pA eS om Riad nveloie ‘ bade Te PLO RE ve. Song roti | ih eC RO Et Hr “i salen. ad a ae Senin geen Me ee ee Me a, Rea Me cl gl Parsee Cain ieee aaa Pbied Cou. cer reetieet et ottt ee 1 RA TEE wt Ace sippco th ye ORRAY Jan (ie cians Hees ae ssa Seip E “cuicehael oe Ta % ‘ oe mu Via eis ve te v ey eee Hip: had hs gael ett ost cephid ay BLP en tee Ri i Leu Bo aL ge? b AM \ e HO Age § iy Gi ary ian en het ae ae ay ne | arn [ay iy ed ae. eek: ome... 20 hae wnt Fs fT ORE epee Yeeeah Sek: hae 1 Z y ' ia ie alae we : hess 3 is. PETES FagiktAtdhs oh a Ce os ei iy ii ¢ i 5% ia : My W ae eo, mt gh cael 7 ; SUB-DELTA MARSH a = PRAIRIE MARSH G ae al B KinG RAIL CENSUS AREA ar ery ne get ¢ SS ~ Ax N TE couPE TANG/PAHOA pol CAMERON = {x wus s Re =a . % ral = ——S= ————S ——— a See Oe SS OSes eee o> g GRAND CHENIER dX REOLE CHENIER AU TIGRE aS Ke SoS EY SCALE- STATUTE MILES SS oS oO 10 20 30 40 50 x FIGURE 4.—Louisiana gulf coast marshes. Oberholser (1938, p. 109, 201) reported the collection of a King and six Clapper Rails in the delta marsh at the mouth of the Mississippi River, indicating their presence in this habitat type. The subdelta marsh The subdelta marsh, comprising 74 percent of the Louisiana coastal marsh, extends westward from the Mississippi River Delta to Cow Island and Chenier au Tigre in Vermilion Parish. Both its fresh-water and brackish marshes are of two types, floating or with a firm floor of clay. The predominant plant species in both types is “paille fine” or maidencane (Panicum hemitomon). Associated with it are cattail, southern bulrush (Scirpus californicus), sawgrass (Cladiwm jamai- cense), wapato (Sagittaria latifolia), alligatorweed, and water hya- cinth. In brackish areas either saltmeadow cordgrass (Spartina patens) or Olney’s three-square (Scirpus olneyi) is dominant; the latter is dominant if there is management (burning) for muskrat production. Salt marshes in this area are dominated by needlerush (Juncus roe- marianus), saltmeadow cordgrass, and saltmarsh cordgrass. Both banding returns and collections of birds substantiate the oc- currence of King Rails in the subdelta marsh. A King Rail banded at, Stuttgart, Ark., in June 1952, was recovered at Cut Off, Lafourche 18 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 Parish, in the subdelta marsh, in December 1952. Cut Off is approxi- mately 25 miles south of New Orleans. King Rails were collected at Chenier au Tigre, January 1, 3, and 5, 1934, by A. M. Bailey (Ober- holser 1938, p. 199); at the same location on March 31 and April 1, 1947, by I. N. Gabrielson; and at Avery Island, May 7, 11, 13, and 15, 1930, by E. G. Wright (Oberholser, 1938, p. 199). I made a census, based on calls, in Terrebonne Parish, 1.2 miles south of Dulac, on January 3, 1963, to determine the abundance of King Rails in the area (table 3). The birds were heard calling from what appeared to be an abandoned silted-in canal where shallow ponds were interspersed with dense patches of vegetation dominated by clump erass (Spartina spartinae). In a 1-mile strip, 50 feet wide, 19 King Rails were counted. Short-billed Marsh Wrens (Cistothorus platensis) , Soras, Virginia Rails, and Common Gallinules (@allinula chloropus) were also common in this same census strip. The prairie marshes The prairie marshes in the southwestern part of the Louisiana gulf coast (Vermilion and Cameron Parishes) comprise 19 percent of the total area. Near the gulf coast much of the prairie marsh is bisected by ridges known as cheniers (stranded rims of the sea or old shore- line) that parallel the coast (fig. 5). Cheniers extend in straight lines for many miles and in most places are wide enough only for a FIGURE 5.—Prairie marsh, Grand Chenier, La., March 1956. Mixed King and Clapper Rail populations sometimes occur in the same marsh type in this area. Both species were collected from the same half-acre pool near here, April 1956. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 19 road bordered on each side by a line of live oaks. In some places there are a few houses. In some sections, cheniers separate fresh and brackish marshes. TABLE 3.— Abundance of King Rails in certain areas, as indicated by censusing Location Number of King Rails Date Cover type Black and Pedee Rivers, 25in 100 acres12___... Apr. 10-12, 1961_-__.-_-- Giant cutgrass, cattail, Georgetown County, S.C. big cordgrass, arrow- arum. Savannah River, Jasper 14in 13 acres!13______- Apr. 20, 1961__._------ Softstem bulrush. County, S.C. 10 miles south Fellsmere, 30 in 100 acres 3______-- May 8, 1964______----_-- Maidencane. Indian River County, Fla. Savannah National Wildlife 46 along 7-mileroute‘. Apr. 12, 1960__-------- Giant cutgrass, cattail, Roluge, Jasper County, Sawgrass. Dulac, Terrebonne Parish, 19 along 1-mile route 4_ Jan. 3, 1963____---_--_- Clump grass, or needle La. cordgrass. 4 miles north Creole, 24 along 1-mile route 4. Jan. 5, 1963______-.---- Fall panicum. Cameron Parish, La. 3 miles north Pecan Island, 20 along 1-mile route 4_ Jan. 4, 1963___----_---- Fall panicum. Vermilion Parish, La. Stuttgart, Arkansas County, 22 along 6-mile route4. Apr. 1955___-.-_-_-__- Rice stubble, broom- Ark. sedge, cattail, softrush. 1 Males only. 2 Two-stage sampling. 8 Strip census. 4 Roadside count. In this area salt marshes near the coast are dominated by a salt- grass-saltmeadow cordgrass-saltmarsh cordgrass association. Land- ward from this association, brackish marshes extend north to the Creole and Grand Chenier ridges. Principal plants of the brackish marsh are saltmeadow cordgrass, Olney’s three-square, and saltmarsh bulrush (Scirpus robustus). In the transition areas between brackish and fresh water, such plants as giant cutgrass, bull tongue, pickerel- weed (Pontederia cordata), and wild millet (#chinochloa crusgallz) grow. The fresh-water marshes lie mainly north of the Grand Chenier and Creole ridges. In the higher parts of those marshes the following plants are found: bull grass (Paspalum boscianum), lake grass (Pas- palum distichum), dotted smartweed (Polygonum punctatum), squarestem spikerush (leocharis quadrangulata), and delta duck potato. Sawgrass is the climax type in the lower parts of the fresh- water marsh. In the vicinity of the cheniers, King and Clapper Rails occur close to one another or together. Referring to this situation, Lowery (1955, p. 227) made the following statement : The King and Clapper Rails are extremely similar in appearance and are, for the most part, simply ecological representatives of each other. The former generally inhabits fresh-water marshes and is widespread in the interior of the United States; the latter is always found on or near the seacoast in brackish- or salt-water marshes. ... There are brackish marshes in which both breed side by side without intermingling; ... I find it difficult to believe that the two species do not interbreed in the prairie marshes. Several King-Clapper pairs (and their nests and 20 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 eggs) have been collected recently in Delaware brackish marshes, in- dicating that they do sometimes interbreed when they occur together (Meanley and Wetherbee, 1962, p. 453-457). Near the village of Grand Chenier, I collected both Kings and Loui- siana Clapper Rails from the same small pond on the south side of the chenier. The dominant vegetation in the immediate area was clump- grass. On the south side of this narrow chenier, in the brackish marshes, the gulf coast form of the Clapper Rail is the dominant species, but the marsh on the landward side is the King Rail’s domain. Rivers, such as the Mermenteau, and canals crossing the chenier ex- tend the brackish water landward, and occasionally storm tides also affect large areas of the marsh, extending salt water into the fresh- water zone and changing the habitat. This area may well be described as a mixing ground of plants and.animals. A common avian associate of the rails breeding in the clumpgrass and saltgrass marsh was the Mottled Duck (Anas fulvigula). IT also encountered four King Rail broods, still in downy black plumage, and three single adults 4 miles north of Grand Chenier on July 23, 1955. At this station the marsh was composed of a mixture of southern bulrush, cattail, a Sagittaria, probably lancifolia, and water-hyacinth. A census of King Rails, based on calls, was made in a marsh border- ing the Pecan Island road, 2 miles south of the old Intracoastal Canal, Vermilion Parish, on January 4, 1963. Twenty birds were counted in 20 minutes along a 1-mile strip approximately 200 yards wide, at 6 p.m. (table 3). The dominant vegetation in the census area was fall panicum (Panicum dichotomifiorum). A similar census was made 5 miles south of the Intracoastal Canal on the east side of the road to Creole, Cameron Parish, on January 5, 1963. Between 5:30 p.m. and 6 p.m. 24 birds were counted along a 1-mile strip approximately 200 yards wide (table 3). The dominant vegetation types in the area were southern bulrush and fall panicum (fig. 6). Soras were also abundant in the same habitat. SOUTHERN RICEFIELDS The gradual shift in the domestic rice (Oryza sativa) growing in- dustry from the South Atlantic coast to the South Central States of Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Mississippi after the Civil War opened up a new marsh habitat for King Rails and other water birds. Much of the land where rice is grown today was once a vast natural tall-grass prairie In which the Greater Prairie Chicken (7ympanu- chus cupido) was abundant. Harmon, Thomas, and Glasgow (1960, p. 153) reported that approximately 3 million acres in this area were devoted to rice growing by 1958, and that this acreage wintered 4 million ducks and geese. Many aquatic plants grow in ricefields, and NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 21 FIcuRE 6.—Southern bulrush (Scirpus californicus), fall panicum (Panicum dichotomiflorum), and alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) in prairie marsh type near Creole, Cameron Parish, La., January 5, 1965. Between 5:30 and 6 p.m., January 5, 19638, 24 King Rails were counted along a 1-mile transect through this marsh. virtually all produce seeds utilized by a variety of water birds. Rice- fields furnish an optimum all-purpose habitat for King Rails for nearly 6 months during the summer half of the year, and a source of food for them in winter (fig. 7). On the gulf coast prairie of Louisiana and Texas, rice planting be- gins in March. Some early varieties are harvested by late July, but most fields are harvested from early August to early October. The planting season in Arkansas is about 2 weeks later, and harvest is from late August to early November. The fields are irrigated by wells or by canal systems fed from reservoirs or bayous. Water remains on the fields for 3 or 4 months and is maintained at a constant level of from 6 to 10 inches. On the Arkansas Grand Prairie I found the nesting density of King Rails in one ricefield to be at least one nest per 15 acres, a figure based on the location of five nests in a 75-acre field in July. These nests were located by a team of men walking abreast and systematically covering the field to remove a pest plant, the coffeebean (Sesbania exaltata). The height of the nesting season was several months past, and these nests probably represented a renesting effort or a second 22 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 FigurRE 7.—King Rail wading through ricefield toward nest on dike, Stuttgart, Ark., July 18, 1952. nesting after an earlier first successful nesting. It is not to be con- strued that this is an average nesting density for Grand Prairie ricefields. Since much of the rail nesting in rice country is completed before the rice is high enough to provide nesting cover, a better idea of nest- ing density could be obtained from nest counts or mating call counts in the spring when most of the rails are found in roadside ditches and canals and occasionally in rice stubble. As an example, in April 1955 I located 22 occupied nesting territories along 6 miles of con- tinuous roadside ditch beginning 2 miles north of Stuttgart, Ark. (table 3 and fig. 8). In Evangeline and Jefferson Davis Parishes in Louisiana I found many nests in roadside ditches where the dominant vegetation was paille fine (maidencane) and softrush (Juncus effusus). In Arkansas Grand Prairie ditches in 1952 and 1953, nests were found mainly in stands of softrush, cattail, common spikerush (Eleocharis palustris), and lake sedge (Carex hyalinolepis and C. lacustris), a plant which grows to a height of 3 feet or more and forms very dense stands that persist intact through the winter. Lake sedge was available for nest- ing cover earlier than any plant in the roadside ditches. Ten years NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 23 — per Rr acne canine Fieure 8.—Arkansas Grand Prairie near Stuttgart, Ark., May 1952. Rails nest in roadside ditches in April and May. Vegetation in ditches is mostly softrush (Juncus effusus) and two sedges (Carezx stipata and C. hyalinolepis). In June, rails move into ricefields (left of ditch) for late nesting or renesting as rice begins to form nesting cover. later (1962), in those same ditches, awl-fruited sedge (Carex stipata) was the dominant plant, and four of six nests located during May of that year were constructed of this plant. Old rice stubble is sometimes used for nesting. On the southwestern Louisiana rice prairie where farming is less diversified than on the Arkansas Grand Prairie, many farmers let the stubble fields lie out through the winter and spring for cattle grazing. In one such wet stubble field at Mamou, Evangeline Parish, I located two rice-straw nests on May 5, 1957 (fig. 9). During the summer, when the rice is growing and the fields appear as a vast green marshland, virtually all King Rails in the rice belt frequent the fields. Some are renesting, and others are wandering about with their broods in search of crayfish, minnows, and aquatic insects which abound here. Nesting associates of the King Rail in Louisiana ricefields are the Fulvous Tree Duck (Dendrocygna bicolor), the Purple Gallinule (Porphyrula martinica), the Least Bittern (Ivobrychus eailis), and along the southern border of the rice belt the Mottled Duck. The most common bird in the area is the Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). In the northern part of the principal Louisiana rice belt, at Mamou, Evangeline Parish, I found the Long-billed Marsh Wren (Telmatodytes palustris) nesting in rice. 24. NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 Figure 9.—Nest of King Rail in wet rice stubble, Mamou, La., May 5, 1957. Photographed as found. In 1955 a rice farmer at Mamou located six Fulvous Tree Duck nests in a 400-acre block of rice, and in the same locality I found 22 active Purple Gallinule nests in a 10-acre section of a 25-acre ricefield. In the Arkansas ricefields the Purple Gallinule is an uncommon breeding bird. There are no breeding records for the Fulvous Tree Duck in Arkansas ricefields, but there are several early fall occurrence records. The Short-billed Marsh Wren has been found nesting in Arkansas ricefields in August and September. King Rails are more secretive in winter than at other seasons and often are present in good numbers in some localities although seldom or never seen. For 5 years in the Arkansas rice belt, I was in the field daily without ever seeing one in the dead of winter. Yet they were present, as a mink trapper brought me several each January. On the Arkansas Grand Prairie, I have often come across trails forming tunnels which often continue for many feet beneath the matted vegetation of a ditch bank. These trails appear to have been made by some mammal, yet many tell-tale signs, particularly the characteristic regurgitated pellets and roundish droppings about the size of a silver dollar, are proof that King Rails use them. Regard- less of whether these trails are made by rails, mink (J/ustela vison), rabbits (Sylwilagus floridanus), or rats (unidentified), trapping indi- cates that they are used by all four species. King Rails also spend the winter in small marshy tracts along the bayous that dissect the Grand Prairie. At Stuttgart, Ark., a King Rail used a long water pipe about 114 feet in diameter and running from a pumphouse to a small reservoir NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 25 as its winter retreat. From late November to mid-December, I stopped by almost daily to see its fresh tracks leading from the pipe to the mudflat of the reservoir. A rather surprising wintering habitat is the cutover longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) land of central Louisiana. Bobwhite and Wood- cock hunters flush King Rails from little damp spots or seepage areas in the bluestem (Andropogon tener and A. divergens) range. Crayfish, a prime food of the rail, also are found there. FLORIDA A. H. Howell (1932, p. 202), in commenting on the status of the King Rail in Florida during the early 1930’s, said it was probably most numerous in the Everglades and big marshes of the upper St. Johns River. D. J. Nicholson of Orlando (personal communication, 1962), who has made an intensive study of Florida birds since 1900, told me the King Rail is still a common to abundant breeding bird in many parts of central and southern Florida, although extensive drain- age projects in the area have destroyed thousands of acres of marsh habitat. In addition to the two areas mentioned by Howell, Nicholson included the open wetlands of the Kissimmee Prairie as an important King Rail area. He added that the King Rail is common in the St. Johns River marshes in Seminole, Orange, Volusia, Brevard, and Indian River Counties; and is found in good numbers nesting on Merritt Island, Brevard County, “both in the salt marshes near Wayne’s Clapper Rail, as well as in numerous fresh water ponds on that island.” S. A. Grimes (personal communication) reports that, in northern Florida, the King Rail occurs in most of the fresh-water marshes of Duvall County. Two of the several nests he found were in open cypress bayheads. A. D. Cruickshank (personal communication), in writing from Brevard County, said that the King Rail is decidedly more common there in winter than during the breeding season, with peak numbers usually coming in late December and January. Apparently the local population is augmented by migratory populations from north of Florida. Evidence of local abundance in this area is based on the annual Audubon Society Christmas bird count conducted within a 15-mile radius of Cocoa, Fla. (Cruickshank et al., 1953-66). The numbers of King Rails reported has ranged between 11 and 93 over the past 14 years and averaged 40 per year. Cruickshank reports that the best localities are (a) fresh-water marshes around Lake Poinsett, a large lake in the St. Johns River, and (6) fresh-water marshes on Merritt Island. During the period May 4-8, 1964, I examined some marshes in Indian River, Osceola, and Glades Counties. Approximately 10 miles south of Fellsmere, Indian River County, at the junction of State 348-693 O—69——3 26 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 Highways 60 and 512, I found King Rails common where maiden- cane and pickerelweed formed a high percentage of the vegetation of the wetter marshes (fig. 10). Apple snails (Pomacea paludosa), the, FIGURE 10.—Habitat of King Rail, 10 miles south of Fellsmere, Indian River County, Fla., April 1967. Marsh vegetation in foreground is mostly maidencane (Panicum hemitomon) and pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata), in background Sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense). White waterlily (Nymphaea odorata) in pond left of center. Forest community is pond cypress (Tazxodium ascendens). The density of King Rails in this area was estimated at 30 birds per hundred acres. major food of the Limpkin (Avamus guarauna), and the eggs of these snails, were scattered abundantly throughout the wetter marshes, but were absent from the drier ones. ‘Houses of the round-tailed muskrat (Veofiber alleni) were abundant in both wetter and drier marshes. Limpkins and rails use the tops of these houses as their “dinner tables.” King Rails were most commonly in the drier marshes. I estimated a density of approximately 30 birds per hundred acres in a tract on the east side of Highway 512 (table 3). On the Brighton Seminole Indian Reservation, Glades County, I heard and saw King Rails in marshes composed largely of pickerel- weed, bull tongue (Sagittaria lancifolia), and dotted smartweed (fig. 11). While on a trip through the reservation in January 1958, I saw two very dark-plumaged King Rails in a small pickerelweed marsh. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 27 Figure 11.—King Rail habitat on Seminole Indian Reservation, Glades County, Fla., May 5, 1964. Predominant plants in marsh are bull tongue (Sagitiaria lancifolia), pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata), and dotted smartweed (Poly- gonum punctatum). SOUTH CAROLINA LOW COUNTRY King Rails are common to abundant in many fresh-water and brackish tidal-river marshes of the South Carolina Low Country. These marshes are along the famous rice rivers of colonial times: the Ashepoo, Black, Combahee, Edisto, Pee Dee, Santee, Savannah, Wac- camaw, Wando, and others. It was in such marshes that domestic rice was grown until about 1915. Remnants of the old ricefield dikes and canals built by slaves are still evident in the marshes (fig. 12). The dominant vegetation type of most sections of the marshes today is giant cutgrass. Because of the blanched appearance of the giant cutgrass in winter, these marshes were referred to by the early explorer-naturalists as the “white marsh.” Giant cutgrass provides excellent escape and nesting cover for rails but apparently is of no food value to them, although Purple Gallinules, Red-winged Black- birds, and Bobolinks (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) feed on its flowers and seeds. A survey of the marshland in the Low Country from the lower Cape Fear River at Wilmington, N.C., to the Altamaha River at Darien, Ga., seems to indicate that the King Rail is largely associated with the “white marsh” zone of these coastal rivers. It should be emphasized, however, that many secondary plant communities occur within this zone with varying King Rail population densities depend- ing upon local ecological conditions. 28 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 ee FIGURE 12.—Floodgate and ricefield canal near Savannah, Ga., April 1960. The land is irrigated as the tide rises from the Savannah River. King Rails nest in giant cutgrass (Zizaniopsis miliacea) seen along right-hand edge of canal. The high population density in this area is probably due to good nesting cover and the abundance of the red-jointed fiddler crab (Uca minaz), a favorite food of the rail. In the Low Country, March and April appear to be the best months for censusing, as King Rails are more vociferous at this time than dur- ing any other period of the year. A narrow strip of marshland border- Ing a river is the most suitable place for censusing. The marshland on the west side of the Pee Dee River and one of its tributaries, the Black River, for a distance of 8 miles north of George- town, S.C., totalling 3,000 acres, was selected as a sampling area. The sampling design was suggested by Dr. Don W. Hayne of the Institute of Statistics, North Carolina State College, Raleigh, N.C. Georgetown is approximately 8 miles inland from the coast on Winyah Bay at the confluence of the Pee Dee and Waccamaw Rivers. The Black River flows into the Pee Dee about 214 miles north of Georgetown. The mean tidal range at Georgetown is 314 feet. At Georgetown the river is slightly brackish, and big cordgrass (Spartina cynosuroides) is an important plant component of the marsh, espe- cially along old ricefield canals. Six 10-acre plots were composed mainly -of the following plants: big cordgrass, 35 percent; Olney’s three-square, 20 percent; cattail, 14 percent; giant cutgrass, 13 per- cent; arrow-arum (Peltandra virginica), 11 percent; softstem bul- rush, 5 percent; and river bulrush (Scirpus fluviatilis), 2 percent. Vegetation analyses were made also of three 10-acre plots 8 miles north of Georgetown on the Black River. On the Black River, NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 29 giant cutgrass formed 52 percent of the marsh vegetation, arrow- arum 36 percent, and cattail 12 percent. For the actual census, the entire marsh area, as shown on U.S. Geological Survey maps, was blocked off into 64 primary sampling units, each a 630-foot-wide transect extending from the edge of the river to the land. Each transect was divided into 10-acre plots, the number in a transect depending upon the width of the marsh at that location along the river. Ten of the 64 transects were randomly selected as primary sampling units, and one 10-acre plot from each was chosen for censusing. At least 1 hour between 5 and § a.m. or 5 and 7 p.m. during the period April 10 through 12, 1961, was spent in each plot counting calls. The number of male King Rails in a transect was estimated by multiplying the number of 10-acre plots in that transect by the num- ber of birds heard in the census plot. The estimated total of 755 males in the 3,000-acre marsh was derived by multiplying the average num- ber of birds per sample transect by the total number of transects. The density estimate of 25.2 male birds per 100 acres was calculated by dividing the total population by 30 (the number of 100-acre units in the 3,000-acre marsh). Since some of the calling King Rails were undoubtedly already mated, and most of the others would be eventu- ally, the average number of breeding rails per 100 acres could be inferred to be 25 pairs (table 3). Sampling indicated that the density of the King Rail population was higher at Georgetown in the Pee Dee River marshes than several miles up river along its tributary, the Black River. One 10-acre plot at Georgetown had six calling rails, and four other plots had four each. None of the Black River plots had more than two rails. The higher density at Georgetown could be attributed to the higher pro- portion of red-jointed fiddler crabs (Uca minax). Savannah National Wildlife Refuge The Savannah National Wildlife Refuge in South Carolina and Georgia, near Savannah, is about 25 miles upriver from the ocean on what was formerly a rice plantation (fig. 13) and is divided by the Savannah River. The larger acreage is on the South Carolina side. Its marsh is the fresh tidal type, with a tide which rises about 1 foot. Giant cutgrass is the dominant vegetation of much of the marsh on the refuge. The old growth of cutgrass forms a nearly pure stand, and has an average height of about 5 feet, but will average higher when the new growth matures. Arrow-arum, dotted smartweed, and swamp smartweed (Polygonum hydropiperoides) are scattered about the marsh, particularly along the edges and on high spots. There are numerous small holes made by the red-jointed fiddler crab, an impor- tant food of the King Rail, along the tidal creeks and edges of the marsh. While making a survey of King Rail populations in April 30 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 r FievurE 13.—South Carolina Low Country: ricefield nesting habitat in Jasper County along the Savannah River, fall 1958. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 31 1960, I estimated a density of one pair per acre in the cutgrass marsh bordering the river. A year later I also heard many King, Virginia, and Sora Rails calling at night in the same marsh. Much of the refuge canal system and some of the ponds are choked with alligatorweed, a plant that forms extensive mats upon which rails, gallinules, coots, herons, and several species of ducks do much of their foraging for aquatic insects (fig. 14). Small patches of giant FIGURE 14.—Alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoveroides) in canal at Savannah National Wildlife Refuge, Jasper County, 8.C., April 1960. This plant forms spongy, extensive mats upon which rails, gallinules, coots, herons, and ducks forage for aquatic insects, fish, amphibians, and crustaceans. Such mats have an obvious value to birds that utilize its growth form to facilitate their quest for food. Note alligator on far side of canal. Alligators feed on many forms of animal life including various water-birds such as rails. cutgrass in which Purple Gallinules nest are sparsely distributed along the canals. I located many King Rail pairs with feeding terri- tories along sections of the canals. Some of these territories were not more than 20 feet square, indicating the high food productivity of these aquatic mats. All of the King Rails that I observed feeding in the choked-up canals, however, nested on the other side of the dike in a deep-water impounded marsh containing a mixture of giant cutgrass, sawerass, cattail, royal fern (Osmunda regalis), buttonbush (Ceph- alanthus occidentalis),and myrtle (Myrica cerifera). I made a roadside count of calling males on April 12, 1960, along a 7-mile route beginning at the north entrance to the refuge on U.S. 32 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 Highway 17, continuing along the east dike, through the string of island hammocks, and ending at the Savannah River just inside the south entrance on U.S. Highway 17. On this census, made between 6 and 7 p.m., 46 males were tallied (table 3). On April 20, 1961, I estimated the breeding King Rail population in a nearly pure softstem bulrush (Scirpus validus) marsh along U.S. Highway 17A, about 2 miles north of Savannah, Ga. The bulrush averaged about 5 feet in height, and the marsh had a firm bottom covered with 1 to 2 inches of water. A 13-acre section was marked off into transects, and King Rail territories were then spot-mapped on the basis of three calls from any one area. This mating-call count indicated a breeding population of 14 males in the 13-acre tract (table 3). Upper Savannah River Valley King Rails also nest further upriver in the Savannah River Valley section of the Upper Coastal Plain in South Carolina. Norris (1963, p. 2, 19) described the typical nesting habitat as a “Carolina bay”— an oval-shaped water-filled depression with rank growths of maiden- cane and other aquatic plants. CHESAPEAKE BAY COUNTRY Tidewater Virginia Tidewater Virginia is the section of the Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain that extends from the fall line (the line separating the Piedmont Plateau from the Coastal Plain) to the Chesapeake Bay. It is dissected by numerous rivers, the largest of which are the Potomac, the Rappa- hannock, the York, and the James. The King Rail is common throughout the year in much of Tidewater Virginia and usually occurs in greatest numbers in marshes where big cordgrass is dominant. Big cordgrass is one of the best cover plants for King Rails in Tidewater because of its height and occurrence in fairly dense stands, and because it retains its life form throughout most of the year (fig. 15). In the early 1960’s, I found King Rails common in the big cordgrass marshes at Norfolk, West Point, and Tappahannock. Other marsh types, especially Olney’s three-square, wild rice (Zizania aquatica), and cattail, are important for the King Rail, but there is less acreage of these types, and wild rice does not provide cover in the winter. During the winters of 1958 and 1961, I encountered several muskrat trappers who were inadvertently catching King Rails in the extensive Rappahannock River brackish marsh flats across the river from Tappahannock. These flats are dominated by Olney’s three-square (fig. 16). Several King Rails were removed from muskrat NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 33 FicuRE 15.—Big cordgrass (Spartina cynosuroides) (tall plant) and arrow- arum (Peltandra virginica) (broad-leaved plant next to water) along tidal creek, Nanticoke River marsh, Wicomico County, Md., August 1967. Big cordgrass usually grows along the margins of tidal guts in brackish bay marshes, but may form extensive, nearly pure stands in brackish tidal-river mashes. It is one of the most important cover types for King Rails in the Chesapeake Bay region. (Photograph by Luther Goldman.) 34 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 FIGURE 16.—Winter abode of King Rail. Rappahannock River near Tappahan- nock, Va., January 1961. Vegetation is mainly Olney’s three-square (Scirpus olneyi) and saltmarsh cordgrass (Spartina alternifiora). traps as I watched a trapper run his line. In these and other tide- marsh habitats, tidal action along the creeks and over adjacent marsh- lands keeps the water open throughout much of the winter. At Hog Island, Surry County, in the James River opposite historic Jamestown, C. C. Steirly found both King and Clapper Rails breeding. Steirly (1959, p. 47-48) made the following comments about the rail habitat on the island: Apparently there is a salinity gradient between the east side of the refuge and the west side of Cobham Bay. Hog Point might be the dividing line. There seems to be a slight difference in the tidal vegetation between the two sides of the refuge although the cord grass marsh seems to be the dominant feature along the east or down river side. The King Rail is most often seen on the west side; however, there is as yet no proof that it does not breed on the east side. In one of the particular haunts of the King Rail, pickerel weed (Pontederia cordata) and bulrush (Scripus robustus) occur in some abundance where there is less tidal fluctuation. Virginia Eastern Shore The Eastern Shore peninsula of Virginia lies between Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. While King Rails would be expected to occur on the bay side of the peninsula, their presence on the off- shore barrier islands on the ocean side would seem rather surprising; nevertheless, on these salty coastal islands King Rails are found in NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 35 land-locked fresh-water marshes. Montagna and Wimsatt (1942, p. 434436) collected a female on Rogue Island 11 miles off the coast be- tween Hog and Cobb Islands. The specimen had a fully developed swollen brood patch, and its oviduct contained an egg with shell. There are several records from Chincoteague Island. Robert E. Stewart encountered paired adult King and Clapper Rails with a brood in a salt meadow cordgrass marsh on this coastal island. The Chincoteague salt marshes are one of the important Clapper Rail hunting grounds along the Atlantic Coast, and King Rails occasion- ally turn up in hunters’ bags. One of the best King Rail areas on the bay side of the eastern shore peninsula is Bullbegger Creek, a tributary of the Pocomoke River. Big cordgrass is the dominant plant in this creek marsh. At Knott’s Island, at the head of Currituck Sound, partly in Vir- ginia and partly in North Carolina, A. J. Duvall (1987, p. 462) and party collected a female King Rail and five chicks along a roadway in a salt marsh on June 1, 1936. Maryland Eastern Shore In Maryland the King Rail is mainly associated with tidal marshes of the Chesapeake Bay system, and is found in greatest numbers in the extensive brackish tidal-river marshes of the Eastern Shore, especially in the vast area of fresh and brackish bay marshes of Dorchester County (see R. E. Stewart, 1962, for a description of Maryland Chesa- peake Bay marsh communities). In this area, the following plants are usually present as pure stands or are found in some combination in areas where King Rails occur: big cordgrass, broad-leaf and narrow- leaf cattail (Typha latifolia and 7. angustifolia), Olney’s three- square, switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), softrush, and rosemallow (Hibiscus moscheutos). The importance of big cordgrass in the Maryland section of the Chesapeake Bay is comparable to that in Tidewater Virginia. In the brackish tidal-river marsh community of the Choptank River at Dover Bridge between Talbot and Caroline Counties, a muskrat trapper caught 50 King Rails in a single season (January 1 to March 15). Most of the birds were caught where big cordgrass was dominant but usually mixed with Olney’s three-square and switchgrass. Because of the sparseness of winter marsh cover, King Rails often seek means of escape and places for hiding different from those used during the rest of the year. A muskrat trapper on the Choptank River in Mary- land reports that whenever he surprises a rail along a tidal gut in the marsh it almost invariably darts into a muskrat hole along an embankment. . Robert KE. Stewart has observed both King and Clapper Rails in the same big cordgrass marsh along Ape Hole Creek in Somerset County. 36 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 Both species are common there, probably because of the abundance of such prime rail foods as blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus), mud crabs (Sesarma reticulatum), red-jointed fiddler crabs, periwinkle snails (Littorina irrorata), and salt-marsh snails (J/alampus lineatus). In a brackish bay marsh community at Elhott Island, Dorchester County, on May 28, 1959, I heard King Rails calling between 11 p.m. and midnight. Most were calling from the narrow band of big cord- grass that characteristically borders the sides of Pokata Creek. Soras, Virginias, and Black Rails (Laterallus jamaicensis) were heard at the same time and in the same general area, but mostly in a salt- meadow marsh type community. In a fresh bay marsh community north of Savannah Lake, Elliott Island, King Rails occur where the switchgrass marsh extends inland for a mile or so forming an understory beneath a loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) forest (fig. 17). It seems rather strange to flush a King Rail FIGcurE 17.—Habitat of King Rail in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) association, Elliott Island, Dorchester County, Md., August 1967. (Photograph by Luther Goldman.) from beneath a stand of loblolly pine. The Short-billed Marsh Wren was found nesting and wintering in this same pine-switchgrass asso- ciation. Switchgrass, which attains a height of 5 feet, retains its life form throughout the year, thus affording excellent cover, especially in winter when several other marsh plants have deteriorated. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 37 On June 10, 1965, I made a King Rail survey of a section of the Nanticoke River marshes, Wicomico County, across the river from the town of Vienna. This was a typical muskrat marsh in which Olney’s three-square was dominant, with rosemallow scattered throughout. Four King Rail nests, located at the bases of rosemallow plants, were found in a 20-acre section of the marsh. The life form of this plant, with its cradle-like base and broad leaves forming a protective cover above, makes it well suited for nest cover (fig. 18). FIcuRE 18.—Nest and eggs of King Rail in Nanticoke River marsh, Vienna, Wicomico County, Md., June 10, 1965. Nest found in section of marsh domi- nated by Olney’s three-square (Scirpus olneyi) interspersed with rose mallow (Hibiscus moscheutos). Four nests found in this marsh were all in rose mallow. Because of the life form of this plant, the rail does not have to build a canopy over its nest as it does when using other plants. 38 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 In May 1959, while censusing Red-winged Blackbirds on a number of small islands in Chesapeake Bay, I was surprised to find King Rails on almost all of them. The islands provide a brackish environment. On Long Marsh Island, May 26, 1959, I observed a nest constructed mostly of saltmeadow cordgrass and containing nine eggs (fig. 19). Figure 19.—Nest and nine eggs of King Rail in brackish marsh, Long Marsh Island, Bastern Bay (of Chesapeake Bay), Queen Annes County, Md., May 26, 1959. Nest constructed of saltmeadow cordgrass (Spartina patens) and Olney’s three-square (Scirpus olneyi). Small patches of saltmeadow cordgrass were scattered throughout the dense growth of hightide-bush (/va frutescens) on the island. The King Rail nest was only 15 feet from a Black Duck (Anas rubripes) nest. On another Chesapeake Bay island (Miller’s Island) a King nest was found in a pure stand of saltmarsh cordgrass. Inner Coastal Plain of Maryland Four pairs of King Rails nested in 10 acres of shrub swamp-—marsh mixture at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, near Laurel, Md., NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 39 during May and June 1965. Softrush, tussock sedge (Carew stricta), and arrowhead (Sagzttaria sp.) were the common emergent herbaceous plants. Woody marsh plants included swamp viburnum (Viburnum nudum), arrow-wood (V. dentatum), buttonbush, alder (Alnus serru- lata), winterberry (/lex verticillata), red maple (Acer rubrum), and willow (Salia nigra). In late summer Woodcock (Philohela manor) were common in this same area. DELAWARE BAY, DEL. King and Clapper Rails inhabit the extensive brackish bay marshes known as Broadway Meadows between Fleming’s Landing and Wood- land Beach, Kent County, Del. Two King-Clapper pairs and their nests were found in June 1960 at Taylor’s Gut approximately halfway between Fleming’s Landing and Woodland Beach (fig. 20). Figure 20.—Taylor’s Gut at low tide, Kent County, Del., September 30, 1963. Vegetation in this breeding habitat of mixed King and Clapper Rail popula- tions is mainly saltmarsh cordgrass (Spartina alternifiora), big cordgrass (Spartina cynosuroides), saltmarsh bulrush (Scirpus robustus), and hightide-bush (Iva frutescens). (Photograph by Frederick C. Schmid.) The section of marsh at Taylor’s Gut where mixed populations occur is more typical of Clapper Rail than of King Rail habitat. The domi- 40 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 nant vegetation types are saltmarsh cordgrass and saltmarsh bulrush (table 4). Hightide-bush borders the tidal guts. TABLE 4.—Plant composition at three stations in Broadway Meadows, Del., in 1960 {In percent, based on estimates for five 10-foot-square quadrats at each station; tr.=trace] Fleming’s Taylor’sGut Woodland Landing (Intermediate Beach (King Rails area; King Causeway only) and Clapper (Clapper Rails) Rails only) Saltmead owaCord Crass ee eee ee 50 tt... 23 Sallttrmarshrcorc Grass etree ea ee eee 15 50 70 Saltmarshibulrush2222 s22c2 2525 oo oe See rece ee ee eee 30 20 ‘Big: COrMETrasse iS. Vase See ys ee pate ee 5 10 10 Olney/sithree-squaressos5 835 Sas ae eee ee ee ea 25) o.oo ks Huightide-bushsss- 2osoe~ sae ee ee ae ee eee 5 10 3222 Saltprassie-2 fee Sos ON ee Meakin re ee ee ee re tr. ts 253 e See Groundsel-buShSite52 sea ee ee pases Ul. Two miles inland at Fleming’s Landing only King Rails were ob- served. The vegetation at Fleming’s Landing is composed mostly of saltmeadow cordgrass and saltgrass (Distichlis spicata). Occasional patches of Olney’s three-square, big cordgrass, and saltmarsh cord- grass were distributed through the saltmeadow marsh, and as in the intermediate area at Taylor’s Gut, hightide-bush bordered some of the tidal guts. Two miles further toward Delaware Bay along the Woodland Beach Causeway, Clapper Rails were abundant, but King Rails were not observed. Saltmarsh cordgrass and saltmarsh bulrush were the domi- nant plants at this station. Hightide-bush was not present. It is interesting to note that in the Taylor’s Gut area salinity read- ings are intermediate between those at the other stations (table 5). TABLE 5.—Salinity determinations at three stations in Broadway Meadows, Del. m 1960 [In parts per million. Water samples were analyzed in the chemistry laboratory, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Md.; sea strength is 32,000 to 35,000 p.p.m.] Fleming’s Taylor’s Woodland Landing Gut Beach Causeway 1 BO) 2a (0 (ares, aa ate ee neh he ee) SL Seale Bye ie oa ee BA 4, 380 7, 190 7, 600 Pigh: tide 22323660. 3) Pea ee ee ge eel ee aS 3, 700 5, 670 7, 480 The red-jointed fiddler crab was abundant at Taylor’s Gut during the period 1959 through 1963, and formed the main food of the rails. There was a marked diminution in the fiddler crab population in 1964, anda corresponding decrease in the rail population. Other breeding birds at Taylor’s Gut in order of relative abundance are the Long-billed Marsh Wren, Red-winged Blackbird, Song Spar- row (Melospiza melodia), Seaside Sparrow (Ammospiza maritima), NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 41 Swamp Sparrow (MMelospiza georgiana), Black Duck, and Least Bit- tern. The muskrat, raccoon (Procyon lotor), and rice rat (Oryzomys palustris) are common mammals in the area. GREAT LAKES REGION In Lake County, Ill., Beecher (1942, p. 13-14) found the Carex lacustris consocies or lake sedge-marsh wren community to be the op- timum breeding habitat of the King Rail. Three nests were located in 5.89 acres (Beecher, 1942, p. 29). Beecher characterizes this marsh type as follows: Although the Typha consocies is so distinctive in its characteristics, there is considerable overflow of the species presumably finding their optimum within its bounds into the lake sedge which usually adjoins it in shallower water. Carex lacustris tends to exist as a closed community ; it is more completely dominant in its own zone and its boundaries more sharply marked out than those of any other plant in the hydrosere. To state that it has the same lifeform as Typha means nothing, since, though much coarser than the grass-like sedges which follow it, the stalk offers little support. Nests of bittern, gallinule and blackbird are decidedly less frequent than in cattails, those of the redwing being constructed on a stool, generally. But the King and Sora Rails and the Prairie Marsh Wren are much more abundant in this sedge than in cattails, suggesting that it has qualities of its own. Primarily, it offers the tussock or stool type of substrate so attractive to rails, and anyone viewing this community for the first time would appreciate its fitness for the wrens. The growth is denser, less erect and, doubtless, easier to work. The King Rail also formerly occurred commonly in the extensive cattail marshes of the southwestern shore of Lake Erie. On May 30, 1931, Milton Trautman (personal communication) recorded 18 King Rails in 1 hour in these marshes. Trautman further stated that in the Sandusky Bay region, on many June and July evenings during the years between 1925 and 1934, he saw from one to eight broods on roads adjacent to marshes. At Buckeye Lake in east-central Ohio, Trautman (1940, p. 229-230) reported more than 50 pairs nesting annually between 1922 and 1930. Trautman told me that by 1959 only two or three pairs nested there. Surveys in 1961 by Trautman and others to determine the status of the King Rail in Ohio revealed that it was disappearing at an alarming rate. In Ontario, Baillie (1940, p. 109) reported five breeding localities (based on the presence of nests or broods) along the southern edge of Ontario from Lake St. Clair to Toronto: St. Anne’s Island, Lake St. Clair, Lambton County, May 1882 (nest of 13 eggs) ; eastern end of the north shore of Lake Erie, at Point Abino, Welland County, May 30, 1894 (nest of 10 eggs); north shore of Lake Erie, at Long Point, Norfolk County, summer of 1921 and 1926 (young) ; western end of the north shore of Lake Ontario at Toronto, August 22, 1988 (young) ; and at Hamilton, August 6, 1939 (young). 348-693 O—69——4 42 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 NORTH-CENTRAL PRAIRIE MARSHES Tanner and Hendrickson (1956, p. 54-56) studied the King Rail in the marshes of Dewey’s Pasture Public Shooting Ground, Clay County, Iowa, from April 1951 to April 1953. Their description of the habitat in this area is as follows: » ‘The 402-acre research area included 28 marshes lying in the hollows between gently sloping prairie knolls. These marshes ranged in depth from several inches to 4 feet and in area from 0.2 acres to 18.0 acres. Of the total 96.4 acres of marsh, 81.4 acres supported emergent vegetation habitable by rails. The remain- ing 15.0 acres consisted of open water. The predominant species of emergent vegetation in the shallowest water along the shores were blue-joint grass [Calamagrostis canadensis], prairie cordgrass [Spartina pectinata], tussock sedge and fox sedge [Carex vulpinoidea]. In waters of intermediate depth the most abundant species of emergent plants were river grass [Fluminea festuca- cea], lake sedge, sweet flag [Acorus calamus] and water smartweed [Polygonum coccineum]. In deeper waters the predominant species were broad-leaved cat- tail, narrow-leaved cat-tail, river bulrush [Scirpus fluviatilis], hard-stemmed bulrush [Scirpus acutus], pale great bulrush [Scirpus heterochaetus] and large bur-reed [Sparganium eurycarpum]. The plant names follow Hayden (1943),... .. . Four of the six nests were found in areas of marsh in which lake sedge was the predominant vegetation, while the others were found in pure stands of river bulrush and were attached to plants of that species. Of the four nests located in the lake sedge cover-type, only one was actually attached to plants of that species. The others were supported by tussocks of blue-joint grass or cordgrass, or clumps of hard-stemmed bulrush, which occurred here and there among the lake sedge. The estimated number of breeding adults in the 81.4 acres of marsh was 12. In the same area there was an estimated adult breeding popula- tion of 54 Virginia Rails and 52 Soras. NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS The King Rail rarely breeds in the northern Great Plains, but R. E. Stewart (personal communication) located a breeding pair in a prairie pothole in the Missouri Coteau of western Dickey County, N. Dak., in June 1961. This pothole was a fresh-water type and was composed chiefly of whitetop grass (Pluminea festucacea) and slough sedge (Carex atherodes), with an outer border of river bulrush. Sev- eral pairs of Virginia Rails and Soras were also observed in this same pothole. Stewart also recorded single King Rails on June 5 and 24, 1963, about 12 miles west of Buchanan, Stutsman County, N. Dak., where common cattail and common spikerush were the dominant plants. Description SIZE The male King Rail is generally larger and heavier than the female. Males in my study weighed about 100 grams more than females. Six of nine adult males weighed over 400 grams each, and the average of all nine was 415.4 grams, whereas the average of nine females was 306.0 grams. These weights do not differ greatly from those of Clapper Rails (table 6). Measurements of body length and wing length also reflect the differ- ence in size of the sexes. These are compared in table 7 along with measurements of the Clapper Rail, which is somewhat smaller in these dimensions. ADULT PLUMAGE There are no apparent differences between the plumages of the male and the female King Rail. Ridgway and Friedmann (1941, p. 83) described the plumage as follows: Forehead, crown, occiput, and nape deep, rich mummy brown, the feathers of the forehead and crown with shiny black shafts; scapulars, interscapulars, upper and lower back, rump, upper tail coverts, and rectrices deep fuscous to fuscous-black, the feathers broadly edged with tawny-olive to buckthorn brown, the edges becoming broader on the more posterior parts, often occupying (be- tween the two margins) more than half the width of the feather on the long seapulars and the feathers of the rump and the upper tail coverts, narrow on the anterior interscapulars; upper wing coverts deep hazel to bright russet, some of the outer median and greater coverts with narrow whitish tips and a con- cealed narrow subterminal whitish band; remiges sepia, the outer web of the outermost primary often slightly paler—Saccardo’s umber ; a light strip from the base of the maxilla over and behind the eye light pinkish cinnamon; rest of lores, cireumocular area, cheeks and auriculars grayish mummy brown; lower cheeks and sides of throat cinnamon; chin and middle of upper throat white; lower throat, breast, and upper abdomen cinnamon becoming paler in the mid-ventral part of the upper abdomen, the feathers faintly tipped with white on the upper abdomen, without pale tips on the breast feathers; middle of abdomen light buff ; thighs similiar but transversely barred with deep drab to hair brown; flanks sepia barred with white, the feathers tipped with white and crossed by two or three white bars each; vent similar to flanks; under tail coverts white, not buffy, and with sepia areas reduced making the white bars wider; the outer webs of the lateral ones wholly white; axillars and under wing coverts deep rich sepia tipped and crossed by narrow bars of white;... Ridgeway and Friedmann described the dark and light phase adult plumages of the King Rail, and suggested that the light phase rarely 43 44 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 occurs. My recent investigations indicate that the so-called light phase plumage is probably the result of hybridization or intergradation in areas of mixed King and Clapper Rail populations, or it may be due simply to individual variation. In my collection I have a series of 16 King and Clapper Rail speci- mens taken from a 1-square-mile area of brackish marsh in Delaware (table 1). In this series there are Kings and Clappers with typical plumages and also gradations from one type to the other. Some of the specimens appear to be light phase King Rails. Ridgeway and Friedmann (1941) made no mention of locality, habitat, or the possi- bility of mixed populations where so-called light-phased birds were collected. TaBLE 6.—Wezghts of King and Clapper Rails [In grams. All specimens were adults. Bottom line shows mean weights.] King Rail King Rail Clapper Rail Clapper Rail (R. e. elegans)! (R. e. tenuirostris)?2 (R. Ll. crepitans)3 (R. U.)4 Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females 339. 9 253. 0 271 220 332. 2 300 275 366. 0 272. 0 306 255 335. 0 325 275 367. 9 305. 0 317 268 300 275 421.0 313. 3 331 325 275 427.0 319. 0 300 275 436. 0 320. 0 350 275 438. 3 322. 0 300 250 453. 0 323. 0 300 490. 0 325. 0 325 350 350 350 325 415.5 305. 9 306. 3 247.7 333. 6 320. 8 271.4 1 From Arkansas, Delaware, and Louisiana (author’s data). 2 All from Mexico (Warner and Dickerman, 1959, p. 50). 3 Both from Delaware (author’s data). ; 4 All from South Carolina, each to nearest 25 grams; race (R. l. crepitans or R. 1. waynei) not specified (Blandin, 1963, p. 33). TABLE 7.— Measurements of King and Clapper Rails [From Ridgway and Friedmann, 1941. All specimens were adults. All measurements are given in mm. Wing measurements are for the chord, from bend of wing to tip of longest primary] King Rail (R. e. elegans) Clapper Rail (R. l. crepitans) Males ! Females 2 Males 3 Females 4 Range Average Range Average Range Average Range Average Willa Oeeeerpee 159.0-177.0 163.4 147.0-162.0 154.3 142. 5-159.5 151.1 135. 5-160.0 146.8 AN s eek 56. 0- 72. 5 65. 9 60.0- 70.0 64.4 55.0- 69.0 64.6 55.0- 69.5 61.9 Exposed culmen__--_-_- 58. 0O- 65. 5 62. 5 50.0- 68.0 61.9 55.0- 69.5 63.3 53. 5- 67. 0 59.6 Tarsus_______- 52. O- 64.0 58. 4 49. 5- 58.0 54. 0 48. 0- 56.0 51.7 41.0- 56.0 48.1 Middle toe without cla wees 50. 5— 60. 5 55. 1 46. 0- 56. 0 50. 8 45. 5- 53.5 48.8 40.0- 52.0 45.9 118 specimens from Illinois, Missouri, District of Columbia, Virginia, Alabama, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida. 2 14 specimens from Illinois, District of Columbia, Maryland, Virginia, Louisiana, and Florida. 3 21 specimens from Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, and North Carolina. 417 specimens from New Jersey, Virginia, and North Carolina. Note.—An incubating female (adult ?) King Rail collected at Stuttgart, Ark., May 1962, had a left wing measurement (chord) of only 141.0 mm.; a paired female (adult ?) collected at Taylor’s Gut, Kent County, Del., Apr. 15, 1963, had a left wing measurement (chord) of 145.0 mm. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 45 The most unusual plumage that I have seen was that of a very dark brown, almost blackish bird near Lake Okeechobee, Fla., January 1958. William B. Robertson (personal communication) told me of seeing several birds with similar dark plumage in the Everglades, and Luther C. Goldman collected such a specimen near Cape Sable, Fla. Dr. Harry C. Oberholser examined the specimen and remarked that it had a most unusual plumage. Apparently he did not make a critical study of it, and it has since been lost. LEGS AND FEET Legs and feet are pale brownish gray. An adult male collected at Welch, La., January 12, 1963, and two adult males collected in August 1963, in Delaware, had a pinkish-brown color on the inside and out- side heel areas and immediately above. This heel color is apparently typical of birds in their second year or older. BILL In most adult birds the bill is orange-yellow from the base to at least the nares in the upper mandible, and usually shghtly beyond in the lower mandible. The outer part of the bill is brownish. However, one marked wild bird known to be at least 2 years old had a lightish- brown bill more typical of immatures. A captive immature did not attain the color at the base of the bill until it was 10 months old. The color was then yollowish rather than orange-yellow. Young wild birds 2 to 3 months of age had lightish brown bills. The upper mandibles of these birds were darker. TONGUE AND LINING OF MOUTH Tongues and mouth linings of birds 1 year or older, examined immediately after collection, were a bright orange-red. Young birds in juvenal plumage, collected during the summer, had yellow tongues and mouth linings. EYE Irides of adult King Rails are reddish-orange while pupils are gray- ish-black. Eyes of newly hatched chicks are grayish-brown, and 1- and 2-month-old birds have dull-brown irides. NOTES ON SEXING AND AGING In a 50-bird sample from Louisiana, examined 3 months after col- lection in late fall, I was able to sex 47 of 50 birds by weight, and age 36 of 45 by color of the bill and heel. As an aging criterion, the color of the bill is used most accurately with live or freshly killed birds, because with time it fades. Wing measurements can also be used as an aid in sexing birds, since the average for males is nearly 10 milli- 46 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 meters greated than that for females. From late summer to at least early winter, the presence of a bursa in young birds will distinguish them from adults. MOLTING Adult King Rails have a complete molt and are flightless for nearly a month. Young of the year undergo a partial molt which does not include the tail and flight feathers. In the Middle Atlantic States the molting season for King Rails extends from the beginning of the breeding season in late May until the beginning of fall migration in early October. In this study, breeding birds found in molt during May and June were replacing only body feathers. Molt of the remiges and rectrices was not observed until the first week in July. I have not been able to ascertain the relation between the partial molt during the breeding season and the complete molt in the summer. Birds that are renewing their body feathers while nesting in May and June may be undergoing prenuptial molts or early postnuptial molts during which the wing and tail feathers are not dropped. Bent (1926, p. 262) stated that adult King Rails undergo a partial molt of the contour plumage during early spring. Eight specimens collected in the Middle Atlantic States in March and April showed no signs of molt. An adult female King Rail in the U.S. National Mu- seum, taken at Alligator Bluff, Kissimmee River, Fla., April 9, 1901, was molting body feathers when collected. This could well have been a breeding bird because in Florida this species begins nesting in late winter. In my records the earliest. recorded dates of molting by King Rails are May 28, 1960, and May 29, 1964, when an adult or subadult male and female, respectively, were found in breeding condition at Woodland Beach, Del. The male had pinfeathers on the underside of the neck, the sternal region, and the crural tract. Feather renewal on the female appeared to be about three-fourths complete and was pro- ceeding simultaneously in most areas of the body. Three King Rails in breeding condition examined at Laurel, Md., June 12 and 18 and July 8, 1965, also were molting body feathers. Molting rails in breeding condition have previously been reported. Watson (1962, p. 350) collected molting Spotted Rails (Pardzrallus maculatus) in breeding condition in Cuba; Warner and Dickerman (1959, p. 50), working near Mexico City, reported two female King Rails (Rallus elegans tenuirostris) molting in May during the nesting season. My earliest example of a King Rail molting its wing and tail feathers was at Laurel, Md., July 7, 1965. This bird was flightless. Two other birds trapped at Laurel, one on July 14, 1967, the other on July 24, | 1967, also were flightless. A female collected near Woodland Beach, NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 47 Del., July 30, 1964, had nearly completed molting. Its new remiges and Pecirices were about half grown, and there was evidence of a late stage of feather replacement in all tracts except the head and upper neck regions. A captive subadult female began molting wing and tail feathers by the latter half of July. Two of three adults collected in Delaware on August 238, 1963, had nearly completed their molts of wing and tail feathers; the third had no wing or tail feathers. On August 3, 1967, I took two birds from the Nanticoke River marsh, Vienna, Md., that had not yet begun to molt. The molting period for the Clapper Rail in the Middle Atlantic States is apparently the same as that for the King Rail. A pair of molt- ing Clapper Rails in breeding condition was collected at Woodland Beach, June 29, 1964. Only the body feathers were being molted. Robert E. Stewart (1952, p. 57) trapped and banded many Clapper Rails at Chincoteague, Va., and made the foliowing notes on their molt: During the trapping period [July 16—-August 31] most of the adults were under- going their post-nuptial molt . . . The individual molting period lasts about one month. The first adult observed in full molt was trapped on July 21. During the period August 24 to August 31 (period just before hunting season) a total of 11 adults were trapped. Of these only 5 had completed their molt and were capable of flight, while 4 were in heavy molt, and were completely flightless. Surprisingly enough the other two adults had not even started to molt and were in very worn plumage. In a group of young captive King Rails, the postjuvenal molt was underway when they were 50 days old. Molting of the body feathers began before the young could fly, when the flight feathers were about one-half to three-fourths unsheathed. Another group of young King Rails, raised in captivity after being hatched on June 7, completed their postjuvenal molt by the end of the first week of September. Breeding Biology Studies of the breeding biology of the King Rail were made mostly on the Grand Prairie in Arkansas and Prairie Counties, Ark., during the period 1951-55. In late winter when rails return to the prairie from more southern latitudes or simply become conspicuous in areas where they have been present all winter, the most suitable habitat for the establishment of nesting territories is the narrow strip of marsh found in roadside ditches. At this season there is little suitable cover elsewhere. Old rice stubbles are sometimes used for nesting, but many of these are dried up or whipped down by winter winds and rains or are plowed under in the early spring. HOMING Some males or females return to the same territory in consecutive years. An incubating bird of undetermined sex banded on a nest at Stuttgart, Ark., May 6, 1952, was recaptured the following year on May 1, on a nest 30 feet from the previous year’s nest site. An incubat- ing bird of undetermined sex was banded on its nest at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Md., July 3, 1965, and recaptured in a trap with a mate and brood of eight young on July 8, 1966, 50 feet from the 1965 banding site. TERRITORIES Territories occupied by King Rails in roadside ditches consist of small strips of fresh-water marsh. The dominant plants in most of these small marsh strips (in order of relative abundance and conse- quently of relative importance as nesting cover for King Rails in 1952) were soft-rush, awl-fruited sedge, bottlebrush sedge (Carex comosa), lake sedge, common spikerush, beakrush (Rhynchospora sp.) , an unde- termined Graminae, broad-leaved cattail, and smartweed (Polygonum Sp.). The schedule of arrival of males in the area and the stage of court- ship determine size and choice of territory. It is conceivable that the earlier arrivals manage to claim larger and more suitable territories than those which arrive later when competition is keener. However, territorial boundaries are rather fluid during the earlier part of the courtship period. As additional males move into an area of suitable 48 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 49 roadside ditch habitat, the large courtship-feeding territories of the first contingent tend to shrink. Initial occupation of territories is indicated by the mating call. During the last week in February and the first week in March 1955, one male King Rail gave the mating call at various points along 975 linear feet of roadside ditch. By the second week in March its mating call was heard from about 500 feet of roadside ditch; its territory then was about half its original size. The diminishing of the territory was caused by: (@) Pressure from another courting male, (>) burning of cover along part of the ditch bank within the original calling territory, and (c) relatively modest territorial requirements for nesting, particu- larly if there is plenty of water and ample aquatic animal life for food in the area about the nest. Approximate sizes of nesting territories were determined by meas- uring the distances between three active nests in the same ditch; from the center nest it was 298 feet to the nest on one side and 166 feet to the nest on the other side. The ditch was about 30 feet wide at all three points. Defense of territories King Rails defend their territories both inter- and intra-specifically. When another King Rail invades a territory, the possessor often pre- pares to charge by coming to a “freeze,” assuming a partial crouch, drawing in its neck, and slowly ruffling its feathers. It then chases the intruder on foot and on the wing. As additional King Rails move into suitable nesting habitat, there is much fighting, particularly near boundaries of the more desirable territories. I observed a typical skirmish in a narrow ditch bordering a secondary road on April 21, 1955. At this unstable territorial bound- ary, two males attacked each other with bill and claws, sparring like fighting cocks for about 20 seconds. Then the battle suddenly ended, and the birds moved in opposite directions. On April 22, 1955, in a rice stubble which appeared to be a common feeding ground for the occupants of the adjacent section of roadside ditch, two males (each already paired) “squared off” in a bitter encounter lasting 3 minutes. There was much chasing both on foot and on the wing and clashing “fighting cock style.” W. E. D. Scott (Bent, 1926, p. 287-288) reported similar fighting by Clapper Rails (Lallus longirostris scott) during the courtship period : “During the mating season the male birds are very pugnacious and resent any intrusions from others of the species. At such time I have seen them have pitched battles, and finally, one giving in and taking to flight, the victor would pursue the vanquished on the wing for several hundred feet .. . Sora Rails, migrating through the Arkansas rice country in spring, frequent roadside ditches occupied by King Rails on established nest- 50 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 ing territories. One King Rail made four passes in running flight at a Sora in order to evict it from his territory. Virginia Rails received the same treatment from King Rails. A call, presumably agonistic, heard when two male King Rails were in the same territory, could be described as kik-hik-kur-r-r-r-. COURTSHIP BEHAVIOR Mating call and pair formation With the first warm days of late February, the mating calls of King Rails are heard for the first time in the roadside ditches adjacent to rice stubbles or other fields. Rails feed in the shallow water of the ditch and use the broomsedge (Andropogon spp.) on ditchbanks or outside levees of old ricefields as places of retreat or hiding. Moreover, the rails use little lanes or pathways, such as those made by cottontails (Sylvilagus sp.), for traveling in concealment. along the ditchbanks. In late February the only vegetation that offers much concealment to calling King Rails is the perennial ditchbank sedge which is also the winter abode of the Short-billed Marsh Wren on the Grand Prairie; ecnsequently, much of the early season calling emanates from behind or among clumps of this grass. However, where there happens to be an old growth of cattails in the ditch, rails may call from this cover. The male King Rail calls its mate from a concealed, partly con- cealed, or completely exposed position. The purpose of this call is first to attract a mate and later, after pair formation, to rally her. The mating call is one of the least difficult calls to describe. It is most commonly given as a harsh hik-kik-kik-kik-kik-, but occasionally varies from a series of kiks to a series of kuks or bups. This variation may be a matter of interpretation, possibly depending upon the observ- er’s distance from a calling bird. The pitch of the call is steady, but the tempo increases from time to time. One bird was heard and seen to give this call continuously for 18 minutes. In the Arkansas ricefields this call was heard at almost any time during daylight, but less fre- quently at night. At Elliott Island, Md., in the Chesapeake Bay coun- try, I often heard the mating call after 10 p.m. D. J. Nicholson (per- sonal communication) heard dozens of these rails calling all through the night on the Kissimmee Prairie, Fla., in January and February 1962. I have never heard a female give the mating call. Other calls The most characteristic call of the King Rail, the primary adver- tising call, is the one that is heard throughout the breeding season. It may be written as jupe-jupe-jupe-jupe-jupe- or cheup-cheup-cheup- cheup-cheup- or sometimes as gelp-gelp-gelp-gelp-gelp-. The first several notes in a series are louder than succeeding ones, and the tempo NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 51 increases rapidly toward the end of the call when the notes run togeth- er. One rail gave 25 distinct jupes in a single series, not including those in the rapid ending which could not be counted. This call carries a ereater distance than the mating call and is somethimes answered by a number of other King Rails. It is sometimes used when a bird is startled and occasionally serves as an “all is well” call when a pair of separated birds are reunited. In addition, I have often observed an incubating bird using this call when it wishes to be relieved at the nest. The primary advertising call of the King Rail is slower and more delib- erate than that of the Clapper, which is usually more of a rapid chac-chac-chac-chac-chac-. A call uttered during prenuptial courtship by both the male and the female, but more frequently after pairing, is a soft and rapid tuk-tuk- tuk-tuk-tuk-. This sound reminds me somewhat of the clapping to- gether of the mandibles of the Barred Ow] (Strix varia), and is sel- dom audible to the human ear beyond 20 or 30 feet. The King Rail uses the “tuk” call as a rallying call or gives it to indicate its position to its mate. Display | The display of the male during prenuptial courtship is relatively simple and consists mostly in walking about with tail uplifted and white undertail coverts extended (fig. 21-1). In this position the white undertail coverts can be seen from a considerable distance. While flashing its white undertail coverts, the rail usually flicks its tail up and down slightly. Females that I observed during the period of pre- nuptial courtship made no attempt to display. There were other forms of posturing during the period of courtship and mating, but apparently the cocked tail and well-exposed white undertail coverts, accompanied by the mating call, are the principal means of attracting a mate. On two occasions I observed what appeared to be another form of display, the “pursuit display.” The circumstances and the behavior of the male were essentially the same both times. In each case the male apparently had not succeeded in attracting a mate to his territory. On March 1, 1955, at 8:30 a.m., [saw asmall and very rufescent King Rail, later established to be a female, moving along a rice levee bordering a roadside ditch and approaching a calling male. The female continued along the water’s edge at a slow but steady gait and passed beyond the male that was standing in the ditch. As soon as she was ahead of him, the male followed her at a fast walk with head and neck out- stretched, bill open (but emitting no sound audible at 40 feet), tail cocked, and white undertail coverts extended (fig. 21-2). Following pair formation much of the posturing and calling that characterized the period of prenuptial courtship continues, at least 52 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 FIGURE 21.—Displays of the King Rail: (1) In the Advertising Display the tail is cocked and the white undertail coverts extended. (2) The Pursuit Display is given when the male pursues the female during prenuptial courtship; the male walks fast or runs with tail slightly cocked, white undertail coverts extended, and bill wide open. (3) The Invitational Display is assumed by the mated male when the female approaches; the bill points downward and slowly swings from side to side, and the tail is displayed. (4) A variation of the Invitational Display consists in wings arched, head turned to one side, bill open, and tail displayed. in the earlier phases of nuptial courtship. While pair formation is in progress, but infrequently during the nuptial courtship period, the female utters a purr or churr sound, like the purr of a cat, especially after the male has given the mating call. The male uses the mating call (kik-kik-) infrequently and with less vigor when rallying a newly won mate which often strays when foraging. I observed a good example of the use of this call shortly after pairing on the evening of March 2, 1955. During an 18-minute period beginning at 5:30 p.m., a paired male, while standing partially concealed on a ricefield border levee, uttered the complete mating call seven times. Six of the seven times his mate ran to him from a distance of 100 feet or less where she had been feeding. When the female came up beside him, the male spread his white undertail coverts and bent his head and neck so that his bill was perpendicular to and NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 53 nearly touching the ground (fig. 21-3). From this position, he often turned his bent head with bill open toward the female. At one of these meetings the male appeared to be about to mount the female and begin to rise up with his bill still wide open, but the female evidently was not ready for copulation and walked away. I observed the same posture many other times, but the birds were usually standing in water. On these occasions the bill usually touched or slightly dipped into the water. Males assumed the pose after pair- ing, when the feeding female that had been at some distance away came within 3 or 4 feet of her mate. On one occasion a male under such circumstances arched his partly opened wings (fig. 21-4). Courtship feeding Courtship feeding, a type of symbolic display that aids in main- taining the pair bond, was observed during the courtship, egg laying, and incubation periods of the King Rail. In the Arkansas ricefields, the crayfish was the only food that I ever saw presented to a female. In Delaware Bay marshes, the fiddler crab was used for this purpose. The male usually brings the food item to the female, but sometimes he may stand where he catches the crustacean, holding it in his bill, until the female approaches and takes possession. A mated pair of rails that I observed for a number of days on their Delaware breeding territory would descend at low tide from the marsh to a pool in the bed of a tidal creek. The female would usually stand in the pool while the male hunted food for her. He would frequently run up the winding creek bed for 25 yards or so, catch a fiddler crab, and run back to present it to the female. Why he often traveled such distances when there were plenty of fiddlers nearby is not known. During a 2-hour period of observation in an Arkansas ricefield, I saw the male of a pair catch seven crayfish, five of which he presented to his mate. PRENESTING ACTIVITY Calling As the nesting season approached, the mating call and undertail covert flashing by the male all but ceased, and the addition of a num- ber of calls, mostly soft or subdued, increased the repertoire of the mated pair. Paired rails used such calls as rallying devices when sep- arated or as reassuring answers to one another’s calls when together. A call frequently given by both birds, particularly as nesting approached, was a very soft poyeek-poyeek-poyeek-poyeek-poyeek-, or wyeek-wyeek-wyeek-wyeek-wyeek-, which seemed to act as an Inquiry of the whereabouts of the mate. Several males gave one of the more unusual calls, a deep booming sound requiring an effort which caused the body to appear to expand 54: NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 slightly and sounding something like dom-éom-o0m-6om-6om-. The purpose of his “booming” call is not known. It is not very loud, and the females were not nearby when it was uttered, unless they were well concealed. Symbolic nest building Symbolic nest building was observed at Stuttgart, Ark. In this case a male King Rail was observed carrying nesting material into a hole in a ricefield dike through which water was draining into a roadside ditch. The dike was about 21% feet in height, and the hole was large enough for the bird to pass easily from one side to the other. The light stream of water did not prevent an accumulation of nest- ing material. However, the nest was not completed. Two days later (April 2) the true nest was started about 10 yards from the hole in the dike. Copulation Copulation usually takes place near the nest site, before and during egg laying. Although no nests with eggs were found on the Arkansas Grand Prairie before March 25, rails were observed copulating as early as March 3, in 2 different years. Perhaps these birds nested earlier than March 25. On one nesting territory, the male came within 20 feet of the nest (containing one egg’), called, and was answered by the female who left the nest and came to the male for copulation. The jupe-jupe-jupe- jupe-jupe- call often precedes copulation during this period. Copula- tion is performed with the female assuming a crouch and the male mounting with legs and feet placed on the female’s back. NESTING PERIOD The nesting period varies with latitude, being longer and starting earlier in the southern part of the range. The nesting period in Florida extends from late January, at least, until the middle of July, and in Louisiana from early March to September. It is quite conceivable, therefore, that in such States as Florida and Louisiana the breeding season covers 7 to 8 months. Unlike the Bobwhite (Colinus virgin- ianus), Redwinged Blackbird, and several other species which do not nest much earlier in the gulf coast region than in the northern States, the King Rail takes advantage of the long warm period, and nests over a longer period of time. The long period of nesting in the South should result in a greater total production of young, because of the much greater opportunity for renesting and second broods. The nesting season in the Middle Atlantic States is about 4 months; adults with downy young have been observed in early August in Delaware. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 5D With the long warm period prevailing in the Deep South, time for raising more than one successful brood would seem to be ample. A breeding pair is busy with nesting activity for about 2 months (ap- proximately 10 days for laying, 21-22 days for incubation, and 24-30 days with brood). As yet there is no evidence that the King Rail is double-brooded ; however, no attempt has been made to determine this. The closely related ‘Clapper Rail in South Carolina is double-brooded (Blandin, 1963, p. 66-67), and it is probable that some King Rails in the Deep South also have more than one successful brood during a season. A nest found in a cypress pond in southern St. Johns County, Fla., in February 1933 contained 11 eggs in an advanced stage of incuba- tion (Hallman, 1934, p. 18). Allowing a 21- or 22-day incubation period plus 11 days for laying, it is conceivable that this nest was started in January. D. J. Nicholson found a dead King Rail at Or- lando, Fla., on February 16, 1925, with a hard-shelled egg ready for deposit (Howell, 1932, p. 203). A single downy young King Rail was seen on March 10, 1950, 2 miles west of 40-mile Bend, Dade County, Fla., by J. ‘C. Moore and D. B. Beard (U.S. National Park Service files). W. B. Robertson, Jr. (personal communication), found several young King Rails at Royal Palm Hammock, in the Florida Ever- glades, on March 5, 1952. These last two examples indicate February nesting. Adults with six young approximately 2 weeks old were recorded in Lee County, Fla., July 30, 1966, indicating that the nesting season in Florida extends into July (Frederick H. Lesser, personal communication). At Oakland Plantation, a few miles north of Charleston, S.C., a brood of 10 young were seen by Francis Porcher on March 22, 1913 (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949, p. 193). In this case nesting started in early or mid-February. I found young 1 to 4 days old (egg tooth present) and a nest of nine eggs in Jasper County, S.C., near Savan- nah, Ga., on April 16, 1961, and young at Georgetown, S.C., on April 25, 1961. At Grand ‘Chenier, Cameron Parish, on the southwestern coast of Louisiana on April 8, 1956, I observed a pair of King Rails feeding 2-week-old young. Back-dating about 38 days to cover the age of the young and the incubation period, laying began about March 3. Fifty miles north in the Louisiana rice country, nesting probably gets underway a little later than on the coast. A nest of seven eggs was found at Mamou, March 30, 1957. A late nest containing eight eggs was found at Mamou, August 6, 1955. On the Arkansas Grand Prairie, the important nesting months are April, May, and June (table 8). The earliest indication of nest build- 56 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 ing is in late March (March 25). Durmg March 1952, nearly all King Rails seen were in pairs. In Maryland, most clutches are laid between May 15 and June 30. A brood of chicks and their parents were seen by P. J: Van Huizen near the Blackwater River, Dorchester County, on May 21, 1965, giv- ing evidence that some King Rails begin nesting in April. In Central Ohio, Milton B. Trautman and R. Bales located 42 nests, 34. of which were found in May and 8 in June (M. B. Trautman, per- sonal communication). Seven of the June nests were found during the first half of the month, and 26 of the May nests were found during the last half of that month. From this, the main nesting period seems to extend from May 15 to May 31. TaBLE 8.—WNesting dates, clutch size, and habitat of King Rail nests at Stuttgart, Ark. Nest Number Com- num- Date found ofeggs! plete Number Location Dominant vegetation ber clutch hatched size 2 1 Apr. 1,1952 1 11 SP eDitchtsta2) asses Typha latifolia. 2 Apr. 10,1952 b 20 Canalset = = 25457 nee Juncus sp. 3 Apr. 15, 1952 4 12 12 Ditches ames eee Typha latifolia. 4 Apr. 16, 1952 ll ll Oh = wees dors. sets eee Grass? 5 Apr. 21,1952 10 10 Oi eee do. 2.2. eae JUNCUS effusus. 6 GOs sees 14 14 14 See ee (6 (oles See es As Carex hyalinolepis. 7 Apr. 24, 1952 4 (07 Kae Maem aR a GOS ee eee Carex hyalinolepis. 8 Apr. 25, 1955 iN es pe ca GO Fg sn eines Eleocharis sp. 9 Apr. 26, 1955 WS) 2 soe 3 ee Ae Ons 2 Nes eee Sedge. 10 dope VEE AEE see, ats RS NS als GOES) ees Juncus effusus. 11 dosea = NUE UD) ee STOEL eerie a Oa does ti hs eee Juncus effusus. 12 May 1,1952 1 7 See aes ange (Go eee ee ae Sedge? 13 Oren 11 11 Ai) $2 Sak Goh See Sw Typha latifolia. 14 May 2,1952 new (1 RR es gee GOs es See Juncus effusus. 15 do See 11 11 LOWS ee GOES Sli Sst eeeseoe Sedge? 16 May 5, 1962 Ieee eae Seer (6 Ka rie ten eaters ea Carex stipata. 17 May 6,1952 5 11 Oice ee Core mee een Mae Be Juncus effusus. 18 May 9,1950 4 eee eee ee Ricefield____________-_- Oryza sativa. 19 dora 6 1 Ua Mage eae a Ditches Juncus effusus. 20 May 10,1948 12 12) Sees Oatiicld teases aaeee Avena (var.). 21 May 10,1952 9 9 9 Ditch 283. eas JUNCUS effFUSUS. 22 dos == 11 11 10 Canalbank -____---- Bromus secalinus. 23 May 11,1952 12 12 10) Ditchbkz <5 eee Juncus effusus. 24 May 12, 1962 DARA i el ye (Gp ese Gof aes Carex stipaia. 25 May 13, 1952 10 10 Ope ees GO Stes ee ee aes Juncus effusus. 26 May 18, 1962 Me Soe: See (Gi) eae dO eee Eleocharis palustris. 27 May 15, 1962 TO oe as @)scoae Gout e a Carex stipata. 28 May 26, 1952 2 Dd het eee lee N Canalibanky == Grass? 29 May 26, 1954 NOG 2 ee LORS Diteh) =e ee eee Eleocharis sp. 30 May 28, 1952 4 8 Signs dogs: 3 eee ae Juncus effusus. 31 June 3,1954 BE eek ee cael (Gi) ere (0 (eee mee ee wel Grass? and sedge? 32 June 4, 1952 COM S28 She he Weedy field —_______- Avena (var.). 33 June 9, 1952 10 10 10 Canalbank -—_-_-__-_--- Oryza sativa. 34 June 13, 1952 ea Ze elma ga pe A Ricehield aa seen Paspalum distichum. 35 (6 (sete GZ Na a SIPS Tne SONY Pondedge- _______- Paspalum distichum. 36 dose: CDN EG 5 SEES hak eck Sa ete Goie2. 3s See Oryza sativa. 37 June 19, 1952 9 OR ee Rice eldes = sae a= Oryza sativa. 38 June 25, 1952 10 VQ eae ae GOs a ae Oryza sativa. 39 Teall SLUGS OR AS) ees ee es ace Be oN ee (6 V0 papery Bie ee in Oryza sativa. 40 6 (oe AOE () | ee Re ae ge ee ene oe (6 (0 eRe UR Re RTs Oryza sativa. 41 Cc (a EO og (() RS Re ee ee OM ee See eee Goel oe ee Oryze sativa. 42 Om 22255 = (Bee ee hea, ee Oe he 2 ee eee Oryza sativa. 43 GOSS FATE (8) Rese e S EEE ey Sea eg ae dobbs ne SR Oryza sativa. 44 July 18,1951 7 Qi Reyegull hs eee eee COE Sats eee Oryza sativa. 45 Aug. 1,1950 6 RELI ost ARES doz oe ee Oryza sativa. 46 Aug. 9,1951 5 es ea ne (6 Vaart ie eM ae eas Oryza sativa. 47 Aug. 9, 1963 5 5 Oye GOSEEME RE SAL ae: Oryza sativa. 48 Aug. 10,1951 6 (5s (ee Sap RES (6 a een Rae aa a Oryza sativa. 49 Aug. 29, 1951 9 Qn: Seas es Ditch ee ee es Echinochloa sp. 16=building; eb=eggs broken. 2 d=deserted. 3 Nest and eggs found; clutch size not recorded. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL a7 Tanner and Hendrickson (1956, p. 54) reported that in Clay County, Iowa, nesting begins soon after the arrival of the birds during the first week of May. In 1951 the nesting season extended for a period of 42 days from May 18, the date that the first egg was laid, until June 28, the date that the last egg hatched. NEST SITE AND MATERIALS The usual nest site is in the shallow-water part of a marsh. The water depth was 4 to 18 inches at Clay County, Iowa (Tanner and Hen- drickson 1956, p. 55), 2 feet at Buckeye Lake, Ohio (Trautman 1940, p. 229), and 6 to 8 inches in Arkansas ricefields. In South Carolina, Wayne (1910, p. 35) found nests in buttonbushes 8 to 18 inches over water. In a giant cutgrass marsh near Savannah, Ga., each of five nests located was within 20 feet of the edge of the marsh, although the vegetation density and other characteristics appeared uniform over extensive areas. Occasionally a nest is placed on a dry-land site such as an oat or wheatfield, or on a grassy embankment. In 1952, on Long Island, N.Y., Roy Latham (1954, p. 8-9) found a nest on the ground in a potato field, 150 yards from the edge of a salt marsh where Clapper Rails were nesting. The nest site appears to be chosen by the male. On two occasions, I have seen a male initiate nest-building. Most King Rail nests are placed in fairly uniform stands of vege- tation and are well concealed, but the shape of the nest canopy (whether cone-shaped or round) sometimes disrupts the uniform pat- tern of the vegetation and reveals the location of the nest to the hu- man eye (figs. 22 and 23). The life form of some plant in the territory, such as a tussock of grass or the stool of a rice plant, often determines the exact nest site. A nest may be placed in a clump of grass or a sedge tussock, or be- tween several clumps, parts of which are used in fashioning the canopy and sides of the nest. The bases of most Arkansas nests were made of wet decaying plants, and the platforms or cups were of dead dry grasses, sedges, or rushes. These materials are obtained near the nest site. The base of one nest found in Arkansas was made entirely of mud and was 214 inches in depth. Nest materials used in some Iowa nests consisted of one or two species of plants (Tanner and Hendrickson 1956, p. 55). Most nests in Arkansas ricefields were made of rice plants; a few were made from “weed” plants in the fields, such as wild millet. The completed nest is a round, elevated platform with a saucer-shaped depression (figs. 23, 24, and 25). It usually has a round or cone-shaped canopy and a ramp, and is nearly twice as large as that of the Virginia Rail or Sora. 348-693 O—69—_5 58 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 3 FIGURE 22.—Canopy of King Rail nest in roadside ditch, Arkansas Grand Prairie. In a uniform stand of vegetation the canopy is often quite conspicuous. Canopy composed of spikerush (Hleocharis palustris) and smartweed (Polygonum sp.). FIcuRE 23.—King Rail nest in roadside ditch near Stuttgart, Ark., May 30, 1952. Nest constructed of softrush (Juncus effusus). NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 59 FIGURE 24.—King Rail incubating in nest constructed of cattails (Typha tati- folia) in roadside ditch, Arkansas Grand Prairie, April 1952. RE. a See ee Big OR HUM A ‘ ; TY arte ae pee PTA gas, Oh AE PAs ak " A Ree Cae CG ty se ON Va hic A . # ” AR ww gs re cs ee vty Ay as » 5 ee ‘ 4 4 ; e - we A ; ; ‘ ; : 7s eS Nee wad. CASO Sear ae) Ss, Se ae at AS Va a: Stee WANT CTs cs ary SON mo ae f S\ > ee x AR a “hs the NY ae BAA - ‘a he ae ee “uP re Figure 25.—King Rail incubating in open nest along roadside ditch, Mamou, La., April 1957. — 60: NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 Dimensions of 11 eastern Arkansas nests were: average height from ground to canopy, 43.0 cm.; average height from ground to rim, 16.5 cm.; average exterior diameter, 28.0 cm.; and inside depth, 1.5 cm. (Meanley, 1953, p. 265). The height of the nest above water usually depends upon the depth of the water. Eggs in most nests in Arkansas Grand Prairie ricefields were less than a foot above the water level. In tidal marshes along the lower Savannah River, 8.C., the eggs in two nests were about 2 feet above the low tide mark and about 1 foot above the high water mark. Nests in dry locations, such as oatfields, canal banks, or dry ditches, are usually elevated very little, and the eggs may rest within an inch or two of, or actually on, the ground. Nests placed above 2 or 3 inches of water may be elevated as much as a foot during a heavy rain or when a dry ricefield is being flooded. After a heavy rain on the Arkansas Grand Prairie, an incubating rail was observed working rapidly to build up its cattail nest above the rising water in a roadside ditch. By reaching out with its bill all around the nest and picking up materials (mostly cattail leaf frag- ments), which it tucked beneath the eggs, and by using most of the canopy for the same purpose, the bird managed to keep the eggs about 2, inches above the rising water. The ditch was nearly dry before the rain, and the eggs were then 5 inches from the ground. At peak depth, the water was 21 inches deep. On another occasion, a nest with eggs 21% inches from the ground was located in a ricefield that had been temporarily drained. The next day, the field was flooded to a depth of 5 inches, and the eggs were raised to 7 inches from the ground. As the water continued to rise, the incubating bird persisted in elevating the egos by tucking rice leaves from the canopy under them. On one occasion I came upon a bird constructing a nest on a canal bank, and watched the process only a minute or so before its mate came to continue the work. The bird that was relieved left to feed in a nearby ditch. I watched the newcomer for about 3 minutes, and then collected it. Upon dissection it proved to be the male. Apparently the male takes the more active part in nest building. Males on three occasions were observed gathering nest material within 20 feet of the nest site. A captive male purred like a domestic cat con- stantly as it carried nesting material to the nest site. The nest 1s shaped as the bird (all observations were of males) sits in a clump of grass or between clumps and semirotates its body. It later piles up dead vege- tation, and shapes the cup. The canopy is formed by bending over the tops of stalks of adjacent plants. One Arkansas nest was ob- served under construction at 8 a.m. and 6:30 p.m. of the same day, another one at 12:15 p.m. and 5:15 p.m. The nest is not always completed before the first egg is laid. While driving along a paved road 5 miles south of Stuttgart, Ark., at 5:30 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE KING RAIL 61 p-m. one day in May, I heard two rails uttering their characteristic jupe-jupe-jupe-jupe-jupe call. One of the birds was standing in a nearby ditch, and after about 3 minutes of watching, I saw the grass move on the bank near the rail in view. As the same grass continued to move, it was evident to me that the mate was building a nest. Actually the bird was pulling in grass to form the sides and canopy for a nest. After watching it for a few minutes I departed. The next morning I found that construction was in the initial stage, but two eggs had been laid on the bare ground and were surrounded by just a few dead plant fragments. A Purple Gallinule, another species of Rallidae, was reported by Grimes (1944, p. 63) to have a nest platform 6 inches thick when the first egg was laid. As the eggs began to hatch, the nest was built up until it was 13 inches thick. Similar nest building activity by Clapper Rails at Frogmore, S.C., was reported by Hoxie (1887, p. 181) : The first time I found the nest it contained only one egg, and did not seem wide enough to hold more than one more. ... AS each new egg was laid they added fresh material to the outside, until the nest was at least amply sufficient to contain the full set of eight. Several brood nests, usually without canopies, are constructed near the egg nest. EGG LAYING AND CLUTCH SIZE Eggs were deposited daily at five Arkansas nests. In one Arkansas nest, the eggs were laid between 7 p.m. and 7 a.m. In one South Caro- lina nest, Wayne (1910, p. 36) noted that each egg was deposited after 1ia.m. Parasitism or “dumping” was recorded by B. H. Swales (1896, p. 142) in St. Clair County, Mich. On June 9, a King Rail was flushed from a nest containing 17 eggs; nine were apparently laid by the King Rail, seven by a Virginia Rail, and one by a Sora. Clutch size Clutches of 10, 11, or 12 King Rail eggs are most frequently found (table 9). A smaller clutch may represent a replacement clutch, de- pending upon when it occurs. On the Arkansas Grand Prairie, the earliest clutch of eight eggs was found on May 28, approximately 2 months after the beginning of the laying season. In Maryland, in July, I observed three complete clutches of six eggs each. Description of eggs Bent (1926, p. 261) gives the following description of the eggs: They are ovate in shape and the shell is smooth and slightly glossy. The ground color averages lighter than in eggs of the clapper rails, but not so light as in 62 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 67 those of the California species; it is pale buff, varying from ‘‘cream buff’ to ‘‘pale olive buff.” They are sparingly and irregularly spotted, mostly in small spots, with various shades of ‘“‘vinaceous drab,” ‘army brown” and ‘‘vinaceous brown’”’ and sometimes with a few spots of brighter browns. The measurements of 56 eggs averaged 41 by 30 millimeters, the eggs showing the four extremes measure 44 by 32, 38.5 by 28 millimeters. I measured 20 eggs at Stuttgart, Ark. two from each of 10 nests. The average measurement was 40.8 by 30.4 millimeters, with extremes of 42.0 by 32.0 and 39.5 by 29.5. Table 9.—Clutch sizes in King Rail nests at three locations Number of clutches found Clutches with— Stuttgart, Northern Delaware Ark.! andcentral Valley 3 Ohio 2 fo Salo