MUNN ERSITY 
OF 
TORONTO. 
UBRARY 


CS: 


WH 


SERA CRON GOS 
ce 
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AS OSR ER SCAe 


~ NORTHERN WATERS: 


CAPTAIN ROALD AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC 


OBSERVATIONS IN THE ARCTIC SEAS IN 1901. 


WITH 


A DISCUSSION OF THE ORIGIN OF THE BOTTOM- 


WATERS OF THE NORTHERN SEAS. 


Bs 


FRIDTJOF NANSEN. 


(WITH 11 PLATES.) 


(VIDENSKABS-SELSKABETS SKRIFTER. I. Maruematisk-NAtuRV. KLASSE 1906. 


UDGIVET FOR FRIDTJOF NANSENS FOND. 


CHRISTIANIA. 
IN COMMISSION BY JACOB DYBWAD. 
PRINTED BY A. W. BROGGER. 


1906. 


Yo. 3.) 


a 


i 
4 
3 
| 
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4 
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LED 


Roald Amundsen 


the careful planner and happy leader of Arctic enter- 
prise, a tribute 
from 


the author. 


VI. 
Vil. 


Table 1. 
Table II. 


Contents. 


Introductory Remarks . 

Instruments > ab! SEMEL peta: 8 9s mea ae 
Distribution of Temperature, Salinity, and Density on the 
Sea Surface ee ade ae ek 
The Cold and Heavy Bottom-Water of the Barents Sea 
Polar Surface Water of Northern Barents Sea ee 
The Waters of the Northern Norwegian Sea and the East 
Greenland Polar Current Ser ete - eee : 
The Formation of the Bottom-Water of the Norwegian Sea 
The Bottom-Water of the North Polar Basin 

Postscript . : 

Surface-Observations 

Deep Sea Observations 


Plates I—XI. 


~ 


http://archive.org/details/ northernwatersca00r ie 


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. Introductory Remarks. 


After having bought his now famous little vessel, the Goa, Captain 
Roald Amundsen wished to make a preparatory cruise in the Arctic 
seas, in 1901, in order to try the vessel, and to gain experience with her 
in the ice, before starting on the quest for the Magnetic North Pole and 
the North West Passage. To pay the expences of this first cruise, 
Amundsen was to catch seals in the Barents Sea, the Spitsbergen Seas, 
and the East Greenland Sea; but at the same time he was anxious to 
make use of the opportunity for scientific work; I proposed that he should 
make oceanographic observations. If carefully carried out with modern 
instruments I knew they would be of great scientific value, especially in 
the sea north of Jan Mayen, between Spitsbergen and Greenland, where 
hitherto very few trustworthy investigations have been made. If Amundsen 
should succeed in his plan of going through the ice, to the east coast of 
Greenland, he would be able to make a hydrographical section across the 
East Greenland Polar Current, which would be of the highest value, and 
would probably solve problems of importance in understanding the Physical 
Oceanography of the whole Norwegian Sea. Captain Amundsen accepted 
the proposal with enthusiasm, and he then got the following instru- 
mental equipment: 1 insulated Pettersson-Nansen Water-Bottle, 1 smaller 
water-bottle of my construction (which was not insulated but which closed 
tightly, and gave perfect water-samples), 2 Nansen Deep-Sea-Thermometers 
(from Richter, Berlin), for the insulated water-bottle, 1 Reversing Thermo- 
meter from Richter, Berlin, 2 Negretti-Zambra Reversing Thermometers, a 
few lenses for reading off the thermometers (to avoid parallax), several 
ordinary thermometers (from the meteorological Office, Christiania), a few 
Nansen closing Plankton-nets of different sizes, and several thousand bottles 
for holding the water- and plankton-samples. Captain Amundsen had a 


very good hand-winch with 2000 metres steel line specially constructed, 


Vid.-Selsk. Skrifter. I. M.-N. Kl. 1906, No. 3. 1 


2 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


and he also had a meter-wheel of my construction (the larger size of those 
now delivered through the International Central Laboratory of Christiania). 

He also constructed a simple water-bottle for taking water-samples and 
temperatures down to moderate depths, while the vessel was sailing. 

He reccived instruction in taking all kinds of oceanographical observations, 
and both he and his assistant, Sergeant Ristvedt (also a member of his 
present expedition through the North West Passage), had some practice 
in taking of water-temperatures and water-samples etc. in the laboratory 
and on the ice in Christiania Fjord. 

Thus better equipped for physical oceanographic research than any 
arctic expedition before, Captain Amundsen started from Tromse on 
April 22, rg01. He returned to Tromso again on September 4, Igor. 
with a splendid collection of observations, 2128 water-samples, 627 plankton- 
samples, etc. He had also thrown out 382 bottles (with post cards) for 
determining the drift. The post-cards were addressed to me, and I have 
received a good many which will be mentioned later. 

The ice-conditions had been unfavourable, so that Amundsen had 
not been able to penetrate the ice and reach the East Coast of Greenland. 
He had therefore not succeeded in taking a complete transverse section of 
the East Greenland Polar Current and underlying waters; but still, the 
series of observations which he succeeded in taking from this region are, 
as we shall see below, of fundamental importance in understanding the 
origin of the »bottom-water« of the Norwegian Sea, which forms more 
than two thirds of the quantity of water filling this basin. 

Amundsen was, however, so keen on completing the task he had 
set himself, wz. of taking a complete section of the Greenland Polar Cur- 
rent, that in his first telegram from Tromso, he asked me whether he might 
keep the instruments and oceanographical equipment, on board the vessel, 
as he wished to go out again the following year to make the complete section 
of the Polar Current. It was only on my advice that he gave up this 
plan. I thought it was still more important for him not to delay by one 
year the preparation for his expedition to the Magnetic North Pole. 

The plankton-samples brought back by Amundsen have been exa- 
mined by Professor H. H. Gran, and will be described by him in a 


special paper. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 3 


ll. Instruments. 


After observations at the first five stations having been taken with the 
Pettersson-Nansen insulated Water-Bottle this instrument was lost 
by an accident (the steel-line broke), and all deep-sea temperatures after 
that time were therefore taken with the Richter or Negretti and Zambra 


Reversing Thermometers. 


Richter Reversing Thermometer No. 113. 


This instrument was one of the first two reversing thermometers which 
were made at my suggestion by Richter in Berlin, and which he sent me for 
my approval in March rgor. After having tested it I sent it to Amundsen. 
The thermometer was made of Jena glass 16 III, and had a small thermo- 
meter enclosed inside the outer protecting glass-tube by which the tem- 
perature of the broken-off mercury could easily be determined simultaneously 
with the reading off. It is the same improvement which has since 
been introduced on all reversing thermometers from Richter. The scale 
was divided into fifths of degrees. The instrument had the disadvantage, 
that if it was not reversed somewhat roughly with a shock, the mercury 
would not break off. The reversing apparatus had therefore to be 
specially arranged for this purpose. 

The thermometer No. 113 was tested at Physikalisch-Teknische Reichs- 
anstalt in Charlottenburg, Berlin, in March 1rgor (where it received the number 
PTR 15657) and its zero-correction was determined again (four indepen- 
dent determinations giving uniform results) on September 13, rIgo1, 
immediately after the the return from the expedition, by my assistant Mr. 


Jakob Schetelig at our laboratory in Christiania. 


Corrections of Richter Reversing Thermometer No. 113. 


Corrections. 
Seale. ea 
March 1901 Char- September roor 
lottenburg. Christiania. 
— 3'5° C + 0'06° C. Xe 
FO pi + 008 , + 0'056° C. 
+ I0;°0 , SOIOON |, 
+209 5 BC OF 


4 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


+ indicates that the error has to be added to the observed temperature 
in order to find the correct temperature. By several determinations it was 
also found that if the mercury be broken off at temperatures about zero, 
the correction due to the difference of temperature at which it is read off, 
is about o'0098° C. for each degree the broken-off mercury is cooled or 
heated. 

Amundsen made one observation of the zero-correction of the instru- 
ment during the voyage, on July 1, 1901, but as he himself remarks it 
is of no value as it was too difficult to make the mercury break off. As 
the thermometer was made of Jena normal glass 16 it may be assumed 
that it has altered its corrections fairly gradually during the time of the 
voyage, and as the instruments were, as a rule, exposed to lower tempera- 
tures than in the laboratory it seems probable that the corrections were 
if anything somewhat smaller than as indicated above. It may therefore 
be assumed that the zero-correction during the voyage was very nearly 


+ o0'06° C. 


Negretti and Zambra Reversing Thermometers Nos. 72012 and 72620. 


These thermometers were several years old, and were of the ordinary 
type delivered by Negretti and Zambra. They were made of ordinary English 
glass, and the scales were devided into whole degrees. The graduation 
was rather rough, so that it was somewhat difficult to read off the 
temperature accurately, with a reading lens, or even with a reading 
microscope. 

The following determinations of the zero-correction were made. 


Zero-corrections. 


Date. N. Z. No. 72012. | N. Z. No. 72620. 
March, rgo1, Christiania. . . . ——O711a) Gs — o16 9G 
Halve TOON, | Gxyloan sen Ce — O135 » — “O14 ae 
September 5, 1901, Gjoa, Tromsg — 020 , — O20 , 
September 12, 1901, Christiania . — o136 , 
September 13, 1901, Christiania . — O16) 5 —o1l2 , 


The mercury broken off at zero expanded by an amount equal to 


about o‘o1° C. of the scale, for each degree it was heated. 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 5 


The zero corrections determined by Mr. Jakob Schetelig at the 
laboratory in Christiania before and after the voyage were taken with a 
reading microscope, and were consequently fairly accurate. In March, 
1go1, at the same time as Schetelig, Amundsen also determined the 
zero-correction of the same thermometers with one of the ordinary lenses, 
such as he used on the voyage, and it than appeared that it was very 
easy to get a somewhat too great correction, as he everal times obtained 
—o‘20 for No. 72620, whilst it should have been —o'16. This is evi- 
dently due to the very thick and coarse division-marks of the thermo- 
meter scale. 

It is a striking fact that the temperatures taken during the voyage with 
these thermometers are nearly always lower than those taken simultaneously 
with the Richter Reversing Thermometer No. 113. The difference is strangely 
enough very uniform, about o'ro’ C. (cf. the Tables of Observations). This 
proves that Amundsen has evidently read of his thermometers with great care, 
and by a very uniform method. It does not seem probable that these old 
Negretti and Zambra thermometers should have altered their error so 
much as to indicate during the voyage on the average about o'1° C. lower 
than they did both in March, before the voyage, and in September, after the 
voyage; and besides, this would not be in accord with the zero-corrections 
taken during the voyage. But it does not seem more probable that the Richter 
thermometer, made of Jena glass No. 161], should suddenly have altered its 
error during the voyage, as much as to indicate o'1° C. higher than it did both 
before and after. It seems more probable that some fairly uniform error 
has been made during the reading off of the Negretti and Zambra thermo- 
meters, perhaps some error of parallax e. g. the axis of the reading lens 
may have beeen placed not perfectly perpendicular on the stem of the 
thermometers; and as the stem is very thick, only a slight error of paral- 
lax is sufficient to amount to o'1°C. in the reading. 

In order to determine the temperature of the broken off mercury, at 
the moment the thermometers were read, they were always placed in a 
waterbath for some time before the reading was taken. The temperature 
of the water-bath was taken simultaneously, and recorded in the journal. 


The reading were subsequently corrected accordingly. 


Nansen Deep-Sea Thermometers. Richter Nos. 109 and 110. 


These thermometers were of the same type as now generally made 


by Richter for the Pettersson-Nansen Water-Bottle. They were made of 
! The determinations of the zero-corrections made on board the Gjga on September 5, 
1901, in Tromso, are therefore less trustworthy than those made at Christiania. 


6 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


Jena Glass No. 59!II, and protected by an outer strong glass tube. The 
stem was filled with an inert gas, nitrogen or carbonic acid, in order to 
prevent the division of the mercury thread which was found very trouble- 
some during the voyage with the Michael Sars, in tg00. This gas in the 
stem proved a great improvement. The scale ranged from — 3 to + 8° C. 
in No. r10, and from — 3 to about 10° C. in No. tog. Both scales were 
divided into tenths of degrees centigrade. A degree had on No. rio 
a length of rt cm. but was in No. tog somewhat shorter. 

Both instruments were tested at the Charlottenburg Reichsanstalt in 
March, to901, and were marked PTR 15655 (for 10g) and PTR 15656 
(for No. 110). 

The following determinations of the corrections were made. 


Corrections. 


| Deep-Sea 
Deep-Sea Thermometer No. tog. |\Thermom. 
| No. rxo; 
Scale. ||— f 
March 14, July 1, Septb. 5. Septb. 12, Septb. 13, | March 14, 
IQOI 1901 IQOI I9QOI IQOI 1901 
Charlottenb. Gjoa. Gjga. Christiania. | Christiania. |) Charlottenb. 
—— SSS SS 7 
= 3°G\||| 1" 0106.- EC: | + oor 
0, + oo5 , | + 013° C.| + o12° C. | otros =@) | promommte 0’00 
So flim stor) | | + o'o2 
+8 , || | + o'02 
+ 10), Weeks OOF | m 


Thermometer No. 110 was lost with the Pettersson-Nansen Water- 
Bottle in May root. 

It seems somewhat puzzling that No. tog should have indicated so 
much lower during the voyage than it did before and afterwards. 
Amundsen says in his journal, that on Juli 1, a piece of freshwater ice 
drifting in the sea, was used for the zero-determination. It may seem 
doubtful whether this ice has been sufficiently pure; but according to 
zero-determinations made with other thermometers in the same ice, simul- 
taneously, it does not seem probable that the ice can have been impure 
enough to have caused any significant error. On the other hand it seems 
more probable that Amundsen has got fairly pure ice in Tromse for 


his determination on September 5, rgo1. 


Thermometer No. 638. 


This was a thermometer which Amundsen had from the Meteoro- 


logical Institut at Christiania for taking surface-temperatures. Its zero- 


js ee Ey 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 7 


correction was: + oo in March (Christiania), on July 1, and on Sep- 
tember 5, 1901. 

This instrument was generally used for the surface-temperatures. 
Three meteorological thermometers, Nos. 0, 35 and 39, were also occasio- 
nally used for the sea-surface. The corrections of these instruments were 


also insignificant. 


The Amundsen Weater-Bottle. 


This instrument was constructed by Amundsen for taking water- 
samples and temperatures from the upper water-strata, while the vessel 
was under sail. It was a glass-bottle with fairly wide opening and was 
closed by a lid made of brass plate with a sheet of india rubber on its 
underside; the lid was pressed down by a strong spiral spring. The glass 
bottle was protected outside by a hempen network, and it had a heavy 
lead attached underneath. When the bottle was thrown out the line was 
kept quite slack while the bottle was sinking; when it had sunk to the 
desired depth, a sudden pull in the line opened the lid, the bottle was 
filled and hauled up. The temperature was then at once taken by an 
inserted thermometer, and a water-sample stored. Is does not, however, 
seem probable that the lid has been able to close so perfectly tight as to 
prevent water from being pressed in during the sinking of the bottle, and the 
temperatures and samples obtained in this manner from the water-strata 
down to 15, and sometimes even 25 metres, cannot therefore be con- 
sidered as perfectly trustworthy. They are, however, of value, in as much 
as they at any rate give some information as to the conditions of the water- 
strata underlying the surface-layer, which is of special importance in the 
arctic seas, where ice is melting on the surface. 

On cold days when the sea-water was cooled to its freezing-point (or 
even perhaps slightly supercooled) near the sea-surface, the water-samples 
taken by this small water-bottle, have evidently given erroneous results. 
It is seen in Table I, that on April 30, on May 3—May 9g, and May 23 
—May 28 most samples taken from 5 and 1o metres or deeper, give 
remarkably high salinities, some even above 36 ° 00. The explanation 
obviously is that as soon as the cold sea-water, cooled to its freezing- 
point or perhaps even slightly supercooled, has been enclosed in the small 
cold water-bottle it has begun to form ice on the glass-walls, and the water- 
sample taken after the bottle came on deck again, has got a much too high 
salinity. It seems somewhat surprising that the salinity thus resulting has in 
many cases become rather uniform, (e. g. about 35°26 °/00). The explanation 


may be that the taking of the sample has required about the same time in the 


8 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


different cases, and that consequently about the same quantity of ice may 
have been formed on the bottle. It is also a striking coincidence that the 
salinities obtained are especially high on days with very low air-temperature 
(e. g. May 3, 6, 26—28). The glass-bottle may probably have been very 
cold, when it was sent down, and the cold glass with frozen hempen net- 
work outside, may have intensified iceformation inside the bottle. In some 
cases the sample taken from one depth (e. g. 5 metres) gives a very high 
salinity, whilst the samples taken from other depths give more probable. 
salinities. The latter may have been taken after the former, and in that 
case the bottle by being filled with water once before, may then have 
become heated to the freezing point of the sea-water; with a smaller forma- 
tion of ice subsequently as the result. 

This formation of ice has, however, in several cases, obviously had 
the opposite effect, and produced samples which have given much too low 
salinities. The explanation is evidently that there have been numerous 
small ice-needles floating in the sea-water, which have got into the water- 
samples. We thus see that water-samples taken on such cold days, with 
the sea-water at about its freezing-point, are not trustworthy, unless special 
precautions be taken to avoid errors caused by the formation of ice on 
the water-bottles. Even samples taken with the bucket on such days, may 
give erroneous results from the same reason; but, as the water-bucket 
would hold a much greater quantity of water, and the hauling up would 
take less time, the effect of the formation of ice will be much less in 


this case. 
The. Water-Samples. 


The water-samples were taken very carefully especially from the 
deeper strata. The water-bottle was wiped outside and around the tap in 
order to prevent possible drops of surface-water from getting in with the 
water-sample when run out into the glass-bottle. The glass-bottles, used 
for surface-samples, would hold about 1oo cubic-centimetres; whilst all 
samples from the Stations were taken in bottles holding 150 cubic-centi- 
metres. They were closed by cork-stoppers which had been carefully 
selected. The bottles had been washed out in hot water for several days 
at the laboratory, before the expedition started. When the samples had 
been taken, the cork-stoppers were driven down as hard as possible into 
the necks of the bottles, which with the corkstoppers were dipped into 
melted paraffine-wax, and tied over with fairly airtight paper. To judge 
from the determinations of the chlorine, especially of the samples from the 


Stations, it seems as if the cork-stoppers have on the whole held very 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 9 


tight, and the evaporation has in fact been insignificant, except in a very 
few cases. 

The water-samples were examined by titration (Mohr) at my labora- 
tory in the University of Christiania, as soon as possible after they were 
received. The titrations were carefully made by Mr. Ingolf Leivestad; 
they were frequently controled by my assistant Mr. Jakob Schetelig, 
whose determinations with the Hydrometer of Total Immersion agreed on 
the whole well with Leivestad’s results. Mr. Leivestad controled every ten 
titrations by means of Standard Water, determined by Mr. Schetelig with 
Hydrometer of Total Immersion. 

Mr. Schetelig gives the following information about the Standard 
Water and Leivestads’ determinations: 

“The Standard-Waters were obtained by mixing several samples of 
sea-water in a big glass-bottle, which was afterwards filled into green 
selters-bottles with patent india-rubber stoppers; 8 or to bottles were in 
this manner obtained of each water. Standard Waters Nos. I, I, and Ul 
were used by Leivestad for about 3000 titrations. The values for the 
salinity of the Standard Waters, were exclusively based on determinations 
of the specific gravity by means of the Hydrometer of Total Immersion. 


The following final values were obtained as the means of a series of 


determinations. 
AG S Joo Cl. °/o0 
Sept. 9, 1901 Standard-water No. I... 27°41 34°49 19°09 
Nov. II, 1901 - ; Wl 4 5 Bfshiteyes 34°85 19°29 
Jan. I, 1902 —- ph lll a 28:08 34°87 19°30 


“The accuracy of the value of 0, is probably inside a limit of + 0°005 
(i. e. inside + o'o00005 of specific gravity). 

“Standard-Water No. I has unfortunately a lower salinity than a 
Standard-Water ought to have, and this water was used for the titration 
of all samples of deep water from Amundsen’s Stations. The same water 
(No. I) was also used for the titration of Makaroff’s samples (see below). 

“In order to use Mr. Knudsen’s Titration-Tables a series of aid-tables 
had to be computed. 

“If by the use of this Standard-Water No. I, with the low salinity, 
any error at all has been introduced into the determinations, this error 
must be constant for all of them, and may be computed.” 

“By comparing the results of the titrations I have, however, come to 
the conclusion, that there cannot be any great error. The values ob- 


tained by titration and by the Hydrometer of Total Immersion agree very 


Io FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


well, where both kinds of determinations have been made (Makaroff’s 
samples, Amundsen’s samples in selters-bottles, many samples of deep- 
water from the cruise of the Michael Sars 1900, and the samples from 


Wollebzek’s Stat. II).” 
Jakob Schetelig. 


Two series of water-samples were taken by Amundsen in green 
selters-bottles with patent india-rubber stoppers, which close perfectly 
tightly. The bottles were old and had been washed for days in hot water. 
They would hold about 600 cubic-centimetres of water. The samples were 
examined by Mr. Jakob Schetelig with the Hydrometer of Total Im- 
mersion and by Mr. I. Leivestad by titration. I give below the results 


as computed from Martin Knudsens Tables. 


| | Depth Schetelig by Leivestad by Difkeronce 
Station. | Watccand) in Hydrom. Tot. Imm. Titration. 2 

| Locality. 

| ; metres. | S °/o0 

| %% S foo | Cl Yoo | S Yao 

| 

6a May. 9, 1901 | I 27°63 34°38 19°04 34°40 + o'04 
| Gis)" ee ING | 5 65 "42 "045 "41 on 
| 45°37" E. 10 "04 "40 
| 20 63 38 "04 "40 + ‘o2 
30 62 37 "045 “41 + "03 
40 | 62 °37 "055 "42 + “65 
+ 0'026 
a» see eas | 
| | 
22a July 11, 1901 |) §26:72 33°26 18°39 33°22 || — oor 
| 14 26! IN. | 5 eal 17 "31 44 "31 ‘00 
6° 24‘ W. IO 27°03 64 62 64 ele) 
20 "44 34°14 ‘90 34°14 ‘oo 
30° | R78 N a ieeesse 19°10 ‘SI “00 
40 “OL “13 “da “q2 a eee 
| | — o'008 ° 


We see that the values obtained by the two methods of determina- 
tion of the samples from the sea east of Greenland in 74° 26’ N. Lat. agree 
much better than those of the samples from the Barents Sea. Provided 
that the titrations have given fairly accurate results, this seems to indicate 
that in the water from the Barents Sea there has been a comparatively 
great amount of chlorine, giving a salinity which is on the average about 
0°03 °00 too high; whilst in the sea east of Greenland the permillage of 
Chlorine has been about normal, perhaps slightly too small. The explana- 
tion may be, that on July 11, 1901, ice, exposed to low temperatures 


during the winter, had been melting at the surface in the region where 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. II 


the samples were taken; whilst on May 9g, in the Barents Sea, very little 
ice had melted, though much ice had been formed and exposed to low 
temperatures, in this region, during the winter.) It is also a striking 
coincidence that in Makaroff’s samples from the upper water-strata of the 
sea near Franz Josef Land and between these islands and Novaya Zemlya 
(see below), the chlorine values also give higher salinities than the specific 
gravities, and the discrepancy is greater than might be explained by errors of 
observation. It is also striking that the determinations of Makaroff’s samples 
from the deeper waters, from 300 metres Stat. 77, and from roo and 200 
metres Stat. 82, agree very well, the titrations giving slightly too low 
salinities. The values obtained for the samples from 250 and 300 metres 
Stat. 83 agree also fairly well, but those for the sample from 350 metres 
show a greater discrepancy. The determinations by titration and by 
Hydrometer of Total Immersion of the samples from Wollebzek’s Stat. II 
(see below) agree also fairly well, the discrepancy being between + o’or 
%/oo near the surface (10 metres) and — o’or5 °/oo near the bottom (120 
metres). We see that in this region of the sea, the disagreements go on 
the whole in the same direction, the chlorine gives comparatively high 
values of salinity near the surface, but comparatively lower salinities for 


deeper water. 


The Accuracy of Determinations of Temperature and Salinity in the 


Vertical Series at the Stations. 


The temperatures taken -with the Richter Reversing Thermometer No. 
113, are probably correct to within a few hundredths of a degree Centi- 
grade. The instrument was made of very good glass (Jena Glass 59'"', 
see above), was divided neatly, by very thin and distinct marks, into fifths 
of a degree -centigrade, and the indications could easily be read off by 
means of a specially arranged lens, with an accuracy of + o7or® C. And 
by means of the enclosed small thermometer the temperature of the broken 


off mercury was always determined at the moment of reading. 


1 By some rough experiments made at the Central Laboratory for the International Study 
of the Sea, at Christiania, we have found that where ice is formed in sea-water no 
appreciable alteration is produced in the relation between the quantity of chlorine and 
the specific gravity of the sea-water, although the salinity of the latter be much in- 
creased. The recent investigations of Dr. W. Ringer: ,,Ueber die Veranderungen in 
der Zusammensetzung des Meereswassersalzes beim Ausfrieren“ (No. III: Verhandelingen 
uit het Rijksinstituut voor het onderzoek der Zee, 1906, Helder) prove that it is only 
after the ice is exposed to temperatures below — 80 C. that the relation between 


the chlorides and the other salts (especially sulphates) in the brine of the ICenedS 


appreciably altered. 


12 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. Kl. 


The temperatures taken with the Negretti and Zambra Reversing 
Thermometers are not so accurate. The graduation of the scale of these 
instruments is as usual very rough, and their indications could hardly be 
read off with greater accuracy than + 005° C. with the lenses. But in 
the final values there may be still greater errors, owing to possible varia- 
tions of the instrumental errors etc. 

The accidental errors of the salinity determinations as obtained by 
titration are, as a rule, hardly more than + o'or °/oo. But, as men- 
tioned above, there might in addition be a small constant error, owing to 
the Standard Water used, which is, however, insignificant. In another 
way there may, however, be a more significant error in the salinities. 
For a work which Mr. Helland-Hansen and the present writer are 
now preparing on the ‘Physical Oceanography of the Norwegian Sea”, 
we have made very accurate determinations of the Specific Gravity and 
the Chlorine of the cold Bottom-Water of the Norwegian Sea, and it 
appears that the salinities computed by Knudsen’s Tables from the chlorine 
may for this kind of water! be between oor and o'03 °/oo lower than 
those obtained from the specific gravity. It seems therefore probable that 
the salinities and densities (o,) given in Table I, for Amundsen’s cold deep 
water may be somewhat too low, owing to the deficiency of chlorine in 
this water; e. g. in the case of the salinities from 1700 and 2000 metres 
at Stat. 16, they may probably have been about 34'92 °/o0 instead of 34°90 
or 34°89 °/oo, and the density (o,) may probably have been 28°12 instead 
of 28°10. 

In some cases the salinities obtained for the samples of deep water 
are obviously too high. This is, however, not due to inaccuracies of the 
determinations; the cork-stoppers of the glass-bottles have probably not 
been perfectly tight and some slight evaporation has occurred during the 
time between the taking of the sample and the titration. As examples 
may be mentioned the samples from 150 and 250 metres at Station 20 
(July 4, rg901). These samples gave salinities of 34°95 and 35°05 °%o0, 
whilst the real value was between 34°91 and 34'92 °/oo to judge from the 
density of the water-strata above and below these depths. The salinities 
obtained give densities (o,) of 28°13 and 28°20, which would make the 
water sink very rapidly; and further, no salinities of such high values 


were observed in any depth at neighbouring stations. 


' Cf. B. Helland-Hansen and F. Nansen, The Physical Oceanography of the Nor- 
wegian Sea, Report on Norwegian Fishery- and Marine Investigations, vol. I, No. 2. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 0 


It has been pointed out above that water-samples taken from the 
surface strata on very cold days, especially with the Amundsen Water- 
Bottle, may give much too high salinities owing to formation of ice on 
the water-bottle, or they may give too low salinities owing to ice-needles 
floating in the water. 

The results of Amundsen’s observations are given in Table I and II, 
at the end of this paper. For further information the reader is referred 


to the explanations of these tables. 


mir AT 


I4 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. Kl. 


Ill. Distribution of Temperature, Salinity, and Density on 
the Sea Surface. 


Captain Amundsen’s numerous surface observations give most valuable 
information about the distribution of Temperature, Salinity, and Density on 
the surface of the Barents Sea and the Northern Norwegian Sea in the 
summer months of tg9ot. It is very fortunate that at the same time the 
Captains of the three sealing vessels the Capella (Capt. Stokken), the /Jasaz, 
and the Hvidfisken also took surface observations (temperature and water- 
samples) for the Bureau of the Norwegian Fishery- and Marine-Investigations 
under Dr. J. Hjorts leadership. Mr. Helland-Hansen who arranged 
the taking of these valuable observations, has kindly let me have the 
results for introduction here in the chart Pl. L 

In the months of May, June, and July, r901, Dr. Hjort, with the 
‘Michael Sars”, took many stations between Northern Norway and Spits- 
bergen. The surface observations from these stations have also been here 
introduced in the chart, Pl. I. 

Finally Dr. N. Knipowitsch made in July, rgoz, a cruise in the 
Barents Sea with the “Andrei Perwoswanny”’ (see the chart, Pl. I). 

The whole of the material thus available gives an unusually full 
account of the distribution of surface-temperatures and _ salinities in these 
months. 

The isohalines have been drawn chiefly in occordance with the obser- 
vations made in June, and July tg01. As the surface-temperatures vary 
rapidly with the season, no isotherms have been drawn. 

If Amundsen’s surface-observations, made at different times in the same 
region, be compared with each other, and if his observations be compared 
with those made by the other expeditions in the same region, it is seen 
that at most places, both in the Barents Sea, in the seas south of Bear 
Island, west of Spitsbergen, and also north of Jan Mayen, the observations 
taken early in the season give as a rule lower temperatures and higher 
salinities than those taken later. This is most striking in the case of the 
Barents Sea, where in April and May Amundsen found surface-salinities 
approaching 34°9 °/oo, whilst later in the season the surface-salinities in the 


same region often sink much below 34:0 %00. 


- 


1906. No. 3: AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. iS 


In the first days of June there were surface-salinities of about 34°8 °/00 
in the region of Amundsen’s Stations 11 and 12, whilst only a month later 
the salinities in the same region had, according to the observations of 
Capt. Stekken of the Capella, sunk to about 34°52, 34’01, and 33°52 °/oo. 

On August 1st, 1901, Capella also crossed Amundsen’s route, and 
where the latter found salinities about 34°52°/oo, on June 5, 1901, there 
was 33°37°/oo0 then, two months later. In July, rg01, Dr. Knipowitsch 
also crossed Amundsen’s route at several places (see Pl. I), and he every- 
where found much lower surface salinities than the latter found in April, 
May, and the beginning of June. £. g. in about 74°30’ N. Lat. and 
33° 30’ E. Long., Amundsen found, on June 6, 1g01, about o’o° C. and 
34°56 %/o0, whilst Knipowitsch a little more than a month later found 
about t C. and below 34°0°%o0!. And near 74° N. Lat. and 40° E. Long. 
Amundsen found on June 5, 1901, —0’8° C. and 34°44 00, whilst Knipo- 
witsch found in July about 1° C. and below 330 9 00, etc. 

In the sea west of Spitsbergen there are similar although much smaller 
differences between the observations of the Jasai and the Hvidfisken in 
June and those of Amundsen in July and August. 

In the sea north of Jan Mayen, in the region of Amundsens Stats. 
13—23, similar and very prominent changes occurred during June and 
July, tg90r, as is seen if Amundsens observations from the aid of June 
be compared with those he took later in the same region. 

South of Bear Island the conditions seem to be rather complicated 
and to change rapidly. In June, rgo01, Amundsen there found tempera- 
tures about or below zero, and salinities between 34°62 and 34°94 oo, 
whilst Dr. Hjort, with the Michael Sars, a little more than a month later, 
found in the same region temperatures between 0°7 and 2°7° C., and 
salinities between 34°52 and 34°69 °/oo. 

The explanation of this general reduction of salinity is probably that 
at the end of the winter the surface salinity of these cold regions of the 
sea has, as a rule, attained its maximum, owing to the formation of ice 
at the surface, in the same region during the winter. During the summer 
this ice is again melted, and the surface-salinity accordingly reduced. 

It is also seen that the density of the sea surface is, in these cold 
regions, very much higher in the beginning of the summer, than later, 
not only owing to the lower temperature but also as a result of the higher 
salinity. And whilst, at the end of the winter, the cold surface-water of 


the ice-forming region has, as a rule, a higher density than that of the 


* According to Knipowitsch’s section, Ann. Hydr. u. Marit. Meteor. 1905, Pl. 6, Fig. 2. 


16 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


Atlantic Current}, this relation is altered during the summer, and the 
former surface-water becomes often much lighter than the latter, and has 
consequently a tendency to spread out over it. When Amundsen crossed 
the Atlantic Current (Gulf Stream) west of Bear Island, on June 14—15, 
1901, the surface density (o;) was to a great extent between 27°80 and 
27°90, whilst further west near the ice east of Greenland the surface 
density in June sank frequently below 27°50, and 27°40, and later even 
much lower. 

If the observations in these regions be not fairly simultaneous, it is, 
therefore, very difficult to draw the isohalines, and it will necessarily 
become a matter of judgement which observations ought to carry most 
weight. It seems probable, however, that the isohalines of Pl. I, on the 
whole, give a fairly correct idea of the horizontal distribution of the sali- 
nity at the surface for the end of June and the beginning of July, trgot. 

The isohalines of 35°1, 35°0, 34°9, and 34°8 °/oo show the course of 
the Atlantic Current, or Gulf Stream, in this region. The waters with 
comparatively high salinity extend far westwards in the region east and 
north-east of Jan Mayen. This seems to be a very general feature occurring 
in most years, according to the observations made with the Michael Sars and 
others. But in the latitude of 73° N., or between 72 and 73° N., water 
with salinities below 34°8 and 34°7 °/oo, and with comparatively low tempe- 
ratures, extends eastwards to about 10° E. Long. where, however, a narrow 
branch of Atlantic water with comparatively high salinity and temperature 
extends northwards and follows almost exactly the edge of the continental 
shelf, west of Bear Island. It ends as a very narrow tongue west of 
Prince Charles Forland, off the Spitsbergen Coast. 

This Atlantic water seems to have a tendency to send off a branch 
of water with salinity above 348 °/o0 westwards between 74 and 77 N. 
Lat., and to perform a partially cyclonic movement in this region, which, 
however, is not very clearly demonstrated by the observations in June 
and July, when this movement is obviously much altered; but it is pro- 
bably more prominent, even on the surface, earlier in the season and at 
the end of the winter? (see also the map of temperature and salinity at 
50 metres, Pil V). 


! Cf. for instance Amundsen’s surface densities (0,4) in the Barents Sea, in April and May, 


1901, which were very frequently about or even above 2800 (see Table I, 9;), and 
considerably higher than those of the Atlantic current north of Norway at the same time. 


tw 


This is demonstrated by the observations which will be published in the Memoir by 
Helland-Hansen and the present writer, “On the Physical Oceanography of the 
Norwegian Sea’, Report on Norwegian Fishery- and Marine Investigations, Vol. Il, No. 2. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 1-9) 


The course of the North Cape Current, running into the Barents Sea, 
is to some extent indicated by the isohalines of 34°8 and 34°9 °/oo. Near to 
the northern Norwegian coast comparatively warm coastwater with lower 
salinity runs eastwards into the southern and southeastern parts of the Barents 
Sea, but farther north a very narrow branch of warm water with salinity 
above 34°8 and 34'9 °/oo extends eastwards and is bent in a curve towards 
the northeast, corresponding in shape very markedly with the configuration 
of the bottom (cf. Fig. 1, p. 24). The existence and exact position of this 
branch is proved by the observations of Amundsen, the Capella (both in 
July and August, 1901), and Knipowitsch, which all of them agree re- 
markably well, with the exception that Amundsen’s observations prove 
that this branch with surface salinities above 34°8 and 34°9°/o0 extended 
farther north (towards 75° N. Lat.) on June 5, 1rgor, than later in July, 
when Knipowitsch, in his northern Section!, found surface salinities below 
34'0 °/oo in the same region, although there was a very marked indication 
of the same branch in deeper strata (at too metres)!. This saline water 
is evidently stopped in its eastward course near Longitude 35° E. by the 
bank between 72° and 73°, with depths less than 250 metres? and is 
forced in a northerly direction, towards a submarine valley or channel in the 
bank to the north, in about 74° N. Lat. and 35° E. Long. (Fig. 1, p. 24). The 
soundings in these regions are not sufficiently accurate, and too scatteerd 
to allow the isobaths to be drawn with certainty; it is. therefore un- 
certain whether there may possibly be a deeper channel traversing the 
bank at this place. All observations from later years seem to indicate that 
at this particular place there is a maximum in the salinities (see Pl. II & 
IV). It is uncertain, whether a narrow branch is possibly sent off east- 
wards towards Amundsen’s Stat. r1, following the southern slope of the 
channel which possibly runs in this direction. As, howewer, there are 
very few soundings in this region the existence and form of this channel 
is uncertain. 

The isohaline of 34°4 00 seems to indicate that there may possibly 
be a tedency towards a kind of cyclonic movement in the sea east of 
Bear Island where, according to Amundsen’s observations, a tongue of 
water with salinity below 34°0 °/o0 extends southeastwards. 

Knipowitsch’s observations, along his northern section, as well as those 


of the Capella, indicate that in July, 1901, a broad tongue of water, with 


1 Knipowitsch, /oc. cit. Pl. 6, Fig. 5. 
2 See Nansen, Oceanography of N. Polar Basin, Norw. North Polar Exp. 1893—96, 
Scientific Results, vol. Ill, No. 9, Pl. III. 


bo 


Vid.-Selsk. Skrifter. I. M.-N. Kl. 1906. No. 3. 


18 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI]. 


salinities below 34°0 and 33°0°%o00, extended far southwards along the 
meridian of 40° and 42° E. Long., whilst a broad branch with salinities 
above 34'0 °/o0 extended northwards off the coast of Novaya Zemlya, and 
even towards Franz Josef Land, where Capt. Stokken (of the Capella) found 
salinities of 34°59 and 34°61 °/o0, on July 13, 1901. The form of the isohaline 
of 34'0 °%/o0 evidently indicates roughly the course of the current in this 
region, and here also, there seems to be a tendency towards a greater 
cyclonic movemment, with water flowing eastwards in the region north 
of the Russian coast, northwards along the coast of Novaya Zemlya, west- 
wards, south and southwest of Franz Josef Land, and a southward move- 
ment of colder and less saline water along the meridian of 40° E., on the 
eastern side of the bank in 75° N. Lat.} 

Southeast of Bear Island Amundsen’s observations show two patches 
of water with salinitles above 35'0 9/00; the increase of the salinity in the 
neighbourhood seems to indicate that these values are trustworthy (and 
not errors due to evaporation through the cork-stoppers). The actual 
course along which this water has travelled is difficult to trace; but it 
appears most probable that the water has followed the edge of the bank 
(the Continental Shelf) or very nearly the isobath of 300 metres (see 
Fig. I, p. 24), and that it is a continuation of the water with salinity 
above 35'0 °/o0, in about 19° E. Long. along the Capella’s route to the south, 
in June. There may be a tendency towards a cyclonic movement as 
indicated by the isohalines on the chart (PI. I), colder and less saline water 
extending southwards from the vicinity of Bear Island. The observations 
at the stations of the Michael Sars in July 1go1, also seem to support 
the correctness of this view. 

It is a noteworthy fact that the surface temperatures and salinities 
found during Dr. Hjort’s cruise with the Michael Sars in these waters in 
September t1goo, indicate a very similar course of the isohalines and 
isotherms in this region?; which seems to prove that the above peculiar 


distribution of the salinity is not due to accidental conditions prevailing 


' My chart showing the surface temperatures and salinities of the Barents Sea about 
Aug. 1, 1893, (Oceanography of N. P. Basin, Pl. Il) was based on much more 
scanty and less accurate material. It gives a somewhat different representations of the 
distribution of salinity; but the general features agree to some extent. The values of 
the salinities are on that chart about o'r5 °/,) higher than the values now obtained by 
Knudsen’s Tables. 


iw) 


Nansen, Nyt Mag. f. Naturvidensk. vol. 39, Christiania, 1901, Pl. I. See the isotherms 
for 6° C. and 7° C. The values of the salinity are here about o'12°/ 9 higher than 
the values computed by Knudsen’s Tables. South of Bear Island the isohaline for 
35°0 9/49 (=34'9 9/99) should probably have had a form more like the isotherm of 8° C. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 19 


only in June and July 1901, but is of a more general nature. Very 
peculiar is the apparent island of wather with a salinity of about 34°88 °/oo 
in the route of the Capella in about 71°50’ N. Lat. and 17°30’ E. Long. 

In September, 1900, a very similar feature was found in the same 
region, and it seems probable that the tongue of less saline water very 
frequently entends as far south as this and takes part in the cyclonic 


movement. 


20 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI]. 


IV. The Cold and Heavy Bottom-Water of 
the Barents Sea. 


Dr. N. Knipowitsch has recently given a most valuable description 
of the Physical Oceanography of the Barents Seat, based upon the ex- 
cellent Russian investigations during recent years, since 1900, and led 
by himself and by Dr. Breitfuss. This subject will not be touched 
in detail here; the reader is referred to Knipowitsch’s paper. Amund- 
sen’s series of temperatures and salinities from this sea, in April 
and May 1901, will, however, form a valuable addition to the Russian 
investigations, as they give information about the conditions in the south- 
eastern part of the sea, earlier in the season than has hitherto been 
acquired, and they demonstrate clearly the great difference between the 
conditions obtaining in winter and in summer, which has been already 
pointed out by Knipowitsch. Amundsen’s observations especially, give us 
valuable information about the formation of the cold water during the 
winter, which is found as a cold layer near the bottom in summer. 

As it is of much importance for our subject, “the origin of bottom- 
waters’’, the formation of this cold bottom-water of the Barents Sea and its 
distribution will be discussed here somewhat more closely. 

In his memoir on the “North Ocean’ Professor Mohn mentions the 
low bottom-temperatures of the Barents Sea, and gives a map of the 
bottom-isotherms?. As it is based on the imperfect observations of various 
previous expeditions this map cannot be expected to be correct, but still 
it gives a very characteristic feature, v/z. the rapid sinking of the bottom- 
temperature towards Novaya Zemlya, where even as low temperatures as 
—2°6° C.(!) and — 2'1°C. had been observed, as was often the case with 


the imperfect instruments of those days. 


1 N. Knipowitsch, Hydrologische Untersuchungen in Europdischen Eismeer, Aznalen 
der Hydrographie und Maritimen Meteorologie, 1905. 
° 


H. Mohn, The North Ocean, its Depths, Temperature and Circulation. The Norwegian 
North Atlantic Expedition 1876—z878, Christiania 1887, Pl. XXV. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 21 


In the writers memoir on the “Oceanography of the North Polar 
Basin’! attention was drawn to the extremely cold and heavy bottom-water 
in the eastern part of the Barents Sea, especially off the coast of Novaya 
Zemlya. At our Stations 1 and 4, in July 1893”, water with a temperature 
of — 114°C. and — 111°C. and salinity of 35°01 °/oo and 34°99 °/oo® was 
observed near the bottom, whilst the salinity was much lower in all over- 
lying strata. At our Stat. 3 there was a bottom layer nearly 100 metres 
thick with temperature below — 1°3°C., near the bottom it was — 1°63°C. 
and salinity about 34°88 °/o0%. At Wollebcek’s Station II (W II, Fig. 1, 
p. 24) off Novaya Zemlya (71° 48’ N. Lat., 49° 38’ E. Long.), on May 31, 19004, 
the bottom-water (in 120 metres, 8 metres above the bottom) had a temperature 
of — 1°80 C., and a salinity of 35°165 °/o0°, which gives a density (0;) 7” situ 
of 28°33. This is the heaviest sea-water which to writers knowledge has 
been observed anywhere in the Ocean. The salinity of the strata over- 
lying this bottom-layer was 34°88 °/00 with a temperature of — 1.65° C. 
(see Table later p. 40). 

In the summer of 1893, Dr. Knipowitsch also observed the low 
temperatures of this cold bottom-water at various Stations in the eastern 
Barents Sea®, but his methods of determining the specific gravity was not ° 
sufficiently accurate to bring out its very high salinity. In recent years, 
after 1900, both Dr. Knipowitsch and Dr. Breitfuss have made highly 
interesting observations on the occurrence and distribution of this cold 
water’. Some observations taken near the bottom’, may be given as 
examples in the Table on the next page. 

The writer previously held the opinion® that the cold bottom-water 
of the Barents Sea is divided into two portions — the northern cold bottom- 
water coming from the sea to the north, northeast, and east, and the 
southern bottom-water having two or three sources, viz. bottom-currents 


from the east and north east, and the surface of the sea itself, which is 


' The Norw. N. Polar Exp. 1893—1896, Scientific Results, vol. Il, No. 9, pp. 
279— 283. ' 

Op. cit. p. 244. 

All salinities are here computed by means of Knudsen’s Tables. 

‘ Nansen, op. sit. p. 273. 

° As to the accuracy of this value see below p. 40. 

6 Knipowitsch, Bulletin de UV Académie wunper. des Sciences de St. Petersbourg, vol. 
VII, No. 3, 1877, pp. 269 e¢ seg. (Russian). 

7 Cf. Knipowitsch, Amn. d. Flydro u. Marit. Meteorologie, 1905. 

Cf. Conseil Permanent International pour |’Exploration de la Mer, Bulletin des Resultats 

Acquis pendant les Courses Periodiques, Copenhagen, Aug. 1901, May 1903, May and 

Aug. 1904. 

9 Of. sit., p. 280. 


es 


A 


22 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KL. 


Bottom-Observations in Barents Sea. 


1 
Depth 
Station ! Date N. Lat. |E. Long. s aan a Oo, 
Metres 00 
: wer 3 
| 
Southern N 5 |July 27, 1893] 69° 43‘ | 54° 23 50 | =155]| 3455) 263 
(Coast Bank | JV 6 |) ja2o pl oomeneles oar 20 | —r°67 22 55 
W J |May 25, 1900] 69° o’ | 41° o! 65>) || aos Io 46 
A 6! 4 9; oor), 60 132" 450/39 60 | —1°88 39 7 
A_7|_» 78) Sn” | 69° 40! || 46" 30) Bo) | eee 9 "99 
Novaya N gal July 25, 1893| 71° 22’ | 50° 6! 127 | —r163] 34°88 | 28°09 
Zemlya INE zi — FS TP aay walt To Jo er ‘99 17 
CoastalShelf| JV II |May 31, r900| 71° 48'| 40° 38' 120 — 180) B57n7 33 
M 57 | Aug. 5, t901| 75° t | 54° 55] x50 | —z8 04 23 
ded ty Aug;,) 1902 || 742 at) | 52°) 46ul arse aod | SAnBa 09 
R 18 : » | 74. 29'| 54° 28'| x50 | —1°7 | 35°07 25 
R 19 ' » | 15, 7, | 54, Se | Ss alee anes "I9 
s 20 ” ” Ly, 35, | 56, 16) tse. eee sues "23 
22 y 2 5 Io —I" 
Rag| 7 | g6® 3g" | cc? ot el 
R 8 |Aug. 6, 1903| 71° r2'| 490° 45'| 120 | —1793) 34°83 06 
R 8 | Aug. 3, r904| 71° 13’ | 51° of 135 =a 35/01 *20 
Central N July 22, 1893] 70° 43'| 39° 20'| 200 —1'14| 35701 | 28°19 
Hollow of R20 Aug., t902 | 72° 42'| 47° 52'| 270 —1'27| 34°92 12 
Eastern Ba-| R 13 i . Bo DAY | 50° Sp 260 —1°46| 35'03 2I 
rents Sea R 29 Ks , Gisp. ZieY I AGA Sy 300 —1'4 34°99 18 
R 30 5 » | 75° 34'| 45°.28'| 300 | —14 "96 15 
” ” ” 5” ; o” j 310 ae Ss 5) 35 07 23 
R305 as y (PS ee VIC 300 | —13 | 34/90 II 
Rusa iane » | 75. 27'| 43° 45°| 310 | —1x'g8] 35705 22 
R 7|May 5, 1903] 71° go’ | 38° of 260 | —1°85| 34°94 15 
R 26 | Aug. 28, 1903] 71° 38/| 38° o' 330 —1°84 04 I5 
Roit|  , 9%)» |)98° 20) 49° 5 iS eee 97 18 
R to ” 7) ” 72° 42° 46° 45. 265 ihe) 92 13 
R 9g |May 15, 1904! 71° 30'| 37° 52'| 320 | —r1r8 90 | 12 
R 24 |Aug.er, , 71° 30'| 37° 55/| 285 | —r'z 96 14 
R22 | » 1% » | 93 8 | 4% 40) | (30cm 94 | "15 
Channel com- 
municating A 11 | May 31, 1901] 73° 7’ | 36° 43'| 300 | —r4o0] 34°94 | 28714 
with Central 
Hollow 


cooled during the winter. The observations of later expeditions, however, 
enforce a modification of this view. It is now seen that the bottom-water 
of the Barents Sea has only a very local character, its salinity and tempe- 
ratures often varying much from one locality to another (ef the above 
Table and Amundsen’s observations at Stats. I—12); consequently, it 
cannot be carried, to any great extent?, into this sea by currents. Its 
chief source is obviously the latter of those mentioned above, wiz. the 


surface of the Barents Sea itself, which is much cooled by radiation of 


' N = Norwegian North Porlar Expedition 1893—1806; JV” = Wollebzek on board 
the Heimdal, 1900; 4 = Amundsens Stations in t901; R = Russian Stations. 

2 That such regular extensive bottom currents should be able to traverse the many uneven- 
nesses and ridges on the bottom in such a shallow sea seems also a priori extremely 
improbable. 


1906. No. 3: AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 23 


heat during the winter. The vertical circulation thus produced reaches 
the bottom in all parts of the sea, where the horizontal circulation is not 
too rapid, especially in the shallower waters over the banks (as is beau- 
tifully demonstrated by Amundsen’s Stat. 6), but also, as will be mentioned 
below, in the northern central part of the central hollow or basin of the 
eastern Barents Sea. As pointed out in the above mentioned memoir? it 
is “highly probable that the sea-surface in the neighbourhood of the coasts, 
has a considerably higher salinity at the end of the winter than during the 
summer, for the water is then less diluted by the admixture of fresh-water 
from the rivers and the land, and its salinity is on the other hand in- 
creased by the formation of ice on the surface’?. It is thus easy to 
understand how it is, that, in the summer, the cold bottom-waters which 
are remnants of the cold winter-water, have higher salinities than the 
overlying water-strata. The top-layers of the sea are then also much 
diluted by the melting of the ice-masses formed during the winter. As the 
salinity varies much in the different regions of the shallow sea, it may 
also be expected that the salinity of the bottom-water in these same regions 
will vary accordingly. Over the deeper hollows and channels of the sea 
there is more atlantic water with higher salinity, but there is also at the 
same time more horizontal circulation in the various water-strata, and the 
vertical circulation has greater difficulties in reaching to the bottom. The 
very cold bottom-water is, therefore, more easily formed on the shallower 
banks and on the shelves near the coasts. 

The many series of observations now taken, by Knipowitsch, Breit- 
fuss, Wollebaek, Makaroff, and Amundsen, give a fairly clear idea of the 
formation of the cold bottom-water of the Barents Sea, and of its distri- 
bution in the months between spring and autumn. Distinction may per- 
haps, for the sake of clearness, be drawn between four cold bottom-waters, 
formed in four different regions, w/z. 

1) Cold bottom-water with a comparatively low salinity formed on the 
southern bank or shelf, with wery shallow water, north of the Russian 
coast, where the sea-water is much diluted by water from the great 
rivers (typical example is Amundsen’s Stat. 6, see Pl. IV, Sect. III). 

2) Cold bottom-water, often with a remarkably high salinity near 


the bottom, formed on the shelf along the west and southwest coast 


! Op. cit. p. 280. 
2 The same explanation of the origin of the cold bottom-water is also partly accepted by 
Dr. Knipowitsch in his recent paper, Joc. cit., 1905. 


24 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


of Novaya Zemlya (typical example is Wollebek’s Station H, May 31, 


1900). 


Fig. 1. Bathymetrical Map of the Barents Sea. Scale 1 : 12,000,000. 

Isobaths for every 200 metres, and dotted lines for the isobaths of roo and 300 metres. 
formed over the shallow banks in northern Barents Sea (there are no 
accurate observationes of this water). 

4) Cold bottom-wather, with about the same salinity as the Atlantic 
water in the western Barents Sea (about or above 34:9 %/oo), filling the 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 25 


central part of the great central depression of the eastern Barents Sea 
(see Figs. 2 and 3, pp. 26, 27, and PI. III) frequently with a thin layer 
of higher salinity close to the bottom, 

Horizontal Circulation. It is a striking fact that in most sections, 
at least in the spring and summer (e. g. Pl. IV, Sections I and I, and 
Figs. 2, 3, on pp. 26 and 27) there seems to be no connection between 
the latter bottom-water and that of the banks to the west and south; 
for on the slope of the central depression there is, even in April and 
May (Pl. IV, Sects. I and II), water with temperature above zero; and 
it seems as if no cold bottom-water is formed on this slope!. The 
reason is probably that along the slope there is too much horizontal 
movement of the water, which renews the water-masses too rapidly to 
allow the vertical circulation during winter, to cool the whole bulk of 
water down below zero. 

On several previous occasions? it has been pointed out that the 
oceanographical conditions of the Barents Sea beautifully illustrate how 
the currents have a tendency to follow the deepest channels of the sea 
bottom®. Where the moving water meets a projection on the sea- 
bottom, it is deflected towards the sides, and if there be openings the 
water will follow the lines of least resistance. It will, more or less, run 


outside these projections or banks along their side slopes, even though 


' Dr. Breitfuss’s Section IV, from Kola-Fjord to Mototchkin Shar, Aug. 4—9, 1902 
(Petermann’s Mitteilungen, 1904, Pl. 4) seems to form a remarkable exception, as it 
shows no warmer water in the eastern part of the Sea, near the land slope, but there 
have evidently been quite exceptional conditions at that period, and besides the eastern 
part of this section must have been in a deep submarine fjord (cf. Fig. 1, p. 24) 
approaching the Novaya Zemlya coast so near that there is hardly indication of a coast 
bank or shelf in the section. If the many other soundings known from this region be 
correct, there must be very shallow sea both north and south of this fjord, and if so 
there may be comparatively slow circulation in it. Sections across the same region as 
Breitfuss’s Stations 43 and 44, in other year’s — e.g. Breitfuss’s Section Hiei pai 
from Aug. 1904; his Section across the same region in Aug. 1903 (Bull. Courses Period., 
Pl. V, Arct. II); and Knipowitsch’s Section a little farther north, from July 13—19, 1901 
(Ann. Hydr. u. Marit. Meteor. 1905, Pl. 6, Fig. 5) — show the typical separation, by 
warmer water on the slope, between the cold bottom water of the coast bank and that 
of the central hollow. It seems probable that in Aug. rgo2, there has been a similar 
temporary displacement of the waters as was observed at Amundsen’s Stats. 9 and Io, 
in May rgo1 (see below), and also on the slope~on the southern side of the Central 
Hollow in May, 1903 (see below). 


iS} 


Nansen, of. cit. pp. 260 ef seq. See also, Some Oceanographical Results of the 
Expedition with the Michael Sars in the Summer of 1900; Nyt Mag. for Naturvidenskaberne, 
vol. 39 Christiania, 1901, p. 152. 

Dr. N. Knipowitsch has in several papers (cf. op. cit.), carried through the same 
principle and has shown in detail, how the Atlantic current of the Barents Sea divides 
into several branches regulated by the depressions of the bottom. 


3 


"30°E. 


26 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


they may not rise very high above the deeper channels. The water 
over these banks will consequently remain comparatively stationary, 
forming, as it were, islands of quieter and often heavier (cf the Novaya 
Zemlya coast shelf) water, where the horizontal circulation is much reduced, 
and the vertical circulation may therefore be so much the more effec- 
tive!. As the horizontally moving water is much deflected towards the 
right by the Earth's rotation, in these high latitudes, it will have a strong 
tendency to move along the side-slopes of the great hollows and not 
along their central axes, Where a hollow is great, a cyclonic movement 


Aug Is, 1902, My 170k 
wt ow Ste ued 2 
.. - SSE 


ISWE STIFE 
72 1 70 


150 


200 


[-— Belour 34-9 %0 
EVA. 344-350 Yeo 
Above 35:0 % 


250 


300 


350 


Fig. 2. Section, Aug. 1902, from Breitfuss’s Station 56 to his Stat. 77, see line Fig. 1. 
Horizontal Scale 1: 6,000,000. Vertical Scale about rooo times exaggerated. 


may be produced in this way and the water in the central portion of 
the hollow may have a comparatively slow horizontal movement, whilst 
the water along the slopes, especially on the southern and eastern side 
of the hollow, will move comparatively rapidly. Such seems, for in- 
stance, to be the case in the great central hollow, more than 300 metres 
deep, of the eastern Barents Sea, between 4o° and 46° E. Long. (see 
Fig. I, p. 24), as will be mentioned below. 

The surface map of the Barents Sea (Pl. I), and the maps, Pls. I 
and III, showing the horizontal distribution of salinity and temperature, 
in the summer, at 50, 100, 200 and 300 metres, illustrate roughly the main 
features in this horizontal circulation. The latter maps are based chiefly 


' This may also be the reason why fishes in different regions of the Ocean seek such 
banks for spawning. There being comparatively little horizontal circulation, there is less 
risk of the eggs being carried away by currents. This is clearly demonstrated by Dr. 
J. Hjort’s investigations on the distribution of fish-eggs in the spring on the Nor- 
wegian coast banks. 


“Dagpyenats for 0,= 2800 & 7810 


ofathoms 


lori 


1906. No. 3- AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 27 


on Dr. Knipowitsch’s sections from July and August, 1901, and on Dr, 
Breitfuss’s observations from August 1904, and 1903, and to some extent 
also 1902. The construction of the north eastern part of the map, the 
sea between Novaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land, is based on Admiral 
Makarofi’s observations from August, 1901. 

Vertical circulation. The cooling of the sea-surface by heat radia- 
tion is very considerable during the winter, in the Barents Sea, and a 


R22 R23 R10 


20.Auq 6.Aug 


o Meter 


': GO000000 


100 200 300 Kilometer 


T T 1 
60 120 160 naut mules 


Fig. 3. Section, Aug. 1904, from Russian Stat. oN (7s 43) N., 50° 25% E) to Stat. 19 
(75) eNN)32- 08 E.), see line Fig. r. Horizontal Scale 1: 6,000,000. Vertical Scale 300 
times exaggerated. The dotted lines are isopyknals for 9, = 27°90, 28°00, and 28°10. 


R7 R8& R9 


15 Mar 15. Mai 15 Mat 
~1 


of OHA. 


200 


30) 


Fig. 4. Section, May 1904, from Russian Stat. 7 (70° 30‘ N., 36° 40! E.) 
to Russ. Stat. 9 (71° 30’ N., 37° 52‘ E.), see line Fig. 1. Horizontal and 
vertical Scale same as in Fig. 3. 


very deep vertical circulation is thus produced1, Vertical series of 
temperatures and salinities taken in the spring, show as a rule distinct 
traces of this vertical circulation in most parts of the Barents Sea, but 
especially over the banks, Amundsen’s southern Stations, especially 


' Dr. Knipowitsch has specially discussed the seasonal changes in temperature and 


salinity. Cf. op. cit. pp. 290 et seq. 


28 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. Kl. 


Stat. 6 (see Table II); are good illustrations, Wollebzk’s Stations (see below 
pp. 35, 40), of May 25 and 31, 1900, are equally good. In the case of the 
Russian observations taken early in the seasen, similar traces are found. 
As an example Station 6, on May 4, 1903, in 73° 40’ N. Lat., 33° 20/ 
E. Long. (depth 315 metres) may be taken!. The salinity was nearly 
uniform, 35°03—35'05 °/oo, between 15 metres and 310 metres, near the 
bottom. The temperature was about 1°9°C. and 1:99°C. between 5 
metres and 150 metres; deeper it was about 1'4°C.2, The vertical 
circulation, communicating directly with the surface, has reached, at least, 
down below 150 metres, This was near the middle of the deep channel, 
west of Amundsen’s Stat. 12 (see Fig. 1), running eastwards into the 
deep hollow of the eastern Barents Sea. Stat. 5 (May 4, 1903) was on 
the slope on the south side of this channel, in 73° 32’ N. Lat. and 32° 
25‘E. Long. (depth 294 metres), and here there has evidently been more 
horizontal movement, for the vertical circulation has not managed to 
make the water homogeneous down below 50 metres (about 2°1° C. and 
35°05 oo), Stat. 7 (May 5, 1903) is in the southern part of the great 
central hollow, on its western slope in 71° 30’ N. Lat. and 38° o’ E. Long., 
and here there has also been rather much horizontal circulation, as the 
vertical circulation has only been able to make the water homogeneous 
(about —1°45° C. and 34°70 °/oo) down to 40 metres (as to the rapid 
horizontal movement on this slope see below). 

At Stations 8 (70° 45’ N. Lat., 36° 56’ E. Long., depth 166 metres) 
and g (70° 32’ N. Lat., 36° 38’ E. Long., depth 188 metres) which were 
taken at the same time on the flat bank south of this hollow, the verti- 
cal circulation has made the water practically homogeneous between the 
surface and bottom, with a higher temperature and salinity (about 
108° C. and 34°96 °/oo) at the northern Station, which is nearer the 
deeper hollow. Here the vertical uniformity has not been so complete 
as at the southern Station (about 0°59° C. 34°88° °/oo), where there has 
been less horizontal circulation. The salinity was there probably per- 
fectly uniform (34°87 or 34°88 °/oo), whilst the temperature was somewhat 
lower (about 0°58° C.) in the upper water-strata than in the lower (about 
o'65 and 0'69° C.), which might seem to indicate, if the observations be 


' Bull. d. Results acg. p. l. Courses Period., May, 1903, p. 212. 
* Between o and 10 metres there was between 34°88 and 35‘or °/g) and 185° C. This 
lowering of temperature and salinity near the surface has evidently been caused by the 
melting of some ice, which was met with at this Station. The ice cannot have been 
very long in this water, for else the surface layers would have got a much lower 


salinity. 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANPGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 29 


perfectly accurate, that the cooling on the surface was still going on, 
on May 6, 1903. 

In May, 1904, the conditions were different in this same region; 
the temperatures were higher and the salinities lower, 

It is on this same flat coast bank or shelf that Wollebak’s Stat. I, 
(May 25, 1900, see Fig. 1, W1) and Amundsen’s Stat. 6, (May 9, 1901), 
are situated. They show an equally complete vertical circulation, but 
with much colder water (—1°65° C. and —1°8° C.) and lower salinities 
(34°06 °/o0 and 34°40 °/oo), which might be expected, as they are nearer land. 

In these same regions later in the season, there will be found 
entirely different conditions. The upper strata are then much warmer, 
and on the banks the salinity is, as a rule, much lower. As example a 


comparison between the observations in the vertical series below, may 


serve. 
|| Stat. ro Stat. 1 | Siarseigi | NSrateng | Stat.) 74 9\\- “Stat. 55 Mean 
| May 28, Aug. 1, || May 29, | Aug. 2, || May 20, | Aug. 3 || Differen- 
Depth 1904 1904 | 1904 1904 | 1904 | 1904 || ces be- 
in 69° 45° N.| 69° 44° N.|| 70° 42‘ N.| 70° 41‘ N.|/ 70° 47' N.| 70° 48’ N.|| tween May 
Metres ||37° 20‘ E. | 37° 20’ E. WetGuer Ba 40000.) 47-8) E. | 47-0. E. | and 
Depth Depth | Depth Depth || Depth Depth || August 
116 m. I16 m. ! PIOMMy | Irom || Tso) m. |) 155) m: 1904 
= ] — ——— — — — — ] — = 
A { 20 8°79 If 1°39 78 , Teg 78 i) CHO? 
34°31 34°29 | 34°74 34°45 |\ 34°87 e430 It o'29 °/,, 
5 ; \| Si = ae) 
20 { GB Se 6742 | G02 5 G2 C. 
34°60 34°45 | 34°54 34°70 | or] 7, 
he 1'55 37 if er 2'72 f I'2 qaiaaiG: 
34°60 34°63 || 34°76 34°63 |X 34°87 | It 0°09 °/ 5, 
AG 15) 165 |f 0°83 I'5 | nore | 2°62 ||; o'8° C. 
{ 34°56 34°60 |X 34°74 34°67 34°72 ||t 0°06 °/,, 
ae if 1°35 165 |If 055 Ten | 1°05 L9) If, 06° C. 
VI] 34°61 34°63 |X 34°79 34°67 || 34°81 ||t 0°06 °/,, 
sf f 05 0°25 |, = 0°85 1223) It) 0135 
100 ; : : 
\| \ 348r | 3467 fy 34°87 34°79 | 0'07 °/ 
| 1°35 1°65 | 0'2° (G 
110 | See 34°63 | ea 
150 J | emer mares, lk 0755, C: 
: | it 34°88 34°76 |t [or2 “/o] 
—_—_—_____—X—<—“—___..........sss OOS OO 


It is seen, that the difference in temperature, produced in 65 days, 
is very nearly the same at the three different places above, being slightly 
higher at the western Station. It is between 6:4 and 6°8°C. near the 
surface, between 59 and 6°5°C., in 20 metres, between Oms and I>, .C. 
in 50 metres, between 0°3 and 0°85° in 75 metres, about O3onod) Cin 
100 metres; and 0'55°C. in 150 metres. But the differences in salinity 
are on the whole considerably greater at the eastern Stations. 

In the deeper western parts of the sea, which is more exposed to 
horizontal circulation, and farther away from land and from the region 


30 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


in which great ice-masses melt, there is much less difference between 
the salinities in spring and autumn; and also less difference in temperature 
near the surface, As example, observations from a few depths of the 
Station 5, of May 4, 1903, mentioned above, may be taken and compared 
with those at the same place taken in August, 1903. 


Stat. 5 Stat. 16 
c May 4. 1903 | Aug. 9, 1903 
gs 713° 32' N. 713° 30’ N. Difference 
etres Cis ° i 
Biel icy Io 33 20° E. 
Depth 294 m. Depth 290 m. 
: C. s/ee e Cc. hes q C. Shee 
fe) eI 35/01 Sra 35/01 ° 36 0'00 
40 2°07 35/05 5= =B5105 3°63 o'02 
5° 2'03 35/07 4°59 35/05 2°56 o"02 
100 idtopn 2 Y=Ktey=! 3°62 35°07 I'5I —o'02 
200 1°63 35°07 2°89 35°10 1°26 —0'03 
250 1°49 35°07 1°86 35°05 0°37 0'02 
280 1°44 35°07 9°95 35°93 — 0°49 0°04 


This is exactly what might be expected; there is practically no 
difference in salinity. At some dephts (100 and 200 metres) it is rather in the 
opposite direction. The difference in temperature is much less near the 
surface than at the former Stations; but the heat wave has been able to go 
much deeper, owing to the uniformity of salinity which has much facilitated 
the intermixture of the upper water-strata, The difference in temperature 
is therefore the same at 4o metres as near the surface; at 50 metres it 
is 2°56° C. whilst is was only 08° C, at the former Stations. In the 
deeper strata the difference is also considerably higher. Near the bottom 
some different water has evidently come in, and made the temperature 


lower. 


Formation of the Cold, Heavy Bottom-water. 


From what is said above, it may be concluded that bottom-water 
is formed in many parts of the Barents Sea by surface cooling during 
the winter; but the temperature as well as the salinity of the bottom- 
water will greatly depend on the local conditions, and may even vary 
on the same bank, if somewhat extensive, The necessary conditions 
for the formation of very cold bottom-water are, that the waters at all 
depths are fairly stationary, and free from any rapid horizontal circulation, 
so that the vertical circulation caused by cooling at the surface during 
winter, may gradually reach the bottom, and give to all water-strata a 
nearly uniform salinity, temperature, and density. After this has been 
attained, continued cooling will reduce the temperature of the whole 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. ar 


bulk of water, and the formation of ice on the surface will gradually 
increase the salinity, especially whereever the sea be shallow. This 
increase of salinity by ice-formation must obviously be the explanation 
of the remarkable fact, that the heaviest bottom-water, ¢. g. on the coast 
banks of Novaya Zemlya, has very often a higher salinity than was ever 
found in the comparatively warm Atlantic water of the eastern Barents 
Sea. If for instance, it be supposed that by the vertical circulation of 
the water during the winter, the salinity has become almost uniform, 
about 34°70 °/oo (cf. Russian Stat. 10, Aug. 6, 1904, in Table below) from 
the surface to the bottom, in a region where the sea during the winter 
and spring be covered by a layer of new ice, with a mean thickness of 
2 metres!, the salinity of the underlying 198 metres of water will be 
increased by about 0°33 °/o0, and instead of 34°70 9/oo the mean salinity 
will become about 35'03 °/oo, If the sea be shallower, the formation of 
2 metres of ice during the winter would increase the salinity by still more. 
If the sea be only 100 metres deep it would in this way be possible to 
start with a water of mean salinity 34°4°/oo, and still get water with a 
salinity above 35 °/oo after 2 metres of ice had been formed. The effect 
of ice-formation may naturally be somewhat reduced locally by horizon- 
tal circulation in the sea, carrying a new supply of water in under the 
ice; but still the effect upon the whole mass of the water will be the same, 
and whereever ice is formed, it may consequently be expected that the 
salinity will be higher in the winter than in the summer, as is also 
actually borne out by the observations. 

The cold, heavy water thus formed, will sink and spread out on the 
banks, and if it be heavier (either on account of lower temperature or 
higher salinity) than the bottom water on the same level or at lower 
levels in the neighbourhood, it will gradually creep along the bottom in 
under such waters. This is probably the explanation of the very frequent 
and sudden occurrence at a great many stations, of a thin bottom-layer 
of higher salinity and density, and a temperature generally lower, but 
sometimes higher, than the overlying water. 


' The formation of ice on the surface during winter, is much helped by ice-pressures, 
which breaks the ice, and piles the floes up into high hummocks. When the pressures 
ceases again, open lanes and channels are formed which are rapidly covered by new 
ice, again to be broken and piled up. Thus ice-pressure greatly increases the forma- 
tion of ice as welll as the cooling of the sea. If the ice were not continually being 
broken, but formed a continuous and permanent sheet, it would increase extremely 
slowly after having attained a certain thickness, and after being covered with much 
snow, and the underlying water would be protected against cooling. 


32 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


As this heaviest water close to the bottom, has sometimes salinities 
higher than were ever observed in the vicinity in higher strata, it might 
seem somewhat difficult to believe that the salinity at some place in the 
same region, could have been, during the winter, so high in all strata 
between the surface and the bottom, at least for any length of time. If it be 
supposed however, that the vertical circulation during winter, had etab- 
lished a nearly uniform density between surface and bottom; further that 
the temperature had been lowered towards freezing-point, and that the 
salinity had been increased by formation of ice; and if then, on extremely 
cold days, great open lanes had been suddenly formed in the thick ice, and 
thus a great open water-surface suddenly exposed to very rapid cooling, 
there would have been a very intense formation of ice. The upper 
water-stratum might in this way be cooled down and its salinity increased 
more rapidly than it could be replaced by vertical circulation. The very 
heavy water thus formed might then sink through the underlying water 
and might perhaps in some cases, especially where the sea is shallow, 
reach the bottom before it was too much intermixed with intermediate 
strata. If such a lane be covered with new ice, and reopened several 
times, as is very frequently the case1, the effect of the local cooling 
and rapid formation of ice might be still more increased, and a column 
of very cold and saline water might actually be formed for a while be- 
tween the surface and the bottom. But as soon as the sea-surface is 
again covered by thicker ice, the very heavy water, will sink below the 
upper strata, and regular, more uniform conditions will be reestablished, 
while the heavy layer will remain on the bottom?. 


1 The ice-pressure is generally repeated very regularly with the tidal currents, along such 
channels and lanes in the ice, where a line of weakness has been formed. In the 
intervals between the pressures the channels are videly opened. This happens especially 
at the time of spring-tide. 

2 Professor Edlund’s theory (cf. Overs. Kongl. Vet. Akad. Handlingar, Stockholm, 1863) 
that, under certain conditions, ice might be formed near the bottom of the sea, if 
correct, offers another possible explanation of the above fact. Edlund’s idea was that 
the sea-water might be cooled below freezing-point, even though in slight motion, and 
such super-cooled water might therefore sink towards the bottom without freezing, 
until suddenly, by some accident, the freezing process be started, and quantities of ice 
formed which would suddenly rise to the surface. Edlund based his theory upon ob- 
servations made by E. A. Nordenskiéld, who with a maximum and minimum 
thermometer actually found temperatures below freezing-point in the sea near Gotland; 
but with the imperfect instruments of those days too low temperatures were frequently 
observed in the sea. During Nordenskiéld’s Vega-Expedition temperature-readings as low 
as —2°3 and —2'4° C. were repeatedly taken from the deep water of the Kara Sea, 
in August 1878, when there was no possibility of super-cooling. And at Vega’s winter- 
harbour near Bering Straits, temperature-readings as low as —2'8° and even —3’0° C. 
were taken in water from 2, 4 and 6 metres below the ice-covered surface (cf. O. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 33 


In the days from April 29 to 30, from May 3 to g, and from May 
23 to 28, 1901, Amundsen sailed through water which was cooled down 
to its freezing point (—1°9° C.). The water-samples, taken with the glass 
water-bottle of his own construction, from 5 and Io metres below the 
surface, give frequently during those days remarkably high salinities, 
sometimes even above 36°00. The reason is obviously that ice has, 
frozen out on the walls of the glass collecting bottle before the samples 
had been bottled for storage (see above pp. 7—8). On some occasions 
however, the salinities have been lowered by small ice-needles floating 
in the water, getting into the water-sample. The observations taken in 


these days are therefore not trustworthy. On the whole, however, the 


Pettersson, Vega Exp. Vetensk. Iakttagelser, vol. Ul. pp. 373—374). Observations 
like these are obviously erronous; for it is at any rate certain, that sea-water cannot 
be thus super-cooled, where ice is present on the surface. In spite of hundreds of ob- 
servations made during the polar winter, the present writer has on no occasion observed 
temperatures below the freezing-point of sea-water, where ice occurred on the sea- 
surface. Attention may, however, be drawn to some observations of Amundsen. When 
he sailed across an extensive open lane in the ice on May 4—5, 1901, he remarks in 
the journal (see Table I) that he would not record the temperature-readings as they 
were absurd, the thermometer indicating below —2° C. or even —2'4° C. and he 
therefore thought that there was something wrong with the thermometer (No. 638) 
which, however, always gave quite correct readings, even only a few hours before and 
after these observations (see Table I). It seems difficult to understand what might have 
been the matter with this evidently very trustworthy instrument, and the posibility does 
not seem to be excluded that there has actually been super-cooled water in this open 
lane far from any ice, although it seems hard to understand how such very cold water 
could be stirred and taken on board in a bucket, without being instantly transformed 
into ice, but the salinities of the water-samples taken, do not indicate that this has 
been the case. It is also a remarktable fact that on May 4 and April 29, Amundsen 
repeatedly got readings of — 2°0 C.; and his readings have without doubt usually a high 
accuracy. 

Edlund also mentions that Nordenskiéld on some occasions has observed ice on 
the bottom of the sea. The present writer has frequently seen the same thing near shore. 
The explanation was, however, that at these places the ice had been frozen solid to 
the bottom during the winter, afterwards during the summer it had been partly broken 
away by pressure and partly melted near the surface, while it still remained between 
the stones on the bottom. 

It has to be remembered that when the water is exposed to higher pressure by 
sinking, its temperature is slightly raised, while its freezing point is lowered, and it does 
not, therefore, seem very probable that under regular circumstances ice may be formed 
below the surface in this manner. 

In another way, however, ice may be formed at some distance below the sea- 
surface. During pressure the ice-floes are broken and piled up in hummocks, which 
may often reach down to depths of 40, 50, or perhaps even 60 metres or more. The ice 
thus pressed down during the coldest part of the :vinter, may have temperatures of 
between —20'0° and —30'0° C. (cf. The Norwegian North Polar Exp. 1893—1896, 
Scientific Results, vol. VI, No. 17, pp. 544—557), and before this ice is heated by the 
water to its freezing point, much new ice may naturally be formed, as the writer has 
also verified by direct observations; the salinity of the water is of course increased as 
a result. 


Vid.-Selsk. Skrifter. I. M.-N. Kl. 1906. No. 3. 3 


34 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. “M.-N. K1. 


surface salinity was remarkably high (about 34°'7 and 34°8 9/oo), in these 
regions where the sea-water was cooled towards its freezing-point, and 
where much new ice was being formed while Amundsen was there. 
The surface-salinity is during the summer and autumn very low in these 
same regions (see the isohalines PI. I), and sinks even below 34 %/o0. It 
shows clearly how ice-formation is able appreciably to increase surface- 
salinity. 

When the cooling of the surface ceases in the spring, the coldest 
and heaviest water will gradually sink towards the bottom, and lighter 
and warmer water which is heated from above, will replace it near the 
surface, The salinity of the top-layers will be reduced by the melting 
of the ice, and also by an increased quantity of fresh-water from 
the rivers and from the land. The salinity of the water near the bottom 
will be gradually lowered by intermixture with the overlying water; and 
it may therefore be expected that higher salinities, for the cold bottom- 
water on the shallow banks, will be found early in the spring and lower 
ones later on (cf. Wollebek’s Station on May 31, Ig00). During the 
course of the late summer and autumn, the cold bottom-water may 
gradually be washed almost entirely away on the shallow banks, by 
intermixture with the overlying warmer layers; but it will remain for a 
long time as a thin layer in the deepest hollows, and will there never 
entirely disappear; especially along the Novaya Zemlya coast!, In the 
deep central hollow of the eastern Barents Sea it will probably always 
form a bottom-layer of greater thickness (see above Figs. 2, 3). 


The cold winter water of the southern shallow part of the Barents Sea. 


Amundsen’s Stations 1 to 10 are taken on the southern extensive 
coast bank or plateau, with depths less than 100 metres (see Fig. 1, 
p. 24), and on its northern slope. They are from an earlier part of the 
season (April and May) than are most other observations known from 
this region, and the vertical series shows very distinct traces of the 
vertical circulation during the previous winter and spring, which has 
produced almost homogeneous cold water between surface and bottom 
at the most typical Station, Stat. 6. Here the density (o,) of the water 

! In the writer’s memoir on the N. Pol. Basin, where a similar explanation is given (cf. 
op. cit. p. 281) it is suggested that similar bottom-water may also find its way into the 

Kara Sea from the North, and thence through the Kara Strait into the submarine 

channel along the southwestern coast of Novaya Zemlya. This seems now, to be very 

doubtful. On the whole it seems that this cold bottom-water is much more local and 


forms much less of cold bottom-currents than then seemed ratherly likely, and also 
less than Knipowitsch seems to think. 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 35 


was 27°70 and the salinity 34°39 °%/oo. As the sea-water over this ex- 
tensive, submerged coastal platform is much diluted by water from the 
great rivers (of the White Sea, the Pechora, etc.), and as the shallowness 
of the sea prevents an active horizontal circulation bringing in fresh 
supplies of Atlantic water from the north, it must be expected that 
comparatively low salinities with considerable local variations will be 
found. This is in accordance with Amundsen’s actual observations. It 
is seen that both his numerous surface observations (cf. Pl. I) and his 
vertical series of observations show striking differences in temperature 
and salinity, often in regions which are not far apart; their horizontal 
and vertical distribution is also greatly influenced by the local conditions. 
For example take the three most southern Stations, Stats. 6, 7, and 8 (see 
Table II), covering a period of 7 days (May g—16, 1901), and very near each 
other on the extensive flat bank west of Kolguyev. At the most western 
Station, Stat. 6, with the shallowest water, the vertical circulation has 
been most complete, the temperature of the bottom-layers being near 
freezing-point, and the salinity comparatively low. At the most eastern 
Station, Stat. 7, there was higher temperatures and higher salinity near 
the bottom, showing the influence of the deeper channel or depression 
coming from the north and producing more horizontal circulation in the 
deep waters. But near the surface the temperature is higher and salinity 
lower showing the influence of the nearer vicinity to land. Stat. 8 shows an 
intermediate position between the two, both locally and with respect to 
temperature and salinity, but having been taken several days later, it 
has got higher temperatures near the surface. 

A Station taken by Mr. Alf Wollebek further west on the same 
platform, on May 25, 1900, is also very interesting. 


| A | 
Wollebzk I. | 69° o’ N. Lat. | Depth in Metres 
May 25 Aroma eongs|| emp. 2 (C.. | Os 


| heres 
o HO 20 ZOy |) 165 


—r65| —1165| —1°65| —1°65 


1900 | Salinsg/ sauces | 34°06 | 34°06 | | 34°06 | 34°10 


This station is just north of the outlet from the White Sea, and 
consequently a still lower salinity than at Amundsen’s Stat. 6 may be 
expected. It is a very common feature that near the bottom, the 


salinity is higher than in overlying perfectly uniform strata!, 


! The salinities are here computed according to Knudsens Tables. They were determined 
by Dr. Heidenreich by Titration, and by the aid of a standard water, the salinity 
of which had not been accurately determined, when the memoir on the Oceanography 
of the North Polar Basin (cf. loc. cit. p. 261) was written. Heidenreich’s original 


36 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


The sections (Pl. IV, Sections I—III) constructed for some of 
Amundsen’s Stations in this region, are rather instructive. Sect. III 
shows how cold water, with uniform low temperature and salinity, 
occurs on the coast bank (Stat. 6), whilst near to, or on the northern 
slope (Stats. 5 and 3) of the bank, there were, more than a week earlier, 
much higher temperatures and salinities, with a warm intermediate layer 
in which the salinity approaches [that of the Atlantic water of the 
Barents Sea. This shows the effect of the more rapid horizontal move- 
ment of the water along the slope. Section II, shows the difference be- 
tween Stat. 5, which is in a channel! near the slope, communicating with 
the warm current along the latter, and the two Stations 2 and 4 on the 
banks on both sides, But at none of these Stations has there been such 
perfect vertical circulation, as at Stat. 6. Stat. 4 has been too near-the 
channel at Stat. 5, and has an intermediate warmer layer (maximum of 
—o'21° C.) and a comparatively high salinity (about 34°83 °%oo), and 
Stat. 2 was near the slope of the submarine valley, coming from the 
north, west of Long. 40° E. (see Fig. 1, p. 24). 

Section [ is interesting as it demonstrates a remarkable change in 
the water-masses, which has obviously occurred between April 26, when 
Stat. 2 was taken, and May 20 and 22 (Stats. g and 10). Where 
Amundsen’s route, between May 22 and 23, crosses his route between 
April 26 and 28 (see Pl. J), it is seen that the surface-temperatures and 
salinities have become noticeably lower (about —1°5° C. and 34°51 %/00) 
in May than they were in this region in the end of April (about 04° C. 
and 34°87 oo). It is obvious that in April there was much water from 
the Atlantic current, which runs eastwards along the slope of the deep 
depression (see the isobaths for 200 and 300 metres in Fig. 1, p. 24, 
and the temperatures and salinities along Amundsen’s route between. 
April 24 and 25, Pl. I); whilst in May there had been a displace- 
ment of the whole mass of water towards the west, very cold water 
with lower salinity (between 34°56 and 34°68 °oo) having come from 
the east (or south?) and filled the sea between surface and _bot- 
tom, as is seen at Stats. g and 10. The whole bulk of warmer 


determinations are not now available and it is impossible to compute values accurately, 
but judging from his values given for Wollebeks Stat. II (see below) the values then 
published (op. cit.) should be reduced by o*rr °/,,. 

The exact form and direction of this channel is somewhat difficult to trace, as the 
soundings of the different expeditions are somewhat contradictory, which may be due 
to inaccuracies in the latitudes or longitudes. That the channel actually communicates 
with the great deep depression to the northwest is proved by the warm bottom-water 
at Stat. 5, and also by several Russian observations in this locality in later years. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 237 


Atlantic water had then probably been displaced towards the west. 
There was, however, found no sign of this water on the surface 
towards the northwest along the route between May 25 and 27 
(see Pl. I and Table I); but there is of course a_ possibility that 
there may have been warmer water under the cold surface layer. 
By studying the chart Pl. I, it is seen that along Amundsen’s 
route between May 20 (Stat. 9) and May 22 (Stat. 10) there was the 
same kind of surface-water as was formerly (about May 6) found further 
east!, The water at the two Stations 9 and 10 is also very much the 
same at all depths, but entirely different from that of Stat. 2. It is seen 
that whilst the densities are fairly similar in the deeper strata (cf the 
isopyenals of 27°90 and 28:00), the densities of the strata near the 
surface have become much lower (below 27°80), in spite of the low 
temperatures in May (Stats. g and 10), than they were at the end of 
April (Sat. 2), when they were nearly 27:90. It is easy to understand 
that such lighter surface layers may move west and northwestwards 
away from the coasts. 

The surface observations in this shallow sea, at this early season, 
tell much about the underlying strata. It may as a rule be assumed 
that the temperature and salinity have vertically been fairly uniform, In 
the most southern region (Pl. I and Table I), visited by Amundsen, the 
surface salinities approached 34°0 °/oo with temperatures about —1°2 and 
—1'5° C., whilst along the most eastern part of his route, the salinities 
were comparatively high (34°50—34°79 °/oo) and the temperatures about 
the freezing-point of sea-water (—1°g° C.). During this time (April 29— 
30, and May 3—7) the temperature of the air was low (about —7° and 
—g C.) and much ice was formed on the sea-surface, which evidently 
much increased the salinity2. 

Later in the season the conditions are, however, entirely changed 
in this part of the sea. The water is heated to considerably higher 
temperatures, especially near the surface, and being diluted with much 
river-water and by the melting of ice, its salinities are much decreased 


(see above pp. 14—15). 


' It may be possible that an increase of the waters of the river Pechora, flowing into 
the sea to the south-east, may displace the whole bulk of water some distance towards 
the north-west, or west; but it seems more probable that winds might be able to 
produce such a displacement; there had not, however, been much easterly or south- 
easterly winds during May. 

It has been pointed out above, that water-samples taken during periods with such low 


i=) 


temperatures, when the sea-water is cooled to freezing-point, give not very reliable 
salinities, especially those taken with Amundsen’s small water-bottle (se above pp. 7 
and 33). 


38 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. Kl. 


Knipowitsch has a section from August 13—19, 19011, which 
passes south of Amundsen’s Stations 6, 7 and 8, but the difference 
between these and Stations 580 and 581, of the former, is very striking, 
All traces of the cold water are washed away in August; there was at no 
depth any temperature below zero, and in the upper strata, above 25 metres, 
the temperature was above 4°, and even 6° C., whilst the salinities had sunk 
below 349/oo, and near the surface even below 33 °/00. Knipowitsch’s 
Stat. 579 (68° 52’ W. Lat., 44° 28’ E. Long.) is near Amundsen’s place 
on May 11, where he observed —1'2° C. and 34°28°%o0 and —1°4°, 
34°05 °/oo on the surface, and there were probably very nearly the same 
temperature and salinity in all strata to the bottom, whilst Knipowitsch 
in August the same year found, the temperature above 6° C. and salinity 
below 32'0°/oo in the upper 20 metres, whilst, towards the bottom in 
about 60 metres, the temperature gradually decreased without reaching 
zero and the salinity increased without reaching 34'0 %/oo. All traces of 
the cold winter-water had consequently been effaced by August. 

Knipowitsch’s Station 5372 has obviously been very nearly at the 
same spot as Amundsen’s Stat. 3, although according to the Latitudes 
and Longitudes as published it should have been nearer his Stat. to. 

Knipowitsch’s Stat. 536 has about the Latitudes and Longitudes of 
Stat. 3, but was obviously on the platform further east. 

A comparison between the temperatures and salinities in the table 
below, give a good idea of the changes which heave occurred in the 
three months between April 28 and July 22, 1901. 


Amundsen. Knipowitsch. 
Dea Stat. 3 Stat. 537 : 
mu | Apr. 28, 1901 | July 22, rgor Difference. 
Metres. qi. 33. NE qi° 18! N. 
Ase 30m bs Adon ase. 
°C. aoe “Ce. TES / “Gc shes 
° —0)2) 934514 eo 34°63 | 574 Orr 
25 Ong Tle S10 “OL 5°23 “14 
35 O15 “81 3°65 65 3°50 "16 
50 0°40 86 | 28 “69 2°4 | 
15 0°46 ‘89 | 18 "14 | 1°34 “15 
100 0°48 89) | 12 “76 o'72 13 
150 0°26 190))|| tet cay 0°84 “13 
200 E——Onus ‘92 1'O “81 115 Bent 
215 —o'90 90 
230 05 “BI 


The upper 25 metres of water have become more than 5° C. war- 
mer; in all depths there is a rise of temperature, and a fairly uniform 


decrease of salinity. 


1 Eoc. cit.) Ela Omnue nO: 
2 Loc. cit, Pl. 6, Bigs 4, and yp. 22: 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 39 


On a previous occasion! it was pointed out how the water-masses 
may be changed entirely in a very short time in this shallow sea, and 
how rapidly the very cold bottom-water may disappear under certain 
circumstances. At the ,,fram’s” Station 5 (of. czt.) in the Pechora Bay, 
on July 27 1893, there was a more than 53 metres thick bottom-layer 
of winter water with temperature below —1'5° C. and salinity about 
34°5 ¥/oo2. But three weeks later Knipowitsch found no trace of it, 16 
miles to the southeast. 


The cold and heavy Bottom-Water on the Coastal Shelf 
of Novaya Zemlya. 


Nearly all sections across the Barents Sea, which reach the west 
coast of Novaya Zemlya, show very peculiar conditions over the shelf, 
outside this coast at depths between 120 and 150 metres. Over the 
floor of this shelf and in its depressions near the coast, there is generally, 
even in the autumn, a bottom-layer of water which has very low tempe- 
ratures and unusually high salinities, frequently above 35:0 00. This 
bottom-water, which is much heavier than the water on the slope outside 
the shelf (see Figs. 2 and 3, pp. 26, 27), forms a layer which is thicker 
and with higher salinities early in the summer and spring than later in 
the season. It is obvious that this water, which is formed by cooling 
at the surface during the winter, owes its high salinity to the formation 
of ice on the surface, as is mentioned above (p. 31). 

Amundsen’s surface observations in the most eastern part of his 
route, over the coastal shelf (see Pl. I), show very clearly how the for- 
mation of ice appreciably increases the salinity of the sea surface and 
consequently also that of the underlying strata. 

On May 31, 1900, Mr. Alf Wolleb#&k3 took, from on board the 
“Heimdal” of the Norwegian Navy, a vertical series of observations on 
the coastal shelf of Novaya Zemlya. Taken so early in the season as 
they were, these observations demonstrate better than any others hitherto, 
the formations of heavy bottom-water, and they will therefore be espe- 


cially mentioned here. The water-samples were stored in soda-water- 


1 Oceanogr. of N. P. Basin, p. 262. 

2 This was obviously not a local occurrence, for at Stat. 6 on the following day, nearly 
60 miles further to the east-south-east in the Pechora Bay, there were found similar 
low temperatures between 5 metres and the bottom at 22 metres. 

$3 Mr. Alf Wollebzk was sent out by Dr. Johan Hjort, leader of the Norwegian 
Fishery- and Marine-Innestigations, to take oceanographic observations during the cruise 
of the “Heimdal” in the Arctic Sea, in May 1900. 


—_— ee) = =. 


40 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. Kl. 


bottles with patent india-rubber stoppers, and the possibility of evapora- 
tion was thus excluded. The specific gravity was carefully deter- 
mined by my assistant Mr. Jakob Schetelig with a hydrometer 
of total immersion (made by C. Richter in Berlin, of Jena Glass 
No. 59™!, and tested at the Reichs Anstalt, Charlottenberg). The 
chlorine of the same samples were determined by Mr. Leivestad, who 
used for control Standard Water No. I, determined by Mr, Schetelig; 
by numerous observations with the Hydrometer of Total Immersion 
(see alove p. 9). Some smaller samples were taken for titration in 
ordinary small bottles with cork-stoppers, and were determined by Dr. 
Heidenreich who used for control a Standard Water from Mr. Martin 
Knudsen in Copenhagen. His values on the whole agreed very well 
with those obtained by Schetelig and Leivestad but were not equally 
accurate, The values of specific gravity, salinity, and density have been 
computed by means of Knudsen’s Tables}. 


D |  Leivestad by Schetelig by Hydr. 
epth \| ; 
; Tempe- | Titration. of Total Imm. a 
in Of 
Woes rature. | 
ees ] (CB aael| Saeed ee Oo Sv oS aeons | 
W ollebek o Sai 22 34°83 || 28°04 
State 10 —1"30 || 19°29 85 277995 | 34°84 +0o.01 | “05 
May 31, 1900 20 —1'50 *205 “86 28°03 “88 — ‘02 | “09 
71° 48' N. Lat. 30 Se "88 2 . ‘09 
49° 38’ E. Long. 50 —1'52 ‘30 87 03 86) | on “09 
70 Sans || 205 88 03 88 "00 “Io 
100 —1'65 | 30 87 03 88 — ‘OI | i do) 
120 —1'80 “455 3525) °255) |) 3572050 pa ees: “33 
128 bottom | | | 


It is a noteworthy fact that salinities as high as that of the sample 
from 120 metres, 8 metres above the bottom, have been observed 
nowhere else in the eastern Barents Sea. As before mentioned it is 
evidently due to the formation of ice at the surface in the same region 
during the previous spring or winter. It is very natural that water of 


1 The values are here only o'11 °/,, lower than the values given in the Memoir on the 
Oceanography of N. Polar Basin, p. 273, although they ougth to have been o'16 °/,, 
lower (cf. op. cit., Preface p. V). The reason is that by means of Knudsen’s Tables 
the observations can now be more accurately computed than was then possible. It 
is also seen that the values now obtained for the sample from 120 metres by titration 
and Hydrometer of Total Immersion agree fairly well. 

2 Determined by Dr. Heidenreich. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901, AI 


this kind should be found just at this station where the observations 
were taken so early in the season, By intermixture with the overlying 
strata the salinity of this kind of bottom-water will be gradually lowered 
later in the summer. 

This series of Wollebek proves very clearly how the vertical cir- 
culation during the winter has been able to produce a perfectly uniform 
salinity between 20 and 100 metres. Near the surface, at 0 and 10 
metres the salinity had been sligthly lowered by the end of May, and 
the temperature of the upper strata had commenced to rise. 

Later in the season these conditions are much altered, especially in 
the upper strata, as is seen by a comparison in the Table, p. 42, be- 
tween Wollebak’s observations for May tg00, and Knipowitsch’s ob- 
servations in the same region for July and September of the same year! 
and also with later Russian observations in August, 1903 and 1904. 

At Knipowitsch’s Stations 249 and 345, in the region north and 
northwest of Wollebaeks Station I, there were in July and September 
hardly any traces left of the very cold and heavy water which Wollebek 
had found a short distance to the south a month and a half before. 
There was only a very thin bottom-layer at Knipowitsch’s Stations with 
temperatures about —o'6° C. and —o'5° C. The two salinities at Stat. 
345 are very low (if they are trustworthy), These two Stations, espe- 
cially No, 249, are near the edge of the coastal shelf, and are therefore 
near a region with more effective horizontal circulation. Stat. 10, Aug. 6, 
1904, is also in this region, but on the slope in deeper water (205 
metres and still farther towards the northwest. Here there is no trace 
of bottom water with temperatures below zero (10 metres above the 
bottom 075° C, and 34°79° °/oo was found) and although the Station is 
on the slope towards the deeper central depression of the sea, the 
salinity, which is rather uniform, is considerably lower than at Wollebzk’s 
Station. 

In the region to the south of the latter the conditions are very 
different, here, both at Knipowitsch’s two Stations 247 and 248, in July, 
1900, and at Breitfuss’s Station 8 in Aug., 1903, and also at his Stats. 
8 and g in Aug., 1904, well developed bottom-layers with low temperatures 
were found, but the layer is very much thicker at the three former Sta- 


tions, than at those of 1904. For comparsion may be included here the 


! Cf. Knipowitsch, Expedition fiir Wissenschaftlich-Praktische Untersuchungen an der 
Murman Kiiste, vol. I, St. Petersburg, 1902, pp. 446, 482 (Russian with German 
Summary). 


M.-N. Kl. 


FRIDTJOF NANSEN. 


42 


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T906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 43 


observations from the ‘“Fram’s” Stat. 3, on July 24, 1893, in the same 


region, 
Depth i Metres o 20 40 60 80 | 100 120 130 
July 24, 93 | | | 
qr° rq‘ N. ° | A | - ibke 
oe. Temp. ~ .C. 3°69 2°91 |—1°32 | —1°64|—1°72 ~ 1°63 las 16 | Bottom 
48~ 22° E: | 


Salin. 9/9 34°31 | 34°31 34°72 | | 34°70 | 34°76 | 38°88 | 


The conditions were then more like those of July 1900, and Aug. 1903 
than of August 1904, but the thick layer of bottom-water was colder than 
at any other time. The summer of 1904 has obviously been an exceptional 
year, in this region, with unusually high temperatures and low salinities 
especially in the upper strata. 

All these stations are situated on the shallow platform southwest of 
Gooseland, and some of them (Stats. 247, 248, 8, and g) are near the 
nortwestern end of the submarine channel along the southern coast of 
Novaya Zemlya. It is evident that in this region the horizontal circu- 
lation along the bottom is very slow, 

Breitfuss’s Station 7 (Aug. 3, 1904) forms a most interesting excep- 
tion from the others; there is no trace of the cold bottom-water, the 
temperature near bottom being 110°C. The explanation is probably 
that this Station is near the edge of the submarine valley extending 
eastwards into this region from the great central depression (see Fig. 1, 
p. 24). Along this valley there is evidently a more rapid horizontal 
circulation of warmer water from the Atlantic Current. 

A striking fact borne out by a comparison between the above Sta- 
tions is that the salinities at almost all depths, both north and south of 
Wollebzk’s Station, are very much lower on August, 1903 and 1904, and 
also in September 1900, than they were on May 31, 1900. The diffe- 
rence is especially great near the surface, but it is considerable even 
in deep strata. 

The observations made at the above Stations prove clearly that the 
cold bottom-water at the southern Stations cannot have been carried 
thither by a cold bottom-current along the coast, from the north, as 
some writers have been prone to believe. If such were the case it 
should be possible to find this water preeminently at the northern Sta- 
tions. The unevenness of the bottom to the north would @ grzorz make 
the existence of such a regular bottom-current in the shallow sea along 
the coast highly improbable. Local differences in the salinities of the 
bottom-water, also prove that this water does not form any regular 


bottom-current. And the vertical distribution of temperature and salinity 


aa FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


at Wollebzk’s Station demonstrates better than anything else, that it is 
not a regular bottom-current, but more or less local phenomena that 
here have to be dealt with. 

The same kind of cold, heavy bottom-water is found almost every 
where on the coastal shelf along the west and northwest coast of Novaya 
Zemlya, wherever a sounding has been taken. The many soundings 
taken by Dr. Breitfuss in August 19021, along the coast between 
73° N. Lat. and 76° 20/ N. Lat. (see Table above p. 22) are good examples. 
Everywhere below a depth of 25 metres cold bottom-water was found; 
a layer generally more than 100: metres thick, forming, as it were, a 
bank of heavy water over the shelf, with densities above 28:00 at depths 
greater than 50 metres (cf Sections Figs, 2 and 3, pp. 26, 27). The great 
resistance offered to the horizontal movements of the water over the 
uneven bottom of the shelf, and the small depths, evidently protect this 
cold winter water from being entirely washed away in the summer, 
although, as was seen above, its salinity is gradually much reduced, and 
its temperature raised by intermixture with overlying waters, The following 
series of observations by Admiral Makaroff, in August Igol, is also 


interesting: 


Depth in m. I 10 | 25 | 50 | 100 | 150 


Stat. 57, Aug. 5, | 
IQOI Temp.) > C9518 ae —18 —1'8 | —18 —18 
SLO a 
Usa ae Salin. /o9 | 33°526 | 33526 | 34458 | 34°04 | 34°97 | 35°044 
55 7 130, . . 
oes "S| Salin. Joo | 33°53 | 33°53 | 3445 | 34°95 | 34°99 | 35°04 


The water samples were taken in, green soda-water bottles with patent 
india-rubber stoppers (see about these samples below, p. 50). The upper 


series of salinities were determined by Mr. Jakob Schetelig with. 


Hydrometer of Total Immerssion and the lower series by Mr. Leive- 


stad by Titration. 


The cold Bottom-Water of the Central Depression of the Eastern 
Barents Sea. 


A very prominent feature in all sections across the central depres- 
sion (depths greater than 300 metres) of the eastern Barents Sea (see 
Fig. 1, p. 24) is the cold bottom-water with high salinity, rising, as it 


were, as a mountain of heavy water along the centre of this depression 


1 Bull. d. Result. Courses Period., Aug. 1902, pp. 33—34- 


| 
: 
£ 
' 


- 


1906. No. 3- AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 45 


(see the two sections reproduced on pp. 26—27, Figs. 2 and 3, see also 
Knipowitsch’s section from July rgor!) and Breitfuss’s section from Aug, 
1903”. As was above pointed out, this cold bottom-water is, as a rule, 
separated from that on the coastal shelf of Novaya Zemlya by warmer 
water along the eastern slope of the depression (se all the sections 
mentioned above and the maps Pls, II, HI*.) The isopycnals drawn for 
27°90, 28°00 and 28°10, in Section Fig. 3 (p. 27), have very steep inclina- 
tions on the eastern slope of the depression. showing that the water 
there must be in rapid movement northwards along the slope. Om the 
western slope the water is probably in movement southwards, but the 
movement is not so rapid. Knipowitsch’s section from July tgor, and 
Breitfuss’s section from August 1903, give very similar pictures, if the 
isopycnals be drawn. 

In a short section from May, 1904, across the slope on the southern 
side of the depression (Fig. 4, p. 27), conditions quite similar to those 
on the eastern slope in the above section are to be found, but the in- 
clination of the isopycnals for 27°90 and 28°00 is here much steeper, 
and indicative of a still more rapid movement of the warm waters along 
the slope eastwards. It is also apparent (as in other sections) that the 
isopycnals are again rising over the bank, inside the slope (se isopycnal 
for 27°90). In August, 1904, very nearly the same section was taken 4; 
the waters at all stations were then very much warmer, and the salini- 
ties of the upper strata lower. The isopycnals, on the other hand, slope 
in exactly the same manner, although not so steeply, which indicates 
that the horizontal movement has been probably not so rapid near the 
surface, as it was in May. At the deepest station in August (Stat. 24, 
Aug. 21, 1904) there was very little cold bottom-water, but to judge 


from the depth (293 metres) this station was situated higher on the 


! Ann. Hydr. etc., 1905, Pl. 6, Fig. 5. 

2 Bull. Result. Courses Period., Aug. 1903, Pl. V, Sect. Arct. II. The isohaline for 34°90 9/gq 
ought to be drawn differently in the central part of this section, more in accordance 
with the manner in which it is drawn in the section for Aug. r904 (Fig. 3, p. 27). Tie 
isohaline should certainly form an elevation and not a depression near Stat. 11. The 
conditions have obviously been similar to those of Breitfuss’s Section for Aug. 1902, 


“mountain” of cold water with high 


reproduced here (Fig. 2, p. 26). There has been a 
salinity in the middle and two masses of warmer water with high salinities near the 
bottom on both sides, especially on the eastern slope (Stat. 9). 

Breitfuss’s Section from Aug. 1902 along the southeastern part of the depression, forms 
an exception as was pointed out above (p. 25), but there have evidently been exceptional 
conditions on this occasion. There may have been a temporary displacement of water, 
similar to that proved by Amundsen’s observations in April and May, toor, in the 
region of his Stats. 9, 2, 10, and 3, see above, p. 36. 

4 Bull. Courses Period., Aug. 1904, p. 27, Stats. 24, 25, 26. 


46 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


slope than Stat. 9 of May 15, 1904 (with a depth of 331 metres), and 
has therefore had comperatively more warm water. 

In May?! and August®, 1903, very nearly the same section, with the 
same three Stations, was also taken. In August, 1903, the isopycnals 
slope in the same way as in August, 1904, indicating the same horizon- 
tal movement, but the waters were on the whole heavier and of lower 
temperature and higher salinity. The deepest Station (Stat. 26, August 
28, 1903) is farther north and in deeper water than the Station 24, of 
Aug. 21, 1904. It is much more like Stat. 9, of May 15, 1904; but its 
bottom-water (between 150 metres and the bottom) is even colder and of 
higher salinity than at the latter station. In May 1903, the conditions 
were, however, very different — if the Latitudes and Longitudes of the 
stations be really correct. The water was then very much heavier at 
the two southern Stations (8 and 9, May 6, 1903) than at the deep 
northern Station (7, May 5, 1903) and also much heavier than the waters 
in the same region in May 1904. There has evidently been some dis- 
placement of the water masses in this year and perhaps an excessive 
cooling of the water. During the winter 1902—1903 and the spring 
1903 there were on the whole exceptional conditions in these regions, 
as is known from other facts (¢. g. the emigration of the seal (Phoca 
groenlandica) to the northern coasts of Norway). 

In Breitfuss’s section across the northern part of the depression, in 
Aug. 1902, Fig. 2 (p. 26), the isopyenals for 28°00 and 28°10, show on 
the whole an inclination towards the eastern slope but not to the same 
extent as in the above section further south (Fig. 3). This might indi- 
cate a less rapid movement which may be explained by the circumstance 
that we are here probably in a submarine valley extending eastwards 
(see Fig. 1, p. 24). The deep waters are here on the whole some- 
what heavier over the slope than in the above section. The isohaline 
for 34°90 °/oo and the isotherms for o70° C. show, however, a very 
characteristic feature, namely, two bulks of warm water with compara- 
tively high salinities obviously moving along the slopes to both sides of 
the depression, and on both sides of a “mountain” of cold water, in 
the middle, with salinity above 34°90 2/99. The warm water, with tem- 
peratures above zero, on the eastern slope, has on its long way north- 
wards along this slope (see Pls. II and III, maps for 100 and 200 
metres) been diluted by intermixture with overlying less saline strata, 
and had the salinity of its upper part reduced below 34°90 °/u9. 


' Bull. Courses Period., May 1903, p. 212, Stats. 7, 8, 9. 


2 


2 Ibid., Aug. 1903, p. 28, Stats. 24, 25, 26. 


1906. No. 3- AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 47 


The inclination of the isopyenals, as well as the distribution of 
temperatures and salinities in the different sections indicate that, as a 
rule, there is a cyclonic movement of the water in the central depression 
@entie ecastern Barents Sea (cf maps Pls. Il, I). This cyclonic 
movement is most rapid along the southern and eastern slope, 
whilst the water along the axis of the cyclone is comparatively 
stationary. Along the western side of the depression the cyclonic 
movement receives fresh supply of Atlantic water, coming from the 
west, especially along the submarine channels, in about 72°, 73° 
meeande75. 20 N. Lat. (cf. maps Pls. IJ, III) and therefore the 
salinities are frequently rather high on that side. On the north- 
eastern side of the cyclone comparatively warm water is given off 
towards the sea between Novaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land (cf. the 
surface-temperature and salinities of the Capella, Pl. I, and the maps for 
Ioo and 200 metres Pl. I, HI). Along the axis of the cyclone, there 
will becomparatively favourable conditions for the formation of cold bottom- 
water by cooling at the surface during winter, as there is only little 
horizontal circulation. An effective vertical circulation may there be 
established between the surface and the bottom, with the formation of 
very cold water having a comparatively high salinity. But as the depth 
is so great, it cannot be expected that the formation of ice during the 
winter will increase the salinity of the sea-water by so much as it does 
in the shallow water over the coastal shelf of Novaya Zemlya; and 
unusually high salinities near the bottom, such as might be found in the 
latter region (cf. Wollebezk’s Stat. II) are not to be expected. 

In Breitfuss’s section for August, 1902 (Fig. 2, p. 26), the bottom. 
water with temperatures below —1° rises very near the surface (about 35 
metres below the surface) in the central part of the depression at his 
Stat. 63 (Fig. 1), Some time in the previous winter or spring there 
would probably have been found, somewhere in this region, nearly homo- 
geneous water with temperatures of about —1°4° C. and salinity about 
or above 34°9 %/o9 between the surface and the bottom. The conditions 
seem to be strikingly like those found in the region of Amundsen’s Stations 
13—23, east of Northern Greenland as will be described in the next 
chapter. The form of the isotherm of —1°C. is, for instance, almost 
the same at Amundsen’s Stat. 16 (see Section IX, Pl. X) as it is here 
at Breitfuss’s Stat. 63. 

Amundsen’s surface observations seem to indicate, that even on the 
southwestern side of the Central Hollow of the eastern Barents Sea, there 


may be the necessary conditions for the formation of cold bottom-water. 


48 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


Between May 26 and 31 (see Table I), in about 73°N. Lat. and between 
38° and 4o° E. Long., Amundsen found the sea-surface cooled to about 
its freezing point, whilst the surface-salinities were about 34°7 or 3.4°8 9%/go. 
The surface-water had consequently a density zm situ of between 27°96 
and 2805, and it seems therefore that a vertical circulation reaching down 
to the deep cold layers might easily be possible in this region, © 

From the places where the cold winter water is chiefly formed, it 
spreads as heavy underlying water along the deepest central part of the 
depression, and forms its bottom-layers, Only where the water is in 
rapid horizontal movement along the slopes, is the level of the under- 
lying cold heavy water lowered by the pressure produced by this 
moving water, which is deflected, by the Earth’s rotation, against the 
slopes and against the heavy water on the banks. The cold underlying- 
water will therefore rise highest along the central portion of the depression. 

This cold heavy bottom-water will, however, probably also creep 
westwards along the bottom of the deepest channels communicating with 
the depression; and being deflected by the Earth’s rotation, it will chiefly 
move westwards along the northern slope of these Channels (¢f maps 
Pl. Ill). There is therefore found the same kind of cold bottom-water 
forming a layer 140 metres thick near the bottom (between 150 and 
290 metres), at Amundsen’s Stat. 12, on the northern side of the central 
channel (in 73° 50’ N. Lat., 37° 50’ E. Long.)+. His Stat. 11 is on the 
southern side of the same channel and here there is also cold bottom- 
water in 275 and 300 metres, but it is not possible to say how thick 
the layer may have been. 

About 130 kilometres (70 naut. miles) further west, Knipowitsch has 
a section across the same channel, five or six wecks later in the same 
summer2. Here there is the same cold water, as at Amundsen’s Stat. 12, 
with temperatures below —1° C. and salinity below 34°90 °/,,, forming 
a thin layer along the bottom on the northern slope of the channel, at 
Stats. 503, 504, and 505 (between 74° 15’ and 74° 45‘ N. Lat. and along 
the meridian of 33° 30’ E. Long. see maps Pls, IIIf and V). It is 
thickest at the most northern Station, as might be expected owing to 
the deflecting force of the Earth’s rotation. In sections further west, 
near the eastern end of the deep channel south of Bear Island, this cold 


1 The observations at the Russian Stat. 21, on Aug. 19, I904, which is very near 
Amundsen’s Stat. r2 (see Figs. 1 and 3, pp. 24, 27), seem to prove that the conditions - 
may differ much in this region. As is seen in the Section Fig. 3, there is hardly 
any cold bottom-water at Stat. 21, and temperatures as well as salinities are very 
different from those of Amundsen’s Stat. 12. 


w 


Ann. Hydr. etc. 1905, Pl. 6, Fig. 2. 


1906. No. 3- AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 49 


bottom-water is found no more; it gradually mingles with the overlying 
warmer water; and has thus no communication with the cold bottom- 
water of the Norwegian Sea. It is nevertheless interesting to notice 
how similar Amundsen’s bottom-water at Stat. 11 (with about —1°4° C. 
and 34°93 °/o0), is to the bottom-water he found in the Norwegian Sea 
east of Greenland (about —1°3° C. and 34'92 °/,,). It shows how cooling at 
the sea-surface during the winter, may produce, by the same process, 
very similar results in very different regions, and in seas with very 
different depths. 

The bottom-water of the central hollow of the eastern Barents Sea 
may, however, have very different temperatures in different years. In 
July 1899, its temperature was about —1°8 or —1'9° C. (Knipowitsch’s 
Stations 68—7o01, in about 73° and 72° N. Lat., and 39° 12’ and 4o° 
Bo7 E,, Long:). 

In July (10) and September (28), 1900, the temperature in the deepest 
central part of the hollow was about —1°3 and —1°5° C, (Knipowitsch’s 
Stations 254 and 3652. 

In July and August, 1901, the bottom-temperatures seem to have 
been about —1-4 or —1°5° C. according to Knipowitsch’s sections ®. 

In August 1902 the bottom-temperature was in all parts of the 
central hollow about —1°3 and —1'4°C, (see Table above, p. 22). 

I May and August, 1903, it was about freezing point, —1°85 and 
18°C. (see Table above, p. 22). 

I May and August, 1904, it seems to have been about the same, 
"oad. —1-75 C. (sée Table, p. 22). 

The salinity seems to be very frequently about 34°94 (¢f 1903 and 
1904), and to be fairly uniform for the bottom-water of the whole of the 
Hollow, at least in the same year. But a thin bottom-layer has often 
salinities above 35°0 9/5). 


Possibility of communication between the cold Bottom-Water of the North- 
eastern Barents Sea and that of the North Polar Basin. 


There is much similarity between the salinity of the heaviest bottom- 
water of the eastern and northeastern Barents Sea, and the salinity .of 


the bottom-water of the North Polar Basin, according to the values 


Knipowitsch, Exp. fiir wissensch.-pracktische Untersuchungen an der Murman Kiiste, 
vol. I, pp. 322— 323. 

> Ibid. pp. 448, 482. 

3 Ann. Hydr. etc. 1905, Pl. 6, Figs. 5 and 3. 

Vid.-Selsk. Skrifter. I. M.-N. KI. 1906. No. 3. 4 


a 


50 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. Kl. 


obtained by a new revision of the observations (see below, last chapter). 
But the lowest temperature of the latter is nearly one degree Centigrade 
higher than the lowest temperature of the former}, 

A question of much interest for our later discussion, is: whether 
it is in any way possible, that bottom-water found in the Barents Sea, 
or in the region to the north-east, may flow into the North Polar Basin? 
According to my bathymetrical chart of the North Polar Seas? (see 
also Fig. 1, p. 24) there seems to be a channel, more than 300 metres 
deep, coming from the North Polar Basin and running southwest be- 
tween Novaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land?, but, as my bathymetrical 
chart of the Barents and Kara Seas4 shows, this channel hardly com- 
municates with the deep central depression of the eastern Barents Sea, 
from which it seems to be separated by a barrier rising nearly to about 
200 metres below the surface. 

When Admiral Makaroff started on his expedition with the Yer- 
mak in 1901, he took a Pettersson-Nansen Water-Bottle with him (deli- 
vered by L. M. Ericsson i Stockholm), and some Nansen Deep-Sea 
Thermometers, from Richter in Berlin. He was also kind enough to 
take some green soda water-bottles, with patent india-rubber stoppers, 
which the writer sent him, for holding the water-samples; and he sent 
the bottles with samples back after his return®. The _ specific 


1 Professor Otto Pettersson says that, “this cold and salt bottom-layer (of the eastern 
Barents Sea) is evidently an updrift from the depths of the Polar Sea, which enters 
from north and north-east both into the Kara and the Barents Sea’. (Geograph. 
Journal, London, vol. XXIV, 1904, p. 314). It is not quite clear what Prof. Petters- 
son means, for there is, as the expedition with the Fram proved, no bottom-water with 
such low temperatures in the North Polar Basin, and. Pettersson cannot mean that the 
bottom-water should become colder on this way, under warmer water. But even if 
such water really existed in the depths of the North Polar Basin, it seems difficult to 
imagine what kind of force may exist to lift this unusually heavy water from the bottom 
of that deep sea up to the level of the bottom of the Barents Sea, or even to a level 
of 120 metres below the surface (at Wollebzk’s Station), or even to only 7o metres at 
the Station 4 of the Fram-expedition (off Gooseland, 1893). 
Nansen, Norwegian N. Polar Exp. 1893—1896, Scientific Results, vol. 1V, No. 13, Pl. 1. 
3 As stated, of. cit. p. 16, it was Admiral Makaroff’s valuable soundings in the sea 
between Novaya Zemlya and the Franz Josef Archipelago, and east of the latter, 
especially his tomperatures and water-samples, which pointed to the conclusion that this 
channel communicates with the North Polar Basin. Dr. N. Knipowitsch, who is 
publishing Makaroff’s observations, has independantly come to the same conclusion (Revue 
Internationale de Peche et Pisciculture, 1903, No. 2—3, published before the writer’s 
memoir). Makaroff’s soundings now published in the sections given by Knipowitsch 
(Ann. Hydr. u. Marit. Meteor. 1905, Pl. 6, Figs. 6—8) make this assumption still more 


probable. 

Opn cite eur 

The bottles had for days been washed out i hot water, before they were sent, and 
the patent stoppers prevented all possibility of evaporation. As, however, Makaroff did not 


a 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 


51 


gravity of the samples thus taken was caretully determined by Mr, Jakob 
Schetelig with the Hydrometer of Total Immersion. The salinity was 
determined by Mr. Leivestad, by Titration (Mohr). The values obtained 
by the two methods agree on the whole very well, as is seen in the 
Table below. Makaroff’s values thus obtained, may consequently be 
assumed to be very accurate, and are in several respects important!. 
The results of the determinations of the samples from this part of the 


sea are therefore here given in detail. 


S °/oo 
oO 
Depth|| Tempe- e - 
Station and Locality in rature |PY Hydro- by by oF 
Metres|| 21 sitee || Meter of || Hydrom. Titra- A 
Tot.Imm. |} of Tot. . 
tion | 
Imm. | 
ie HL : een a =— _tl 
Stat. 77, Aug. 15, 1901 || fo) ern” ©,l\| AyPRE | 33°986 34°03 +0'044|| 27°29 
78° 21/ N, Lat. I ros or | +385 980) | IT | + <0gZ0|| —-=39 
Oleers. EH) Long. | 25} —ré ,| 613 366u0) ease |) oral 68 
| Bo) ||| Sree) 784 574 oo} || SE Korore 86 
100 || —1'9 ,, 838 646 66 | + o14| gt 
Gf) |] Key 876 693 7 + ‘O17 92 
200 (Ghig) "990 |) 83 185) eet kOZO)) 99 
AGN Ole ps 281023 883 88 | — ‘003|| 28:04 
Stat. 78, Aug. 15, 1901 AG || org? Al) PaAoins' 34°368 | 34°39 | +0°022]] 27°58 
79° 4'N. 61° 17'E 
Stat. 82, Aug. 16, 1901 TO || --0'5° C.|| 27°300 33°97 34°03 +0°060 | 27°32 
80° 26' N. Lat. We 2edeoro: .| "570 34°31 ey || SE Qoxyoy| 61 
64° 14 E. Long. Go stew 5 2705.0) 55 60 | +. 050) "86 
1OO)||——=te70 833 | 636 63 | — 006] 89 
200 || —O'790  , 933 | "763 1Ot o 003 | ‘975 
Stat. 83, Aug. 16, 1901|| 250 || o6 ,,|/ 28°055 | 34912 | 34°92 | +0°'008 || 28-021 
Ron a5) IN. Wat. | 300 OF) 065 || "924 ‘93 | + ‘006|| 025 
65° 9 E. Long. 350 OPE 4 ‘063 | "g21 "95 | + 029) ‘035 


Makaroff’s Stations 77, and 83 are evidently in the channel or de- 
pression communicating with the North Polar Basin? (see Fig. 1, p. 24). 


Here at depths about or greater than 200 metres, there is warm water 


trust these simple green bottles, he also sent some other samples, taken simultaneously, 
in very fine glass-bottles with glass-stoppers; but these samples gave all of them higher 
salinities, indicating that evaporation had taken place. 

1 Cf. N. Knipowitsch, Ann. der Hydr. u. Marit. Meteorologie, 1905 (Reprint p. 27); 
and Revue Internationale de Péche et de Pisciculture, 1903, No. 2—3. 

2 Gf. Knipowitsch, Ann. Hydr. etc., 1905, pp. 254—255.- 


52 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


of exactly the same kind as was found during the Fram Expedition in 
the North Polar Basin, and the salinities are not much below the values 
obtained for similar depths in the latter, by a revision of the observations 
(see below, last chapter)1, The upper boundary of the water with temperatures 
above zero, seems to be in about 200 metres at Makaroff’s Stat. 77, and 
at similar depths at his Stations 84 (where it is somewhat higher), 83 Jd2s, 
and 83 (where it was somewhat lower)2. This corresponds remarkably well 
with the conditions in the North Polar Basin, where the isotherm for 
o° C, is in depths about 200 metres (between 165 and 240 metres)*. The 
sections through Makaroff’s stations, published by Dr. Knipowitsch, 
show a remarkable feature. The warm intermediate or bottom-water, 
with temperatures above zero, is only found at Stations 77 and 84 (see Fig. 1, 
M77, M84, p. 24), on the northern side of the submarine valley coming 
from the northwest, whilst at Makaroff’s Stations 7 and 85 (Fig. 1, 17 7, W@ 85) 
on the southern side of this valley there is much colder water (see maps, 
Pl. III), At Station 7 there is a maximum, with temperature above 
—1°C., between 130 and 225 metres4 (see map for 200 metres PI. III), 
The explanation obviously is, that there is here a kind of cyclonic 
movement; warm water at depths greater than 200 metres on the 
northern side of the channel could not be thus limited to one side only, 
unless in movement southwestwards along the northern slope of the 
channel. The cold water of the southern slope (Pl. Ill) is moving in 


‘ For comparison may also here be added the determinations of some samples brought 
home by Dr. Blessing from Fram-Stat. 24. As to the trustworthyness of these 
samples see below (last chapter). 


S oo 5 af. 
Depth eek acaaete Less trust- 
5 | rature Determina- 
im Metres)|\) sca E ; worthy Deter- t 
m situ tions with eS 
Py minations 
'ycnometer 
Stat. 24, of the Fram- 150 STAG 34°42 27°68 
Expedition Nov. 30 and 200 oll 34°74 27°91 
Dec. 2, 1895 250 0°57 34°88 28:00 
85° 28' N. Lat. 450 0°73 34°96* 28-05 
58° 45' E. Long. 550 0°55 34°96* 28°06 
800 O15 34°99 2811 
850 —o'ol 35°01 28°14 
goo —o'o4 34°97 28°11 


The salinities marked with an asterisk, for 450 and 550 metres, are taken from 
Dr. Blessing’s observations with the hydrometer, as they are more trustworthy than 
those taken by Dr. Heidenreich with Pycnometer (see Oceonography- of N. P. 
Basin, p. 213). The values of salinity are computed by Knudsen’s Tables. 
2 Cf. Knipowitsch, Joc. cit. Pl. 6, Figs. 7, 8. 
3 See Oceanography of N. P. Basin, Pl. XV. 
“ Gf. Knipowitsch, Joc. cit. Pl. 6, Fig. 7. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 53 


the opposite direction, perhaps coming from the Barents Sea; and both 
waters are deflected against the slopes by the Earth’s rotation. The 
water with a maximum above —1° C. at Makaroff’s Station 7, is probably 
the same kind of water which is seen at Makaroff’s Stat. 67 (Fig. 1), at 
about 100 metres, with a maximum about o° C. (PI. II). This water is 
obviously a branch from the warm intermediate water found at Breit- 
fuss’s Stations 60, 61, and 62, in his section to the southwest! (see Fig. 2, 
p. 26). This water is probably moving northeastwards along the right- 
hand side of the valley, being more and more cooled on the way by 
intermixture with the surrounding colder water. It is seen that this 
warm water is lying higher, about 100 metres, than the warm inter- 
mediate water of the North Polar Basin. At Stat. 7 it has nearly 
disappeared (see map for 100 metres Pl. II, and for 200 metres PI. III) 
and the maximum has been lowered to greater depths, as the upper 
part of the warm water has been more cooled by intermixture with the 
overlying cold waters. 

It is a remarkable fact that in the northern part of Makaroff’s most 
western section in this region, published by Knipowitsch?, there are 
also traces of the intermediate warm water of the North Polar Basin, 
but the temperature of this water is here lowered to between —o'3 and 
--0'8° C. It forms a bottom-layer at the Stations 61, 62 and 66 (see 
Fig. 1, M 61, M 62, M 66, p. 24) which, however, in this enclosed 
submarine valley®, has no very open communication with the warmer 
water of the submarine valley to the east (Stats. 77 and 84), and from 
which it may possibly be separated by a ridge preventing the warmest 
water of the latter stations from flowing westwards. It is, however, 
noteworthy that also in this section the warmer bottom-water does only 
occur in the northern part of the section, and is distinctly separated 
from the intermediate warm water coming from the Barents Sea, in the 
southern part, which rests on very cold bottom-water with tempera- 
tures below —1°5° C. The latter may probably be moving along the 
slope northeastwards. It is very unfortunate that no samples of this 


cold bottom-water were brougth home, and its salinity is therefore 


' There is probably a ridge between the depression of Breitfuss’s section and that of 
Makaroff’s Stats. 67 and 60, which prevents the warm water, below 200 metres, from 
flowing northeastwards. 

orci ble 6, Kiss 6: 

* It may also be possible that this valley communicates with the North Polar Basin to 
the north through a channel southwest of Franz Josef Land, and that the warmer bottom- 


water has come that way, being gradually cooled by intermixture with colder water. 


54 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


unknown. But it does not seem improbable that it is of the same kind 
as the cold bottom-water of the northeastern Barents Sea, perhaps similar 
to that of the northern coastal shelf of Novaya Zemlya. It may there- 
fore be possibly that bottom-water of this kind may sink along the 
bottom into the deep North Polar Basin. 

Another question is whether cold bottom-water may actually be 
formed by vertical circulation in this same region during the winter > 

Makaroff’s overlying cold water-stratum between 0 and 200 metres 
(Stats. 77, 78, 82) has, on the whole, a much higher salinity than it has 
farther north, in the North Polar Basin, and also higher than at Amund- 
sen’s Station 24 and 25 in the northwestern Barents Sea. This may be 
due to the fact that Makaroff’s Stations are in the region which recieves 
water from the Atlantic Current of the Barents Seat. During the 
winter and spring the salinity of this overlying water may be still more 
increased by the formation of ice, and by the vertical circulation caused 
by radiation of heat from the surface during the long winter. As the 
salinities are so much higher than in the North Polar Basin, the vertical 
circulation may go much deeper than was found to be the case on the 
Fram Expedition. But still it seems hardly probable that it should be 
able to penetrate the thick upper layer, with low salinities, at Makaroff’s 
Stats. 77 and 82, in an open sea where there is probably a fairly rapid 
horizontal circulation. The question still remains open, however, whether 
in the region nearer Novaya Zemlya there may not be higher salinities 
near the sea-surface, at least sometimes during the winter, especially if 
there be little horizontal circulation, and the sea be shallow, an exessive 
ice-formation with heavy ice-pressures may there produce bottom-water 
of comparatively high salinity (above 35:0 °/o0) and temperatures about 
—1°C. (or —o'9°C.) like that of the North Polar Basin. It was seen above 
that very cold bottom-water with high salinity is formed under similar 
conditions in the eastern and northeastern Barents Sea, although the 
same region of the sea was always covered with thick surface-layers of 
low salinity, between 33°0 and 34°5 oc, whenever it has been examined 
in the summer. 

It is a very important fact that according to the observations 
of Captein Stokken of the Capella, there was comparatively warm 
surface water with salinities of as much as 34°50 and even 34°60 %00, 
in July, 1go1, in the very region of Makaroff’s Stats. 60 and 61, 


1 See Knipowitsch, Aun. Hydr. u. Marit. Meteor, 1905, Pl. 7. See also the surface 
observations of Capt. Stokken, of the Capella, July, roor, Pl. I. 


1906. No. 3. 


AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 


= 


Pl. J). 


between 77 and 79 N. Lat. and between 49 and 54° E. Long. (see 


If water with a salinity of 34°58°/00 be cooled down to its 


freezing-point it will get a density of about 27°86. 


Polar Surface Water of Northern Barents Sea. 


Amundsen’s Stations 24 and 25 (Table II), between King Charles Land 
and Northeast Land (Spitsbergen) and south of King Charles Land, are in- 
teresting because they show that this part of the Barents Sea is covered 


“by a surface layer of cold polar water which is very similar to that of 


the North Polar Basin, except that the salinities at Amundsen’s stations 


were on the whole higher. 


Below are the observations at one of the 


stations taken during the drift of the Fram across the North Polar 


Basin (Stat. 23) for comparison with Amundsen’s station. 


The Fram 


salinities have been recalculated by means of Knudsens Tables from 


Blessing’s determinations with the hydrometer. 


parison are determinations for one of the Russian stations (Stat. 3 


Also included for com- 


2) 


from the cruise in August 1902, and Makaroff’s two Stations 77 and 82. 


Russian | 
Depth = Sy Sze 23 Amundsen’s | Amundsen’s Stat. 32 se ie | ee ere 
: July 31, 1895 = Makaroff’s | Makaroft’s 
m 84° 28! N. Lat Stat. 24 Stat. 25 | Aug. 1902 ees 
Metres. | “4 6'E. Long (Aue 20, r901|Aug. 27,1901, 75° 27/E. Lat.| Stat. 77 Stat. 82 
TRS) : g: 143° 45’ E. Long. 
Cris nae Cs Tea eaC: 271°C, | Onion @ 
oO ‘ i 
3153 “loo | 33°03 “foo| 33°69 “/oo] 33°91 “foo | 33°98 */oo | 
meT7O° e 0°22 (Cc | 
20 / cS) | 
32°18 ®/o4 | 3407 °/oo | | 
25 —1'16° C, Crug C; || Sorqe? |) See || kos (C- 
ae | > | 5 Fe tens 
34°28 “fog | 33°95 “loo| 34°38 “/oo | 34°36 “loo | 34°31 “loo 
Sees (C. | 563°C | | 
40 5 Sane | | | 
Boe 2 eco || S4i43!-/oc | | | 
eS SOG PC see 197 Cx |) —1:7° .C 
. oO; F ° Pray AAe 
34 21 loo 34 69 hse | 34°57 Silae 34 56 Chee 
ie (oF =1:94° 1G, | —1-17°_C: | 
60 = J 
33°79 “foo | 34°50 °/49| 34°31 “/o 
80 —1'86° C. | —1-92° C, = 25° C. 
34°03 °/o, B44. ee) 34237 los | ; 
foo —1'78° C. ETE SOcEG = 135" C. | Sine C | Dols C. : oe ee 
34°22 Ise 34°53 ee 34°31 Hee 34°81 ees 34°05 eal 34 63 loo 
== IRC? C, | 
120 BI ig | 
34°29 °/o0 | | 
| 
125 —1'51° C | | 
34°59 “loo | 
=A Sc |C. 
140 
“ 34°32 oo | 
150 —1°79° C. | | —1'0° C, | 
34°61 Hes | | 347° Shes 
on =O (C. | | 


BAIOS dine 


56 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


Amundsen’s salinities lie between those of the North Polar Basin, 
and those at the Russian Station in the Barents Sea to the southeast 
as well as those of Makaroff’s Stations to the east. It seems probable 
that Amundsen has been in Polar water coming from the northeast 
through the strait between the Franz Josef Archipelago and Spitsbergen. 
The salinity of this Polar water is gradually increased on the way 
southwards by intermixture with southern waters of higher salinity. 


Ut 
™N 


1906. No. 3: AMUNDSEN S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 


V. The Waters of the Northern Norwegian Sea and the 
East Greenland Polar Current. 


Capt. Amundsen’s observations at the eleven Stations (13—23, 
Table II) in the sea north of Jan Mayen and east of Greenland, are espe- 
cially valuable; for they present very graphically the manner of formation of 
the Bottom Water in the Norwegian Sea. This water fills the whole basin 
everywhere below a depth of, say at least 1000 metres; it forms 
at least two thirds of its bulk of water. During the cruise with the 
Michael Sars in 1900 it was discovered that this bottom-water has a 
remarkably uniform salinity varying slightly between 34°89 and 34:92 
or 34°93 "/oo!. Its temperature varies slightly between —1's and 
—13°C. in the deepest strata near the bottom, an rises extremely slowly 
upwards into the higher strata. It has generally been assumed that this 
cold bottom-water was of Polar origin and derived from the East Green- 
land Polar Current. On an earlier occasion? the writer has already 
pointed out that observations prove that this cannot be the case; this 
bottom-water must be formed on the surface of the sea in the very 
region of Amundsen’s Stations, and in fact by cooling of the water 
through radiation during the winter. 

This is clearly seen, if Amundsen’s observations be compared with 
those of other expedition in neighbouring regions. Unfortunately no 
other deep-sea observations were taken in these tracts during the summer 
of 1go1, and it is, therefore, necessary to use those taken during earlier 
years, by various expeditions, As the distribution of temperature and 
salinity may no doubt vary much from one year to another, it cannot 
be expected that a very accurate picture of the distribution at a particular 
moment will be obtained by comparing observations from different years; 
but still it may be assumed that certain well marked and general features, 


of both vertical and horizontal distribution, prevail in most years, and it 


! As was already mentioned above, p. 12, it makes a difference whether the salinity of 
this bottom-water be computed from the Specific Gravity, or from the amount of 
Chlorine, (as found by Titration). 

2 F. Nansen, Oceanography of the North Polar Basin. The Norwegian North Polar 
Expedition 1893—1896. Scientific Results, Vol. Ill, No. 9, 1902, p. 416. 


58 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


is probable that these features may be made out by studying critically — 
the material at hand. 

The following expeditions have made observations which may be 
valuable from this point of view. 

The Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition, on board the Voéringen 
took a great many Stations in the region east and northeast of Amund- 
sen’s Stations, in July and August, 1878. The temperatures, given by 
Prof. Mohn! seem to be fairly trustworthy wherever they have been 
gradually decreasing from the surface downwards, but where, in the 
upper water-strata, a warmer layer has been placed under a colder one, 
a feature very characteristic for Artic waters, the instruments used have 
not given trustworthy results, and frequently have even failed to indi- 
cate the excistence of such warm layers, which are now known to exist. 
The reversing apparatus used, a wooden case, did not give the Negretti 
and Zambra thermometers a sufficient time for assuming the correct 
temperature, since the instruments were frequently reversed as soon as 
they reached their proper depth, and the readings obtained were therefore 
more or less due to the temperature of water-strata through which the 
thermometers had passed on their way down, and not so much the 
actual temperature at the depth recorded. The other thermometers used 
during the expedition have evidently not been suitable for measuring 
accurately the temperatures of such intermediate warm  water-strata. 
Mohn’s curves, representing the vertical distribution of temperature, 
have, at many Arctic Stations (¢. g. Stations 226, 297, 298, 300, 304, 
350, 351, 352), indications of the typical warmer water-stratum under- 
lying the cold Polar layer near the surface, but it must be assumed that 
the temperatures of this particular warm stratum are in most cases too 
low. It is therefore often somewhat difficult to use the temperatures for 
comparasion with more accurate observations. The salznzties or specific 
gravities obtained for deeper water-strata during this expedition, are not 
sufficiently trustworthy for the present purpose, 

Captain C. Ryder?, on board the Hek/a, took in July 1891, a 
series of very important Stations (R VIII—R XIII, Pl. V), across the 
East Greenland Polar Current, north of Amundsen’s Stations. Ryder’s 
temperatures were taken with Negretti and Zambra Reversing Thermo- 


meters, and are evidently fairly good. But the values af salinity are not 


‘ H. Mohn, The North Ocean. its Depths, Temperature and Circulation, The Norwegian 
North- Atlantic Expedition, t876—1878, Christiania, 1887. 

2 C. Ryder, Den Ostgrgnlandske Expedition, 1891—92, Meddelelser om Grenland, vol. 
XVII, Copenhagen, 1895, pp. 189 ef seq. 


fi 


- 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 


Sy 


trustworthy, for on the one hand the determinations by Mr. K. Rérdam 
of specific gravity and chlorine are obviously very inaccurate!, and on 
the other hand the water-bottle used, has obviously not closed tightly. 

The Danish Ingolf Expedition in 1895—1896 made some very 
valuable oceanographic work in the waters round Iceland, and between 
Iceland and Jan Mayen?, which have been used for constructing the 
oceanographic charts (PI. V) of this part of the sea. The temperatures 
were taken with Reversing Thermometers from Negretti and Zambra, 
and also by some of Knudsen’s own construction, The thermometers 
were carefully controled, and the temperatures appear to be very trust- 
worthy. The salinities obtained during this expedition are, however, 
not sufficiently accurate for the present purpose. There are sometimes great 
irregularities in the series, which are evidently erronous; they must 
probably be ascribed to the water-bottle (Sigsbee Water-Bottle) which 
has not been reliable; in this manner the much too low salinities may in 
many cases, be explained. But the salinities are frequently also too 
high, as is best seen where samples have been taken from the deep cold 
strata which in many cases gets a much too high salinity, even after 
the values bave been reduced by o'05 °/,, in order to make them com- 
parable with those of M. Knudsens Tables. 

At the request of O. Pettersson and G. Ekman, Professor S, 
Arrhenius took, on board the Virgo of the Andrée Expedition, a 
series of Stations (Arr. I—VI, Pl. V) west of Northern Spitsbergen. The 
water-samples as well as the temperatures were taken with a Pettersson 
Insulated Water-Bottle. The results of the observations are described 
by O. Pettersson and G. Ekman?. The thermometer was inserted 
after the bottle came up, which is apt to make the determinations of 
temperature inaccurate, and besides, the insulation of the water-bottle 
has not been sufficient for the greater depths, or the releasing arrange- 
ment of the water-bottle has not worked properly; for the temperatures 
obtained, are very improbable in several cases, especially for 850 metres 
(Stats. IV and VI). The salinities are also somewhat irregular and 


obviously erronous in several cases. According to the values of tempe- 


! Cf. Nansen, Oceanography of N. P. Basin, p. 407. 

2 Martin Knudsen, Hydrography, Danish Ingolf-Expedition, vol. 1, No. 2, Copenhagen, 
1808. 

3.0. Pettersson, G. Ekman, and P. T. Cleve, Die Hydrographischen Verhaltnisse 
der oberen Wasserschichten des Nordlichen Nordmeeres zwischen Spitzbergen, Gron- 
land und der Norwegischen Kiiste, 1896 und 1897, Bihang till K. Svenska Vet.-Akad 
Handlingar, vol. 23, Sect. II, No. 4, Stockholm, 1898. 


60 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. Kl. 


ratures and salinities given, heavier water should frequently have been 
placed on top of much lighter strata; but it is often impossible to decide 
whether the errors are chiefly due to errors in the temperature or in the 
salinity!. The values of the latter have been determined from the 
amount of chlorine per litre, and have to be reduced by about 0°07 °/o? 
to be comparable to the salinities found from Knudsen’s Tables. The 
highest salinity obtained at Arrhenius’s Stations was 35°22 °/,, (originally 
35°29 0/9), at 400 metres (Stat. IV), but this is evidently eronous, if the 
temperature of 246°C. given for the same depth be correct. For the 
density of that water-stratum would then have been 28°14, and much 
heavier than all underlying waters, If the temperature be correct the 
salinity must have been less than 35°17 %/o9, but if the salinity be cor- 
rect, which is improbable, the temperature must have been above 3° C. 

The Nathorst Expedition to East Greenland took, in June and 
July, 1899, a few Stations (V VI—W IX, Pl. V), in the region be- 
tween Amundsen’s Stations (20 and 1g), and the Greenland coast. 
The results are described by Mr, Filip Akerblom4, the oceano- 
grapher of the expedition. The temperatures were taken usually by a 
Pettersson Insulated Water-Bottle of the old form. The thermometer 
was inserted after the bottle came on deck and cannot therefore be 
expected to give perfectly accurate temperatures; but as the depths were 
not great these temperatures may be expected to be very satisfactory. 
For depths greater than 500 metres reversing thermometers were used, 
the accuracy of which were inside the limits of o-1° C., according to 
repeated experiments. The salinities given by Akerblom appear, however, 
to be less trustworthy. Akerblom gives in his tables the amount of 
chlorine per litre at 15° C., but he says that salinities are computed 


' The latter errors may have been due to evaporation of water through the cork-stoppers 
of the sample bottles on the way home. 

* Mr. B. Helland-Hansen informs the writer that values of salinity computed from the 
amount of Chlorine by means of the tables formerly used in O. Pettersson’s labora- 
tory, are about 0°08 or o’og 9/9, higher than those obtained by Knudsen’s Tables. If 
however the salinity be computed from the permillage of Chlorine (per tooo grams 
seawater) by means of the factor 1°809 the value obtained will be nearly 0.05 °/9, 
higher than that obtained by Knudsen’s Tables. A reduction of 0o'07 °/99 aS a mean 
between the two, has here been employed. 

3 Pettersson himself does not seem to be aware of this fact as he has recently com- 
pared the old values of salinities from Arrhenius’s Stations with those found in the 
North Polar Basin. He reduced the latter salinities but does not reduce the former 
(see Geograph. Journal., London, vol. XXIV, 1904, p. 316). 

“ Filip Akerblom, Recherches Océanographiques. Expedition de M. A. G. Nathorst 
in 1899. Upsala Universitets Arsskrift 1903. Matematik och Naturvetenskap, II, No, 1, 
Upsala, 1904. 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 61 


according to Martin Knudsen’s tables. On the whole he seems to have 
got somewhat high salinities, but it is difficult to decide how much his 
values ought to be reduced. If his salinities found for the bottom-water 
of the Norwegian Sea, be taken it is found that his errors vary much, 
as the following examples will demonstrate. It is known now that the 
bottom-water with a temperature of about —1°C. has a salinity of about 
34'92 /,, and 34°93 /,). If the latter value be assumed as the upper 
limit, the following minimum errors for Akerblom’s determinations of 
the bottom-water will be obtained. 


| 
v i | Hoth inimum 
ee ee Temperature | Salinity ue 
| 
II 667 —r1'o°C, 34°97 °/oo | + 0°04 °/o0 
Ill 1916 Sir 34°96 , + 0'03 , 
W 2000 —o'9 34°94 —OIOla,, 
VI 500 —1'3 |) @GHoRe +0108) ,, 
Via TOAGEe | O13 a5 10m, | + 0'23 |, 


The probability seems to be that, at least, some of those errors are 
due to evaporation through the cork-stoppers of the glass-bottles in 
which the water-samples were brought home. The values 34°97 and 
34°99 %/o, for the salinity at 100 and 150 metres, Stat. V VI (see Sect. Walls 
Pl. VIII) and at 200 and 270 metres, Stat. V VII (see Sects. V and VII, 
Pls. VII, IX) are obviously also too high, and have to be reduced by 
perhaps about 0°06 or 0°08 °/,. 

Captain G. Amdrup! took in June and July, 1900, three Stations 
(Ap U—Ap IV, Pl. V) between Jan Mayen and Greenland. Both 
temperatures and salinities were taken with a Pettersson Insulated Water- 
Bottle of the old patern at Stations II and III, and partly Station IV. 
As the temperatures were taken by means of a thermometer which was 
inserted after the water-bottle came on deck, they cannot be very ac- 
curate, but they, as well as the salinities, are evidently very good. The 
values of the salinity are, however, obviously somewhat too high, on the 
whole, and give too high densities, if the be compared with those of 
Amundsen’s Stations. The densities of the deepest water-strata at his 
Stat. II, northwest of Jan Mayen, are also too high, if they be compared 
with those of the Michael Sars, taken in the neighbourhood in the same 
emmmerisee Sect. IX; Pl. XxX), At his Stat. IIl.(see Sects. IV, VI, VII) 


Amdrup has obtained samples from the typical bottom-water with 


1 G. Amdrup, Carlsbergfondets Expedition til @st-Gronland, 1898—1900, Meddelelser 
om Gronland, vol. XXVII, Copenhagen, 1902, pp. 345—349. 


62 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


temperatures below zero centigrade (at 200, 220, and 250 metres) but 
his salinities are obviously about 0704 9/,,, too high; they have here been 
reduced accordingly, and the values thus obtained agree very well with 
those of Amundsen’s Stations. At Station IV, Amdrup also used a 
Sigsbee Water-Bottle and a reversing thermometer; but he himself points 
out that these instruments have possibly not worked satisfactorily; both 
temperatures and salinities seem improbable, which is also indicated by 
the densities; it was therefore thought advisable to leave these observa- 
tions out of consideration. 

During the Kolthoff Expedition, on board the Fyrithjof, to the 
East Greenland Coast, Mr. Ostergren! took, in July 1900, two 
interesting Stations ( I and F II, Pl. V) with deep-sea observations to 
the north of Jan Mayen and between Spitsbergen and Greenland. The 
temperatures were taken with a Pettersson-Nansen Insulated Water-Bottle, 
of the first model made by L. M, Ericsson & Co. in Stockholm, in 1900; 
but without the Nansen Deep-Sea Thermometer. The temperature readings 
were taken by a thermometer inserted after the water-bottle came on 
deck, which prejudices the accuracy of the observations, Nor is it stated 
whether any correction has been introduced for the reduction of temperature 
caused by alteration of pressure. It is stated that the bottle was hauled 
up with a velocity of 1000 metres in 10 or 15 minuter. But if it has 
taken as much as 30 minuter or more to haul the bottle up from 2000 
or 3000 metres, the readings obtained cannot be trustworthy, as experi- 
ments have proved that the insulation of the bottle is not sufficient to 
keep the temperature-readings unaltered for such a long time, It is 
thus seen that the temperatures cannot be very accurate, at all events 
from the deep strata. The readings may farthermore have been too low 
owing to cooling by expansion of the water and the solid parts of the 
water-bottle (especially the india-rubber), on hauling up from great 
depths. Is seems, however, more probable that they have been too 
high, owing to deficient insulation during the long period the bottle was 
being hauled up, and owing to the insertion of the thermometer after 
the bottle had come up on deck. It may therefore be expected that 
the temperature of —1°23° C. at 3100 metres, at Station I (77° 11’ N. 
Lat., 0° 55’ W. Long.) is somewhat too high, in spite of the considerable 
cooling caused by hauling the instrumant up from this depth, 

Much worse than the inaccuracies of the deep-sea temperatures thus 


caused, is, however, the fact that the water-bottle has not worked properly 


1 ©. Pettersson and Hj. Ostergren, Vattenprof tagna under ‘‘rg900 Ars Svenska 
Zoologiska Expedition”, Yimer, vol. XX, Stockholm, 1901, pp. 325—329. 


—" 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901, 03 


at Station II, the releasing propeller having obviously not functioned at 
the desired depths. During the first cruise of the ‘‘Michael Sars” in the 
same summer, 1900, there were on board several water-bottles and among 
them two instruments of exactly the same form as that used by Oster- 
gren, and made simultaneously by the firm L. M. Ericsson in Stock- 
holm. The bottles were closed by a releasing propeller; but it was 
found that the propeller very often failed to release and close the bottle 
at the desired moment, especially at great depths; a fault which was 
afterwards remidied, and does not occur with bottles of the newer 
pattern. Ostergren has evidently had exactly the same experience 
with his water-bottle of this same make (at Station II) without 
noticing it. His temperatures for 1000 and 2000 metres (see Section IX) 
are much too high!; the temperature and salinity as given for 1000 
metres indicate that the bottle has on that occasion been closed some- 
where between 500 and 700 metres, where there was also a salinity 
similar to that of the bottom-water. The salinity optained from 2000 
metres is impossible, and indicates that the bottle has probably been 
closed at a depth of about 90 metres instead of 2000 metres. According 
to the list of observations, which Prof. Pettersson kindly sent me, another 
observation was also taken at 1500 metres, which, however, gave a 
temperature of o0°28° C., indicating that the bottle had been closed 
somewhere in the intermediate warm water-stratum. The authors left 
out this observation in their published Table. It is consequently seen 
that at this Station the water-bottle has probably worked properly down 
to 700 metres, but below this depth no observations taken are trust- 
worthy. 

The salinities published by Pettersson and Ostergren are evidently 
computed according to Pettersson’s former method, and are consequently 
higher than those obtained by Knudsen’s Tables. The difference is some- 
what higher than might be expected. ‘lo judge from the salinities given 
of the cold bottom-water at both Stations, which are very uniform, the 


salinities are evidently about 0°10 °/,, too high and have therefore here 


! According to the observations published, Ostergren already found the typical bottom- 
water of the Norwegian Sea at 7oo0 metres, with a temperature about —o0’5° C. and a 
salinity about 34°93 °/),, and at this depth the water-bottle has probably closed 
properly. But if so, it is impossible that the temperature could have been higher 
at 1000 and 2000 metres but the salinity evidently very nearly the same; such 
conditions are against physical laws, and are found nowhere in the bottom-water of the 
Norwegian Sea. It is of course possible that in the deepest hollows of the basin there 
might be a slight rise of temperature towards the bottom, owing to the uuderground 
heat of the lithosphere. 


64 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


been reduced accordingly, and the densities were calculated from the values 
as thus obtained, which give very probable results. 


During a cruise with the Mzchael Sars, under Dr. J. Hjort, in 


1900, which Helland-Hansen and the writer joined as oceanographers, 
several Stations (47 16—M 47, Pl. V), between Iceland and Jan Mayen 
and east of the latter, were taken in August, 19001. The temperatures 
were determined by an insulated water-bottle of the writers construction, 
provided with fixed deep-sea thermometer; temperatures were also 
determined by some specially constructed Negretti and Zambra Re- 
versing Thermometers divided into tenths of degrees Centigrade. The 
thermometer-readings have been carefully corrected, for instrumental 
errors, zero-correction, alterations due to pressure, etc., and may be ac- 
cepted as the most accurate observations hitherto made in these regions, 
The water-samples were to a great extent taken in Soda Water bottles, 
containing 600 cubiccentimetres, and closed with patent india-rubber 
stoppers. The determinations of salinity were made with the Hydro- 
meter of Total Immersion, and by Titration. The determinations, 
especially the former, are very accurate; but the salinities obtained 
by titrations, have a tendency to be somewhat too high, evidently owing 
to some slight evaporation through the cork-stoppers of the glass-bottles 
which were employed to contain the small samples (of 100 ccm.), taken 
for titration. It is probable that Amundsen’s samples have been more 
trustworthy in this respect, as they were greater (150 ccm.) and were more 
carefully closed. His comparatively low values of the amount of Clorine in 
the bottom-water (giving salinities between 34°90 and 34°92 /o9) may there- 
fore be considered as more accurate than those of the above titrations. 

The Stations of the various Expeditions have been introduced on 
the chart Pl. V, Fig. 1. The observations at these Stations have been 
used for the construction of the maps (Pl V) showing the horizontal 
Distribution of Temperature, Salinity, and Density in the northern Nor- 
wegian Sea at 0, 50, 100, 200, 300, and 400 metres, chiefly in the 
months between June and August. Besides the Expeditions mentioned 
above, the observations of the following Expeditions have also been 
used for these maps: 

Expedition of the Mzchael Sars in February and March, 1901 
{between Norway and Bear Island), in April to July 1901 (between 


' Cf. Helland-Hansen and Nansen, The Physical Oceanography of the Norwegian 
Sea, Report on Norwegian Fishery and Marine Investigations, vol Il, No. 2. See also 
F. Nansen, Some Oceanographical Results of the Expedition with the Michael Sars 
1900, Nyt Mag. for Naturvidenskaberne, vol. 39, Christiania, 1901, pp. 129—161. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 65 


Norway and Spitsbergen), in February 1903 (between Norway and Jan 
Mayen); 

Expedition of Capt. C. Ryder in June, 1891, and Aug. 1892 (bet- 
ween Greenland, Iceland, and Jan Mayen); 

Expedition of Admiral Makaroff, on board the ‘Yermak” in June 
and August, 1899 (Bear Island and Spitsbergen); 

Expedition of Dr. Knipowitsch July and October, 1go1 (Barents 
Sea, and between Norway and Bear Island); 

Expedition of Dr. Breitfuss in August and October, 1902 (Ba- 
rents Sea). 

In order to illustrate the vertical distribution of Temperature, Sali- 
nity, and Density in the region of Amundsen’s Stations 13—23, Sections 
IV—X (Pls. VI—XI) have been constructed. 


Vertical and Horizontal Distribution of Temperature and Salinity in the 


Region of Amundsen’s Stations 13—23. 


The sections in connection with the maps (Pl. V) give a very clear 
picture of the vertical and horizontal distribution of temperature, salinity, 
and density in this northern region. The oceanographic conditions of 
the region of Amundsen’s Stations are seen to be in several respects 
strikingly different from those of the surrounding regions, with the ex- 
ception of the Stations 302, 303, and 304 of the Norwegian North 
Atlantic Expedition 1878, (see Section IV, Pl. VI) where there have 
evidently been much the same conditions}. 

In Amundsen’s region the isotherm of —1° C, of the bottom-water 
(having a salinity of about 34;90—34"92 °/oo) rises to within a very short 
distance below the water-surface, especially in the eastern central part 
of it — about Stations 13, 14, 15 and 16 (see especially Section IX, 
Pl, X, and also Sections IV and V), The reason why the isotherm rises 
so high especially at these Stations, is evidently to some extent because 
they were taken earlier in the season (in June) than the others, and the 


cold heavy water had not yet sunk to the depth reached later, in July. 


1 There has probably been no intermediate warm water-stratum at these Stations, the 
temperatures have continuously decreased downwards as at some of Amundsen’s Sta- 
tions, and under these circumstances Mohn’s thermometers have probably given fairly 
trustworthy readings. The tollowing thermometers were used at these stations: four 

| Miller-Casella Deep-Sea (maximum and minimum) Thermometers, one Buchanan Mercury 
Piezometer, two Casella-Buchanan Thermometers, and one Negretti and Zambra Re- 
versing Thermometer. 


Vid.-Selsk. Skrifter. I. M.-N. Kl. 1906. No. 3. 5 


66 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI]. 


Stat. 23 (July 11 and 12) was, for instance, taken more than three weeks 
later than the first Station in this region, Stat. 13 (June 19). 

At Stat. 14 (June 20, Table II) there was found already at 80 metres 
water with a temperature of —1'25° C., a salinity of 3487/00, and a 
density of 28°07 (or very nearly the same characters as the bottom-water), 
and this is the place amongst Amundsen’s Stations where the cold 
bottom-water comes nearest to the surface!, The isotherm of —1° C. 
rose to about 50 metres, where there was a salinity of 34.83 oo. Station 
21 is very nearly at the same spot (about 10 kilometres further west), © 
but was taken nineteen days later (on July 8). The isotherm of —1° C. 
had then sunk to 150 metres (see Section IX, Pl. X), the temperature 
was gradually decreasing downwards and there was only a slight indica- 
tion of an upper minimum at 60 metres, the temperature (—o'82° C.) 
being nearly the same as at 100 metres (—o°83° C,). 

At Stat. 16 (Sect. IX) there was indications of an upper minimum 
(—105 to —1‘11° C,) between 60 and 150 metres, but the salinity 
(34 88 and 34°90 °/oo) was very nearly that of the bottom-water, and there 
is no distinct separation of the one layer from the other. 

At Mohn’s Stations 302 and 303 (June 19, 1878) the isotherm of 
—1° C. also rises very near the water-surface (to about 50 metres below 
it) and here even the isotherm of —1°2° C. seems to rise very high, to 
about 150 metres below the water-surface (Section IV, Pl. VI). 

But outside the region of Amundsen’s Stations and the above 
Stations of Mohn, the isotherms of —1° C. and —1-2° C. slope steeply 
off towards all sides, both east and west (Sects. IV and V) and south 
and north (Sects, VIII and IX), A section through Amundsen’s southern 
Stations (Sect. VI) gives a very low situation to the isotherm of —1° C.; 
and in Sect. VII, farther south, the isotherm of —1° C. has sunk 
almost beyond sight. 


1 At Station 13, there was a temperature of —1'r5° C. already at 25 metres, but the 
salinity was only 34°38°/,, and the density 27°68. This is evidently water from the 
Polar Current. At 50 metres there is a minimum of —1°37° C., and 34°81 °/,., with a 
density of 28°04; and here there is some approach to the nature of bottom-water. It 
seems as if the water at this depth was slightly heavier than the water at 100 metres, 
with a density of 28'03; but if this be not simply due to a slight inaccuracy, of about 
oor °/,9, in the determination of the chlorine, it might also be due to the fact that the 
instruments were released by propeller after having been hauled up 3 or 4 metres, and 
the water samples thus have come from a stratum slightly above the one from which 
the temperature was taken by reversing thermometer. As there was an interval of 
about I7 minutes between both observations, there is also a possibility that some 
displacement of the water may have taken place. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 67 


Even in a section (Sect. X) through Ryders Stations (taken in the 
beginning of July, 1891), north of Amundsen’s region, the isotherm of 
—1° C. and —1°2° C. lie comparatively low; whilst there is an upper 
minimum, between —1° and —1°5°, at about 60 and 100 metres, extending 
westwards into Mohn’s Stations 350 and 348, where it is lying somewhat 
deeper and underlying a layer of much warmer water. But these 
Stations were taken in August, 1878; z. ¢. a month later in the season. 
The salinities at Ryder’s minimum have evidently been very low. To judge 
from the very inaccurate determinations of specific gravity and salinity 
(by K. Rordam) they may have been between 343 and 34°6°%/00 (by 
Knudsen’s Tables), at Ryders Stations IX and X, which is much about 
the typical salinity of the coldest Polar water of the top layers in the 
North Polar Basin as well as in the East Greenland Polar Current. 

The isopycnals of 28:00 and especially of 28-10 also rise to levels 
very near the sea-surface at Amundsen’s Stations, and slope off towards 
the sides, especially towards north and south (see Sections VII and IX) 
and towards west (Sects. IV, V, VI), but not so much towards east (see 
Sect. IV), where very heavy water obviously occurs in the region of 
Mohn’s Stations 302 and 303 etc. 

The maps, Pl. V, give interesting pictures of the horizontal distri- 
bution of Temperature, Salinity, and Density, in the summer, at 50, 100, 
200, 300 and 400 metres. They show that in the region of Amundsen’s 
Stations there are quite peculiar conditions, it forming, as it were, a 
centre of cold and heavy water. 

It is necessary to distinguish between two kinds of cold water in 
these maps, viz. the cold water of the surface layer, between 0 and 200 
metres, of the East Greenland Polar Current (and that of the Barents Sea), 
which at some places, ¢. g. round Jan Mayen and between Jan Mayen and 
Iceland, has sunk down to greater depths, — and the cold bottom-water 
of the Norwegian Sea which in the region of Amundsen’s Stations rises 
so near to the surface that it is in contact with the cold surface water. 
East of Iceland and between Iceland and Jan Mayen the surface of this 
bottom-water rises so high that it is visible in the maps (see especially 
those for 300 and 400 metres), At Ryders Stations II and II, June, 
1891, between Iceland and Jan Mayen, this cold bottom-water was ob- 
viously in contact also with the cold surface water. 

The map for 200 metres gives a good idea of the distribution of 
these two kinds of cold water, In the region of Amundsen’s Stations 
the cold bottom-water is surrounded by the isotherms of —1° C, and 


o C, The former forms a closed ring round Amundsen’s eastern, and 


68 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


earliest, Stations and Mohn’s Stations 302 and 303. The isotherm of 
o C, obviously forms a ring outside this region as indicated in the 
map. It must be closed in the unknown region to the north; for in the 
North Polar Basin, in the western part of the Fram’s route (Stats. Ig— 
26)! there were found temperatures above zero at 200 metres; and the 
cold surface water was separated from the cold bottom-water by a layer 
of water 600 metres thick, with temperatures above zero. At Kolthoff’s 
Station I (/ I) the temperature was 1°02° C. at 200 metres; and at 
Mohn’s Stat. 351 a temperature of 01° C. was observed at 183 metres 
(100 fathoms), but, as before mentioned, Mohn’s temperatures, are liable 
to be too low for intermediate warmer layers. Along the Greenland 
coast there is another region of water with temperatures below o° C. at 
200 metres; but this is water with low salinity, from the cold surface 
layer of the Polar Current, pressed down against the coast on the right 
hand side of the Polar Current (see Sections IV—VII). Round Jan Mayen 
there is similar cold surface water with low salinity at 200 metres, which 
has been pressed down round the island, Section VII (Pl. IX) shows 
clearly that there cannot be any communication between this cold water 
and the cold bottom-water of the same depth at Amundsen’s Stations 
to the north; for the cold surface-water at 200 metres near Jan Mayen 
(Ap. II and M. S. 29) is separated from the cold bottom-water by 
several hundred metres of warmer water (see Sect. VII). To the north 
of Iceland there are similar conditions; the polar current is there blocked 
by the land, and its cold surface waters are pressed down below 200 
metres, at some places. 

The salinity at 200 metres is fairly uniform in the greater part of 
the region, generally, between 34:90 and 34'95 9/00. But it is very 
characteristic that the salinity is on the whole lowest near the centre of 
the cold region, and there is a small area where it is even 34°88 and 
34'89 °/oo. In this central region the cooling has consequently been 
sufficiently great during the winter to make this water, with a some- 
what lower salinity, so heavy that it can sink down from above. 

The map shows that at 200 metres, the densities increase towards 
the central part of the region, and approach 28:10, The isopycnal of 
28°10 forms a closed curve, whose area does not coincide with that of 
the isotherm of —1° C,, but is somewhat to the west of it. The isopycnal 
of 28°00 passes outside the region on both sides, east and west. 


{ F. Nansen, Oceanography of N. P. Basin, p. 306. 


- 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 69 


| In the maps for 300 and 4oo metres, the isotherms of —1° C. and 
o C. have very similar contours in the region of Amundsen’s Stations, 
as have also the isopycnals of 28°10 and 28'00; but the area of the 
cold heavy water increases with the depht so that the rings formed by 
the curves become wider. All traces of the cold surface-water have 
almost disappeared in these maps — except perhaps, to the north of Ice- 


| land ; — whilst there is, especially at 400 metres, an axis of cold bottom- 
water extending northwards, towards Jan Mayen, from the sea east of 
Iceland. 

In the maps for 50 and 100 metres, the cold Polar water of the 
upper layers, with temperature below o° C, and —1° C, and salinity 
below 34:9 and 3478 %q, has a wide distribution east of the Greenland 
coast and north of Iceland. But in the region of Amundsen’s Stations 

{ the conditions are very peculiar, and there is an intimate connection 
between the cold water near the surface and the cold bottom-water. 
The isotherm of —1° C, forms a closed curve near Amundsen’s region, 
in the map for too metres, and so does the isotherm of o° C, almost. 
The isotherm of —r° C. also encloses a special area in this region at 
50 metres, whilst the isohalines of 34°9 and 34°8°%0o0 form peculiar 
tongues extending westward. The isopycnal of 28°00 forms closed 
curves or rings in both maps for 50 and 100 metres, but it is much 
wider in the latter. 

It is clear that there here is very nearly the centre of the region 
where the homogeneous bottom-water of the Norwegian Sea chiefly 
arises, and it is also clear that this bottom-water must be formed by 
cooling at the sea-surface during the winter, just as in the case of the 
bottom-water of the Barents Sea, described in the previons chapter. 

By examining the characteristic features of the vertical distribution 
of Temperature, Salinity, and Density in and under the waters of the 
North Polar Current, in the North Polar Basin and along the East coast 
of Greenland, it will easily be seen that the bottom-water of the Nor- 


wegian Sea cannot be water from this current, as was generally assumed. 


The Vertical Distribution of Temperature and Salinity in the East 
Greenland Polar Current and Underlying Waters. 


West of Amundsen’s Stations is the region of the East Greenland 
Polar Current, with very typical vertical distribution of temperature and 
salinity, of much the same character as found by the writer in the North 


Polar Basin, Near the water-surface there is a layer of Polar water, 


70 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


with low temperature and salinity1, and a temperature-minimum of be- 
tween —1°5 and —1°8° C., at between 4o and 60 metres. 

In the eastern part of the Polar Current, at Amdrup’s Stat. III 
(Ap. III) and Ryders Stat. XII (A. XII) the minimum is at 30—so metres. 
The salinity of this minimum varies between 34°3 and 346%. In the 
western part of the current, near the Greenland coast (JV. IX), the sal- 
inity of the minimum is much lower, vzz. 33°2—33°7 °/oo. The density 
of this minimum is about 27°6—278 (NV. VII and Af. II). Near the 
Greenland coast it is much lower, 26°7—27'1 (MV. IX). 

Underneath this cold Polar water coming from the North Polar 
Basin, is a warm layer of Atlantic water with temperatures above zero, 
and salinities above 34°9 %/g9. The density is about 28-04—28°07. Under- 
neath this warm layer is colder water again, the temperature of which 
gradually sinks below zero, and decreases downwards to below —1° C., 
at depths greater than 1000 metres (see Sections IV—VI, VIII, X). The 
salinity of this cold bottom water is very uniform, as a rule between 
34°90 and 34°92 °/oo (computed by Knudsen’s Tables from the amount 
of Chlorine), and its density increases gradually downwards, from 28°07 
towards 28°11 or 28°12, 

These conditions, typical of the North Polar Current, are also found 
south of Amundsen’s Stations, at Kolthoff-Ostergren’s Station II (F II), 
and at Amdrup’s Stat. II (Ap. II) west of Jan Mayen (see Sect. VII). 
Even east of Jan Mayen, at ‘Michael Sars’s” Station 29 (A7S 29) there 
are indication of the same polar conditions, except that the upper 
temperature minimum was not so low (—o'66° C.), and was depressed 
somewhat deeper, to about 80—100 metres, with salinities about 34°7 °/oo. 

In the sea between Jan Mayen and Iceland there is also to a great 
extent the same vertical distribution of temperature and salinity as in 
the East Greenland Polar Current farther north, which is proved by the 
Stations 18 und 19 (WS 18, MS 19, Sect. IX) of the Michael Sars, and 
several Stations of the Ingolf Expedition. 

Ryders Station II (June 22, 1891, A II, Pl. V), in 68° 24’ N. Lat. 
and 14° 4‘ W. Long., is a somewhat strange exception. Here the ver- 
tical distribution of temperature is very different from that shown by all 


other series of temperatures in this region, as is seen by the following 


1 The writer has before pointed out that it is a mistake to believe that this layer of polar 
water, with low salinity, is formed by the melting of the ice, as Prof. O. Pettersson 
and other authors seem to assume. The water is an outflow of the Polar water cov- 
ering the North Polar Basin to a depth of about 200 metres, and this water has its 
low salinity by being diluted with fresh-water, chiefly from the Siberian rivers. 


—_ 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901, 71 


table, where Stat 18 of the ‘“‘Michael Sars”, and Stat. 125 of the Ingolf 
Expedition, one on each side of Ryders Station, are given for comparison, 
The salinities are computed by means of Knudsen’s Tables. (For Ryder’s 


salinities have been used the determinations with hydrometer, and at 
ne, 
ms (C> 


found by Rordam with the pycnometer). Ryders Station was taken 


some depths the mean between these values and the values of S 


several miles inside the edge of the drifting ice-masses. While the upper 
temperature minimum is at the usual depth of about 50 metres at the 
Sineolfs Stat. 125, and at the “Michael Sars’s’” Stat. 18, there is a 
remarkable minimum of —2:1° C. in about 180 metres at Ryder’s Sta- 
tion, The temperature of —2'1° C. is, however, evidently erronous, as 


it is below the freezing-point of the water (which is about —1‘9° C. if 


Depth Ingolf 125 Ryder II M. Sars 18 Ryder II M. Sars 19 | Ingolf 117 
2 July 29, 1896|June 22, 1891\Aug. 6, 1900\June 25, 1891/Aug. 7, 1900) July 23, 18906 
in ° © ° T 
Metres| 8 N. 68° 24'N. 69° 9 N. 69° 51'N. qo° 35/ N. 69° 13' N. 
16° 2' W. mS Ae WWE 12° o' W. Teeny Wi ||| ike mor VW. 8° 23' W. 
| a =] = a | = a> 
A Zp (Ge To C sag (Ce | =o €, | ZO (Ge 4G 
33/2 “/c0 38:5 “foo 34°2 “loo Beil eco al | 33°82 /, 
18 =~? © Tae OF — os CO; (EEA) || 
33°7 “loo 34°27 “Too | Wes42 7) Ico) | 
= =a C. =i (G =i C. ifs” C. | =u CG | =o | 
34-5 lass 34°6 hse 338 = ee | 34°6 Wee 34°72 “thers 
| 
an ie” GC —r'9° C. =e” © =i? © =Or5,” (G —o'9° C. 
¢ 5 ‘ F paeesO; c 
34°7 “loo BAT elon Biosee/ soul eS 4 alld) og [33°95 °/ool? 
188 aide GC. —a2'1° C.? oer (Ce =n” (C, per (CG, =0o77> C, 
o—- O . a 3 SC] ° 
Ieassegiealt| 349 foot | 34°79 “/oo 34°89 “foo | 34°99 Joo? 
—r'8> ¢: oe C. =a (Gy | Ga (| 
290 i | ote 
= 34°94 WES 34°34 lacus 3493 Aes 
° +70 | ° ° ~ of 
ot (Cp —o1 C. | —o4” C. ito (C= || oo, GC. 

° G 4 / A ° / 
a Beet eo | 34°95 Yoo 34°9 “/oo 34°93 Joo | 34°96 “/oo 
ie OZ" o'4° €.?| —=o'7° C. —o'4° C. 
> 34°93 “loo 34°93 “oo | 

fe =e? © —o'7° C. =o7” | —o'6° C. 
iB 34°90 I, |  34°9 Yoo We 5103) ca, 

| | 
EEaO =O Cc. —aig C. —o'8> C. =O” | | —o'9° C. 
34°90 “/., | BYR) alas | Wr B5%O5; s/c? 
=or8)" (Ch —o'9° C. =e)" ©, || ste? C. 5 | 
1370 : E 7 ‘ —orfstsi~ (G;, I} 
af 34°90 Jo, | 349 °/o0 34°92 “Joo | - 34:9 oo . 


the salinity be 349 °/oo). This may indicate that Ryder’s temperatures 
are on the whole somewhat too low (about o'02° C.). If it be assumed 
that the temperature has been near the freezing-point and that the 
salinity of about 34:90 oo be correct, the density of the water was 
about 28°12. This is rather heavy water; and the salinity may probably 


have been lower (the determination with the hydrometer gave 34°88 °/00). 


72 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


The only way in which these conditions can be explained, if the obser- 
vations be fairly correct, is by supposing that during the previous winter 
or spring there has been a vertical circulation in this region, reaching 
down to 200 or 300 metres; and if this vertical circulation could break 
trough the underlying warmer water with a higher salinity, the possi- 
bility of bottom-water also being formed occasionally in this region is 
not excluded. Als . 

Ryders Station III (# II, Pl. V) shows also some resemblance to 
his Stat. II: the temperature-minimum lies comparatively deep (at 94 
metres) and water with temperatures below —1° C, reaches down below 
180 metres from the surface. 

At Stat. 117 of the Ingolf Expedition (July 23, 1896, 7 117, Pl. V) 
the cold surface layer has been very deep (—o°7° C. was observed at 
188 metres) and the underlying warmer layer has been comparatively 
thin (o'0° C. was observed at 377 metres); but the values of the sali- 
nities are evidently too high, as they give much too high densities 1. 

North of Amundsen’s Stations, at Mohn’s Stat. 350 (47 350) and 
Kolthoff-Ostergren’s Stat. I. (¥ I), there are also indications of a vertical 
distribution similar to that of the North Polar Current and underlying 
water-strata (see Sect. 1X, Pl. X). 

In the North Polar Basin, along the track of the “Fram”, the conditions 
were very much the same as in the case of the East Greenland Polar Cur- 
rent. The water of the upper temperature-minimum at 50 or 60 metres” 


‘ 


1 The Station 217 of the Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition (July 27, 1877) in 72° o 
N. Lat. and 5° 9/ W. Long. seems to form a most remarkable excepition, if the 
temperatures given can be trusted; but as they were all taken with the Miller-Cassella 
Thermometers this may be doubtful. They give a minimum of —1°8°C. at 55 and 
94 metres (the minimum thermometers may be expected to have given this temperature 
correctly), and below this depth the temperature nowhere rose above —171° C. If this 
really be correct, it seems as if the region with bottom-water near the surface, 
has that summer extended so far south as towards this Station. That this may actually 
have been the case, might also be indicated at the nearest Stations 218 and 219, where 
temperatures of —o'9° C. and —1‘r° C. are met with at 55 or even 37 metres. It may, 
however, be that this has only been a temperature-minimum of an upper layer of Polar 
water, whilst the Minimum and Maximum Thermometers have not been able to indicate 
the higher temperatures of the underlying, warmer water, as the sea-surface was 
covered by a warm water-layer of about 4 or 5° C. 

In writing ‘The Oceanography of the North Polar Basin’ it was assumed that the water 
of this temperature-minimum “must originate from other parts of the North Polar Basin, 
where the water near the surface has a similar salinity” (cf. op. cit., p. 323). It did not 
seem to appear probable that there was sufficient ice at depths between 50 and 7o, 
or 80 metres, to cool the whole water stratum down to near its freezing point, and 
the distance between the great hummocks, reaching so deep, was thought to be too 
great to produce such a general effect. But, upon considering the question more 
closely, it must be concluded that an appreciable cooling of the water may be thus 


—_ 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 73 


has salinities below 33°8 °%/o) (33°3—33'8 °/q) and densities (o,) below 
27°201, and the cold top layer of Polar water rests on a thick, inter- 
mediate layer of warmer water with much higher salinity. 

It is thus seen that nowhere under the North Polar Current, in re- 
gions hitherto known, can the cold and heavy bottom-water be cooled 
down to its low temperature by direct contact with the cold but much 
lighter top-layer, from which it is everywhere separated by an intermediate 
warmer layer. It is obvious, that the bottom-water of the Norwegian 
Sea cannot originate directly from the East Greenland Polar Current?. 


produced down to the greatest depths of the ice, which may possibly be 60 or 7o 
metres or perhaps even more; and Prof. O. Pettersson’s suggestion that this 
temperature-minimum may be due to contact between the sea-water and the ice (see 
Geographical Journal, London, vol. XXIV, 1904, pp. 318, 320, and 322), therefore seems 
very probably true, although according to the direct observations made (e. g. measure- 
ments of the height of the same hommock during a long period of many months) 
Pettersson is not right when he assumes that an appreciable melting of the ice 
may be produced by this contact in the North Polar Basin. During the frequent 
ice-pressures the ice-floes are broken and piled up into ridges and hummocks and 
during the winter and spring ice-blocks with very low temperatures, of —2o0’0 or even 
—30°0 ° C. (vide measurements, the Norw. North Polar Exp. 1893—1896, Scient. Results, 
vol. VI, pp. 544—557), are then pressed down to great depths. This cold ice will 
have a great cooling effect upon the water with which it comes into contact, because 
a considerable quantity of heat is required to raise its temperature to the freezing point 
(—1'84° C.) of sea-water with a salinity of about 33°7 °/,, (not 35°0 °/,, as stated by 
Pettersson, /oc. cit. p. 318), and to liquefy the frozen brine in the ice. Much ice will 
thus be formed round the cold ice-blocks, and the blocks of one hummock may be thus 
united more or less into one solid mass before an equilibrium is attained between the 
temperature of the ice and that of the surrounding water which will be cooled down 
to its freezing point of about —1°84 °/,,, at the same time as its salinity is slightly 
raised. Contact between the ice and the sea-water alone will cool the latter, but it is 
clear that after the water-stratum has been thus cooled down to near its freezing-point 
no appreciable melting of ice can be produced, because there is such and extremely 
slow vertical circulation owing to the rapid increase of salinity and density downwards. 
The quantity of heat given off by a water-stratum ro metres thick which is cooled 
o'1°C., is hardly sufficient to melt 175 centimetre of ice. 
' G. Nansen, op. cit. pp. 246—255, 300, and Pl. XVI. 
Professor Otto Pettersson has propounded the hypothesis (see Geographical Journal, 
vol. XXIV, London, 1904, p. 285) that by the melting of Polar Ice in the western and 
north-western parts of the Norwegian Sea, the Atlantic water should be cooled and 
sink towards the bottom. According to what has been pointed out above, this is not 
possible to any appreciable extent, as long as the Polar ice floats in the water of the 
Polar Current; on account of its low salinity, this water cannot sink, even if it could be 
cooled down by the melting of ice to a lower temperature than it had beforehand. 
The real Polar ice very seldom comes outside the boundaries of the water of the Polar 
Current in the Norwegian or East Greenland Sea. The melting of the Polar Ice, 
cannot therefore have any appreciable direct effect upon the cooling of the underlying 
Atlantic water, from which it is always protected by an layer of cold water with much 
lower salinity. 
To avoid misunderstanding, it may be mentioned here that there are also in the 
Norwegian Sea great masses of ice, which are formed in that same sea during the 
winter, and which occur even outside the region of the Polar Current. This ice, which 


74 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


It is also clear that water like the bottom-water cannot arise by an 
intermixture of cold Polar with warmer Atlantic water, because the former, 
having temperatures below —1°C., has too low salinities of between 
34°3 and 347 °/o0. The water with a temperature of about —1° C. near 
the under-side of the East Greenland Polar Current has a salinity of 
about 34'7 °/oo. Below this water-stratum both temperature and salinity 
rise downwards, whilst above it they both decrease. Water with a 
temperature of about —1°4°C. and —1°5°C. has salinities below 34°6 
and 34'5 °/oo. If Atlantic water be intermixed with this water to obtain a 
bottom-water with a salinity about 34'9 °/oo, so much of the former would 
have to be added, that the temperature could not possibly become very 
low, even assuming that the Atlantic water had been much cooled be- 
forehand. i 

In the regions where the bottom-water arises, there must be expected — 
very nearly the temperature and salinity of this water from the bottom 
upwards and towards the depth at which it is formed; it cannot pos- 
sibly be separated from the temperature minimum of the top-layer by 
any intermediate warmer layer. The cooling can only come from the 
sea surface, and the water must, as a rule, be gradually heated after 
it has sunk to greater depths. 

Before discussing the necessary conditions for the formation of the 
cold bottom-water, the conditions that may be required for the existence 


of an intermediate warmer water-stratum, will be considered 


The Intermediate Warmer Water-Stratum underlying the East Greenland 
Polar Current, 


It is clear that, where the underlying warmer water is not protected 
by an overlying water-stratum with a much lower salinity, it cannot 
exist for any length of time, for the cooling during the winter would 
make the top layer heavier than the underlying warmer water. An 
active vertical circulation would be thus produced, with the result that 
the whole bulk of water to considerable depths, would be cooled down. 
Where, however, the underlying warm water is protected by an overlying 
lighter stratum of cold Polar water, it cannot be cooled down during 
the winter, because the vertical circulation, caused by radiation of heat 

is the ice chiefly met with by the sealers in spring, melts in regions where it may 

come into more direct contact with Atlantic water; but as the ice is originally formed 
inside the same sea-basin, the final direct effect upon the temperature of the sea, by 


its formation and melting will be wz. Indirectly it will, however, reduce the cooling of 
the sea, by protecting the upper layers against radiation during winter. 


= 


(er 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 7 


On 


from the surface, will not be able to reach very deep, and break through 
the upper water-strata, where the salinities and densities increase too 
rapidly downwards. The writer found that in the North Polar Basin 
the vertical circulation during winter, did not reach much more than 30 
metres below the water-surface. Besides the water of the upper temperature- 
minimum is near its freezing point and cannot become much heavier by 
cooling. There cannot, therefore, be any considerable vertical circula- 
tion at any time of the year. The underlying warm water-stratum can 
thus be cooled only by conduction of heat, which is extremely slow in 
water, and by intermixture with the colder overlying layers, which is 
also slow where the densities so rapidly decrease upwards, and where 
the surface is covered by ice, so that the wind cannot stir the water 
much. 

The intermediate warm layer may thus exist for a very long time, 
without being much cooled, and it may, therefore, be expected every- 
where under the polar current, because the density of this warmer water 
is between that of the light Polar water, and that of the bottom-water ; 
it will thus easily find its way in between these two waters}. 

At most of Amundsen’s stations east of Greenland there is hardly 
any similarity to the polar conditions. At some of the western stations, 
(especially Stats. 17, see also Stats. 18, 19, 23), there are indications of 
an upper temperature-minimum at about 4o or 50 metres with an under- 
lying, somewat warmer layer; but the salinities are on the whole so high 
that an active vertical circulation may be produced by cooling during 
the winter. If, for instance, at Stat. 17, the water at 50 metres be 
slightly cooled, it will become heavier than the underlying warmer water 
at 60 metres. 

The temperature-maximum at these stations, is at about 60 to 100 
metres below the water-surface?. Farther west, under the Polar Current, 
this intermediate warmer layer increases much in thickness towards the 
Greenland coast, while its temperature rises; — and the further west the 
deeper its upper boundary. The isopycnals also slope fairly steeply 
towards the Greenland coast (see Sections V and VI). This very cha- 
racteristic feature indicates that the overlying cold Polar water-layer as 


well as the underlying warmer layer is in movement southwards along 


! It is, for instance, noteworthy that in Section IV—VI, the underlying warmer water 
with temperature above zero, has very nearly the same extension eastward as the 
overlying cold water with temperature below —r° C. 

2 At Nathorst’s Station VI (V VI) Akerblom observed a maximum of o'19° C. at roo 
metres (see Section VI, Pl. VIII). 


76 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M. N. Kl. 


the Greenland coast, with velocities, which are greaterst near the sur- 
face, and decreasing downwards. By the deflection caused by the Earth’s 
rotation, both the cold and the warm water-layers of the current, being 
lighter than the underlying bottom-water, which has a slower motion, 
are pressed against the coast, and are there depressed, on to the right 
hand side of the current, as is always the case, where a current moves 
along a coast on its right hand side (cf for instance, the Gulf Stream 
along the Norwegian coast and along that of Spitsbergen). 

Prof. Pettersson has propounded the theory, that this warm 
intermediate water should come directly from the east or southeast, by 
“an under-current of Atlantic water, which at about 72° N. Lat, branches 
off from the main body of such water in the Norwegian Sea, and north 
of Jan Mayen flows in a north-westerly direction towards the coast of 
Greenland”, and as evidence of the existence of this current he mentions 
the temperature series of Ostergren taken at Kolthoff’s Station II 
(# II)t. What has been said above makes this theory appear highly 
improbable. Section VII (Pl. IX) also further demonstrates its impro- 
bability. The warm water underlying the cold water at Stations V IX 
and NW VII, cannot move northwards, for if so, it would necessarily 
have quite a different position®. It cannot, therefore, come from the 
south or south-east. It seems then to be much more probable that it 
may come from the region of the warm intermediate water-layer at 
Ostergren’s northern Station (FI, see Sect. IX, and the maps for 100— 
400 metres, Pl. V). At any rate, the warm water underlying the East 
Greenland Polar Current must come from the Atlantic Current (Gulf 
Stream) running north, along the eastern margin of the deep basin of 
the Northern Norvegian Sea; and somewhere to the north of Ryder’s, 
Nathorst’s, Amdrup’s, and Amundsen’s Stations it must come from the 
east by a partially cyclonic movement. It seems also possible that some 
part of this warmer water may come along with the overlying cold 
current from the North Polar Basin. At Station 23 (July 1895) 
of the Fram-Expedition, in 84° 32’ N. Lat. 73° 55’ E. Long., the 


' Otto Pettersson, On the Influence at Ice-Melting upon Oceanic Circulation, Geo- 
graphical Journal, vol. XXIV, London, 1904, p. 309. 

It might be objected that the observations at Amdrup’s Station (4. Ill) are not from 
the same year as those of Akerblom (at Nathorst’s Stations W VII, NIX). But Ryder’s 
Stations (R XII, R XIII, and R XIV) give exactly the same picture, which indicates 
that this is a characteristic feature of the current. 


nN 


a: 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. WG 


intermediate warm layer had a temperature about 118°C. at 300 and 
350 metres}. 

It was already mentioned above that whereever the sea is covered 
with a toplayer of comparatively light Polar water, with low temperature 
and low salinity, there must be also expected an intermediate layer of 
warmer water with higher salinity between the light top layer and the 
heavy bottom-water; and simply because this warmer water has a den- 
sity between that of the top layer and that of the bottom-water. From 
the adjacent warmer parts of the ocean it will therefore everywhere find 
its way in between the two colder waters. This characteristic feature is 
therefore found in the North Polar Basin, in the northern parts of the 
Barents Sea, in the East Greenland Polar Current, in the Baffin Bay, 
and also in the Antarctic Sea. 

At most of Amundsen’s Stations it is not found, because there is 
no top-layer of the typical light cold polar water, and because the 
sinking of the heavy surface water has given no room for this warmer 
intermediate water; but it is possible that it might appear, to some 
extent, later in the season when the heavy water has sunk to lower 
levels. 


Melting of Ice due to underlying Warmer Water. 


Prof. Otto Petterson and Hj. Ostergren believe that it is the 
assumed warm undercurrent North of Jan Mayen which keeps the way 
open to the east coast of Greenland almost every summer?, and Petter- 
son also believes that these currents underlying the cold water, are on 
the whole of much importance in the melting of the ice of the Polar 
seas. Precisely how the authors think that this undercurrent could 
manage to keep the way open, does not, however, seem to be quite 
clear; is it by altering the direction of the surface current, or by melting 
the ice on the surface? The latter is impossible, simply because the 


warm undercurrent is separated from the overlying ice by a layer of 


1 Prof. Pettersson mentions as evidence going to show that the underlying varm water 
of the East Greenland Polar Current cannot come from the north, that Dr. Akerblom 
found it to contain a very high percentage of oxygen (32°94 °/,). He believes that, if 
this under current had made “‘the grand circuit along Spitsbergen etc.”’ its contents of 
oxygen ought to have been far more reduced. He seems to forget, however, that 
under the Polar Current covered by ice there is very little animal life to reduce the 
oxygen, and it must therefore be expected that even in the North Polar Basin the 
underlying warm water will always have a comparatively high percentage of oxygen. 

2 Op. cit. Ymer, vol. XX, tg900, Stockholm, p. 327. 


78 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


cold Polar water which has a temperature-minimum at about 60 metres, 
No melting of the ice near the surface, worth’ mentioning, can be caused 
by conduction of heat through the water from the underlying warmer 
water; for in this manner, it would require about one year to melt a 
centimetre of ice, provided that the rise of temperature be as much as 
2° C. per 100 metres from the under-surface of the ice downwards. 

The melting thus caused is consequently a negligeable quantity. The 
heating of the overlying cold strata by the warmer under-current is to 
a much greater extent caused by the intermixture between the two 
waters. But even in this manner only an extremely slow heating can be 
produced, because the overlying layers are so much lighter, that the inter- 
mixture between them will proceed extremely slowly. It is, therefore, 
found that the temperature as well as the salinity of the cold surface 
layers of Polar water very slowly rise on the way southwards along the 
Greenland coast. And furthermore, it is found that in the East Green- 
land Polar Current there is, at least in the summer, a temperature-mini- 
mum at 60 to 80 metres?, and this minimum would naturally soon be 
washed away if such an active intermixture occurred as would be ne- 
cessary to cause any appreciable melting of ice near the surface, by 
heating from below®, 


1 As the sea-surface is covered by ice, the wind will have little opportunity to stir the 
waters, and where the density rapidly increases downwards, the lighter layers will 
glide over the heavier ones with very little friction, and without causing vertical move- 
ments of any great extent. 

2 At Amdrup’s Station II (4/. III), near the eastern margin of the East Greenland Polar 
Current, the minimum (—1'45° C.) lies somewhat higher, at about 30 metres, and 
there may be a more appreciable heating from below, though even here it cannot be 
considerable; for at 40 metres there is —r°4°C. and at 60 metres —1‘05°C. The 
temperature of —o'05° C., and salinity of 33.10 °/y9 at 50 metres is of course erronous, 
the water-bottle has obviously been closed near the water-surface. 

At Ryder’s Station XII (R XII) there may also be a slight heating from below. At 
these Stations it is therefore possible that some slight melting might be caused by 
heating from the underlying warmer water. 

3 Prof. Otto Pettersson might perhaps object that this minimum is due to melting 
of the lower part of the great hummocks reaching down to depths of 50 and 60 metres 
or more. But howsoever this may be, it is at least certain that there is much more 
ice nearer the surface and consequently much more melting is going on there. But in 
spite of this the temperature rises towards the surface during the summer, by being 
heated from above, to much above its freezing point; and it is, therefore, clear that 
the melting of ice in this water is chiefly, or almost exclusively, due to the direct heat 
of the sun, which melts the ice on the surface, and heats the water in which it floats. 
It is of course impossible that water overlying a temperature-minimum can be heated 
from strata underlying this minimum, for as long as this stratum with a minimum tem- 
perature exists, it must naturally have a cooling effect upon the overlying strata. 


- 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 79 


It ought also to be remembered, that if the heat required to melt, 
for instance, 1 metre of ice be taken from the water, it would cool down 
by 1° C. the underlying water-layers to a depth of 79 metres; but this 
is not possible, because on the one hand the underlying layers of Polar 
water are too cold beforehand, and on the other hand no vertical cir- 
culation, necessary to produce such a cooling, can occur in these water- 
strata, where the density too rapidly decreases on rising towards the 
surface. 

Let it, however, be assumed that the vertical circulation in the 
East Greenland Polar Current might reach down to 79 metres (which it 
however does not, as is proved by the vertical series of temperatures 
and salinities), Let it also be supposed that the mean temperature of this 
water-layer, 79 metres thick, be —1°5° C., and its mean salinity be 34°0 °%/oo 
(which is too high). The freezing-point of water with this salinity is 
about 1°85°C. It is consequently seen that if this bulk of water be 
cooled down to freezing-point from —1°5° C., the quantity of heat thus 
consumed will melt a continuous layer of ice 0°35 metres thick. But in 
the summer, while the ice-melting is going on, the temperature in the 
East Greenland Polar Current rapidly rises towards the surface from the 
temperature-minimum at about 50 or 60 metres. And already by the 
beginning of July, the surface temperature has risen considerably, to 
og C. (at Nathorst’s Stat. V VII), to —o'1° C. (at Ryders Stat. R XII), and 
to —o'2° C, (at Amdrup’s Stat. A II), whilst in the winter the water was 
cooled down to its freezing-point, about —1'7°C. This rise of temperature 
is due to the heat-wave (caused by direct radiation from the sun) pene- 
strating downwards from above, and it shows that the melting of the ice 
is not able to prevent the heating of the water from above, and conse- 
quently, as long as the ice floats in the diluted cold water-layers of 
the Polar Current, its melting during the summer, both on its upper sur- 
face and on the under-side of the floes, must be due chiefly to this heat 
from above (which may either melt the ice directly, or heat the sur- 
face water in which the ice is floating), and not to heat coming from 
the intermediate layers of warmer water underlying the Polar Current, 


and against which it is well protected by the cold waters of the latter!. 


' It ought also to be remembered that the melting point of the Polar ice is much above 
the temperature of rhis polar water, which has a layer with a temperature-minimum of 
—1'4 to —1’9° C. The many observations made of the temperature in the ice down 
to depths of 1°6 metre, during the expedition across the North Polar Basin (see Norw. 
N. Polar Exp. 1893—1896, Scientific Results, vol. VI, pp. 545—557) show that during 
the polar summer, in July and August, the temperature in the ice rises to about 
—o'4° C. even at 1°6 metre below its surface, and this temperature is evidently near 


80 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


Direct measurements of the thickness and growth of the ice, con- 
tinued. during the whole drift of the Fram, prove that in the North Polar 
Basin it is only during the late part of the summer that there might be 
a slight melting on the under-side of the Polar ice-floes, and this melting 
is due to the heat-wave from above, penetrating down through the ice, 
and also into the water between the ice-floes. When the top-layer of 
nearly fresh water, formed by the melting of snow and ice, on the 
upper surface of the floes, has grown so thick that it reaches down 
below their under-side, new ice may be formed under the latter in 
spite of the heat-wave; the nearly fresh water is cooled down to its 
freezing point and transformed into ice by contact with the underlying 
cold sea-water of temperatures below —1° C, 

During the winter there is no appreciable melting of ice, either in 
the North Polar Basin, or in the East Greenland Polar Current; but 
much ice is formed, and the upper strata of the sea are cooled down 
to freezing point by radiation from the sea-surface. 

Ice floating in the sea outside the boundaries of the Polar Current — 
e. g. between Iceland and Jan Mayen, and between the latter and Spits- 
bergen — may, however, be melted chiefly by heat from the underlying 
water. But this ice is comparatively thin, and is not “Polar” ice from 
the North Polar Basin. It is formed during winter and spring (even 
as late as April) in the same sea, where it melts during summer. 
The writer had a good opportunity of studying the formation and melting 
of this ice during a cruise in the northern seas in March, April, and May 
1882. Ice-masses of this kind may, to a great extent, be carried east- 
wards into regions where they come in more direct contact with the 
underlying warmer water-strata, and the melting of the ice will then be 
chiefly due to the heat of this warmer water. On April 9, 1882, for 
instance, the writer found the boundary of this “western” ice as for east 
as 13° 30’ E. Long., in 74° 2’ N, Lat.; which is in the region of the warm 
Atlantic Current west of Bear Island. The appearance of such ice indi- 
cates at once that it is melting chiefly at its under-side. On April 10, 1882, 
(in 73° 14’ N. Lat. and 13° 24’ E. Long.) it was 19° C. on the sea-sur- 
face, amongst scattered belts of melting ice, and 2°3° C. at about 40 metres 


its melting-point. If such ice, with a melting-point about —o'4°C., floats in water 
which has, for instance, a salinity of about 32°5 °/j9 and a temperature of about 
—r1°C., the ice will melt until it has cooled down the water to its freezing-point, which 
is —1'°77° C. (cf. M. Knudsen, Publication de Circonstance, Copenhagen 1903, No. 5, 
p. 13), but the melting will be very slow, and slower than if the ice had a melting 
point as low as the freezing point of the water in which it floats. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 81 


below the surface. On the same afternoon even 4°5° C. was observed on 
the surface, between belts of scattered ice. It was frequently found in 
this region that the surface-temperature was 1° C., or 1°5° C., or even 
2° C. only short distances, less than a mile, from the edge of the pack-ice, 
whilst amongst the floes the temperature was near or below zero, and 
where there was much ice even as low as —o6°C, On many great 
lanes between the floes there was, however, new ice (the socalled ‘“‘bay- 
ice” of the sealers), and then the surface temperature of the water might 
be about —1°4 or —1'6°C., indicating that the salinity of the surface- 
water was between 27:0 and 29'0 %/o. The temperature of the air was 
at this time between —5°C. and —13°C. The explanation of the low 
surface temperatures and new ice is, that, by the melting of the ice- 
masses, a thin surface-layer of water with a reduced salinity is formed. 
This layer, having a much lower salinity than the underlying water, 
cannot sink by cooling; it may thus be cooled down to freezing point - 
by radiation of heat from the surface, and new ice may be formed. 

It is clear that in regions where the conditions are as above, the 
ice-melting process may contribute much to the cooling of the under- 
lying sea-water; but it has of course to be remembered that these ice- 
masses were also formed in the western and north-western parts of the 
same sea, and during the process of formation an equal amount of heat 
was disengaged. The formation and melting of this ice will thus far 
have no effect upon the average temperature of this sea basin}. 

The above considerations show, that the effect which the underlying, 
intermediate, warmer water-layers may have upon the formation or mel- 
ting of ice on the surface, must be an insignificant and negligeable 
quantity for all practical purposes wherever polar conditions prevail, 
2, €, wherever the sea is covered by a surface layer, 100 or 200 metres 


thick, of less saline water, and temperatures below zero or even below 
—I1°C.? ‘ 


! In a somewhat different way it will, however, have an effect, for though the forma- 
tion of ice covered by snow during the winter will make the temperature of the air 
lower, it will also much reduce the vertical circulation of the underlying sea-water, 
which can then only be cooled by conduction of heat through the overlying ice and snow. 
The formation of ice will thus reduce the cooling of the sea, which is the opposite 
effect of that attributed to it by Prof. Pettersson. 

2 Pettersson’s assertion that ice can only exist in a shallow sea, and over the con- 
tinental shelves, is directly contradictory to facts. There may be mentioned the deep 
North Polar Basin, where the enormous masses of polar ice are formed. But we need 
not go so far, the northern part of the Norwegian Sea itself is a good example. In the 
deep sea between Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen very great masses of ice are formed 
during the winter and spring, as mentioned above. 


Vid,-Selsk. Skrifter. I. M.-N. Kl. 1906, No. 3. 6 


82 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. Kl. 


The “Opening” in the Ice towards the East Greenland Coast 
in the Region north of Fan Mayen. 


Against Pettersson’s and Ostergren’s theory must be cited the fact 
that in summer this opening generally occurs much north of the region 
where they believe that their warm under-current occurs. As a rule it 
is between 74° and 76° that it is most easy to reach the Greenland 
coast, and this is just in Amundsen’s region, where there is no such 
warm intermediate water-layer. 

It is also towards this region that the sealers steer their course 
every winter, in March, in order to catch young seals (Phoca Groenlan- 
dica). Great numbers of seal gather on the ice in the region north or 
north-east of Jan Mayen in order to bring forth their youngs at the end 
of March and beginning of April, and here they used to be slaughtered by 
Scotch and Norwegian sealers. The idea of the latter is that the seals always 
seek their breeding place in the central part of the great tongue of ice (“is- 
odden”) which according to their experience generally extends south- 
eastwards or eastwards in the sea north of Jan Mayen. The situation of this 
tongue of ice varies much from one year to another; but on the north 
side of this tongue there is always, they say, a deep broad bay or 
bight in the ice, which they call the “bay-ice bight’ (‘“Bay-is Bugta”). 
The situation of this bay varies much with that of the ‘tongue of ice”, 
but its latitude may frequently be about 73, 74, or 75° N. Across it 
the shoals of seal coming from the north have to swim on their way 
to their breeding place. The sealers therefore used to sail into this 
“bay” in order to meat the seals, and follow them into the “tongue”, 
and thus find the place where they gathered on the ice to breed. The 
sealers said that this bay was remarkable by having very cold water, 
and they called it the ‘“‘bay-ice bight’’ because so much ‘“‘bay-ice”’, (2. e. 
new, thin ice, which when there is a little swell, is broken up into small 
round discs, and is called ‘‘pancake-ice’’) is formed there in March and 
April. 

This ‘‘bay-ice bight” is probably just part of the region where 
the bottom-water of the Norwegian Sea is formed. Here the comparat- 
ively saline sea-surface is open during a greater part of the winter; there 
is a considerable cooling of the water by radiation of heat directly from 
the sea-surface, without any intervening layer of ice, the formation of 
which is more or less prevented by a very active vertical circulation of 
the sea, penetrating to considerable depths. 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 83 


The charts for 50, 100, 200, 300, and 400 metres (Pl. V) demonstrate 
clearly that there are special conditions in this region. 

The reason why the tongue of ice, extending eastwards, is formed 
to the south of this region, is no doubt difficult to decide so long as 
no fuller investigations have been made. It may be caused by the con- 
dition of the atmosphere and the winds; the great variations from one 
year to another may seem to indicate that the winds are of much im- 
portance in this respect. But the following consideration may also 
perhaps be worthy of notice. In the region where the bottom-water is 
formed on the surface, there is a maximum of density, approaching 
28°10 or 28°12 on the surface. The lighter surface-water of surrounding 
regions, especially the much lighter polar water to the west, whose 
density is not much increased by cooling, since it is protected by the 
overlying ice, will have an increased tendency to flow in this direction. 
But, owing to the Earth’s rotation, it will be deflected towards the right, 
and there may thus be a tendency towards a cyclonic movement round 
this maximum of density, by which movement the ice would be carried 
southeast- or eastwards south of it. 

In the atmosphere there may also be a tendency towards a similar 
cyclonic movement, for there will be a tendency towards a barometric 
minimum over this cold but more or less open sea where the air is 
heated by contact with the water-surface, whilst it will be much colder 
over the adjacent fields of snow-covered ice. 

Why the seals especially choose this tongue of ice for their breeding 
place, is a difficult question. It may be mentioned that this seal is 
a very social animal, generally found in great shoals; it will na- 
turally choose for its breeding place ice-masses, where the hundreds 
of thousands do not risk being too much disturbed by the breaking 
up and scattering of the ice. On the other hand the seal wants 
flat, and not too thick ice to lie on, where it is easy to get up and 
down from the floes. The Greenland seal does not therefore like 
the old humocky Polar ice with high edges, but generally seeks ice which 
is only a few feet thick, z. ¢. such as is formed in the Norwegian Sea. 
There should not be much risk of the ice freezing together to form a 
solid ice-field; for, if this should happen, the seal could not get into the 
water. This does not happen as a rule on this tongue of ice, where 
there is sufficient movement to break the floes if they should freeze 
together. It nevertheless sometimes happens that the whole ice-mass 


does freeze solid, to the great misfortune of the seals, which are then 


84 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. Kl. 


easily killed. It may also be mentioned that the great natural enemy 
of the seal, before it met with Man, was the bear; and there is 
less risk of meeting this enemy on the thinner ice in the outskists 
of the great ice-masses, than in the interior regions; but nevertheless 
there are, as a rule, many bears present even here during the breeding 


season, 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 85 


Vi. The Formation of the Bottom-Water of the 
Norwegian Sea. 


It is evident that the conditions required for the formation of the 
bottom-water of the Norwegian Sea, are that there shall be near its 
surface, water of salinity about 34:90 9/oo, which by radiation of heat 
during the winter, may be cooled down to temperatures about —1°3 
and —1°4°C.; thus it may obtain a density of between 28°11 and 28:13 
or still higher, and become sufficiently heavy to sink. 

It is only in places where Atlantic water has become somewhat 
mixed with Artic water that there can exist conditions allowing of the 
production of water of salinity about 34:90 °/oo1, and of a temperature 
sufficiently low for the quantity of heat contained in the water, at the 
surface as well as in the underlying strata, to be no greater than can be 
gradually given off by radiation from the surface, and the whole bulk of 
water as a consequence cooled to below —1°2° C. during the winter and 
spring. It is necessary that there be no very rapid horizontal circula- 
tion, to bring in new supplies of warmer water. Such conditions are 
found in the northern Norwegian Sea, between Jan Mayen and Spits- 
bergen near the outer boundary of the East Greenland Polar Cur- 
rent, in the region of Amundsen’s Stations 13—23, and towards the 
northeast in the region of Mohn’s Stations 302 and 3032. It was pointed 
out above that at the end of the winter there is in this region a maxi- 
mum of density, and it is probably the centre of a great cyclonic move- 
ment of the northern Norwegian Sea. West and north of this region, 
inside the polar current, the underlying warm water is protected against 
cooling, as was mentioned above, by ice and the overlying layer of cold 
but much lighter Polar water. East of this region are the waters of 


the warm Atlantic Current (Gulf Stream) of high salinity but holding 


1 If the salinity of the surface-water is below 34°90 °/,, at the beginning of the winter, 
the formation of ice may increase it appreciably, as it does in the Barents Sea (see 
above p. 31); and besides, by vertical circulation there will result an intermixture between 
the waters of the upper strata, and the surface salinity be raised. 

2 In the sea between Jan Mayen and Iceland there may possibly be similar conditions 
during the winter, as seems to be indicated by the observations at Ryders Stations II 
and III (see above Chapt. V), in June, 1801. 


86 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


too great a quantity of heat and having too rapid horizontal circulation 
to make it possible for the whole bulk of water to be cooled suf- 
ficiently by radiation to attain a density as high as that of the underlying 
bottom-water. No bottom-water can therefore, as a rule, be formed in 
these regions, and the same is also the case in the regions towards the 
south, 

It is of interest to examine what may probably occur during the 
winter at a place like Amundsen’s Station 14, which is the place where 
the bottom-water was found nearest the surface. The surface-water with 
a salinity of 34°39 900 would be soon cooled down below —1'5° C. (its 
freezing point is at —1°875°C.) and become heavier than the underlying 
water. It would sink and be replaced by somewhat warmer water with 
higher salinity. But this new surface-water will be cooled down in its 
turn till it becomes heavier than the previous surface water; it will sink 
still deeper and be replaced by warmer water with a still higher salinity 
from below}. In this manner the salinity of the uppermost strata will 
be continually raised and approach that of the bottom-water (about 
34'9 °/oo); the depth of the vertical circulation will increase until it be- 
comes operative through the upper lighter strata and reaches down into 
the typical bottom-water. All strata, from the surface downwards, will 
then have attained a nearly uniform temperature, salinity, and density ®. 
After this the cooling at the surface will produce such heavy water 
that it may sink far down into the bottom-water and even to the bot- 
tom itself. 

As the water which is to form the deepest and coldest layers of 
the bottom-water has to sink down through all intermediate layers, it 
must be expected that the temperature of this bottom-water, when first 
formed at the surface and before beginning to sink, is lower than the 
lowest temperatures observed near the bottom. It must be remem- 
bered that the temperature of the water cannot but rise slightly during 
the sinking, for it has to pass through strata with slightly higher 
temperatures, with which it will be more or less intermixed, and the 


' If ice be formed on the sea-surface, the salinity will be more rapidly increased; but if 
this ice remain, and form a continuous cover gradually growing in thickness, the cooling 
of the underlying water will be restrained considerably (see above p. 81). 

The writer has observed that a layer with an almost uniform temperature and salinity 
is formed in this manner down to 20 and 25 metres in the North Polar Basin; during 
the winter; but there, the vertical circulation cannot reach deeper, during one winter, 
owing to the rapid rise of salinity downwards. (Cf. Nansen, Oceanography of N. P. 
Basin). 


to 


1g06. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 87 


temperature will also further be slightly raised by compression, at the 
greater depths, 

It must consequently be expected that fairly uniform low temperatures 
of about or below —1°3°C., will be found in the region where the 
coldest bottom-water arises and while its formation is going on. This is to 
some extent the case at Amundsen’s Stations, especially those of them 
which were taken first in the season!, But it seems to have been still 
more the case at Mohn’s Station 302, where the following temperatures 


were observed: 


Mohn’s Station 302, Fuly 19, 1&78. 


Depth Temperature Depth Temperature | Depth Temperatur 
| = a i = 
“tk iN | 
o metres 30° C. || 55 metres =e (Cy | 183 metres | —1°3° C. 
18 ” 30° y \| 73 ” Se | 366 ” Ug 
37 ” o'o ” | 91 ” Se ” 3630 ” —1'48 ” Z 


The three latter of these observations (at 183, 366, and 3630 metres) 
were taken with a Negretti and Zambra reversing thermometer, and may 
therefore be expected to be fairly trustworthy, although probably somewhat 
too low, like most Mohn’s temperatures for the deep strata of the Nor- 
wegian Sea. 

Both Amundsen’s and Mohn’s observations were, however, taken 
some months after the cooling at the surface hade ceased; and consequently 
it cannot be expected that the original conditions would be found still 
existing; for it is clear that the heavy water produced by the cooling, 


! The fact that the surface-salinities in the region of Amundsen’s Stations 13—23 were 
rapidly decreased during the months of June and July, rgor, (as is proved by Amundsen’s 
numerous observations as well as by those of the Capella, see above p. 15) indicate 

that earlier in the spring the surface salinities had probably been still higher, and must 

then have been at least very near 34'9 °|,,. After the above was written, however, 

Helland-Hansen and the present writer, for their memoir on the Norwegian Sea have 

by 


several Captains of Norwegian sealing vessels, and it was found that in March, April, 


examined several series of surface observations taken in the years 1g01—1g904, 


and even May, the surface salinity is always, without exception, very high in the very 


° 
loos 


is very low, generally near the freezing point of the sea-water (—1’9° C.). 


whilst the temperature 
This is 


conclusive evidence that the above explanation of the origin of the bottom-water of the 


region of Amundsen’s Stations. It is as a rule about 34'9 


Norwegian Sea is correct (see B. Helland-Hansen and F. Nansen, Report on Norw. 
Fishery and Marine Investigations, vol. Il, No. 2). 

2 This temperature was observed with the Negretti and Zambra reversing thermometer. 
Two observations were also made at the same depth with two other less trustworthy 
thermometers (one Miller-Casella and one Casella-Buchanan) which gave very improbable 
values, 


88 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


must sink deeper and deeper, gradually to approach a position of 
equilibrium, whilst near the surface the heavy water will be replaced 
by lighter water coming in laterally. 

Summary. The process according to which the heavy bottom water 
is formed must consequently be the following: the heavy surface water coo- 
led down to a density greater than 28:10 must sink, but as long as the surface 
cooling continues, new heavy water is continuously formed to replace it and 
sink in its turn. The water probably does not sink in vertical direction, 
but spreads out laterally, and finds its way in under the lighter cold 
water of the Polar Current towards the west and north, as also in under 
the lighter warmer water of the Atlantic Current towards east and south. 

Warm water runs in everywhere under the cold toplayer of the 
Polar Current where-ever there is a chance, and forms the intermediate 
warmer layer between the cold polar water and the underlying bottom- 
water, having a density just between those of these two waters. But 
the intermediate warm water-layer is kept out in the above region whilst 
the formation of bottom-water is going on near the surface because this 
sinking water is heavier, at all depths from the surface downwards. 
There is consequently no room for the warm intermediate water to run 
in, and it would have to rise to the surface, where however, it will be 
cooled down and transformed into cold bottom-water. 

As soon as the cooling at the surface ceases in April and May, no 
more cold water is formed to replace that which sinks, and lighter water 
will consequently be found in its place near the surface. The later the 
date of observation in the warm season, the deeper will therefore the 
isotherms of —1° C. and —1‘2° C. and the isopycnal of 28:10 probably be 
found. For it is clear that conditions like those seen ¢, g. in Section 
IX (Pl. X), at Amundsen’s Stations 20, 21, and 13, cannot be stable, 
and they cannot last long unless there is some external source of con- 
tinuous renewal; the isopycnal of 28-10 is too steeply inclined towards 
both sides. This heavy water must evidently sink to greater depths and 
spread out towards the sides, in endeavouring to attain a position of 
equilibrium. The sinking of the isopycnal towards a position of equili- 
brium will continue during summer, and autumn until the cooling at the 
surface during the winter has again reestablished the former conditions 1. 


! Prof. O. Pettersson (of. cit.) believes that the bottom-water of the Norwegian Sea 
is Polar water coming from the North Polar Basin with the East Greenland Polar Cur- 
rent, but its low temperature and comparatively high salinity prove that this is im- 
possible. Besides, if the cold heavy water at Amundsen’s Stations where actually 
moving southwards from the North Polar Basin it would be extremely difficult to ex- 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 89 


It must consequently be expected that great alterations in salinity 
and temperature will take place at the surface in this region from summer 
to winter, and temperatures during the winter and spring will be found 
to be very low. 

In the winter and spring of 1882, when the writer visited the sea 
between Jan Mayen, Spitsbergen, and Bear Island, the ice masses ex- 
tended unusually far towards the east. The following temperature-series 
were taken, (with a Negretti and Zambra Reversing Thermometer) near 


or inside the margin of the floating ice-masses. 


Sertes of Water-Temperatures taken, in March and April, 1&82. 


Depth in March 28! March 28 April 5 April ro | April 24 ! 
714° 55 N. Lat. nie 2° |74° 8! N. Lat.|73° 4! N. Lat.|73° ro’ N. Lat. 
Norwe- JO ey y ae 10° 30° 13° 24! Et” Io: 
Metres gian E. Long. ae 1D, Meoyores E. Long. | E. Long. 
Fathoms | 
Air Air =o? €. —8° C. | —6 C. 
° ° ==1.6) (C, — 7 (CG Sawn nye G, |) xe? C; 
19 Io —I4 » =i ” sea | eet 
38 20 STO) 212), TG 
57 30° StS) yy Sr 
TS) 4° | 14 ” 
94 50° er ROME Se oP 
113 60 0:3), 
I51r 80 CM 
188 100 ay 


The water-samples taken at these stations, and brought home in 
sealed glass-tubes for chemical research, got lost in the laboratory where 
they were going to be examined, and their salinities were thus unfor- 
tunately never determined. 

The Station on March 28, 1882, was taken about 8 naut. miles 
south of Mohn’s Stat. 304 where the following temperatures were found 
on July 20, 1878, at about the same depths: 


plain why this water is not deflected more towards the Greenland coast by the Earth’s 
rotation; and how it is possible for an intermediate layer of warm water, moving south- 
wards, to occur between this heavy water and the coast. It would be necessary to 
assume that this intermediate warm water had made the circuit of the North Polar 
Basin, north of the region from which the cold heavy water comes. 

1 Professor Mohn gives the temperature series of these two stations in his memoir on the 
Norwegian Sea (of. cit. p. 95) but he has reduced the temperatures by —o'r° C. It is 
probable however, that the above values are more accurate. He has also altered the 
reading for 20 fathoms on April 24, 1882, to — instead of + (and gives —2° C). 


2 An ice-crust was then being formed at the water-surface. 


go FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 
Mohn Nansen : 

Bente July 20, 1878 | March 28, 1882 ee 

o metres aie? (G. of SOG Sa (C 
18 ” 18 ” aA ” — oie ” 
37 ” = Oi9", ay 1) ” Ong ” 
55 ” —O9 y —1I'3 ” SVE oy 

73 ” —04 ” [—1r'1 al oF | 
91 ” —O5 ” Sie ” Oars ” 
Mean O'45 » —1'23 , —1'68 , 


The Station of April 5, 1882, was about 22 kilometres west of Dr. 
Hjorts Station 64 of Sept. 6, 1900 (the Michael Sars). Hjort’s salinities, at 
this place, varied between 35'02 °/oo, at the surface and 20 metres, and 
35°10 %/oo at 100 metres. 

His temperatures were the following: 


Hjort Nansen F 

pepe Sept. 6, tg0o | April 5, 1882 Digierence 
o metres AsSea Ge Sasa? Le —6'5° C. 
20 ” 4°79 ” aay ” eS Ey ” 
40 ” Biss ” a 7 ” = 595} ” 
60 ” 325 » ey ” 45951 in 
80 ” [3°0 wall [ ak] al aap ” 
100 ” 2°90 ea Hs I OT) —46 ” 
Mean 3°68 ” ae ” —5'38 ” 


Hjort’s Station 64 was taken near the time of temperature maxi- 
mum for de upper water-strata, and 48 days later in the season than 
Mohn’s Station 304. It is, therefore, natural that there should be a 
greater difference between his summer- and the writer’s winter tem- 
peratures. But the difference is still too great to be explained simply 
by cooling during the winter; there has in addition probably been some 
great displacement of the cold surface waters towards the east during 
the winter and spring of 1882, since the ice was met with much farther 
east than is generally the case. Whether ‘“Bottom-Water” actually was 
being formed at the surface at my Station of April 5, 1882, cannot be 
decided as the salinity is unknown; it is indeed not impossible but it 
seems more probable that the low temperatures down to 94 metres 
belonged to a layer of less saline water, and that higher temperatures 
would have been met with in the water underlying. 

But howsoever this may be the above vertical temperature series 
which are also the only ones existant from this region of the sea for 
winter and early spring, indicate what great amplitudes may occur there 
in the upper water-strata, between summer-maximum and winter-minimum. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901, gl 


They also demonstrate what great changes may take place in the water- 
masses of these regions in the winter, and it furthermore seems probable 
that the position and extension of the area of formation for cold “Bottom- 
Water” may differ much in different years. 


Temperature and Circulation in the Bottom-Water of the 
Norwegian Sea. 


As no agencies exist which can lower the temperature of water at 
the bottom after it has once sunk below the sea-surface, whilst on the 
ather hand the internal heat of the Earth will raise its temperature very 
slowly after it has reached the bottom}, the lowest temperatures of the 
bottom-water will be most likely found near the region where it is 
formed; and this seems also to be the case actually. 

In the southern part of the Norwegian Sea, between Norway, Ice- 
land, and Jan Mayen, the temperature near the bottom, at depths of 2000 
and 3000 metres, is about —11° C, according to the observations made 
during the cruise of the ‘“‘Michael Sars” in 1900. In the sea between Iceland 
and Jan Mayen and east of Iceland, the Ingolf Expedition found bottom- 
temperatures of about —1‘o° C. and —1°1° C. at depths between 1800 
and 2500 metres*, At Station 18 of the Michael Sars, in 1900, 
between Iceland and Jan Mayen, the bottom temperature was —o'94° C. 
At Dr, Hjort’s Stations 64 and 65 (in September 1900) west and 
southwest of Bear. Island, the bottom-temperatures seem to have been 
about the same, or perhaps slightly lower®. At Amundsen’s Stations 
15, 16, 20, and 23, where the observations go down to 2000 metres, 
the temperatures were lower, about —1°3° C. (according to the obser- 
vations taken with the most trustworthy instrument, Richter Reversing 
Thermometer No. 113) and the probability is that similar temperatures 
would have been found near the bottom‘. It is therefore evident that 
the temperature of the bottom-water is appreciably lower at all depths 


! Cf. Nansen, Oceanography of N. P. Basin, pp. 341 ef seq. 

See M. Knudsen, Hydrography, The Danish Ingolf-Expedition, vol. 1, No. 2, Copen- 

hagen 1899. 

3 The temperatures were taken with the Pettersson-Nansen Insulated Water-Bottle, and 
cannot be corrected sufficiently accurately. 

4 Prof. Otto Pettersson believes (of. cit. Geogr. Journal, vol. XXIV, p. 317) that the 
present writer’s assumption of a temperature for the deep of the northern Norwegian Sea 
of “probably about —1°3° C. or —r1°4° C.” rests upon Mohn’s deep soundings in 1878, 
and is therefore uncertain. As is seen above, this is a mistake, the assumption in 
question rests upon Amundsen’s observations, which are also the most trustworthy 
hitherto published from this region. 


g2 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. Kl. 


in this region, than in any other part of the Norwegian Sea, hitherto 
investigated with modern instruments 1, 

The circulation of the bottom water in the Norwegian Sea cannot 
be described in detail. As was pointed out above, it is chiefly formed 
and sinks towards the bottom during the winter and spring in the regions 
between 73° and 76° N, Lat., and between 4° W. Long. and 4° E. Long, 
From this region it moves along the bottom and spreads out laterally 
producing perhaps several cyclonic movements in the deep strata of the 
Norwegian Sea. During this circulation it is very slowly heated from 
the underlying warmer bottom, and also slightly from the overlying 
warmer water, chiefly by convection. In this manner its temperature 
near the bottom is gradually raised from about —1°3° C. to about —1°1° C. 
and perhaps —1'o° C. 

It seems hardly probable that the bottom-water flows directly south- 
wards by a single cyclonic movement, from the. region of its formation 
along the western slope of the deep basin towards the Feroe-Iceland 
Ridge, thence eastwards along its northern sope, and northwards again 
along the eastern slope op the basin. For if it be assumed that a layer 
of bottom-water, about 500 metres thick, has been heated as much as 
o.1° C., by the subterranean heat of the Earth, on its way from 73° 
N. Lat. to 64° N. Lat., north of the Feroe Islands it means that the 
water has spent perhaps 50 years on this distance, or in other words 
that it has moved with an average velocity of about 0°64 mm. pr. second. 


1 At Ryders Station X a temperature of —1°3° C. was observed at 1830 metres (1000 
fathoms). At his Stat. IX the observations gave —1‘2° C. as being the temperature 
of the bottom-water below 1130 metres (600 fathoms). 

Previous expeditions have on the whole obtained very low temperatures for the 
bottom-waters of the Norwegian Sea. This is, for instance, the case with the Nor- 
wegian North Atlantic Expedition, whose bottom-temperatures seem to be on the whole 
one or two tenths of a degree too low; and in some cases even more, e. g. at Stat. 302, 
where Mohn gives a bottom-temperature of —1°7° C., whilst his Negretti and Zambra 
reversing thermometer gave —1°48° C. which is more probable, although perhaps even 
that is somewhat too low. But Mohn’s numerous bottom-temperatures show a marked 
tendency to sink towards the region of his Stations 302 and 303, and of Amundsen’s 
Stations (see Mohn, of. cit. Pl. XXV). Mohn has, however, had a theory that the 
bottom-temperatures should be especially low below the East Greenland Polar Current, 
and he drew his bottom isotherms accordingly, which has lead to a somewhat misleading 
picture. £. g. bottom-temperatures as low as —1°4° and —1°5° C. do certainly not exist 
in the sea between Jan Mayen and Iceland. The bottom-temperature there is about 
—r° C. according to the Ingolf Expedition, and —o’94° C. at Stat. 18 of the ‘Michael 
Sars” (Aug. 1900) further west, and at Stat. r9 nearer Jan Mayen it was —o°88° C. 
at 1300 metres. Ryder found the temperature near the bottom at his Stations II and 
III (between Iceland and Jan Mayen) to be —r1‘o° C., and —1'r° C. at Stat. IV, at a 
depth of 1830 metres, : 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 93 


This is an extremely slow movement; and inasmuch as no appreciable 
difference has been observed between the bottom-temperatures on the 
eastern and western sides of the deep basin to the south of the latitude 
of Jan Mayen, it seems probable that the bottom-waters really move 
with much greater velocities and that the movements of the water are 
much more complicated. There may be several vortices of cyclonic 
or anticyclonic movement near the bottom, perhaps one in the southern 
part of the Norwegian Sea, south of 70° N. Lat., and one or more 
in its northern part, between Jan Mayen, Spitsbergen, and Greenland. 


Renewal of the Bottom Water of the Norwegian Sea. 


It might seem somewhat astonishing that the great bulk of bottom- 
water, filling at least two thirds of the whole basin of the Norwegian 
Sea, should originate from such a small area as that above indicated; 
but the actual renewal of the cold bottom-water in this basin must be 
an extremely slow process. The Bottom-Water does not extend across 
the ridge anywhere between Iceland and Norway, as is easily seen by 
examining the temperature on the Iceland-Feroe-Scotland Ridge, which 
is nowhere below zero. This is fully proved by the numerous soundings 
taken by the Danish, Scottish, and Norwegian expeditions during the 
last five years. It is also very improbable that any bottom-water with 
a temperature below —1°C. ever gets across the ridge between Iceland 
and Greenland. No Stations taken by the Danes, or during the expe- 
dition with the “Michael Sars’, in 1900, indicate any very cold water 
near the bottom in this region. 

Capt. Ryder took one souding (Stat. XXV///, Aug. 1892), be- 
tween Iceland and Greenland, in 67° 19’ N. Lat. and 25° 3’ W. Long., 
which is north of the ridge, and he found at a depth of 1280 metres 
(7oo fathoms) a bottom temperature of —o'6° C. 

During the Danish /ngolf-Expedition, in 1895 and 1806, a great 
many Stations were taken in the sea between Iceland and Greenland, but 
most of them were on the southern side of the Iceland-Greenland Ridge, 
and gave comparatively high bottom-temperatures, above 1° C. with the 
exception of Stat. 12 (in 64° 38’ N. Lat., 32° 37’ W. Long.) where the bottom- 
temperature was 073° C, at a depth of 1958 metres which would seem to 
indicate that in this region there may have been some southward outflow of 
cold bottom-water across the ridge to the north. Stat. 15 was on the 
ridge, at 66° 18’ N. Lat., 25° 59’ W. Long., and gave a bottom-temperature 
of —o'75° C, at 621 metres, the lowest bottom-temperature observed in 


94 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


this region. During the cruise with the “Michael Sars”, in 1900, a 
series of temperatures (Stat. 13, Aug. 3, 1900) was taken to the north 
of this Station, in 66° 42’ N. Lat., 26° 4o’ W. Long., and a temperature 
of o'14° C. at the bottom in 550 metres found. 

North of Iceland the Ingolf expedition found a bottom-temperature 
of —o'8 C. at Stat, 125 in 66° 8’ N. Lat., 16° 2’ W. Long.; depth 1373 
metres 1. 

Near the Greenland coast, in Denmark Strait, Axel Hamberg 
observed in 1883 nothing but warm water under the Polar Current, and 
the temperature was about 3° C. near the bottom. It is thus seen that 
at no place hitherto examined, does bottom-water with a temperature 
below — o0°8° C. exists on or near the Iceland-Greenland Ridge, while 
on the Iceland-Fzroe-Scotland Ridge the bottom-temperatures are even 
much higher. There is therefore hardly any possibility that bottom- 
water with a temperature below —o’8° C., or perhaps even o° C., can 
get out of the Norwegian Sea and southwards. It is necessary to assume 
that the bottom-water circulates in the deep basin of this sea, until it 
shall have become warmed up towards zero chiefly by intermixture 
with the overlying warmer water; it may then be carried out, chiefly 
across. the ridge in the Denmark Strait, under the polar current. But 
no great quantity can be carried out of the basin, and it is at once obvious 
that the renewal of the Bottom-Water of the Norwegian Sea in this way 
must be an extremely slow process. The quantity of cold water formed 
at the surface and sinking to the bottom during the winter, in Amund- 
sen’s region, between Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen, may therefore be 
expected to be amply sufficient to feed this circulation. 


‘ During the cruises of the ,,Fylla”’, of the Danish Navy, in the summers of 1877 and 
and 1878, several series of deep-sea temperatures were taken in the sea west and 
north-west of Iceland. (See Hoffmeyer, Geografisk Tidsskrift, Copenhagen, vol. II, 
1878, p. 97, and Bardenfleth, brd., vol. Ill, 1879, p. 46). The thermometers used 
have, however, evidently given too low temperatures. In 66° 25’ N. Lat. and 25° 50‘ 
W. Long. a bottom-temperature of -—r"1° C. was observed at 650 metres (1878), and 
in 67° 40‘ N. Lat., 22° 23‘ W.Long., the bottom-temperature at 660 metres was deter- 
mined as —1.6° C. which is an improbable value. 

Axel Hamberg, Bithang till K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handlingar, vol. 1X, No. 16 
Shockholm, 1884, p. 13. 


n 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 95 


Vil. The Bottom-Water of the North Polar Basin. 


In the North Polar Basin the bottom-water has a minimum temperature 
of between —o'8° C, and —o'g C. according to the observations made 
during the drift of the “Fram” !, The salinity should, according to the deter- 


1 Professor Otto Pettesson (Geograph. Journal, London, vol. XXIV, 1904, pp. 317—318) 
appears to be somewhat doubtful as to the accuracy of the temperature determinations taken 
on the “Fram”, and he even says that it is just as “possible that the temperature and 
salinity (of the bottom-water of the North Polar Basin) are lower than in the adjacent 
part of the Norwegian Sea as that they are higher’. It is not quite clear how Petters- 
son can have got this idea. It was pointed out, in the Memoir on the Oceanography 
of the North Polar Basin, that the determinations of specific gravity (and salinity) are 
not as accurate as would have been desirable; this is to be ascribed to the inherent defects, 
of the methods then generally in use. But, as will be mentioned latter, there is no 
possibility whatever that the salinity of the bottom-water of the North Polar Basin, is 
lower than that of the Norwegian Sea. The inaccuracies of the determinations of spe- 
cific gravity, when treated in the way employed helow, are not greater than, for in- 
stance, the inaccuracies of the salinities which Pettersson has published in the series 
of observations from Arrhenius’s Stations in 1896, and the Stations of Kolthoff’s expe- 
dition with the Frithjof, in t900; the values obtained, inasmuch as none of them are 
accurate, are so far fairly comparable. The only observations of salinities, hitherto 
published from the northern part of the Norwegian Sea, to give a considerably higher 
order of accuracy, are those of Amundsen in igor; and the observations of Dr. 
Hjort, on the ‘‘Michael Sars’, east of Bear Island and Spitsbergen in 1900 and 1ogo1. 

As to the temperatures observed in the North Polar Basin even they are not as 
accurate as they ought to be, but they are at any rate much more accurate than, for 
instance, those published from Arrhenius’s Stations in 1896 and Kolthoff’s Stations in 
1900 (where there are evident errors exceeding 0'5° C., or at some of Arrhenius’s Sta- 
tions even more than 1° C.). The errors in the final (of. cit., pp. 244—-256) temperature 
values of the bottom-water in the North Polar Basin cannot, at any rate for the series 
from the summer-months, be more than + o'1° C. but are probably in most cases much 
less, as is proved by the conformity between the observations at different depths and 
at different Stations. Pettersson does not apparently approve of the use of “probable correc- 
tions”. It would certainly be a great advantage if the zero-corrections of the instru- 
ments used could be accurately determined before and after each series of observations, 
but this could not be done during the Fram-expedition, as there was no pure snow or 
ice available for it; and then there is no other course to follow than to use “probable” 
corrections, if any probable results at all are to be obtained. Prof. Pettersson mentions 
(Joc. cit. p. 317) as an example to prove the probable inaccuracy of our temperature- 
determinations Dr. Blessing’s observation from 1900 metres at Stat. 24, on Dec. 2, 1995, 
where the reading was —o'65° C. (Oceanography of N. P. Basin, p. 131). Pettersson 
thinks that according to the very careful and complete information given in the Memoir 
about the thermometer used (Negretti and Zambra Reversing Thermometer No. 75,680) 
it must be regarded as uncertain whether this reading should after correction, indicate 
a temperature of —1'05° C., or —o"77° C., or —o'7r° C., or —0'65° C. As it is impor- 
tant to know whether Pettersson’s doubt is justified, and just how far these observations 
are trustworthy, it is worth while making the following remarks here, whilst at the 


096 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


minations, be about 35"1 °/oo (computed by means of Knudsen’s tables, see 
below). This water is consequently different from the bottom-water of the 
Norwegian Sea, if these determinations be correct. For this reason it 
was assumed by the writer that there could be no open communication 
between the deep basin of the North Polar Sea and that of the Nor- 
wegian Sea; otherwise the heavy bottom-water would flow into the latter. 


same time referring the reader to the original Memoir now in question (Oceanography of 
N. P. Basin, pp. 40—58, 237—242). 

The instrument used (N. & Z. No. 75,680) had a correction of + 0’07° C. in May 
1893, and of + 0.00° C. in March 1898. The diminution of the correction is evidently 
due to the secular contraction of the glass, and it may consequently be expected that 
the actual error of the instrument had been somewhere between these limits during the 
expedition if the thermometer had not been lying, when out of use, in a room with 
low temperature. By comparison with another thermometer (N. & Z. No. 75,684, the 
zero-corrections of which were determined in May 1893, in October 1900, as well as 
by numerious comparisons with other thermomejers during the expedition) it was found, 
however, that the correction was —o'06° C. on July 29, 1895, and this was accepted as 
the probable one for that year, although in reality it might possibly have been anywhere 
between this and + o'oo° C. But the inaccuracy thus arising cannot consequently 
amount to many hundreths of a degree and the correction will on the whole tend to 
give a too low temperature. On February 5, 1896, Dr. Blessing determined the zero- 
correction of this instrument to be —o'4° C. but as he himself says (see Oceanography 
etc., p. 58, foot-note) the method used for the determination cannot have been trustworthy. 
The method employed is described in the Memoir (p. 238); as is there pointed out 
it must inevitably have given a minus-corrections at least 0’28° C. too big, and thus 
the zero-correction found by Blessing on February 5, 1896, cannot at any rate have 
been greater than —o'r2° C. But as Blessing himself says the determination cannot 
have been trustworthy, because he had to “keep the thermometer in his hand” while 
it was being reversed, (and consequently had to lift it out of the melting hoar-frost 
into the warm air before reversing); the real error was therefore less, and therefore 
approaching the error actually assumed, It is a well-known fact that if the zero-point 
determination be not very carefully done, a much too great minus-correction is generally 
obtained. Pettersson’s assumption that the zero-correction of —o’4° C. found by Blessing 
may have been correct, is consequently very improbable. There is, however, another 
circumstance, which might tend to make the temperature-readings too low, in cases like 
that mentioned by Pettersson, v/s. that the temperature of the air on the day in 
question was low, —4o° C.; but this, the only possible cause of an appreciable in- 
accuracy, is not mentioned by Pettersson. If the thermometer, after coming up from 
the water, had had time to assume the airtemperature before the reading was taken, 
its indication would have to be corrected by about + 0°55°C. The thermometer was, 
however, as a rule kept below the water-surface, until convenient for taking the reading, 
it was then hauled up and read off as soon as possible; but as this had to be done 
with a lens, and during the dark winter (as on the above Occasion) by the light of a 
lantern, it might take some time; thus the broken off mercury might have been 
somewhat cooled in the air, and accordingly have given too low indications. In 
making the corrections, however, it was assumed that the thermometer had only been 
cooled down to the temperature of the upper water-strata, and in the case mentioned 
by Pettersson the reading was therefore reduced by —o'04° C. and a temperature of 
—o'69° C. thus obtained for 1900 metres on Dec. 2, 18095. Consequently the real 
temperature cannot have been lower than this value, provided that the thermometer was 
correctly read off, but there is a possibility or even a probability that it may have been 
somewhat higher. As already pointed out, the deep-sea temperatures taken with the re- 


* 


eas 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 97 


If it be assumed that the true salinity be only 35:00 oo its density (0) 
at —o'9° C. would be about 28°17, and if the salinity be 35:10 °/oo the 
density would be 28°25. At that time it therefore seemed necessary to 
assume that this particular bottom-water was from the intermediate 
warmer strata (between 250 and 700 metres) which had been cooled 
down to its lower temperatures somewhere in the still unknown parts 
of the North Polar Basin itself. But this sea is covered by a layer, at 
least 200 metres thick, of lighter cold water of very low salinity, de- 
creasing upwards from about 34°7 °/oo, at 200 metres, towards 30 °/oo or 
32 %/oo at the surface. It seemed therefore hardly probable that water 
with a salinity of abouth 35 °/oo, could occur near the surface anywhere 
inside the area of this sea!. It was therefore thought that the only way in 


versing thermometers on cold winter-days may have a tendency to be too low; and the 

series of temperatures taken during the summer, on days when the temperature of the 
air was very nearly the same as that of the water, are therefore the more trustworthy. 
The final values of these series, given in the Memoir pp. 244—256, may be expected 
to have a fairly high degree of accuracy, at least as compared with those of most 
other expeditions. The writer thinks that especially the series of temperature taken 
in June and August, 1894, and those taken in July, 1895, are very good. As the 
conditions are so extremely uniform, especially in the deep layers of this basin, as 
proved by all the observations, these series give very reliable information about the 
vertical distribution of temperature in the bottom-water of that sea, and as it is known 
that the density of this bottom-water must be very nearly uniform at the same levels 
throughout the whole basin, there cannot possibly be much difference in the temperature 
of the deep layers in any other part of it; unless it be assumed that the salinity also 
differs much which is highly improbable. 

It must therefore be assumed that hardly anywhere in the North Polar Basin ean 
the minimum temperature of the bottom-water be much below —o’9° C. 

In the connection a temperature reading of —1'14°, on October 27, 1894, for 
2500 metres may be mentioned here. Corrected by the instrumental error and error 
by cooling in water (—o’04, see |. c. pp. 241—242), this reading would give a tem- 
perature of —r°18° C., which is, however, an impossible value since a temperature of 
—o'84° C. at 3000 metres was observed on the same occasion, it would give the water 
a too high density, and would make it sink rapidly to the bottom, unless it be also 
assumed that just at this one depth the water happened to have been of a salinity 
much lower than that of the bottom-water as found at all other Stations in the Polar 
Basin; which is hardly possible. The air-temperature on that day was —33° C., with 
a wind of 3 metres per second; and it is clear that the termometer has been exposed 
too long to the air before being read off; the broken off mercury was cooled down 
some twenty degrees to that the correct temperature must have been between —o’8 
and —o’9° C. If the mercury had had time to assume the air temperature, the reading 
corrected for instrumental error should have been reduced by + 045° C. which would 
have indicated a temperature of —o'73°C., and that is evidently too high. (In the 
footnote about this temperature-reading, op. crt., p. 252, there is a mistake, the reading 
being stated to be —1'24° C., instead of —1'14° C.). 

! The only possibility would be that north of Spitsbergen and north of Novaya Zemlya, 
the vertical circulation during the winter, might give the surface water a comparatively 
high salinity (see later). 


Vid,-Selsk. Skrifter. I M.-N, KI, 1906. No. 3. 


98 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


which the bottom-water could be cooled down to —o’8° C, and —o’9? C. 
would be by contact with the overlying cold water-stratum. But along 
the “Fram’s’’ route the cold bottom-water was separated from the cold 
top-layer by an intermediate warmer layer 600 or 700 metres thick, 
where the temperatures were above zero, It seemed very difficult to 
understand that in the still unknown parts of the basin there could be 
such entirely different conditions, that the whole bulk of thick warm 
water could be cooled down to —o’8° C. merely by contact with the 
overlying layer of cold Polar water, and that in this unknown region, 
the temperature would, from the surface to the bottom, at al] depths be 
below —o8 C. This cooling could not, to any great extent, be caused 
by intermixture with the overlying less saline strata, for the salinity 
would be thus too much reduced. It seemed extremely difficult to con- 
ceive, that such a great bulk of water, so well protected against cooling 
by direct radiation from the surface, by an overlying lighter water- 
stratum, could be so much cooled down chiefly by convection, It would 
seem to require a quite unreasonable length of time. 

Nevertheless no other explanation was apparent?!; since the salinity, 
as also the temperature, was too high to make it seem likely that this 
bottom-water could have come from the Norwegian Sea. But the more it 
is considered the greater appears the difficulty in understanding how the 
bottom-water of the North Polar Basin can actually be cooled down to 
—o'8° C. and —o'g° C. while under a thick protecting cover of lighter cold 
Polar water; it seems utterly impossible?. If, therefore, there be any 
possibility, in spite of the determinations, that the salinity of the bottom- 
water is as low as about 34°93 °/oo it would be a much simpler and 
more probable explanation to assume that the bottom-water of the North 
Polar Basin, is formed in the same region as the bottom-water of the 
Norwegian Sea; further, that it flows thence into the North Polar Basin, 
underneath the intermediate warmer layer, just as it flows along the 
bottom southward into the southern part of the Norwegian Sea, and is 
slowly heated on the way by the subterraneau heat of the Earth as well 


' Oceanography of N. P. Basin, pp. 337 ef seq. 

2 Prof. Pettersson (Geogr. Journ. vol. XXIV, pp. 318, 320) has adopted the writer’s 
previous theory that the cold bottom-water of the North Polar Basin is originally water 
of the intermediate warmer layer which has been cooled down to a lower temperatures ; 
and he thinks that this cooling might be effected by melting of ice. Even if the ice 
did melt in the North Polar Basin in the manner assumed by Pettersson, which it does 
not (the ice is there always growing thicker from one year to another), his theory is im- 
possible because there are no ice-bergs in the North Polar Basin, and the polar ice is 
much too thin to reach down into the warmer water-strata underlying the thick layer 
of lighter Polar water, 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 99 


as by, intermixture with the overlying warmer layers. The probability 
would then be that there is some kind of communication between the deep 
basins of the Norwegian Sea and the North Polar Sea; and that there 
can be no high ridge between Spitsbergen and Greenland as the writer 
assumed in the Memoir cited. 

This ridge, if it exists, must in that case be very low, rising perhaps 
to depths where the bottom-water of the Northern Norwegian Sea, be- 
tween Spitsbergen and northern Greenland, has a temperature of about 
—1°C. This low ridge would then prevent the coldest bottom-water 
of the deepest basin in the Norwegian Sea from running into the North 
Polar Basin. It has, however, been seen that the bottom-water is pro- 
sbably heated from about —1°3° C. to about —11° C, on its way from 
74° N. Lat. to the southern part of the Norwegian Sea. And a similar 
heating must be considered likely on the much longer way through the 
North Polar Basin, which must be considered as like a great fjord, 
where movement of the deep water is extremely slow. The higher 
temperature is, therefore, no hindance in the way of assuming that the 
bottom-water of the latter is the same as that of the Norwegian Sea. 
It is only the higher salinity which seems to stand in the way of accep- 
ting the above explanation. 

The writer has, therefore, again examined whether there is no 
possibility that the values of salinity in the North Polar Basin, as given 
in the Memoir, are not in spite of every possible care much too high!. 
All his own observations made with the hydrometer, in 1894? have 
been revised and the readings corrected for the absolute minimum and 


maximum corrections * of the instrument (Hydrometer Aderman No. 2), 


5 . . nijen” C. Aer 
The values of specific gravity (S are and salinity have been com- 
ro) 


puted by means of Knudsen’s Tables ¢. 


{ Op. cit. pp. 146 et seq. 

2 Op. cit. pp. 168—184. 

3 7. e. the instrumental errors. at maximum and minimum of surface-tension of the sea- 
WatenmiG7. Op. Cit. Pp. 330. 

4 The coefficient of thermal expansion for the glass of the hydrometer has been assumed 


to be between o'000026 and o'000028. 


As stated in the memoir, the salinities, somputed from the specific gravity (s 775° Cc 
Ge 


nG[iS) ~ (Co : 
by Tornge’s formula [Salinity °/,, = (s Se —r) 1315] are, for values about 


35'0 8/99, about 0°16 9/9, higher than the values obtained from the same specific gra- 
vities by Knudsen’s Tables. If the observations with the hydrometer be computed by 
Knudsen’s Tables, they will, however, also give somewhat lower specific gravities than 
published in the memoir; this is especially the case with observations taken at somewhat 
low temperatures. And thus the final values of the salinity will be still more reduced, 


100 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


It has then been found that at depths between 350 and 3000 metres 
the values of the salinity must have been between the following upper 
and lower limits, on the dates mentioned: 


Salinity and Density 
Tete Dene Temperature || ~ ; ; E 
1894 Metres Lowest possible Highest possible 
Value Value 
hee ot 

Nia 26 < 350 m. 036" G: 
Oct GttS hie meme 400 , O76. 34°96 28°05 
SOON AD Go co A 400 , O38), 35°16 28°23 
Janey 26> nee 450 040 , || 35702 28'12 
Oct: Gh) tn te | 450 » ora; 35°10 28°17 
\tioeeicn 2 5 bf | 600 ,, OB Pale 34500 28°08 
Wore wo 6 SG 700 —OI13 y Qh rer, 28°22 
junet2 7a eee 800 _, ryote | 36°16 28°25 
Weis Boos oo « IZOONs, —O034 , || 35 11 28°23 
INH AD 95 80 6H 1400 , —o'44 35/08 28°21 
Witter eG bh 6 1600 , —o'58 , 35°11 28°24 
Oct=.277 pave sae 2500 , —o'89 , 34°99 28°16 
Oct. 202 t aaeune 3000 ,, —o84 , 35°10 28°25 


If the bottom-water of the North Polar Basin with temperatures 
below zero, has a nearly uniform salinity, like that of the Norwegian 
Sea, this salinity must consequently, according to the observations, be 
between 35°08 °/, and 35:11 °/,.. As there seems to be no probable 
reason to doubt these derterminations it appears at present, until new 
investigations shall have been made, necessary to assume that the salinity 
of the bottom-water of the North Polar Basin is about 35'r0 °/oo. 

On November 30 and December 2, 1895, Dr. Blessing bottled 
several water-samples from depths between 150 and goo metres in the 
North Polar Basin. These samples were brought home, and the specific 
gravity of five of them carefully determined by Mr. Hercules Tornge 
with the Sprengel pyenometer!. If the salinities be computed by Knud- 
sen’s Tables from the specific gravities thus obtained the following values 
for salinity and density, of the samples from 800 and 850 metres are 


obtained: 


1 Nansen, Oceanography of N. P. Basin, p. 214. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. IOI 


Depth Temperature Salinity | Ot 
800 m. Griz? (eS || eye) 5. | 28°11 
850 , —O'OIrI , 35°01 , | 28°136 


These values are, somewhat lower, than those found above!; but 
the samples were taken with a water-bottle of Blessing’s construction 
which can hardly have closed perfectly tightly?. Some slight quantity 
of water from the upper water-strata may thus have come into the 
samples, and the salinities have become somewhat too low as a result. 
On the other hand there is also a possibility that they may have come 
out somewhat too high by reason of some slight evaporation trough the 
glass stoppers of the bottles, while placed, for sterilisation, in boiling 
water for half an hour without however being heated to boiling point °. 
The glass stoppers were afterwards carefully soldered by paraffin-wax; 
an when the bottles were oppened, in 1898, the paraffin was still in 
perfectly good condition; no considerable evaporation is therefore likely 
to have occurred. There is therefore on the one hand a possibility that 
the salinities may have been somewhat higher than indicated by deter- 
mination of the above samples; it may on the other hand have been 


slightly lower. And if the latter has been the case, the salinity of the 


! By computing the salinity according to Knudsen’s Tables Prof. Pettersson (/. c. pp. 
316—318) comes to the conclusion that there was a considerably higher salinity (of 
35/10 °/,,) at 450 metres than between 800 and goo metres of the same station. It was, 
however, pointed out (of. cit. p. 213) that the determination of the sample from 450 
metres was made by Dr. Heidenreich by means of an ordinary Specific Gravity Bottle 
with inserted thermometer, and was not sufficiently accurate. It was necessary first to 


un 
(o} 


reduce his somewhat inaccurate values of S ae. by a probable error of 0o’00006 
5 


(= 0'078 °/,, salinity). But even after this reduction the value for 450 metres is im- 
probable; for it will give the water at 450 metres a density (04) of 28°17 (temperature 
= 073°C.) while the densities at 800 and 850 metres were according to the values 
above, about 28°11 and 28136. The density at 450 metres cannot, at any rate, have 
been greater than these; the salinity therefore cannot have been above 35704 °/.., and 
was probably lower, provided of course that the values obtained for 800 and 850 
metres be correct. It is consequently seen that Pettersson is not on very safe ground 
in concluding from this one inaccurate observation that there was a higher salinity (of 
35/10 °/,,) at 450 metres, than at the greater depths. 

It might be mentioned that the values of temperatures given in Pettersson’s table 
loc. cit. p. 316) are not the final values (0p. cit. p. 255); but are somewhat too low. 

2 It may be mentioned that the writer, some years ago made a water-bottle of exactly 
the same construction, which did not, however, close tightly, and therefore had to be 
altered. 

eEGee Nansen, 0p. Gi. pa 202: 


102 FRIDTJOF NANSEN: M.-N. K1. 


bottom-water of the Norwegian Sea is approached as the correct value 
for these samples also. 

Howsoever this may be, it is at all events quite impossible to say 
anything at all with certainty, about the salinity of the bottom-water of 
the North Polar Basin on the basis of Blessing’s water-samples; whilst 
on the other hand the determinations made with the hydrometer make 
it impossible to estimate the salinity lower than 35°08 °/oo. 


The question now ts: 1s there much chance of Warm Water with such a 
High Salinity running into the North Polar Basin? 


The Atlantic water, carried into the North Polar Basin by the warm 
current along the west coast of Spitsbergen, cannot be heavier than the 
bottom-water of the Norwegian Sea; otherwise it would sink in the 
latter before it could cross the submarine ridge northwest of Spitsbergen. 
Its density (o,) must therefore be, at least somewhat, lower than that of 
the bottom-water, or lower than 28-10, at the time it crosses this ridge, 
and the probability is that the density is even lower than 28°02 (see 
Pl. V, maps for 1o0—400 metres), The maximum salinity which the water 
can possibly have at that moment, will therefore depend on its tem- 
perature. If there be assumed for the upper limit of the density as 
much as 28°10 the highest possible salinity would be 35°25 00 at 30° C., 
35°17 %o0 at 2°5° C., and 35°13 °%/o0 at 20°C, But if the upper limit of 
the density be 28:02 the maximum salinity would be 35°14 °/o0 at 30° C., 
3509 °/co. at 2°5° C., and 2504) at oe, 

According to Mohn’s Sections XXIV and XXV}1, off the north- 
west coast of Spitsbergen, the temperature of the warmest core of the 
current in August, 1878, was between 2° C. and 3° C., and mostly be- 
tween 2°C. and 2°5°C. (see his Sect. XXV). The salinity must conse- 
quently, have been for the greater part at least below 35°17 °/oo and 
probably below 35°09 °/o. According to Arrhenius’s Section (see 
Pl. X, Sect. IX) west of Northern Spitsbergen, in August, 1896, the 
warmest core of the current, with the highest salinities, had temperatures 
about 2°5° C.?; the salinity cannot at any rate have been above 35°17 °o0, 
and it has probably not been much above 35'09 oo. The salinity of 
35°22 9/00 (originally 35:29 0/00, see Pettersson and Ekman, af. cit.), 


{ Mohn, of. ct. Pl. XII. Mohn’s Section XXIII, westwards from Ice Sound on Spits- 
bergen, has remarkably low temperatures, and there appear to have been exceptional 
conditions in this region at the time the section was taken. 

2 See also the small Section north ot Spitsbergen, Pl. X, Sect. IX a. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 103 


with a temperature of 246° C., in 400 metres at his Station IV, is 
consequently much too high; it would give the water a density of 
about 2813, and make it considerably heavier than the underlying 
waters}, 

According to information kindly afforded by Dr. Axel Hamberg, 
the Oceanographer of the Nathorst Expedition to Spitsbergen in 1898, 
the highest salinity observed in the warm West Spitsbergen Current 
during that summer, was 35°19 °/00, which on being reduced to the 
values of Knudsen’s Tables, would probably be about 35°14 °/oo. And 
this was only found in one water-sample; the salinities othewise did not 
exceed 35°15 °/oo, or reduced 35°10 °/oo. This agrees fairly well with 
what might be expected on the basis of what has been pointed out above. 

In Chapter IV it was proved that in the Barents Sea there is formed, 
during winter and spring, a very cold bottom-water which has a 
higher salinity than the warmer water in the same region of the sea. 
It was also pointed out that some of the cold bottom-water, for- 
med in this same manner, may probably flow along the bottom 
into the North Polar Basin from the sea north of Novaya Zemlya. And 
this cold water, which has probably a very high salinity, may help to 
form the bottom-water of the North Polar Basin by being intermixed 
with some of the overlying warmer waters. 

There is also a possibility that the water of the warm Atlantic 
Current with a salinity above 35°0 °/oo, may be carried to the surface by 
vertical circulation during the winter, in the region north of Spitsbergen; 
and may be cooled down to about —1° C. or lower, just as in the 
Barents Sea, whilst the salinity may be somewhat increased by the 
formation of ice at the surface. At Arrhenius’s Stations HI—VI the 
surface-water had salinities between 34°5 °/oo and 34°82 0/oo. Mr. Hercules 
Tornoe of the Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition found a surface- 
salinity of about 34°6 °/oo? farther north on the very ridge, northwest 


1 It was already pointed out above (p. 59) that there are several discrapencies in the 
values of salinity and temperature for the different depths of Arrhenius’s Stations, 
published by Pettersson and Ekman. For 850 metres at Stat. IV, there is given 
a salinity of 3510 °/,,, (which reduced would be 3503 °/,,) and a temperature of 
205° C. Both salinity and temperature are much too high, the former was probably 
really near that of the bottom-water and the temperature near zero at that depth. At 
Stat. III the published values of temperature and salinity would give about the following 
densities, if the salinities be reduced by 0'07 °/,,: In 40 metres 27°49; in 60 metres 
27°89; in 80 metres 27°63; in 200 metres 27°89; in 300 metres 27°97; and in 500 
metres 27°88. A vertical distribution of density like this cannot exist in the Ocean, 
the observations from 60 and 500 metres at least, must be erroneous. 


Hercules Tornée, Chemistry, The Norw. North-Atlantic Exp. 1876—1878, p. 64. 


104 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. KI. 


of Spitsbergen, with a surface temperature of 5:2° C. (Mohn’s Stat. 362, 
in 79° 59’ N. Lat., 5° 4o’ E. Long.). In July, 1897, salinities of about 
35°0 °/oo were observed on the sea-surface between 78° and 79° Nv bate 
west of Spitsbergen, according to O. Pettersson and G. Ekman}, 
It is evident, that if water with such comparatively high salinities be 
cooled down to freezing point during the winter, a very active vertical 
circulation will arise, which may break trough the underlying warmer 
but more saline water and at last reach the bottom. Surface-water 
with a salinity of 34.82 9/00, as at Arrhenius’s Stat. IV, will have a 
density of 28:06 at its freezing-point (—1'90° C.), and water with a 
salinity of 35°0 %/oo will have a density of about 28-20 at its freezing 
point (—1'925°C.). It was pointed out above what great changes in 
Salinity and Temperature between Summer and Winter, may arise on 
and near the sea-surface in the’ Barents Sea and in the region of Amund- 
sen’s Stations 13—23, north of Jan Mayen. It would seem probable that 
similar great changes may also occur during the winter, in the sea north 
of the Spitsbergen coasts, and heavy bottom-water, like that of the eastern 
Barents Sea, might then be formed on the continental shelf in this re- 
gion; its salinity would in that case be increased by the formation of 
ice at the surface. The heavy cold water thus resulting may sink, and 
flow northwards along the slope of the Continental Shelf, into the deep 
North Polar Basin, where after being gradually mixed with overlying 
warmer waters, it may contribute to the formation of the bottom-water. 

Future investigations will finally have to decide whether the above 
value of about 35°10 %0o0 for the salinity of the bottom-water of the 
North Polar Basin is too high®. If this determination be confirmed, 
the possibility of a communication between the deep North Polar Basin 
and the deep basin of the Norwegian Sea, as well as of their bottom- 
waters, will be finally excluded. But in this case there are, as is shown 
above, two regions where the bottom-water of the North Polar Basin 
might originate, by being cooled down directly through radiation from 
the sea-surface, vzz. in the seas north of Spitsbergen and near northern 
Novaya Zemlya. 

It was stated above that only a small quantity of water was required 
yearly, to feed the circulation of the cold bottom-water of the Norwegian 


1 Loc. cit., p. 38. 

® Just one trustworthy water-sample at rooo or 1500 metres, from the sea to the north 
of Spitsbergen, would be sufficient to decide this question. The writer has made 
several attempts to get such a sample taken by different expeditions, but hitherto 
without success, nor has he been able to find time to go and take it himself. It is 
to be hoped, that in the near future this much to be desired sample may_be taken. 


1906. No.3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 105 


Sea, as its renewal is such an extremely slow process. But it must be 
expected that the renewal of the cold bottom-water of the enclosed North 
Polar Basin, which is like a great fjord, occurs still more slowly, and a 
much smaller quantity of water is required yearly, to feed the circula- 
tion of this water. It is therefore, not improbable that the cold waters, 
with high salinity, formed during the winter in the two above-mentioned 
regions, might be sufficient to maintain this circulation; and it is possible 
that this is a feasible solution for the problem of the origin of the heavy 
bottom-water in the North Polar Basin, in the case of the possibility of 
its coming from the Norwegian Sea being excluded. 


P. S. In 1904 Prof. Otto Pettersson published a paper “on the 
Influence of Ice-Melting upon Oceanic Circulation”!, which is repeatedly 
cited above. But as Pettersson’s theories in several important respects 
bear upon the subjects discussed in the present paper, they should perhaps 
be somewhat more fully touched upon here. In a somewhat modified 
form Pettersson still upholds his old theory as to the great importance 
of ice-melting in the formation of ocean-currents. 

Formerly? he was of the opinion that it was chiefly the buoyancy 
of the nearly fresh water, formed by the melting of ice, which produced 
the polar current between Iceland and Jan Mayen, whilst the cooling of 
the underlying waters was at the same time of some but less importance. 
But now, after the experiments of Mr. Sandstrom on the effect of ice- 
melting, he has obviously come to the conclusion that it is cooling 
which is of greatest importance; and this certainly seems to be more 
likely. But in one essential respect his standpoint is different now; he 
had previously only touched upon conditions obtaining in the sea between 
Iceland and Jan Mayen, but now he extends his theory to be available 
for all parts of the Ocean whereever ice occurs; even the North Polar 
Basin itself. He seems either to have overlooked the fact that the ice 
which melts must also once have been formed in the sea, or else he 
has misconceived the Polar ice as fresh-water ice from the Siberian 
rivers. It is of course true that river-ice carried into the sea, as well as 


glacial ice, cool the sea somewhat (as the heat disengaged during the 


1 Pettersson, Geographical Journal, London, vol. XXIV, 1904, pp. 285—333. 
2 Pettersson, Ofversigt af Kongl. Vet.-Akad. Forhandlingar. 1899, No. 3. Stockholm; 
Ymer, Stockholm, tg00, p. 157—189; Pett. Mitt. 1900, Heft UI and IV. 


106 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


freezing process was given to the land and atmosphere) but these small 
quantities of ice are of no importance compared with the enormous 
Polar ice-masses formed in the North Polar Basin itself, and the cooling 
thus produced, is naturally negligeable compared with that caused by 
radiation from the surface of the Polar and Arctic Seas during the long 
winter. 

On an earlier occasion! it was pointed out that it is the buoyancy 
of the layer, 200 metres thick, of diluted light water which, in 
connection with the wind, is of essential importance in the forma- 
tion of the East Greenland and East Iceland Polar Current and 
not the thin surface layer of diluted water formed by the _ice- 
melting. It is therefore not necessary to repeat these arguments 
here; there remains only to discuss Pettersson’s theory in its new form. 
It may first be pointed out that he still overlooks the fact that the 
Polar ice floats in a layer of diluted Polar water of low salinity, 100 
or 200 metres thick; and in the northern seas which he mentions, there 
is, according to the writer’s knowledge, not a single place where this ice 
comes into direct contact with Atlantic water. Distinction has, however, 
to be made between Polar ice and the thinner ice, of much wider distri- 
bution, which is formed during the winter in the northern parts of the 
Norwegian Sea itself (cf above p. 80). It is the latter kind of ice 
which has the wide extension eastwards mentioned by Pettersson, be- 
tween Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen, and between Jan Mayen and Iceland, 
in the spring and early summer; and by the melting of this ice the 
same quantity of heat is of course consumed as was disengaged on its 
formation. 

It was above (p. 78) pointed out that no appreciable quantity of 
heat can be conducted to the underside of the polar ice from the under- 
lying warmer water2, through the cold polar water with a temperature- 
minimum at 50 or 60 metres, 

Pettersson also appears to have forgotten that, the Atlantic Current 
in its way from the Shetlands to Spitsbergen is cooled about 10° C. 
near the surface and at least 4 or 5° C. in the deeper layers czthout 


any contact with ice (and the amplitude between summer and winter- 


1 Oceanography of N. P. Basin. See also Wyt Mag. for Naturvid. vol. 39, 1901, Pp. 157- 

2 If there be such an effective conduction of heat through these water strata, as Petters- 
son is prone to believe, the temperature-minimum at 50 metres must have a cooling 
effect upon the overlying water-strata; and if the water at 50 metres be cooled dowm 
to freezing point by contact with the ice it must naturally cause a formation of ice in 
the overlying water strata with a lower salinity. A conduction of heat to the ice- 
floes from below, through this temperature-minimum is of course excluded. 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. IO7 


temperatures is several degrees down to depths of many metres) whilst 
on the much longer way from Spitsbergen to the New Siberian Islands 
the water of the same current is cooled only 2° C. at the most. 

And again, the formation of the enormous masses of ice over the 
deep North Polar Basin disengages a great quantity of heat, compared 
with which the amount of heat consumed in melting ice during the short 
summer-months is indeed very small. The observations during the 
“Fram” Expedition also prove that the heat consumed by this melting 
(which is chiefly limited to the upper surface of the ice) is derived di- 
rectly from the sun and atmosphere, and not from the underlying sea- 
water (see above p. 80). This is also to a very great extent th 
case in the East Greenland Polar Current north of Denmark Strait (cf 
above p. 79)!. 

Pettersson also believes that this layer, 200 metres thick, of Polar 
water, covering the North Polar Basin (which is diluted by an intermixture 
between the water from Siberian (and American) rivers and the water carried 
into this Sea by the Atlantic Current) can only be formed by the mel- 
ting of ice, and that therefore “the fresh water from the Siberian rivers 
is converted into ice by freezing before its admixture with the Atlantic 
water”. He says that “it is necessary to admit this, because the inter- 
mingling of two water-layers of different salinity in a deep sea is an 
extremely slow process” (loc. czt. p. 321). Under these circumstances it 
is not clear how Pettersson thinks the layers of ordinary coast-water 
along the continental coasts can be formed without any formation or 
melting of ice. If he be correct, it is to be expected that during the 
summer the river water must float on the surface along the Siberian 
coast. But at only short distances outside the mouths of the Siberian 
rivers the surface water already has salinities of 10 and 20 °/oo, Pettersson 
apparently believes that all ice in the North Polar Basin is formed in 
the shallow sea over the continental shelves near the coasts, and is 
afterwards melted during its drift across the deep North Polar Basin. 
If so, the thickest ice-floes met with during the drift of the ‘Fram” 


1 If the heat required for the melting of the ice were chiefly taken from the heat of the 
warm Atlantic undercurrent, as assumed by Pettersson, it would be unlikely that this 
melting would depend to any great extent on the season. For this undercurrent has 
always very nearly the same temperature, and there could not consequently be any 
great difference in the distribution of polar ice in summer and winter; whilst in seas 
like the Kara Sea, and the shallow Siberian Sea, there could hardly ever be any ice- 
melting because there is no warm undercurrent. But’ nevertheless there is actually a 
very great difference in the distribution of the ice between summer and winter as 
Pettersson himself points out. 


108 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. M.-N. K1. 


ought to have been found near to the Siberian Coast. But the real state 
of things is the exact opposite, as is proved by the observations made 
during that expedition. Over the continental shelf north of Siberia the 
ice is comparatively thin; there is much open water during the summer 
and autumn, whilst the greatest quantity of ice as well as the thickest 
ice-floes are formed over the deep North Polar Basin. ‘There is also 
much more melting of ice going on during the summer in the shallow 
sea north of Siberia, than there is over the deep Basin farther north. 

Prof. Pettersson has two theories about the origin of bottom- 
water of the Norwegian Sea. On pp. 318—319, he assumes that the 
cold heavy water observed at Amundsen’s Stations (and at Ryders Sta- 
tions) comes from the North Polar Basin, forms ‘the deeper layers” of 
the East Greenland Polar Current and sinks “‘to the bottom of the Nor- 
wegian Sea”. It was pointed out above that this theory is impossible, 
because no such water comes from the North Polar Basin with the East 
Greenland Polar Current, the deeper layers of which have no temperatures 
and no salinities similar to those of the cold bottom-water at Amund- 
sen’s Stations. 

On p. 329 of the same paper Prof. Pettersson says that he has 
“calculated that part of the Atlantic under-current which mixes with the 
ice-water to be one-eighteenth, while the remaining seventeen-eighteenths 
become cooled from contact with the ice and sink to the bottom, there to 
form the great bottom layer of cold water of only —1°o to —1°4° C.” 
On the one hand Pettersson here repeats a mistake which the writer 
has already pointed out on several previous occasion. He like several 
other authors obviously still has the misconception that the upper layers 
of diluted cold water of the East Greenland Polar Current are due to 
the melting of ice, whilst the observations during the “Fram” Expedition 
have proved that the whole North Polar Basin is covered by a similar 
layer about 200 metres thick, on the surface of which the polar ice is 
formed. The East Greenland Polar Current is formed chiefly of the 
same waters from the North Polar Basin, having very similar salinities. 
A calculation like that of Pettersson’s is therefore quite fallacious. 

On the other hand Pettersson seems unaware that nowhere in the 
regions mentioned by him does the “Atlantic under-current’”, come into 
contact with the Polar ice, from which it is separated by the layer of 
diluted Polar water. This was fully mentioned above. But if in spite 
of all, it be assumed that cold bottom-water might be formed in this 
way by the melting of the ice, such water must be formed chiefly during 
the summer, while the melting of the ice is going on, and it must be 


1906. No. 3. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN 1901. 109 


expected that this cold water will then approach nearest to the sea-surface, 
or at least to the under side of the ice; which is not the case. It has 
been pointed out above, that during the summer, while the ice is melting, 
the surface strata of the sea become warmer, and the upper limit of the 
cold bottom-water sinks towards greater depths; during the winter, 
however, while ice is being formed, the upper strata are cooled towards 
their minimum temperature, and the cold bottom-water approaches near 
the surface. It is thus seen that no cold bottom-water of the Nor- 
wegian Sea can under any circumstances be formed directly by cooling 
due to the melting of Polar ice, and only to a very small extent by the 
melting of Arctic ice, formed in the northern Norwegian Sea. If there 
were ice-bergs it might be a different thing, but ice-bergs of sufficient 
size only occur near to the Greenland coast, and their number is not 


sufficiently great, to make them of much importance in this connection. 


. 22 


Table l. 


Surface Temperatures, Salinities, and Densities along Amundsen’s Route, 
5 April—Sept. 1901. 


Explanations of Table I. 


rst Column. Date and Hour of Observation. 

2nd Column. North Latitude (N) and Longitude East (E) or West (W) of Greenwich. 
For 8 a. m. and 8 p. m., or where this has not been suitable, at the nearest 
hours, the Temperature of the Air as well as the Magnetic Direction and Velocity 
of the Wind are given. The first figure is the Temperature of the Air in degrees 
Centigrade. The letters, N, W, etc., indicate the Magnetic Direction of Wind, 
and the last figure its Velocity according to a Scale ranging between o (= calm) 
and 6 (= Hurricane), and where the figures consequently have a value double 
those of the Beaufort Scale. 

3rd Column. Depth in Metres. An asterisk after the figure indicates that the water sample 
was taken by the Amundsen Water-Bottle while the ship was sailing. The 
Temperature was then taken by a thermometer.inserted in the water-bottle when 
it came on deck. 

The surface water for the other observations was taken with an ordinary 
bucket. 

4th Column. Temperature of the water i situ, in Degrees Centigrade. The thermometer 
No. 638 was used for most observations, it had a correction of o’0° C. (see p. 7). 
In some few cases the thermometers No. 35 and 39 were used. The latter had 
no correction at zero and the former a zero correction of —o*05° C. 

sth Column. Salinity (°/9,) derived by M. Knudsen’s Tables from permillage of Chlorine, 
determined by Titration (Mohr). Some water-samples taken with the Amundsen 
Glass Water-Bottle on cold days in April and May, 1901, give absurd values of 
Salinity. The reason is obviously that ice has been formed on the water-bottle 
(see above p. 7). 

6th Column. Density (ot) of Sea-Water derived by Knudsen’s Tables from Salinity and 
Temperature. 

Footnotes. The footnotes give the colour of the sea. Ice-sludge and “pancake-ice“ means 
generally that new ice is being formed on the sea-surface. When the ice-crust is 
broken by the wave-movement it is broken into rounded disks of the size of 
pancakes, or into still smaller pieces forming by the friction against each other an 
ice-sludge. 


Table |. Surface Observations. 


Hal 3 is) 5 g ui 8 > 
ay Locality 2 PCR See Locality Vere liares io 
te and Air Temperature 23 FI x a << OY ge aud Air Temperaiure | = $ Fy z & ~< a 
Wind ae ae oe | ny ee Wind oats) lass 
April 1901 M.| °c. | °/,, | April 1904 Rakes 
¥  Hjelmesé in ; “40 | 87 |97:944 
Sen eeenmest O*| 32 |3441) 9749']95,820 - | 31°W 14 0* | 130 8487 (27-94 
p.m. { ESE, 8 miles off 2 a eo ene 830 - 5 | 1-301 3488 27:95 4 
i ats aie : - 11 - PeOr | ted ‘90 [27:98 * 
Bae). 10"| 3:0 3445, 9744 | -711°3' N | 
- 12° EB 1 0* | 33 | 3446) 27-4529 - 12 noon } 49-00° E | | 
aire 5*| 3:3 |3449| 27462] - 2410p. m|| Or | O34) BE72 27-89: 
| = oe) | He {| | 34° 7°88 4 
: 10") 33 [3651] e747] 7 335 | tor] o40| 3470 arst « 
BS a. m.|{ 22049, N 0" 284 | 2 , 70°55! N | 
ma se| oenlatas| ovig:] (| AIS OE 
5 aS # . | 97: | | ra) Ween 
meistebortiee | wa || | Sees 
- | 24° ESE 1 | 0*| 340/3446| o7442) 7 S20 - | tee eee 
= ms oeabcam 5°] 380|3449| 97462196, 290 a, m | 0* |--0-40| 34°72 27-92 4 
7 | t0*) 3-41 |3449| 97462] - 230 ee tmecieeer eee 
ae - - 240 - 10* —040 34:71 27-91 : 
12 noon - 810 - |-01°N05 | 5*| | 34-64 
915 p. |e or} 3:96|/ 3446) 97452] ~ 820 - | apg. | 10° | 3466 | 
ee ergy i 5*| 330/351] 97478] ~12 noon |} go0997 UN NG ess a 
97°00! E eae Peace 1 hear Ie gic 
: ~ = (3) jay inne 0* | | B4e74 
137. N Ba ees). sto | 12W 1 sy BrOD 
OqRs Mil, PA lg sa | OS is=she Ni 
tr S23 BY 3158 a aoe | oe lee eee. a 88 * 
Es 10 34-61 3 2 = 5 10* i 3) | ZOD al oe 
2 midn. 0 | 24 |3457| o7e18) 7 8 - | 20° W290 OF ley Seen Goce e 
a. m. 0 | 24 |3457| a76131 7 8 O° | O07 | ShTe 27°95 ° 
é eee ag (lo o7 | 8888 2780 
- 0 | 2:0 | 3466) 27-722] - 12 noon |} 49°99! BK | 
- | 10°S3 0 | 22 |3472) 97-753 Bee ero 1 en eee 
io 0 | 24 |3¢79| 27808] ° 2 Pm Celera erect ance 
‘ 71°45! N ; ; : Ale 
A noon |} soon F Oe sreeret 8 2 OP NWE Or) OF) |g 
Goel cree een eee 5*| 04 | 3483 |27:97 4 
fe. Cases peel 212), 198; 2 a, mi 0 04 | 3487 2800: 
i 5*| 240 3480 2781 | Peel essed eee 
0 93 34:87 97:87 4 7 5 = 0) Ol 3489 |28°05 
c Ieee UE US| | a eae | o | o4 | 3481 [27-975 
< AS | 34:8 2 ql * ° i | 
= 32e Ww tf : at EST shen 5 12 no \\ 71 33 N et) | 0:2 | 34:74 |27:93 « 
; 5*| 1:92/ 3486] 97994] oO” |! 45°30 E Veet |i lee 
; |10*| 1-90| 3485] 27894] - 12 midn. |-38°NNE25 | 0 |—1°0 | 34°70 [27-94 
- 0 | 18 |8484) 27:884199,2 a.m 0 |—08 | 3464 |27:°875 
a.m. O*| 1:55/ 3485) 97924] 4 0 |—1°9 | 3449 |27-78 5 
: 5*| 1:61(3487| 97934] - 6 - 0 |—20 | 3444 [97-745 
: 0 | 15 |3485| o792:1- 8 - |-o6°NS 0 |—20 |[s345jel 


| * Sea blue. * Sea dark blue. * Sea somewhat ligther blue. * Sea gray. ® Formation of ice-sludge on 
p Sea surface. Sea gray, 


II2 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETC. M.-N. K1. 


Locality s s| 2 2 Locality Es g 2 
ae and AvelGmpenattive 23 a8 zs O, es and AirTemperature €¢ & zs O, 
our Wind S = 3 fc o our Wind A S é — 2 o 
April 1901. » OU el sea tayee | May 1901 rai ae 
ee eS on 0 |—1°9 |[3287|5| 26471] 9 8 p.m. |-60°EO5 | 0 |—14| 3461 |27% 
- 12 noon | 47°30 E 0 |—290 | 34:78 | 980314 = id at eee on 
| : midn. = . e 
: 7 eae ° ae =i ae 3, 2 a.m. Y =k: 2 978 
: —1°7 | 3454 | 97 2 Sie 18 3472 | 279 
a #) 47 2 : é ; 
6 0 19 |st70 | 9706+) - 8 _qoesset | 0 |o19l ret lord 
—9:0° N2 0 |-19 |3478 | 280317 . 9 . 0 | —1'7| 34:08 | 97 
meat 2 0 |-1:9 |3464 | 2790:] . 9 = | _ 
OM aide 0 |-18 jar |ormit 4g” ib 
30, 2 a. m. 0/18 |3448 | 27-772 |, 10°20! N 
~) Oa Be | 1-8 13456 | 97-852 - 12 noon |i 48°30' E. 0 |—17) 3443 (27 
Brat 0 |-19 13444 | 977521 49 ; 5*| 1:8) 3469 | 279 
iG ©. |—1'°9 | 3444 | 9775200 Sonam 0 |—1-7| 3432 |97 
- 8 - |-49°w15 | of /—-18 |3459 | 97812] . go P- 5* | 1-8) [35:36]? 
- 8 5* |—1'8 | 38281 | 28:05 2 ea = 0 | —2:0) 34 QT 
ee | miei ieee Age ol ae (35-36)? 7: 
- 12 | ae me BY ie "q2t - 6 = *| 1:8 ¥ 
moon |) 47°34 E 0 /-18 850 | 2779")| 3. | Seta henner: ame 
- 4 p.m. 0 |-1'8 | 3444 | 277427 _ 49 =. 0 | —1:8) 3461 | 27 
: : 0 |-17 |3441 | 277124 49 be | ae Pascasie 
- 8 - |-17°SW35| 0 |-16 13437 | 297-653 i 
a 5* |—1°8 |[35-96|2 es a ae 360 o.2 
= 0 |-17 | 3444 | 27°71?) - 42 midn. 0 |—20| 3466 | 2749 
- 12 midn. 0 |—15 | 3463 | 278977 4 9 a. m. 0 | —1°8) 3461 | 27 
i ea 5* | —1°8| [35°32 
ay dept 0 | —2-0 [32:82]> 
1, 2am. 0 |-13 |3%64 | 97902] > § Uti ae besen iM 
ai - 5*|-15 (agop| af Be ‘orlScieses 
- 4 = O |—1'4 | 34:32 97°63 3 ; 7 1:8° SSE 2 =15 : | a7 
ae? 0 |-15 [364 | 2700-7 © 8 = | Vite eae laa 
- § - |-15°WNW3] 0 |—13 [3460 | 27864] - 12 - a ea : 
3 [3k SOT Wieden 5* | — 1:8) [35-29] 
> 0 eed ee 0 |—1:1 |3454% | 2781 pee me 
=42 noon fj] TR | oO |-18 [see | a7ema eee 1 4730's eta eee a 
BBO tin o |-12 |3¢61 | a797<] 7 2 Pm | elcaeton, la 
- 4 = OF =1:2 3479 28°01 4 = 2 10# a 7 34-47 a7 
RGF 0 |-12 |3458 | 97844 ie 0 |u19l 3446 | 27 
TS = | =6:OoN 1 0 |—1:2 |3470 | 27-944 ', 69°40! N = 
100 = 0 |-083 |3480 | 279957 - 6 - |i 47°36 0 | —1:9| 3457 |27 
Be 10" 04 [3bv4 | 3798s] 7,8 > |-PESE2 | 0 |—19) 3453 [278 
- 12 midn, 0 |-o1 |3483 | 2800«] - 10 - y ces 
2, 2 a.m © |-04 | 3483 | 2800+] 7 49” ‘a ; 
: : 0 |—O-14 |3490 | 28:06 4 
- ie 0 |—o1 /3488 | 9804+] = 12 midn. : ES 
S- - (56S N'0S: | 0 | 09 | Sue | 28000 Tamms ae 34-76 
40) »< 0 | 02 |3481 | 28-004 sai 
Op 5 34°83 she eH 
TACBAIEN 1s eee O13 eae 
- 12 noon |} 2 9°2 \ | 9 |_03 |3475 | 27914] - 8 - |—99°ENE2 | 0 |—1:8| 3479 | 28m 
-2apm| ~~” | 9 |-08 [3475 | avons - 19 - | gyogg yn cr 
: MHC Hicnat Bt |—04 |34-74 | 2794 | - 12 noon |} grogerp 0 |—1:8) 3472 |278 
/ a arscaNe Gesell. gaa] + pan. eee 0 -18 
6 | 950387 Bi 0 |—085/3474 | 2794] 7 7 Pm | 5* | 1:8! [35-98]? | 984 


! Formation of ice-sludge on the surface. Sea gray. 2 No formation of ice-sludge on the surface. 
gray. * Sea grayish brown, ‘ Sea gray. * Small ice-needles floating in the water may have come into 
sample. ° Through ice-sludge and “pancake-ice”. 7 Through an open lane in the ice. * Through open 
As the thermometer indicated —2°0° C. and even —2°4° C. it was considered untrustworthy and the 
were not recorded. * Through ice-sludge and pancake-ice, Sea gray. *° Through a belt of dense panes 
ice. '1 Lying in tight ice. 


1906. No. 3. TABLE I. SURFACE OBSERVATIONS. rr 


] 
| 
| 
| 


ae, a Locality 3 3 2 e) £ S Dat a Locality = 3 5 © £ ° 
i pn AirTemperature) £3 BE & == O, oa a AirTemperature| 2é BB £ << % 
_—oO Wind ga 8 ei2 ’ out Wind |Sa] 8 ge 
ay 1901 Nia Cs On, May 1901 Me Ge Waser 
1 p.m 10* |—1-8, 3460 | 2787'} 8 6 p.m. 0 |—1:°8| 3449 | 97-785 
P 70° N OF) £8) 384538" | 27367) - 6  - 5* |—1°9 | [34°97]? | [28°19] 
ela g -|—18 || (Sane 10* |—1°9| 34:60? | 27:87 
48°26" E ein eaiieece 27 NWS | 0 |—18 (8507)? | (2895) 
z —18) 3450 | 2 = 40) 1 O |—1:8] 3448 | 97°776 
- —8'°5° ENE 2 0 |—1°8) 3450 7°79 74 - 19 midn 0 |—1:8) 3450 | 27:79 6 
: 0 |—1:8| 3467 | 2793°F _ 49 - 5° |_1-9 
: 5* |—1'8) [34°88] | [28:10]*] - 49 - | 10* |—1°9| 3461 | 27:89 
3 10* |—1°8) [85°05] | [28°23]"1 9 9 a.m. 0 |—1:8| 3447 | 27-775 
midn. 0 |—1°8) 3467 OSB | 2 7h We 0 |—18 6 
a. m. wy —1°8 34°66 2792". 6 - 0 |—1'8! 3444 | 97-716 
5 5 | Bese) - 6 C- 5* |—1:9| 34782 | 28:02? 
; pec een al eee te NNW2 | 0 |—1'8) 3442 | 2772¢ 
: On toiezsle 3 10. = 0 |—1'7| 3440 | 27-716 
e 0 |—1:9] 3465 | 27-91 ? 69°32‘ N : oe ae 
ms Be 1-9) Above h - 12 noon | a5 939! atest BY, | OP rites 
eee BS "1 36%o!* {2 | = 5* |—1°5 
; pe 0 |—-19) 3470 | 2797°] - 12 - 10* |—1°5| 34438 | 27°73 
Mime noon || 7000 N | 0 |-18| 3479 | 28032] - 2 p.m. ae 0 |—1°6| 34:40 | 27-707 
12 p.m. D | aie] GO | Orgs S Eee ee z = 0 |—14| 3442 | 97-717 
| 5* |—1:8| [35°93]? ey 33' E 
7 0 |—1:9| [32:95]? | | ot Me pee: U0 |—1°5) 3440 | 27°708 
; 0 |—1:9| 3473 | 27989 2 4g 69°32! N 0 |—1-6| 3449 | 97-718 
ames - |—GSENE25| 0 |—1°9) 3462 | 27:90? | ‘(| t 45°38 5 
ae. 5* |—1:8| 3439? | 27704 - “2 eNOS |) = 0 |—17 ee aia g 
O= ‘N Ane —I| 34° Y Ziiz 8 
me. cee N | o |_18| ae62 | 2789+ Le ae | Olona] geaa | 2772" 
| 40 4 5* |—1°8) 34°65 97-91 = alloy "Fo 0: |—1°7| 34:42 | 97-728 
Pio 10" |—1°3| 3461 | 9788 | - 6 5*|—1:8| 3444 | 97°74 
yi) 12 midn. Op tesieoeeze| 278974) - 8 10* |—1'8] 3441 | 27-71 
yg 12 = 5*|_1°8| 3483 | 9806 1 - 8 - |—O5°SSW1| 0 |—1°7) 3441 | 2771° 
a. m. 0 |—1:8| 34:58 | 97863] - 10 - Ae 0 |—1°6| 34:42 | 97°71 ° 
: 5* | —1°8| [35:27]? I 49 , 69°45! eye rr 
| : : pas bed O71 2 12 noon | 45°90! E 0 | 1-4) 34:36 | 27:67 8 
We - |—45N4 © |—1:9) 34:14 | 97.5199 - 12 - 5* |—1°3) 8447 | 27°76 
ies 0 |—1:9) 3453 | 978234 - 12 - 10* —14) 3446 | 27°75 
yao | - 0 |—1:7) 34:42 27°72 - 2 p.m. 0 |—1:3:) 8437 | 27:68 8 
Al 49 69°40! N - 4 - 0 |—13) 3427 | 27599 
ae" |! 47°56 E 6 -- (G2 N | o |-1-2) aves | area 
‘ ons L ht ,,b 9) 
dee p.m. |{ 9.35, N Dreaily tected my sornte L65.) 5*|—1-4| 3434 | 2766 
) out into an open lane. 8 ( 69°10! N . ate ott 
| 1 am 0 |—1'8) 3441 | 27-71 4] ~ "Hh 44950 F Oe eae eats 
= - O |—1°8| 3442 | 27724] - 10 - 03° WSW 1| 0 |—1:4| 3438 | 27°69"! 
_ - @ |=4°8 ‘] - 12 midn, 0 |—1:8| 3441 | 9771" 
me - |-si°NW3 | 0 |-1°8| 3440 | 27714] - 12 - 5*|—1-7| 3448 | 27:77 
18 - 5*/—1:9| 34:70 | 2796 [11, 2 a.m. 0 |—1:°6| 34:38 | 27-6911 
Es - 10* |—1:9] 3490? | 98119 - 4 - | 0 |—1-4| 3493 | 975712 
10 - Rea 0 |—1:8) 3457 | 97°54] - 6 : 0 |—1:3| 34:21 | 975313 
. } i : Grid yea es ae | 5*|—14] 3491 | 97°54 
Bmoon |} 44954'E a ns uae a J 8 - | 26°wsw1s 10r)—19/ 3497 | 9759 
—1°9) 3461? | 27897] - - 0 |—1:2| 3429 | 27-6013 
- aan 10* |—1°9| 3449 | 277841 - 10 - OQ |-12) 3424 | 275615 
Beem. || proro pe 0 |-1'8| 3442 | a7724 ° iT Os Fern Reries cee 
; o - — e alo 
- 0 |—1°8| 3447 | 97-7741 - 11 - 10*!—1°5! 34:24 | 97:57 


' Lying in tight ice. * Throug ice-sludge and pancake-ice. Sea gray. % In open water. Sea brownish 
y- * Sea gray. ° In an open lane. Sea gray. ° Sea somewhat greener. 7 Sea light green. * Ina bay 
he ice. Indication of thin ice crust being formed. ° Came out of the bay in the ice. '° Tacking along 
margin of the ice. ‘! Sea grayish green. ‘'? Along the ice-edge. !* The sea has the colour of brackish 
yer with a greenish tinge. 


4 Vid.-Selsk. Skrifter, I. M.-N. Kl. 1906. No. 3. 8 


II4 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETc. M.-N. KI. 


a Locality " g 2 © 2 2 D a Locality & 3 z ° 2 hy 
oe oe AirTemperature 3s Ere = a rs a ay AirTemp erature < S$ Ey E 2 — 
our Wind 8 s E 2 ° our Wind 2 s i i 2 ) 
auf Be, p May 1901 Plea Oe 4 : 
May 1901 | g9°t N ah get Wee oF A , 69°43" N wh Bers sla 
11,12 noon 44°08) FB O | —12) 34923 | 97:56 14,12 noon 46°20’ E 0 | —09| 3432 | 276 
=altsp: 27 QO | —14) 3492 | 97°55 ! 12 - 5* | —09| 3432 | 276 
Eppes = O | —1:4) 384411 | 97-47! 19° =e 10* a 3433 | 276 
=p = BSA OY ai yp Obs) - 2 p.m: 0 |—08)| 38425 | 975 
“ious O | —1°4| 34°10 | 27-46! = 4h t= 0 |—05| 34:33 | 27:6 
- 4 -~ O | —1°4| 3405 | 27-42! =9'6) = 0 |—05| 3432 | 276 
- 6 - 0 | —14) 3416 | 27°51 ! =" its) = —0°5 SW 15 O | —04| 34-97 | 976 
- 6 5* | —1'4 | 34:99 | 97:55 CLOT ee 0 | —1°0| 34-93 | 27 
- 6 EE OS 10* | —1°4| 3418 | es - 12 midn. cents 0 | —12] 3497 | 27% 
- 8 io ro] O | —14, 3419. | 27°53 ! 2 aay F 
- 10 0 |—13| 3417 [ozs 1 [1 2 am |} geogse ote) Sesi | 2s 
- 12 midn 0 | —1:5) 34:14 |9750149 - 2 5* | —13] 3435 | 27 
= De r= Bea eds QO 27 Dep By eet vs 10* | —1°3| 3436 | 27 
=I = |10* | —1°7| 34:22 | 27-56 - 4 - 0 | —15| 3437 
12. 2 a.m. OD) 153) 34479) 27510 eG: 0 | —15| 34:38 | 27 
ea = O | —1:4| 34°20 | 97:54 ! = 8" = —11°SSW1 | 0 |; —1°5| 3436 | 27 
6 - 1 O) | =A Se 2i-bo - 8 = 5* | —15| 34-41 | 27 
- 6 - 5) 1 |) ato) | Ob - 8 = 10* | —1°5 
=e Os = 10* || 1:5) 34:18 | 97-53 = 105 5- o49/ 0 |—13)| 3433 | 276 
= $3} = 05° S05 0) |) = 9:3) 34:92) | 97'544 19 } 70°42' N 42'N 0 1:3) 3441 | 97: 
S100 - | comin | 0 | 48] BeBe arent | oT Bale ee a 
, 69°12" : reso lees Sede 5* | —1°2; 3441 | 27 
- 12 noon ) 45°97 E = 0 —15| 3432 | 97°64! ey) p.m 0 —1:2|! 34:37 | 97 
- 12 5* | —1°5 | 3439 | 27-70 - 4 0 | —14| 34°35 | 97 
nao - Ge | 10*| —1°5| 3475 |9799 [| - 6 - —1-4| 3436 | 976 
P.M. | 45°98) E 5 : en ee ee 10*| —15| 3435 | 276 
4 - Ot) ail a ee [Q7652°>4 = 88> = Da a 0 | —14| 3437 | 276 
- 6 0 | —1:1] 34389 | 27-68 2 38! : 
i 6 ee 5e we) 4-4 84:49 97:70 3 10 7 {a 47°10’ E 0 —1 3 34 39 7 U 
=O» = 05 W 05 0 | —1:2|] 34389 |97692 7 - 12 midn. 0 |—13)| 3439 | 97 
silt) < | 0 }=1:9)) 8437/27 672 12 a mae ae a 
: 69°40/ N “6 rin sea%9 110; 2 an ant } —1 z 
- 12 midn. | 46°30! E 0 | —12] 34:33 | 27°63 oy é 0 |—16! 3434 | 276 
= 10}, 5 5 1:9))|) 3483" || Q7:bs == Gu t= O | —14)| 34:34 | Wi 
== 10* | —1°2| 3466 | 27°90 - 6 - io ae oe 24 : 
69°40'N . iene & ~ | Sy ; 
138, 9 a.m. } 46°30! E 0 —19 Be oes = Cee 0 —14 34-34 QT 
- 4 0 | —1:2|) 34:32 | 27°63'2 ) i , 
6 0 aft 1:0 34:37 97:66 2 = 10 = f] 46°20‘ E 0 =! 2 3440 7 
- 6 - 5* | —1°0| 3440 | 27°68 - 2p. m. 0 |—10] 3439 | 2 
an = 10SSW05 | 0 | —1:0|} 3436 ah cael ica a Me 69°40! N 0 |—1:1)| 3437 | 2% 
2 = <2 . ‘ 2 4 
10 69°55! N 0 ss are ae = z } 46°90! E 0 —12| 3433 | 2 
2 12 noon i 46°20! E 0 =() 8 34 37 15 66 6 - 5* md 12 34:33 
oa2 sp; Wi 0 | —1:4| 3497 | 27-603 8 - |-OFNEOS Ds Sets ee 2 
ed , 70° ON r 99 | 97-R4 3 =O) = a a oS | 
: } 46°20! E Og? = Me Be - 12 midn. 0 |—12| 3433 | 2 
- - 0 | —15| 34:97 60° , 69°93' N e : b 
a8 02 NwW25| 0 |—14| 3450 ]97782 | ° 12 - |i 46°90 soul sks! gabe? 
- 10 - 0 | —1:2) 34384 | 97655 717, 2 a. m. 0 | —11| 3434 276 
14, 2 a.m OM 153) Reto 282005) ane 5* | —11| 3435. Sm 
ot ie 0 | —1°3)| 3433 | 27:56 4 i O |—1:1| 3434 | 
= 0 | —1°3) 34:30 | 27:61 4 - 4 - 5* | —1°9] 3435 | Se 
- 8 —O1° NW05| 0 | —12] 8495 |97574 7 - 6 - 0 |—1:1| 3434 | SE 
ow = 5* | —1:2| 3431 |9762*¢ 0% - 6 - 5* | —1:3} 3433 | aa 
- 8 10* | —1°2) 34°33 |Q7634], - 8 - —03°NE3 O | —1°2) 3440 | ZF 
- 10 - 0 | —0'9)! 34:99 97594 f- 8 = 5* |—1°3! 3436 | 27% 


' The sea has the colour of brackish water with a greenish tinge. °? Sea dark blue. * Sea g 
4 Along the ice-edge. Sea gray. * In a bay in the ice. 


1906. No. 3 TABLE I. SURFACE OBSERVATIONS. i25 


D q U S 
‘« Locality "4 2 x o £ o Daterand Locality iz 3 Fi o 53) CO) 
1 Date and AirTemperature| # $| & 8 iTS 0 ‘ AirTemperature| © $| 2 3 ESS O. 
Hour P aS| gs ao t Hour : a ga So 
f ow Wind é a 2 § Wind a = & a 
May 1901 Mey CEs |, ag May 1901 Y Ba Cia) 
47, 8 a. m 19 |) £3) 3438 |oTes [19 sm |—10°E3 se (laa) seis (are 
‘| 0 | —1:4| 3438 |27:691 | ~ i a ie c 
: : : ; ie 0 | —1:°0| 34:41 | 27-693 
qe - pales ee 2072 ag - 5*|—10| 3443 | 97°71 
i 69°48 N ; Se) ee a 2 
p - 12 noon } 46°25! E 0 == (953 34:38 97°68 1 : 12 noon aa =f 0 —1:0 834-49 97°75 3 
1212 5*| 12] 3437 | 2767 as BA eeaneen 
‘| oa 10* | —1-2| 3435 |a766 | > 12. - lh: 
i : i 7 ae 10* | —1:0] 34:48 | 27°75 
a- 2 p. m. 0 |—1:3| 34:38 | 27°68 9 0 |—1:0] 34:54 | 27:81 3 
a2 - 5* | —12| 34.36 | 27°66 Baca 5*| 0-9! 3454 | 97°80 
| a 0 |—1:2| 3437 |9767:) ° 2 - | Se | 
Ah | al epee liga ore ae 0 |—10] 3457 | 27:83 8 
.| —_— 0 | —1:3) 3436 [27671 | ~ Palla lhe car 
r ; cRiGae.S 0 | —1:0| 34:57 | 27:88 
|: a PAE ope ieee wis. 6: 5*| —1:0| 3460 | 2785 
Ic j | 4 Ae . 1 = e 
If — 8 ‘= =i! ONES 0 al 53 34 41 97 70 8 0 11 34-56 97°82 3 
. . . — — a) 
ii = 8 = 5* —14 34:99 Dill 61 2 8 : 10° S32 5* —7|%(0) 34°57 97:83 
maao Palaeee ee Wo do - : 0 |—11) 3459 | 27-853 
Te | coson meee 10 : 5*| 1:0] 3455 | 97-71 
\ ane c . . 1 OD 4! 
WP 2 midn. |) ge-a7 | O | —18| 8896/2767" | 9 say | eta N | o | -12] 8657 | o7-83 8 
4 CF . . = —s e 
} . . 1 a e a 
ah, 2 a. m. 0 |—13] 3440 | 27°69 : 
4 * : Dye ° D4 fe ath OM ae 84550) O77 74).8 
+| 5*|—1:3] 3436 | 27-67 , me : Peulitcs 
iy ; Se : Oat 5*|—11| 34:59 | 27°85 
i 4 = 0 = 4195} 34°35 9765 2 4 0 14 34:60 97°85 3 
. En . * ° = = e = 
; | 0) | 1-31" 383997692 [72 Spl Ps ea ee 
, is ; . 7 2 "(cy "Ss 5*) —1:°9) 34:59 | 27°85 
7 «C- 5* | —1:°3| 3437 | 27-67 ; i al ie 
Pe 68 : i a) | one ae 10* | —12} 34:60 | 27°85 
mi0 0 0 |—10| 3434976527] - 8 - | qo-00-N eile 
; « : ee 5*| —1:0| 34:34 | 97°65 - 1 p.m. |} gogsrp 0 | —1:2| 34:50 | 27:778 
1) 12 noon 4549! EB 0 | —0°9| 3430 | 27:60 2 , 70°4" N 7 
i, i : ee bra 0 |—1:1| 3453 | 27:80 4 
i - - 5*|—1:0| 34:31 | 2761 42°45! E 
1 3 10*| —1:1| 3499/9760 J - 4 - 5*| —1:4| 3455 | 97-714 
a) 2 p.m. 0 |—08| 3497 |97582], - 6 - 0 | —08| 34:67 | 27:90 4 
‘B2 - 5*|—0'8| 3429/2759 J - 6 - 5*|—1:0| 34:65 | 27:89 
| | a 0 |=0'7| 3490 /975121- 6 - 10* | —1°0| 34:63 | 27:89 
[re 5*|—07| 3428/9758 | - 8 - |-02WSW25| 0 | —08| 3470 | 97934 
Be - flasee | 0 |-08| seat jarere |G 0 | 07) t47 | 27734 
f 5 - 5* | —1-:0| 34-27 | 27°58 =i) ae 5*|—0'7| 3449 | 27°74 
ai8 - |—0OGEN 0 |—06| 34:36 | 27-642 0°15 . me 
} a EL 06 ENE2 5*|—06!] 34:33 9761 - 12 midn. es 0 —{1}7/ 3451 27°76 4 
mio 0 |—08| 3432 |97612] - 12 - 5*| —06| 34:50 | 27°75 
10 - 5*|—09| 3429 |2759 [21, 2 a. m. 0 |—1:0| 3446 | 27:73 4 
HPmidn. |} Fporyn | 0 |—-09) Bat fare] - 2 - Pelee gles eucn 
 - 5*!—1-0| 34:43 | 97-71 ds 5*|_1°3| 3444 | 27°73 
2a, m. 0 |—11] 3447 /9775°] - 6 —- 0 |—1:0| 3448 | 97-754 
s . 5*|—1:2] 34:46 | 97-74 eh giGiimns 5*| 1:3] 34-48 | 97-76 
4 - 10* | —1:°2| 34:43 27-72 - 8 - |—1:0°WNW3) 0 | —1:0| 3449 | 27°76 4 
iF = = Ale “As PF ay Es - 2) || 4: 34. 0) F 
‘- - B|_13| seas lore | ote 0 [otal 3646 | ar75 4 
6 _ 10* as 834-44. 97°73 12 noon } 49°55 EF 0 |—1°3} 3455 | 27°82 4 


a hao oe 


* Along the ice-edge. Sea gray. *% Through slack ice. Sea grayish brown, ? Along the ice-edge. Sea 


tyish brown. * In open sea, Sea gray. 


116 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS Etc. M.-N. Kl. 
ce | Localit: zI s| é | = : a. 7 fg 2 
ocality 2 ne Sie 1 2| So BS o 
es and AirTemperature 23 ae & ae %, id ead AirTemperature Se Poe ES <= oO, 
oe Wind an é Eee oe Wind B2| 8 ae 
May 1901 M.|°c.| 9%, May 1901 M. °C. fo 
21,12 noon 5*|—1°5| 3448 | 2777 993, 4 p. m. | 5*|—1°9| 3461 | 97:89 
- 2 p.m 0 |—14] 3448 | 9776:7 - 6 - 0 |—1°9| 3433 | 27°82) 
= Wy - 5* |—16| 3448 | 97°77 =. tOnt a= 5*) || 159) S457 27°85 
- 4 - 0 \=1:4) 38847 | 277648 = 6 = 10* |—1°9| 34°62 27:90 
- 4 - 5* |—15)| 3449 | 97°77 at: —4:5° NW 2 0 |—19| 3443 | 9774 
Lone 0 |—15|:3449 |9777'] - 8 - 5* |— 1-9 | [3495]? [2816 
- 6 5* 16) 84:49) | 97°77 = ‘hO) 2a 0 |—1°9| 3461 97:89 
8 -.|-fi WNW) 0 [15] 3455 | 27831) - 10, - ae 5e [35713] 2 
- joe 5*|—16| 3451 | 27°79 ln nee “alos: 
= 410 f 0 | 4-4 34-49 97°77 1 - 12 midn. | 43°58' BE 0 |—1'8| 3466 9791 
aio | 5*|—16| 3447 | 2776 [24, 2 a. m. 0 |-18| 3467 | 2793 
Of4Q4 2 #|_o4- fs - 
- 12 midn. |} 72048, N 0 |-13| 3453 | ore] 2 c= | ce 
- 12 - ye ae 4 0 |—1°8} 3469 | 27:94 
- 12 - 10* |—1°5| 3452 | 27°80 - 4 5* |—1°7| 34°66 97-82 
Die O} Fh, sash, 0 ae ae ee =. 467 sis siete 0 |-1°8)] 3470 | 27:96 
EG) a 5*|—14| 8456 | 278: 249! RS tag . 
ne 0 |-12] 3455 | a78a:4] — 8 | 43°56! E 0 |—17) 3479 | 28°03 
- 4 - 5* |—1:3| 3456 | 27°83 Co —4:9°NW 1 He teaieaiol 2 
- 6 - O |—15| 3468 | 97981— - 8 - 10* |—1°7} 34°88 28°10 
- 6 - 5* |—15| 3466 | 97:91 105 a 0 |—18)] 3461 97'89 
isn. |—1:0°S.95 0 |-15| 3465 | 9790'] - 10 - 5* —1:9 | [8499]? [2819 
- 8 - 5* |—15] 3460 | 27°86 , 71°20‘ N ¥e =e | gga 
zy) - 0 |-18| 3451 | 978024 ~ 12 nom I ggo5o 0 |—18) 8456 | 27 
- 10 - Bist BF | — a7 |) S452) 1 Ost = Ot) &- | Xe [35°02] ? 
Sig noon |) doje, [0 |= tal Stoaey ener | ease Oe sene: | Sau 
- 12 - 5* |—16! 3455 | 27°83 = 4 = | O |—1°7! 24°60 2787 
= i = 10* |—1°6| 34:50 | 27-78 - 4 | 5*|—1-7| 3464 | 2699 
2p. ml: 0 |—1°77| 3449 | 977817 - 6 - 0 |—18| 3464 | 2796 
ap D) - A Sala | Suse) || BPN! 6." = 5* |— 18] 34-61 27°89 
- 4 - 0 |—1:°5| 3451 | 97°79" 6 10* |—1°8| 3469 97-94 
4 - 5* |—1°5| 34:49 | 97-77 = i8P y= —3'0° NE 1 0 |—1°7| 3462 97°89 
- 6 - 0 |—1°5| 34:50 | 27°78 1 8) te 5* |—1°7| 34-62 27:89 
- 6 - | 5 |—14) 3445 | 97:74 Stor 0 |—17) 38477 2801 
- 6 - 10* 34:48 - 10 - 5* |—1°8| 3457 27°83 
- 8 - —0°3° SW 1 0) 15) 388527) 27202 10n 10* |—1°8| 3466 27°92 
= = ce | 4. | Of. a7:7 J 74°42 | m 
om \ 71°19! N » oe er pe 12 midn Poe a | 0 se 3455 27°83 
- 11°25 - | 44°40 R 0 |-1 6| 3451 7°79 - 12 » 5*|_ 18] 3456 27-84 
OBO) rs jack 0 |—1°7) 34:51 | 27380) ie - | 10* |—1°8} 3468 97°93 
71° 4‘N - : ; a - 1 = 15* |—1°9| 34:95 98° 
- 2 = Hh 4gei3E 5°) 16) S849 2007 hE aoe 90* |—1-9 | [35:17]? ° 
- 4 - OO) = 155i) S45 O77 9 Aa Oe ace: 0 |—1°7| 34°56 978 
- 4 - BS sien seen || Qyezky) cI ADP NS 5* |—1°8| 3457 97 83 
DhGaR 4 0 |=16| 3449! 97771) - 4 - 0 |—1-7/[3531]2] & 
= 6 - 5* |—1:4| 34:54 | 97°82 a 5* |—1°7| 38454 | Sie 
=) 16 - 10* |—1°5| 34°60 | 27°86 - 6 - OF Spe bb 27°83 
~ 8 —0'5° WSW 2} 0 |—1°5| 3460 | 2786'9 - 6 - 5Y | aed } 
tee 5*/—15| 3459 | 9786 | - 6 - 10* |—1-7 | [35°29)2) 
- 10 - 0: }—1:7 - 8 - —4:0° NE 1 0 |—1°77} 3455 2783 
SPOT. (it ba 5*/—1°6| 3470 | 2785 8 - 5* |—1°8 | [3513]? 
219 noon |j Je? N 1 0-157) 8858 | 278 eee) on ell enaes 0 |-17) 3653 ae 
ao) FE - 12 noon |j 1122, N 0 1:7| 3451 | 27:80 
- 12 - 5* |—1°6| 34:56 | 27°83 5 ( 43°53' E i 4 
=) 1a 10* |—16| 3458 | 2785 | - 2p.m 0 |—1:7| 3454 | 2783 
- 2 p.m 0 |—177| 3456 | 978419 - 4 0 |—1°6| 8455 | 9783 
=D) - 5* |—16| 3456 | 27:83 sO) + X= 0 |—16} 3486 = 
- 4 - () NSrka Stel resi) ish —3'2° NE@S | 0 '=6S8o7 Hk 
' In open sea. Sea gray. 7? Along the ice-edge. Sea gray. * Along the ice-edge. 4 In the se 


5 In open water. 


Sea gray. 


1906. No. 3- TABLE I. SURFACE OBSERVATIONS. ele] 
g 2 5 | q & Ss 
Locality |7 2] Bo| © o | Locality | 3| 8 2| #8 o 
ia AirTemperature 2& a3 23 ot ee eee AirTemperature e¢ a &| oO, 
= Wind | 25] 3 ge ae Wind Bl § ae 
May 1901 TEAC 8/1 May 1901 Page ee] oye, 
5, 9 p.m 0 |—1°6| 34:47 97 76 ! 127, 12 noon | 15* | 3470 ? 
10° - @Q) j=) Ce WRT) | oe Ss) | 20* | [84-45] ? 
- 0. |—16| 3446 |27-775:] - 2 p.m. | | @ | Cre 9 
. TP ES IN| : , l97-7@ » | re | 016 
12 midn. |) 7205, | 0 |-14) 3447 27°76 2 5 eae 
1 a.m O |-13| 8458 [97852] - 4 - 5) 135-09] ? 
- (0) i 13})| CURR CURSES |) = Ge 0 34:86 ? 4 
- 0 |—14| 3465 |9790°] - 6 - 5s 34:17? | 
- O |—1:3| 3464 /27892] - 6 - 10* | [35°41] ? | 
- OM =13 stl 27852) — 8 |=7Pl INN © |) © | 34:92 | 9 
: OM 1:3) 34:69) 27932 = 8 = (roe 34:90 
= 0 |=1:6) 84:75 27:99) - 10 - 0 3488 | 9 
EtG Nds | 0 |-16| 3473 (27978) -- 10 - 5* | [35:79] ? 
- 0 |—1:6| 34:78 | 28:02 4 5) ea |; 72°45‘ N | oy. 9 
: 0-15 Bk79 28024)” sauaoaeTcoo Ee || ° | re 
: 0 |—1:8| 3479 | 98:03 | less 'T Above 7 | 
Tee Olivalecre) losuotl: | ae [seer] | 
noon |} 39°30) F = PRON 0 | 3491 9 
p. m. Ona Sesl 98054 g  _ | bee [ Abore | 
= 0 |=18) 3479 | 28:03 4 | 36%o9 | 
- O |—1°6| 3481 |98045) - 4 - | Or 84°85 Ae 
= 0 |/—1:8| 3484 |Q206%F-- 6 - | O 34:89 | ne 
= | 0 |=18| 84972 |98186— - 8 - |—45°NW1:5/ 0 | 34:89 | nw 
- 0 |—1:8/ 3486 |28:088]| - 10 - esti 0 | 34:84 ne) 
: 0 |—1-8) 34952 [2815}° |, 72°40! | leer ~ 
- |—-58°NNE3 | 0 |-18) 3477 eaey ee moons agese7 |! eee | 
: | 5* |—1-8| [8431]? |(97°64]4 - 12 - | 5 | 34-80 
- 10* |—1°8| 34:94? | 28: eT Sia = 10* | 34:80 
é 15* |—1-8 | [35°19] ? made: 4| 15* | 34-79 
- 20* |—1:4.| 34°54 ? | 97:82 > = 12 ~~ al 20% | | 34°78 
= 0 34-90 ia 2epsm. | O 34°81 Ae 
: ae 5 [35:08] ? Serie? a | 0 | ie fe 
3 0! N ; 3 (Rake i | 0 34-8: ‘ 
dn. |} 3795) F | 9 491 | Slo ey SGC Sniasema| (el 34:83 | 1 
: lor [35°45] ? | = n= seca ae | 0 34-72 met 
© Ahove 25... lly FERED | | : vi 
: 10 [60] -12midn. } 3553 BO | BE79 
m 0 34°83 8199 2 a.m | 0 | | 34°75 me 
f 5* | QR  « oe | 34°72 
36/99 = 9 7 | 10* | 34°75 | 
2 0 34°85 Sil S-» 525 = | 15* | | 84°73 | 
58 [Above | ae aan | 20* 34-7 
36/n9- - 4 - 0 | 384-76 we 
c 0 34°90 87 - 4 - athe 34:79 
> Or 35°21 | ? | a (5 0 | 84:88 a 
= | 10* | [35°38] ? Sy 5 on 3475 
- —T2°NNW 25 5 0 34°88 Sf - 8 - |—40°NW 2:5| 0 | | 34°75 se 
: 5* | [35°43] 2 Soke | 5 | 3483 | 
: 0 34-74 Bo i) 0 34°78 ue 
0, i | * Qh. 
12 noon |} 22000, 5 0 | 34-95 ? Bf tO! 5 «= ee | 5 34°77 
37°00! E {9imid , 72°47'N lo 3481 12 
- 5* 34-76 2 = Wimidn: Vi ggers | O | 
- 10* 34:70 2? oD ay | 5 | 34°75 
‘ In open water. Sea gray. ° In open water. Sea brown. * In open water. Sea brownish gray. 
Ice-sludge and small rounded pieces of ice. * In the ice. ° The temperature is unreliable. 7 During the 


' lllowing days the water-temperature could not be determined, owing to the low temperature of the air and 
41 le wind. The samples taken with the Amundsen Water- Bottle from 5—20 metres give obviously much too 
gh salinities owing to formation of ice on the bottle. * Amongst small ice-pieces. Sea brownish gray. 
|Along the ice-edge. Sea brownish gray. ‘% Along ice-edge. Sea brownish gray. ‘! In open sea. Sea 
ownish gray. ‘2 Through newly formed pancake-ice. Sea brownish gray. 


118 ¥FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETc. M.-N. Kl. 


ee Locality | $ Sees Ri Us Locality |= 8) 8 9| 2 . 
ee AirTemperature| 2 6 Bg & = o, one AirTemperature ies ae & = % 
Wind a =] 2 s Wind es 2 = 
May 1901 | Ml ealaue. May 1904 ML) Caen. 
29,12 noon | 10* 34°75 31,10 p. m. ee Oo atl SSE 77 
=e) = i 65 ? : 10° Z ; 
oe an 1B en )| = 19 mids ereage 0 |—45) 3477 
ae eS 0 3471 ip - 49s 5* |—1°9)- 34°85 
- | - WB} 38477 
SiG. (se 0 84:83 2f June 1901 
=O p.’= 5* 34-76 1 oases O Ets) S78 
=aO secs 10* 3476 = Ane 0 |—1°5| 34-44 
=r! y= —4:5° NW 2 0 34°81 PH ie ee 0 |—1%5) 3478 
o (jy "es 5* 34:77 8) 0582 Ost 79 
10 - 0 34-77 2t - 8 - 5* |—1°5| 34°82 
- 10 - By 34:75 = 10> 7 Sane 0 |—14| 34°77 
“| ageagi | 73°19‘ N | 
- 12 midn. |} 360 °5. 7 0 34°78 21 - 12 noon |} ag99>p O |—1°4) 3477 
= Oue 5e 34°76 2 p.m 0 |—18) 3477 
S10), A By ii, 0 3479 2y - 2 De eed 
eee i= By? 3479 =) 10* ;—1°2| 34-79 
eA v= 0 34°85 CH) lies re weds 15* |—1°9) 34-83 
5 7 We 5 34:78 aig Ds ae 205) — Ties 77 
=O ye. | 0 34-86 2 9) es 95* ;—0°8) 34°79 
=e ft} = —4:3° NW 2 0 34°78 2 =) Aree 0 !—1:3) 34:79 
- 10 - 0 34:87 2 - 4 - ae 5* ;|—1°3] 3480 
|; 72°48! N : 299! 3 
- 12 noon } 36°48! F 0 3481 PA) Si 5 lage iE 0 toa 34:77 
- 2pm 0 34°87 af- 8 - |-02°SW15| 0 |—14) 34-79 
- 4 - 0 34°85 3 ected 5* |—1°4| 34°77 
5s ponent te 0 | 3491 of 10 | agpa6e ay : oe oe 
es} é —9:8° NW 2 0 3485 2 =e, midn. 13R°947 B E i = 34:79 
=e50: b's 5* 3481 2S Deas 0 ,—1°6| 34°76 
ch telah ie 10* 3481 =, a0 ane 5* )—1°1| 34°76 
a fyehen 15* 38481 = 54 e 0 |—1°5} 34-79 
no = 20* 3483 = 4 he | eg 5 2 
= 8. || i= Q5* 3483 = GO: JE O05) S477 
= 10> —- 0 34:87 2H 0) HF (tbl t 7 
: 73° 0'N : = 46s Bt 10* |—1°5| 34°76 
~ 12 midn. |} s6oqg) & 0 34°79 "1.8 . |-20wa2 0 |14) 3479 
3 110) 7% BS. 34:85 = Ont 5* |—1°4) 34-79 
Sil, Gi ae for, 0 3486 cH eel 0 |—16) 34°77 
- 4 - 0 34°85 24 = OL = 5* |—1°3) 3480 
< = < 2 Cow) 
= ae ve aan - 12 noon |} soos m — | 0 | 16] 3478 
- 6 10* 34°85 =A 5* |—1°6) 34°76 
Seon | = —38 NW 1 0 34:88 27-12 - 10* |—1°5) 34°75 
eS) f= Boman on 3483 Sie oc 15* |—15| 34°76 
: Silvie Ay (eae Ohne 90* | 1-4) 34°80 
10 } oye E 0 34 88 me 12 95* | 34:80 
: ree E ; Peery fee en 0 |—1°5| 34°76 
12 noon Fee O°) 0:7 | S479) | 27-992 eee 543) 34-79 
=D = ils 3479 - 4 .- O |=1°5) 34°75 
ede) - 20* 34:83 cop ey 8S 5* |—1°4) 34°77 
-42 - O5* 34:83 cou ws 0 |—1°5| 34°77 
2p. m 0 |—08| 3469 | 279127 - 6 - 5* |—14) 34°77 
- - 0 |—0°8| 34°85 | 28:042 6 - 10* |—1°4) 34°76 
4 = aes 5* |—0'8|] 34°93 | 98:11 Shot is —1:0° WSW 2) 0 |—1°5) 34°76 
2 Seaman ae 0, |07) sbe3 | asnga| 10. = |) eee We aig) as 
- 8 - |-058W15 | 0 |—o5! 3489 | g8o124 - 12 midn. |} 39019 F 0: /=18) 3479 
* Through newly formed pancake-ice. Sea brownish gray. 2 Along ice-edge. Sea brownish gra} 


° In open water. Sea gray. ‘ Amongst small ice-pieces. ® Along ice-edge. Sea gray. 


1906. No. 3. TABLE I. SURFACE OBSERVATIONS. 119 


Locality 5g é 2 Localit Bolg g 
%) Be a hy ocality ao 32 5S 
leas AirTemperature sé as BS > OK ee AirTemperature 25) 2 5 f| O, 
Wind a) 8 | S Wind 2) 3 oar 
June 1901 Mie Sel aa June 1901 M.| °C We 
3 2am 0 |—1:3| 3480 |28:03:] 5, 8 p.m.| 0°S2 0 |—1:3| 3452 | 27:80 3 
4 : Ze ae S0GR Ne 10. = 0 |—1:2| 3451 | 27783 
| § 13) 3480 | 28°03 1 : 74°41‘ N : 
: 6 r, 5* | 1:2 34:80 98:02 ‘7 12 midn. } 36°35! E 0 1(97/ 34 94 97 97 4 
S - 10* |—1:1| 3484 |98:04 | 6, 2 a.m. 0 | 08] 3488 | 27:98 4 
a - 15* |—1:1| 3484 | 28-04 ee Lig a= 0 | o8| 3465 | 27:79 4 
5 - 20* |—1°0| 34:84 |2804 J - 6 - 0 | 00) 3456 | 27:774 
6 - : 95* 0:7) 34:84 | 28:04 ao eee 20°S15 | 0 |—02| 3463 | 27:84 4 
eB - |—01° Calm 0 |-1:2| 3484 |2805:] - 10 - 0 |—0'7) 3465 | 27:87 4 
4 : 2B =| 3484 98:05 10.) esa 5* |—0'3| 34:69 | 27:86 
i s eed!) S488 . 1 ES 
+b secs eel ieoc, | |) 0 |-09) a&ea) || 27875 
12 noon } 87°58 E 0 |—11/} 34°81 | 28:03! 192 at 30 E Ke 07) 3469 27:86 
r = Ve i= |ltexe Obs ers 
2 p. m. 0 |—1-1| 3480 |29802:] - 2 p.m 0 |-10| 3453 | 27-795 
. 0 |-11| 3483 | 98:04! A , 74°45! N SWC eileen 
ieee, | ait] 3480 |asce: 7 | este OSS eka Eda. 
PaO: 11) S676 |27981)- 6 - | 0 |—0:2| 3456 | 27°'785 
ae Oni=12) 3477 |O799% I - & —= | -38°Sa 0 | 02) 3446 | 27686 
midn. |j 23.72, 8 0 |-13] 3670 |9795:] - 18 - Sigg tae eel ouan 
mn: 0 |—1:3] 3457 | 9784" 74°45! N a i “oe “lane 
5 a ait ae wey ' - midn } 99°55' E 0 0:0) 3412 27°41 5 
= . — OF De a a. Mm. a) —():5 33°96 97°31 5 
: 0 |-14| 34:70 |9795'] - 2 - 5*| 0:0) 33°95 | 27:28 
3 5*|—14| 34°66 | 27°91 STA as 0 |—02| 34:00 | 27:335 
: a 10* |—1°3| 3463 | 27:88 eG. a= 0 |—0:2| 3396 | 27:305 
Mee || es t3| cae Peele erea | 6 lool seco |-o7a2e 
l 0 |—1°3] 34-71 | 97-952 O40) if nea 
& 5* |—1:9 34:71 97-95 - 12 noon Wes Gota 0 |—03) 33°94 9729 © 
- 10* |—12) 3473 | 27-96 = 9 Orr meee 0 |—03| 33:93 | 27:28 5 
: 15* |—1:2| 3470 | 99:94 Eon te 5*| 00! 33:94 | 27:27 
: Sppenine 20* |—1'1| 34°70 | 27:94 eis 0 |—05| 34:08 | 27-425 
moon |{gaqq-p | 0 |—1'3| 34.70 jo7952] - & - : Oe Seo aE 
Samre 20° SSW2 | 0 |—06| 33:93 | 27:295 
p.m 0 \—1:3| 3470 |97952 | - 8 - | 5*|—05| 33:91 | 27:27 
- a = 2 ae se Pie 0 |—0-8| 3401 | 27:375 
- _ 34° Say ove 5*|—0'7| 34:00 | 27:35 
. 0 |—1:0| 3470 | 97-942 : o4gs 
4 : 5* |—1:2! 34°70 au - 12 midn. ae 0 |j-11 34:02 97:39 6 
it OO NNE 1 a =e ae 97-952 | - 12 - 5* |0:9| 3402 | 27:38 
- —1:2| 3470 |9794 | 8 2 a.m. © |—1:1] 3401 | 27:38 6 
- o = pe Cy oien | |, mee See 0 |—1:1] 33:98 | 27:36 6 
- —1: : 97:94 = @ Je | 0 |—1'0| 34:41 | 27:45 6 
midn. | agony 0 |—12) 3468 |97992 | - 6 - 5*|—1:0| 34:05 | 27:40 
a. m. o=ni 0 |—08! 346 p92 SOM = 10* |—10| 3408 | 27:43 
| 37°50" E lines Beene age eso | 4:0 We 0 |—08| 3407 | 97-49 6 
- ; : —1 : 6 : : 0 |—1:0| 34:04 | 27:39 6 
- OPSWO05 | 5*/—-10| 3451 |2778 | - 10 - 5*|—0°9| 3405 | 27-40 
3 is 50 N 0 _07 2 12 \ 74°30' N | Oy hal Ay 6 
37°50! E 4 . noon || 95097 F | 0 |—10) 3405 97-40 
- 1400" N 5*|—06| 34:59 | 27:82 =) {20=- | 5*|—0°9| 34°05 | 27:40 
12 noon } 30°35! E 0 |—08 34-44 97712 - 12 - 10% |—0°9 34:09 9743 
SO ae 15* |—0°9| 34:07 | 27:42 
0 |—09| 3442 |97692 | - 12 - /20* |—0°9| 34.07 | 97-42 
? —0'9| 3457 | 27829 | - 2p. m. | 0 |-1:0| 3407 | 27-42 6 
—13! 3454 197803 | - 9° - 5*!_0:7! 34:99 | 97-42 


' Along ice-edge. Sea gray. 2 Along ice-ed S i 5 5 i 
ge. Sea grayish green. In open sea. Sea grayish green. 
n open sea. Sea dirty green. * Along ice-edge. Sea brighter green, ® Along ice-edge. Sea ay 


I20  FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETC. M.-N. KI]. 


Locality * o z 2 £ ° D a Locality e 2 z 2 £ o 
oes ae AirTemperature cs £ Pe A = O% ue an AirTemperature Pe BE A =— 
our Wind B = 5 3 ° our Wind g s B 3 ° 
June 1901 Wie || SG We June 1901 M: | Cee Tos 
8, 4 p. m 0 |—1:0 | 3409 | 27-43 1910,12 noon 5*| 0:02) 33°84 
- 4 5* |—1:0 | 3409 | 27:48 ce eye ail 0 |—0°25) 33°59 
> wae | O |—10 | 3408 | 973917 - 4- - 0 1°19) 34-97 
=O) = | 5*|—1:°0 | 34:01 | 27:37 4. a* | = 1°99)- 34°29 
=e 8G)! = | 10* |—1:°0 | 3408 | 27-43 = 30. => 0 12 | 34-24 
‘Si 05° WNW 2:5) 0 |—0'8 | 33:99 | 973517 - 8 - 0° ENE 2 0 0:92) 34°32 
=hS' = | 58 2 Ou7 | 38s:99) | Qii8D Oo De fon B13? 
- 10 - | 0) asl) ) BBHSh | Ghee S| | 6 aK) s N 0 042) 33°91 
% . : Q7 OR Qs 
10 5 74°30!‘ N 5 ma 8 34 01 27 31 , > 12 midn. oe E 0 if 02 3437 
- 12 midn. 95°17 E 0 |—10 | 38401 | 27°37 Teens 0 0:29 33:96 
aed Dy 5* |—1:0 | 34:04 | 27:39 a) ON ie 5* 33°82 
- 12 - | 10* |—1:0 | 94:03 | 27:39 - 4 0 0°83) 34:26 
SD i= 15* |—0°9 | 34°04 | 27°39 = 6 =- 0 1°24) 33°62 
= 12) = 20* |—0°7 | 3406 | 2740 = Onn 0°2° ENE3 0 043) 3412 
oy 2a. m 0 |=1:0') 34:01 | 27:37't = 10 = 0 |—0°26|) 34:05 
De, += 50:9 ae ae Ee = As Vi 73°38) N 0 |—03 | 34:03 
4 oe | 0 |-10) 34 391 |, 73°38" 
Spies BE | 5* |__0:9 33:99 | 27°36 - 12 noon 24°50' E E 0 0-4 34:17 
Samy (= 0 |—1:0 |) 3399 | 27386']| - 1 p.m —* 0 0°79) 34:20 
—wiO), = 5* |—1°:0 | 38402 | 97°38 = = 0 093, 3436 
=6:. = | 10* |—1°0 | 34°00 | 27°36 - Oo --= 0 0°72) 3427 
Stic —0'5° NW 2 0 |—10 |) 3403 | 27391) - 4 - 0 1°46) 3453 
2 (3 | 5* |—1:0 | 34°05 oi aS 5 0 9°43) 34°91 
10 74°19! N | OF | =0;9 Rees ee |- 6 ue ae 0 3-44) 34-97 
12 noon |} 9¢°39° F 0 |-07 | 3404 | 2738277 o | 365! 3508 
2 5* |_06 | 84:04 | 27:38 toh ot Ve 90° B25 0 3°40) 35°05 
- 2p. m. 0 |—04 | 3404 | 27372 Sate 0 | 275) 34°94 
SiO) i= 5F |—0'3 | 34:19 , 97-43 - 10 - 0 3°25) 34°99 
- 4 - 0 05 oF a a al Woy Lily tec 0 3°28) 35°01 
- & - By)])  (Ui6y || aH! “4 : be = 
UG 0 05 84:18 | 97:44.2 - 12 midn. 21° 7 0 288 35°01 
SEG) byt. 5) 0'6) |) 34:20) (27:45) 81929 an om. 0 3°04 34:99 
- 6 - 10* | 1:4 | 3457 | 27°70 = ON 0 298 34:99 
- 6 15* | 1°56} 3459 | 27°70 - 8 0 1°21, 34°75 
6 90* | 2:00} 34°76 | 27.81 - 4 - 0 021 3469 
=a), = 95* | 218) 34°80 | 27°82 ay 0 |—O'7 | 34°94 
KO a= 04° WNW 0°5| 0 0°48) 34°21 | 27-46 2 6 0 |—05 | 35:08 
mo {3} 2 5* | 0°69) 3419 | 97-44 Me = 0 |—03 | 3471 
=210)) <- 0 0'°37| 38418 | 27442f - 8 - —1°4° NE 2 0 |—05 | 34°70 
== 10) = “8 50 | 5*| 0:95) 3420 | 27-43 - Fe é 4 —0°18 cre 
: ° 6! s é - - O1 4°66 
= 12 midn. | 96°55! E 0 0) 34 34 19 97 46 2 t. 11 4 0 0 83 3463 
= . - Bee 10:64 rie a NW point of; 
reddy - 10*| 1:2 : Bear Island in ag. 
10, 2 a.m. o | 05 | 3421] o7462) = 12 2090 fn Ge conker 
CRT ae BF) 4:0) | S425" O76 point in EbS 
Oras 2 0 02 | 3418 | 97462] - 2p.m 0 03 3469 
- 4 - 5* | 0°79) 34:91 | 97°44 4 - 0 03 3465 
16... © 0 1:0! 34338 | 2975227 - 6 - 0 03 3471 
- 6 - 57 10) S455) Roos 8 —0°3° NE 2 0 03 | 3463 
SG out 10*| 1:5 | 3459 | 97°71 10 - 0 | 02 3458 
=e See —05E05 0 08 | 34:93 | 274727 - 10 - 5* 1 Os | 34°63 
Dy tojageees I AISOF sy Riss |) areas b - 10 - 10*| 03) 3464 
105 = = 0 O05 | 34:14 | 97-412] - 12 midn 0 |—01 | 34°70 
-10 - eras | 5*| 12) 34°14 | 97°38 718, 2 a. m 0 |—0-1 a 
4 °00, : ne 99 31 7” > 0 0-0 “6 
12 noon } 96°50! E 0 |—0°81) 33°55 26:99 6 Fe 0 _—0'2 34-66 


1 Along ice-edge. Sea green. 2 Along ice-edge. *® Through ice. Sea green. 4 In open sea. Sea greet 
5 Sea light green. 


1906. No. 3. 


TABLE I. 


SURFACE OBSERVATIONS. 


I21 


| 


| Date and 
}} Hour 


June 1901 


eB 
nents 


ee 


CHOIR & oBBwrolore 


a 


q 3) > H-=| 3 DB 
Locality “ 3] 4 fos } Locality oar oes 
AirTemperature 2¢ BE | = oO, pate AirTemperaiure ee BE BS <= oe 
Wind a=|s 2 Wina a| 2 fi 
isi Oona eye “June 190! lini) Ge ayes 
1°0' N 1-0 0 |—02 | 3469 | 97:881]15, 1 p. m. | 0 | 22 | 3481 | 27:83 2 
5*| 00 | 3460 | 9780 | - 2 - | 0 | 30 | 35:01 | 27-91 2 
0 | 00 | 3466 | 27851] - 3 - | 0 | ue 3481 ae 
M = fe 0 | 08 | 34-61 | 27-76 + 
MouNeW.| 0| Ot | 864) ors 5 (0 | 09 | 3463 | 97762 
3°40! | | 6 
2 miles off Paleoa | ster lore | - 6 - | ree 0 | 05 | 3460 | 297-772 
On Ot sl6o |o7ei "2 a |. 0 | 06 | 3458 | 27°75 2 
5*| 0:3 | 34:58 | 97° gn ease | 9-0° ENE 1-5 | 0 | 05 | 3458 | 97:76 2 
O | O14 | 34:64 | 97: 83 | Gimec 0 | 06 | 34-61 | 27:78 2 
0 | 00} 3462 | 27:83! i 0 | O1 | 34:66 | 27-842 
—04 NE2 | 0/ 00) 3466 | 27°85 5 Eide | 0 | 02 | 3466 | 97-852 
. | é “f Swit 90961 5 
eeiieg| fae. renee 12 midn. | | 73,33, N 0 | 03 | 3469 | 27862 
0 | O4 | 3470 | 27°87 1116, 1 p. m. | 0 | 02 | 3467 | 97852 
O04 | S65) 978544. 9 * 0 | 02 | 3464 | 27822 
9 |—03 | 34-70 | 97: ‘91s pie. | 0 | 02 | 34:64 | 97:82 2 
0 | 06 | 3479 | 27-99! a 4 | 0 | O02 | 3464 | 97:82 2 
s 06 peaks | 2789 | See a | 0 | 02 | 3463 | 97:81 2 
—1°0' NE 2 0 me El 278)! GIL | ae 0 0-2 | 34°76 | 97:92 1 
| 0 29 | 34°92 | Qi: ‘86 5 Fj & 0 03 | 84:59 | 97:77 1 
ee cee | 2025. 8 | 20°NNW25 0 | 02 | 3464 | 27921 
0 5:2 39°03 | 27:69 9 a | 0° O14 | 3467 | 97:86 1 
74°33' N 2 | ~ ati | Geeaail 
lag’ ke 360 | «8 | 50) 3508) 97712] - 10 - | 0 | 02 | 3468 | 27861 
(0 | 59/| 3498. 7-66 2 11 oe On 0 34°65 781 
| 0 | 59] 3498 | 97-6621 - 19 || aE 0 | O83 | 3454 | 97-751 
0 R oO | 
Ogee cee ae -1pm|—— | 0 | 08 | s4s5 | o7r711 
74°98! N Al (eS) | 0 | 08 | 3464 | 27°81! 
13°90" & 0 | 45 | 35:05 | 27:76 4 | 0 | 02 | 3464 | 97-801 
POET) 0) 45) 2505 | 97762] -'6 - (76 N | o | o4 | aue4 | o7at2 
0 | 341! 3509 | 978821 - 7 0 | 02 | 3471 | 97:89! 
5*| 35 | 3508 | 9787 1° 8 - 1:0°N2 0 | 00 | 39°79 | 27-991 
0 3:3 35° 09 | 97:89 = 9 - | 0 0:0 | 3480 | 27-971 
74°97! N | eens IM) = | 0 | O2 | 34:72 | 27:90! 
ety 0 | 33) 35:07 | 27:89 10: 5*| 04 | 3470 | 27:87 
0 | 99) 3509 | 97932] - 11 | f | 0 | 02 | 3478 | 27911 
0.) 29 | 3505-| 279977 | 19 midn, |} BIEN =| 0 | 02 | 34-72 | 27-901 
5" | 3.2) 35:06 | 27:90 EROS aw | ; 
0 3:0 | 84:99 | 27:90 2 WW o* | O04 | 34°70 | 27:87 
0 | 98) 34:99 | 97:992917, 1 a. m. 0 | 03 | 3468 | 27°86 1 
5*| 99) 34:99 | 97:91 12) = 0 | 03 | 84:68 | 27°86 1 
0 | 28| 35:05 | 979421 - 2 - 5*| 04 | 3469 | 27:86 
74°00! N By eS ae ee O | 02 | 3474 | 97-991 
11°30'E 0 | 30) 35:05 | 2792"7 | 4 | 0 | O41 | 3476 | 97941 
5*/ 31] 8507/9792 J - 4 - | 5*| 06 | 34:76 | 27:90 
a 0 | 35 | 3508 | 97892] - 5 - | | O | O3 | 3472 | 27°90 1 
eB 0 | 26| 3494) 2790°] ¢ 27 N | o | 02 | 34-73 | 27-901 
5*/ 28 | 3496 | 9789 ,] - ey ete We | oe | | 
O |) 4:1) 3£65'| 97-7871 - 6 | 5*| Og | 3473 | 27:88 
0) 13) 3470 | o78127 - 7 0 | 0% | 3478 | 27°95 1 
ange 0 | 94) 3481 | Q780°,T - 8 - 26° N 1 WeOn NOs) of73) | 97:91 1 
5 - (8 = | 5*| 09 | 3476 | 27:89 
10°00" E 0 | 26 | 3489 | 9786°] _ 49 | 0 | 03 | 3468 | 27°85 1 
" Sea light green. 2 In open sea. Sea green, 


I22 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETc. M.-N. KI]. 
Locality 2| Ho Bos Locality airs) 3) R= eer) 
aie ae AirTemperature = £ = 5 2 = o, sas and AirTemperature €¢ a = 4 La %, 
2 Wind 2 3 eae a Wind | 23] 8 7 aaa 
June 1901 WE Cull Oi June 1901 | M. | Cale e i/o 
17,10 a. m. 5* | 04 | 34:69 | 27:86 74°83’ N 7 
10 10*| 05 | 3467 | 2793 [19.12 noon | } “30951 0 |—02 
re 15*| U5 | 3468 | 2784 | - 2p.m 0 |—02 : 
AO 20" | 05 | B71 |.9787-1- 4° - 0 |—05 
10% = pape 25*/ 1:0 | 3468 | 97°81 Glee i 0 |—05 
=42 noon || Senay | 0 | 8 | sees |ereut| > 8: | SN Rema 
TAD, = | 5*| O7 | 34:67 | 97°82 - 12 midn. | 0 |—02 | 3429) 27-565 
42 = l4o*| 06 | 3467| 9782 | -12 - | mh | 5*) 00 | 34:26| 27°59” 
- Dj, a, 0 09 | 3469 | 29783 | °10! : ; An 
ee | «| 26) 3468 | 9776 | - 12 - | 1 gpasyy | 10") Ot Shao) 275m 
ata | 0 | 15] 3470 | 27791}90, 2 a. m. | 0 |-03 | 3493) 9759 
| | 5*| dd | 8673 | 784 Io = a: 0 | 02) 3448) 27-72% 
Of hi | 2 Rx 5 5 . 
ee | fo 10) )| 88S) oreo meee ate 5+) 03 | 3448) 27°72 
6 5 Be 0-9 34:69 97:83 = 6 = | 3°99! W 0 | 02 3437 97 61 
aes: | 110*| 1:1 | 3472 | 97:84 : | 5*| 02 | 3437) 2761 
> ASRS 20° W 1 0 | O8| 3463 | 97-78!1 - 6 - 10*| 02 | 3440) 27°63. 
peor =~ | | 5*| 06 | 3462 | 9778 |= 8 = 18°SW 1 0 | 02) 3441) 2763 
ie | @ | 07) S£68: | ORSe* he tea 5*| 02 | 3435 217 
73°50N ! : ea parse 0 | O02 | 3438) 97-62’ 
~ 12 midn. \ 3°90! W 0 | 02 34 43 97 66 » 10 | a ee 5s 04 34-41 9762 
18, 1 a. m. 0 | 02 | 3435 | 97°59 °12' : ca 
cee a. m | i 02 | 3436 | 97-602 12 noon | 1} 3°99' W 0 02 | 3438 | 2762 
ae 0 |—O1 | 3432 | a758tF - 12 - 5*| 03 | 3438| 27-61) 
i: 0 |-02 | 3484 | o7611] - 12 - | ae 10*/ 03 | 3437) 9760 
| —_ (V9 QA- | "AD 
GF > | cgoegy | 0 [72 | BEAT) 2765) | op, me | | eee or 
= 16 = } eon Q |—02 | 3498 | 27°56 , 74°13! N 
7 0 |} 0:2 34-11 97:49 2 =aniity = t 3°91‘ W 0 02 34°42 | 976 
Zl ‘ bsieaillics 97-49 
ae) Ss |] —08° Wi” [90 1-035) 3449 og age tae eee 5*| 02 | 3443| 27°66 
aus = || 5*| O5 | 3499/9750 | - 6 - : 10*| 03 | 3445| 27°66 
One = 0 |—0:3 | 34:03 | 27°36 = <8 + (Seam 0 | 02) 8496| 27:59 
Or) 5*| 00 228 | 5*| O38 | 34:97! 97°59 
= ee ; 10*| 00 | -3430 | 92755 J - 10 - 0 | 08 | 34:45! 97-667 
$42 noon ||"B2N | 0 | 00] sat | oreo%| 710 | Cen 
4 9 p: m | 0 | 0:2 34:08 97:38 A 12 midn. 8°91! Ww 0 0 3 34 46 97 6 ia 
ch ae 0 |—02 | 3414] 9745°] - 12 - | 5*| O04] 3446) 218 4 
74°5' N Nees ee) fo Oe 10*| O04) 3446 2767. 
6 | 3°30! W 0 |—02 | 3410 eae DY fn) Seek 0 | O83 | 3446) 97-67" 
- 8 = | 08° SW15 | 0 |—09) 3400) e783") =so = 5*| O04] 34-46) 2767, 
4 ee | 5*|—O1 | 3410 | 9739, ] - 4. - 0 | 02) 3455) 97°75 
iO) = 0 |=02 | 3605 | o787- 1 a outs 5*| 08 3453 9773 | 
ee be * |_ 0): | Of. . | ts 
10 | 74°00! N 5 a | f 05 es ot id 6 I} 3°9()! Ww 0 03 3464 978 | 
- 12 = | } 3039) WwW 0 —(01 34 14 7°44 . 6 _ | 5* 03 = 7: 
SHO = -| 5*| 0:0 | 3410 | 27-39 6). = * ee 10*| 03 : ; 
mila | 10* |—O1 | 3426 | 2753, Rit 20°SSE1 | 9 |_0O3 
19, 2a. m. | 0 |-02 | 3418 | 274857 - 8 - 5* |_O-4 
ae | 0'|—02 | 3412 | 97438°] - 10 - 0) O05 
Buy : a 5*|—01 | 3411 | 2741 J - 10 - wr 5* | 07 
6a: ees wv 0 |—02 | 3412 | 97433] - 12 noon |} “3°99 Ww 0 | 05 
Gs: 5*|—O1 | 3417 | 9746 | - 12 - 5*| 0-7 
SUG. 2 10* |—05 | 3483 | 2760,) - 12 - | 10* | 07 
meses: | 1:0°SWa 0 |—-O2 | 3417 | 9747°] - 2p. m. | 0. 06 
HS) 5*|—Ol | 3415/9745 J - 2 - | 5*| O7 
Ay: 0 |-02| 3:09) 2740 | - 4 - 0 | 05 


Sea light green. 


° Through ice. 


% Along ice-edge. 


‘ Along ice-edge. 


Sea light green. 


1906. No. 3. TABL 
Eat. 
I. SURFACE OBSERVATIONS 


NO 
ios) 


Date and _ Locality A a | B > 
Hour AirTemperature| = © ae a 2 
Wind BS! 8 Bil ss 0 Date and Localit | Ell 
: o 3 t : Ay Die ial 
, a a n Hour AirTemperature| ah) 28 = ° 
June 1901 Wina a2) 95) 3 == 0; 
A || EGRn EGY Ae “fe Weyl ae 
id , u 19 = | 
74°14‘ N 5 05 | 34:66 97:82 or oe ol M | of | a 
3°9()! 0 6 93,10 a. m Cee 
(i) W 0 5 34-64 97-81 1 . 5 0-7 | 0: 
5* 06 34-67 a7 - 12 noon ose | Oy; | 34:38 97°59 
| OF | 346 Hl - | 5° | O8 | 3444) 27:6 
a | 05 nee pies > Dips oie | 10° | 0:8 Sa Buoy 
0 | 04 3463 Ae ler ae 0 on | ary) 2767 
(74°19 N >| os | seer (ares |. 4 Rae lege | B53 | 27°70 
eA 0 | 05 | 3470 | 2786! ; | 0 | O07 | 3449) 97-67 
Eaieae | sack Gale GUE TEAL N ee om 34:51 27-69 
Ae ea (ade aa Siow | 0 | 07 | 852) 27°70” 
5 | 06 oe eae Weel gel 3457 2774 
ee ee rt 8 | nee 
be x 34-65 | 27 
tay Bt | 04 | 3470 | 9787 | 0 | 5° | 07 | 34-67 | o789 
: ae 3 | 03 | 3470 | 9787!) 12 midn, | {74,15 N Pee Ote | 8216) 2082 
« = Psy ay |G 
| : B04 | E70. 2787 On: a7 w SCL «| «08 | 874 97-90 8 
: | = OE TSS) 8) 115) 05 34-68 | 97:84 24, 010a.m 5 | 0-4 | 34-73) 27°89 
- 0 | 04 | 3467 | 27:84! = 0 | 06 | 3473| 276 
_— - S| 0s | 3670 | 986 Q - 5 | 06 | sea piss 
_ - 0 | O4 | 34-70 lea 2 Fe ee ei) 
a 5 | 06 | 3470 | 2785 ones 5° | 05 | 3479| 27°94 
i 0 | 05 | 370 | 2786! ae Cree. | : 
— - 5*| 07 | 34°70 ues ee: eae o ; ie | ad zis 
2 i te fe 34°70 ores : 2 3 a = ‘ | sey 2786 * 
12 - Plenetlerey barca, LS iinice Foaling ee sea 27°88 
Bp. m. 05° | 08 | 34-70 As ee 15°WSW 15] 0 | 06 511 | 2818, 
. 0 | 06 | 3476 a a ae 5 | 05 | 3478) 27° 
a - 2 at 34-70 Sree - 10 (YW OFF | ; | call 30 3 
F 6 Z 74°10! N 5s Fe Pri 97:89 | - 12 noon | \ 74°18" N | 3 08 34-74 | 27°87 
3°18! 68 | 27°83 - 12 / 3°00! W 0 06 34-62 27° 3 
Al 6 sw | 9 | 07 | a6 : gers 
J : 7 | 27°82 ipa 3: | 07 | 34:62) 2 
i pee? | eet (277i ae mie 
i Meee) C2 | S88 | 2r78,, 8 06 | 3467 oe 
imgi0 Bl -o7 |: 59 | 27°75 : Plow || oe : 
; a ea ee wen | 5 | 02 | Be79 27°95 
‘ fs ) oT: | OD)! | 0-9 24-24 | 
» }42 midn (oe. 51 08 | 34:62 pee Chee iil 2°30' W . Ue 34-34 28:00 ! 
ie - 5 | 05 | 34: SiO te. | | a | 05 | 3451| 27-70 
=” i) Os a7 | 2075,1 | is 9: eo een 20 
oh - 0 . : | ° 3 i 24-45 
m2 - 5 ae | ae 97-771] - 12 midn. 74°14! N 2 | 0-4 | 3445 | 27°66 
1 a «Ct 0 0°7 34-59 aor - 19 4 | ' 2°00! W | 0 | 0:3 34:41 | 27:63 1 
ff 6 = 74°11'N oe O77 | 34°54 7°70 25, O) fn Ti | 5 Ors S445 on-k 
L } 3°16! Ww 0 97 71 = 9 By | 0 0 9 43 27 64, 
6 06 84:57 27-74 2 Al “ | 4" | 03 34-43| 976 
4 re 06 | 3455 | 97-73 | - 4 0 | 02 | 27°65 | 
8 20°sw2 |'0 | 06 | 338 oe ae 5* | 03 | 3413) 27-40 
0 | o7 | 3637 | o7a8?| 10. |-0'5° WSW 4] 0 | 0% | Beto 7 28 
‘ = 10 5* | 05 | 3409) 27:36 
0 0-4. 09 27 36 4 


Alon hi ht ree 2 n e 3 se ttered ce- “} 
( ice- -edge. Sea . g£ g = 
14 g een I e (3) ree Ss e-Tloes 
op Nn Sea. Ss a hi ht nN Amor t 
. ngs sca | 1 fl 


light 
green. ‘ Along ice-edge. Sea light bl 
ue. 


124 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETC. M.-N. KI. 


Locality |= % 2 AAs ee Localiags U/ae 2 m4 a 
eet AirTemperature sé a q £ —— O. es aoe AirTemperature ce a a8 & == 
Wind S| ae hal Wind a3 2 ye 
June 1904 MG) OC Oi June 1901 Meee 
25,10 a. m. 5 | op | 3444 | 2741 |, ., | \ 74°48! N sam 
- 12 noon |} N | 0 | 06 | 3412 | 2738" 7 eae s . 
1 14 ‘| 12 = 4 ; s | 
- 2pm. | o | 10 49° 8 10° | 03 | 3429 
- 12 midn. |}™#320 8 | 0 | 08 | sete | 97391] 2 = m aie eed 
26, 2a. m. On es - es aa Oe 5°| 07 | 3437 
SRLO. tes 5*| 08 13 | 97: 74°56! N ; 
bod | 0 | 08 | | ahs l“acgorw | «8 | 08 | 33778 
By es | | 07 | 3114/9740 | - 6 - 5° | O4 | 3405 
6 - |jeN lo | 07 | seto| avec 78 oa a Oe 
ae | 5°! 07 | 3409 | 9735 | - 10 - 0 | O04 | 33°74 
G2 <2 | 10° | 06 | 3406 | 27:34 74°58! N | 
- 8 - | 28NWO5 | 0 | 09 | "}- 12 - | | pegeryy 0 | 08 | 33°93 
Mon 5| 06 | 306 | a7at | - 12 - io: aie 
; : spp | Aas - 2pm. 0 | 06 
- 12 noon | |7g80, 5, | 0 | o9 | 8487 | 9757'] - 2 - 3 3404 
- 2pm | 0 | 167 A etots & Serie 
= 5” 1 64 34°35 | 97 D1 4 | 74°54‘ N 
Se = 93" | 02 | 3449 | 27°70, 6: =e O15! W 0 | 06 | 34-10 
et Seabees 6 ote Ws | o7 | 3608 
4 - - aye 08 | 34°52 | 97:69 : 6 ‘ 10° O07 
6 - | {Asch | 0] 10 | sa¢}o77]- 8 - | teswis | 0) 05 | 
| » | > gen ll oilers (eee er | 3*| 06 | 33°69 | 
= 6 = 5 1 0 34 33 | 97 52 2 10 | WO | 1 0 33-93 
AG - 10° | 1:0 | 3434 | 97547] - * | eae | 
- 8 - | 20°Swos | 0 | 08 12 <a 0 | 07 | 33°71 
Rin eae se ASitee 0 | 08 | 3381 
= 10 - a, 5 08 34°34 | 97°52 TAAGEN | ) 
- 12 midn. | }7S-60,N, | 0 | 08 | 3427 | 9759 6 -. |) 5a5e  eed 
oe 5 | 10 | 8434 | o7-5A I 
DAT 2) a. m. 0 09 5 10 3 10° 04 83:86 
BUGS. 5*| 08 | 3435 | 97°36 pets | went atas 
mo © es | : | 74°49'N / 
- 4 - 5° | 09 | 3433 | 2753 47h = | cae 0 | 04 
7TA°45! N 6°00! W 
- 6 } 3°40! W 0 | 08 | 8419 | 9743 | io . 4 | 06 | 3489 
a6 5 | 08 | 3496 | 9748 | - 2p. m 0 | 04 
NG. 10° | 09 | 3498/9750 | - 2 5*| 08 | 3475 
8 - | -15°N05 | 0 | 08 sy 0 | 05 | 33°75 
Bee, 5*| 09 | 3432/9753 | - 4 5 | 06 | 33°83 
5 tie 0) 09 | | 4 10° | 04 | 33°83 
74°48! N ; ver 15'| 04 | 3406 
- 12 noon |} goog yw =| 0 | 10 ares 8 90° | 04 | BEI4 
, 74°50! N eye ts 95° | 04 | 3429 
9 Pp. m. 1 44! Ww 0 15, 8 \ \ TAPAL! N 0 0-4 
Se 0 10 : - 10 5°51 W 
74°52! N Aalto - § - | 20°WO5 | 5*| 06 | 33:84 
- 4°14! W 1 1 - 12 a eo. 0 0-4 33°72 | 9) 
- 8 - —O2°WNW0O'5 | O | 1:0 | | | ea 
JG. = 5+ | O8 | 38441 | 97: 60 , 30, 2 a.m 0 | 04 
40° - 0 | 1:0 | 3407 | 97-391 D) | 5 07 | 3373 ot 


al 
' Along ice-edge. Sea light blue. 2 The water is very clear, and the water-bottle is very a q 
visible at a depth of 10 metres. ° Through slack ice. Sea light blue. 4 Sea light green. Through sla ck ar 


1906. No. 3. TABLE I. SURFACE OBSERVATIONS 125 


Bl 3 | = 1S os eB ial | 
Locality ao] & Soh to Locality 2 S| AS eS 
Date and AirTemperature s +| e 5 # — Oo ee a AirTemperature 2 $ eae f= — OF 
eg Wind SA | ae Wind Z2| 3 ce | 
June 1901 Ee? Calo 4 July 1901 | WE eu OF ot 
), 4am On|) 205 ; 24am 0 | 12) s441| 26-78" 
ee | | eee | Ae a] - 6 toy =| 0 | 18 | 3657] 26904 
- 6 ome fo | 20 1 2 - | teswe | 0| 15| 3894) 27184 
8 | 5 | 02 | 3369 | 2706 | - 10 - | 0 | 14 | 33:97) 97-94 
| oe 10° | 02! 33-71 | 9708.) - | 73°55! N Culley teller 
8 _10°N 1 0 2 12 noon — } 6°40! W 0) 13 | 3492) 27 fay 
ans - 5+ | 06 | 3369 | 2704,] - 1 p. m. | 0 | 1:2| 3408) 27:31 
mo 0 aid | Bales || See] rie) 
m0 C- 5° | 06] 3369 | 9704] - 2 - 0} 12 
1 | h - | A 9.94,| 97-49 3 
Brooon |}72e27N | 0 | o6| 3349 | 26887] ~ * eee Pubes ee eel ot aa 
42 . 5* | O7 | 33:51 9689 > 5 ce | } 6°17 W 0) 08 | 33°69 | 27:03 
me C 10"| 06 | 3375 | 2709,] - 8 25°SWhW2 | 0 | 05 | 33-41) 26822 
2 p. m On) 0-7: | a5 Oe =< 0 | 03 | 3340) 26825 
2 (C 3°) 06 | 33:54 | 26:92,] - 10 | 0 | 08 | 3350| 96883 
4 0 | 06 | = 10Re 0 | 093) | : 
e- 5*| 06| 3349 | 2688 J - 11 - | 0 | 02 | 33:22) 26692 
74°36! N Plena eset aa. | (78°53! N 5 | | 
6 - } 5°98, W 0 | 09) 33°65 | 26:98 12 midn. | } "9°43. w OF n025 : 
6 - 5° | 09 | 33:83 | 2713 | 3, 2a. m. | O | 08 | 3341) 26815 
 - 10" | 08 | 3396 | 2725,] - 4 - < 0| 07 
ft | | 09 | saz | ar07,) © - jeu | 0 | 06 | 3345] 26-84% 
10 - 0 | 08| 3356] 969277 - 8 - | 21°WSW1| 0 | 02 | 3343] 26852 
m - 5 | 07 | 3383/2714 | - 10° - | : 0 | 02| 3336| 26:79 
10 - 10° | 0:3 | 33:88 | 26:86 | er | 73°50! ee eo 
io 15°| Of | 33°97 | 97-99 Secu an orion, 2) 9,388) 2689 
i - ne 20" 00) 3400 | 2732 | - 2 p. m. | 0 | 10 | 33° o 27-09 
TA°34M! : - 5 0 | 1:0 | 33:67) 26-96 
i - f 95" |—0-4 | 3416 | 27-47 | eae 
| 535 W 16s Ps | ject a 6| 0 | 06 | 3352) 26-904 
uly 1901 oe OWNS © | 04) 08 | | 
kt abl atg 1 eee cae 5° | 06 | 3355] 26-93 , 
. ael0o | sxeaoria foto | ee 
74°32! N ; é 2 10 = : By || 0) 33'55 | 26°90 
q eo) 1) 28?) 2700) io mide. |} BAN | 0 | 09 | 3359| 2695 4 
* “€ . . | e | | 
* ULES ae eee a | 5) 09 | 3357) 26-92 
8 fi 10° SW 1 0 re) oo | 2 - 12 5 | | 10° 09 | 33:59] 26°95 
8 4 5* 1:0 33°87 97 16 = 12 on | 15% 02 33°88 OTR 1 
; 2 | Omen eerie) (eee Clee 120° | 02 | 33:90| 27:23 , 
| an : Om || | 25" |0-2 | 34:07| 27:39 4 
12 noon |}75.9%\, | 0 | 09| 3369 | 27022] 4, 2am. lo | 08 
| = | 5t| 07 | 33°89) 27-19 
™ + | 43) se7loms,|- * - oe os tS 
. - 5, eae ak = ete | 5) 06] 3349) 2688 | 
4 - ae 5*| 1:3 | 33°80 | - 6 = |}scimy | 0 | 08] 83:57] 26-93 
Be || Zong 0 | 13 | 33:78 | a (aes es | 5° | 0-7 | 3358| 26-95 
 - sey 0) 12 od dae 4 | OT | eee ote 
8 7 5 | 13 33:79 8 o 05°S 0:5 | 0) 11 35D | 26 90 
- . Gra wegen 3h- 8 = 5*| 1:0] 33:55) 26:90 
’ | = 8 = | 10° 1:0 33°58 | 96:93 
. - 3° | 1:4 | 33:96 | 27-21 fase 4 
O4Qu 10 - 0 09 
ME ey = | OC) tt OL ; 3 10 | 334a| 2660 
2 0 | 07| 3348 | 2686 | - 12 noon |}72.5x5, | 0 | 11 | 33:50) 2686° 


Sea light green. Through slack ice. ? Sea somewhat darker green. Through slack ice. * Through 

ki ice, Sea green. “ Along the ice-edge. Sea green. ° The temperatures from July 2, 12 midnight, and 

, 2a.m., are taken during a very slow drift. *s The temperature at 0 metres was at 12 noon determined 
the Richter thermometer to be 1° ; 


126 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETC. M.-N. Kl. 
mir. y ; Balla > Bal e = 
: Locality To] B® as Locality = Ales me 
SEO AirTemperature SS] 2 I eS 0 Date and AirTemperature a8] 5 A eS Om 
Hour Wi SS gs aS t Hour : ae gs as t 
ind 4 iS = j Wind 5 2 ss A 
July 1901 SESE GR: sD) [58 July 1901 M.| °C. | oo 
4,12 noon 5*| 12] 3350 | 9685 | 7, 2 p. m 0 | 22 | 3456 | 276 
oe 10°| 1:0 | 33:57 | 26-91 4p. m. ns 0 | 22) 3453 | 276 
= 2p. m. 0 | 12 - 6 = eee 0 | 29} 34538) 274 
ea = 5*| 12) 33:51 | 26:86 ' Sane 
ae Oo aco" | Bogs thes 28 NWO05 | 0 | 20| 3444] 275% 
= oa 5*| 10 - 10 - cn O | 22) 3443 | 275s 
SG = 73°18! N 0 1-0 ! - 12 midn. } ae a 0 DA 34:34 OFA 
se Ni) 8, 2am 0 | 29| 3434] 974 
oa8 18SW05 | 0 | 08 Beary 0 | 20 
; A 3 oe if- 4 - te 5° | 20 | 3434 | 274 
OReRe Eee eg - 1 610 | 20) bas | orm 
; 12 ‘ 73°30! N 3 07 2 = 6 =. 5 z Sy 19 34:38 975 
5, 2am. |} ‘borg w 0 | 09 | 33:33 | 9673") - 5 - | 14 W005 4 ae Bil oa 
-4 - nee 0 | 07 | 33-283 | 26667} ” | apogee ( 
-¢ - |jBsUN | 0 | 09] 3349 | 26062) = 10) Tema a 
Es 5 ote) = . A 2 74°4! N N 
| Oe OY oe) es | coon?) ~ 12 noon |j eee nny eens) 
Piainoon |{/S°2N | 0.| 48)) 3249)| Boao Ip ween 5 | 23] 8441 | 275 
ioe oe 10°| 23) 3441 | 2750 
- Ip.m 0 | 17 | 83:92 | 96607] - 
Fi 0 19 2p. m 0} 28 
9 5s ; 5 | 12] 3358 | 2692 | _ i 5 a ol j 
Gee) ee | 0: | | 10.) Soret ete eee = 5 | 22) 3371 | 2698 
Bags 5) 13, 3366/9696 | - 6 | Ee yy 10-48) 3844 | ome 
Sacee. | 10") 4°35) °33'8141/9709 26 eee 13°E 1 0} 10 ¢ 
- 8 = 21°SSE0O5 | O 9:3 oes ue 5* 10 | 3296 26-48 
= Se BY | 45 | 3860) | 27a apne ot ae ’ 
2100" = ROS 0 95 | 3412 moan iQue “iG 4*| 1:8] 3349 | 26:80 
- 12 midn. |} “goqys -w 0 1:2 | 33°31 | 26° 70° - 12 midn. |} Tee N 0 | 20} 33:56 | 2688 
6, 2 a. m. 0) 11 | 33°31 | 26° vie : y _ . - 85 
> ae 0 | 12} 33:33 | 967137 9 5 wae : ao =m | ae 
nO 1 0 | O07 | 32°96 | 26: 45 5 Eee 5*| 20 33:52) 268¢ 
- 8 - | 30°SW1 | 0 | 07 | 3840) 268050 a: epee : 
=e ya 0 | 14] 33:56 2588 ° a | 7498" N ep ee 
Mer oon |) ee 0 | 19 | 3351 | 268124 7 4°57) W i 
a0 W Bes a 1:8° N15 0 | 19] 3340| 267% 
- 2p,m. 0 | 13] 33°62 | 26-94 100. 0 | 15 . 
ae Behe 0 | 44 | 3369 | O806 =I erione= 5° | 15 | 3356 | 26% 
250! ae 3 TA°9' 
BO) 3°53 W 0 1:2 | 33°76 | 2706 - 12 noon }} 5°00! W 0} 20} 33:86 | 274 
- 8 - | 30°Wwswt]! o | 20| 3440 | 97513 : ; 
: “4c 293] - 2p. m. 0 |] 238] 3493) 27 
73°54! N 3] - ; 
- 12 midn. |} “S035. yy 0 | 18 | 3423 | 9740 ee 10° | 93] 3424 | 27 
7, 2a.m 0 | 16| 3498 | e753] - £ - Od ae \onen 
ad 0 | 16) 3422] o7393} - 4 - a geese 
73°56 N gh] oP =e 0 | 12) 3344 | 268 
- 6 - |} “B04m Wy 0 | 1:4 | 3417 | 27:38 g . |; MCION o | o9 
: . 50 A Slane | 5°20! W 
= 0 | fo] Seen ees] 8 = | ee 5) 09 | 8320) 266 
OR Qi 5 4 - 10 - 5 a 
- 42 noon |} 72e8N | o | 18] 3495 | e74194 - 10 - | | 13 | 3339 | 2606 
. 
' Along ice-edge. Sea green. * Along ice-edge. Sea light green. * The sea has a marked lig 


green colour. 


Great numbers of crustaceans in the sea. 


“ In open sea colour light green. 


5 


, 
@ 
> 


TABLE Tf. 


SURFACE OBSERVATIONS. 


1 Along ice-edge. 
. slack ice. 
Gk blue. 


Sea green. 


Sea light green. 


° In open sea, colour dark green. 


2 In open sea, colour light green. 
6 Along ice-edge. 


3 In 


P z a i} Pd LS 
a Locality Eel as foc Locality =, Ol Rw Il eh ce 
‘Date and par ompocatare =e PE Ee 0. rites AirTemperature| © £ Be aS O, 
poor MaoteebSa so | a tices PAWS NES ae 
July 1901 Melee Gel he July 1901 | M.| °C. | 9, 
} 9, 12 midn. |} ae A 0 06 | 32°96 | 26-45 1 12; 10 a. m. Pe avik 5 13 39-93 2638) 
me - 5 | 0-4 | 3296 | 2646, 12 oom |i “gan w =| 8 | 30 
0, 2a. m. 0 | 12 iON 1 Bt || 27 | B412)| 97-26 
m2 lC- 5° | 12) 3331) 9670,] - 2p. m. 0 | 28 
AC 0 | 10| 33:17| 259°] - 2 - 5° | 98 | 3499 | 97:30, 
| fe) ‘4 = . 99.06 07-19 
- Tea N iol. Gicell eeeRen Gree 4 Pes 0 | 28) 8399) 27127 
= S € lee 2.7¢ 97: 
ms - |09°WNW1|0 | 05| 3284|2637;)  ° MACE aee || 2) | eee?) |) 2700.7 
m0 C- 0 | 1:0) 3313 | 9657] - F 2 | oF esa 0 | 23 | 3893 | 26:55? 
T4135 N : Siyo|| = : OF Ox 
- 12 noon |} 5093) W 0 13 || BSB | VS70) Sires 5 | 09 3061 | 96:15 
m2 (C 5*| 1:4 | 33:33 | 2670 | _ eee 742380 N Pal Aaa Nn 228 A: (6 
42 £ 10* 1°5 33°54 96:87 5 12 midn } 6°25! W 0 02 32°93 25°89 
- 2p. m. 0 1:0 - 12 - Sai O16 5 
a 5*| 1:2) 3319 | 26615] 13, 2 a. m. 0 | 13 | 38277 | 26:26 
BA C- 0 | 1:0 | 33:18) 26-61 De = 2 ee : 
°1Q: fs 2 of 9: +46) 
se 5° | 08 | 3303) 2650,)  ¢ _ |; 74°41‘N | a 5 
8 - | O4°WNW1| 0 | 0-7 | 6°92' W 
ms 5° | 0-7 | 32:92 | 2642 4] - 8 - 16°EDN1 | 0 | 06] 3242) 26-02° 
mo C- 0 | 04| 32:73 | 2697°] - =| 5 | 0-7 
moO. C- 5*| 06 | 3278 | 2631 | - 10° - 1o | 11 | 8261 | 26445 
mo OC 10° | 0-4 | 32:82] 2635 J - 10 - . 5*| 12 | 32:53 | 26:07 
mo C- 15*| 02] 33:60 | 2699 | _ , TASA5! BN a 4B 
10 “ 20" 0-0 33:78 97:15 12 noon / 6°20! W 0 1 i) 32 56 26 11 
mo 2" |—O1 | 3379 | 97416. | 12 : atl 44 | : 
; 74°93! N 3] - 2p.m. Ole de8 
‘2 midn. } 6°3! WwW 0 0-4 ; 4 O) . | 5* 1:9 33:13 96°51 5 
2 a. m. 0 05 Se: | 0 1°5 | 
2 5*| 06 | 32°92 | 2642,], - 4 ‘ 5° | 32:95 
er 20 Kg | «6 | 0 | 18) asta | a6se° 
- | : ‘99 | Oe: | 
B - | o2SSwo5| 0 | 18/ 3315| 26547] - 8 - | 12NNE15 | 0 | 05/| 3258 | 2646? 
10 - 0 | 10} 3275 | 2627,] - 10 - y | 0 | 14 | 33:24) 26-68 
con |) | 0 | 06 = 42 midn. |} 72s 8, | 0 | 10| 3287) 2636° 
12 . 5° | 1:0 | 3268 | 2621 ,]14, 2 a. m. | | 0 | 06 | 3259 | 2616° 
me p. m 0 1:0 Ser 0 1:0 
2 5° | 10] 3273 | 2624,)- 4 - 5*| 06 | 33:24 | 26:68 
= 0 | 05 a , 75°18! N el am 6 
4 - ae 5* | 08 | 3249 | 26-01 2 1 9°20! W 
_ 0! Pale. Bee aE (Ge = 5° | 07 | 32:85 | 26:36 
6 } 6°47! Ww 0 01 32°91 95 aie nS 0 1:0° NNE 1°5 0 1:3 5 
is - | O5°SW05 | 0 | 00 7 S < 5*| 12] 33°91 | 27:18, 
» - 0 |-01 i, - 10 - 0} 19 
12 midn. 0 | 00 4) - 10. - , 5° | 2:0 | 3434 | 27-47 
> eee 4 - 12 noon |{ 275 | o | 23] 3445 | 97537 
= - : 5*/—02 | 3226 | 95°92 | - 12 - 5° | 23 | 3434 | 9745, 
; 74°30! N 4] - 2p.m. 0 | 24 
= ji gsxw | %} NON: 5 | 94| 3493 | 9735, 
s - 5° | 02| 3290/2586,) - 4 - 0} 23 
: - | O5SSW05/ 0 | 06 4 - . 5 | 24 | 3433 | 27°32 
s - st) 06 | 8253 | 26-41 75°41! Be ae 
. | als B= 6 Wy Goer yy 0 | 20] 3445 | 27°53 


Sea light green. 
7 Sea 


slack ice. 
Sea dark green. 


1 Sea dark blue. 2 


the same time there was a heavy swell, and the sea was very rich in plankton. 


again calmed down. 
anchor in Kobbe-Bay, Spitsbergen. 


3 In open sea, colour dark, dark blue. 
Sea light green. 


* Sea green. 


> In open sea, 
7 At anchor in Danish Gate, Spitsbergen. 


128 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETc. M.-N. Kl. 
7 Localit Fe g| & 2 Locality Eal ¢ 2 
ocality oe oS J =?| 50 oe) 
oo AirTemperature et 5 a: #2 ete AirTemperature Zs ze E te 
Wind a = é S Wind a = Z = 
July 1901 WE Cl Cia July 1904 IM: CRS os 
14, 6 p. m. 5 94 | 384-43 Af; (2) pam 0 40 | 34°70 
Seth. <= 2°3° NNE 1 0 23 5 =)» Aieorge Bec 0 12 | 33:40 
- 8 | 5° | 26) 345 229! 
10 0 23 2 6 } 10°10‘ E 0 34 ff 34:71 
> A0 ry, 5 | 24 8 40°S 15 0 95 | 34:50 
- 12 midn. |} P25 p | 0 | 21 | 3466 oe 79°43} Oras 
(0°52 E - 19 Pare wi 2 
15, 2 a. m. 0 93 | 38444 U102150H 
Be 5° | 93 = 19, BO gO S413 
AEE 0 a | 8, 2 0 79 
eA le 5+ | 99) 3468 = A 5B | 30] 34:37 
War IN 2 : = a0) 29 
Ce |) oe De ase a - 4 5° | 23 | 3434 
(Sy 5* 19 1 mile hi 
= ss {aN aS 0 1:9 from } : : 
+ ee Bi? fale} : point of 0 | 22) 3405 
amt () “ 0 26 P Danish Island 
76°15! = 5° | 94) 3491 
12 noon } 9°48 EB 0 1:0 32°59 = {i . 10* D4 34-99 
76°38' N 10 0 | 26) 33°97 
On i= } 4°46! FE. 0 1:9 | 34:04 12 Kobbe-Bay 0 951 33°98 
ae 5°| 19 | 3444 We igendiccas 
- 6 10* 1:9 | 3451 ie 0 3:9 | 39-39 
SG = lion N77; 34°46 2/48 53° C ] i } 
G6 _ 20" 16 34:44. a) aim 0 3:0 33°33 
“ ae : - 10 0 a8 
- 6 95 16 | 3440 - 12 0 05 | 34.14 
eS = 13°NW15 | 0 | 18] 33°81 12 " 28 3415 
- 10 0 | 28) 3452 2 
pacity - 12 5 | 28 | 3492 
- 12 midn. |} “Goqy E 0 | 28 | 3462 19, 2 0 | 24 
1G, SAG 0 | 27! 3462 te Cae 
4 0 9-6 34°60 ee 70° S05 0 25 
77°25' N Z 
6 } 9°49! F 0 | 27| 8459 - 10 0 | 40 
_ gs - | 30°wswilo| 28] 3459 nae ped eel Soya 
- 10 0 | 32| 3466 3 5 Vee 
9 , 77°49‘ N Sree. 
- noon |i 49°40! F 0 38 | 3477 - 3 : -. 
ae Pe | betes 8 s0°NW05| 0! 40 
718°6' N - 10 0 99, 34:07 
= 6 2 } 10°30! E (0) 48 34:90 - 12 0 a1 
- 8 30°Ssw2 | 0 | 40 | 3467 ae Lee 
10 a 0 | 30| 3444 a: cldae 
eyo\midn. || foun 0 | 20) 3421 8 40°No5 | 0 | 20 
17, 2a. m 0 | 24) 34-20 a ae 
ae 0 | 37 | 3459 5 a thas 
6 , 78°40‘ N f aon Fi 
- - | 0°10 E 0 | 48} 3486 a 0 | 22 
8 2 [#84 |e] es] gesol grant): § > | cannes] 0] ge 
78°57! N i - 10 0 a, 
- 12 noon | 10°00! E 0 38 | 34:67 12 mi 0 a 


At 1 a. m. the sea suddenly changed from dark blue to a dirty-green colour. 
After 2—3 hours the S¥ 
colour green. 6 


1906. No. 3. TABLE I. SURFACE OBSERVATIONS. 129 


| 
| 


q & > Sl il) 8 a 
Locality 3) | Er eae shes Locality BS 2) Ro ko 
AirTemperature 2 £ BE 8 == oO ae as AirTemperature 2% B 5 8 ~— oO, 
Wind g#| 8 ieee aa Wind Sel 2 ee 
ly Wiha] POs te Oleg July 1901 IMI || Col) ese 
2 0| 22 1 | 25, 10 p.m. 0 | 28 | ; 
4 0 | 22 1] ~ 12 midn. 10] 29] ; 
6 0 | 22 1] 26 2a. m. | 0 | 29 | ; 
é 50°SSW1 | 0 | 23 io 4 - 0 | 28 | ; 
( 0 | 4 ale 6h = 0 28 ; 
12 0 23 i 8 - | 18°WNW05| 0 | 28 i 
2 3 $ Z | 'S |} 
aa 0] 23 i | - 12 noon 0 | 28 | , 
| oa 0 | 26 see |o| 28 | : 
f 8 - |63°sswos| 0 | 24 mie fees | 0 28 | : 
j-40 0 | 25 7 O-| 28 | ; 
= 12 midn. 0 | 26 eee 22 Nwo05 | 0 | 28 : 
if, 2 a. m. 0 2'8 a | iQ 8 | 0 "7 | 1 
- On p= O7 i]: 12 midn. | 0 | 28+ | ; 
a 0 27 ; Pah, Oh tas | 0 28 1 
Wes - | 5s wos 0 | 28 eee 0 | 28 ; 
- 10 - i - - 0 i 
ji 12 noon 0 | 30 p= sa |aerswe | 0| 28 | 
a 2 p.m. 0 | 29 7 | pee aie |o| 28 
“4 - |) Ae) all ies 12 noon | 0 | 28 | 1 
| | {a () | Oey) = Why bn | 0 | 29 | ; 
ams - | 40° wos 0 | 29 Dias. de “i= 0 | 29 | 
10 0 | 29 Ee Ge ' 1 o | 28 | 5 
\)) 12 midn. 0 | 29 eee | SL WSW41 0 | 27 
iq) 2a. m. 0) 29 a > 10, - 0 | 28 ; 
, a 0 | 29 i |: 12 mtdn. 10 | 28 ; 
. | Q | 29 9 98, 2a.m 0 | 29 | ‘ 
“pe - |4#3Swi p 29 ae 0 | 29 5 
, 8 oo On 28) 
7) 42 noon 0 | 99 -g . |19°NEOS | 0 | 98 
“ay 2 p. m. 0 | 09 abe 10) = | 0 | 29 : 
“B4 - ) 05 all = 12 noon Oy x9) | ; 
| 0 | 06 aie 2 p.m | 0 | 29 
ee | 20 Wi | 0 | 07 = | ical 0 | 29 : 
10 - 0 | 08 coe. = 0 29 ; 
‘12 midn. 0 | 08 abc) @ = | 20 ENEOS | 0 | 29 ; 
2a.m. 0 | 08 5) | Bae 0) 29 , 
wat - | Om 3) ~ 12 midn. | oO 30 1 
“a6 - On OF 3129, 2a. m. | 0 | 29) ; 
me - | 15°Wi1 0 | 08 os |e ae 0 | 28 | ; 
10 - 0 | 09 | A | a 0 | 29 | i 
oon 0 07 Ps) | Reet ais 35° SSW 1 0 | 29 7 
) 2 p. m. 0 | 08 | || ae 0 | 29 | | i 
“BA = 0 09 31° 12 noon Ome 29: 1 
i - One 0:9" |: alee apm le) eass0n | j 
= - |20°w1 0 | 09 = | er es One 3:05) | j 
10 - 0 | 08 Ge 0 | 29 | | 
42 midn. 0 | 08 | lease | ZSNEFEL | 9 | 28 | ‘ 
Qa. m. 0 | 09 | A es ee 0 | 28 | 5; 
= - 0 Oe) - 12 midn. 0 | 28 
e - 0 | 09 3130, 2 a. m. |o | 28 | ; 
am - | 25°W1 0) 40 alec teor O27 | : 
“ O) £0 | Care 0 | 27 | 
oon 0 | 15 41. 8 - | 44°ENE2 | 0 | 27 | ; 
_m. 0 | 25] L100 oe. | | o| 28 | ; 
: 0 23) - 12 noon 0 | 28 | ; 
6 - 0 23 = 4 0s han | 0 2°8 
Ree s5°SW05 | 0! 93) A : 10m os i 


_,* At anchor in Danish Gate, Spitsbergen. * Left Danish Gate at9 a.m. % At anchor near Norwegian 
Hind. * Left Norwegian Island. 


Vid.-Selsk. Skrifter. I, M.-N. Kl. 1906. No. 3. 9 


4 


130 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETC. M.-N. KI]. 


| 
| 
| 
| 


ee and Locality A g £ © 2 5 Dat a Locality Z 3 2 a 2 2 
a an har lempecatune 3 £ BE Ee s Of a ani AirTemperature oe) BB S — 
Ne Wind gr 2 ae ia our Wind g| s m2 
July 19014 1S Faces Gp) Fore August 1901 Mia s5 
30, 6 p. m. 0 | 26 tT] 410 a. m. | 5:0°Stille00 | 0 | 33 
Same) 9) = —0:1°NE1 0 DT a) Hs 12 noon 0 32 
>is = 0 28 : 2 p. m. 0 30 
- 12 midn. 0 28 7 Blew ic 0 31 
31, 2 a.m. 0 2-8 i oe 0 31 
a: 0 28 Pl ee es 3:0° WSW 1 0 32 
Soma «| 0 28 Fi (eee p> 5° | 28] 3408 
- 8 - | O3°NWO05| 0] 28 1) 710 - 0 311 
=O) = ON e2s8 i) - 10 5 | Wasi oo ol 
- 12 noon 0 2'8 ‘i 4 miles SEbE 
- 2p.m 0 28 1 12 midn { from Magda-| 0 | 33) 3406 
- 4 - 0 28 4 lena Hook 
= (je 43 | 0 2:8 ile = 5 | 33] 34-96 
=) = 40°SW15 | 0 28 1) 212 10° | 37} 3418 
= 10 = 0/; 28 1 Dasani 0 od 
- 12 midn. | 0 28 =O ee ae 5] 38:1) 3454 
- 41), |e 0 | 32 
Rone 1501"| ‘10% E 
August 1901 aba 5+ | 3-2! 3459 
1, 2a. m. 0 | 28 Hibs Gi te 0| 38 
4 = ) 28 S| ese 55 5° | 34] 34-66 
Geo | 0 98 Py ee Ae eb 0 49 
- § - | 30°SW2 0 28 , 79°32! . . : 
adie 0 2-8 : =) oh 9°15 E 5 49} 3459 
- 2 noon 0 AS a fies a acpesie 0 46) 3475 
= p-. m. (0) "8 Org: . 
5 fh a 0 28 ; 12 noon 1 9°30‘ E 0 44.) 34°65 
= 160 (5 0 | 28 | 11 Pe: 0 | 44) 34°79 
- 8 - 38° SW 2 0 28 i pares oe 
10> = 0] 28 rince Charles Sal iste 
SOuenrda: 0 | 28 1} - 4 = 1) Foreland 8 | © | #9} 3484 
2, 20a. m. 0 28 i miles off in E 
= 4 = 0 28 if - 6 ae 0 41) 3409 
=—6> - 0 28 164 : 
-8 - | 12°wo5s 10] 28 1 8 ot tose 0 | 40) 33:86 
2055 0 28 ites ce 43° NNE1 0 43 
- 12 noon 0 28 Fil paca des acne 5° | 46] 33°58) 
- 2p. m Oe) Os . ili ane 
z 4. i. 0 | 28 ; = 12 midn. | } 11°20! E 0 47 34 02 
= 6" '= 0 28 Pe lie ae 5* | 34°95 | 
- 8 2° WSW 1 0/| 28 i 6, 2a.m eee 0 | 43) 33:09) 
=i) ¢ On as \ 77°48! : 
- 12 midn. | 0 | 28 11,2 > ee 0 | 28) 3436 
3}, Day aay, | 0; 28 ALE 6 - Bee 0 4:0 | 33°75 
= 4 = | 0 28 Sy 2 | 
- 6 z | () | 98 ; os 8 = l 10°45/ E 0 40 34°43 
=~ fae 28°NW05 | O 28 Fh eee Ba 0 39 | 3429 
= Oy) 0 2°9 °90' : 
- 12 noon 0; 30 ‘ - 12 noon} 13°40‘ E oh ici Rael 
- 2p. m Oy || ae i] ° 2p. m. | aa 0 | 32) 3423 
eoea ct 0 3:2 76°53‘ 4 
. 6 é 0 32 : = 4 a j 14°50! E 0 34 34°94. 
= 8). < 40° NW 05 | 0 30 7 6 - ee 0 28 | 3437— 
- 10 - 0 30 \ 16°97- ‘ 
- 12 midn. 0 | 30 1p 8 > lt t6e008 pe bh de 
4 2am. 0 28 ee ved 0 | 36] 34°72 
- 4 0} 28 : 76°13" | eas : 
La 6 ‘+ x 0 | 29 1 —_ 12 midn. | } 16°20 E 0 | 2 6 = 33 
ay a a 0) 34 1f 7, 2a. m. 0 | a1 at 


* At anchor in Danish Gate. ? Left Danish Gate at 3 p.m. ° Sea dark green. 


1906. No. 3. TABLE I. SURFACE OBSERVATIONS. 131 
q & > = & > oY 
b Locality Ell oy |) Mee Locality rol) Bo ss 
- “i AirTemperature eé ale a3 Ct pee gus AirTemperature es Ey} 5 Sina Oo, 
or Wind 22 8 ia 35 Wind 23] 3 nese 
August 1901 WE GI ive August 1901 Wk | Ce | ee 
= 76°6' N . 3 oy i ~ 5 
4 a, m. } 49°19! BE 0 26 34:02 | 27°16 10, 10 p. m. 0 QD e 
; 4 ; 4g 1) - 12 midn. O27 F 
: 0 | 34 | 3439 | 9742°1 5 “5 we hee 5 
76°6' N eke. a 5 
- | 4 Po55 O | 32 | 3451) 2750 ] - 4 - 0 | 22 
5 ; ; Sales 6. | 0 | 23 : 
= onl 0 5) 2 34 17 97 93 5 > 8 a 95° WNW 1 0 24, : 
- 12 noon os 0 | 32 | 3408/2716“) - 10 - 0 | 25 : 
: 5° | 34 | 3442 | 2717.) - 12 - eee | 5 
9 0 3:3 3 » 2 Pp: m 0 32 Kr 
oe -& - Ones: | P 
ee 5° | 35 | 84-04 2709 | y Sailed from | 5 | ot | f 
- | 149°00' E 0 | 32 | 33:93 | 2703" ~ ‘ Deevie Bay : 
: Ceoebcsenbaoteie cr 2 || 22 WNW1) 0) 02 7 
77°10‘ N 3 - 10 = 0 06 | 32°60 26°17‘ 
eran | 9 | 25 | 826) 2710) | 19 midn. |\ge N =| 0 | 09 | 3268 | 26497 
= 3:°2° NW 3 0 32 34:04 | 27:12 - {2 _ = 5t | 1:9 32°76 | 26:97 
: 76°57 N 3 a ai 
- 12 midn een 0 | 32 | 3389 | 2700°]12, 2am) 0 | 09 | 32:81 | 2632 
5 2am Gpesebermilore | - 4 - (2730 N | o | 10 | 3508 | 26587 
ee eX | o| 25 | set |oris*]- 6 - 0 | 10 | 3281 | 96317 
Jae by 4: 5° | 1:1 | 32°82 | 26317 
sc Bae) O | 22) 3331 | 2663, | 3 2 | t9°NNE1 | 0 | 13_ : 
jl * \Veevie Day ° : i Poy) | 
| 4 lasrW25 | © cel al 8 > dleree © | | 14 | 8808 | 2648, 
—, | Siler. A0= 0 | 14 | 
i 10 = 5 08 34-27 27°43 4 40 u 5s 1°5 33:31 | 26°69 
yo j- 12 noon z 0 23 33°29 26'60 77°36' N , 
“2 jAt anchor in’ g | 99 DS AAinoon | orann: 0; 14 | 3321 | 266010 
p « P ™- |i Deevie Bay 5 25°00! E | | 
—_— - 0 | 22 mh te Bt] 14 | | 
he 0 | 22 5) - 12 - 10° | 15 | 33:22 | 2662, 
me 6- «6| 35SWO05 | 0 | 22 AL 2 ep: m || | 
‘if 40 0 | 24 = (hee ees 5*| 16 | 33:14 | 26°51 
)- 12 midn. 0 | 24 3 | (77°37 N ple | 8 
, 2a. m. 0 | 23 : - | 195°90° W | 
. ; = 0 | 23 Aes 43 5t( 1:5 | 32°77 | 26:24. 
6 0 | 22 51 - 6 - On 47 | i 
| 0 | 22 aie 5'| 15 | 32°76 | 26-24 
“0 - | tewsw1| 0 | 23 Ales6.. |: 10°| 1:5 | 3278 | 96-25, 
|) 12 noon On 25 1 - 8 a S03 0 | 16 : 
oe Mice oe oe LN 5 | 15 | 8279 | 26:26. 
6 - 0 | 25 *T - 40 0 | 45 | 
7. oe out lee el e110” : 5° | 1:6 | 33:27 | 2664 
Becuia Bay ote t2amidn. || aoa, 0 | 16 | 3398 | 96658 
; Page sees | Ore Nts, o) a2 m at 0 | 18 | 39:94 | 96359 
A hor i : 5] _ 7: \ 77°52! ; : Omang 
a. m. |} ee Bee 0 | 30 : 4 | 95°47! F 0 | 19 | 3360 26:88" 
- 0 | 25 le aNe™ 4 0 | 16 | 33°78 | 27-052 
- : 0 | 25 aR 8h <= 15°SW05 | 0 | 16 | 
mes) | S| 23 5] - 8 bone 5° | 1:6 | 3380 | 97-06 
noon 0 | 24 al adore 0 | 18 | 33°62 | 26-91° 
p. m. 0 | 24 ri 10. = 5*| 1:8 | 33°72 | 26-99 
- 0 | 25 ait 40% «- 10° | 1:9 | 33-78 | 27:03 
- 0 | 25 ip AOL 15" | 19 | 33:83 | 27:07 
30°SE25 | 0 | 25 En tO Ue 90° | 1:8 | 33°91! 97-14 
3 1 Sea dark green. * Sea blue and very clear. * Sea dark blue. “ Sea grayish-blue. * Remained 


Deevie Bay. © Left Meayis Bay. 7 Sea grayish-green. ® Sea light blue. ° Sea light blue and very clear. 
Strong current NW—SE, which seemed to change regularly. 


H 


AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETC. 


M.-N. KI. 


132 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. 
"gece eS 
j Ss e by g & al 
Locality gi Sete cies Locality “o| & ooh ee 
Date and AirTemperature 33 8 2 z 2 Oo. nee and aintesenon eee es a E z = 
Hour Wind g2| 8" | 3 3 Onn Wind 22) s as | 
August 1901 | Mallee: | sia August 1901 M.| °C. | Joo 
13, 10 a. m. Aosar Ot 12 33°97 shes 15, 8 a.m oe 5s 01 33:14 
- 12 noon | 94°35) E 0 1:0 33°48 96°84 4 10 0 01 
- 2pm : 0 | 09 | 32:17) 25801} - 10. - S. 5 | 02 | 3346 
oa en 0 | 08 1] - 42 noon |{ a9, 8 0 | 02) 33:08 
Ren.. | 5 | 08 | 3214 | 25°78, ] - 12 - 5 | O83) 3342 
eG. 0 | 10] 3240 | 259977 - 12 - 10°| O14 | 33:17 
mae |: 5 | 40 | 3257 | 2612 | - 2p.m 0 | 01, 32:83 
= Ge 10"| 10 | 3243 | 26-01 ee: 0| o1)| 3244 
,78°9' N alae ih 2 ghee 0 | 02) 32-01 
p (94°00! E ae 4 ie 78°15’ N 0 0:8 | 32:34 
- g -:| os NWos5| 5) 10] 3243 | 2601, 93°35! E 
PHO)» 0| 10 -10 - | 88W05 0 | O07 | 3244 
BE 8. rasan cay ae eS) re 22. | = iaantdn: || eee 0 | 07 | a219 
- 12 midn. |} 93035) 0 | 09 | 82°74 | 2626 Tig 9 a. m 0 | 09 | 3201 
£49... s| 11 | 3295/2642 | 4, |) 78:18 N 5 teen 
- 12 10°] 10 | 3321 | 2663, 99°55! E 
Ve le a o| 15 | 3349] 9682/1 - 6 - = 0 | 06 
2g a ieee 0 | 20] s396|e7set} - 8 - |) Bre N 0 | 06 
2.6 0 | og | 3843 | 9683'f - 10. - 62 SW05 | 0 | 09| 3230 
Se aeet | \iaseain 0 | 40 1]. 4@naon' |} eee o | o8| 3245 
-10 - | 295W15 | 0 | 22) 3387 2708 "22m we 0 | 07 | 3248 
- 12 noon 0 1:4 | 33°76 05 °91' . 9. 
12 ieee =| 13} somes |... | 2s iri: 
: - — }h 9598) et noel § 0 |—04| 3268 
eo- 10°) 13) 3278/9707 J - 6 - 5 |_0-4 | 33-24 
- 12 15° | 1:4 | 33:83 2711 Doe amis 32 swi 0 | 02) 3298 
542 - 90" | 1:0 | 3400 | 97: , 78°44! N 3 eae s 
Oe 95°| O07 | 3409 | 9735 |” iS ( AA! E : 03 | 33:24 
|, 78°6! N Pee! ja : 02 
= ) p.- m | 94°93! E 0 pe 33 86 97 ns a 10 a a js 5° 03 33°35 
eT! o| t ; -4 | 78°57! : ao 
- 4 5°| 16 | ase | 2713,) ~ 12 mdm |i o4e39 oe 
Drab. e te ; 0] 14] 3387] 97141117, 2am] 0 |—01 | 32:85 
Serge => il duane s | 13] axsg|aris | - 4: - |j Bean 0 | Od | 3344 
eG: ; 10° | 13] 3386/2712 | - 6 - ; 0 | 04! 3343 
5.8 ee 0 | 16 1:3 - |e 0 |-02 3312 
-8 - | 14NE05 | 5*| 15] 3359|9601,)- 10 - | 10°N15 | 0 |-01| 3342) 
a0. - 0 | O4 A Fs - 12 noon 0 | 00] 3317 
PAO! = .- 5 | 04 | 3342 | 2659 _ |, 79° N ee 
42 midn, | B27N | 0 | o1| sass | a612| _ 9 (gery Ea ae ed 
. | 93°95! F MeMen pias dynes | 2 p. m. 0 | 07) 33-29 
; ’ -| o4 | 33 79°3' N La 
Lee 10°| 01 | 3316 | 9664,, ° * - |! 99°90 & O | O1| 3288 
i, Dang 0 | 00 | 3307 | 96577] - 6 - 0 |—01 | 32°75 
= 4 n { 78°15! N 0 0-0 2 > 6 = 5 0:0 32°78 
; | 93°30! E eae oe | 8 - | O6 NWO5| 0 |—02 
; : >| O41 | 3308 | 26 78°56! N ie ie 
PG: 0 | o1| 3312 | 26602) - 8 - |iosego 5° |—02 | 32:66 
Paee >. | 5 | 00 | 3317 |.9665 | - 10 - 0 | 00) 3251 
BUG 10°| 0:0) 3317 | 2665,] - 10 - 5° | O4 | 39:82 
- 8s - | o8°9F05 | 0! Ot | | Saye" 10" | 00 33°32 | 


1 Sea light blue and very clear. 


5 Left Cape Heuglin at 8 a. m. 


6 Through ice. 


2 Along ice-edge. * 
Sea blue. 


Through ice. 


4 At anchor off Cape Heugl 
_ 


= 


= _ > = 


= 


1906. No. 3. 


~ 


Through ice, Sea blue. 


dh ene cnswreve im cont 


2 Along ice-edge, Sea blue. 


TABLE I. SURFACE OBSERVATIONS. 133 
coo) Soars Bale a : 
e. Locality Boil 5 Rae} Locality A 1 Secs 
. Ear AirTemperature ae BE & =< % gta AirTemperature 35 Z8 & ~~ O 
. Wind a = & a Wind a = 2 & 
August 1901 M.| °C. | %, August 1901] [aa cies oye 
10 p. m. 15, |-0'7 Pe 2631 19,10 a. m. _ 5*| 02 | 33:00 | 26°51 
_ - 20* |—0°7 | 34:02 | 27:37 1, 794 Cie Baal 
10 x 95* |—0:7 | 34:13 | 97°45 - 12 noon 1} 14K 0 07 | 32°84 | 26°35 
5 79°2' N : att 12 5*| O8 | 33:19 | 26°63 
{2 midn } DA°4G! E 0 0 4 32 84 26 37 ps 12 ds 10* 1:0 33°47 96'83 
2 - 5*| Of | 8321 | 2667, ] - 2 p.m. 0 | 05 
118, 2a.m 0 j—10 | 3203) 78" | - 2° - 5*| 1:3 | 33-28 | 26-67 
+ 7 y fo} 4 | F Ore | a | 
| ee 0 0-2 Ant Va Roos) 0} 10 | L 
ms 4 - 5*|—O'1 | 3247] 2609, J - 4 - 5) dul | 3230°| 25:07 - 
fl : 0 | 01 | 3251) 2612' | - 6 - 0 |—0:2 | 32:20 | 25:88) 
| iG - 5*| 02 | 33:02 | 2652 [J - 8 - 00°SSE1 | 0 |—05 
| az 10*| 0:2 | 33:14 | 96:59 , 79°00‘ N - | a) ese ll oe 
7 z 10ONNW05) 0 0 1 ts) - | 96°40! 5* |—0'8 | 32°34 | 26°01 
' 79°3' N Bega culate , 10 = O01 | 
:| = lavas |) 03 | 8305) 2658 | 2 iy 5* 0-1 | 3236 | 26-00 
fje10 - 0 |—03 op OCT Gillean 
4 L : - 5* — 02 32:78 96:35 ~ ‘s midn ) 96°32! E 0 ie 7 32 O4 | = s: 
\ 79°3" : “ ay) | ake - | 5*| Ot | 33:98 | 26°74, 
a . 5*| 04 | 3285 | 9638 J - 2 - 5*| 1:6 | 33:54 | 2686 
; 10°] 06 | 3322/2667 | 4 _ |, 79°00'N o | 06 2 
5 s 15*| 08 | 33:50 | 26:88 1 96°43! E | | 
| Oa 90° |—06 | 3415 | 2748 J - 4 - 5*| 0-7 | 32:74 | 26°27, 
1| oe 95" |—06 | 3418 | 2750 | 6 6. - 0 | 02 | 32:99 | 25:93 “ 
ie 12 = 16*| 11 | 3357|2690_] - 6 - 5*| 0:6 | 33:24 | 26°68 
: 17°| 05 | 3369 | 9704'} - 6 - 10*| 0-7 | 33°67 | 2602, 
: 4 - ie o 33:84 | 2718 JF - 8 - 1°5° Calm 0 | 0-4 i 
m2 9* | 0:0 | 33:98 | 97°31 79°! N cee A sip 
. 12 z 90* —0'3 3407 97°39 C 8 } 96°43! E 5 08 33 14 26 ov a 
2 - 25" |—0'4 | 3417 | 27°48 | 10). - Onl 4:3 | : 
SF 2p. m. O03 |; 79°00‘ N a4 | 2 
i Boca 5°| 03 | 32:94 | 2645 | ~ 12 n00n |} og39 & Oy) a é 
4 om! 2 2 p.m Or} 4:8") : 
_ | 20°55) B Oe 88 Beye yi N Re Nigte| 2 
-4 - 5*| 0:0 | 3269 | 2625, | 97°25! E | 
mo 0 | O-1 | 3242 | 960574 - 4 5° | 14 | 83:34 | 2671, 
- 6 5*| 02 | 32:67 | 26-24 foes 0 | 09 |Below 
=o 10°| 03 | 33:01 | 2651, 7, | 32°00 
ms - oa Sade 0 | 05 Ghee 5*| 1:0 | 32°94 | 26-41 
rae ee . : 6 10*| 0:7 | 33°71 | 27:06 
; - || 90°55 B 3 a eee |=06°NNEOS| 0 |—05 | 
m0 : Ee ne79°6™ Ni a | Aes alles 
i 10 = ay . 5* 0's 33°02 96:49 5 1 97°37! E 5 1:0 | 33 O4 | 26 50 i 
19 mi 3 : Wane = On 1:3 - 
9) 2 mide.) 3555 : a & i = 1105. 2 5| 1-4 | 33-79 | 27:08 
\ 4 = * 6 5 96°35 B 4 , 79°4! N ; Mans eta a 
me 10° | 04 3312 | 2659, 12 midn. |{ 9709. 7 0 | 15) 8348 | 2681” 
, 2am. 0 | 02) 3243 | 26-057 21, 2 a. m. 0 | 08 | 32°71 | 2624 ~ 
2 ae 5° |—03 | 3277 | 9734 | - 2 - 5° 33:25 
b# 79°3! 2 79°6' N Paleereel aac a 
io | 95°5! B Ue Oe 4 - |i ogot7 BF 0 | 00 | 3249 | 2611" 
Be - 5*) 0:0 | 3256 | 2616, 6 0 |—05 | 32.43 | 26:08 5 
_— - y O14 sot 26°14 8 —0'8NE1 0 | 00 x 
i *! 0:0 | 32:50 | 26-11 79°9' N eaIW ee calle ray 
ae - fo =O sneer yobs yiisga En) | | O°) O83 | 8256.) 2645 
ime O8°SE0S | 0 | 02 -10 - Ope: aya 
BC ee N 5* 01 | 33:00 | 26:52 - 10 - ast Lay 03 | 32'68 | 26°25 : 
- o | 03 2] - 12 noon || 31°00! E 0 | 05 | 32:62 | 26:19 


134 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETc. M.-N.KI. 


. a>] n 3 iad - & e > 
Locality Ol) ito Weta Locality “31 &o| # 6 
a AirTemperature 23 Fy 8 £ = o, ss A AirTemperature ee Be & eS 0. 
Wind a =| 2 5 Wind = s 2 3 = 
August 1901 ae (Ce OT August 1901 | ME) oa i 
21, 12 noon 5*| O-4 | 32°61 | 26:18 79°6' N : 2 
2 p,m. 0 | o7 | 3276 | 2699! ]% 8 - jlogige | 5 | OF) S264 | 262 
79°8' N t=40 0 | 02|- 
. ; \ an; ; i 
4 } 30°44! B 0 |—05 | 32:57 ste vane |) seeders | aa 
Sy oe 0 |—O-1 | 32:86 | 2640 79°2' N ‘ ; oe 
aoRG f 5* 01 | 32:93 | 26-46 - 12 noon ) Seis 0 |—02 | 32:33?) 25:99 
> TE ain 10*| O14 | 32°24 | 96°71 é 7‘ 5 | pe =o 3227 25-98) 
°10! : 1] - - ‘84 2639. 
SAGs at eee 0 |—0-2 | 3284 | 2640° | 9, m. | o | eo | aese | a 
-10 - 0.| 07 7 Sawa | 5* | 00 | 3263 | 26:92 
EiQ': - 5*| 08 | 3324 | 2667 J - 2 - ints 10" |—0-2 | 32°32 | 25°98 | 
=Qo i 4! 
- 12 midn. |} dgce N= | 0 | 05 | 3394) 669" J - 4 - | 2 0 |—0-4 | 
- 12 5° | 06 | 3328 9670 0 eae | 5 /—0r4 | 3218 | 95°81, 
92, 2a. m. 0 |—01 | 3348 | 2666° 4 > & =.) 0 | 03 | 3246 | 2607" 
cl Dre 5*| 00 | 3395 | 9672 J - & - | 5* | O-1 | 32:60 26:20 
9 ee 10* |—06 | 3364 | 2706 J - 6 - | 10" | 00 
79°20! N 1 6 - a Ea O1 33°73 97 10 
- 4 - |) oge56. & 0 |—04 = ies | 90° |—05 | 33-25 | 26 
ae 5+ |—04 | 33.97 | 26-75, 0 ean 2 a = 
> ee 0 |—O-4 | 3321 | 2670" | - 8 - jf pocqe 0! o4 
eee docs 0 |-05 | 3298] 29652'] - 8 - (_08°SSEO5) 5*| O14 3248 | 26:40, 
o- |-03ESE1 /|0.|=03) ts Bs Ee. 
- 10 < 5* |—02 | 33°20 | 26°69 ; I 79°9' N | ¢ 
- 12 noon |} Sosa 1 o |-08 | sot | 26531} > 12 mdm | o7939' 0) 00) 2200) | 2a 
- 12 5*|o2| 835219695, | 43. | S| 2 | ae 
oe, an, 0 |—04 | 32:86 | 26421 Jor 9 a. m. | ioe | ae 
Series = 0 | 08 | a 
aS | “ae | 5] Ot | 3242 | 2605) 
- 4 - |} 59°19) & 5*| 08 | 3312 wie oe ae Pee 0 |_03 : 
ao 7-5 0 | 08 | 33:22 | 26-66 79°12‘ N | 
‘ ae 5"| 09 | 33:19 | 26°62 4 - : 5° |—02 | 3241 | 2605 
- 8 - | O8°ENE10| 0 | 06 ae | ee: Erie E «| gehts | a 
ape Ni dean | 06 | 3296 | 9646 | - 6 - | O01 3253 2614 
0 o |-10 | s206 |265a¢ | | i 
iO + 5* |—09 | 8299 | 9654 J - 8 - [fh grocm 0 |-03 / 
-10 - 10° |—1-2 | 33:39 | 26:87 [eee 
=410 - 15* |—1°3 | 33:58 | 27:04, Ba ia ESE05 | 5° |—0-4 | 3248 | 2612, 
- 10 90° |—1°3 | 33:59) 9704 | - 10 - 0 | Ot me fF 
i) ok 95* |-1°3 | 33°62 | 27-07 oe 5+ | O41 | 3264 | 26-93 
ae 79°11‘ N 9 | 99: ree) be 79°17'N ee p 
- 12 midn. |} 35099: F 0 |—02 | 32°91 | 96-45 12 noon |} 96°30 E 0 0-4 | 3234 | 2600" 
ret ae 5*| 00 | 3291 | 2644, | - 12 | 5° |—04 | 32:37 | 2603. 
93, 2 a.m 0 | 03 | 3267 | 2604° 7 -12 - | 10" |—0-6 32:92 2648 
Bea 5*| O4 22 = 34 = = =e oo 
79°14‘ N tet 1 0° |—0'3 | 33: 79 
glee Wee es 0 |—05 | 32-48 213 Ep eee | 95" |—0'8 | 33-40 | 9687. 
=a G2 0 | 02 | 3257 | 26-165 2 p. m. | 0 |—10 
228 = |—02° ESE 40i0s| "03 : ae 5 |—1:1 | 33:26 | 26 


1 In ice. Sea blue. 2 Along ice-edge. Sea blue. 


1906. No. 3. TABLE 1. SURFACE OBSERVATIONS. 5 


Local oa ¢ e Locality #a| $ = 
'? it 2) Roo ee: y y 2! 3 o — Oo 
mete ae i 3 £ Be | a Se oO; parorana AirTemperature = 3) BS & =< Ge 
nour Wind za E + 2 ° Hour Wind B =| E cS | 
|| as 
ust 1901 1515 SO A August 1901 Me Cs che y 
‘ oar | opi | | 3 
Met m. |} LN | 0 |-08 rape neural eee 0) ee) 
a - 5* |—1-1 | 9263 | 2626, ] - 4 - 5*| 1:9 | 83:89) 2711 3 
 - 0 |-1:0 | 3245 | 9e414° J - 6 - 0 | 16 | 33°78) 27-05 
mG  - 5* |—1-4 | 32°84 | 96-44 - 6 - 5*| 1:6 | 33°78) 27-05 
6 10* |—1°5 | 83:12 | 2666 | - 6 - ialeee 10*| 1:6 | 33:94] 2717, 
Petes | o \=18 | 2 eae 0 | 18 3378) 2704 
mee - |—30°NEOS | 5*|—1°6 | 3245 | 2613, | - 10 - d fet? NE 10 0 | 18 3378) 2704, 
a0 - 0 |—13 \CapeArnesen in| er || Gaya 
Bio 5* 13 | 8273 | 96:35 | ~ % noon i FbS, 3 miles off ie a ee Rein 
4 79°18' N | ag: a lee p. m. | Os | 
- 12 = } 96°93! B 0 |—1°0 32°16 95°88 : aon ? \CapeAmesen in 0 | 05 | 33-94 97-95," 
2 a, m. 0 |—0:2 | 32°66 | 26:25 NE, 2 miles off, | eae Pati 
a 5* 0-4 | 3267 | 9697 | - 6 - (One rt-ON\iee e+ ; 
Hy eis alan ise 8 02° NNEWS | 0 08 | 5372 27-06 
. "| 96°20! E | SESts 5t| 41 | 33-71 | 27-03 
- 4 - 5* | 0:0 | 32°62 | 26:21 (CapeArnesenin 6) | aeeaa || oer 
co 0 | oo | 3260 | 96201] - 8 - |INE,@ miles off} 19] 1? | mae | 27-02 
6 - 5*| 0-0 | 3288 | 2642 | - 10 - 0 | 13 3326) 2665 
e- 6 - 10* | 01 | 32°56 | 26:16 pcepe: Hammer- | i 9 
| 79°19‘ N 0 09 1] - 12 midn fest in NEDN,| 0 10 | 33°40 | 26:79 
8 96°17 E i \ 3 miles off | ao 
BS - |-15ENE1 | 5*|—09 | 3236 | 2603, [27, 2a. m. | 0 | 12) 3840) 26:77 
B- 10 - 0 |--1°0 | 32°27 25°97 | Cape Hammer-| ie. 9 
nO 5° |-09 | 3297| 9961] - 4 - { fest in NW, | 0 | 1:8 | 32:92] 26:35 
— 10 - 10* |—0°7 | 33:00 | 26°55 3 miles off ee | 
m0 «C 15*|—08 | 3306 | 2659 | - 6 - | 0 | 41:7 | 82:83| 26-29 5 
f-10 - 90* |—0:7 | 33:36 | 9684 | - 8 - |—10°NE1 0 | 1:5 | 3293) 26:38 
f- 10 - 25* |—1:0 | 33°49 | 26°95 Cape Bee | val eaae| ae 
B, 79°19' N ; : ypviio| | teh.” eae a fels in | 5* ‘4 | 32:96 | 26:4 
})- 12 noon ae 96°15! E 0 00 | 82°37 | 26°01 Ik 5 miles off | | | | ‘ 
| 2 
"2 = 5*|—0-1 | 3236 | 2600 | - 10 - 0 | 15 | ae. 2 
| Ca 10* |—0°5 | 3288 | 2644 ] - 10 - | 4*| 1:5 | 33:06) 26-48 
mm 15* |-0'4 | 33:16 | 9667 | - 10. - | 8*| | 33°78 | 
12 : 20*|—0%G | 3337 26:84 Cape Weissen- Mae 
mo - 25* |0'8 | 33:55 | 2699 , | - 12 noon {tel in WNW,| 0 | 1:0 | 33:41/ 26:80 
| p. m. 0 |—07 \\ 4 miles off | | q 
| oa f 5*|—07 | 8225 | 2504 | - 12 - St) 11 / 3846) 2682 
R - |) 27N ee a ae: j1or] 12 | el 27:00, 
ms 5* |—1-2 | 3242 | 26°09 , ae 5*| 1:0 | 33°86 | 27°14 
oC 0 |—08 | 32°24 | 26:94 oo ; CapeAltman in o | 13 | 2 
- - 5*|—1:1 | 3297 | 25°97 IN, 8 miles off| ° | 
| 10*|—1-4 | 3298 | 9650 J - 4 - 5*) 08 | 39-60) 2711 , 
8 , 79°15' N On eat 1G | ae 0 | 1-4 | 33°70) 27:00 ° 
4 | 26°95! E eae 5*| 1:2 | 33:80| 27:09 
meee |-12°NE1 | 5*|-11 | 3298/9598 J - 5 - |10*| 1:0 | 33:87| 27:16 
1 : 
7 0 |-0°7 | ae |15*| 1:0 | 3385] 97°14 
S - 5* |—05 | 32-98 | 25°96 oe 20") 08 | 33:90) 27-40 
. 79°16! N ei | eae ae 95*| 06 | 33:96 | 27°26 . 
12 midn. } 5 0 |—0'7 | 82-28 | 25:97 : . | 6 
96°36 E Sicme 2 NO5. 6 (SO) 414 
m2 (- 5* |—0-4 | 32:32 | 25:99 NGapeMimanialle. en omen! goin: 
2 10 |=03 | 3279 | 9636 | - © - |i N, 8 miles off| 5°| 10 | 3371) 2703 | 
2 - 95* |_0:7 | 3318 | 2669 | - 10 - 1o | 09 | ae 
2 : 90* |—0°7 | 3331 | 2680 | - 10 - Lae 5*| 09 | 83:41) 2780 
2 - 25* |—0'7 | 33°41 | 26°88 : ape Altman in | 3 ll Gey yeaa U 
, 2am 0 |—05 | 32-99 | 95962 | - 12 mdm. |i NW 8milesom 9 | 96 | 8361) 26°98 


_ |! Along ice-edge. Seablue. 2 In open sea, colour blue. *% In open sea, colour somewhat darker blue. 
At anchor off Cape Arnesen. *° Left Cape Arnesen at 815 p.m. © A red medusa was seen. 7 Many 
nall red meduse were seen. 


136 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. 


AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETC. 


M.-N. Kl. 


Depth in 
Metres 
Tempora- 
ture 


ail cs > : 
Locality fe Dipak aes Locality 
eee oa AirTemperature 23 ae = AS % atin poe AirTemperature 
eae Wind 22] 3 ae one Wind 
Sl ra | é ) 
August 1891 M. all. hae August 1901 
a 12 midn. | 5° 07 3372 | 2706, Jog 19 midn, 77°38! N 
J | 5*| 06 | 33°67 | 2702 |30, 1 a.m. 
King ( Charles el Dy 
- 4 - Land in NW, cy <0 ot aa 
\ 8 miles off eo \ 772 N 
eh. 10 | 33:03 | 2648, 31°90 E 
PG eases 13 | 3295 | 964141] - 5 - 
meeiet = |) doo | |G! ef:8:| 3289 0635 me eee 
- 10 \-22NNE1 | 0 | 13/3818) 9655'] . _ 774 N 
Sig: | ae 5*| 11 | 33°40 | 26°78 : 30°40! E 
|, 78°30! Waterline ieccae ee : 
- 12 noon |! 33°30’ E | 0) 1°4 33°15 | 26°56 = 40 E: 13° NEbN 15 
Sa: = 5*| 15 | 3390/9659 | - 41 - 
- 12 10°| 1-4 | 8311 | 9652, 16°47 N 
- 2p.m | 0 | 1-4 | 3322 | 96625 | - 12 noon |} Sysqq- 
ee | ee | eee fea 
ped, + 9|} eee N | 0] 00'| aon oan eee 
< : By ey (eae: 
eM Sica utee aed 32:95 | 26:47 99°33! E 
Migs \--95°Ni~ || 0 ae cate 
Sed ee 33-04 tree 
4 |) 78°35 N Pee Pree daae 
- 42 midn. |} dpog9' 0 | 03| 3204] 26457} , _ |, 76°11'N 
= 18). - | 5*| 04 | 3205 |-9585 fF 5 | Sie Balm 
BYiOh. -- 110° | 0:3 | 38:08 | 26°57 ae 
D9) Qa, m. | 0 | 05 | 8307 | 2o55* tos 
ape 19) lee 0: 33°09 96°55 75°53! N 
5 Oe 10° | 0-7 | 3322 | 9666 } - 12 midn. || 52098, 
ha 2 > | | 15 : 0: 33°27 96'69 31 1 a.m 
3 ea 20° | OB | 3334 | S67 tore 
5 oa 95" 33497-2691 J 3 | 
209 Q/ 

SRA ees hn 3271 | 26984] 4 | 75°35 N 
= Soars ag: | 0 3279 | 96367) | eee 
Smeiait Vl scm eaa IG 3295 | 26474] - 6 - 

10 -  -1BNNW15 0 39°67 | 26974 | ~ s "| aeorg ay 
78°29' N i mee ego 

12 noon i} 34°05’ E 0 33°03 | 26°48 2 eee i: 
12 ~- 3° aso2 | 2647, | 1 <a Be 
a #0) p. m 0 | 33°15 | 26°58 5 75°00! N 
=. Sn ee 0 33:06 | 2649° | - 12 noon || sroon F 
Beare. |) 2 oe eemeo B17 | 2698" | - 1 p.m 
a: 0 33:08 |: 9651 | a 
= +16 = 0 32°98 | 26°41 6 F447 N 
setae = Baar 0 3309 | 9650°] - 4 - |f droge a 
2a8 ees | o 3305 | 2649} - 5 - 

13240 E | eae 

a 0 3305 | 26470] 2 
- 10 03° NQ 0 33°11 26°50 ¢ 74°34! N 
ad 0 3335 | 96664 eager 

: ( 95°26’ E 


1 In open sea, colour blue. 


“ In ice, sea grayish-blue. 
darker gradually as the temperature rises. 


6 Sea dark blue. 


2 A red medusa, of 15 cm. diameter, was seen. 
®> Sea somewhat darker blue. 


x ° 
nee iS? 


— li — a — a a a a <= 


7 Sea blue. 


Salinity 


*/oo 


33°51 


3 Through ice, sea bl 
The sea becomes 


eee ~. —— ee hr 
a8 = PE ee re : : | 
NS Spy Ss al | \ 
aca Nn | \ , i 
oO © | 
2, | 
. 


wi 
11 


EB 


pS. 


oOo 


1906. No. 3. TAB ERT. SURFACE OBSERVATIONS. 137 
AS} we FS cal 4 n g ial 
Locality el ist Gy || See Locality 2s) tle aa eS 
AirTemperature cies ae ES O, ce and AirTemperature | © $ #8 BS) Ware 
: Wind 5 a 2 . #4 a oe Wind 4 = & a e + 
M.| °c. | 9%, Sept. 1901 | M.| °c. | of, 
| o l 
0 | 35 | 3358] 2673! | 2, 5 a. 1m. | 0 | 80 | 3483 | 97:17, 
1:0°NNEO5| 0 | 36/| 3350| 2666'] - 6 - | 0 | 7:9 | 34:84 | 27-19 | 
oe 0 | 37 | 83:51| 2666 ? | 0 | 79 | 3486 | 2720, 
Dice oon 0 | 37|s850/2¢657]- 8 - [tation | 0 | 79) se87 | 9721 
= 9 1 O | 81 | 3488 | 27:18 , 
: 10.8 = 5°3° ENE 1 0 8:0, 3488 | 27:20, 
di 4 8:0 | 34:88 | 27:20 
0) | S17 | 8353 | 266771 _ 45 | 71°10" N o | 84 | anes | 27:18! 
0 | 39 | 3358 | 26°70; moO" |i 24°50! E | Sica 
; 0 | 39 | 33°61) 2672 i p.m. 0 | 84 | 3488 | 27:18, 
u 4 _ . | QO S) 
ENGR v0 sae est | P 5) 52/88) Ba 
0 | 40 | 33°65) 26-74 71°28! N aur ace 
: 0 | 55 | 332/ e710} 4 - jase E 0 | 85 | 3486 | 2711 | 
- ee 0 | 55 | 3435| 27-13 ae | 0 | 88 | 3480 | 27:02 
; “ ila 6 0 | 85 | 3491 | 27:15 
‘ | oa86 0) 57 |. 836) 27-11 \¢ North point 1 
- 0 | 53 | 3424) 2706) | - 8 { Soro in SbE,| 0 | 89 | 3469 | 26:93 
- |.48°NE15 | 0 | 5:7 | 3446] 27:18 5 4 miles off | : 
: leans 0 | 55 | 3446} 27207 | - 10 48NNEO5 0 | 90 3464 | 26°94 
73°39! SW point Sore i | ee 2 
ee 1 eurE o | 58 | 3441/ 97-13 12 midn. |} Swrig milesoff, © | 91 | 8458 26°80 
tiie 2am | = | 0 | 92'| 34:58 | 26-78 
dp. oa 0 | 58 | 3439] 27:12 | | | 2 
0 | 59 | 3446] 97:17! 4 |; SW point Sore) g | 95 | 34-49 | 2666. 
> 0 60 | 3461) 27:96 |' inSk, Aanles off 
° | 73°14 N 0 62 | 3661 97-93 } - 6 = L 0 10:0 | 34°95 | 26° She 
24°38’ E 8 - |} gobPar in | 0 | 98 | 3389 | 2644 
Z 0 | 62] 3455| 27191 Se mules of ay 
: 0 | 72 | 3448| a7001} - 10. - PS WNW1 | 0 | 9:3.| 33:03 | 95°56 9 
§ 0 | 68 | 3486| 2737! | 7 12 noon HS ae 2 
72°49! N 1 - “24 p. Mm. 0 9°3 2 
fons 0 | 72) 3493) 9735°] - 4° - 0) 9:2 2 
: Caioeestraberss | 8. | aw, al eee 2 
E 28 NE15 | 0 | 78) 3489/97 | - 45 | onan 2 
- 0 | 78 | 3491) 27:95! Age a | 2 
L a 72°94' N 1 = midn. 0 90 2 
12 midn. | 04°43! F 0 el 3492 97°28 4, nar m, | 0] 90 2 
a, m. 0 | 79 | 3885 cand Se ae ae : 
- 8 | 3489 | 27-24 R =e ec a 
Syn | 2 | 8° | Bess] art7? | eee.) 82 2 
ee 0 | 80 | 3480] 297147] - 12 noon |.0 | 84 | ; 
1 Sea blue. The sea becomes darker gradually as the temperature rises. * Sea dark green. 


| 
| 
; 
| 


Table Il. 


Vertical Series of Temperatures, Salinities, and Densities taken at 
Amundsen’s Stations in Arctic Seas, April—August 1901. 


Explanation of Table II. 


1st Column. Number of Station, where the temperatures and water-samples were taken. 

2nd Column. Date and Locality of Station. WV indicates North Latitude. £ or W Longitude 
East or West of Greenwich. 

3rd Column. WHour at which the observations were taken. 

4th Column. Depth in Metres. A line under the figures indicates bottom. 

sth Column. Designation of the Thermometer used. Rg and Rro = Nansen Deep Sea 
Thermometers (from C, Richter) Nos. tog and 110 (they were used with the Petters- 
son-Nansen Insulated Water-Bottle, see pp. 5 and 3). A 237 = Richter Reversing 
Thermometer No. 113 (see p. 3). Zz2 and Z 20 = Negretti and Zambra Reversing 
Thermometers Nos. 72012 and 72620 (see p. 4). The water-samples were taken 
with the small water-bottle of the writer’s construction (mentioned p. 1) when the 
Reversing Thermometers R 13, Z 12 and Z 20 were used. 638 = Thermometer 
No. 638 (see p. 6) used for taking the temperatures with Amundsen’s Water- 
Bottle (see p. 7). 

6th Column. Correct Temperature of the Water Strata 7 situ (referred to the Hydrogen 
Thermometer). The temperature-readings have been corrected for the instrumental 
errors; and those of the reversing thermometers also for the errors caused by the 
higher temperature of the broken off mercury, at the moment the reading was 
taken. 

7th Column. Permillage of Chlorine (Halogen) in Water-Samples, as determined by Titrations 
(Mohr), made by Mr. I. Leivestad. 

8th Column. Salinity (°/99) computed from the Chlorine, by Knudsen’s Tables. 

gth Column. Density (ot) of Sea Water im srtu, referred to a pressure of one atmo- 
sphere, and computed from Chlorine and Temperature by Knudsen’s Tables. 


t 
of = (en — r) * 1000. 
4 


Table IL. Deep Sea Observations. 


a 8&8 
g Depth| 3 $|_ Corr 
a= Date and H aa ax 5 | Tempera-| Chlorine | Salinity | Density 
3s Locality sue Metres| = 5 ture Clo S %o in situ 
mn 3 2 in situ 
A ay iE 
1901 M. a loo Oeil a 
April 25 
1 10°55’ N 4:10 p. m. 290 | R10 0°63 19135 38457 97°74 
44° 0' E 
2]| April 26 Noon 0 638 | —0°3 19°21 34-70 97°91 
70°25’ N 11°35 a. m. 10 | R10) —053 20 69 ‘90 
{qr B | 1195 9 | - | —058 18 65 87 
A200 5 = 40 - —0'53 165 62 85 
1110 = - 60 - —0'84 
110 - 80 - —0'95 onl7) 63 87 
1020 - 100 - —0'88 935 75 97 
| 104 
3 | April 28 11°30 a. m. 0 638_ |) —0:2 19°23 34-74 97-93 
11°33" N tiet5; = 5 9 —0°23 285 75 94. 
45°30! E 1104 - 5 - —0:23 935 75 94. 
10:55) = 35 - 0715 471 ‘81 97 
1048 - 45 - 0°39 29 8D 98 
1040 - 70 - 0:45 B15 “89 9801 
10°35 95 - 0:48 B05 88 00 
10:25 120 - 0-48 By) ‘90 02 
1015 145 - 0:29 32 90 03 
10°05 - 170 - O21 “B15 89 03 
Gh) 195 - —0'12 33 92 07 
930 - 15 —0.90 32 90 09 
71°31‘ N 
| 45:30) E als 
4} April 30 0°35 p. m. 0 638 | —1°8 19'0951} 384502 | 27:79? 
70°10’ N 026 - 10 | R10} —1°82 ‘03 3D ‘70 
47°34 E O18 - 20 - —1°80 045 “41 72 
O27 >> 30 - —1:79 045 41 72 
005 - 40 - —1'31 145 59 8d 
Noon 50 - —1:01 S75 64 88 
11°53 a. m 60 - —0-40 “DA5 O77} 96 
1145 —=C- 70 - —0'37 O71 “81 28:00 
3 = 80 - —0°21 ‘98 83 0 
11°30—- 90 - —0:43 98 83 01 
1194 - 100 - —0'68 98 83 02 
ily 115 - = (0745) 985 84 03 
1 OS 125 - —0'75 985 84 03 
132 


: ‘ This value of Chlorine seems somewhat high. The water-sample was taken 
with Amundsen’s Water-Bottle, and a little ice may possibly have frozen out on 
the glass-walls. 


I40 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETC. M.-N. Kl, 
Bee ta 
Fa} te 2 orr, 
3 Date and H epepth ee a Tempera-| Chlorine | Salinity | Density 
5 Locality Saad M cael aeane ture Cl.9/5 Slo in situ 
2 bac in situ 
Aaa 
1901 M 8 °loo °/oo % 
5 | May 2 610 p. m. 0| 688 | —03h | 19°93 35°74 | 27-94 
(Ao IN ay) 26102) tc 5} R9 | —030 ‘24 76 ‘95 
UAB BSE) SRST: 8 cs 10° |_ = yao ‘235 ‘5 ‘94 
51 30 | = | =a D4, 716 ‘95 
545 50 | —0-27 ‘QA5 ‘71 ‘95 
593 60") = s_ eaes 45, 71 ‘95 
457 90:|" _ =) Vieaaiegs ‘265 80 ‘98 
451 100| = 0:05 ‘255 ‘79 ‘95 
445 140," 016 ‘275 ‘82 ‘97 
AB] 199 || = 0:16 ‘27 ‘81 ‘97 
430 130 | - 0:20 285 84 ‘98 
| 490 - 146 | - 0°21 ‘275 82 ‘97 
410 - 155a(¢e 0:22 ‘27 ‘81 ‘96 
| 166 | - 
6'| May 9 | 630 p.m 0| 638 | —15 19:04 3440 | 27°70 
,69°32' N | 694 - 10 | Z12| —1°68 025 37 69 
(45°37 E | 607 - 90 | Z90 | —1°83 08 38 ‘70 
555 30 | Z 12 | —183 03 38 ‘70 
538 40 | Z20 | —183 08 38 ‘70 
525 50 | Z12| —1882| 04 40 Zh 
510 60 | Z20| —1882| 035 39 71 
70 
7 May 13 0:20 a. m 0} 638 12 18965 | 34296 | 9758 
,69°40' N | 0:30 25 | Z 12 |[—0-48]* | 19:08 38 |[ °65] 
(46°30! E 
May 12 11:53 p. m 40 | Z20 | —1°69 035 39 70 
1140 - 50 | Z12 |[—079]? | 045 ‘41 |[ 60] 
1128 - 60 | Z20 | —114 135 ‘57 ‘83 
1057 - 70 | Z12 [—0-28]° | 205 ‘70 |[ 89] 
1045 - 80 | Z20 | —1-%4 ‘OA5 ‘77 ‘99 
& | May ee is pam 0} 638) —10 | 1904 | 3440 | 9769 
| 46°00 EB 140° —- 1 - | —09 035 39 ‘68 
135° - Ce ee oe 1 04 40 68 
052 - 5 | R13} —094 “025 37 66 
| O93 - 10] 22) | =a 025 37 68 
010 - 90\| =) | 4:68 07 45 75 
11:55 a. m 30.) 4 = ets 08 ‘47 ‘Ti 
11°42 - 40 =i 09 49 78 
11°10 - 50 | Z20 | —1°81 08 47 ‘71 
| 038 p.m. - it Baisslvesgege 
10°43 a. m. 60 | Z20 | —1:51 08 47 ‘76 
1018 - 70| eee lresl a 145 59 ‘85 
0°38 p. m =| RAS |= 132 
80 
2 My 20 aie ex o| 638 |-12 | 19095 | 3450 | 27-77 
(49°45! B 0°45 - 5 = —12 ‘085 48 ‘76 
0°40 10 12 ‘095 50 ‘71 


‘ Another series of water samples (from 1—40 metres) were taken at this Station, 
between 640 and 730 p.m. The determinations of Specific Gravity and Chlorine 
are given on p. 10. 2 The readings have probably been slightly too low, which 
may easily happen with these thermometers, only divided into whole degrees. The 
freezing-point of this water, was about —1‘876°C. ° The Negretti and Zambra 
reversing thermometer no. 72012 (Z 12) has obviously not worked properly on this “4 
day, and has given erroneous readings. 


TABLE Il. DEEP SEA OBSERVATIONS. 41 
a 38 
2 2% Corr. 
§ Date and H Biel z ey a Tempera- | Chlorine Salinity | Density 
= Localit. pe eee Peas ture Cl % S % in situ 
<7 y Metres|"2 . ne. 
y. o v in situ 
A o& 
1901 M. 2G; °/oo Foo or, 
May 20 50 19°12 34:54 
0:23 p. m 60 | R18) —1°79 “125 nas) 27°83 
008 - 70 - —173 13 56 
11°40 a. m 80 - —156 “14 D8 85 
iildsy 90 - —1°45 135 D7 4. 
10°37 - 100 - —1°44 265 ‘80 2803 
10:20 - 110 = —1°49 27 ‘81 04 
193) hee ; 
10 | May 22 11:25 p. m. 0 | 638 | —1°6 19°10 3451 27°79 
71°12! N 1:20) 5 5 - —16 095 0 Ws) 
44°10' E 11:13—C- 10 Z20 | —1'76 095 50 79 
11:0 - 95 | Z12 | —1°69 10 ay 80 
10°47 - 50 | Z20 | —1°71 115 53 92 
10°33 - 715) Z 12 | —1:69 23 74 98 
1020 - 100 Z20 | —1:03 275 82 28°03 
10°05 - 125 | Z12 | —094 29 85 05 
950 150 | Z20 | —089 305 88 07 
164 
11 May 31 10°43 a. m. 975 | Z20 | —1:40 19°345 34:95 98°14 
ieee ot || 300| - . | —140 34 4 | “14 
337 
12 | June 5 50 am 0|) 638 | —1-1 19°165 34°62 27°87 
73°50! N 4550 = 5 - —1°0 175 
37°50' E 450 - 10 - —1°0 18 65 89 
445 - 15 —08 “at 63 87 
431 - 50 | R13) —1°34 ‘20 ‘69 93 
4110 - f5-\ = —0'34 97 81 28°00 
420 - 85 - 0°29 “31 88 01 
3500 =(- 100 - 0:29 ‘31 | 88 01 
401 - 125 - —0:06 | “81 27°98 
340 - 150 —1°22 “B32 “90 28°10 
O29) 175 - —1:23 “Bl 88 09 
V4] - 200 - —1°62 295 86 08 
mri) 2 295 - —1°67 305 | 88 09 
202 =S- 250 —1°67 “30 87 09 
142 = —- 275 - —1°70 | 
- Z20 | —1-71 
290 
138 June 19 10°30 p. m 0 | 688 0:0 1901 | 3434 27°60 
74°18' N 10°15 - 2% | Z20 | —115 03 68 
3°25' E 59 = 50 - —1'37 7 81 28°03 
942 = - 100 - —1°05 Oi 81 02 
921 150 | R13 | —0:99 805 88 07 
859 - 200} Z 20 | —1:00 B15 89 08 
840 - 295 - —1°05 339 93 12 
818 - 250 - —1'23 315 89 10 
HAD) == 975 - —1:15 
- R13 | —1:08 "325 91 10 
650 - 300 | Z20 | —1-11 325 91 11 
632 350 | R13 | —1:04 | 
6:07 400 | Z 20 | —1:15 
- R13 | —1:04 31 88 08 
538 - 450 | Z20 | —1:11 325 91 10 
By B00 220) ) tis *335 93 12 
= 335 | 93 
430 - 100) 20) = 4:45 33 92 11 
258 = 1000 = —1°34 325 91 11 


I42 FRIDTJOF NANSEN. AMUNDSEN’S OCEANOGR. OBSERVATIONS ETC. M.-N. KL. 


g & 
qd 2 =) Corr. 
3 Date and H pate a 2 Tempera-| Chlorine | Salinity | Density 
= Locality ote See ture Cl %oo ore im situ 
a Metres o 3 in situ 
Ae 
1901 M. eA Dis a Oho o, 
June 19 1000 | R13 | —117 19°325 3491 98°11 
1:10 p. m. | 1200 | Z20 | —1:30 “305 875 08 
- “31 885 “09 
O15 = 1500 - —1'40 33 “92 “12 
14 | June as 4:05 p. m. 0 | 638 02 19°035 34:39 27°62 
74°5! 351 - 20 | Z20 | —021 18 “65 85 
37 W 3:36—C- 40 - —1°05 25 ‘78 28:00 
320 - 60 - —1°25 28 83 05 
304 - 80 - —1°25 “30 87 07 
246 =«- 100 - —1°23 “30 87 07 
15 | June 25 0:20 p. m. OF RO) 051 18°88 3411 27°38 
74°10‘ N 030 =«- 20 | R13 0:26 19°08 ‘47 “68 
1°44 W 043 - 60 - 0°35 335 93 28°05 
117) = 70 - —0:08 32 “90 05 
106—- 80 - —0°31 
O54 - 100 - —1°04 315 “89 09 
128 =- 150 - —0°68 33 “92 09 
154 =- 200 - —1:03 305 88 07 
206 = - 300 - —1°16 325 ‘91 11 
230 =—- 400 - | —1:07 33 92 11 
250 =- 500 = 08 "32 90 10 
517+ 1000 —1°34 335 93 13 
603 - 1500 - —137 “BL 88 09 
724 =- 2000 - —1°30 315 89 10 
16 | June 27 855 a. m. Oi RES 0°85 19°01 3434 97°55 
74°48! N 90 - 20 | R13 0°26 025 37 60 
4°00! W 10:02 - - - 0°26 
95200 95 - —0°38 05 42 ‘67 
943 - 30 - —0°33 155 “61 “83 
932 40 - —0°61 26 ‘79 “99 
992 «= 50 - —0°92 955 ‘79 98:00 
Rik) > = 60 - — 1:05 285 "84 04 
10138 - 100 - —1°10 “31 ‘88 “08 
1023 - 150 - —i11 31 88 08 
10'36—- 200 - —101 32 ‘90 “09 
1050 - 300 - —107 32 “90 10 
11°07 See 400 - —1°07 315 89 “09 
11:92 - 500 - —1°291 32 ‘90 10 
11°42 - 600 - —1°94 32 “90 10 
12:10 p. m 700 - —1°25 
1233 - 800 - —1°25 "325 91 x ta 
333 - 1000 - —1'29 325 91 11 
- Z 20 | —1:40 315 89 10 
410 - 1200 | R13 | —1:30 315 89 10 
- Z 20 | —1:40 
450 - 1500 | R18 | —1°33 33 “99 12 
- Z20 | —1:42 
60 - 1700 | R138 | —1'30 315 89 10 
- Z20 | —1°39 
656 - 2000 | R13 | —1°30 32 90 10 
Z20 | —1'39 B15 89 10 
17 | June 29 540 p. m. 0 | 638 07 18°71 33°80 97:12 
‘i 74°42! N 613 - 20 | R13 0:19 825 3401 32 
5°51‘ W 604 - 95 - —0'14 915 17 47 
550 = - 380 | Z20 | —087 19°045 41 68. 
855 = - 40 | R13 | —0:96 “175 64 
O11, - 50 - —076 | ‘975 82 98:02 


1906. No. 3. ‘TABLE Il. DEEP SEA OBSERVATIONS. 143 
a 8 
(ces Corr. 
E Date and wees 5 4 a Tempera-| Chlorine | Salinity | Density 
Ss Locality Hour m of ¢ § ture Cl Wis S %> in situ 
nn Metres % FA ees 
ae 
1901 M. =(e. 00 "loo Or, 
17| June 29 623 p. m 60 | R13 0:05 19°31 3488 | 28:03 
842 - 70 2 0:05 31 ‘88 ‘03 
922 - 60 = —0:09 
936 =—- : E —0'20 
950 - Z20 | —0:42 ‘315 ‘89 ‘06 
1020. - = RMS |e 0757 
= 220) O74 
1035 - =) |) R43) 063 
- | Z20 | —074 
1051 —- a TRS aos 
- | Z20 | —0-64 
1105 - aR) O67 
S790) 0:79 
115 = =| 6) OG 
=a eA20i = 0579 
S40 =| TRABN | aCKey ‘29 "85 ‘04 
=e 7200 0379 
18 | July 1 1:40 a. m 0! 638 1:0 18°65 33°69 27-01 
\ TA N Midn. 60 | R13 | —0°67 19:27 3481 2801 
5°25‘ W - | Z20| —079 
013 a. m 100 | R13 | —067 ‘325 ‘94 ‘09 
025 - 150 : —0'68 
039 200 2 —0'80 ‘335 ‘93 “t1 
055 = - 300 = —0:92 325 ‘91 ‘10 
AST = 400 : —1:03 "B25 ‘94 “10 
1:32 = 500 5 —1:10 33 ‘92 “it 
19 | July 3 245 a. m 0| 638 07 18505 | 33:43 26°83 
| 73°52! N aos a 10 | R13 0:54 ‘515 ‘45 "85 
S149 WwW | 3:21 - 15 5 —0'42 ‘57 ‘55 ‘98 
ON ene 20 —0°86 ‘115 ‘92 | 27:30 
=| | Z20| —0:94 
302 = —- 60 | R13 | —0°75 19:27 3481 28°02 
332: 100 4 —0°52 32 ‘90 ‘07 
- | Z20| —062 32 ‘90 ‘08 
345 =—- 150 | R13] —068 "32 ‘90 ‘08 
359 200 E —0°'75 “32 ‘90 ‘08 
- | Z90| —084 
AAG. 7 300 | R13 | —092 ‘B25 ‘91 10 
AL: - 400 3 —0'85 *335 ‘93 “ilil 
- | 220} —0-95 
5:06 - 500 | R13 | —1:01 33 ‘92, svt 
590 700 —1:12 ‘33 ‘92 “A 
Z20 | —1:95 
20 | July 4 Midn. 0 |) 688 || —0-4 18°16 32:81 | 2636 
73°18’ N | 935 p. m o| - 08 295 | 33°05 52 
5°28! W 933. «=e 20| R13] —015 ‘845 | 34:05 | 27°36 
Gn ase 60 - —0'83 19:26 ‘79 ‘99 
Z20 | —0:89 
901 - 100 | R13 | —0-79 "B25 ‘91 28:09 
S47: 150 7 —0'84 ‘BAB? ‘95? 13% 
Z20 |) —0-94 
FR 200 | R13 | —096 33 ‘99 ‘11 
Z20 | —1:05 
WP. 950 | R13 | —0-99 | [ 40] | [85:05[ 
TO) 300 —0:96 "325 | 34-91 ‘10 
Z20 | —1:10 
641 - 400 | R13 | —099 33 ‘92 “t1 
620 - 500 = —1:04 33 ‘92 11 


al 
=| o 
a 2 3 Corr. 
2 | wate and Depth |g . £ | Tempera-| Chlorine | Salinity | Density 
= Hour in |fo 
= Locality M aes I ture Clie S: joo in situ 
a etres| a «A ae 
. oe in situ 
A&B 
1901 M. eaG; 
20 | July 4 500 | Z20 | —114 
949 p. m 700 | R13 | —116 
Z20 | —121 
1010 7 1000 | R13 | —116 33 92 11 
10:51 - 1500 - —1°20 325 tl i1 
| - Z20 | —129 
1140 - 2000 | R13 | —1°26. 325 91 11 
- Z20 | —136 
21 | July 8 940 a. m. 0| 638 23 19065 | 3444 26°52 
74°4' N 942 = —- 20-| Z 20 0°52 105 52 7th 
3°48'W | 1008 - 25 - —0'18 “il 63 84 
956 - 60 | Z12 | —088 “30 87 28:06 
1021 - 100 - —0'83 325 91 10 
10°32 - 150 | Z20 | —1:03 325 91 10 
1045 - 200 | Z12) —1:09 325 91 10 
10°38 - 300 | Z20 | —1:19 315 89 09 
291| July 10 10:0 p. m 0| 638 0-4 18115 | 32°73 26°27 
74°26' N 5 - 06 145 ‘78 31 
6°40’ W 10 - 0-4? 165? 82? 38 ? 
15 - 0:2? 60 ?| 33°60? 99 2? 
20 - 0:0? 70 ? “182? | 27:15? 
2% - —01? 705? “19-2 16? 
1108 - 60 | Z 12 | [—0°63]?| 19°30 3487 28°05 ? 
1121 = - 100 | Z20 | —0'90 32 “90 
1135 —- 150 | Z 12 | [—0°14]? 32 “90 
July 11 0°25 a. m. - | Z20 | —0'93 “09 
July 10 11°47 p. m. 200 —0°89 32 “90 ‘09 
July 11 0:10 a. m. 300 | Z 12 | [—0°60]? “B1 88 
048 = - 400 | Z90 | —1:15 33 92 i1 
A SY es 500 - —1:15 325 91 11 
dS? y= 1000 - —1°25 325 91 11 
93 | July 11 8:15 p. m. 0| 638 0:0 
\ 74°30! N 820. - 5 - 01 18095 | 32°69 26°26 
UST SBy \if 895 10 - 0:0? ‘065? ‘64? 23 
830 - 15 - —0'3? ‘41 2?) 33°26? 74 
835 - 20 - —04? "435? 31? 78 
840 - 25) - —05? ‘D7 ? ‘DD? 98 
July 12 244 a, m. 30 | Z20 |} —089 19:295 | 3473 95 
July 11 94 p.m. 60 | - —021 “30 ‘87 28°03 
July 12 2:96 a. m. 80; - —0'59 805 “88 06 
July 14 9:18 p. m. 100 - —0'58 335 93 10 
934 - 150 | - —O6L "325 91 08 
95255 = 200 - —0°96 325 9L 10 
1019 - 300 - —0:97 325 91 10 
10°38 - 400 —104 — 345? 95 ? 13 ? 
101 - 500 —114 330 95 12 
11:26: 700 . —118 | 33 92 12 
1154 - 1000 - —124 | 33 “92 12 
July 12 049 a.m. | 1500 - —1°32 33 | “92 12 
1°36. = 2000 - —134 | 32 | “90 “11 


_ 1 An other series of water-samples (from 1—40 metres) was taken near this 
Station on July 11, between 60 and 6°30.a.m. The determinations of Specific Gravity and 
Chlorine are given on p. 10. 2 The Negretti and Zambra Reversing Thermometer 
No. 72012 (Z 12) has obviously given irregular and much too high readings on this day. 


TABLE II. DEEP SEA OBSERVATIONS. 145 
ra ment |s s | Corr. 
3 Date and | H Real lige ag 5 Tempera-| Chlorine | Salinity | Density 
S Localit oar a | Grace" | ture Cl * Ss % | am site 
ma WS y Metres|‘¢ 8) | 20 sco abate 
co) | tn situ 
[A & | 
1901 M. 26 Yaa | tery o 
24 Aug. 20 Soli as, m: 0 | 6388 1:3 15:10 |) 32:70 26°20 
23 naut. OR MON = il 7) ‘28 33°03 | 
milesSEbE | 1035 -- | Bye sce 13 685 “76 97°05 
from Cape | 1030 - 10 elie 12 in| ‘82 11 
Mohn 10:25 =—- 15 = | OW) ‘86 34:07 38 
(Northeast | 10°20 - 20 - O20 885 19) 40 
Land,Spits-| 10 p. m. - | Z20 030 | “86 7 | 36 
bergen). 10°15 a. m. 25 | 638 O4 | 865 | ‘08 36 
0°45 p. m. - | Z20 | —1-146 ‘975 | 28 ‘60 
028 = 30 - —144 | 25 58 
0°16 40 - —163 | 19°055 43 | 72 
11°58 a, m 60 - —1°94 095 D0 79 
11°42 = - 80 - —1:92 09 “49 18 
G5) ~~ = 100 —180 | 115 53 82 
Grek) < 1S) |e —1'51 145 “8) | 85 
Sil i500 | 1:79 so | 6 || 88 
164 | 
25 | Aug. 27 710 p. m 0 638 13° | 1865 33°69 96:99 
8 miles 3D - D5 |] 74D 0:13 “7hs) 95 9727 
south of C, 548; 30 - — 0°63 805 97 33 
Altmann, 604 - 50 - —117 | 935 34-21 54 
KingCharles| 618 - | 60 | =P | ‘99 | 31 62 
Land 634 - 80; - — 1:95 19:025 | 37 67 
652 - 100 - —135 18°99 3l 63 
708 - 110 so Me 190t ~| 34 66 
120 | | 
| 


Printed 3 october 1906. 


Vid.-Selsk, Skrifter. I. M.-N. KI. 1906. No. 3. 10 


s : e *, 7 a: , = —— _— 


abl 


Vid. Sets}. sja I Math. nat. KU.1906. N23. 


Tre ar ae Paar Twn 


4—Sept.3 1901, 


with Surface Tenjeratures and Salinities. 
The routes and observations of the Capella, Hvidfisken, Jassai, ana Dr. 


Frapowrttscly tv Fume and Tuy ( parlly also tm August) have also been intro- 


ay IT TE 


Chart showing Capt.Roald Amundsens 
12 


ri 


Route Ap 


duced, and likewise the surface observations at the Stations of the Michael Sars 


tw May - July 1901. 


Anumdsens Route 


Amundsens Stations with deep soundings. 
-—-——-—-—— Route of the Capella, Juacl7-Aug: 7, 1901 


ox 


2- 28, 1901 


- Hoidfisker, June 


—---—-—-- Jassai, May 27 = july &, 1901 


+ 


Stations of the Michael Sars in May, June, and Suily 1901 


--— Knipowitsch, July 9- 24,1901 


Jo i! 
A) hers ya 


1 


AG 


GP 3 GI 
a9 

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Vid - Selsk. Skr.I Math.-nab. Kt. 1906. NES. PLIL 


Barents Sea| 
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S } 
= 0 \\ \\ 
a \ 
Z LJ 
“ae \ 
ENG 


Se 


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ce NG \ \ 
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S: i 3 Yeo Hes \ 
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Surface 
| eae Juneduly,|90l 
22° 20° 18° 16° 2 ; z 22 Ones "22° 20° 


The Surface Map is based on the observations of 
Capt. Roald Amundsen, the Capella, Hvidfisken, Jassai, 
and Dr. Knipowitsch in June and July, 1901. 

The Maps for 50—400 Metres are based on the ob- 


servations of the many expeditions of different years. | 
Stations. 'y 
A 13 — A 23 Amundsen June—Aug. 1901 y 
MS 9—MS 68 _ The ,,Michael Sars“ July—Sept. 1900 ‘ay 
MS 14 — MS 28 off northern Norway, \ \ 
The,,Michael Sars‘* Febr.—March 1901 


MS 68 — MS 94 The ,,Michael Sars“ June—July 1901 
MS 7A—MS 12A The ,,Michael Sars‘* February 1903 
M 206 — M 215 Mohn July 1877 

M 277 — M 370 Mohn July—Aug. 1878 

R Il — R XVI Ryder June—July 1891 


ww 
7 
R XXVI — R XXVII Ryder Aug. 1892 
Ar I — Ar X Arrhenius Aug. 1896 Rt 
N VI—NX Nathorst (Akerblom) June—July 1899 \ 
FI—FIl Kolthoff with the Frithjof (Ostergren) ma 
July 1900 


Ap II — Ap IV Amdrup June—July 1900 

Ma V — Ma X Makaroff June 1899 

Ma XV — Ma XXXI Makaroff Aug. 1899 

K 106 — K 111 Knipowitsch Oct. 1901 and 
Breitfuss Oct. 1902 

500 — 509 Knipowitsch July 1901 

B 70 — B 76 Breltfuss Aug. 1902 


; 


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