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NORTHWESTERN POMOLOGY

A TREATISE ON THE GROWING AND CARE OF

TREES, FRUITS AND FLOWERS

In the Northwestern States

C. W. GURNBY

CONCORD, NEBRASKA
TWENTY-EIGHT YEARS A NURSERYMAN AND ORCHARDIST

"The first glad tones that rang for me
Were Woodland whispers, soft and mild;

The Woods sang me a lullaby
As sings a Mother to her child."

CONCORD, NEBRASKA

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR

1894

COPYRIGHTED 1894, BY C. W.

Press of Skeen, Baker & Co., 334 Dearborn St.. Chicago.

DEDICATION.

To the man or woman who loves a tree or flower,
the green grass, or the voices of nature, the sing-
ing birds, "The complaining brooks that make
the meadows green."

To the man or woman of whatever nationality
who has become the landed proprietor of a part of
this glorious free Northwest and who is willing to
work to make a beautiful home, and to "Make
Home Beautiful," this little work is respectfully
and warmly dedicated by

THE AUTHOR.

PREFACE.

In presenting this little volume to my brother
Horticulturists and Orchardists I shall make no
apologies, neither shall I make any great claim
especially to literary merit. The work is not pre-
pared to show how much the author knows, for the
wisest of us know but little, but for the sole pur-
pose of giving such careful, practical information
as the author in his earlier experiences stood so
much in need of, and for which he has frequently
spent on a single trivial matter, many times more
than the cost of this volume entire.

This work will, as its name implies, be restricted
to the "Northwest." There are very many and
very excellent works upon Horticulture, but, with
one exception, none have been restricted to any
particular locality. The exception named is
"Warder's American Pomology." This is a most
valuable work, and will, while there remain upon
the earth lovers of trees, plants, flowers and fruit,
be an indispensable text book. But, although il
purports to be restricted and dedicated to the North-
west, Dr. Warder lived in Cincinnati, Ohio, and
this locality was, at the time the book was written,
pretty well Northwest. But the "Northwest" o)
to-day is a very different territory, with very differ
ent wants, which must be met with very different

6 PREFACE.

practices. This work will be confined in a general
way to the states of Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Illinois, Nebraska and the Dakotas. Even this is a
large field, and one which I enter upon with many
misgivings. No information is better than that
which is erroneous. It shall be my constant en-
deavor not to mislead, but to tell that which is the
most -necessary, in the plainest and fewest words. I
know that in some matters I shall be compelled to
differ from other authors, but when I do so, shall
endeavor to give their views as well as my own.

After twenty-eight consecutive years of hard
work, study and observation, even a very ordinary
person should have acquired much information. I
do not claim to be other than ordinary, but, if a
sincere love of the work, and close observation,
together with a reduction of theory to experimental
knowledge in numberless cases should fit me to be
an instructor of those not so situated, or condi-
tioned, then I have the right to claim that privilege
and refer you to the following pages without further
comment. C. W. GURNEY.

CONCORD, NEB., Nov. 28, 1893.

INTRODUCTION.

was a time when to advocate the
JL cultivation of fruits as a specialty in this
country, would have subjected the author to
ridicule. Especially is this true of the Great North-
west. Within twenty years the author was told
that to advocate the growing of fruit in this terri-
tory was "flying in the face of Divine Providence."
The Almighty, they said, had made this country for
the growing of live stock and grain, and other parts
of the country for growing apples. Within the
past few years this non-apple producing territory
has sent hundreds, probably thousands of cars of
apples to the eastern market, and even across the
waters to Europe. This will be repeated, and
many times before the eastern part of this country
appreciates her true condition: that she is depend-
ing upon the old plantings, and not making a
proper provision for new ones when they are gone.
The most convincing proof of our ability to grow
fruit here is the fruit itself. There is practically
no considerable part of the territory which this
work is intended to cover where the people may
not have an abundance of fruit for every month in
the year. There is practically no part of this terri-
tory where Dent corn will ripen, and can be profit-

8 INTRODUCTION.

ably grown where it is impracticable to grow
apples.

Where these cannot be grown there is the alter-
native of small fruits, berries, and in most cases
plums and cherries; these, with the cheap and
simple facilities for canning, will, with little labor,
supply the table during the year.

There are many now engaged in growing these
and other fruits for the market, and making a fine
profit; but it is -he farmer and home-maker who is
constantly in our mind as we write these pages.

We want to see the desolate, dreary-looking
farms transformed into homes. You who till the
soil have a right to the best that the soil will pro-
duce. You have a right to as good and beautiful
a home as your town or city brother.

Is there not some imnecessary envy given by the
farmer and his wife, as they drive into town and
see the more beautiful homes of many of these peo-
ple ? Do they not frequently jump at the conclu-
sion that the difference between these and his dreary
looking place is only another proof of the advant-
ages of town over country life ? Instead of imbib-
ing these discontenting ideas, why not say that you
can ha^e jus.t as pretty a home in the country, and
then bend all your energies toward making it ? In
many cases, probably the most, the envious one is
better able to afford these buildings and grounds
than their owners. It is too common for the
farmer to become "land poor." He owns many
acres that he cannot till nor use; he goes into debt

INTRODUCTION. 9

for land, and as soon as he can see out, buys another
quarter.

What is life for if we spend it in accumulating
that which we cannot use, cannot take with us,
but which makes a slave of its possessor ?

It is a most commendable ambition to make a
good home. Not necessarily a fine and expensive
house, but the best you can afford; a lawn with
some shrubs and flowers; a fruit garden and orchard.
Try for a while a little different diet from the regu-
lation kind: meat, bread and sometimes potatoes.
See how the color will come to the cheeks of the
wife and children, when there is spread upon your
table the lucious strawberry, raspberry, grape, the
acid cherry that comes at the time when, tired and
dusty, you come in from corn plowing. Use more
fruit and less meat, and see how the world will
grow brighter; how much healthier and conse-
quently happier you will be.

Some are deterred from planting fruit trees by a
mistaken idea that it takes too long for young trees
to come into bearing. Plant the trees as soon as
your ground can be got ready, and see how little
there is in this idea. You do not "wait" for the
fruit. Time will go on just the same, whether you
have planted a tree or not. But if you will call it
waiting, then plant at the same time strawberries,
raspberries, blackberries, grapes, etc. The straw-
berries and raspberries will bring you a full crop
the second year, the currants, gooseberries, black-
berries and grapes will come in the third, and by

10 INTRODUCTION.

that time the cherries and plums are in good bear-
ing. So before you know that you have been wait-
ing, or have lost any time, the apples begin to
beckon you from their tossing boughs.

It gives pleasure to acknowledge kindly assistance
rendered me in this work by Prof. Bessy, of
Nebraska; Prof. Budd, of Iowa, and J. Wragg,
E. R. Heisz,.C. G. Patton, H. A. Terry, also of Iowa;
Samuel Edwards, J. V. Cotta and D. Hill, of
Illinois; Peter M. Gideon and A. W. Latham, of
Minnesota.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I. PAGE.
The Nursery 13

CHAPTER II.
Hardiness of the tree and its adaptability to latitudes 33

CHAPTER III.
Making the Orchard 41

CHAPTER IV.
Orchard Management 63

CHAPTER V
Pruning in General 71

CHAPTER VI.
Cross-pollenizing the Flowers 83

CHAPTER VII.
Enemies of the Orchard and Fruit Garden 91

CHAPTER VIII.

Propagation 115

CHAPTER IX.
Landscape Gardening 135

CHAPTER X.
Plums 143

CHAPTER XI.
Peaches and Apricots 157

CHAPTER XII.
Cherries 169

CHAPTER XIII.
Small Fruits 179

CHAPTER XIV.
Grapes 203

CHAPTER XV.
Description of Apples and Pears 217

CHAPTER XVI.

Evergreens 255

CHAPTER XVII.
Humbugs 281

CHAPTER I.

0

The Nursery.

AS this book is not intended as an instructor
or guide for the advanced nurseryman, little
attention will be paid to this, except as the grow-
ing of a tree affects it in the hands of the planter.
There has been much controversy since my rec-
ollection regarding the proper methods of propa-
gating the apple. The old fashioned way was to
plant out seedlings and graft them "standard
height" or let them remain till in bearing and
then graft in the smaller limbs such as did not pro-
duce desirable fruit. This has been held up by one
of the parties to this controversy as proof that this
was the proper manner, as trees made in this way
in the eastern states grew to immense size and
were long lived and productive. This is one of the
positions taken by the advocates of grafting upon
the whole root at the collar (point just at the ground
surface) or at a point higher up. They claim that
only one natural tree can be made from one root,
and that the attempt to make more than one, by
dividing the seedling root into several pieces, is
pernicious and produces only an inferior tree. In
support of this, they bring photographs of trees

13

14 THE NURSERY.

propagated on what they claim to be the ( c whole
roots" and compare them with others claimed to
be grafted on pieces of roots greatly to the disad-
vantage of the latter,

While these advocates bring considerable excel-
lent authority to prove the correctness of their
position, there is not an honest nurseryman who
does not know at a glance that these photographs
are unfairly selected, or that their section root
grafts are not at all similar to those grown in the
north. If these specimens are fairly chosen it is
not strange that they have condemned them.

On the other hand the advocates of the use of
sections instead of the whole root, claim that for
the north, or for rigorous climates, a good tree can-
not be made in this way, for the reason that, as
seedlings as a class are most universally tender,
they must be deeply inserted in the ground for
protection, and that the tree or cion which is to
make the tree, will simply use this piece of a root
until it can throw out a system of roots of its own
from its own body, which will have all the quali-
ties of hardiness or otherwise, possessed by the cion.

Hundreds, perhaps thousands, of pages have been
written pro and con upon this matter. It has been
the text of not only the tree peddler, but the
wholesaler and propagator, through which they dis-
pose, or try to dispose of their goods. The matter
seems to us to be very simple.

First — the word ' ' whole root' ' is only a catch
word to sound well, for not one of them in their

THE NURSERY. 15

arguments claims to use only a piece of the root, but
they claim that the piece is longer than a shorter
piece used by others, and that but one tree is made
from one seedling. So the question is really as to
the merits of "crown grafting" or making the
splice only at a point where the root and top meet,
or by the other system, using not only this cut of
the seedling but one or two others below it. Even
the Hon. Secretary of Agriculture has, in a paper
on "Early Nebraska Horticulture" made the mis-
take of attributing the short life and inferior pro-
ductiveness of Nebraska apple trees as compared
with those of Michigan, to the root grafted trees
of the former and top grafted of the latter. While
it is true that trees of most kinds as grown in
Nebraska are inferior to those grown in the humid
climate of Michigan, and that apple trees are
shorter lived here than there, it is not true that our
trees are less productive than theirs. The oppo-
site is true, and especially is it true that our trees
come into bearing much earlier. If there were no
other conditions that might be urged to explain
the shorter period of life but the manner of propa-
gation, how shall he explain the fact that peaches
are grown in Michigan nearly 200 miles further
north than his home in Nebraska ? Ex-Governor
Furnas has declared that peaches cannot be raised
practically any where in the State of Nebraska.
The south line of Michigan runs through about
the center of Nebraska. If we are to find an
explanation for this, we must look for it in some

1 6 THE NURSERY.

other influences, as peaches are propagated the
same the world over.

In this paper he says that, although the nursery-
men declare vehemently that root grafting is the
best, he (who is not a propagator, and has given
no great part of his life to exclusively horticult-
ural pursuits) is " confident" that they are wrong.
The nurserymen, who have given their lives to the
work, as specialists, who have read, studied and
experimented, have, in the north, all come to a
different conclusion, and are not only "confident"
that he is wrong but absolutely know it, and can
demonstrate it at any time.

He also makes the statement, ' ' Tap roots are
indispensable for long life to orchard trees in
Nebraska." This may be true, and we do not
object to this except as it is intended to be his con-
clusion that a root grafted tree has no tap roots,
which is an error. He also says that his theory is
rebutted by some who declare that some varieties
have no tap roots; naming the Jonathan. He
answers that there never was but one original Jon-
athan, and that no one can tell whether it had a
tap root or not. This is an error. Show me the
roots of the Jonathan of to-day, propagated in any
manner whatever, grown under the same condi-
tions as surround the parent tree, and I will show
you a type of the roots of the original tree. The
top controls every characteristic of the roots,
except identity. Iyet its take a common seedling
and make two root grafts of it; we will give one-

THE NURSERY. 17

half, I care not which, to the Jonathan or Wine-
sap, and the other half to the Tetofski. After
three years we will dig them and find either of the
former system of roots diverging downward and in
side directions, while the latter has made a spike
tap root probably 5 to 8 feet long, or at least twice
as long as the height of the tree.

It would be an anomaly if Nature should in this
instance fail to provide for just the roots she wanted
in case she was disturbed by an injury from an acci-
dent or otherwise.

The inference is intended to be conveyed by him
that we should abandon root grafting and top work
instead. This is theory, entirely unsupported by
actual practice, and is a wholly unfit manner of
propagating the apple in the northwest. It is so
extremely impracticable as to verge closely on the
impossible. Any one who will can satisfy himself
upon this point by an experiment which is better
than all the theory one can formulate in a lifetime
devoted to it. This top working is the system
formerly pursued in the eastern states and the old
countries, in which the seeds of seedling trees
were planted where they were to grow and grafted
a year or two after at the ground surface or at
some point higher on the stock. There is no pos-
sible objection to this method where it can be suc-
cessfully done, but it is not better theoretically nor
practically than root grafting.

Plant a row of apple seeds of 100 or more, let
the young trees stand in the ground over one

1 8 THE NURSERY.

winter, and we shall find that nearly all will be
dead. There may be a few alive, but it will be
strange if there is one that would be fit to use as a
stock to graft upon. If there should be any showing
no discoloration or "black heart" there could be
no objection to using it to top graft, but, in order
to carry out the idea perfectly, we must not remove
it from where it stood, otherwise we shall lose
the bottom of the tap root. This being severed
we have exactly the conditions as in a root grafted
tree so far as the roots are concerned. T. T. Lyon,
of the U. S. Pomological Division, which is a part
of the Department of Agriculture, and who has
devoted a long life entirely to horticulture, not
only in its scientific aspects, but as a practical
propagator, says: "My observation would be that
every tree has its own peculiar way of making root
growth, and that it would not change it in the least
whether it was grafted on a whole or piece root. I
am in favor of that system which the soonest gets
the tree upon its own roots. However there are
with us a few exceptions, which you may not
notice out here. I refer to the Canada Red in par-
ticular. There seems no way to induce a good
growth on it except by top working. To grow it
from either whole or piece roots would be impossi-
ble with us, as it is such a slow grower. I can
hardly see that there would be any advantage in
using whole roots, so far as root system is con-
cerned. Bach variety of the apple has its own
peculiar way of rooting, and the cion most surely

THE NURSERY- 19

influences the root growth. As I said before I am
in favor of that system which gets a tree on its own
roots in the least possible time. ' '

If a whole seedling root is used it is evident that
to get the point of union deep enough in the ground
to make it reasonably safe to go through the winter
without becoming diseased, the root graft must be
planted from i y2 feet to 2 feet deep. No nurseryman
will ever do this and if he did the tree digger when
run under the trees before lifting would cut it off,
say 15 inches below the surface, and this is deeper
than these implements are usually run.

Those who claim to propagate trees exclusively
upon what they call "whole roots," in their argu-
ments seek to leave the impression that in the north
the short root and long cion is used solely 'for the
purpose of economy. Nothing could be further
from the truth, and the attempt to leave such an
impression is not creditable. Seedling apples suita-
able for grafting are usually worth about $3.00 per
1,000 and the cions such as will make about two to
three cuts are worth $1.00 to $2.00 per 1,000. The
little difference in the value of the top and bottom
of the graft will make it a small matter whether
the splice is made a short distance further upward
or downward. Even if a great part of the root is
thrown away (which it is not) in the "whole root"
system, the difference in the cost of the trees by
the two systems, after two years could not be more
than one-fifth of a cent.

It will be noticed that without a single excep-

20 THE NURSERY.

tion all the authorities favoring the whole root sys-
tem, who are practical propagators, are from the
south or from the border states, while those taking
the opposite view are almost as invariably from the
north. Both sides are right and both are wrong.
We will take the words of our southern brethren,
they are supposed to know better what they want
than we do, but they are wrong in condemning a
different practice in the north, by which alone we
can grow a thoroughly good and sound tree.

Prof. McAfee states that not more than ten seed-
ling apple trees in 100 are hardy enough to go
through a test winter uninjured, especially when
young. This is my experience, or, I would say
he has set the proportion of the hardy ones very
much too high. Should we attempt to make a
sound tree with one of these tender seedlings, how-
ever hardy the cion we use might be, we should fail
in the north, if we depended upon making the
union at any point very near the ground surface.
This has been demonstrated so many times that
there is no longer a question left concerning it. By
using a short section of root and a long cion, and
setting the whole entirely in the ground, we make
the union 5 to 6 inches under ground, where it is
so protected as to generally go through the hardest
winter uninjured, and serves its purpose until the
tree gets "upon its own roots," which it will always
do in a few years, frequently making a fine strong
system of its own the first season, and nearly always
by the second season. If I were propagating trees

THK NURSERY. 21

in the south probably I should adopt the so-called
whole root system for southern orchards, as these
propagators claim that such trees give better satis-
faction there, but the proof is all wanting that such
trees do better in the north, or give better satis-
faction where thoroughly and intelligently tried.
My own opinion, based upon several experiments is
that such trees introduced into the North would be
unsafe unless when replanted they were set very
much deeper than grown in the nursery, even then
the proof is all wanting to maintain the proposi-
tion that such trees and only such, are natural, and
make better or longer lived trees in the north than
those propagated under our northern system. The
fact that trees propagated in a certain manner lived
longer in Massachusetts or Michigan than those
differently propagated in Dakota, is not proof of
anything, but is only an incident, and may be
explained by a dozen different conditions as well as
this one.

When we carefully investigate this claim of
superiority for the "whole root" system, and then
learn that no claim is made that the whole root is
really used, and only a very small proportion of it,
there will be a suggestion of the good faith of the
advocates. Why not call it by its right name
which would be crown graft or collar graft ?

Prof. Burrill in speaking of this point in the seed-
ling that is known as the collar says: "There is a
name often heard in discussions upon our topics
which calls for a moment's notice: What is the

22 THE NURSERY.

collar? The place of juncture of the stem and
root. I say the name calls for attention. The thing
signified need hardly take our time, because in a
structural sense there is nothing of it. We have
only stem or root according as we exactly locate
the place. The collar is no organ, it is the junc-
ture of by no means very dissimilar parts. There
is no special vitality here, no peculia^r seat of
vitality nor of vulnerability.

" The parts of a tree grown above ground exposed
to the air have harder tissues, not because it is stem
as opposed to root, but from condition of growth.
The root tissues are softer only because kept con-
tinually in the moist earth. Witness the hardened
texture of the brace roots of Indian corn above the
surface of the earth.

" The collar therefore as most commonly located
is simply the place of the stem or root coinciding
with the level of the soil — this and nothing more.

" Now let us see what the results are when two
living parts are joined by grafting or budding.
Practical men know that to succeed in these opera-
tions the inner bark of these two pieces must be
placed in contact.

u In the case of root grafting in the winter this is
not so critically imperative, because the callus
spreads somewhat between the two pieces. But in
any case what is absolutely essential is to secure the
meeting of cells capable of growth on the one side,
with those similarly conditioned upon the other side.
The old wood does not in any sense whatever unite.

THE NURSERY. 23

" If an examination is carefully made, even years
after the graft has successfully grown, the old cut
surfaces in the heart of the structure will be found.
* * * A cion is no more modified by the stock
in essential character then one human being is
changed in personal identity, and personal respon-
sibility because of his association in business with
another human being. The partnership may indeed
be a profitable one for both parties and the two men
may agree perfectly between themselves, and may
each succeed better than he could have done alone,
yet A remains A and B remains B. Just so
with the stock and cion. While each keeps its
own inherent qualities, the association may be
mutually beneficial or harmful according as the
activities of each suit those of the other, or the
reverse.

u In the matter of union between a'onand stock
there is another thing upon which a word is needed.
The microscope may always detect the line of con-
tact of the two, if there is any visible difference in the
cellular structure; but neither the microscope nor
any other instrument, or thing, except experience
can inform us concerning the physiological union
between two pieces joined by grafting. We all
have seen swellings upon grafted or budded trees at
or near the splice. These enlargements are much
more common just above the place of union. They
do not disappear with age, but remain as evident
in a tree forty years old as at the end of the first
season's growth.

24 THE NURSERY.

"Such swellings indicate faulty physiological
unions. The nutrient juices are impeded in their
movement of distribution. The barrier is like a
dam in a river above which the struggling waters
press out in every direction. The amount of such
trunk enlargement may be taken as the measure of
inadaptability or of physical incongruity. * * *

" First it must appear that the so-called collar
means nothing. If there is any foundation for the
claim made for grafting in the "collar" or "crown"
it simply and only can be that it is better to graft
into the stem instead of the root for as heretofore
asserted the place popularly designated by these
terms is only that part of the tree stem which hap-
pens at the surface of the ground.

"Secondly, it is a decided misnomer to speak
about using 'whole roots.' This is indeed usually
recognized, despite the common use of the term.

1 ' But few probably are aware how far from the
truth the expression really is.

* l Look at these poorly grown one year old piece
root grafted apple trees (exhibiting three specimens).
They were dug from the end of a nursery row,
without selection of any kind, but care taken to
take up whole roots. The fine roots are over
three feet long, and the center one descended to
that depth in the soil. Here again is a one year
budded cherry. The stock is the red wild cherry.
Here are roots four and a half feet long, with a
spread as they grew of about 6 feet, and a depth
almost the total length.

THE NURSERY. 25

"We have seen that the only peculiarity in the
structure of a root in the course of its length is
at the very tip, with its wonderful provision for
growth through hard soil. No one can pretend
for a moment that this is preserved in the
so-called whole root trees. If this is destroyed
there does not appear to be any special difference
whether i inch or i foot is removed, so far as
manner of growth is concerned.

"Here are a series of specimens of piece root
grafts of six kinds of apples furnished me by Mr.
Augustine. I asked for one year trees without
telling him what was to be illustrated by them.
All are well grown, but some are larger than
others. Can any fault be found with the amount
or direction of these roots ?

4 ( But fairness demands the mention that in the
excellent samples shown by whole root advo-
cates there is more evidence of the unhealthy
swelling on the piece roots.

' ' It would seem that a tree upon its own roots
is ordinarily better than any combination can be,
except when special result outside of the best
good to the tree itself is desired. In other words
when we propagate for fruit and not for apple
trees."

We have quoted thus largely from Prof. Burrill
to give the best scientific and impartial views,
and will only add that the specimens of piece
root grafts shown were not selected, while those on
the other side were with this special point in view.

26 THE NURSERY.

We still take some exceptions even to the excel-
lent authority quoted. It is noteworthy that the
Ben Davis is the most cosmopolitan in its habits
upon other stocks, seldom showing the point of
union at three years old ; still it is not noted for
hardiness or longevity, while the Duchess and
Haas make the poorest unions, and show the
greatest enlargements, are very hardy and long lived.

The Duchess does not show this enlargement to
so great an extent as the Haas, but shows a cracked,
rough condition, from which we get a flood of
sprouts, showing a bad union. For this reason we
fully agree with him in his conclusion that the
tree upon its own roots is best, and the shorter the
root and longer the cion, the sooner we shall
accomplish this. If we could grow the trees from
cuttings like currants, it would be still better.

Dr. Warder says: "If the young trees are earthed
up in the nursery, and set rather deeply in .the
orchard, they will soon establish a good set of roots
of their own, emitted above the junction of the
cion and stock, which is very preferable to the
imperfect union and consequent enlargement that
often results from using uncongenial stocks."

Again, one of the simplest methods of multiply-
ing varieties consists of increasing and encouraging
the suckers thrown up by the roots; these are sep-
arated and set out for trees. We have been told by
some physiologists that there was an absolute differ-
ence in structure between the root and the stem,
that they could not be substituted the one for the

THE NURSERY. 27

other; and yet the oft quoted marvel of the tree
which was planted upside down, and which pro-
duced flowers and leaves from its roots, is familiar
to every one.

Here, as in other cases, our teachers have led us
into error, by attempting to trace analogy with
animal anatomy and physiology, and by directing
our attention to the circulation of plants, as though
they, like animals, had a true arterial and venus
current of circulating fluids. The cell circulation
is a quite different affair, and can be conducted in
either direction as every gardener knows who has
ever layered a plant or set a cutting wrong side up.
So with the roots they are but downward exten-
sions of the stem; under ordinary circumstances
they have no need for buds, but these may be and
often are developed, when the necessity for their
presence arises.

Buds do exist on the roots — especially those near
the surface — and from them freely spring suckers,
which are as much a part of the parent tree as its
branches, and may be planted with entire certainty
of obtaining the same fruit, just as the twigs when
used as cuttings, or cions when grafted, will pro-
duce similar results.

High manuring the nursery is objectionable, and
a tree is better for having a moderate, and not an
abnormal, growth. Such trees are much more apt
to become discolored or black hearted than those
having made a more moderate growth; they are
also less liable to bark bursting in nursery.

28 THE NURSERY.

Planting root grafts. The ground should be
plowed as deeply as practicable, if a foot it will be
better. A subsoiler attached to the plow has been
found to be of great value, as the young plants in
such ground have not dried out like those on ground
prepared in the ordinary way. There is no imple-
ment better to follow the plow with than the
planker or clod crusher. In plowing, the furrows
are all thrown the same way, frequently called
"carrying the lands." This leaves no dead fur-
rows. The planking is kept close to the plowing,
and the planters close to the planker, so that there
may be moist earth at the top which prevents the
earth from falling back as the dibble is withdrawn,
and filling the hole. Many plant without dibbles,
by throwing out a heavy furrow and planting in
this and drawing the earth back with the hands,
to hold the plant in position, which is thereafter
filled by rake and hoes. This is as good as the
dibble, but no better, and it is not thought that
anything is gained in time. For the amateur a
dibble may be made of wood. Cut the handle from
an old spade, keeping a piece of the shank one foot
long besides the hand part; sharpen it to a point,
but not by a true taper; it should be narrowed
faster near the point. Such dibbles will answer
the purpose nearly as well as those made of steel.

The ground being plowed and smoothed, throw
a line across from north to south and stake it
tightly and pull it straight. The grafts are carried
by the planters in shallow vessels such as wash

THE NURSERY. 2 9

basins or common pans. The grafts will be set all
the time on the same side of the line, and about
two inches from it, the planters all being on that
side the line. The hole is made with the dibble,
and the graft carefully inserted, the greatest care
being necessary not to break the joint. Set it to
its top in the ground, holding it in this position
with the left hand resting upon the ground, when
the dibble is thrust down beside it, and very close
to the first hole, which will, if done properly, firm
the earth about the roots to the bottom. This
work should not be entrusted to boys, it requires
good judgment and mature intelligence to do the
work correctly. Place them about 10 inches apart
in the row, and the rows 4 feet -apart. Some
leave one bud out of the ground, but it is not
necessary when the ground is smooth, as it will
soon settle so as to expose one or more of them.

Keep them cultivated and clear of weeds, and it
is not believed that late cultivating induces late
growth.

In the north there is great loss frequently in
winterkilling the first winter, especially in the
loess soils of the Missouri valley. This was not^
the case in the black soils of the Mississippi side.

There are many ways to prevent this. Some
take them all up in the fall, cover or cellar them
and plant out again in spring. This is advisa-
ble where there is but a poor stand, as the ground
will be better occupied. There is the objection to
this, however, that the tree is retarded in growth,

30 THE NURSERY.

and may by reason of this delay make too late a
growth the next year and be in condition to dam-
age the second winter. If this does not occur, and
the work is done carefully so as not to be a severe
shock to the tree, there can be no objection to it.
Another way is to lay them down and cover with
earth. Three persons are required to do this fast;
one goes ahead and presses them down with a
spade or fork and two others follow and cover. It
is said that three men will put down 10,000 in a
day.

Another plan is to cover the field with straw,
hauling on something like ten loads to the acre.
This is the plan we have pursued, but it is labor-
ious and expensive. Another plan is to sow oats
thickly in the fall, soon after they are harvested,
sowing about 6 bushels to the acre. Some use
buckwheat, which is better in fall as it grows taller,
but does not make so good a mulch for winter as
the oats.

If we wish to make hardy long lived trees we
must send them to the planters sound, and we can-
not do that in this latitude, except in a very few
varieties, without in some way protecting the trees
the first and generally the second years.

Should the trees prove to be discolored in the
spring the tops should be cut off and a new tree
grown from the sound wood below, as there is no
way to cure a tree that has become discolored. This
has been described in another chapter.

It is of the utmost importance that the trees be

THE NURSERY. 31

sent out sound, as has been said, and must be fully
decided upon. A black hearted tree should not be
sent from the nursery, and it is not necessary. By
the practice here described we can know positively
that the trees are sound, as well as if they were
transparent. It is not so serious a matter if the
tree should in its later growth, when established in
orchard, become so in its shoots, as it will in most
cases any way, but the trunk and larger limbs of
the tree are its life, and these should be sound and
strong to the heart.

All nurserymen doing any considerable business
will dig their trees with the tree plow or digger, as
the work is done well and quickly. If to be dug
with a spade great pains should be taken to get a
good proportion of roots and not in a mangled and
bruised condition.

Do all the work in nursery at the right time If
this is not done, in many cases the work is doubled,
and is then not done properly. This is particularly
true of keeping the small trees clean. The proper
time to kill a weed is before it grows.

If workmen go among them with hoes they
should be instructed to be very careful not to
scrape over the grafts, as it is liable to break them,
or in any case greatly damage them. A pronged
hoe that will straddle the tree is of use. We have
Had a common four-tined pitchfork straightened
and the tines, about 3 inches from the end bent to
a right angle or less, making it somewhat hooking,
and found it a very good tool for this work.

32 THE NURSERY.

Where the tree digger has been run under the
trees and the best grade only taken out, the ground
which has been displaced and loosened should be
immediately firmed again upon the roots. This is
done by the use of a heavy one-horse roller between
the rows, or it may be done by pressure from the
foot if by a heavy man and the work well done.

Evergreens may be root pruned in this way,
which is nearly as good as once transplanting. It
should be done just before the beginning of growth,
or if the season is favorable it may be done just at
the end of the growing season, as the roots will
continue to grow nearly all summer while the tops
are at rest.

CHAPTER II.

Hardiness of the Tree, and its Adapta-
bility to Latitudes.

WHEN we speak of the hardiness of a tree, we
mean its ability to withstand all the vicissi-
tudes of the climate where the tree is to be grown.
Under certain conditions one tree will be hardy
while under a changed condition in the same
climate it will have all the characteristics of a
tender variety. In the black loamy bottom soils
of the Mississippi valley, even in the southern part
of Iowa and Illinois, the Wagner is too tender
for practical uses, while on the loess soils of the
Missouri valley, and on the highest lands in
northern Nebraska and Southern Dakota, it is
among the hardiest. These black mucky soils are
not adapted to apple growing in great variety.
There is an element lacking in these soils necessary
to the most perfect ripening and developing in the
tree, those qualities which underlie hardiness.
I am of opinion that there are at least 50
varieties of the apple that, so far as intense cold
is concerned, would thrive under other favorable
conditions at least as far north as latitude 44°. I

33

34 HARDINESS OF THE TREE,

believe that the peach could, under similar condi-
tions, be successfully grown up to 41° and probably
42°. The trouble is to compel or control these
conditions. I have, during several winters, kept a
careful record of the condition of my Russian
apricot trees, and, while they were in tree perfectly
hardy under any conditions of this climate, the fruit
buds killed at about the same degree of cold that
killed the peach buds. My conclusion was that
the tree was an anomaly, being prepared for arctic
winters in wood, but wearing tropic fruit buds.
Nature does not make many anomalies, and this
proved not to be one either. As the trees attained size
and age this weakness disappeared, arid the buds
have for two winters ensured lower than 30° below,
and then been followed by bountiful crops of very
excellent fruit. Peaches have also been occasion-
ally grown in this latitude, and in southern
South Dakota, and it is a significant fact that these
crops have not as a rule followed mild open
winters, but more nearly the reverse.

In considering this subject, I shall confine my-
self mostly to that monarch of all fruits — the apple.

Small fruits of great variety can be almost com-
pelled to obey us. We can, if we cannot control
the elements, so protect these luxuries as to ward
off all harm from them.

Cherries and plums afford us but little trouble.
The pear is an enigma. When we have apples we
have fruit enough. To take a common sense view
we must conclude that when the tree has, during

AND ITS ADAPTABILITY TO LATITUDES. 35

the summer and fall, been favored with all the best
conditions, those that the tree would if it could
select for itself, such as just rainfall enough and not
too much, proper cultivation, a season just long
enough to thoroughly mature its every part, but not
so late and warm as to induce a second growth.
With these conditions, any tree, of whatever kind,
would surely be in the best possible condition to
resist the extremes of heat and cold through which
it must pass before it can again fortify itself for
another siege of winter war. Many of these condi-
tions we can control or supply, and it is our duty
if we expect to deserve success to control or supply
them so far as is in our power, and is practicable.
It is much the same with at ^e as with a domestic
animal. Some are more hardy than others, but
none are quite capable of taking care of themselves
in this climate without man's assistance, and who-
soever plants a tree under the impression that he
has performed his whole duty and has nothing
further to do but to wait till it bears fruit and then
gather it is only wasting his time and sowing the
seeds of disappointment.

Why will farmers and tree planters persist in this
most blameworthy course? They give no such
treatment to any other crop, nor to the care of
their domestic animals. Surely a good, sound and
productive orchard is very desirable, and among
the most profitable acres of the entire farm.

Happily the neglect of this industry is rapidly
decreasing; but is still very much too prevalent.

36 HARDINESS OF THE TREE,

How often men say of a newly planted orchard:
uMy trees got awful weedy in the forepart of the
summer, then it got so dry I didn't dare disturb
the ground for fear of drying them out too much."
Or, ' 'I thought it better to leave the weeds and grass
to shade the ground ,and keep it moist. ' '

In place of this desired effect, exactly the oppo-
site one is compelled. The weeds pump all the
water from the soil, and the tree is stunted and
cannot fortify itself to the best advantage, conse-
quently will be liable to injury or death, that
with proper cultivation would have been avoided.
This most importart truth has been stated
several times, and may be repeated hereafter. It
cannot be too strongly impressed. We plant the
trees for a purpose, and as we expect them to fill
that purpose there is every reason why we should
give them such care and attention as will enable
them to do the best they can for themselves, but if
we fail in these simple plain matters, which are
so necessary, and the trees do not succeed we should
blame ourselves, and not the trees nor the country.

While it is true that the condition of a tree at
the close of active growth in the fall is a potent
factor in determining that which we call hardiness,
it is also true that there are a number of certain
varieties that have such inherent qualities as
enable them to fortify themselves under unfavorable
circumstances to resist the attack of the elements,
and come through with a bright clean "bill of
health. " These we make a list of and call "hardy."

AND ITS ADAPTABILITY TO LATITUDES. 37

It is the general impression among horticultur-
ists that these varieties may be put put into two
general classes, namely, those very finely organized
apples, having the best quality, as the "tender"
ones, while those of coarser organisms and poorer
quality are generally the "hardy" ones.

There may be, and doubtless is, some foundation
for this classification, but no one is capable of
drawing the lines that will exactly divide these two
classes. ' There are so many variations from this
rule that it is of little value. Of the first class we
would cite the Michigan Swaar and theR. I. Green-
ing; and of the second class the Duchess of Olden-
burg, Wealthy, the crabs, and perhaps some of the
Russian varieties.

On the other hand we have practically hardy
trees of excellent quality to destroy the absolute
application of the rule, such as Grimes Golden,
Iowa Blush, Yellow Bellflower, Am. Sum. Pear-
main, Wagner and others.

Another element which will figure largely in the
determination of the character of hardiness of a
tree should not be overlooked; that is the history
of its removal from the nursery to the orchard.
This may be properly called the crisis in the life
history of a tree, especially an apple tree, and on
the success of this operation will depend almost
wholly the future usefulness of the tree. Not that
this will, if successfully done, assure this usefulness,
but if it is poorly done so that an unnecessary
shock is given the subject from which it does not

38 HARDINESS OF THE TREE,

practically recover before the close of the growing
season, the injury is irreparable. Under such a
condition hardiness has little to do in restoring the
tree to its normal condition. A Duchess of Olden-
burg may be killed as easily by bad handling as a
Baldwin.

The relationship of latitude to climatic condi-
tions which effect the vitality and longevity of a
tree is a subject upon which there is great misap-
prehension. Without investigation how many
have not concluded that there is a perfect grada-
tion of fruits and trees from wild cherries and plums
of Baffins Bay to the orange groves of the Gulf.
When we take so large a range of latitude as this
there is such an apparent gradation, but there are in
fact sectional exceptions. There are latitudes where
for more than 100 miles this may be counter
balanced, or even reversed by other -causes. This
has no reference to isothermal lines, these only
mark the average temperature, and do not
necessarily, nor do they generally, determine
conditions upon which we may safely predicate our
opinions of the adaptability of varieties to different
latitudes.

The average or mean temperature in certain
lines or zones is recorded by these isothermal lines,
from data extending through longer or short peri-
ods, sometimes embracing but a few certain
months in a period of years, or they may be the
record of the mean temperature for all the months.
In either case they are of little value to us for our

AND ITS ADAPTABILITY TO LATITUDES. 3$

purpose. Even if they recorded the lines of mini-
mum temperatures across the country, they would
then be evidence of this condition only and might
not even approximate those larger conditions which
govern the adaptability of varieties. We know it
to be true that certain varieties of plums are tender
in northeast Nebraska that are successfully grown
much further north in South Dakota, and the same
is true of varieties of apples that are tender or half
hardy in central and southern Iowa that are success-
fully grown in northern Nebraska. Some of these
are Wolf River, Pewaukee, Northwestern Greening,
Iowa Blush, Ben Davis, and others of about this
class of hardiness.

The larger conditions which control, or balance
those of latitude, or even of minimum temperature,
are many, such as soil, altitude, humidity (such as
proximity to water, or rainfall) wind currents or
maximum temperatures. These are general causes,
and may, singly — or when combined to a still
greater degree — move the fruit belt north to its
advantage through two or more degrees of latitude.

Then there are local causes in which the removal
of the tree but a few miles may have a greater
effect upon it than the removal of 100 miles under
different conditions, such for instance as the
removal from the south to the north side of the
hill or from the top to the bottom of a bluff.

The manner of pruning the tree, too, will exert
much influence upon its hardiness; as in the case of
the Wealthy, which is very close to the Duchess in

40 HARDINESS OF THE TREE.

this, which fails quicker than the Pewaukee, much
tenderer, when pruned up to a high trunk unless
artificial protection is given. The former is very
sensitive to sun scalding the trunk, while the latter
is less so but more liable to injury to its forks

To sum up: First, latitude does not establish an
inflexible law for our guidance in the selection of
varieties, neither do the thermal conditions, but
both are, or may be, overcome by other more
important conditions. Second, as we can only
control these conditions in part we should do this
to the fullest extent, thus reducing the chances of
loss to the minimum.

CHAPTER III.

Making the Orchard.

IF we begin right and continue with such ordinary
care and prudence as would be bestowed upon
any other industry upon a farm for the first year or
two, the orchard should, and generally will be, an
established success. This beginning right, and
keeping right, at the start, is all important. How-
ever careful we may be, and however much work
we may bestow upon it after the first year,
failure is generally assured if the work was begun
wrong.

To make a good home orchard, one large enough
and good enough to supply the entire wants of the
family in fruits for every day in the year, is not a
play spell. Before undertaking this, determine
that you will in the first place buy your trees of
some reliable nurseryman, who, if he does not live
near you, has an established reputation for honesty,
intelligence, and of being a thorough nursery-
man.

In these days nurseries spring up and grow into
magnificent proportions at a distance, that are
entirely unknown where they are located. Nursery-
men too jump into notoriety at a bound, and are

42 MAKING THE ORCHARD.

after a few months or a year's experience entirely
confident and capable of giving the most explicit
and positive information upon the most abstruse
problems in horticulture. A little (or much if
necessary) labor and investigation carefully applied
before buying is time well spent, and will never be
regretted. Deal only with those in whom you have
confidence, and that confidence should be well
rooted in your best and most impartial judgement.

It is not safe as a rule to deal with "dealers".
These are what the retail merchant is to the whole-
saler. The nursery through which they obtain
their stock may be of the best, but in giving this
dealer, or one of his (the dealers) agents your order,
you are not dealing with the proprietor of the
nursery, he does not even have your name upon
his books. If you are wronged and write him he
will tell you (and justly too) that he merely sold
the stock to the* one you have named to him as his
' 'agent' ' at wholesale, who in turn sold to you what
was his own, and you have him alone to look to for
your redress.

In giving this advice concerning dealers, it is not
intended to condemn them all, I have met those
who were thoroughly honest and capable, fully as
much so as the nursery, but as a rule the opposite
is true, and the exceptions are rare.

If a traveling salesman or agent really represents
the nursery as an agent he will carry a certificate
under seal from the nursery stating just what his
powers and duties are.

MAKING THE ORCHARD. 43

There are swarms of so called "agents" infesting
every crook and corner of the land, who are not
agents and whose only object in making a canvass
is to make money, and whose only care is to buy
stock that will deliver good, get their money and
then seek new fields.

The highwayman who robs you, or the sneak who
burns your building or steals your horse, is a gentle-
man to the slick tongued fraud, who, by plausible
lying wins your confidence sufficiently to induce
you to invest in something that, aside from robbing
you of your money, steals your precious time for
years and for all your time and care, for all the
golden visions of a fruitful orchard, under the
spreading trees of which you have so often in
pleasureable anticipation seen your wife and chil-
dren gathering the mellow fruit, he gives you only
a sure legacy of disappointment and despair.

This may not be always the case, indeed it is not,
but those who read these pages will testify that it
is the rule and not the exception.

In considering all these problems, and hundreds
of others not yet even named, underlying all
of which is lack of knowledge on the part of the
planter, and in a less degree on the part of many
nurserymen, it has been suggested that the proper
way to get an orchard and take the fewest chances
of failure is to let the contract to an expert whose
pay shall depend upon his success or his fulfilling
his contract. This has been put in practice by but
few, and, financially at least, has in most cases been

44 MAKING THE ORCHARD.

unsuccessful, but in some cases successful. So far
as making a success of the orchards is concerned I
know that in one case at least where the parties
have planted nearly 2,000 orchards success has
been phenomenal, even far beyond their expec-
tation. The principle that the orchard maker should
make the orchard the same as the wagon maker
makes the wagon or the carpenter the house, is
undoubtedly correct. The success above alluded
to as well as the failure which has so often attended
the old way is alone proof of this, if proof were
needed. There are many, however, who have
orchards more or less valuable who do not care to
start again from the beginning, and many others
who deem themselves competent to make the
orchard unassisted. It is for the benefit of these as
well as for the guide of all who are interested in
fruit culture, that this book is made.

Bven if we should all adopt the system of mak-
ing the orchard by the orchard maker, there would
still remain great need on the part of the person for
whom the orchard is making for concise, correct
instruction through which alone he can intelligently
and successfully second the efforts of the maker;
for, practically, the maker is little more than a
superintendent, and, in a great extent of business
cannot visit each orchard very frequently. The
interest of the owner will impel him to use all rea-
sonable efforts to make a success, arid practical
knowledge will enable him to better apply those
efforts.

MAKING THE ORCHARD.

45

The varieties and the age and form of the tree
will be the first consideration.

A chapter will be devoted to varieties, to which
the reader is referred. It is generally better to plant
a small or medium sized tree than a large one. A
well grown two year old as grown in the north, or
a good yearling from the south is a good size. Such
a tree will be from 3 to 5 feet high. A very excel-
lent tree, and one I would adopt as a model is made
by cutting back the yearling to the ground before
spring growth begins. Allow but a single stem to
grow from this cleft. In the fall we have a straight
stem supplied with leaves and buds its entire
length frequently with spurs, and about the height
above given. This tree if grown in the north
should be taken up carefully in the fall after the
wood is entirely ripe, and either properly buried or
wintered in cellar. The latter is better if done cor-
rectly. Such a tree goes to the orchard in the
spring following with every part exactly as it was
when lifted the previous fall. Its vitality is unim-
paired, and such trees will usually make about the
same growth, and ripen their wood the same as if
they had not been transplanted.

This tree might have been allowed to stand in
the nursery row all winter without necessarily
being diseased in the spring, but it could be no
better nor stronger for its battle with the elements
during a severe winter. Experiment has proved
that such trees are much heavier in spring than
those wintered in nursery row. Before the latter

46 MAKING THE ORCHARD.

can start in the spring they must through their
shortened and lacerated roots gather up this waste
caused by evaporation, thus delaying the early
growth which is so necessary to early maturity. If
a tree has to be removed in spring, in a high north-
ern latitude I would delay the work till this waste
had been repaired by its own full system of roots,
or till there was evidence of activity in the swell-
ing buds.

The proper form of a tree is of the first import-
ance. A model tree is one having a stem from
bottom to top with side branches, always smaller
than the main stem, taken out from it at proper dis-
tances, and one which will allow the orchardist to
convert into a very high or a very low headed tree
as he sees fit without the cutting of large, or two
year limbs.

This form is my type of a tree ready for planting
in the orchard; but after years this will be lost in a
spreading top. The roots of the tree will also
assume about the same form.

A low headed tree is of great importance, unless
the orchardist has determined to protect the trunk
of his trees until the top of this or of the next tree
on the south will protect it from the rays of the sun
and thus protect it from "sun scald," one of the
most destructive of all the enemies of orcharding.
This will be treated in the chapter on "Enemies of
the Orchard. "

Trees of this form cannot always be obtained in
the market, indeed very seldom. The nurseryman

MAKING THE ORCHARD. 47

is, like many other people, so vain as to think he
must live and support his family as other folks do;
and should he stock up with such a tree it would
be called "brush" by his customers, and would,
very likely, be left on his hands for the "brush
pile.n Warder says, ".By all means give the peo-
ple what they want whether in* form or variety,
whether best or not. " This may be a good- rule
where customers are persistent, but try to educate
customers to buy a low headed tree and a young
one.

The form that pleases the majority is one that is
a model of a bearing tree. It must have a clean
trunk of 3 to 4 feet and then merge into a "head."
Such trees, unless planted leaning very heavily to
the south, and even then protected from the sun in
some way will be apt to lean heavily to the north
and east in a few years and finally lose the bark
on the south side from sun scald.

SOIL AND LOCATION.

There are some soils in which it might be almost
impossible to make a good apple orchard. If the
top or drift soil is underlaid at a depth of i to 3
feet with a hard pan, such as will not let water
through it either downwards or upwards, we should
hesitate before trying to make an orchard there.
In such locations the cottonwoods and other trees
are short lived.

If our land admitted of the choice, and we were
making a small home orchard we would select a

48 MAKING THE ORCHARD.

moderately elevated piece, where the soil was of
good natural fertility; not too abrupt, but suffi-
ciently rolling to insure good drainage. The
exposure might be in almost any direction, though
a sharp southern exposure is usually condemned. I
have, however, seen the Ben Davis in Madison
county, Neb., which is considered only hardy
enough for about thirty-eight to thirty-nine, at the
age of twenty-two years, sound and bearing enor-
mous crops, and on a steep south slope with a grove
of cottonwoods on the north and in close proximity
on the south.

When we reflect that there are excellent orchards
of many acres, hundreds and over, in all parts of
the country, it is obvious that the different parts
must present almost every exposure or slope, hence
if we adopt any particular exposure as requisite to
success we should have our large orchards consider-
ably broken up in patches.

It is easier to make an orchard in clayey loam
than in sand, still in several of the northwestern
states I have seen and made excellent orchards in
drifting sands. In these cases it is necessary to plant
deeply, 3 or 4 inches deeper than in clay. The
Russets and the Duchess, tlaas, and Iowa Blush,
generally succeed in these light soils, and the
cherries are especially at home in them.

It is generally taught that the ground should be
plowed very deeply. My experience in making
orchards in the soils of western Iowa, northern
Nebraska and South Dakota, has taught me that

MAKING THE ORCHARD. 49

this is entirely unnecessary, indeed some of our
best orchards were made by planting in the virgin
prairie sod, and which was not broken afterwards.
In these cases the ground was subdued by heavy
mulching.

In poor or thin soil it is a great advantage to
dig the holes considerably deeper than necessary
for setting the tree, and then filling up in part with
top soil. The holes need not be dug wider than is
required to properly adjust all the roots without
crowding. If the root grows at all it is equally
strong and piercing when one day old as it will be
in ten years, and if it can ever force itself through
the hard ground it can do it the first year.

For reasons given in our chapter on the nursery
it will be well to plant the tree some deeper than
it stood in the nursery. Say 3 inches in upland
clay soil, and 5 to 6 in sand.

If trees are procured the fall before planting and
buried, before this is done the bruised ends of all
roots should be cut off with a sharp knife, always
cutting from the under side so that the cut surface
shall be generally at a right angle to the stem of
the tree. If this is done in the fall and the
roots buried moderately deep, say i^ to 2 feet
it will be found that the tree has not been idle
during the winter, but that there has been a
nice callusing of all these cut surfaces which is
the first stage of root making. In fact if preserved
without too much injury, this at once takes the
place of, and performs the office of the roots,

50 MAKING THE ORCHARD.

absorbing the water and food from the soil in con.
tact, and sending it up toward the buds. If this
has been omitted in the fall, cut as directed before
planting. It is also well to head the top back to
some extent, especially if the roots appear to be
short or poor; the poorer the roots the more the
top should be cut back. It is never advisable to
cut back so far as to remove two year old wood at
planting. Should there be a limb of such wood
that ought to come off, let it be till the next year.
The tree will then have more vitality to withstand
the surgical operation. This subject will also be
further treated under the head of pruning.

If trees are procured in the fall they should
not be planted till spring except below 40°
latitude. They should be carefully unpacked,
the bundles cut apart and the trees buried in
a slanting position that will cover the roots
about 1 8 inches, while the tops are barely
covered. If the tree is good and the work done
right there will be no material loss.

It matters not just what form is used in covering
these trees, if we arrive at the same result, but
there is a practice where a large number are to be
buried that will save much work, and will be
described.

L,et us suppose we have 100 or more trees, we
will lay off a strip of ground about 4 feet wide, and
as long as is necessary. We will suppose that the
strip lays east and west (but it does not matter)
and we stand spade in hand at the east end, facing

MAKING THE ORCHARD. 51

the east. We will throw the earth from us — to the
east — as we work gradually deeper, and to the west.
When we have worked back about 3 or 4 feet we
shall have quite a mound in front, and be down at
the west end about one foot. From the top of the
mound to the bottom of the trench will be 6 or 7
feet, about the length of a tree. Now place in as
many trees as will lay side by side with their roots
down in the trench to the west, and the tops reach-
ing about to the top of the mound. We continue
digging just as we did at first, taking the e^rth
away from the roots and throwing it upon them,
working back say a foot or more, when we are
ready to place in another layer, which is done,
when we proceed as before till they are all in. At
this time the trunks and roots will be nearly
covered, and to complete the work we will go along
the sides and throw earth upon the whole till the
trees are all out of sight, root and branch. This
will cover the roots deep enough and the tops but
little. It is well to work the earth among the roots
some, but no great pains need be taken, as the
earth will generally in a short time settle around
them. If the earth is not naturally moist it should
be made so.

In the spring take them out as they went in, that
is the last in will be first out. Dig quite deeply at
the end of the trench, so as to be sure that we are
below all the roots, and take them out by lifting
the tree bodily through the earth. Be quite sure
to get the top layer, and that all the roots are free

52 MAKING THE ORCHARD.

or trees may, as they are frequently, split in
two.

To keep a record of varieties, lathes or other
strips of board may be laid between them and a
record of them kept in a book. This is necessary
if we wish to preserve the record, as the labels will
be faded out by spring.

It is advisable to cut the roots, as has been
directed, in the fall before covering, as many varie-
ties will between this and spring nicely callus and
some progress be made toward the next year's
growth.

By handling as above described any tree except
evergreens can be wintered successfully, and there
are many advantages in it. The trees are on the
place and can be taken out and planted a few at a
time as opportunity offers, and the work done care-
fully and well, while if they are received in spring
it may be in a very busy or very dry time, and the
work not done so well on this account.

Evergreens should never be* ordered for fall
delivery.

The same is true of strawberries, and August
planting gives no advantage beyond waiting till
the next spring.

Raspberries, blackberries, grapes, roses and many
of the other flowering shrubs if received in the fall,
may as well be planted out as covered in the trenches
and handled again in the spring. The work should
be well and carefully done, £nd then the plants
liberally mulched before freezing weather. These

MAKING THE ORCHARD. 53

plants will do as well covered as the trees, but it
adds to the labor of handling and is of no benefit.

The same would be true of trees if we could give
them the same protection that we do the smaller
vines, etc. Fall planting is practiced in many
places where the climate is more moist and equable.
In the trying locations where many are making
orchards, trees thus planted would not live till
spring, and the practice should not be encouraged,
as far north as southern Iowa and Nebraska.

If trees could be taken up very carefully as
early as October, i, and immediately planted, with
ail the care recommended for spring planting, and
the ground should be naturally moist, they would
make a considerable root growth before winter, and
such trees have been known to winter as well as
though not removed, but the practice is not recom-
mended. In such cases it is understood that all
the leaves are stripped off before the tree is taken up.

In planting the tree or adjusting the roots in the
ground, it is only necessary to use good common
sense. The roots must be thoroughly encased in
the earth, which will generally require the use of
the hand without a glove. With this any spaces
not filled will be detected. If the soil is very dry,
it will be well to put a pail of water in each hole
and let it soak away before planting. If the top
soil to be used in filling is also dry, moisten to
make it as near natural as you can.

In my opinion there are few worse practices than
"puddling" trees in. Trees do not require to

54 MAKING THE ORCHARD.

be soaked in order to grow, natural moisture is
enough.

The objection to this process of "puddling" is
that in most soils the ground that is wet becomes
a ball, or like a sun dried brick, it contracts when
drying and cleaves away from the surrounding
earth, thus breaking the connection, and the capil-
lary attraction. Some soils will not do this, but
it is unnecessary in any case, and objectionable in
most cases.

In this connection let me say that the plan of
"watering the trees" after planting is of no avail
whatever as commonly practiced, and not advisable
in any case where good cultivation, or in its absence
good thorough mulching, can be given. To pour a
pail of water on the ground at the foot of a tree to
water it is much like going upon the roof and pour-
ing water there to water the houseplants inside.
Even if a sag or trough is made to prevent the
water from running away, a single pailful will do
no good. It will soak in but a few inches and then
when dry the ground is left hard and will crack and
become a perfect chimney through which the mois-
ture from below will be drawn up and thrown off.

In case trees are to be planted where mulch or
cultivating is undesirable, as in a lawn, watering
will be generally necessary. Bore two holes down
with a post auger about 18 inches from, and each
side of the tree, as deep as the tree sets; fill these
with coarse manure, hay or straw and fill occasion-
ally with water during the summer. Notice closely,

MAKING THE ORCHARD. 55

and when there is a drooping or yellowish appear-
ance of the leaves fill the holes again with water.

LAYING OUT THE ORCHARD.

If we plant all apples we would not plant nearer
than 20 feet each way or which is better, and gives
about the same number of trees to the acre, 14 by
28, the short way north and south.

The land having been plowed and planked or
rolled smooth, if it is desired to have the trees
exactly in line every way, and it ought to be, take a
part of a check wire or other line that can be spaced
off into the desired distances, mark them in some
way so they will remain immovable, and throw the
line straight across one end or side. A stake is
driven firmly at each end, then other smaller
stakes or pins about the size of the little finger
and i to 2 feet long are stuck at each of these
marks upon the wire or line. The line will then
be swung around to make a right angle to the first
line, when it will be thrown straight and staked as
before, remembering to bring the same mark or
" button " to the same corner stake. It is better
now not to move the line to space off the third side,
but to do it with a tape line or any measure, and
put a guide pin at the distances, without regard to
their general direction in the line, when the line is
swept across the field it will correct this line. The
line will then be moved to the next row as indi-
cated by the pins, this row and the others will be
treated the same, until all are finished.

56 MAKING THE ORCHARD.

The land being staked off it is now necessary by
some appliance to put a tree at the exact spot indi-
cated by each stake or pin. This is done with
what is called a ' ( replace, ' ' and is very simple.
Take a piece of board about 6 feet long by 4 to 6
inches wide, cut a V shaped notch about i inch at
the top, and about i inch deep in the center of the
board on one edge, and two notches about the same
size near the ends on the opposite edge, and the
replace is made. Throw this down east and west
with the center notch to the north, and the same
side up every time ; let the center notch receive the
pin where the tree is to set, now stick a stake in
each of the two end notches, pull the center or tree
pin, dig the hole, put the replace back over the
two stakes just as it was, plant the tree leaning
into the center notch and it must occupy the same
place that the pin occupied.

It is well to give the tree considerable inclina-
tion to the south and slightly west, but this is not
so important if the planter, as soon as he is through
with planting will protect the trunk of the trees
with something that will defend them from hot
winds and sun. There is nothing better than corn-
stalks for this protection, and no work that the tree
planter can do from the time he starts till the
orchard is bearing is of so much value as this small
piece of labor; indeed it is one of the essential
requisites of success.

The work is not yet done, even if it is well
done, so far as we have gone. These trees must

MAKING THE ORCHARD. 57

be cultivated thoroughly and often the first year.
It is not enough to go in with a corn cultivator as
near to the row as we can and leave the trees
uncultivated. This is of very little good, but it is
all very many young orchards get. Even if fol-
lowed by the hoe it is still poorly done in most
instances. If the weeds are cut off at the ground
surface and the ground not thoroughly worked and
kept mellow it will bake and dry up. There is a
very large extent of country where not one year in
ten is there sufficient rainfall to mature a crop of
corn without resorting to artificial means to supply
or retain moisture in the ground. Supposing that
we carefully cut or pull every weed in our corn-
fields but never introduce a cultivator ? Cultivat-
ing answers a double purpose; it not only destroys
the weeds which are great absorbers of moisture,
but by breaking and disarranging the conformation
of the soil it acts as a mulch and prevents for a
time, the evaporation through an infinite number
of infinitesimally small tubes. The more finely
pulverized the soil the better the mulch, or, as it
has been called u dust blanket." I have never yet
seen it so dry in summer that I could not in a well
kept field find earth moist enough to pack in my
hand'a few inches down.

One of the best tools to handle an orchard with
is a disc harrow, but if a small tree has been used
it can generally be handled with the corn cultiva-
tor by straddling it. This is one of the many
advantages of a small tree. The second year such

58 MAKING THE ORCHARD.

careful cultivating is not as necessary, but at all
times the tree must be kept in a good thrifty grow-
ing condition, and not be allowed to be robbed of
its food and water by weeds and grass.

WIND BREAKS.

Among the early settlers of the west there was as
much a stereotyped plan of laying out the grounds for
the buildings and orchard as there was a little later
when ornamentals began to be thought about, and
culminated in the two rows of evergreens running
from the front door directly to the gate. This was
not done probably for the purpose of insuring a
snow blockade during the winter, but that visitors
who should find the gate might be directed to
the door; it does not seem to serve any other
purpose.

The wind break was generally in the shape of an
L, sometimes a perfect square. When in an Iy, it was
on the north and west of the buildings, but an area
of from a fraction of an acre to one or two acres
was left between the biiildings and this grove for
the orchard. It is not strange that so many of
them were unsuccessful in such a location as it
could not well be worse. Had the fruit trees been
planted as soon as the forest trees (cottonwoods),
they would have stood a better chance, but they
must wait, as others did, till the wind break was
up before risking the trees. By this time the roots
of the shelter trees had taken undisputed possession
of the ground to be occupied by the orchard and

MAKING THE ORCHARD. 59

were thriving well on the substance that the fruit
trees later would stand so much in need of.

An artificial wind break of this kind is an excel-
lent thing for the buildings, and it should embrace
several acres, but for a protection to the orchard it is
worse than useless. In a quiet warm day in late win-
ter these groves reflect the sun's rays and if continued
for some days will either start too early a growth
which is soon to freeze up again, or the freezing and
thawing of the bark kills it in patches and we have
the next summer the evidence in the sloughing off
of the bark on the sunny side, followed by decayed
wood and a consequent swarm of borers which take
possession and death soon follows.

It is generally conceded now by practical orchard-
ists that these wind breaks are detrimental to the
fruit trees, but we are frequently asked what we are
to do to prevent the fruit from blowing off.

We answer by asking what prevents this in an
orchard of several hundred acres in extent? Adams
says that the best wind break is ' 'another row of
trees. " If it is determined to have this wind break
why not make it of the Haas apple? It is a strong,
very upright grower, is fully as limby as the cotton-
wood, and will make timber for fuel and many other
purposes in value as fast as the cotton woods. A cord
of this wood for fuel would be worth perhaps
more than twice as much as the cottonwoods, and
there would be the additional value of the fruit,
for if well fed these trees- will bear growing very
thickly.

60 MAKING THE ORCHARD.

I have been surprised for some years to notice
that apples growing on a high northwest slope,
without a particle of protection, held their fruit
better in a storm than others of similar varieties
growing in the hollows, and in the shelter of build-
ings. It does not surprise me now as it seems
natural that it should be so.

It is an axiom of the phytologist that the neces-
sity for a certain condition will produce it. I
believe this to be measurably true. Subject the
stem of the young apple to the daily changing blasts
from its infancy, and the stem will take a firmer
hold of its twig, become larger and stronger. It
seems to develop a sort of "vegetable instinct"
which says "cling on or die." It is hard to imag-
ine a wind break so secure that at no time can a
blast reach it from some direction. When this
time comes it finds the stem only prepared for fair
weather and gentle breezes, and it yields to the
ruder blast.

NUMBER OF TREES OR PLANTS TO AN ACRE.

To acertain how many trees or plants will grow
on an acre of land at a given distance apart, first
find how many square feet each tree will occupy,
and the number of times that this will go in 43,560
will give the number to the acre.

To find the number of feet that each will occupy,
multiply the distance from one tree to another by
the same to another tree at right angles to it. For
instance, they are to set 14x28, multiply these

MAKING THE ORCHARD. 6l

together — it is 392 feet — the space that each tree
will occupy. This will go in 43,560 (the number
of square feet in an acre), 1 1 1 times, which is the
required number. Should the trees be set in equal
squares, square the distance, as at 20 feet apart each
tree will occupy 400 square feet, or 108 to the acre.
If trees are planted in nursery rows 6 inches
apart, and the rows 4 feet, each tree will cover
2 feet, or 21,780 to the acre.

CHAPTER IV.

Orchard Management

IT is supposed that up to this time we have only
got the orchard thoroughly established, the trees
are sound and making a growth of from one to two
feet per year, in apple trees. The roots are well
and deeply established and with a reasonable
amount of cultivation or even mowing the weeds
and allowing them to lie upon the ground, so far as
the soil is concerned the trees will generally take
care of themselves for a few years.

If there are cherries and plums among them they
will begin to bear at this time, say at about four to
six years old; the apples will not commence for a
few years more. Some varieties such as the Duchess,
Wagner, Ben Davis, Iowa Blush and Yellow Trans-
parent, will show the first fruit.

The question is now most frequently asked * 'What
shall we plant in the orchard ?"

If the ground is strong, and the trees continue
to make a rapid growth, the land is near market, and
valuable for other crops, we may safely utilize it for
any crops that will not bar you from cultivating or
otherwise keeping the orchard in good growing con-
dition. Never plant small grain in any orchard.

64 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT.

The same of most grasses; red clover is an exception.
There is the objection to this, however, that it is
quite apt to invite the pocket gophers which are a
great pest in an orchard.

As a rule it is best not to try to raise anything
in the orchard but the trees and fruit, unless we
take advantage of the orchard to grow such plants
as cannot be well grown elsewhere. This is applic-
able to the raspberry. This fruit is quite apt to
be tender in more open and exposed positions. If
the trees are 20 feet apart, two rows of them
can be grown between each row while the trees are
from six to eight years old, and as they get older,
grow only one. This is done with great success in
localities where the raspberry cannot be practically
grown in any other way without winter covering.

Level cultivation is at all times better for the
orchard. I cannot conceive of a necessity in a
properly cared for orchard of ever introducing the
stirring plow, except for ridging up in low flat land.

There are many enemies to the orchard such as
insects, etc., which must be watched. These ene-
mies will be treated in a separate chapter on ene-
mies of the orchard.

FEEDING.

Intimately connected with the space that is to
be given to each tree or the number of trees to the
acre, is the subject of feeding the trees. We can
not expect to ' 'get something for nothing." We will
again compare a tree to animals, this time horses

ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. 65

on the picket ropes. They are picketed at equal
distances from each other; they commence to eat
at the stake, and as the food is exhausted the rope
unwinds giving additional food as required; but
there will come a time when lengthening the ropes
will not supply more food as they will come to the
territory once fed over by the adjoining horses.
This means starvation or a very meager supply of
food and a very poor existence. There are two
ways to remedy or prevent this: (i) by picketing
them so far apart that before they reach each others
territory a plentiful supply will have again grown
where once fed over, or (2) leave them as they are
and carry feed to them. The latter is the best and
most economical way.

A tree just as surely feeds the ground over as a
horse does and as closely; not one little particle is
allowed to escape; but nature is very recuperative
and will do her best by dissolving for the use of the
tree as fast as she can, such elements in the soil as
were not palatable the first time, and in course of
time the ground will supply it a second crop of
food, but at best it is only "the second table."

As soon as the trees come into heavy bearing the
ground should have a top dressing of stable manure,
ashes, or any of the phosphates if the ashes or
stable manure cannot be had in sufficient quanti-
ties. Ashes and all alkalies are valuable to soils as
solvents. They reduce the indigestible particles to
a condition in which they may be utilized by the
tree. Thus these alkalies applied to the soil for

66 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT.

any great length of time without other food ele-
ments would have less effect.

I am of opinion that the habit of ' 'off years' ' or
bearing only alternate years can in a great measure
be broken up by a careful system of feeding or fer-
tilizing.

THINNING OUT SURPLUS FRUIT.

Do not allow the trees to overbear. It is extremely
injudicious. After the fruit is large enough to sat-
isfy you what is firmly established, or when the size
of a hickory nut, look at the burden and try to
imagine that each is a full sized specimen. If the
Iruit would not in this size be more than an ordin-
ary crop all right, but if it would be a heavy crop
such as would require the propping up of the tree
pick off a part of them. Do not be afraid that you
are wasting your fruit; in very many cases if half
the fruit, even, is picked, that which remains will
measure as many bushels, but of much better and
handsomer fruit.

In this way the tree has been relieved of nearly
half its burden; for the great strain upon the vital-
ity of the tree is not in maturing the pulp of the
fruit, but in maturing the seeds.

It is a matter of record that the greatest injury
has generally been done to apple trees the winter
following the production of their heaviest crops.

It is obvious that the better condition a tree is in,
in the fall, the more vitality it has stored up, the
better it will resist the rough usage of the winter.

ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. 6/

In regard to off years, it has been asserted that
this habit could in a measure be broken up by
proper feeding. The probable reason that trees do
not as a rule bear every year is that they cannot,
on account of exhausted vitality from the last year's
production. This granted it is evident that what-
ever will assist in maintaining this vitality will
assist the tree to produce fruit buds — which are
formed in mid-summer — and to develop them into
fruit the coming spring. The two things which will
do most to so aid the tree are, proper feeding,
and thinning out fruit before the seeds have
developed.

Judgment must be used in applying stable manure
or it may do more harm than good. It should be
applied only to the surface and no attempt made to
plow it under. Neither should it be so thick as to
burn or to "fire fang," and should not be placed
against the trees, nor in contact with the roots. If
piled against the trees, roots are apt to be induced
to grow directly under it and in almost every
instance will be warty and covered with fungus
growth.

Gathering fruit for market. The price will in
all cases be determined by the excellence of the
fruit, and the appearance it presents to the eye of
the purchaser. It is poor economy to try to send
out more baskets and to do so be compelled to
use a poorer quality. Fruit should be carefully
handled to prevent bruising, and then put up in
the neatest cases.

68 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT.

Summer and fall apples should be gathered
before quite ripe as they bruise less, and keep better.
Winter apples, whether for the market or home con-
sumption, in order to get their best results as keepers
should be gathered early. The practice among
those who only grow for home use is to allow the
fruit to remain on the trees about as long as it can
without freezing. Such fruit will not keep, even
when otherwise long keepers.

Grapes of many kinds can be kept several months
after ripening by placing them on shallow shelves
in a cool cellar, so arranging them that the bunches
do not touch each other. Some pack them in shal-
low boxes filled with perfectly dry, coarse sawdust.
When taken out for use the sawdust that adheres is
removed by dipping them in water.

Canned fruits. Whether or not we can grow
sufficient quantities of winter apples for the season,
we can always have small fruits by the easy and
cheap method of canning. This art is understood
by all the housewives.

Cherries are improved if about one-fifth of the
amount of fruit is put up without removing the pits.

Currants are improved by adding nearly one-half
mulberries.

All fruits will keep as well if cooked in a kettle
and dipped from this into the cans, the only objection
to this being that the fruit is more broken and does
not look as well. •

There will be no danger of breaking the cans if
a towel is wrung from cold water and pressed

ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. 69

tightly around the can, being sure that all parts of
the can, especially the bottom, are in contact with
the wet towel.

It is immaterial whether sugar is or is not used
at the time of canning. It keeps as well in either
case, and the flavor is not changed.

PRESERVING FRUITS FOR EXHIBITION.

Prof. Hilgard discusses the requisites of the ideal
material for preserving fruits for fairs and other
exhibitions. He says such preservatives should
prevent fermentation, must be liquid, must not
extract color, and must not change the size of the
fruits, causing them either to swell or shrivel

In order to retain the size, the best means of
increasing the density of the fluid, and as a guide
to the proper quantity to add, the percentages
of soluble matter (glycerine) to total weight are
given: Apples and pears, 125 per cent; plums,
prunes, apricots, peaches, about 10 per cent; cher-
ries, 12 percent; most berries, 8 percent; currants,
10 per cent; that is to any preservative fluid having
about the density of water, add 12 per cent of gly-
cerine for apples, etc.

Several preservative fluids are discussed but only
two appear to meet with the requirements: (i) a
solution of one ounce of salicylic acid to five gal-
lons of water, to which as much glycerine has been
added as per above schedule. This constitutes a pre-
servative fluid that has been used with success on all
fruits. There has been some difficulty experienced

,70 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT.

in dissolving this acid in water, and various alkalies
have been added but these are not necessary, as it
dissolves readily in boiling water. When first dis-
solved the water turns bright pink, but when cool
it returns to a nearly colorless liquid. PVuit should
not be introduced while liquid is hot.

Corosive sublimate in the proportion of ^
ounce to i gallon of water is used in Italy success-
fully, but as it is a deadly poison while the salicylic
acid is not, and is equally as good the Italian
method need not be used.

CHAPTER V.

Pruning in General.

IT is within my recollection that the subject of
bleeding in the human family was discussed
something as pruning is now. It never occurred
to them that habitual bleeding was unnecessary; it
was only a question of proper times and methods.
Every season and every variety of torture in this line
had its advocates; and, as it is now all clearly attrib-
uted to want of knowledge, such a condition (ignor-
ance) has in all ages made its possessors very firm
in their beliefs. There was the lancet, the phlegm,
the cups, and even the filthy worm called the leech
was invited to the feast, and, in contact with the
bare arm filled np with the blood of the poor dupe
of ignorance. This practice was so common that
the physician was commonly called a "leech". It
is now almost entirely discontinued. The physician
of to-day rarely takes the blood away from his
patient; but rather studies to add to it. Neverthe-
less, there may be, and doubtless are times when
bleeding is advisable, even necessary. It is no
longer, however, trusted to the barber (who form-
erly performed it in many cases) but to the skillful
physician, who can give a good reason for doing it.

71

72 PRUNING IN GENERA!,.

The same is nearly true with the art of pruning.
To insist that every tree must at certain times be
subjected to a surgical operation is to doubt the
wisdom of the Great Creator.

In California there are trees more than 30
feet in diameter, and hundreds of feet high. In all
parts of the world, where conditions have been
favorable, great trees and woods grew long before
the advent of man. Indeed, man in his earlier, and
even more recent, conduct has acquired the name
of the great tree spoiler. How did these immense
woods and trees succeed so well without the assist-
ance of man to do the pruning ? How does the
natural wild grape, the wild cherry, plum, etc.,
succeed in growing such loads of fruit without care
or assistance from the great intelligence of man?

The forests will show us straight trunks without
limbs or blemish for 40 feet or more, yet there was
a time when these giants were but a few feet in
height, with limbs to the bottom, such as you have
seen upon the lawn. Where have these branches
gone ? They have been shaded to death. Nature
is extravagant in the use of seeds. She sows hun-
dreds where one can make a full sized specimen,
yet those that make a beginning are often of great
benefit in assisting others to attain that size. The
young plants come up thickly under the parent
tree, whose shade and protection they receive, as
well as that afforded by each other. Light is a
great stimulant of vegetable growth, and without
it the lower limbs die, and finally drop off, while

PRUNING IN GENERAL. 73

the tree is still reaching upward for light. The
weaker ones fail in the race for light, and the
fittest only survive. The annual layers of wood
soon cover the wounds, or knots, and we have the
first conditions for "clear lumber."

There is a communication through the bark of
the tree with the atmosphere, as there is through
the skin of an animal, measurably, and in order to
maintain this mechanism in a healthy condition it
seems that nature requires it to be kept in the
shade, wholly or partially, and she will provide for
herself just right if left to her own will.

There is not an exact similarity between the
growth of the natural forest and the growth of the
orchard, or isolated trees; yet the principle is the
§ame underlying the production of each ; and it is
this that we are trying to study. We raise the
orchard from the start artificially ; and when we leave
nature and pursue art in this manner we shall be
compelled to follow art in a measure; but we should
keep as close to nature as possible and practicable.

Trees in the forest grow closely; they not only
protect each other, but each specimen is supplied
with a means of protecting itself, should it become
isolated. The stronger outgrow the weaker, which
thus being robbed of light are "shaded to death."
The same process continues as long as there are any
weak ones, and only " the fittest" survive.

This same shading process is nature's manner of
pruning. As the trees attain size, and each is
reaching up for the light, the upper branches be-

74 PRUNING IN GENERAL.

come close, and so in a measure exclude the light.
This is fatal to the lowest limbs; those which but
a few years before were so green and healthy begin
to shed their foliage, and finally, slowly, after the
principal growth has been diverted from these
branches they die, dry up, and in a few years drop
off, and yearly deposits of wood cover the place be-
yond recognition. This process continues so long
as the trees are growing in height.

The means referred to by which an isolated tree
may measurably provide for its skin the needed
protection, is the natural low growing of the first
branches. Even before branches are produced
nature is sure to provide this protection, and she
does it with a screen of leaves during the first sum-
mer, and provides at the base of each leaf stem a
bud or embryo branch to be developed for the next
year's protection of the same parts. These are
there for a purpose or they would not be there; then
why should we, as soon as these buds are partly
developed the next spring, go and strip them off?
This is commonly done, and the tree denuded of
these most important buds for about 2 to 3
feet in height. The purpose is to form the " trunk "
and have it smooth, showing no knife marks, or as
the "agent" will tell us "all glove pruned."

As these trees stand in the nursery row, and as
all of these rows run north and south (or should do
so) the damage is not as serious as it would be to
an isolated tree; still, I hold the practice as pernic-
ious and avoidable.

PRUNING IN GENERAL. 75

Dr. Warder says, * ' The growth during the first
year is generally a single shoot, sometimes two,
but if there be a second it should be subordinated
by pinching off its extremity, never by cutting it
off, indeed, laterals should always be encouraged,
and this will be more and more the case since the
demand for low headed trees is increasing, as the
laws of physiology are better understood. A young
tree better furnished with laterals, is always more
stocky, and every way better though not so tall as
that which has been drawn up to a single stem. To
encourage this, some advise pinching off the term-
inal bud in the midst of the growing season, which
will cause the swelling and consequently breaking
of the lower buds, so as to furnish plenty of lateral.
If done later in the season, especially in the strong
growing varieties, a branching head may be formed
higher up, during the first season, making very
pretty trees. This plan of making stocky trees
cannot be too highly recommended, and the oppo-
site plan of trimming off all the side branches, and
even of stripping the leaves from the lower parts of
the shoots during the first summer cannot be too
severely condemned. ' *

I have not seen the stripping of leaves during
the first summer referred to practiced in the west,
however, it is very common to do this the second
season, as soon as these lower buds burst, which
is not less harmful.

Is it not time for a concert of action among the
nurserymen to educate the planters who gener-

76 PRUNING IN GENERAL.

ally depend upon them for such trees as they
should plant, and are governed by their recom-
mendations ? Does he choose a large high headed
tree for himself and for his own orchards ? Rarely.
He will, if he can, use a low headed . stocky tree,
not over two years old, such a tree as Warder,
Thomas, Downing, Lyon, Budd, and other of our
specialists have uniformly recommended. Such a
tree is good enough for any one to plant. There is
every reason why such trees should be used and no
good reason why not.

If these trees are grown as far south as central
Kansas a good yearling will be about 3 to 4 or
even 5 feet high. If in latitude 41 or higher, only
about 2 feet with an average of about 18
inches. It would probably not be advisable to cut
one of the former to the ground the spring of the
second season, and would not be necessary, as such
a tree when fully appreciated would be found to
give the best satisfaction. In the north, however,
there is no reason why the tree should not be
allowed to remain in the nursery one more year.
It will be then but little larger than a good Kansas
yearling. In this case the yearling must either be
laid down and covered during the first winter or pro-
tected in some other way from becoming discolored
or u black hearted;" or we may let it stand, and
depend upon eliminating this trouble by cutting it
off at the ground surface, as has been described in
chapter three.

Notwithstanding the fact that all the authorities

PRUNING IN GENERAL. 77

recommend the small tree; still the " trade M de-
mands a tree three years old or older and about 5 to
7 feet high. This, without generally trying to influ-
ence the demand, is the tree that the nurseryman has
by long habit become rooted to. If the nurseryman
will try to educate the trade to accept these large
one year, or the two-year olds as described, he will
find no inconvenience in packing and handling
such trees, and by instructing the planter that these
low growing branches or the dormant buds nearly to
the ground are his very best friends, and should be
protected and preserved, he will have overcome one
of the greatest obstacles to successful apple culture.

In opening the book to this chapter, if the reader
has expected to be told in the old stereotyped way
just " how and when to prune," he will be disap-
pointed. It shall rather be my aim to instruct him
how not to prune.

While it is true, as has already been observed,
that pruning is sometimes necessary (and this will
be considered later), it is, in my opinion, an
unquestionable fact that pruning, or over-pruning,
is one of the principle causes of failure where it
occurs. If we plant out an orchard of properly
grown trees we shall generally make more mis-
takes in pruning than we shall to avoid it alto-
gether, which is not advisable.

Improper pruning is one of the causes of what is
called "black heart." This is especially the case
if it is done in the winter when trees are frozen.
This should never be done.

78 PRUNING IN GENERAL.

If we look at a natural tree the first year of its
growth, we shall notice that the buds, or embryo
branches, are quite close together, sometimes but
little over an inch apart. We are now told that it
is necessary to remove these branches in part, when
they develop, as, when they have become large,
there will not be room for them all. This is true,
there would not be space in a single inch for a 4 01
5 inch limb; but let us not jump at the conclusion
that they will ever become such size. Nature will
not crowd two substances into the same space at the
same time. One of these will be strangled by
nature's own pruning process, dry up and die.

It is sometimes the case that two or more limbs
will grow too close together, and so even in size
and growth that it becomes appprent that one
should be removed. Do this at any time when
not frozen. Observe carefully and you will see a
small ring or "collar" near the base of the limb
to be removed; cut the limb or shoot off just above
this but not so close as to injure it. The cut
will be, if this is followed, nearly at right angles
to the limb removed.

It is well, and cannot be too strongly recom-
mended, to follow this and all pruning with the
paint brush. Paint over the wound to exclude the
air. By this means black heart or discoloration,
which means the first stage of decay, is prevented.
This may not be at all times necessary, but it is a
small matter and should never be neglected. The
paint should be moderately thick, thicker than

PRUNING IN GENERAL. 79

would be used by the painter, to prevent its run-
ning down upon the trunk of the tree. Grafting
wax, varnish, or anything that will seal the wound
from the air will do as well. Gum shellac cut in
alcohol is an excellent preparation for this.

When at planting there has been a heavy cut-
ting back of the tree, which is advisable, we have
introduced a manner of pruning from almost neces-
sity which, like all other pruning, is liable to lead
to trouble later on. At the ends or stubs, where
the limbs have been removed, there is likely to be
an unnaturally close growth, several branches
starting from this point; here judgment must be
used, and, if too many, thin them out as soon as
they start. If a branch is to be cut off, the earlier
it is done the better, while it is small.

Some varieties will need much closer attention
in this matter than others. The Duchess of Olden-
burg, Wealthy, Walbridge, Tallman St., Limber
Twig and others make an open top, while the
Ben Davis, Iowa Blush, Jonathan, Northern
Spy, etc., are more apt to make a close top.
The Willow Twig is at times, unless closely
watched, apt to make poor forks, such as do not
4 ' weld together ' ' at their union with the trunk or
other branches. These will not sustain any great
strain, either from weight of fruit or the wrenching
of storms. Cut out the one that is the weaker, as
soon as it first develops this weakness.

A perfectly natural tree will not lean, as a rule,
to the northeast; while one with the lower limbs

80 PRUNING IN GENERAL.

cut away or the lower buds stripped off, will
invariably do so, unless artificial means are taken
to prevent it. This leaning away from the sun is
a very serious matter in making the orchard, and
such trees are the first to "sun scald" on the
sunny side. Being inclined they offer their trunks
at almost a right angle to the sun's rays, and it
has, of course, a greater power than if they struck
the tree at an acute angle. This mischief again
intensifies itself, as the condition here is unfavor-
able to the best growth, the growth being driven
to the other sides of the trunk, this side becomes
partially flattened, and thus offers a still better
target to the fiery archer. If we cut one of these
high-trimmed trees across, midway between the
ground and first branches, we shall see exactly
what has been described above. The bark will
be thicker on the south, showing that nature has
made an effort to shield this spot, and also that the
heart of the trees is not in the center, but much
nearer the south side, or, which is the same, that
the growth has been much larger on the side
furthest from the sun. The same Great Power
that made the sun made the tree too, and the tree
is entirely dependent upon the sun for its existence.
It seems entirely unreasonable to suppose that the
friendly sun becomes the great enemy of the tree,
and that it is necessary, or natural, that it should be
the cause of the destruction of them by the thou-
sands. There is no such inharmony in the great
labyrinths of nature. The trouble is: God made

PRUNING IN GENERAL. 8l

the sun and man made — or tried to — the tree; and
the man's tree does not fit the sun; and as there is
little hope of reforming the latter, it is best to fol-
low nature and make a tree that will fit the sun.

Compare the bottom and top diameter in a natur-
ally grown tree with the same in an artificial one,
where the stem is drawn up to 4 or 5 feet. Two
such trees of the same age just measured give the
following: The former, bottom diameter, 7 inches;
top (3 feet above), 3 inches. The latter, bottom,
5 inches, and top, same height, 4^ inches.

It will be readily seen that the cause of this mal-
formation is in part the action of the sun upon the
trunk, and partly the loss of the greater amount of
sap or plant food descending from the leaves of the
lower branches, which builds up the trunk in pro-
portion to the leaf surface supplied above them.

In a conversation with the venerable T. T.
Lyon, of Michigan, he said, "I would not plant
a tree with over a foot of trunk. I never yet saw a
borer in a tree where the trunk was shaded." This
is from a man of fifty years' experience as a prac-
tical horticulturist, and in a state where we are
apt to think there is no trouble to contend with as
there is in the dry, bleak northwest.

To conclude, let us "sum up:" (i) I/et us not
fall into the habit of thinking that pruning is in
all cases necessary. (2) Study to avoid rather than
to find an excuse for it. (3) When the best judg-
ment advises it, cut as above described to the ring or
collar, cut when small, and follow with the paint

82 PRUNING IN GENERAL.

brush. (4) Never prune while the tree is frozen.
(5) All pruning is a shock to the tree and reduces
its vitality. (6) Thinning out the tops of trees " to
let the sun in " is injudicious, unnatural, and con-
sequently unnecessary.

CHAPTER VI.

Cross-Pollenizing the Flowerse

IF it had not been for the wise provision of an All
Wise Creator, the almost countless varieties of
plants and trees would not have existed but would
have remained each one producing after its kind as
they were created. The only apple we would have
would be the wild one or crab of ancient Briton,
Europe or Asia; in size more like a berry than an
apple of the present day. In plums we should be
confined to the wild Sloe of Europe, unfit for the
food of man or beast, etc.

It is said ' 'Nature abhors self-fertilization. ' ' It
is a theory and probably correct, that if we could
suppose the existence of a tree having had no cross-
fertilization in its ancestry, could be so isolated
that it could never come in contact with any pollen
but its own, if it produced fruit at all its seeds
would— if it had seeds — reproduce perpetually ex-
actly after the parent. If there were no provision
for fertilizing in any other way, there could be no
change, and consequently no improvement in vari-
eties. This crossing is, like budding or grafting,
confined within certain limits, generally to the same
species. As these are generally in blossom nearly

83

84 CROSS-POLLENIZING THE FLOWERS.

at the same time the pollen is by the wind or insects
carried to the flowers of other trees. The result is
the production of fruit with seeds related to both
parents, and so mixed and commingled that each
will have different characteristics, some producing
trees which are better, but generally those that are
inferior to either parent. It is in the selection of
these children that we have gained the excellent
varieties of our fruits and vegetables.

The above supposes that nature has alone been
the agent of this cross-fertilization. Art has taken
the hint from her, and pursues a course suggested
by the known laws of vegetable life.

In a work of this kind it is only necessary to treat
upon this from a practical standpoint. The lesson
to be drawn from it will be obvious. Mr. Wait,
of the U. S. Pomological department says: "The
factors affecting the production of flowers, are vari-
ety, age of tree, and vegetable condition, which is
influenced by the soil, culture, climate and pruning.
The factors affecting the setting of fruits are frost,
insect injuries, and sterility of pollen. Thus,
Bartlett and some other varieties of pears do not set
fruit when protected from the pollen of other trees.
Experiments were tried by fertilizing Bartlett with
Bartlett, but in no case did any fruit set. When
fertilized with Anjou and Clapp's favorite, good
results were obtained. Some pears will fertilize
themselves, but two thirds are self-sterile. Fruits
produced by self-pollenation aie quite different from
those produced by cross-fertilization. The crosses

CROSS-POLLENIZING THE FLOWERS. 85

of Duchess (pear) are much rougher and larger at
the blossom end. Even a greater difference is found
on internal examination. Self-fertilized fruit had
none or very few seeds, while others crossed, had a
large number of them.

"The result with apples was not so great as with
pears, for no variety was found that would self-
fertilize to any extent. Cross-fertilizing with more
than one-half the varieties of pears and apples is
essential to successful fruiting.

"The chief agencies of fertilizing are insects, and
the honey-bee is best of them all."

It will be seen that it is not best to plant large
areas of fruit of one kind; they should be mixed.
Where such orchards exist already other varieties
can be introduced by top grafting. In selecting a
variety to use for this fertilizing, use one that
ripens at about the same time and produces its blos-
soms at the same time. Supposing the trees are all
Ben Davis, and we should top work with Rawls
Janet, there would be no gain as the blossoms of the
former would be all gone before the advent of the
latter. Use the Winesap and you will accomplish
the end desired.

Some of our readers may wish to experiment in
this cross-fertilization. It is one of the most inter-
esting of all experiments, and easily accomplished.
The object to be obtained is the producing of new
and valuable varieties. The pathology of the exper-
iments is generally based upon the use of two par-
ents having in themselves excellent qualities, but

86 CROSS-POLLENIZING THE FLOWERS.

which have other qualities that condemn them.
For instance the Grimes Golden is in quality unsur-
passed, but it has a tendency to drop its fruit before
ripe and is not hardy in all localities. Suppose we
cross this with the Wealthy or Duchess. It will
be with the hope of either adding to the keeping
qualities of the latter — and possibly to their quality
— as well as to add to the hardiness of the Grimes
Golden, retaining its keeping qualities and quality
of fruit.

Botanists are assuming it to be true that the female
parent will be more apt to govern in the tree and
the male parent in the fruit. This remains to be
proven.

L,et us first describe a perfect fl6wer; one having
all the organs complete within itself. These are
called Hemophroditic. First the outer case called
the calix bursts and reveals the next which is
usually of beautiful colors and is called the cor-
rolla. It is composed of leaves called petals. Inside
of this we have another set of organs called stamens,
they may be known by their generally greater
length than the pistils, and terminating at the top
in a small pod called the anther. This pod con-
tains the fine dust that we call pollen. This pollen
carries the male element of the flower, or the sperm
cell.

Arising from the center of the flower there is
another important organ, sometimes many in a sin-
gle flower, called pistils. Whether one or more it
consists of three parts. The upper part is the stig-

CROSS-POLLENIZING THE FLOWERS. 87

ma; the middle, the style, and the bottom the
ovary. This ovary also is a pod and is partly hol-
low and contains rudimentary seeds or ovules. In
these are the embryo sac, which contain the female
element of the flower.

There can be no fruitification unless the pollen
containing the sperm cell is brought in contact
with the germ cell at the bottom of the flower.
These two cells are called protoplasmic, or the
beginning of life.

FIG. 1. SHOWING PISTILATE
STRAWBERRY FLOWER ON
LEFT AND STAMINATE ON
THE RIGHT.

FIG. 2. BISECTED CHERRY
FLOWER, SHOWING ALL THE
ORGANS OF A PERFECT
BLOWER.

Fig. i shows two flowers of strawberry, one stam-
inate, the other pistilate.

Suppose we take the flower of the cherry which
is a good study (see Fig. 2) as all the organs are
very distinct. In this case there is no trouble in
producing this union. A gentle wind stirring the
branches, or the ingress of an insect and the burst-
ing anthers discharge their loads of golden dust
upon the pistils or stigma. The actual contact
between the two cells does not take place by the

88 CROSS-POIXENIZING THE FLOWERS.

outward contact, but through a filamentary tube
which grows from the stigma to the ovule.

There are many plants which have male and
female flowers growing on different parts of the plant,
as the squash, while others have their separate flow-
ers on different trees, as the mulberry, buckthorn,
hemp, etc. Such are called dioecius.

It will be plain that if a flower has no stamens
nor anthers, we have only to protect such from the
ingress of possible pollen from some other flower,
and then at the right time introduce such pollen as
we may desire for the father of our artificial prog-
eny. This protection is by carefully encircling the
flower with a piece of oiled silk. The pollen is
easily gathered and introduced. It may be shaken
onto a piece of white paper, and then with a cam-
els hair brush dusted off into the subject flower.

Exactly the same process is necessary in perfect
flowers, except that with a delicate pair of scissors
we must clip off and remove the anthers from all
the stamens before they are mature, and then apply
the oiled silk as before.

Carefully mark the subjects so that you can tell
when the fruit is mature what the parents are;
plant the seeds and watch. Those that look desir-
able can be tested by topgrafting into bearing trees,
and those having the appearance of a seedling,
throw away.

It may be useful to mention here to our farmer
friends some of the benefits of the bumble bee.
Darwin said that they were necessary to a good

CROSS-POLLENIZING THE FLOWERS. 89

crop of red clover seed. The Australians could not
raise this seed till after they imported these bees,
and after that succeeded in proportion to their suc-
cess with these bees. The common honey bee can-
not reach the nectar, so will not work on it, while
the bumbles find it thek best field.

Red clover is a biennial plant and unless seeded
from the crop on the ground, will not last but the
two years.

Don't kill the bumble bees.

CHAPTER VII.

Enemies of the Orchard and Fruit
Garden.

THEY are many, but all orchards and all
trees need not necessarily be troubled with
them. The object in describing and giving the
remedies, so far as is practicable in a book of this
size, is to teach the planter how to avoid or arrest
them if they do get a foothold in his enclosure.
We premise, thinking that perhaps some might
after reading this deem it better to give it up
before commencing. Notwithstanding the many
enemies we have to meet and overcome, there are
still very large and profitable orchards, and made
by exercising only that amount of care that would
be necessary to succeed at any other andertaking.
If we could, before we had existence here, have
been allowed to read a list of the ''diseases that
flesh is heir to," some might have thought best
not to make the effort; still a fair proportion of.
those who do make the start are successful and
satisfied, and some would be willing to begin
again if they could under as favorable circum-
stances.

91

92 ENEMIES OK THE ORCHARD

Aside from the free, natural elements, without
which there could be no life, we find it true that
"that which costs nothing is worth nothing."
There is some "poetry" in this expression, and it
must be taken in a poetical sense, as it is not liter-
ally true; but it does seem that in the great econ-
omy of nature that which is of the most value and
of the finest order is the most difficult to obtain,
and comes only through hard and intelligently
applied labor.

This chapter will be devoted to insects, etc., as
follows: (i) L,eaf eating, (2) juice sucking, (3)
fruit eating or destroying, (4) burrowing in the
tree or vine, (5) bark eating, (6) fungoids, (7) bur-
rowing animals, (8) sun scald, and (9) fire blight.
The pruning knife could well be described here as
one of the orchard's worst enemies, but a chapter
has already been devoted to this.

In considering insect ravages it is well to sug-
gest that they are not regularly and annually
destructive. In bestowing them upon us nature
has been so kind as to send with them other insects
or other agencies that keep them in check. These
consist of a host of parasites that infest them,
deposit their eggs upon or within them, where
their young are hatched and matured, living upon
their bodies and destroying them. There are also
others which, as adults, devour them and their
eggs. Birds and fowls also feed upon them. Thus
the war goes on, and as it is more or less successful,
so the friends or enemies are more or less numerous.

AND FRUIT GARDEN. 93

Dr. Lintner says: "Insects have established a
kind of universal empire over the earth and its
inhabitants. Minute as they are, they have deso-
lated countries and brought ruin in their train. If
unrestrained power were given them, and they
were left free to attack us in person, food, clothing,
houses and domestic animals, the consequent dis-
ease, poverty and want would in the end remove
the human race from the earth." Prof. Reily esti-
mates that in the United States they annually
cause a loss of from $300,000,000 to $400,000,000.

There is at present 350,000 named and classified
species, and it is estimated that not one-third are
yet named.

The number that is injurious to vegetation is
much smaller, and many of them are their para-
sites, and consequently our friends.

Prof. Reily says, further: "Insects play a most
important part in the economy of nature. The
average townsman, whose only knowledge of them
is confined to certain household pests, has no feel-
ing for them but one of repugnance; yet as scav-
engers, pollenizers of our fruit and as food for
other animals, they not only vitally concern man,
but, philosophically considered, are seen to be nec-
essary to his very existence upon the earth."

Many large volumes have been devoted to the
description of insects, but as we have promised to
take a practical view of all the subjects treated
upon it is not believed that the generic description
of one will be necessary here. Space can be

94 ENEMIES OF THE ORCHARD

devoted to other matters of greater practical
importance.

Hexipod insects are transformed through four
separate stages — (i) the ova, or eggs; (2) the larva,
or active eating stage, in which they are improp-
erly called worms; (3) the pupa, or chrysalis, in
which it is inactive and from which it emerges as
the perfect insect or imago, in the fourth transition.

Leaf Eaters. — These are in most cases the larva
as above, but there are some bugs or beetles that
also eat leaves; but the perfect insect or imago is
usually harmless. Whatever the insect, bug or
worm may be that eats the leaves of any tree or
plant, the remedy is the same and very simple;
that is, the spraying with some of the arsenites,
and those most in use are London purple and Paris
green. These are applied as will be directed below
with a lorce or spraying pump in a stream broken
up by a mechanical appliance into fine spray.
Every fruit grower, as well as every farmer, should
have one of these. They may be large, powerful
and expensive, or simple and cheap, according to
the work that is expected of them. Trees should
be watched very closely during the summer to see
whether leaves are being eaten. If they are and
the trees are small, the eaters will be easily found
and picked off and destroyed; but if large, use the
sprayer and the eating will stop.

There is one insect that requires special mention,
the leaf crumpler. In winter we often see small
tufts of withered leaves adhering to the twigs, gen-

AND FRUIT GARDEN. 95

erally of small trees. These are the homes of a
small brown worm y2 inch long, the egg having
been deposited there the previous spring, and
which will at some time during the early part of
the next summer emerge a perfect winged insect,
being a grayish moth having about ^ inch spread
of wings. They are not as injurious as some, as
they do not under ordinary circumstances become
very plenty ; but they are hard to reach with the
poison, but can be picked and destroyed in winter,
wts these, as well as all other insects in the pupa
or larva stage, are apt to be infested with parasitic
friends, it is well to put the cocoons in a box over
which there is fastened window wire screen, which
will allow the latter to escape, while it holds the
former.

Sap Suckers. — These are a class of very small
insects, known as plant lice, of the Aphides. They
suck the sap of plants by means of a tubular pro-
boscis which they insert into the tender shoots.
They are more destructive to house plants than
others, but some of the tribe are often destructive
when they get a lodgement in the roots of apple
and other trees, and from which they are very hard
to dislodge, but will generally in a few years be
overcome by their natural enemies, for small as
they are, they, too, are infested with parasites and
also greedily devoured by the larva of the lady bug
and lace- winged fly. When their natural enemies
are insufficient to hold them in check, they are
easily overcome where they can be reached by ker-

96 ENEMIES OF THE ORCHARD

osene emulsion. They cannot be reached by the
arsenites, as they have no jaws and take no solid
food.

Fruit Eating or Destroying. — These consist
mainly of the codling moth, curculio and gouger.

The former is by far the most destructive. When
we get a "wormy apple" we get the larva of the
codling moth. This insect is dark brown and has
a spread of wings of about ^6 to ^ of an inch.
She deposits her egg in the calix or blossom end of
the apple as soon as it is set, and it soon hatches
and commences to eat its way to and into the fruit.
It is at this stage that the remedy is applied; that
is, spraying with an arsenite while the apex of the
fruit is still turned upward. It has been found by
experiment that trees so sprayed yield 70 per cent
more perfect fruit than where it is neglected. The
spraying must not be done while the trees are in
blossom, but as soon as the petals are shed. Some
repeat after four or five days, which is advisable.

The gougers and curculio are much alike and
deposit their eggs in the young fruit, or up to the
time it is nearly half grown, by either puncturing
the skin, as with the gougers, or by cutting a cres-
cent-shaped opening through the skin, as with the
curculio. The larva hatches and eats its way to
the stone, for they work mostly on stone fruits.
Here they live upon the kernel, and when the fruit
drops they escape into the ground, where they are
transformed. It is ascertained that these insects,
at the time of their egg laying, eat some of the

AND FRUIT GARDEN. 97

fruit, and at times even the leaves. Spraying has
been found beneficial on this account, but jarring
the trees at this season of the year early in the
morning is also resorted to. The insects drop down
on to sheets and are gathered and destroyed.

Borers. — There are two of these insects chat
attack the apple trees and some others. The round-
headed one works near the base of the trunk. This
is known as saperda vivitata, or Candida. The per-
fect insect is a brown beetle with two white stripes
running the entire length of the body. It deposits
its eggs one in a place in the night, generally near
the ground ; the larva works its way through the
bark and then works either upward or downward
in a circle in the sap wood, frequently girdling the
tree before it burrows deeper toward the heart of
the tree. The time required to make the life cycle
again to the adult is stated by Dr. Fitch to be two
years, but Reily says three. This is immaterial ;
the remedies are the same, as well as for the flat-
head, which works higher and occasionally in the
larger branches. This is the chrysobothris femorata,
and is the one that attacks the box elders and soft
maple. The first indication of the former will be
in the latter part of June, when a small hole will
be observed, and the bark around it will be darker
and, later, somewhat sunken, and the chips or dust
will be seen protruding. The latter will show the
effect a month or more later. If noticed early the
remedy is to press hard with the thumb, and if it
is effective the grub will be crushed and easily

98 ENEMIES OF THE ORCHARD

detected by the feeling. If not successful with
this the knife must be used, which will at any
time during the first summer soon dislodge him.
If the second summer, prod him to death with a
strong, flexible wire.

Washes of strong soap and water, to which has
been added ^ its bulk of turpentine, will also kill
them if not too deep. It will also prevent their
getting a lodgement in the tree.

It is believed that the beetle will never deposit
the eggs on trqes that are whitewashed with the
preparation hereafter described. It is also my opin-
ion that they never attack a perfectly sound and
healthy tree. When from any cause the sap
becomes disorganized and stagnant the insect is
attracted by the odor to the tree. Trees with low
heads or those shaded by artificial means will not
be troubled by borers in the west.

The tree or white crickets are at times trouble-
some by boring into the canes of the raspberries,
and frequently kill them. The remedy is to cut
the canes and burn them.

Bark Eating. — Aside from domestic animals
there are but two of these that are liable to
give us trouble, namely rabbits and mice. Some-
times sheep or old hogs will girdle the trees.
These, if allowed in the orchard, and they are
sometimes used there to advantage in devouring
wormy windfalls, should be watched.

Mice will not frequent a clean orchard, unless
there is a lot of weeds and grass very near it,

AND FRUIT GARDEN. 99

in which case they might run in for a few yards.
The preventive is simple and effective. Bank
up the trees only a few inches in height with
clean earth, and smooth it down in the shape
of an inverted funnel. The mouse will never
climb it.

Rabbits have been a great pest, and some have
been deterred from planting an orchard on account
of them. Blood applied to the trees is in nearly all
cases a sure preventive from the " Cotton tails," or
timber rabbits, but not against Jacks. They are
not a nice feeder, and will eat trees so prepared,
and even when soaped seem to relish it just the
same. The only sure remedy is to encase the
trees in something that they will not meddle with.
We have found the corn stalks to be the best and
cheapest. They should be left on the trees sum-
mer and winter. Wire screening is used by some,
but is more expensive and no better. They should
be shot and trapped, and every effort made to get
rid of them.

Fungoids. — These are the lowest forms of vege-
table growth, and so minute in their organisms as
to require the most powerful microscope to discover
them. It lives in the form of mildew, scab of the
apple, and is particularly abundant on the leaves oi
yearling apple seedlings, and the leaves of the
cherry in the latter part of the season, where it
appears as a whitish mould, which causes the leaves
to curl and frequently drop. The remedy for this
is the Bordeaux mixture, described below. It is

IOO ENEMIES OF THE ORCHARD

claimed that "fire blight" is the effect of one of
these spores.

Burrowing animals. — Pocket gophers and ground
moles are at times, especially the former, very
destructive. Moles are only injurious in small
fruit or other gardens, and the injury is only from
the displacement of the earth; they never eat any
vegetable substance, but live on worms, bugs and
grubs, and may be as beneficial as harmful. How-
ever, they are easily trapped if desired with a mole
trap which can be procured at the hardware stores,
with full directions for use.

Pocket gophers frequently cut through the trees
a few inches under ground, which are 4 to 5 inches
in diameter. The first indication may be the
withering of the leaves, when it will be found to
be entirely severed. They are easily trapped or
poisoned. In trapping, dig to the runway and set
a common steel trap, then cover with a board to
prevent the earth from falling back, and cover this
with earth to keep out all the light. Use the end
gate rod to a wagon for prodding the earth to find
their runways which will save digging. Small
potatoes with a small amount of strychnine pricked
in, and these deposited in their runways will be the
easiest and most effective way to get rid of them.

Prof. Hilgard, of the state university of Califor-
nia, has orginated a means of destroying all bur-
rowing animals, and which is vouched for by several
of our best agricultural papers. It is thought to
be of sufficient value to give it here in full.

AND FRUIT GARDEN. IOI

KILLING GOPHERS.

One of the simplest means and probably the most
effective and cheapest method yet devised for
destroying gophers and other burrowing animals is
by the use of bisulphide of carbon. This com-
pound when pure forms a colorless, mobile liquid
having a peculiar odor, and when taken inwardly is
a violent poison. As usually obtained it contains
impurities in the form of other compounds of sul-
phur which give it a strong and extremely offen-
sive odor, and when inhaled it soon causes death.
For the purpose of destroying gophers or ground
squirrels the crude bisulphide is better and much
cheaper than the pure article. Care should be
taken in using the liquid, as it is both inflammable
and explosive. Its efficacy depends on the fact
that its vapor is heavier than air and when intro-
duced into burrows flows like water into all the
recesses.

The method of use for burrowing mammals is as
follows: A small quantity, about 3 tablespoonfuls
for prairie dogs, and 2 tablespoonfuls for gophers,
should be poured upon a bunch of rags or waste,
which should be immediately placed within the
mouth of the burrow, and the hole closed.

In a bulletin " On the destruction of Ground
Squirrels by the use of Bisulphide of Carbon," pub-
lished in 1878, Prof Hilgard gives the results of
experiments made on the California ground squirrel
as follows:

" It is curious that in no case have I known a

102 ENEMIES OF THE ORCHARD

squirrel to run out of the holes before the gas;
when it meets it face to face in a run, death seems
to be almost instantaneous. But in most cases the
animals seem to retire to their nests to die there in
a stupor. The mode of proceeding is simply this:
Select one or two of the freshest holes in a burrow,
introduce into it, as deep down as you can reach, a
wide-mouthed ounce vial full of the liquid, upset
the vial, and withdraw it. The holes may all be
closed at once, with earth, which need not be
rammed; the only object being to keep the gas in,
and to see if any of the inmates dig out afterwards.
The dead animal is thus buried and out of sight in
his own burrow, creates no stench and poisons
nothing; its flesh would not be injurious even if
dug up. No other wild or domestic animal runs
any risk, unless it be the gopher. The holes retain
an offensive odor for some time, and remain closed
and untenanted. As for the expense of this
method, I have freed the most thickly-peopled
portions of the University campus (level ground)
from every vestige of squirrels with about a pound
of the liquid per acre; about half an hour being
spent by two men in closing the holes with
shovels."

The same will kill wolves with equal certainty
only using a little more than double the quantity
used for gophers.

Sun Scald. — This is an injury to the bark on the
south or south west side of the trunk of trees which
causes it to peel off, leaving the wood exposed.

AND FRUIT GARDEN. 103

It is more frequently, and indeed nearly always,
confined to trees with a long exposed trunk that
have an inclination to the northeast.

This is not always fatal to a tree, as sometimes
the injury will be partially mended by the natural
deposits of wood and bark from both sides till the
wound is wholly or partially healed over. Even
where this occurs it is still very injurious to the
the tree as it leaves beneath a large portion of dead
wood which is apt to decay and will in any case be
almost sure to attract the insect that produces the
borer. She will deposit her eggs there and the
borer follows. I believe that this will seldom or
never occur in a perfectly sound tree.

This sun scald has been generally considered one
of the worst obstacles to overcome in the making
of a good orchard. It is now not considered at all
serious, with proper management. The reader is
referred to the chapter on pruning where this
malady and its causes are treated. If the tree has
the proper natural form it will not occur.

Young trees seldom scald; it is the tree from 5
to 8 inches in diameter in early bearing that is the
first to show this trouble; so do not suppose that
when the trees are this size that the danger is over,
it has only just begun, and lose no time in mak-
ing for them an artificial screen of some kind.

Wire screening, such as is used for windows, encir-
cling them will be an excellent protection, and like
all the others will not only protect from the sun's
rays but the depredations of field mice, rabbits,

104 ENEMIES OF THE ORCHARD

hail, and incidentally from borers. Where this is
used allow at least two inches space between the
wire and the tree.

Corn stalks stripped of their leaves and set around,
using just enough to reach around, only, and then
fastened there with a small wire will be cheaper
and answer the purpose as well. They may be
tied with string but the crickets are apt to eat the
strings off. Hay ropes twisted about them will do
as well.

It will be understood that this protection is
placed there and kept there till the limbs of
the tree above, or of one adjoining on the south
have made further shading unnecessary.

The reason younger trees are less apt to sun
scald than older ones, is not so clear, but is proba-
bly because the circle is so much smaller and
sharper, that there is not the same proportion of
its surface exposed at the same angle, or a greater
surface proportionately of the larger tree exposed
at a lesser angle. Another cause may be the con-
tinued exposure for years, which may have been a
constant source of slight injury, culminating later
in the full effect.

This induces the belief that a whitewash of
some kind applied to the trunks of trees at the age
when most likely to be affected would prevent this
mischief measurably, perhaps entirely, though it
has not yet been tested by me. Such a wash
might be of material benefit in other directions. It
is believed by some and with some show of reason,

AND FRUIT GARDEN. 105

that lime preparations applied to trees will prevent
fire blight.

Such a wash may be made as follows: Slack a
few pounds of lime in a bucket, and when nearly
full add about one pound of copperas (sulphate of
iron) previously dissolved in hot water. This will
thicken it. Stir thoroughly, and thin as is needed
for use. Apply at any time when the tree is not
frozen, and several times during the year. Some
add to this a half pound of glue, thinking that it
will be less liable to wash or scale off, but it is not
necessary, and adds to the expense. If more is
made than is wanted it can be set away in the cel-
lar for future use.

This treatment can do no hurt to the trees, and
is believed to be of considerable benefit in destroy-
ing insects; and lessening the danger from sun
scalding, as a white substance will not absorb the
rays of the sun to the extent that the brown bark
of the tree will.

Do not depend upon this to take the place of the
corn stalks or other protection in young trees.

It will not do to use white paint, or any substance
containing oils, either vegetable or animal. The
bark performs an important office and the pores
must not be clogged.

Dark colored screens of any kind should not be
used, especially tarred paper. The author tried
this at one time on a five acre orchard, in which
the trees were just coming to bearing, and the sec-
ond winter every tree so processed was killed in the

106 ENEMIES OK THE ORCHARD

bark just as high as the paper extended. A few
from which the paper had become dislodged were
not harmed.

The light colored paper called parchment would
probably be as good as anything, but I do not know
of its being tried.

The descriptions, etc. , of insects in this chapter
have been necessarily so meager that we wish to
say that any one who wishes to know more will
always find a quick response to any question by
writing to the ' ' Professor of Entomology, ' ' at the
capital of his state, or at the Department at Wash-
ington. Bulletins are issued from time to time
giving the most minute and careful descriptions,
together with the remedies, and they will always
be forwarded when requested.

Fire Blight. — It will be frequently noticed about
midsummer that some trees will present the
appearance of having been scorched by fire. The
first appearance is at the ends of the growing shoots,
but at times, though rarely, it attacks the trunks,
near the intersections of the large limbs. This is
said to be the work of one of the fungoids, so
minute that several hundred could hold high car-
nival on the head of a pin. They are much smaller
than the name given them, which is Micrococcus
amylovorus. They are said to exist in unlimited
quantities, and to be blown about at random by
the winds, and when one comes in contact with
incomplete wood, the exposed cells are so open
that they enter, when the trouble begins. They

AND FRUIT GARDEN. 107

may also get a lodgement in a tree at any place
where there is an abrasion of the bark.

The immediate cause of the death of the parts of
the tree thus effected, is the fermentation caused by
these spores. Their action is the same in the veg-
etable world as is that of the germs of cholera or
diphtheria in the human family. Just why they
exist is very hard to determine, but that they
do, is all that concerns us in our battle against
them.

There is no known remedy that we can apply in
one case more than in the other. The only way
that they are combatted at present, in the vegeta-
ble world is by prevention so far as possible, and
by the pruning knife if the former is unsuccessful.
Trees that are in the very best condition of health,
and located most favorably will be less liable to
attacks than others under converse conditions.

That this disease is contagious as well as en-
demic there is no doubt, and if a tree becomes
affected and no attention is given it, others in the
vicinity will soon be attacked. For this reason
the greatest care should be used to select those
varieties not subject to this trouble. The crab
apples are most subject to this and the Russian
varieties as a class are also bad blighters, but there
are some of these, however, that are as free from it
as are the American or European varieties. In the
list of Russian apples given this has been carefully
considered.

The trees should be watched during the early

108 ENEMIES OK THE ORCHARD

summer, and the first indication of the disease
should be met with the knife. Cut and burn, or
carry to considerable distance from the orchard, say
100 feet or more. The latter has been my prac-
tice, and I have never had blight in large orchards
and nursery to do any material harm. This is due
to prompt action.

From the above it will be seen that in cutting
out the wood it must not be taken nearer to other
trees than is necessary, or we shall communicate it
to them.

There are many things which we meet in inves-
tigating this that would cause us to doubt the posi-
tion taken by our scientists and microscopists but
which would not justify controversy here. The
treatment is the same, whatever the cause may be.

In cutting it will not be enough to cut out the
parts that show the dead and withered wood, the
cut should be made a foot or more below the apar-
ent injury, if the shoot or branch will admit of it,
and where a small tree is badly affected, it should
be cut away entirely.

This disease is much worse in the southern part
of Iowa and Nebraska, and in that latitude than it
is further north. It is also more common on the
Mississippi than the Missouri slopes, but it has no
limits, in the United States.

To recapitulate, select high ground for the
orchard, if practicable, and avoid the hottest places,
especially where there is not a good air drainage,
which is of the utmost importance for this, as well

AND FRUIT GARDKN. 1 09

as for all other purposes connected with the estab-
lishing of a good orchard.

Avoid planting largely of the crabs, especially
the transcendent, which is the worst blighter of all.
When it is first discovered cut it out, even if takes
whole trees.

Insecticides. — Some form of arsenic is the best
for the destruction of all leaf-eating insects. Paris
green or London purple have their basis in this
poison, and are cheap. The London purple is the
best. As it is a deadly poison to all animals it
must be handled prudently. Cattle or other stock
should not be allowed to feed under the trees where
this has been used as a spray.

It is also essential that the solution shall be
strong enough to accomplish the object, without
being so strong as to kill the delicate tissues of the
plant. Such a strength has been found to be i
pound of London purple or Paris green to 200 gal-
lons of water. Keep well stirred while applying,
as it quickly settles to the bottom of the water,
which would make the last of the cask so strong as
to burn the foliage. Neither of these arsenites should
be used upon the peach trees, as their leaf tissues
are so delicate as to be destroyed by the weakest
solution. There is less danger to the foliage of
any plants if White Hellebore is used. It may be
used as a spray at the rate of one ounce to three gal-
lons of water. When applied as a dust or a powder
it is mixed with its own weight of flour to add to
its adhesiveness.

110 ENEMIES OF THE ORCHARD

The three substances above described are poison-
ous to animals as well as insects, while those which
follow are poisonous to insects alone:

Kerosene Emulsion. — This is made by dissolv-
ing y± pound of good hard soap or i quart of
soft soap in 2 quarts of hot water; add i pint
of kerosene and mix thoroughly. This is some-
times done by churning. A better way is to
make it with a force pump, pumping it
through and returning it to the vessel several
times. When thoroughly mixed it may be set
away for any length of time, and when needed
dilute the mixture with three times its measure
of water.

Pyrethrum (BuhacJi) is used successfully for plant
lice or red spiders. It may be applied direct in a
powder, or dissolved in alcohol. Use 4 ounces of
alcohol to i of pyrethrum in a bottle kept tightly
corked. Shake occasionally, and at the end of a
week filter through fine muslin and apply with an
atomizer.

Quassia Chips, boiled to a strong solution, will
kill plant lice but does not injure the spiders. Use
2 ounces of chips to 2 quarts of water. A few
hours after the application of any of these prepara-
tions upon house plants, they should be thoroughly
washed in clean water.

Neither of the three last-named are poisonous to
animals and kill the insect only by contact, so it
will be necessary to know that the work is done
thoroughly.

AND FRUIT GARDEN. Ill

BLACK HEART.

Lack of correct information upon this subject
has led to great imposition upon planters by either
ignorant or dishonest vendors. It is this that has
enabled them to so adroitly work the budded apple
tree swindle described elsewhere.

This they teach to be a disease of the tree caused
by improper methods of propagation. It is no more
a disease than a burn or frost-bite. It is a condi-
tion, simply, and will not spread by contagion from
tree to tree; nor will it spread from one part of an
affected tree to another part. It may increase, but
it will require the same cause to increase it that it
did to produce it at first.

Just what this condition is, and the cause or
causes, is now as well known as is any other physio-
logical fact. It is simply a rupture of the wood
cells, of which all plants are composed. In this
condition the sap will not flow from one cell to
another, becomes stagnant and discolored and this
is "black heart."

The sap or plant food is enabled to flow through
these minute vesicles freely to all parts of the tree
when in a normal condition, but this delicate
organization is liable to injury by any adverse or
unnatural conditions. These may be the unadapt-
abilty of a tree to the climate, or the improper
handling of one that would be under ordinary cir-
cumstances adaptable. If we plant an orange tree
here, the first severe frost* would not only rupture
the cells of the inner wood, but would rupture

112 ENEMIES OF THE ORCHARD

them all and cause its death. Should we take the
peach instead of the orange, the effect would be
measurably the same uuder a severer strain; but
this tree might preserve enough of its cells under the
bark, which is the throne of life of all trees, to not
only preserve its life but enable it to overcome, in a
measure, the injury and become a valuable, pro-
ductive tree, while the inner wood remains badly
discolored. Again, take the apple instead of the
peach ; and we may have the same result, for there is
as great a difference in hardiness between different
varieties of the apple as there is between the ten-
derest apples and the hardiest peaches.

It is also known that freezing, under some con-
ditions will cause the rupture when under others,
much severer cold is harmless. It matters not
how the tree is propagated, the effect will be the
same and there is no treatment known that will
entirely prevent it.

There is a practical view of it, however, and if
we follow the best course that can be marked out)
there will be little loss arising from it. The first
precaution is to select such trees as are known to
be hardy in the locality, and after this to give them
such care as will enable them to mature their
growth, and fortify themselves in every way against
the attacks of the coming winter. To teach the
planter how best to do this is the province of this
book.

There are other causes, however, besides freez-
ing, which are to be avoided, one is pruning

AND FRUIT GARDEN. 113

improperly, and this injury is more severe, for that
caused by freezing may not be of great damage
to the tree, while the former results in death in a
short time.

No one will claim that this condition of a tree
is of no consequence, and no one would wish to
plant such a tree; but there are, in my opinion,
throughout the United States, far more trees that
are discolored than perfectly sound ones. In Ver-
mont, the Baldwin is one of their most valuable
trees, yet, Mr. Hoskins tells us, that he does not
know of one tree of this variety which is not dis-
colored. The same is true of the Talman Sweet in
the west, and measurably so with the Fameuse, yet
both are valuable, long-lived trees.

The " Super knowledgist" should also be men-
tioned in this connection as one of the enemies.
As the word is coined for the occasion it will be
well to define it.

He is the man whom A. Ward must have had in
his mind when he said: "It is better not to know
so much than to know so many things that ain't
so." He is a walking encyclopedia of positive
knowledge. When he goes with us to the orchard
school begins and unless we are carefully on guard
he will open his knife and give us practical lessons
in pruning by mutilating our trees. He is the man
who plants his vegetables in the moon, and who
"never knew it to fail." He will tell us how to
make dried trees grow by putting a feed of oats
under them, o^ sticking a potato on the ends of all

ii4 ENEMIES OK THE ORCHARD.

the roots; that as many days old as the moon is
when trees are planted so many years it will be
before the trees bear; that weeping trees are made
by inserting the buds or grafts upside down; that
he has seen his uncle (who was a * 'gardner in the
old country" perhaps) graft apples in the elms, but
admits that the fruit was inferior; that evergreens
should be planted in June (the very month in all
the year when they should not be moved) that
trees late in coming into bearing ' 'need iron' ' and
he drives them full of rusty nails; in short if aught
is amiss with anybody or anything, "Baith their
disease and what' 11 mend it, at once he tells it. "
He is a well meaning person, his advice is always
voluntary, positive, and positively gratuitous but
in the ordinary, practical walks of life, and espe-
cially in this line we should kindly decline his
services, and struggle along as best we may with-
out him.

CHAPTER VIII.

Propagation.

IF fruits reproduced themselves true to name like
vegetables, this matter of propagation would
be very simple, but as they do not, we are com-
pelled, in order to continue any one desirable
sort, to absolutely prolong its life. Thus the
Rawls Janet of to-day is a part of the original tree
that originated in Virginia 100 years ago.

A piece of a tree which it is desirable to perpet-
uate, is placed in such a position that it will unite
with another tree of the same species. This
becomes a tree and may at some future time be
required to surrender a like portion of itself to still
further continue or perpetuate the variety.

Whether we propagate these desirable varieties
by grafting, budding, cuttings or layering, the
principle upon which the work is performed is the
same; the introduction of a root system to a cion
or young shoot having none. When by grafting
of budding the cion or bud must strike its roots or
cells into the stock upon which it is to live, and
thus through the medium of this stock acquire its
connection with the root system.

Many suppose that any two trees can be grafted

115

1 1 6 PROPAGATION.

together, but there is a limit to this work, and the
grafter will not be successful unless the stock and
cion are closely allied. Varieties of the same
species unite most readily, then species of the same
genus, then genera of the same natural order,
beyond which there can be no uniting of the parts.
Thus apples work easily upon apples, crabs or
thorns, less easily upon pears and not at all upon
peaches.

The initial point of growth in any case will be
exactly the same as though we were growing it
from a cutting, which is a cion planted in the
earth; that is, the formation of wood cells of which
the entire tree is made. In this case they form
until they unite with like wood cells which are
induced in the stock, when there is a connection
with the whole system of the other tree.

When by cuttings or layerings, this cion is
supposed to be of such a sort that it will, under
proper circumstances, continue this cell formation
until it takes the form of, and performs all the
offices of the original roots, when we have a new
tree or vine as the case may be, "upon its own
roots. "

Propagation by Seeds. — This is the simplest form
of all. The seeds of currants, gooseberries, or any
other of the small fruits may be washed by rubbing
the ripe fruit smartly in water, and pouring it off.
The seeds settle to the bottom. These seeds may
all be planted in the fall, or generally at the time
of ripening, and in this way some valuable new

PROPAGATION. 117

sorts may be obtained, but the chances of this are
so remote that only the scientific cross-fertilizer will
care to take the chances of throwing away a life
for the ideal fruit that will probably never come,
if at all, in any other manner.

The apple and all stone fruits will also succeed
better if planted in the fall in moist ground, and
covered as the judgment will direct, and the soil
firmly pressed down upon them. Sometimes stones
of the peach, plum, etc. , will remain in the ground
till the second year before germinating.

By Cuttings. — This consists of planting a shoot
of the last season's growth which under -favorable
circumstances will emit roots and grow. The
currant, gooseberry and grape are readily grown in
this way, though for the amateur it will be found
more successful to propagate all but the first
named by layering, or "patting down," which is
described below.

The best manner to treat the currant is to cut
the young shoots as soon in the fall as the leaves
fall, and cut them into lengths of 7 or 8 inches,
plant them immediately in deeply plowed rich
land, putting them in the whole depth, and firming
the soil about them. In this manner they will
make roots before freezing weather of from 2 to 4
inches long, and will make fine plants the next
season. They may also be grown by planting in the
same way in the spring, but not so well. If "trees"
are desired cut out all the buds but 2 or 3 at the top
before planting. Many other trees and shrubs can

n8

PROPAGATION.

be grown in this way such as the cotton wood, wil
low, syringa, honeysuckle, of all varieties, etc.

FIG. 3. SHOWING A TONGUED LAYERING

FIG 4. SHOWING (1) THE STOCK WITH 2 INCISIONS; (2)
THE BUD CUT READY FOR INSERTING; (3) THE STOCK WITH
CORNERS RAISED READY FOR THE INSERTION; AND (4) THE
BUD INSERTED AND TIED.

By Layering. — This is done by simply chosing a
low growing shoot generally of the past year's

PROPAGATION.

growth, bending it down to a
shallow trench in the ground pre-
viously prepared for it and fasten-
ing it there by setting a forked
stake over it, and covering with
earth. In some cases the emis-
sion of roots is hastened if there
is a slit or tongue raised by parti-
ally severing the shoot at its low-
est point (see Fig. 3). The grape
is very easily propagated in this
way. It will also apply to any
tree susceptible of being placed
in this position, though some
may require two or more years
to establish a root system.

By Budding. — This consists of
inserting a bud of the desired
variety under the bark of the
stock at the right time which
becomes a part of the tree as in
grafting. There are two princi-
pal methods; spring and summer
budding. The latter is most in
use and is done at any time in
the summer when buds are suffi-
ciently matured, and the bark
will urun" or peel easily in the

FIG. 5. STICK OF stock, generally from July 20, to

BUDS WITH UNES
SHOWING THE PRO-
PER CUTS.

the first of September, varying
with the latitude. Cherries,

1 20 PROPAGATION.

plums, and peaches will mature first, and the
apple and pear later. No definite time can be
given, as different seasons will also vary the time.
It is better that the buds are from a cion that has
hardly matured its terminal bud. If at this time the
bark of the stock runs readily, and the work is per-
formed rightly there will be little danger of fail-
ure.

If the stock is a thrifty one of one or two years
growth it is better, and is not generally successful
on larger stocks. In Fig. 4 is shown the stock with
the incision; the bud ready for inserting; and the
bud in position with the ligature properly fastened.
If the stock is in proper condition it will only be
necessary to raise the corners slightly as shown,
when the bud can be easily forced home. If the
bud should be of some of the very slender, weak
ones, like some of the chicasa plums, it may be
necessary to open the bark the full distance, in
which case the edges are carefully raised without
disturbing the cambium, or gelatinous matter under
the bark. Fig 5 shows a stick of buds ready for
the operator, the curved lines showing the proper
cut to be made. These buds must not be allowed
to become dry. Coarse woolen yarn is used much
for tying, but of late raffia is used altogether by
nurserymen. For the amateur it is not better than
the yarn. In about ten days this should be
removed to prevent its growing into the tree.

This bud remains dormant till the next spring
when the stock is cut off with a sloping cut just

PROPAGATION . 121

above the bud, when it develops into the branch
or future tree. In rapid growing varieties, and in
strong stocks it will be necessary to give these
some support or they will break off by a very
moderate wind. Staking with the stock that is
cut from above the graft, and tying to it is prac-
ticed by many.

Spring Budding. — The advantages of this are
that work that failed the past summer can be re-
newed without loss of time, and the buds are de-
veloped soon after being set.

The buds should be cut in fall or winter and
kept absolutely dormant till they are to be set.
This is done by packing them in the sawdust of
the ice-house, as soon in the spring as there is
danger of growth taking place. Keep them nearly
dry, or as near as possible in their natural condi-
tion, and only take them out as fast as they are
used. They are not set till the tree is in leaf, say
about the first of June, when the young shoots
have made an inch or two of growth. If in small
stocks they should receive some injury to check
the too rapid flow of sap at the time the bud is set.
Some cut a notch about % of the diameter directly
above the bud, while others seize the stock with
both hands and give it a twisting, or green stick
fracture. In about ten days the stock is cut off
and the buds treated as described above.

Plums, cherries, peaches, pears, and many
flowering shrubs are propagated almost entirely by
budding, while grafting is used for the apple,

122

PROPAGATION.

crabs and some other trees and shrubs. It is not
necessary to use wax in any of the forms of bud-
ding.

Grafting is of two general kinds. Aerial and
Terrestrial. The former is above ground, and will
always demand that the splice shall be so waxed as
to entirely exclude both air and water. The latter
is either performed under ground, or will be estab-
lished below ground, depending upon this to so far
exclude the air as to admit of the union. This is
applied to grafting the grape (not used) and to root
grafts, by which nearly all apples and crabs are
propagated.

1?IG. 7. WHIP GRAFTING SHOWING (1) THE SLOPING CUTS,

(2) THE PARTS TONGUKD, (3) SET TOGETHER, AND

(4) THE WORK WAXED AND COMPLETED.

Fig. 7 shows the manner of whip grafting, which
is very simple and effective. In this the cion and

PROPAGATION.

123

stock should be as near as may be of the same size.
The sloping cuts being made the cut surfaces are
simply split as shown, and they are then pressed
firmly together. Should one be larger than the
other, make them match on one side, while the
other laps. Waxing is best done where there is
much to do, by keeping the wax warm in a kettle
by the use of a small lamp. It is then applied with
brush or a flat stick, and, while warm, a strip of
cloth is wound around it which holds the pieces in
place, and insures a perfect sealing.

Cleft Grafting. — Is that usually practiced in the
top of large trees, but let us drop a word of caution

FIG. 8 SHOWING THE PROCESS OF CLEFT GRAFTING. THE

FIGURE ON THE RIGHT SHOWING DIFFERENCE IN

THICKNESS OF BARK.

here. Trees in the west will not admit of the cut-
ting of large limbs for grafting, any more than in
pruning, nor a great many of them at a time. In

124

PROPAGATION.

top working a tree eight years old make three opera-
tions, going through as many years. If it should
be found that the tree is discolored it will be better
to abandon the grafting, and leave it for what it is
worth, as blight is almost sure to follow. Fig. 8
shows the manner of cutting, splitting, and cutting
and inserting the cions. The wedge may be made
of wood, and is only inserted to hold the cleft apart
while the cion is being placed, when it is with-
drawn. It will be noticed that the bark on the
smaller cion is thinner than on the larger stock,
and care must be taken that the
inner bark be made to match,
disregarding the outside. Suc-
cess will depend upon this and
upon thorough waxing, and
the use of a very sharp, thin
knife.

Fig. 9 shows the cions as
placed in the cleft, the wedge
withdrawn, all ready for wax-
ing.

Root Grafting. — Is done in-
doors in winter, the roots called

stocks and the cions having FIG- 10-

ROOT
been previously stored in frost GRAFT

proof cellars. The stocks are AETHER.

cleaned of most of the side
branches and cut as shown in Fig. 10 very much
as in whip grafting. The sloping cut is first made
at or about the crown of the stock, the split or

FIG. 9

CI,EFT

GRAFT

READY FOR

WAXING.

PROPAGATION.

125

"tongue" is then made and the stock cut off about
4 inches below, when the same is repeated till the
stock is used. The cions are cut in the same way,
about 6 to 7 inches long. They are then pressed
firmly together and tied with waxed thread. The
wax is not for the purpose of sealing the cuts,
but for convenience in tying. It is not necessary
to have it waxed. The thread is fastened at the
bottom of the splice by overlapping as shown in
budding, then three or four wraps are made and the
other end fastened by drawing it into the cleft at
the top, or simply breaking it and rolling in the
fingers. The former is best. These
are now packed away in boxes in
damp sawdust or sand in cellar
to callus. They soon unite and
when everything is favorable will
give very nearly a full stand. Dib-
bles are used for planting, and the
graft set below the ground except
the top bud, and the soil is pressed
very firmly, especially at the bot-
tom of the graft, taking care at
the time not to break the joint, or
the graft will die.

Side Grafting. — Fig. n shows
a very useful mode of grafting,
and a novice will succeed with
this oftener than with any other aerial work. The
stock is grasped firmly in the hand and bent slightly
to facilitate the incision the cion is cut as for

FIG. 11.
A SIDIi GRAFT

126 PROPAGATION.

cleft work and inserted as shown, when the stock
is cut off above it in a line parallel with the cion
and half an inch above it, wax is applied and the
work is done.

Grafting Wax. — For out door work 32 ounces
resin; 14 ounces beeswax; and 7 ounces linseed oil.
Melt together and bring to a heat, some above the
boiling point for water, cool and use. Stone fruits
are sometimes root grafted like the apple, and in
that case they are waxed with a brush. This wax
will be a little softer. For this add i more ounce
of beeswax and another 01 oil.

DOUBLE WORKING.

Where it is desired to have a high headed tree,
some of the objections to that form may be over-
come by a process called double working. This
consists of grafting the desired variety upon the
straight stock of a tree one or two years old, pre-
viously root grafted with the long cion and short
root. In such cases the cion is set from 2 to
4 feet above the ground, according to the fancy of
the operator.

The variety used for a stock is of the greatest
importance, as it is found by long experimenta-
tion that there are few suitable. Either the
stock or the cion overgrow, and in some
cases the tree becomes barren. There is no
way of determining what stocks and cions are
affinities except by experiment, and even those who
have continued this system the longest and most

PROPAGATION. 127

persistently do not agree with each other, but in
many cases flatly contradict each other.

The object to be obtained is the putting such a
stock or trunk under the tree as will be less liable
to sun scald borers; etc., than the variety that is
desired for fruit.

Such trees are on trial at this station, but so far
they have given no results either way, as they have
been out but a few years.

The only experience the author has ever had
was in grafting the slow growing Tetofski upon
the Transcendent Crab. In three years the cions had
overgrown the stocks to such an extent that they top-
pled over with their own weight. The growth habit
of these two varieties was reversed when worked
together, the rapid growing Transcendent nearly
stood still while the dwarfish Tetofski made the
most phenomenal growth.

Being very desirous to make no mistake in this
matter that is attracting so much attention at
present, letters were sent out to many of the
leading western horticulturists, asking for infor-
mation on this and "top grafting," and from the
answers received, as well as from my own experi-
ence, I am of opinion that the whole matter of
double working is unimportant, and that the
results so far have not justified the claims or the
expectations of its advocates.

Those stocks that have proved the most congenial
in the greatest number of cases are the Whitney
No. 20, Hughes Virginia, and Yellow Siberian Crab.

128 PROPAGATION.

The best way to accomplish all that is hoped for
from this system is to avoid the high trunk, and
make a more nearly natural, low headed tree, and
the next best is, if the high head must be had,
some protection to the trunk as has been before
described.

TOP GRAFTING.

This is understood to apply to the practice of
putting new heads of desirable variety upon
established trees, hardy, but of an undesirable
variety. Tender or half hardy varieties can be
successfully grown in this way when they cannot in
any other. This will be understood in a local
sense entirely, for what is hardy in one place may
be tender in another, and when we apply this to
practice it is equivalent to saying that where a
desirable variety cannot be grown in any other
way it may be in this manner.

If I were trying to grow an orchard north of lati-
tude 45, and perhaps some lower than that, I would
pursue this course, and with every assurance of
success where such were possible.

This consists of planting the hardy trees, root
grafted on the short root and long cion method,
and allowing them to stand till they have become
thoroughly established, say three years or more,
and then grafting or budding the branches to such
varieties as the climate would justify, and this
would be ascertained by investigating the orchards
or trees in this vicinity. If it should be so far
north that no trees were growing to guide I would

PROPAGATION. 139

take the "Iron Clad" list from some of the northern
horticultural societies, say Duchess of Oldenburg,
Wealthy, Iowa Blush, and perhaps some of the
Russians. Of course our success will depend upon
the hardiness of our stocks, for where Whitney No.
20, and the Siberian Crabs, and Duchess cannot be
grown we should not make the effort.

The philosophy of this is, that as all trees are
more tender when young than when matured and
established, we pass over this period of youth
practically by giving our tree age from the start.
There is another very important consideration.
All the very hardy or Iron Clad varieties have very
strong and deep growing roots. The top or cion
from which the tree is to be made entirely controls
the form of the seedling roots. Not only the form
but in a few years not at first it also determines
their hardiness. As to form or habit of growth, if
we graft in any manner, any number of
Winesaps, Jonathans or Willowtwigs upon yearling
apple stocks, we can in two years in most soils pull
them up by hand, while the same number of Sibe-
rian Crabs or Tetofskis will at the same age be
found to have made a root system that would defy
the united efforts of several men to dislodge them.
The question suggests itself here, does the hardy
tree make this strong hardy system of roots, or do
the roots, having penetrated deeply into the earth
where there can never be any lack of moisture,
give the tree its ability to withstand all the strain
that is ever put upon it ? Undoubtedly they work

1 30 PROPAGATION.

equally upon each other and in perfect harmony.
Possibly if we could — which we cannot — put a
mature Siberian top on Winesap roots, the tree would
not be hardier than the Winesap. Nature has not
made trees with low, spreading tops, and a shallow
system of roots for very high latitudes, especially
if, as in the northwest there is frequently too little
rainfall. Now as it seems to be clear that a good,
deep system of roots is essential to the maintaining
of a tree in these trying conditions in its best
health, and that nature is so perverse or persistent
that she will not make such a system of roots
under certain desirable varieties, we may take
advantage of a little strategy to compel her to
accept and wear the particular root system which
she had made for quite another tree.

After the stocks upon which we are to make
this artificial tree have stood for three or
four years, they will have extended their roots
downward possibly twice as deep as the height
of the tree, and we have accomplished all
in this direction that any reasonable tree could
ask or expect to grow upon, or any "whole
rootist" or "unmutilated rootist'' could demand.

Any one who should, with the above only to
guide, undertake this top working system, might
easily make a failure. Nature is very persistent and
apparently at times unreasonably obstinate. There is
no theory or system of reasoning that will determine
what stocks are suited to certain varieties but
actual experiment.

PROPAGATION. 131

There is another advantage to be gained by this
system; many varieties first show signs of bark
failure in the intersections of the limbs with the
trunks. By this system the forks are formed
largely of the hardy stock which should be chosen
with special care as to its behavior in this par-
ticular. This is perhaps the most important gain
of all.

It may be well to drop a word of caution here ;
this system is not commended for general practice,
nor for extended planting, as, where conditions are
so adverse to apple growing that they cannot be
grown any other way, it will never be a source
of profit to grow them in this way. It is only
recommended for small home orchards in the far
north, and it is believed that there will be a mod-
erate success as grown in this way, when they
would fail in the ordinary way of growing. The
mere act of top grafting a tree does not add to its
hardiness or longevity, but lessens it, as severe
pruning would do, it is done for the sole purpose
of passing the young tree over its infancy, where it
is so liable to injury, placing it upon a deep
system of roots already formed, and avoiding in a
measure the danger of bark scalding at the larger
forks, and the conversion of undesirable sorts into
desirable ones.

The trees mostly used in the north for a stock
upon which to top graft are Hughes Virginia Crab,
Whitney No. 20, Duchess, Minnesota Crab,
and Haas.

132 PROPAGATION.

The following is the best list of cions to work
upon these, so far as can be ascertained:

Hughes Virginia. — Grimes Colder, Jonathan,
Winesap, Golden Sweet, Baily Sweet.

Whitney No. 20. — Grimes Golden, Wolf River,
Northwestern Greening.

Duchess. — Wealthy, N. W. Greening, Grimes
Golden, Ben Davis, Red Astrachan, Fall Orange,
Wolf River.

Minnesota Crab. — Jonathan, Baltimore or
Bethlehemite, Early Harvest.

Haas.- — Wealthy, Winesap, Wolf River, Red
Astrachan, Baily Sweet and in favorable location
the R. I. Greening.

The Western Wild Crab (Pirus Prunifolid) makes
a perfect stock for the Bethlehemite (Baltimore
Red) and where that indigenous tree is growing
wild it can with little labor be converted into a
most valuable apple tree.

The Wealthy is also used as a stock, but it is
believed that where that tree succeeds well there
is little use of top working it, as in those high
latitudes it is a winter apple, but the Grimes
Golden, Baily Sweet and Golden Sweet have been
successfully grown on it.

One of the best known of the Illinois horticul-
turists reports success with the hardy Russians as
stocks, but after thirteen years' experimentation on
all stocks does not feel competent to send out a list
having no doubts attaching to it. (J. V. Cotta.)

The Hibernal. — This is used as a stock for the

PROPAGATION. 133

Northwestern Greening and Seek-no-further, and
is one of the best and hardiest of all the Russians.
It is also known in different places as Leiby,
Ostrokof, Glass, Romna, Pendant Ear, Silken Leaf,
Juicy Burr, etc. There may be slight variations
in- these but they are practically the same.

CHAPTER IX.

Landscape Gardening.

WE can do little better than to touch upon the
most common and practical points in this
work. Elliot and Downing have covered the ground
with extended works, and the reader is referred to
them, especially the latter, for such instruction as
cannot be given here.

The principle objects that will the most please
the eye in a landscape are green grass, trees, flowers
and water. Hills and mountains are grand and
impressive, but cannot be considered except as
they are sometimes introduced in miniature, to-
gether with grottos of rocks and earth, rustically
arranged.

To prepare the ground for the lawn, it is not
best to try to save the natural sward by the intro-
duction of proper grasses. The ground should be
plowed carefully, and if not naturally fertile, it
should be made so. Drag and plank and finish with
the hand rake, at the same time working in blue
grass seed liberally, and a smaller proportion of
white clover. It will be two, and sometimes three
years before a good sward is obtained, but during
the time, such trees and shrubs as are wished can
be established.

135

136 LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

The one great fault of amateurs is in over crowd-
ing with these, which will destroy the pleasing
effect, and hide such objects as it is desired to bring
into prominence.

There are two principle views of the lawn to be
considered at every step. First the view from the
residence, and second the view from the street or
highway. The former is of the most importance.
This is for our pleasure, the latter for the pleasure
of the public, but both are important.

If very large trees such as elms or hackberry are
used, they should not be planted where they will
obstruct the view, either in or out. For this pur-
pose it is better to place them a good distance from
the house with a view of trimming them up ulti-
mately, so as to see under them.

If the street is south or west, this might be
necessarily varied for comfort in shading. The
east is the best front where it can be so arranged.
L,arge trees, both evergreen and deciduous are
necessary for a background, where they may be
massed into something like the natural forest. It
is another serious fault to put these large trees in
quantity in the front, as the background should be
in the rear.

Another common error is interspersing varieties
in straight rows. I have seen long rows of trees
along the highway or streets in town, made of two
different sorts, such as catalpa and box elder,
alternated. This would suggest a regiment of
soldiers with each alternate one wearing a different

LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 137

uniform. It will always displease the eye, though
the observer may not be able to tell why it is so.
A straight line is art, and to be pleasing it should
be as straight and uniform as art can make it.
Straight lines of trees are frequently necessary,
especially in towns on division lines, where the
grounds are not extensive enough to admit of
curves, which are much more pleasing. The old
fashioned stereotyped plan of planting a straight
row of trees on either side of the walk, from the
gate to the front door is inexcusable. It resem-
bles nothing in nature, and has no significance in
art, or if it has any it might be the suggestion that
the proprietor might be in such condition as to
enable him to find his front gate, but entirely
unable then to find his door without the friendly
assistance of these landmarks.

Curved hedge rows, or curved walks are pleas-
ing, but must be introduced with great care.
They should not give the observer the impression
that they are there for effect, but that they could
not be avoided. Thus a tree can be placed in such
a manner as to curve the path to avoid it, and
another further on, changing the curve into an
opposite direction. Curves are not pleasing if too
abrupt. The most graceful and pleasing are those
barely curved enough to catch the eye and destroy
the impression that it was intended for a straight
line, and a failure made of it. If shrubs or bushes
of any kind are used for borders of walks, they
should be low growing and uniform in height and

138 LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

expression, and such as are beautiful at all times,
whether in blossom or not, or they may be of such
bulbs or tubers as bring early flowers and disap-
pear for the balance of the season, to be replaced
with verbenas, pansies, phlox, or other bedding
plants. For the former tulips are excellent.

Where shrubs or small trees with large leaves
are grouped with others with smaller ones, put the
coarse ones back of the others. For instance if we
were to use a snow ball or lilac or both to group
with Fl. Almonds or spireas, we would place the
former side by side nearly at right angle to the
point of view, and the finer ones near them, but
closer to the observer. If the view were from two
principle directions, then place more of the same
style beyond them.

Grouping, if correctly done, gives a pleasing
effect. In this, uniformity of figures should be
avoided. Give the appearance of a chance produc-
tion.

Evergreens are of the greatest importance for
specimen trees. Unless the grounds are very large
we should avoid the large coarse growing ones,
like the Scotch pine. For large trees choose the
Colorado silver spruce, called blue spruce, too, Picea
pungens). It is the most beautiful of all, and very
hardy. The Black Hills spruce, too, P. alba, is
beautiful, and the next to the pungens, the Nor-
way spruce east of the great divide between the
great rivers is indispensable, but not so desirable
on the Missouri slope. Douglass and Concolor

LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 139

spruce are very desirable for larger specimen
trees.

For smaller low growing specimens, the different
arborvitaes, such as American, Globosa and Siberian
are best. The Pyramidallis is, as its name implies,
an upright grower, like the Lombardy poplar. It
is very hardy, holds its color good through the
winter, and is very desirable for a striking object.

In small lawns it is hardly necessary to say that
the lawn mower should be kept in frequent use.
In large grounds, trees and other obstructions
should be arranged with a view of using the mow-
ing machine. • Not necessarily in straight lines,
but at such distances apart that the machine can
be operated.

Do not obstruct the view to the street, or to any
object of beauty, such as fountains, statuary, or to
fine distant landscapes. Unsightly but necessary
objects, such as outhouses, barns, cribs, etc.,
should be hidden by a judicious use of trees, or
vines.

In using the lawn mower, if some patches are
left in various figures, such as circles, diamonds,
stars, anchors, etc., they are very beautiful when
the clover is in blossom. These are used to sur-
round vases or statuary, or even trees that are
trimmed so as to show the whole figure designed.

Among the deciduous trees and bushes Catalpa if
in sheltered locations, Balm of Gilead, Magnolia
Acuminata (not very far north) and Bass wood some-
times called lyinn, are.among the best of the coarser

140 LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

leaved sorts, while for the finer ones Cut leaved
birch stands first, but the European white is also
very good. The cherry and plum, and sometimes
the Whitney Hislop and other crabs are introduced
in large grounds with nut trees, butternut, walnut,
hickory, etc. , for variety. For a large stately tree
nothing equals the elm.

There are a great variety of the spireas, but the
Prunifolia and Van Houtii1 are the only ones very
desirable. The lilac, snow ball and flowering
almond, Tartarian honeysuckle, and Mock orange,
commonly called syringa, all have their places.
The finest flowering tree of all the low growing
ones is the prunus Trilobata, bearing dense masses
of light red double flowers the size of a quarter.

Among the climbers are the Red and Yellow
honeysuckle, woodbine, wisteria, and clematis. Oi
the last named among the best are the Jackmanii,
with flowers from 4 to 6 inches across and deep
blue, and the J. Alba, much the same but the
flowers are pure white. Both are perfectly hardy.

Among the herbacious plants that are desirable
are the peonias, bleeding heart or diacentra and
the phloxes. These last have all the shades and
bright colors of the Drummondi, but are perpetual
and very free bloomers.

Bulbs and tubers such as tulips, crocuses, hya-
cinths and jonquills and many of the lilies, such as
Tiger, both double and single, and the Japans, Gold
banded and I/ancifolium rubrum and the little lily
of the valley (which is not a lily at all) are all

LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 141

hardy and remain out over winter with slight or
no protection. Then the gladiolas, dahlias, and
cannas of the tender ones are easily grown and
can be used to give the most pleasing effect. Do
not forget the bed of pansies and verbenas along on
the north side of the house.

Among the best and most showy annuals are the
Drummond phlox and poppies. Dark blue flowers
do not attract attention and are not as pleasing on
the lawn or flower garden as white, red, crimson,
scarlet and yellow.

There are hundreds of other good flowers and
shrubs, trees, etc., more than those mentioned
here, but with these alone together with the ever-
greens described in their chapter, no one need want
for material to make a good lawn and flower gar-
den. A few trees, vines, shrubs and flowers well
kept will attract attention and admiration more
than a whole park of them in a badly arranged and
dowdyish condition.

Weeping Trees. — May be sparingly used under
the same restrictions as above ; that is, the larger
like the Wp. Willow (salix Babylonicd) in remote
or low positions, especially if in the vicinity of
water. Their somber suggestions will exclude them
from other places. The most graceful and stately of
this class is the Cutleaved Wp. Birch, which is given
the best positions in the grounds. The Am. , Wis.
and Kilmarnocks, have not proved hardy here. Teas
Wp. Mulberry is the best of the low growing kinds,
but all should be used sparingly except the Birch.

CHAPTER X.

Plums.

WITH the exception of the grape there is no
wild fruit so common to the Great
Northwest as the plum. Like the grape it sub-
mits readily to domestication and cultivation.

Plums are classed botanically into three different
species: Prunus, domestica, P. Americana (or Can-
adensis) and P. Chicasa.

The first is the small plum and tree of the Old
World, from which we have the class known as the
Gage family, and will merit but little notice here,
as they are almost if not quite unfit for the changed
location from the more equable and moist cli-
mate of Europe, to the more rigorous and dry
climates to which this work is restricted. These
fruits are grown largely in California, and on the
Pacific coast in many places. They are also grown,
but to a less extent, on the Atlantic coast, not so
much on account of unsuitable climatic conditions,
as to diseases which attack them there, principally
the black knot or black wart. They consist of
such varieties as Lombard, Yellow Egg, Coe, Green
and Purple Gage, Bradshaw, German Prune, Ponds
Seedling, Jefferson, Washington and many others.

H3

144 PLUMS.

This. class is distinguished readily from either of
the other species by their larger and ranker growth,
heavier shoots generally with a purplish cast. In
leaf they are larger and thinner, inclined to be
ruffly. The fruit is larger, and at times very large,
approaching a moderate-sized peach, very hand-
some and deeply creased or sutured. It is also
another characteristic that in quality, especially
lor eating from the hand, it is inferior to many of
our best select natives; and generally inferior for
culinary purposes. Their size, great beauty and
fair quality will, however, always make them
deservedly popular where they can be successfully
grown.

Of the above, those varieties which are still kept
upon many of the northwestern lists, and will suc-
ceed better than the others, are Lombard, German
Prune and Bradshaw. The causes of failure are
generally that the tree is too tender to withstand
our trying winters, and the wood becomes black-
ened and brittle, so that a tree of considerable size
will break off easily when the shoots are growing
vigorously. Even when this does not occur the
fruit is easily spoiled by the curculio or gouger,
and falls soon after the visits of those insects. It
is also much subject to rot, which attacks the fruit
just before ripening in small specks distributed
over its surface, which expand till they include the
whole surface.

We have been particular in describing this class
of plums, for the reason that so many who purchase

PLUMS. 145

trees are disappointed in the size and beauty of the
fruit which their visions had pictured, and these
visions, too generally aided by the overdrawn plates
exhibited at the time the sale was effected. The
question was frequently asked, "Why don't you
raise and sell the large blue or purple plums such
as we used to have at home ?' ' We are also told
"Those plums we got of you are wild ones; I have
much better growing along the creek."

The above not only explains why these Gage
plums are not handled, but there is another consid-
eration; in quality and productiveness we have at
least quite a few natives that are superior to the
best of the foreign sorts, not only for eating from
the hand, but will compare favorably lor can-
ning.

When we go to look for the "better ones growing
along the creek," we don't find them. It is not
impossible that some one may have them, as all the
domesticated ones of this class have at one time
been wild, or the product of a plum stone. In most
cases they are chance seedltngs, found to have qual-
ities superior to other seedlings, when they are
named and propagated from, and are no more wild
than the Rhode Island Greening or Swaar. The
name is applied to them from their close resem-
blance to the wild ones.

The plum does not succeed so well upon high
dry ground as in more moist places, hence we are
more apt to find it along the creeks and in the
cooler and rich moist grounds of the ravines; still

146 PLUMS.

it can be successfully grown where corn or small
grain will make a good crop. Avoid the tops of
hills or abrupt knolls, unless they are known to
have a good, deep moderately rich soil, which is
not generally the case.

Plum trees are not much subject to diseases of
any kind. It is generally only necessary to select
good thrifty trees of good varieties, plant them
well on good ground, cultivate them, keep off the
worms that destroy the foliage, and nature will do
the rest.

There are about fifty varieties of the natives that
are grown, and described by the different propa-
gators, and nearly all have merit; but as there are
so many so nearly like the others, it will only be
necessary to describe as many as will ever be needed
for home use or market. There is really about as
little use in having a large variety of plums of the
same general character, as there would be in hav-
ing one similar of potatoes. Those below given
are of value for all purposes, and any three or
four will be varieties enough for the family.

Desota. — Originated near the Mississippi river
in Wisconsin; is good size; from i to i% inches;
light mottled red on yellow ground; very product-
ive; a good grower and succeeds in more localities
than any of the others.

Forest Garden. — Originated either near Council
Bluffs or Cedar Rapids, Iowa; both are claimed.
Fruit about same size as Desota, better in quality
for dessert, but not so good a shipper, having too

PLUMS. 147

thin a skin. Tree a strong upright grower and
perfectly hardy; and immense bearer.

Hawkeye. — Origin, Crescent, Iowa. A trifle
larger than either of the above; quality very good,
if not best; color light mottled red on'yellow ground;
has a distinct suture, unlike any other purely
American plum. Is very firm and a good market
variety.

Wyant. — Of Minnesota origin; medium to large;
mottled red; and of the best quality. Tree a mod-
erate grower.

Weaver. — This is a perfect free-stone, which
gives it its greatest value; but it is an excellent
variety; very vigorous and productive. Originated
near Cedar Rapids, Iowa; fruit uneven in size, the
same tree bearing at the same time from very large
to very small specimens, mottled dark red and
shaped something like an almond; being thin and
measurably pointed. Excellent quality for dessert.

Wolf. — Origin, Iowa. Is as large grown here as
any of this class, a dark or purplish red, and of fair
to good quality. Is a free stone when entirely ripe.

The above descriptions have been given from the
behavior of the trees at this station, and it is be-,
lieved that any of them can be grown successfully
throughout the State of Minnesota, and the greater
part of North Dakota, where there is sufficient
rainfall. The following list of the same class is
from other responsible horticulturists who are
familiar with them and can be relied upon.

Cheney. — Of Wisconsin or Minnesota origin, light

1 48 PLUMS.

red, large to very large, a good shipper and com-
mands a good price in market. In quality this has
made two records, being classed by some as best
while by others probably grown under different
conditions, as ufair to good-."

Rolingstone. — Originated on the Rolingstone
river in Minnesota. Tree a strong grower and
good bearer. Fruit large to very large, bright
cherry red, good quality and good shipper.

Van Bur en. — This is another free stone, of most
excellent quality, good size, and is a light yellow,
sometimes slightly red when fully ripe. One of
the best.

Quaker. — Fruit large to very large, and very
firm, not good for dessert but fair cooker. Is the
most " meaty " of any of the Americana varieties.

Harrison Peach. — This variety comes from the
neighborhood of Minneapolis, Minn. Tree a rather
spreading strong grower and good bearer. Fruit
of medium size, oblong and good quality. Color,
light red. Free stone. (Terry.)

Spear. — or "Spear's Round." This is one of
the most valuable of all the plums for culinary uses.
We have seen and eaten the fruit at the home of
the originator, and procured our first cions there.
It is an annual and immense bearer of red fair sized
round fruit, which shows no astringency whatever
when canned.

The above are all of the American family and
is the safest list for general planting, especially if
in very high latitudes.

PLUMS. 149

Prof. Baily, of New York has made three sepa-
rate lists of the Primus chicasa, placing the Miner,
Marianna and Wild Goose as types of them.

We are of opinion that this classification is apt
to mislead rather than to guide, and shall consider
them as they have always been heretofore classed
as above.

These plums are also indigenous to American
soil so far as is absolutely known, though there are
those who contend that they are of Spanish origin%
and that they were brought here by the Spaniards
in their invasion of Mexico, and from there have
spread throughout the southern half of the United
States, where they were first noticed, and where
they are common now, growing wild as the Ameri-
cana does in the north.

The distinctive characteristics of this family are
the long narrow leaf, resembling that of the peach,
generally ruffled, glossy above and smoother than
the Americana beneath; shoots very small and
pointed, generally supplied with very thorny, sharp
spurs, and a tendency to hold their foliage long
after all others have cast their leaves in the fall.

Some of these varieties are also remarkable for
their long life and the great size that they attain.
The fruit is generally either glossy red, or yellow,
and not mottled with these colors like many of the
northern natives. In quality, too, they are quite
distinct, being more meaty and the pulp hanging
tenaciously to the stone. As a class they are not
as hardy as the P. Americana, but some of them

150 PLUMS.

can be grown any where in Nebraska and Iowa,
and in many of the southern counties of Minnesota
and South Dakota.

There is also a belief among many excellent
horticulturists that many of these varieties are self
sterile, and cannot be grown successfully without
the assistance of other strong pollenizers grown in
the immediate vicinity. There is no doubt but
this is the case at times, and in some seasons it is
more marked than in others, but it is not so com-
mon as it is generally believed to be, neither does
it require the close proximity to the pollenizing
parent that is taught by many. Bees and other
insects which are very numerous at the time of
blossoming are active agents in distributing this
very fine powder to trees near or at a considerable
distance. I have known the Russian Mulberry
where a single tree stood over a mile from any
others to bear a full crop of fruit. This shows to
what a distance this pollen may be borne in the
air. We could not attribute this to the action of
insects, as the female has no perceptible blossom,
and bees do not work on it, and it could not have
been self- fertilized as it is a purely dioecious plant.
The Miner plum is a good illustration of this, but
in another direction. It is well known that this is
a fitful or spasmodic bearer. It never fails to load
with bloom, but will bring a crop of fruit once in
two or three and sometimes four years or more. It
will be also remembered that when there is a good
crop in one part of a given section, it is general

PLUMS. 151

throughout. This would not be the case if its

<""">

sterility could be corrected by massing with other
varieties. Its fruitfulness would then depend upon
this intermingling, and not upon the peculiarities
of certain seasons.

But let this be as it may, there can be no harm
in intermingling varieties in the row, but the
massing in thicket form but a few feet apart for the
purpose of cross-fertilizing to produce fruitfulness
is little better than a fad.

The following is a list of the most commonly
accepted valuable varieties of this class.

Miner. — This is also known as the Hinkly, and
has also many other names that are purely local and
of no value here. The plum is too well known to
require an extended description. It is as has been
said before a shy or spasmodic bearer, varying greatly
in this respect in different localities. This is
much more the case while young than when it
attains considerable age. It is especially remark-
able for the great age and great size to which it
attains, especially if on its own roots. Prof.
McAffee said: "It is the only plum tree that will
make saw logs." I have seen these trees with a
girth of trunk at the ground of 44 inches, and a
spread of top of 30 feet. It is among the hardiest
of this class and is a good and symmetrical grower.
The fruit ripens among the very latest, sometimes
being caught by early frosts. In quality so far as
I have tested these plums, it stands first. Size of
fruit about same as Desota or at times some larger,

152 PLUMS.

and very uniform. Color a deep cherry red. It
has a tendency to crack open at the time of ripening
if the weather is very moist.

Wild Goose. — Believed to be the most popular of
its class, but its value is in the more southern lati-
tudes, being too tender for the north. Tree upright
changing to spreading as it attains age, quite
thorny, and an early and abundant bearer. Fruit
light red, size of Miner as grown in the south, but
in the north is quite small. Ripens very early
which gives it its greatest value, and is of very good
quality when fresh from the tree, but when over-
ripe is watery and insipid.

Forest Rose. — Closely resembles the Wild goose
but is more scarlet in color, later and of better qual-
ity, especially as a dessert fruit.

Robinson. — This according to Prof. Budd has
been known as the Bassett and as this variety is
frequently referred to as of merit, it is believed that
this name is still used by many. The true Bassett
plum is so poor, small and inferior in every way, as
to be of no value, and the correction should be
made for the reputation of this most excellent
plum, the Robinson. Like the others, however, it
it is not reliable very far north, but for this fault of
tenderness, it would lead all the Chicasas. In habit
it is almost a counterpart of the Pottawattamie, both
in tree, leaf and fruit. The principal difference
being in the color of the shoots, those of the latter
being more brown, while the former are brighter,
and have a pinkish cast. The fruit also ripens

PLUMS. 153

some earlier and is much handsomer and of better
quality than the Pottawattamie. The first fruit
ripens in this latitude about the first of August, but
the picking season will last nearly through the
month. The habits of growth of the trees are some
different, the Robinson being more spreading.
Its fault is in making bad forks if not closely
watched.

Maquoketa. — Originated near the river of that
name in eastern Iowa, and is decidedly the best of
all the Chicasas for canning. Fruit is much larger
grown in central and southern Iowa than further
north. Is supposed to be a seedling of the Miner,
which it closely resembles.

Milton. — New and perhaps the earliest variety
in cultivation. Tree an upright and fine grower, and
bearing large crops of large fruit of finest quality.
Its large size and fine quality and appearance, and
early season make this a valuable variety. Seed-
ling of Wild Goose. (Terry.)

Charles Downing-.— Another of the same origin
as the last. Fruit very large, light red and of
excellent quality. Tree rather spreading and
very productive.

Crescent City. — New. Tree very upright and
handsome grower, and an immense bearer of med-
ium sized fruit of fine quality. Color dark red,
fine variety for market. Seedling of the Miner.
(Terry.)

Hammer. — This is a new variety, the original
tree of which has only fruited two years. Fruit is

154 PLUMS.

large; color pale yellow or whitish on the shady
side and bright red on the sunny side. It
promises to be a very valuable variety. Tree is a
fine, rather upright grower, and so far as tested, a
good bearer. Fruit is of an excellent quality. A
seedling of the Miner, though its broad and heavy
foliage shows that it is crossed with some variety of
the American family.

Moreman. — This variety originated on the
Atlantic coast and is possessed of some value.
Fruit medium in size, of the brightest red, and is
so glossy as to have the appearance of being var-
nished. It is an immense bearer, and the fruit will
keep for two weeks more after ripe. One of the
latest varieties we have which adds to its value.

The descriptions of the last five varieties named
are from H. A. Terry of Iowa, who is as good
authority on this fruit as any in the west. They
have not yet been fruited at this station.

JAPAN PLUMS.

Much discussion is had upon the origin and
value of these very interesting plums. My exper-
ience so far with them is almost neutral. Trees
have not had proper care, but have given strong evi-
dence of great usefulness, though at present it is not
advised to plant largely much north of central
Iowa. The Burbank Ogon and Botan have been
fruited, and while smaller than was anticipated are
very handsome, and of good quality.

Dr. Dennis, of Cedar Rapids, Iowa, has made a

PLUMS. 155

specialty of them, and is very warm in their praise;
says they have fruited full after twenty-six below.
It is believed that they will be of great value in
the south, and as far north as stated, but there is
another possibility, perhaps probability, that they
will make excellent fathers for seedlings from our
natives, by cross-fertilization, and this is being
practiced very largely in some parts of the south,
especially by P. J. Berkmans, of Augusta, Ga., and
J. L,. Normand of Marksville, La.

But few varieties will be noticed, and those only
which have been grown in the north and recom-
mended by reliable growers.

Abundance (Botan). --Trees strong, handsome
upright grower, and early and abundant bearers.
Fruit as grown here about i ^ inches in diameter,
oblong, bright red with a heavy bloom. Flesh
yellow, very sweet, rich and juicy. For eating
from the hand it is excellent, but for culinary pur-
poses it lacks acidity and tone. Best for dessert.
Season, August.

Burbank. — This is practically, both in fruit and
tree like the foregoing, but the fruit is yellow and
sweet, more globular, and much in quality like the
first. Both these are hardy at Concord. Season
late, July or early August.

Satsuma. — Tree a fair grower, but not as good
as the others. Fruit is smaller but of good size,
and a very small pit; purple to dark red in color,
with a heavy bloom; flesh dark red with red juice,
and very good quality. Season, late August.

156 PLUMS.

Ogon. — Is not more than hardy enough for
southern Nebraska, and is tender and worthless in
the northern part of the state. Fruit larger than
the Botan, nearly round, or slightly flattened,
smooth, bright golden-yellow and of best quality.
Season, early August.

There are many varieties listed that have not
been tried sufficiently in the north to determine
their value, such as KeJsey (tender), Simoni (worth-
less), Willard (very early twenty -six Botan) Nor-
mand, Chabot, Baily, Yellow Japan (said to be
hardy at the north) Hattankin, Sweet Botan, Shira
Shomo -and others.

CHAPTER XI.

Peaches and Apricots.

IT is believed that peaches can be grown success-
fully and profitably as far north as the apple can,
by giving winter protection.

They are so grown near Scotland, S. D. , and
quite successfully still further north without, any
protection whatever.

There are two ways of affording this protection.

(1) by laying down and covering with earth and

(2) by training on a low trellis made for the pur-
pose, to be covered by litter and snow in winter;
the latter is preferred.

To lay them down it is necessary that they should
be planted with this in view. Plant one year-old
buds and instead of spreading the roots out in all
directions, flatten them, say north and south, mak-
ing them all lie east and west. It will be better to
choose some spot for the orchard where it can be
irrigated, to soften the ground and facilitate the
the work of laying down. The ground being wet
the tree is partially undermined both on the north
and south side and the tree is quite easily crowded
over to a horizontal position, where it is fastened
by stakes and covered, first with some coarse litter

158 PEACHES AND APRICOTS.

and following with some earth and clods to keep
it in its place.

When taken up early in May, the tree should
not be raised to a perpendicular position, but only
raised a few feet, as it will do as well and be much
more easily put down the next fall.

There will be a difference in the time to take
the cover off in different latitudes. The proper
time is when there is the first indication of growth,
which will be seen, as many of the twigs will be
exposed. It is also well to place some litter under
as well as over them to prevent the buds from rest-
ing on rhe ground where they are apt to rot if soil
is very wet.

This process of covering can be repeated till the
trees are five to eight years old and large enough
to bear two or three bushels of fruit each. There
is another method adopted by Peter M. Gideon by
which he has been able to grow them successfully
in Minnesota for many years. Prof. Budd also
recommends this plan.

A tree of one year's growth from the bud is used,
which will be from 3 to 4, and perhaps 5 feet high.
In the fall this is trimmed up to a single stem;
that is, all the side branches are cut off. The tree
is now laid down as has been directed, by softening
the ground with water and partially undermining
it, when it is covered as directed. The next spring
the covering is removed, and a forked stake is
driven over the trunk about midway to prevent
this part of the tree from rising, when the top is

PEACH KS AND APRICOTS. 159

raised in a curved position, and staked there where
it is allowed to grow nearly naturally.

The advantage in this plan is that the laying
down each fall does not necessitate the disturbance
of the roots, and the long curve, by partly bending
and partly twisting will readily yield to pressure,
and take a horizontal position. This may be
repeated several years, and when too large to handle
practically, one of the lower branches may be sub-
stituted for the original tree, which will be cut
away, and the same operation repeated with the
new tree.

To train upon a trellis. — Suppose we have a
single row of trees along the east or south side of a
grove, or other obstruction that will catch snow,
and if by a grove far enough from it so that the
roots will not reach out and rob our trees.

Set a row of posts with the row and about 2 feet
from it, and 16 feet apart. Set another row paral-
lel with the first, and about 6 feet from it. These
posts may all be common fence posts, but may be
cut in two in the middle, if of good length, so that
when set they will stand up about 18 inches. Nail
some 2 by 4 strips along the tops of these, edge up,
and it will be well to support them in the middle
also, by nailing on a piece of board there, one end
resting upon the ground.

This done we will staple a smooth fence wire to
one corner and take it across and back, stapling at
each side, till the whole frame is covered, and the
wires being in the middle about a foot apart. This

l6o PEACHES AND APRICOTS.

is to hold the trees under, and in place of this wire
any pieces of boards may be used, but the wire is
cheaper and better. If the wire is used it will be
necessary also to prevent spreading in the middle to
get some long light poles, or "bats" from the lum-
ber yard and staple them on midway between our
stringers, and running parallel with them. The
trellis is now done and the next and last operation
is bending the trees down and thrusting them
under it.

The peach is a rank grower, and if no further
attention is given it, it will soon grow up through
this trellis to such a height as to prevent covering
it practically. It will be necessary frequently dur-
ing the summer to look them over and bend back
and under the wires such shoots and branches as
have grown long enough to admit of it. A little
labor applied at odd times during the summer will
keep these perfectly under subjection so that few
shoots will be above the trellis.

In this position covering is an easy matter. A
good load of straw from the machine will cover
twenty to thirty trees. If they should get in addi-
tion to this a good covering of snow, which in this
position is quite likely,* it will add to the probabili-
ties of a crop, though there is little danger of
failure without it, even less than there is in the
peach countries, as there are always enemies to the
peach there that we shall not meet here.

Should the trees set very full of fruit it is advis-
able to thin it out considerably, and we shall get

PEACHES AND APRICOTS. Ibl

more fruit in weight, and of a much better quality
than if they are all allowed to mature, and the
strain will be less upon the trees.

The best ground for this orchard will be the
highest practicable location that the place affords,
and the ground should not be very rich . In time,
if fruit is not up to size the ground can be fertilized
by a liberal top dressing of well rotted stable
manure.

The hardiest and most successful varieties for
this system will be the Alexander, Wager, Hill's
Chili, Tong-Pa, Kilbourn and Salway. The Pop-
lar is a very hardy peach, but small and of only
fair quality.

The trees may be planted in this manner 6 to 8
feet apart, and if in course of time they become too
much crowded, each alternate one may be cut
away, but they will bear several good crops at this
distance.

It is believed that the peach will, in the near
future, be grown successfully and profitably as far
north as 42, and without protection of any kind,
giving a crop once in two or three years. They
have been grown here at times, and a few specimens
of the Poplar were grown in 1890 after the intense
cold of January in that year, in which the mercury
sank to 34 below, and at several times in the same
winter it was more than 20 below. It is a singular
fact that the same cold wave that gave that very
low temperature here gave the same at Wymore,
Nebraska, which is nearly to the Kansas line. The

1 62 PEACHES AND APRICOTS.

peach makes its wood and fruit buds the same
year, and if the wood or main branch is not killed
we can depend upon the buds every year, and
when the season is favorable a crop of fruit will
follow.

It is conceded that it is not necessarily the degree
of cold that kills the buds. Under some circum-
stances they will go safely through more than 20
below, while at other times, as in the present win-
ter, from 1 6 to 18 has destroyed them. Just what
the conditions are that make such a difference in
the ability of these buds to withstand this cold at
one time and to be destroyed by a much lesser
degree at another time, is not positively known,
consequently we do not know what we should try
to supply. I have noticed in examining these buds
in different winters that when the buds in the fall
are very solid and appear to be well stored with
starchy or glutinous appearing matter they are in
condition to go through the winter better than
when they seem dry and husky. In such condi-
tion as this they kill at a not very low temperature^,
The same is true of the cherry and apricot. It is
believed that a lack of moisture in the earth
at the time the buds are maturing is the one
great cause of their weakness, and if we could con-
trol this, which we frequently can, we shall have
reduced the risk from this source to its lowest terms.

In this connection let us refer to ' ' Adaptabilty of
Varieties, etc.," in chapter 2.

Natural trees from pits planted where they are

PEACHES AND APRICOTS. 163

.0 grow, have proved, as a class, much hardier
both in tree and fruit bud than the budded varieties.
For this reason \ve recommend those who live
much north of the peach belt, to plant pits from
northern grown fruit. There is little loss, even if
no fruit whatever is produced, while the chances
are that the little ground occupied by the trees will
at frequent periods give good returns for its use.
If nothing better the trees will be worth their room
for firewood, as the peach will make it nearly as
rapidly as any of the trees that are planted with
that express object.

Plant in the fall as soon as the fruit is borne,
plant in rows, 6 to 8 feet apart, and the pits a foot
or more in the rows. The first winters they should
all be covered, after that let them try which has
the best right to life, and the weak ones will be
cut out from year to year and in this way those
remaining will be thin enough, perhaps, to bear
several crops with little attention.

To illustrate this: A Mr. Joseph Katiffman, who
lives in Township 98, Range 55, in Turner Co., S.
D., planted a number of peach pits from Nebraska
grown fruit in about the year 1881, and in 1891
had a crop of from 8 to 10 bushels, and had fruit
for his family in '92 and '93, and some at various
times previous to this.

When we consider that these trees went through
more than 30 degrees below in the winter of 1889-
90 and bore this fine crop of fruit in 1891; it seems
little less than marvelous.

164 PEACHES AND APRICOTS-

There is one variety that reproduces itself
true to variety from seed, and this is the tree,
if any, that will in the indefinite future, as
prophesied by one of our best horticulturists, be the
one that will "Grow in the north, side by side
with the apple." This may seem improbable, but
we must, from the facts we already have, admit
that it is easily possible.

The variety referred to is the Wager and the
pits will in a year or more undoubtedly be upon
the market.

RUSSIAN APRICOT.

In 1890 the Iowa Horticultural Society passed
the following resolution unanimously: That the
Tree Blackberry is a fraud, and the Apricot,
Prunus Simoni, Salome apple and Keiffer pear are
too tender for general planting in Iowa.

As a whole little exception can be taken to this,
but the Apricot (Russian) deserves a little better
fate than to be ranked with the balance of the list.
Even in this the resolution was judicious at that
time, as varieties had not, and have not yet even,
established a positive character by which they could
be fairly judged.

Our first experience with these trees dates back
to 1885, when several seedlings were planted, and a
list of named varieties were top worked on the
Miner plum. These varieties were Alexander,
Catharine, Alexis, Budd, Gibb and Nicholas.
These have become large trees, but have only borne

PEACHES AND APRICOTS. 165

an occasional specimen of fruit. From this it is
believed that the plum is an uncongenial stock for
the apricot. To add to this testimony, many of
these varieties budded at the ground surface on the
common wild plum stocks grow finely till an inch
or more in diameter when they broke off under the
strain of a moderate wind, as directly as though
cut off with a saw. It is surmised that the apricot
is condemned too soon, and more for the reason
that it is worked on an uncongenial stock than from
reason relating specially to the tree itself. From
the first its hardiness of tree has been apparent. In
this it is the equal of our ordinary apple list at least
such as Winesap, Ben Davis, Jonathan, etc. The
trouble seemed to be in tenderness of fruit buds
which killed usually at from 18° to 20° 'below,
about the same as the peach.

In the winter of 1891-2 there was a degree of
cold most uncommon here of 34° below. At the
time of the next thaw following this it was discov-
ered, greatly to the surprise of all, that the fruit
buds were very little injured, and some fine fruit
was grown the following summer.

This effectually closed the argument of tender
fruit buds.

There is upon the ground of this station one
seedling apricot eight years from the seed, that
bore about one bushel of fruit the past summer
(1893), after a hard, dry winter in which 28° below
was recorded. This tree is 15 feet high, has a
spread of 12 feet and a circumference of 22 inches.

1 66 PEACHES AND APRICOTS.

The fruit is greenish yellow, about i ^ inches in
diameter, free stone and very juicy and sweet. It
is a fine dessert fruit. It is believed that there is
no established variety of this tree that can be safely
recommended at present for this latitude, but as
there are many not tried here, this may be an erron-
eous conclusion.

We advise every one to plant the pits, or one or
two year old seedlings, and, unless all indications
so far given by this tree are delusive and deceptive,
we shall soon have a fruit here that will solve the
problem, "The Peach for the North," whichisatthe
present time enlisting the best efforts of some of
our best horticulturists and experimenters.

When we succeed in growing the Russian apri-
cot as far north as the apple is grown, there will be
little; or at least less need of the peach, for it will
take its place for most purposes.

Too much importance cannot be attached to this
matter. This fruit will in the next ten years make
for itself a permanent place in the list of hardy
northern fruits.

The pits can be bought at many of the larger
seed stores, and can be planted either in fall or
spring. If in the spring, they should be cracked
carefully, and planted about 2 inches deep. If
planted in the fall before drying, and the ground is
moderately moist, they will burst the shell by the
action of the frost.

The kernel of the nut or pit is equal to the almond
in quality, only being smaller.

PEACHES AND APRICOTS. 167

There is a variety originated with Budd, that it
may be well to refer to, named by him Shense, but
also called Acme.

The originator of this variety says it is u From
seed sent me by N. W. Clima. It is the only hardy
apricot I know of, that bears a large fruit of excel-
lent quality. The tree is hardier than any of the
Chicasa plums." There is little doubt of the accu-
racy of the above, but the fruit buds may prove
tender. Again, it is not certain, nor even probable,
that the trees propagated from this will be as hardy
as the original seedling. The same is true of many
other fruits, and especially apples.

There are many that are perfect ( ' Iron Glads' '
when standing as natural seedlings, that are worth-
less propagated by any known method.

CHAPTER XII.

Cherries.

/CHERRIES are divided into two general classes;
^^ sweet and sour. The former comprise the
Mazzards, Hearts and Bigareaus, and, as they do not
succeed in the west will not be considered, except
to make the remark that in rare cases the Gov.
Wood has produced some fruit. This belongs to
the Bigareaus, is light greenish in color and faintly
blushed. It is nearly sweet. I have not tested
this variety in northeastern Nebraska, but have not
heard of its succeeding anywhere in the state. In
quality it is better for all purposes than the Dukes
or Morellos, having acid enough to make it a good
culinary fruit.

Prof. Budd says 26 Oriel is a sweet cherry from
Central Asia and will thrive and fruit anywhere
the Richmond will do well. It is on the grounds
at this station but not yet sufficiently tested to give
an opinion.

The sour cherries that are common in the, west
are among the surest of all the orchard fruits, and
require the least attention. • If there is such a thing
as the lazy man's fruit it is the sour cherry. This
tree will succeed where the apple will not thrive

169

170 CHERRIES.

well. In the shifting and drifting sands of the
northwest "'Sand Hills" it is almost as sure a crop
with a fair share of attention as their native sand
cherry.

What has been said under the heads of ' ' Orchard
Management' ' and 4 ' Making the Orchard' ' wijl
apply to the cherry as well as to the apple, with this
exception: they may be planted much closer, say
for most varieties 8 feet north and south by 16 feet
east and west. Should the trees after years inter-
fere too much each alternate one may be removed,
but this will rarely become necessary.

The cherries as well as all other stone fruit is
propagated by budding. They are mostly worked
on the Mahaleb stock. In planting a cherry there
will be a necessity of observing where the point of
union is between the stock and the bud, or tree
that has grown from it, and set the tree a little
below that point. The Mahaleb cherry, while
very hardy in root or stock when below ground, is
tender when exposed above. It is frequently the
case that this wood is left several inches above the
ground surface and in such cases in a severe winter
it is apt to kill and leave the tree worthless, with a
good root and perfect top, but a dead section of a
few inches near the ground. In such cases the
tree will leaf out and blossom weakly, but soon
dries up, as its food is cut off both from above and
below.

There is another point here to be remembered
also. If the tree is planted so deeply that a con-

CHERRIES. 171

siderable portion of the variety is below the ground
surface, it will strike roots from this wood and
from these roots suckers will grow up around the
tree and will in time spread to great distances and
make a forest of brush that is good for nothing,
and the parent tree is robbed of its support and is
of little value either. These sprouts of course are
the same as the variety from which the roots have
spread, and if transplanted and the sprouts from
these kept down, the trees will be of considerable
value, but not as good bearers as when on Mahaleb
roots, and on the whole they are very much of a
nuisance, on account of their sprouting proclivities.

The cherry should be headed back very severely
at planting. If the whole top, or a great portion
of it is left, the tree will seldom succeed. It will
start to grow almost as soon as it is given the light
and warmth, and the owner is apt to think that it
is a success when in about a week he will observe
that his tree is dying, and will be at a loss to know
the reason. Practically the reason is that he did
not head it back as directed, but the explanation of
the effect is that the buds burst into leaf before the
roots had commenced to grow, and the evaporation
above could not be supplied from below fast enough
to maintain its water supply.

In * 'heading back" do not cut off two year old
wood, but only that of the last year's growth, and
cut from two-thirds to three-fourths of each of
these shoots off.

It is necessary, in order to get the best results to

CHERRIES.

keep the trees cultivated and in good growing con-
dition. Weeds and grass should not be allowed to
mat under them. A good tool to work the ground
in this or any other orchard is the disc harrow. It
keeps weeds down ; does not ridge up to the trees,
and keeps the ground loose and friable.

On poor or moderately thin soils it will be well
to feed occasionally. To do this spread the surface
with fine stable manure, and leave it there. The
roots will find it all. Do not undertake to plow it
under.

If your trees are on a piece of very good ground
they will not need this for many years if ever, and
if over fed there is danger of injury to the trees.
On the Missouri drift soils, and on the higher lands
the cherry will be productive for about twenty
years; but on the black soil on the Mississippi
slopes, about half that time is their average life.

In making orchards of mixed fruits, where there
has been in some cases a failure on account of the
soil being clear sand, there has never been a failure
of the cherries especially, and the plums generally.
Both thrive well in the sandiest of lands.

Varieties — will be described first in their order
of value for all purposes.

Early Richmond. — Tree a rapid spreading grower,
forming a symmetrical, nearly round or slightly coni-
cal head, is a very early and prolific bearer; fruit a
light red, usually borne in pairs, is very juicy and
rich. The stem adheres so firmly to the pit
or stone that with care the fruit may all be gath-

CHERRIES. 173

ered, leaving the stems and pits still adhering to
the tree. This cherry succeeds under more unfav-
orable circumstances than any of the others.

English Morcllos. — In habit of growth much like
the Richmond, but slower, and ultimately makes
heavier branches and a larger tree. This tree may
be distinguished from the former while dormant by
its shorter growth of shoots, and its larger and
blunter fruit buds. It does not come into full
bearing quite so quick as the Richmond, but
becomes equally as good a bearer. Fruit is one-
third larger than Richmond, and from three to five
weeks later. Even when ripe it may safely be left
upon the trees for two weeks more with improve-
ment. In color it is a very dark red becoming
nearly black when fully ripe, and very rich, meaty,
flesh slightly astringent, and with a very small pit.
One of the recommendations of this fruit is that the
birds seldom molest it. It seems to be a little too
sour for them. For culinary purposes this is the
best of all the sour cherries.

Ostheim. — There are several varieties of the cherry
called by this name. There is but one genuine,
though the others have more or less merit. It is
dwarfish in tree, and like the most of the Russians
or North German cherries, is more like an over-
grown bush than a tree. It is more in tree and
fruit like the" English Morello than the Richmond,
although not so good a grower, and finer limbs and
twigs, and more upright, but still a spreading habit.
It blossoms the earliest of any of the cherries, and

174 CHERRIES.

will at times be caught by a late frost. ( It is a
strange fact, however, that in the spring of '91 we
had a frost so severe as to form ice the thickness of
window glass while these trees were in full bloom
and they were not injured, but bore a full crop of
fruit. This will seldom occur.) When in blossom
the tree is like a snow bank, almost purely white.
Fruit size of Early Richmond or a trifle smaller;
ripens between the two first described, or but little
later than the Richmond; is very dark purple and
very much better and sweeter than either of the
others described.

Late Richmond. (Kentish, or Late Kentish).—
This is regarded as next in value. Tree better
grower than either of the others, and more upright.
Fruit very closely resembles the Ostheim, only
lighter red. Quality about the same, or a little more
acid. Its time of ripening is in this latitude July
10 to 25.

With the above varieties where they will succeed,
it is not plain what will be needed of a much larger
assortment, and consequently there will be no
further practical need of describing them. The list
that is still kept up by the western propagators
and which are recommended by many would be
taking them in their order of value: Montmorcncy,
Dyehouse, Olivet, Riene Hortense, and Belle Mag-
nifique. It is not thought that these will be of
value north of latitude 41 which is about the mouth
of the River Platte. Below this line in some places
the Montmorency is considered only second in

CHERRIES. 175

value to the Early Richmond. These are all grown
in different parts of the northwest, but if they
succeed generally, they are not better than those
above described.

There is another list of cherries belonging to the
same families as above claimed to be much more
hardy, and to be capable of profitable production
much farther north than the others. They are known
as Russians, and are peculiar to that country and
to northern Germany. Many of these are upon the
grounds of this station but have not been suffici-
ently tested as yet to warrant a conclusive opinion.
The list will be that recommended by reliable
horticulturists of the different northwestern states,
who have made a study of them and are best quali-
fied to speak for them.

There are growing at this station, including the
list given below, eighteen varieties, all of which
have produced a few specimens, and all seem to be
closely allied to the Richmond and Morello, and in
time of ripening, color and quality fluctuate
between these two sorts, but some of them are of
slightly better quality. They are all hardy at
Concord. What experience we have had confirms
the reports of their value over a wide range of
country, especially in the north.

Given in the order of their value for all pur-
poses: Brussalaer Braune, Oriel 23, Lutovka,
Griotto du Norde, June A mare lie, Kings Amar-
clle, George Glass, Besarabian, Shadozv Amarelle,
Oriel 27, Spate Am arc lie and Shubianka.

176 CHERRIES.

Giving them in the order of their ripening we
shall have: Oriel 23, June A., Kings A., Bruss-
alaer Braune, Lutovka, Griotte du Norde, Oriel
27, George Glass, Spate A., Shadow A.y and Shu-
bianka.

A description of the last named is given from
Prof. Budd of Iowa. "Still another class of late
dwarf cherries will prove of value in the dry por-
tions of northwest Nebraska. This is represented
by our Shubianka and Oriel. They form bushes
rather than trees, and bear finely when only 3 or 4
feet high. The leaves are small but firm; the
twigs small — too small for grafting; and the habit
is that of a large currant bush ; but the fruit is as
large as the Early Richmond, with very small pit,
firm, dark colored flesh, colored juice, dark purple
skin, and very mildly sub-acid when ripe. These
bud very nicely on the Bird Cherry (Prunus Penn-
sylvanicd) and I think will do as well on the Dwarf
Mountain Cherry (Primus Pumilld). On these
stocks they would stand on the sandy lands of
northwest Nebraska and southeast Wyoming. ' '

Sand Cherry (Prunus pumilld). — This is found
growing wild in great profusion in the northern
and central parts of Nebraska, and generally over
South Dakota. Its habitat appears to be the sands,
and poorest lands, but does not take unkindly to
good soil and cultivation. It grows from i to 2 or
3 feet high, branching out into a strong bush like
the black currants; is perfectly hardy as far north
as any one will care to grow fruit of any kind, and

CHERRIES. 177

very productive, though in the richer soils it is
somewhat less so than in those more natural to it,
the sands.

The fruit is borne on stems like the cultivated
varieties, grows frequently to the size of the Early
Richmond, and is nearly black. It is astringent
uncooked, but loses this generally when so treated.

This is recommended for a stock upon which to
work some of the Russian varieties, and it may be
a success for this, as the buds take readily, but we
think the principal value of this very odd freak
will be recognized for its own fruit, which is suc-
ceptible of improvement to almost any degree. If
it is not improved beyond what it is now- which is
improbable — it will still command the attention of
northwestern planters and nurserymen, as the fruit
in many cases is really good and brings a good
price in the market. It buds readily on our
native plums making a hardy, graceful weeping
tree that is very fruitful.

Choke Cherry. — Here is another fruit that should
not be neglected much longer. Like the foregoing
it is entirely hardy in the extreme north, but it is
more dwarfish in these higher latitudes. It is also
astringent, which is relieved by cooking.

The tree grows to about 8 or 10 feet in height,
under favorable circumstances, but is more com-
monly found little more than half that.

The fruit is borne in racemes, like the black
cherry, and can be grafted or budded upon it, but
probably not upon the sand cherry. It is light

178 CHERRIES.

and sometimes dark crimson when fully ripe, and
at times nearly black, and I have seen specimens
that would measure y2 inch in diameter and almost
free from astringency. Those who have the oppor-
tunity should choose the pits from these best varie-
ties and plant, and by selecting and continuing we
may get a fruit that will rival or surpass the Dukes
and Morellos. The fruit when cooked has a pecu-
liar nutty and aromatic flavor that is pleasing to all.
The tree is very ornamental, always standing
erect with straight smooth stems, beautiful heavy
blunt leaves, and when in blossom it is very orna-
mental, and very fragrant. Its weak point for the
lawn is its tendency to spread by suckering. This
is not the Choke cherry of botany which is P. Vir-
giniana, this being P. demisa.

CHAPTER XIII.

Small Fruits.

STRAWBERRIES.

SOME one has said: "Doubtless God could have
made a better fruit than the Strawberry, but
doubtless God never did." Best of all, it can
probably be grown through more latitude than any
other fruit. Growing as it does so near the ground
it is easily covered, and in this condition the sever-
ity of the winter has but little effect upon it. It
can almost be said to thrive wherever wheat can
be successfully grown.

The person who is to grow strawberries, or any
of the fruits that will be described in this chapter,
for market, on an extended scale will provide him-
self with some of the many works devoted specially
to their culture; but as this is for the home and
home maker, we can only give such directions as
will be necessary for his guide to this end.

These plants are of two general classes; Stami-
nate and Pistilate. The former are bisexual, hav-
ing both stamins and pistils, and require no other
than their own pollen to produce fruit; while the
latter have only the pistils or female organs and

179

l8o SMALL FRUITS.

require a staminate variety near them for this pur-
pose. (See Fig. i, page 87.)

As "Nature abhors self-fertilization" it is found
that the results are not so good where we rely upon
the former alone as where both are mingled. These
words are abbreviated by the use of "S" for the
former and "P" for the latter, and are generally
used in the proportion of two of the pistilates to
one of the staminates. They may be mingled in
the same row for home use, but for market the
rows are alternated, in order to keep the fruit
separate which adds to its appearance. It is also
recommended that the same rule shall be followed
for the home as well. Try to forget that there is
to be a "strawberry bed" but plant in long rows.
This is not so necessary in town, in small gardens
as in the country where there is supposed to be
more room for this purpose, and the object is to
save hand labor by using the horse and cultivator.
(This will apply equally as well to all such veget-
ables as are usually grown in "beds".)

Select a good piece of rich ground that is not
foul with weed seed, and has not been manured
recently with cow manure, as it is apt to be full of
white grubs, which are very destructive to the
plants. Plow it deeply and carefully to turn under
all trash upon the top that may contain foul seed,
and smooth with the "planker" or clod crusher,
one of the cheapest and best of all the farm imple-
ments. The ground being smooth and in the best
possible condition, stretch a line across and walk

SMALL FRUITS. l8l

back on it which will furnish sufficient guide for
the planter, with no line in his way. Lay off all the
ground in this way, and we are ready to plant.

If both sexes are to be used, plant the Stami-
nates in the first row and follow with two rows of
the Pistilates and repeat till all are planted. We
have found the spade to be the best tool to do this
with. A man goes before, walking backward, and
pressing the spade into the ground draws it back
till there is sufficient room between it and the wall
of earth back of it to insert the plant. The roots
must be spread out fan shaped, and the plant placed
as near as may be in a natural position. This is
done by an assistant, and as the spade is withdrawn,
the man will with his foot press the ground from
him and downward till it is firm about all the roots.
This is sometimes done by the assistant with the
hands. It matters not if it is done well and no
cavities left about the roots. Set about i foot in
the row.

The plants may be carried in a shallow vessel,
sometimes water is kept in it but this is not neces-
sary, and makes the roots harder to separate. Never
wet the crown of the plant before setting. If they
are dry when received, wet the roots only, and
especially if the weather is very dry, clip off most
of the large leaves with knife or scissors before
planting. This may generally be done while they
are in the bunch.

Strawberries should be cultivated often and the
ground kept not only free from weeds but in a good

1 82 SMALL FRUITS.

friable condition. Cultivate once a week and
always after a rain as soon as the ground is in just
the right condition.

The matted row is the best system for home cult-
ure. This consists in allowing the runners to root
along the line till they have formed a close row of
from 12 to 15 inches wide. Such afield is good for
about three years, when there will be a decrease in
the size and quantity of fruit.

To renew this, there are several ways. One of
the best is to let the runners go free the third year,
then in July after all the fruit has been gathered,
mow the whole as if it were a meadow and when
dry burn it off. This will not hurt the young
plants, and is generally practiced yearly by some ol
our best growers. The next year the cultivator
will be used to plow up the old rows, keeping the
new for the succeeding crops.

During the summer mow some prairie grass
before it has matured any seed and let it cure in the
cock, for winter covering. Do not cover till the
ground is frozen slightly. These plants will grow
up to this time and if covered before growth has
stopped they will smother out. It is generally
enough to cover till all plants are out of sight, but
more will do no hurt. This material will not blow
off easy, but if there is danger of it a few corn
stalks or other heavy matter may be scattered upon
the covering.

There is a time when the first fruit commences
to color that the plants require water to produce a

SMALL FRUITS. 183

good crop. If there is no rain at about this time,
and the beds can be irrigated from some well tank
or otherwise it will assure the ripening of the crop.
Sometimes a plantation may be located with this in
view, placing it on ground near to and lower than
the water tank.

After the first year the field is not cultivated till
the fruit is picked, then it is kept in good condi-
tion by cultivating and pulling the weeds or mow-
ing and burning as above, following with the cul-
tivator. Should there not be sufficient rubbish
upon the ground to burn rapidly it will be well to
scatter on a thin coating of straw.

A fair yield of strawberries is about 2,000 quarts
to the acre though there are records of 200 bushels
or over 6,000 quarts, the Crescent and Warfield
No. 2 having given the highest amounts. Both
are pistilates, and fertilized with Capt. Jack, Piper
or Jessie.

A few only of the best varieties will be de-
scribed.

Bcder Wood, S. — Where one does not wish to
take the trouble of arranging a plantation with
both sexes this is the best variety for the Missouri
valley, and gives universal satisfaction. It is a
good pollenizer, and can be used with any other
variety blooming at the same time as a "help
meet." It is especially good with the Warfield No
2. Ivight red, conical, early, large to very large,
good quality, and fair shipper; makes runners very
freely and is very productive.

184 SMALL FRUITS.

Jessie, S. — Dark red, conical, medium to late,
larger than above and of better quality, not so good
a shipper and not so productive, though in the
Mississippi valley it is considered one of the best.

Parker Earle, S. — Named in honor of Mr.
Earle of Texas, who originated it. It is one of the
most promising of the newer sorts, and has become
standard with many of our best growers.

Ivike the Jessie it ripens uniformly and colors all
over alike. It is claimed to have produced 12,000
quarts to the acre. In color and size much like the
B. Wood, but ripens later, and is a better shipper.

Capt. Jack, S. — This is one of the older tried
sorts, and is very good, and can be used with good
effect as a fertilizer of most of the desirable varie-
ties. Is dark crimson, medium size, very good
quality, an excellent shipper, but not as prolific as
the B. Wood or Earle. As it cannot be expected
that the plant which furnishes its own pollen can
have the ability to also compete with those females
who have only the fruit to produce, we intersperse
these as has been described, and the following list
is believed to be sufficient for all purposes.

Warfield, P. — The only berry that has been able
to dislodge the Crescent in productiveness, and as
it is of better quality it is for all purposes, where it
has been tried, its superior. Deep red, colors all
over, very conical, medium to large, and holds out
in size well to the last picking. This and the B.
Wood will make an excellent combination for all
purposes.

SMALL FRUITS. 185

Crescent, P. — Too well known to need descrip-
tion. It has a place in all the large growers plan-
tations, and is a most excellent and very prolific
variety. Quality is only good. Its principal merit
is in its productiveness and shipping qualities. Is
fertilized by Jessie and Capt. Jack.

Bubach No. 5, P. — This is the largest of the
productive sorts, but as grown here is of poor qual-
ity, and will not ship to any great distance. Is
coxcomb shaped, light red, and a very strong
grower. Specimens grown here have measured
2^/2 inches in diameter. Is fertilized with Jessie
or Beder Wood.

Haverland, P. — This variety has the reputation
of standing drouth better than most of the others.
It is a strong grower, and roots very deeply, and is
free from rust which attacks many of the others in
the eastern states, but which at present has given
little trouble in the west. Early, productive, and
large to very large, ripens evenly, and is a good
shipper and market berry; blooms with the Beder
Wood, which will make a good fertilizer for it.

RASPBERRIES.

These are of two families, the Antwerp and
black cap. The former are generally red, and
called Antwerps (rubus strigosus), while the latter
are black, purple or yellow, and known as Black
caps, or Thimble berries (R. occidentallis). In ordi-
nary language these are known as the red and the
black, though the color should be different. The.

l86 SMALL FRUITS.

former propagate from sprouts thrown up from the
roots of the parent and are called suckers, while
the latter do not sucker, but propagate by the
recurved tips taking root in the soil. These are
called tips, or, more properly, stolons. They are
among our most valuable hardy small bush fruits,
but, like the blackberry, they do best in sheltered
positions. Where the canes (bushes) are liable to
winter killing, in latitude 42 or south, it is believed
to be generally due to the drying and wrenching
winds of winter more than to the intensity of the
cold. This is also true of the grape.

Where there is this liability it is an easy matter
to cover them and in this manner insure a crop
almost without peradventure. If planted in an
orchard of trees large enough to be of considerable
shelter, they will not generally need further pro-
tection, or they will do in the place least favorable
to the apple orchard, where well sheltered from the
north and west winds.

Prepare the ground as for strawberries, and plant
for a considerable field 4x8 feet; cultivate as for
corn. For a small lot for home use they can be
grown in a matted row system, or an approach to
that method. Plant 2 feet in the row and the
rows 8 feet apart.

The nurseryman hears more complaint from the
planters of the failure of the raspberry than any
other plant or tree. This is measurably so of the
snowball, and for the same reason, namely, the
great mass of fine roots which they bear. If these

SMALL FRUITS. 187

are properly spread out and earth worked among
them, they will grow if received in good condition;
but if stuffed into a hole, with no earth in contact
with any but the outside roots, those in the center
will soon mould and heat and, of course, die.
There is another great cause of failure to get the
plants to grow. There is left on all plants of the
black cap family a part of the old cane from which
the tip grew merely for the purpose of a handle
for bunching, etc. It is not necessary and is only
left on for convenience in handling. This is, per-
haps, 8 inches long. Many planters presume this
is to make the future plant and set the stolon
proper so deep that the new plant which is to grow
from the crown down in among the .fine roots will
never get through to the ground surface. They
must be planted deep enough so they will not dry
out, and at the same time not so deep that the
buds, which will always show at the crown, cannot
readily force their way through.

The canes will usually make quite strong bushes
the first year and give something like one-fourth
to a half crop the succeeding season.

They are also apt the first year to run on the
ground and not form the bush habit. No stolons
should be allowed to take the first summer, as it
weakens the plant too much. The first fall cut the
canes back to about a foot all around from the
crown, and the next summer, as the new canes
grow up stocky and thrifty, pinch off the ends
when at about 2>< to 3 feet high, and keep up this

1 88 SMALL FRUITS.

practice, not allowing them to grow higher than
this. By this treatment they will branch out and
better mature their wood; besides they will inter-
lace with each other and make a self-support.

The raspberry makes its wood one year, bears its
fruit upon it the next, and dies soon after the fruit
is gathered. This old wood, being of no further
use, should be cut out and burned.

If they are not to be covered for winter, a heavy
mulch applied to the ground between the rows has
been found of great benefit in preventing winter
killing. Much of this damage is due to drying,
and the mulch holding the moisture in the
ground, and by some process which we are not
acquainted with this moisture is supplied by the
roots to the tops, even in the freezing weather of
winter.

The above instructions are given expressly for
the care of the black caps, but is applicable to the
red in every particular except to the difficulty of
transplanting. If the suckers are allowed to grow
freely from the red raspberries, there will be but
little fruit. They must be kept down, and there
will be a very heavy and desirable crop.

The raspberry will yield about one- half as much
fruit to the acre as the strawberry. (See "Black-
berry" for directions for covering.)

Turner. — This is the best and hardiest of all the
reds. Fruit is light crimson, good size and of the
first quality.

Cuthbert. — Very much like the Turner, but not

SMALL FRUITS. 189

so hardy and not as good quality. Is a valuable
sort where they are to be covered.

Shaffer1 s Collossal. — This is a cross between the
reds and blacks, and is a dark purple, very large,
nearly double the size of the Turner and of excel-
lent quality. Is very difficult to propagate, as the
tips will not take root unless pinned down, and
then frequently do not. It is not as hardy as the
Turner, generally killing every winter in the
northern half of Nebraska. It should have winter
protection.

Souhegan. — Is the hardiest of all the black caps
and stands at the head of the list for the north.
Canes are intensely thorny, more so than any of
the others. Fruit of medium size and best quality.
It will stand in many places without protection,
but if it is found to injure can be covered there-
after, with the loss of but one crop.

Tyler. — Same as Souhegan.

Gregg. — In the Mississippi valley this is the most
profitable berry grown. Is at home on the black
soils of that locality. It is the largest of all tli9
true black caps, and when fully ripe has a purplish
tint. Quality best. Does not succeed so well in
the northern Missouri valley where it is too tender.

Older. — These have been planted largely by us
in the last year, but as yet it is too early to give a
description on their merits, but copy the descrip-
tion given by a large grower, who is perfectly
reliable:

"This originated in northeastern Iowa about 10

190 SMALL FRUITS.

years ago. I have now grown it four years. Last
season I kept an account of all my raspberries as I
picked them, and the Older produced 50 per cent
more fruit than any of them on the same amount
of ground. The Older is jet black, no bloom,
about as large as the Gregg, three days later than
Tyler or Souhegan in time of ripening, and about
six days earlier than Gregg. S. T. Ballard, of
Wisconsin, says of the Older's good qualities in
the Kansas Review:

" 'First — Its hardiness to withstand all the win-
ters as far north as the Wisconsin line, where I am
growing it,and perhaps as far north as L,ake
Superior.

" 'Second — It is perfectly drouth-proof, always
ripening all its fruit into fine berries, when Gregg,
Ohio, Tyler, Souhegan and Milbourn dry up and
not half be fit to pick.

' ' 'Third — It will produce more fruit to a yard of
row than any other berry. It ripens six days in
advance of the Gregg.

' ' 'Fourth — The berries average larger than any
other the season through. They are coal black,
with the richest and thickest of juice, and the
smallest seeds of any black cap, hence is best for
table use and canning.'

"So far as my judgment goes after fruiting it for
four years, I think Mr. Ballard' s estimate is correct. ' '

The Doolittle, Mammoth Cluster and Hopkins
have merits, but with the above it is not thought
that they will be necessary.

SMALL FRUITS. 1 91

BLACKBERRIES.

With a little care this fruit may be grown suc-
cessfully wherever Indian corn is a success, and,
with laying down and covering in winter
much further north, provided there is sufficient
rainfall. An extended drouth at or near the time
of ripening is fatal to the fruit, as it dries up
badly. For this reason it will be well in selecting
the location for the small fruit patch to locate it
where it can be irrigated from the tank or well. In
most parts of South Dakota where there is cheap
artesian water this will become an easy task, and is
one of the many advantages that this highly favored
state enjoys, yet seems not to be fully appreciated.
The presence of an artificial or other pond near the
orchard or fruit garden is of great benefit, aside
from its value for other purposes.

Where this fruit is raised along garden fences or
the edges of timber belts, without cultivation, as
it frequently is and very successfully, too, the danger
of these drouth periods are greater than where grown
in cultivated land checked off like corn.

Where there is plenty of rainfall the blackberry
succeeds well grown in the cottonwood groves,
provided that the trees are not too close and the
ground is good. They will probably succeed as
well in the orchard or in the ash groves, but they
are a failure in the box elders.

In the above it is supposed that they are to be
grown by what is known as the "slip shod" manner,
that is, no particular work except planting and

192 SMALL FRUITS.

picking the fruit. I have seen some fine planta-
tions of this kind that produced large quantities of
fruit. One patch is now in my mind, near Wisner,
Nebraska, consisting of about three-fourths of an
acre, that has not for years made a failure, except
from drouth causes. They are grown in an old
cottonwood grove; the trees are very large but not
very close. The entire patch is a bramble, the old
dead canes are not even cut out, but they make a
growth yearly of 8 to 10 feet in height and are very
productive. These are the Snyders ; but there is in
the same grove a smaller patch of Kittitinnies that
only bears at rare intervals.

This mode of growing is only a makeshift, but
is much better than nothing, and many are so
situated that they will follow this plan and almost
get something for nothing. The better way is
to devote proper time and space to them, and
make a success. If near a market they will always
be in demand at good prices, and will be found to be
a much more profitable crop than wheat or corn.
If not near a market we have found that among the
neighbors there has always been a good market for
any surplus fruit.

Select a piece of good land, not the black muck
of the river bottoms, but a rich clayey loam. Plow
deeply, aud put it in the best condition. The
ground may be laid off with a corn marker and
the plants set only in each alternate row. This
will make them something like 4x8 feet apart. If
practicable let the rows run north and south.

SMALL FRUITS. 193

There are but two varieties of this fruit that nave
been sufficiently tested in the northwest that can
be recommended, the Snyder and Ancient Briton;
plant half of each kind alternating the rows.

Good plants will always have at the bottom of
the cane a cross section of root. Where the plants
are carelessly taken up this cross root is pulled off
and left in the ground, leaving only the stub for
the purchaser. Such plants rarely grow, and it is
essential that we get a stand the first planting.
Keep the cultivator running; keep down all weeds
and keep the ground in the best condition. If we
get a good growth this year we may look for nearly
half a crop ot fruit the next season. If in a section
where there is danger of winter killing by leaving
them up, we will cover them in October or
November. Three men will be required to do
the work to the best advantage. The first with a
heavy pair of buckskin gloves gathers the canes
into a bunch, and as he presses them down one
takes a spadeful of earth away from the roots in the
direction that the plants are being laid, while the
other puts his spade in deeply on the opposite side,
cutting some of the roots, and the plant is easily
bent close to the ground. It will be enough generally
to pin them there or secure them by laying on some
branches of trees. In this condition they will
generally go through the winter all right, but if in a
very cold and windy climate it is better to cover
lightly, either with earth or some litter that will
protect them better from the drying wind.

194 SMALL FRUITS.

Three men will lay down and cover about one
acre per day. The distance apart as above will give
about 1,400 plants to the acre. The third year they
will be in full bearing and will with good care
yield about 3 to 4 quarts to the bush, and in some
cases have produced more than double that. The
Snyder is somewhat hardier than the Ancient
Briton and will be the only plant proper for the ' 'slip
shod" system. It will not yield like the latter, nor
hold out the size of fruit to the last picking like it.
Both are" excellent fruits, and good shippers.

In placing the canes back the next spring, do it
early, and do not try to get them to stand upright.
Those laying near the ground produce the best and
most fruit. If the patch is thoroughly mulched so
as to keep down weeds and suckers, it will add to
the yield and save the labor of cultivating. This
will also, in case they are not laid down be a great
preventive of root or cane killing.

Cut the old wood out as soon as the fruit is off
and the bushes begin to fail. A strong knife
welded to the shank of a hce, and used on the
handle, the blade standing at a right angle to it
will be found an excellent tool for this work.

CURRANTS.

This fruit, like the strawberry and gooseberry, is
one that will thrive in the extreme northern limit
of the wheat belt, is easily cared for, and no farm
or town garden should be without a yearly supply.
It requires the best of ground, and a partially

SMALL FRUITS. 195

shaded situation. The north side of a board fence
or row of wild plums, or, better, Russian Mulberrier
will furnish this. For field culture plant rows 6 to
8 feet by 2 to 3 in the row.

The ground must be of the best, and then they
will be benefitted by a yearly application of stable
manure. Keep them cultivated and the ground in
a loose, mellow condition, in order to keep it
moist.

A heavy mulching of sawdust or partly rotted
straw, applied in the fall after the leaves have been
shed, will insure a crop which in other cases might
fail. It will be left on indefinitely, and save culti-
vation. This is especially desirable in sandy lands,
and in places where they cannot have the shade
referred to, as it prevents the ground from becom-
ing -too hot, and supplies some moisture to the
foliage.

The currant starts to grow very early in the
spring, and if young plants are received that show
much starting of the buds the tops should be cut
off to near the ground. The same treatment should
be given if they appear to be dry when received.
This is very important.

The White Grape is the best of the white varie-
ties, and with us has. been the most prolific of any.
It is also for home use the best of any in quality,
but is not so good as a market variety as the red
ones, as the fancy of the consumer is for the reds.

The Victoria stands first of the latter class, is a
very strong grower, and makes the largest bush of

196 SMALL FRUITS.

any, sometimes standing 3 to 4 feet high ; is prolific
as any, and ripens ten days to two weeks later than
the Red Dutch, though comes to bearing later.

Red Dutch. — One of the oldest of the well-known
varieties, and can always be depended upon to do
well, but especially so in the heavy black soils of
the Mississippi valley.

Long Bunched Holland. — This should be tried to
some extent by every planter. Where it does well
it is one of the best, but in many places does not
bear well. It is thought to do better on the heavy
clay soils than on the bottoms or prairies. Slow
grower while young. Ripens late.

Black Naples and Lee* s Prolific have proved to be
the best of all the black varieties, but have not with
me been worth cultivating in Nebraska, while in
eastern Iowa and western Illinois they are valuable.

La Versalles is a red variety that is in favor
with some, but with the varieties above described
will not be necessary.

GOOSEBERRIES.

As hardy as the currant, and too well known to
need much description. It is easily grown treated
as has been described for the currant. Its natural
home is in the open forest, and rich compost
soils of the partly shaded and protected ravines,
and along streams. It will not give so good results
if allowed to become matted in the rows with grass
and weeds as is too frequently the case, and will
repay well any extra care that may be given it.

SMALL FRUITS. IQ7

The cultivated varieties are much superior, both
in size, quality and productiveness, to the wild ones.

They may be planted in rows 5 feet apart and the
plants set 4 feet in the rows. Larger and better fruit
is obtained by judicious pruning in the fall after
growth has ceased. Mulching is also of benefit)
and is resorted to by many, on account of the diffi-
culty of working closely among the canes, where
the thorns are somewhat irritating.

The gooseberry plant starts the earliest in the
spring of any of the small fruits, and if received in a
much advanced condition, will not be apt to grow
under any but the most favorable conditions. If
the tops are cut off to near the ground as soon as
planted they will grow readily, and no loss is occa-
sioned by it, for it is generally the case that this,
or any other plant treated in this way, even if
received in the best condition is benefitted by it,
and the plant will be as large in the fall as if it
had not been cut back. This is of importance.

Of the European sorts the Industry has given the
best results of any, and in some places has been
highly praised. The fruit is very large, frequently
as large as a large wild plum, and of excellent
flavor, but it is better to try them very lightly, as,
like all the other foreign varieties introduced here,
it is subject to mildew. Where the varieties
described below are easily grown its principal value
is in its oddity. The bush grows upright and strong
under favorable conditions; in leaf and expression
it is like the Downing.

198 SMALL FRUITS.

Downing. — The largest of any of the American
sorts (and this has foreign blood in it), and stands at
the head of the list for the west for all purposes,
though with some the Houghton is classed as
first

Bush quite upright when young, drooping some-
what when in fruiting, has large and strong spines,
from which it is readily recognized from the
Houghton. Fruit is very large, oblong, sometimes
i inch the long way by ^ to ^ the other; greenish
yellow when ripe and very handsome.

Houghton. — Purely American, and one of the
largest and surest croppers. Little more than half
the size of the last named, it will bear in bulk as
much or more. Fruit more of a pinkish cast, and
partly transparent, showing the seeds through the
skin. The bush is of a trailing habit, and when in
full bearing fruit is apt to lay on the ground.

Smith1 s Improved. — Is not so good a grower as
the Downing, which it resembles, both in bush and
fruit, though the fruit is not so large, and of light
green color when fully ripe. Is of good quality.
Shy bearer in Illinois.

DEWBERRIES.

A variety of tne blackberry, and is a runner or
creeper, sometimes called Running blackberry. In
this vicinity they have done no good, while on the
clayey bluffs near Sioux City they have been very
successful. It is well to try them in a small way,
for where they succeed they are very valuable, as

SMALL FRUITS. 199

they are enormously productive, and are very easily
covered for winter where this is necessary.

The vines should be cut to about 12 to 15 inches
from the hill in the fall before covering. They do
not sprout like the high bush blackberries with
this treatment, but if the tops are cut away entirely
they will throw up sprouts at some distance from
the hills.

The lyticretia is the best variety thoroughly
tried, but the Bartell is highly recommended.

DWARF MOUNTAIN JUNEBERRY.

A variety of the old serviceberry or shadberry of
the New England states, but is much superior in
all respects. It grows but about 4 to 6 feet high
and is perfectly hardy. It is also a fine ornamental
tree or shrub, bearing an immense load of pure
white fragrant flowers very early in the spring.
These are followed by a load of dark red or purple
berries the size of large peas, and very much the
same appearance as the huckleberry. It is fre-
quently sold for them, and I am of opinion that
some western nurserymen, not being acquainted
with that fruit, have done it innocently. It is no
more related to the huckleberry than it is to the
hickory. The former is of the genus Vaccinium,
while the juneberry is Amelanchien.

It propagates by suckering, but not to a very
considerable degree. The young plants from the
nurseries are generally destitute of any but the
main root, and it is necessary before planting to

2OO SMALL FRUITS.

cut the tops to near the ground to insure their
growth.

BARBERRY OR BERBERY.

Does well in the west, but not as productive as
in the New England states, where in many parts it
grows wild, and is very prolific and very handsome.
The bush grows to the height of 6 to 8 feet, and is
covered with spines, which are not troublesome, as
they easily break off when pressed. It is little
grown in the west, and has the reputation of pro-
ducing the rust that starts in the wheat fields. It
is generally thought that this is an error, but inves-
tigation has determined that this rust is identical
with that of the wheat.

The fruit is the shape of a grain of rice, but
hardly as pointed, deep crimson and borne in
racemes, and is largely used for preserves, jellies, or
other purposes, being much like the currant in
acidity, and very pleasant. It has a large seed
which lessens its value for many purposes. The
purple-leaved variety is used much for ornament,
having bright purple foliage. It also bears fruit,
but not so profusely as the other.

BUFFALO BERRY.

This is confined to the northwest, indigenously,
where it grows along the river bottoms, and is
easily distinguished at a great distance from the
silvery leaves. It is irregular in habit, and grows
to the height of 10 feet or more. The tree is
dioecious, purely, requiring the two sexes together

SMALL FRUITS. 2OI

to produce fruit. The berries are some what smaller
than the currant which they much resemble both in
taste and appearance, being, however, slightly more
astringent, and are borne upon short racemous
sprigs. The fruit is used for the same purposes as
the currant. It is, when removed from its natural
habitat, apt to be a shy bearer, but when every-
thing is favorable it is immensely productive.

CHAPTER XIV.

Grapes.

is no better fruit for the home garden
A and none more easily grown in large quantities
than the grape, and there is none more wholesome.
Its habit is such that it can be trained to the trellis
or upon the building, occupying but little space
upon the ground ; it recommends itself as strongly
to the villager with his small cottage and few feet
of land as to the one with more ample room.

Some of the principal requisites of success are
a proper location, thoroughly prepared ground,
deep and careful plowing and smoothing, good
cultivation and judicious training.

Most of the good soils of this section are proper
for this purpose, but a warm sunny location, with
some protection from the north and west as groves
or belts of timber, is a desirable one.

The rows should be run east and west, as this
gives the greatest amount of sunlight to the ground
between them. Put the rows 8 feet apart and
the plants from 8 to 10 feet in the row.

A good one year old vine is preferred to start
with. Before planting cut back all the top to one
or two buds, and the roots to about 8 to 10 inches.

203

204 GRAPES.

We have practiced cutting them much shorter than
this and had the best results, and it saves time in
planting.

These vines are grown from cuttings as will
readily be seen, and this cutting should be entirely
covered when planted. It has been in the ground
for one or two years and has become practically a
root instead of a cane as it was. The root of the
grape is very sensitive to drying', and if the greater
part of this cane-root is left exposed to the air there
will be great loss. There is no one thing that
causes so much loss to the planter as this. Slant
the cutting to the north at an angle of about 45
degrees. Spread the roots out in a natural position
but do not make the mistake of placing them in a
downward direction. The root of a grape keeps
near the surface, and should not be given much of
a downward direction below the bottom of the
cutting. They must not be allowed to dry, for they
will perish in the sun or wind almost as quickly as
those of an evergreen.

Cultivate thoroughly but not so deeply as to
interfere with the roots which run very
near the surface. It will not be necessary
to put up trellises till the third year, though
there will usually be some fruit the second.
It is better to set the posts for the trellis about 16
feet apart, and they should be extra length, say 8
feet or 10 would be better, so that when firmly set
in the ground the top wire can be 6 feet from the
ground. These should be set about a foot or more

GRAPES. 205

north of the line of grapes. Use three plain fence
wires, the first 2 feet from the ground, one at the
top, and one midway. The best fruit will be that
which grows the highest.

The first and second year do not encourage the
vines to climb, but rather keep them as close to the
ground as possible. Do not let them spread toward
each other, but by staking or weighting, make
them all take the same direction. For instance we
are on the south side of a row facing it; all vines in
this row should grow to the right or left, it matters
not which. By this system the vines can be much
more easily laid down, and they have the same
room as if trained fan shaped, which is usually
recommended. There is another object which we
accomplish by this; the main canes are for some
distance parallel with the ground and close to it.
However large they may grow, there will never be
any trouble to cover them, as is the case where
they are taken out in an upright position, in which
case this wood gets so large in a few years, and so
rigid as to preclude laying down. Where this is
the case with old vineyards they can be renewed
by allowing new canes to grow from nearer the
ground and when large enough the old ones are
removed.

Take only three canes from the plant, two is
better than four. The lowest of these will of course
be carried the furthest horizontally, the middle one
next, and the top one but a few inches or a foot.
Spread these out upon the wires, giving as near as

206 GRAPES.

may be the same amount of space to each, so that
when they commence growing they shall cover the
trellis evenly.

The great fear of the planter is that he will not
be able to prune properly. There are several
methods employed, but the principle, or the object
to be obtained is the same in all cases. Had we
not departed from nature, by crowding too many
vines upon the ground, it is my opinion that little
or no pruning would be required. I have seen a
Concord vine that had escaped from its straight
jacket, and climbed a dead apple tree, produce more
and better fruit than would ordinarily grow upon
4 or 5 vines as ordinarily pruned. Nevertheless,
-there are reasons why the close planting is the
better. We shall get a full crop of fruit sooner
from the same ground than if we plant only one
fourth as many vines, which would contemplate
waiting till the vines had become as large as the
aggregate of the closer planted ones.

The amount of fruit where a close pruning system
is pursued will be regulated by it. If we allow too
much fruit to set it will be smaller, of inferior
quality, and is apt not to ripen.

Each bud or "eye" is an embryo branch or
lateral, which when developed will produce, about
three bunches of fruit. In pruning keep this in view.
Large strong vines will of course be allowed to
bear more than smaller ones. The temptation is
always to save too many of these buds, presuming
that more buds will bring more fruit.

GRAPHS. 2O7

Better have fewer bunches of better quality. This
will hold good in any fruit that has a tendency to
overbear. By reducing the numbers we shall get
the same, or perhaps more in weight that will com-
mand a better price, and the tree or vine is relieved
of its greatest and most debilitating strain, that of
maturing the seeds.

Pruning may be done either in the spring or fall.
If in the fall, which is preferred, November or late
October is a good time.

Let us suppose that the vine has been planted two
or three years and has three canes 5 -to 6 feet long.
There are not at this time any branches to be con-
sidered, and we will shorten them to about 3 feet
and they are ready for winter cover.

The next fall each bud will have made a lateral,
and each bearing several buds. - Besides this the
main canes will have made an extension of several
feet. We will again shorten these to about half
their last year's growth, being governed by the
growth it has made and the space it is to cover.
The laterals will also be shortened to from one to
three buds, according to the number of these later-
als, and the strength of the vine. When the vine
has reached the limits of space reaching to the next
vine, it is thought that two buds to each lateral will
give the best results.

The canes when treated in this way are ready not
only for covering, but to go upon the trellis in the
spring. It is not best to take them from the cover
very early, as the grape starts late, and should be

208 GRAPES.

allowed to remain till the buds show some indica-
tion of growth, but not till much swollen, as in this
condition they are very easily broken off in hand-
ling. Tie them up as has been directed, leaving a
good space between the wire and cane for expan-
sion, and do not pass the cords around the canes as
it will grow into them and cut them off.

There is a system of laying down without taking
from the trellis. Each vine has a trellis of its own
consisting of a frame 10 feet long, and as high as
required, hinged to solid blocks at the bottom. It
has also longitudinal wires. By removing the
props it will fall readily to the ground. This is of
little benefit as the vines must be taken from the
trellis for pruning, and can be done as well from a
permanent trellis.

The grape arbof is a beautiful addition to the
home grounds. It may be costly or very primitive,
and cheap in construction, it matters little as it is
soon hidden by the mass of foliage and interlacing
vines. As the fruit hangs down, it is nearly all in
sight from the underside, and there can be no more
beautiful sight than that given in one of these
shady bowers, tasseled and festooned with purpling
clusters of grapes, so sharply defined beneath their
canopy of amber and emerald.

The best of all sorts for this purpose in a trying
climate is the Janesville, which is described below.
The object, of course, in laying down these vines
is to prevent winter killing, but it comes through
the better retention of the moisture in the canes.

GRAPES. 209

There are times when vines left on the trellises will
go through the most severe winters uninjured,
while at other times a less severe winter is fatal to
them. When the. vines kill it is not usual that the
roots are affected, but in this loss of canes we are
set back at least one year.

It is believed that the different effect upon the vines
in different winters as above, is caused by the con-
dition of the ground in the fall as to moisture, and
perhaps to the manner in which the canes ripened the
previous summer, but in a less degree. It will kill or
severely injure plants to freeze them dry, and when
there is no moisture, or very little in the ground at
the time of freezing, there is danger of a total loss
of the plant. This is more especially the case if
the plants are young and have not secured a strong
hold upon the soil. This is the reason that so
many complain that their vines made a fine growth
the first year and died the first winter. If there
could have been some way to have supplied this
moisture, and the vines had been properly covered,
this would not have occurred. Even in these dry-
est of falls, if the ground has been properly culti-
vated there will still be enough moisture retained
to carry the plants through, and these losses are
generally the fault of the planter. Very many
people do not yet realize how important this stir-
ring the ground is in a dry climate.

It is a mistake to suppose that grapes will
ripen in the sunlight better than in a partially
shaded position. Many have thought to hurry

210 GRAPES.

the ripening process, fearing an early frost, and
have picked or cut away the leaves to allow the
sun a better chance at them. Instead of hastening
it delays it, and if too severely done they will not
ripen at all, but burn, sour and drop off. The
leaves are the lungs of the plant and as such should
be allowed to remain as nature intended.

Summer pruning consists of pinching off the
growing shoots after the fruit has been all set.
This practice is at best very questionable, and as
very satistactory results are obtained without it, it
should be done sparingly, and then only with a
part to learn its effects. Some very rampant
growers like the best of the Rogers hybrids might
be improved by it if done judiciously.

Winter protection. — In parts of the country
where there is plenty of rainfall, and the ground
is in fairly moist condition in the fall, it is only
necessary to lay the vines down and cover with
earth, barely enough to say they are covered. This
is the usual practice in the Mississippi valley, and
the latitude of 40 and below, but further north, in
northwestern Iowa, and southwestern Minnesota,
and Dakota, it has not proved to be as reliable as
the use of mulch of some kind, such as partly
rotted straw, corn stalks, &c. Something that
will prevent the canes from drying too severely,
and will not easily blow off.

Many are recommending the putting down and
covering the tops only, claiming that the large
stems are not hurt by the severest winters. This

GRAPES. 211

practice may have been successful at times, and
may not subject the vine grower to loss, but the
author lost large Concords in 1876 protected in
this way, which is a warning that it is not always
a safe practice.

In varieties the Concord still holds the lead, com-
bining more good qualities than any other, though
the Worden is a very close competitor. The
former is too well known to need a description.
It is not of first quality, nor indeed second,
though in hardiness, freedom from disease and pro-
ductiveness no other grape can show so many good
points over so great an extent of territory. To be
at its best it should be thoroughly ripened, and
when kept carefully for three or four weeks after
gathering, it is at least a very good grape.

The Worden very much resembles the Concord,
both in fruit and vine, but is from ten days to
sometimes two weeks earlier, ard of much better
quality. Its fault is in having a very thin skin
which lessens its value as a market variety, and as
a keeper.

A great number of varieties are not necessary,
though there is generally a disposition on the part
of grape lovers to plant every new variety that is
presented with a good "pedigree." We will first
give a sufficiently large list alphabetically and then
name them in the order of their value as we have
found them.

Agawam (Rogers No. 15). — This together with
all the R. Hybrids were obtained from seed of the

212 GRAPES.

native fox grape of New England, fertilized by the
foreign Black Hamburg. It is light purple, and
very large and showy. Quality, good to very good,
and a good keeper.

Brighton. — Amber or brownish red; berries
oblong; medium size or below; bunch very long,
shouldered, but not compact. The vine is a
vigorous grower, and fruit ripens with or before the
Concord. Quality, best.

Coe. — This is an old variety that seems not to
have taken so good a hold of the public as some
others that are far inferior. It is a very early, black
grape; bunch and berry small, but an immense
bearer and almost as hardy as the Clinton. It is
one of the grapes that will do in most locations for
the arbor, or where it is not to be protected during
winter. It is much better in quality of fruit than
the Janesville, and nearly as good a grower.

Clinton. — This approaches nearer the type of the
wild or ( ' Frost Grape ' ' than any other cultivated
variety. It is very hardy; black, bunches small
and compact; fruit, below medium size. It has the
high vinous flavor of the wild grape, and is valu-
able for wine making. Its fault is in bearing a few
berries of green fruit in each bunch, which gives it
an unsightly appearance. Though the quality is
such as to rule it from the list of table grapes, it is,
when thoroughly ripe and has been kept for a few
weeks, of very fair quality, and by some preferred
to the Concord. The leaf is light and thin like
the wildings.

GRAPES. 213

Concord. — Black, large berry; strong grower;
fair quality; hardy, and free from disease.

Croton. — A very good, white grape, but quite
tender. Not a good grower.

Delaware. — This is one of the oldest of the
popular pink grapes. It should be in every col-
lection; though in some localities it does not
succeed well. Bunch and berry very small, but a
profuse bearer, and so beautiful as to be sought for
in the best markets at the highest price. Quality,
best. The vine is a fair grower, but its tendency
is to overbear, which, if allowed, will frequently
cause its death.

Duchess. — This is among the best of the white
grapes for all purposes. It succeeds through a
wide range; is a great bearer, and best quality.
The skin is thick, which makes it a good keeper
and good shipper. Bunch and berry medium, and
fairly compact.

Early Victor. — An early grape of good quality.
Black ; bunch and berry small. Not a good grower,
but does well on the rich soils along the river
bottoms.

Elvira. — This grape is to the white ones what
the Concord is to the black. It is a standard, and
when all others fail can be depended upon to
supply the table with a very good crop of fair fruit.
Bunch and berry, medium to small. Ripens with
the Concord or later.

Ruipire State. — A comparatively new grape from
New York. It has been, like many others of these

214 GRAPES.

new varieties, held at exhorbitant prices. It is,
however, among the best of the white class. In
quality of fruit it is best, and if we except the
Brighton, perhaps the best. Bunch and berry
very large; pulp, small, with a very delicious,
rather thick and rich juice. It is not as good a
grower as some of the others described, but is
medium. It is a good keeper.

Goethe (R. H., No. i).— Where this excellent
grape will ripen it should be in every amateur list.
Brown or wine color; very large berry and medium
bunch. Quality, best. The best of the R. H. for
the West.

Lady. — Also a white grape of good quality;
closely resembles the Martha, but berry is more
transparent and slightly better quality. Good
grower and hardy when covered.

Martha. — Sometimes called "White Concord"
of which it is a seedling. Good grower and hardy;
not a good bearer, except in the best of soils.

Merrimac (R. H., No. 19). — In quality and time
of ripening like Goethe. Black, very large berry;
bunch not compact, and many berries fail to
mature.

Moore* s Early. — Has had too much praise for
its value in this locality. L,arge berry and small
bunch; ripens unevenly, and sometime before the
Concord. Drops its fruit as soon as ripe, and
sometimes sooner. Quality, fair.

Pocklington. — A very good, medium, yellowish,
white grape; good grower, very healthy; holds its

GRAPES. 215

fruit well. It has a very sprightly flavor for a
white grape, but one tires of it sooner than of
many of the others.

Wilder (R. H., No. 4).— Too nearly like Merri-
mac to require both in same collection.

Worden. — Closely resembles Concord, but ripens
ten days earlier; better quality; not so good a
grower, but very prolific. For a home grape it is
one of the three best. Not so good a shipper as the
Concord.

Among the promising newer varieties not
described here are Jefferson, Woodruff's Red,
Niagara, Green Mountain or WinchelL These are
all undoubtedly valuable but have not been tested
by me long enough to decide upon their merits.

The following list is given in the order of their
value for all purposes: Concord, Worden, Brighton.
Elvira, Coe, Duchess.

The following is given in their order for quality:
Brighton, Empire State, Worden, Delaware, L,ady,
Goethe.

In time of ripening the following: Champion
(not described as quality is too poor), Coe, Worden,
Moore's Early, Lady, Pocklington, Concord.

CHAPTER XV.

Description of Apples and Pears.

IN describing the apples as given below, to avoid
confusion in terms variously employed to denote
hardiness, they will be numbered from one to ten,
the hardiest being numbered one, and the tenderest
ten, intermediate numbers denoting the different
degrees between them as near as may be.

It is common in our western horticultural socie-
ties to place these different sorts in certain latitudes,
but as we have shown in another place under the
relationship of hardiness to latitudes, it has been
thought better to make the above distinctions.

It is well to remark here, that there will no
doubt, be exceptions to this classification in indi-
vidual cases. Thus: the Ben Davis is marked 5,
while there are cases where it is standing, and has
stood for years side by side with the Duchess which
is marked i. The intention is to convey in the
simplest manner what the reputation is in general,
of certain varieties mostly grown in the northwest.

SUMMER VARIETIES.

Tctofski, also known as Russian Crab. — This is
undoubtedly of Russian origin, but entirely unlike

217

21 8 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

any of the latter importations in trie habit of tree. It
is a very slow grower, and remarkably stocky. At
three years old it is hardly taller than a large year-
ling, but heavy in trunk and limbs, which grow
very upright, and makes a downward growth of
roots, not exceeded by any other variety ; hardiness,
i. Fruit medium or below, yellow and slightly
blushed, aromatic, acid and hardly good. Ripens
among the earliest.

Early Harvest.-^r^^ vigorous, and healthy, up-
right when young, buf spreading when in orchard.
Trunks and larger limbs light colored, but brown
strong shoots, frequently produced in doubles.
Makes perfect forks and never splits down. Hardi-
ness 6. Fruit medium to large, flat, is oblate as
grown in the Missouri valley, but nearly round on
the Mississippi slope. Yellowish green when grown
in the sun and occasionally a very faint blush, but
grown in the shade is green. Quality best, both
for cooking and dessert, very aromatic. Ripens
latter part of August. Pleasant acid.

Summer Queen. — Tree vigorous and spreading,
a shy bearer in the black soils, but grown in the
bluffy lands of the west is very productive. Hardi-
ness 4. Fruit is medium, conical, smooth; yel-
low striped and splashed red and scarlet; aromatic
and spicy, mildly acid, and when taken fresh from
the tree it is one of the most satisfying of the
summer apples. Is grown largely in the north-
east central districts of Nebraska.

Red June, or Carolina Red June. — Tree upright

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 2 19

with slender twigs and dark colored bark and
shoots. Hardiness 3, when the trunks are
protected from sun scalding, which is its weakness;
fruit medium or below, conical, very red, and colors
all over; flesh white, sub-acid, juicy and very pleas-
ant. Best for dessert. It has the quality of matur-
ing fruit while there are barely half grown speci-
mens on the tree. Will continue to mature fruit
good to the last for four or five weeks. In South
Carolina where it originated it ripens in June, but
in the north from July last to September i.

Sweet June. — Tree upright and twiggy. Shoots
slender, and pale green. Hardiness 4, except for
the sun scalding as noted in Red June. Fruit
medium or below, roundish, though at times coni-
cal, light yellow and very smooth; season, August
and early September. Very sweet and rich, and
one of the best of all the sweet apples. Sometimes
called High top Sweet.

Red Astrachan. — Of Russian origin. Tree
moderate grower when small but makes a very
large tree in orchard. Upright diverging, close
top with large and wavy leaves. Hardiness 2.
Fruit medium to large, flat to roundish, yellow
ground covered nearly with smooth red and a
heavy bloom. Aromatic, and less acid than many
of that race, but not mild enough for the dessert,
good for the kitchen, always fair and seldom
wormy. Season, August.

Duchess of Oldenburg. — Usually call u Duchess."
The origin of this apple is in doubt. Its name

2 20 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

would imply a German origin, but the tree lias the
typical characteristics of the Russians. It is
taken as a standard of hardiness, and when other
varieties are classified by comparison with some
well known sort this is usually used. Upright
grower while young, but in trees 2C years old the
habit is quite spreading where exposed; trunk and
limbs are apt to be crooked without any apparent
reason why they should be so. Unless grown in
the nursery in very good ground the tree is not apt
to be chosen by the customers, and frequently re-
fused on the delivery grounds, when true to name,
hence many other handsomer sorts are apt to go
out under that name. It is not a good grower, and
seldom makes a full stand when root grafted, fre-
quently less than half. Hardiness i. Fruit
medium as grown in the Missouri valley, but on
the dark soils of eastern Iowa it is very large
approaching the Alexander. Round, sometimes
slightly flattened; yellow and heavily splashed
light and dark crimson; season, September. Quality
only good for cooking, but can be used when half
grown, is a pronounced acid. When fully ripe and
just before decaying it is sometimes used for the
dessert, but is not a favorite.

Coles Quince. — Moderate upright grower, some-
what straggling. Hardiness 3. Fruit large oblate
and ribbed near apex. Yellow, mild sub-acid with
a peculiarly pleasing quince flavor. Quality best
both for kitchen and dessert. Like the Duchess can
be used when not fully grown. Very productive.

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 221

Sops of Wine. — Tree very vigoious, spreading,
straggling in habit, making very long swaying
branches in nursery,but a very symmetrical tree in
orchard. Hardiness 5. Fruit medium, round to
slightly conical; light and- dark red shaded, with
dark red shading throughout from which it takes
its name. Season, August and September in the
north, but ripens in latter part of July in southern
Illinois. Acid, but of best quality, both for| cook-
ing and dessert.

Cooper s early White. — (This is not the same as
Cooper. ) Medium,spreading in habit, early and abun-
dant bearer. Hardiness 7. Fruit medium or below,
reddish and pale waxen yellow. Mildly sub-acid but
an excellent cooker, and fair for dessert. When
fully ripe it is crisp and considered by some as
approaching the best. Season, late summer.

Peach. (Canada Peach or Montreal Peach.) —
Tree very thrifty, upright in nursery, shoots stout
and olive color, moderately productive. Hardiness
2. Is grown in central southern Minnesota, where
it is claimed to be as hardy as the Duchess. Fruit
medium or above, nearly round, sometimes' slightly
conical, smooth and glossy. Color, when fully
ripe, bright straw color. Fine grained, juicy,
tender, with decided acidity like the Duchess, but
better in quality. Sometimes it has a faint blush
which gives it a peculiarly peach expression. Sea-
son same as Duchess.

Golden Sweet. — Tree robust, vigorous, spread-
ing, round head, early productive. Shoots stout,

222 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

dark, foliage large dark. Hardiness 3 in deep
sandy soils, for which it is peculiarly adapted.
Fruit large, round, rich yellow, long slender stem,
flesh yellow, melting and fine grained. Very sweet
and juicy, with fine aromatic flavor, resembling
sassafras. Use baking, market and dessert. Season,
August and early September.

(I have not seen this tree except in northeastern
Iowa, near Delhi, where it was in perfection in the
almost clear sands of that locality. It is believed
that for such soils, where other varieties so fre-
quently fail, it will be valuable for a sweet apple.)

Hagloe. (Russian Hagloe.} — This tree was for
some years sent cut by some nurserymen as the
Duchess of Oldenburg, which it resembles in leaf
and color of wood, aside from this it is entirely
distinct. It is evidently of Russian origin. Tree
strong, but irregular grower; limbs and shoots very-
strong and heavy, shoots blunt. In orchard it
forms a spreading, flat-topped tree. Hardiness
3 or better. Fruit much like Duchess, but
better, less acid. Use kitchen and market. For
cooking it is good to very good. Season, August.

Keswick Codlin. — Origin England. Tree good,
but rather irregular grower, brown shoots that
diverge in a peculiar recurved manner. Hardiness
4, when established in orchard 3 or better.
Fruit medium to large, ovate often ribbed, clear
pale yellow. Quality very good, especially for
cooking. Flesh fine grained and juicy. Is a good
and productive market variety.

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 323
FALL VARIETIES.

Fameuse or Snow. — Straggling medium grower,
poor nursery tree in the north, but it is among the
most valuable when once established in the orchard,
if sound; does not transplant as well as some. Pro-
ductive and with good care is a constant bearer.
Hardiness 4. Fruit medium, flat to roundish;
specimens grown in the shade will be nearly green,
finely flecked with pale red, like the Janet, but as
grown in the sun is heavily striped or clear red,
and very handsome; flesh almost pure white, from
which it gets its name of "Snow." When fully
ripe, especially if allowed to ripen on the ground
under the tree in the leaves or grass is juicy, and
of the finest quality. One of the best. It will,
under favorable conditions, keep till midwinter,
and I have seen it in prime condition in northeast-
ern Iowa in March. To keep good it must be
gathered early.

Haas or Gross Pomier. — Tree very rank and
upright grower, which habit it maintains in
the orchard, is very productive, but not an early
bearer. Hardiness 2. Fruit medium to large,
abruptly conical, being drawn down in a peculiar
manner to the apex. Yellow, finely striped and
blotched carmine and crimson. Quality fair for
the kitchen,but somewhat astringent with an agree-
able aroma, but not rich. Season, if allowed to
ripen on the tree, September and October, but if
gathered early will keep through the greater part
of the winter. Very valuable for the north.

224 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

Wealthy. — Of Minnesota origin by Peter M.
Gideon. Tree a moderate grower, somewhat
resembling the Duchess, but stronger; will fre-
quently show the slight angles in the middle of a
shoot without apparent cause. Early and abun-
dant bearer/ Hardiness 2 or better. Fruit
medium to large, round sometimes approaching
oblate; stem and calyx deeply sunk meeting the eye,
pale yellow, covered with clear red when fully
colored in the sun. Quality very good, both for
dessert and kitchen. The most valuable of all
apples of recent introduction, seldom has discolored
wood, and is at home in a great range of climate.
Season, as grown in southern and central Minne-
sota, midwinter, but in Iowa and Nebraska late
fall.

Utter or Utters Red. — Tree upright, moderate
grower, and fair to good in the nursery, generally
gives a good stand. Hardiness 4. Fruit large
to very large, round, slightly ovate, early bearer
and annually productive. Is a very profitable fall
variety, as its large size and beauty will place it
near the head in the market. Bright yellow,
nearly covered with carmine stripes, sometimes
broken into blotches. Quality good to very good,
sub-acid, sprightly, juicy and aromatic. Season,
October to January if rightly handled.

Plumbs Cider. — Origin Wisconsin. Tree strong
upright grower, dark bark and heavy leaves.
Hardiness 2 or 3. Makes a beautiful tree in
the orchard, always preserving an evenly open top,

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 225

and never splits in the forks. Early bearer, and
with age becomes very productive, one of the most
useful of the fall varieties. Fruit medium or above,
conical, and sometimes quite ovate. Yellow
striped with red, which it nearly covers. Quality
not rich, but very good, pleasant sub-acid. Sea-
son, October.

Fall Orange. — Tree a rather slow but very stout
grower in the nursery and makes a very large and
excellent orchard tree. Should be grown more
than it is. Hardiness 4. Fruit large round irreg-
ular, greenish yellow, and pale yellow when ripe.
Good quality especially for the kitchen, being too
tart for good dessert fruit, though when very mellow
is very good.

Season, September and early October. (Some-
times known as Holland pippin.) Is grown con-
siderably in southeast Minnesota and about St. Paul.

Fall IVinesap. — Tree a good, strong, upright
grower, rather straggling, dark bark and dark shoots.
Good tree in nursery and orchard. Hardiness 5.
Fruit medium size, round regular, red stripes on
greenish yellow ground, good quality, season Sep-
tember and early October. (This is not the same
as Fall Wine, nor Sops of Wine.)

Colvert. — Strong spreading in habit, "good in
nursery and orchard. Hardiness 3. Fruit large
oblate. Surface smooth green mixed with light red.
Basin and cavity like the Wealthy. Quality good,
season, October and November. Good bearer in
the west.

226 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

Benoni. — Very upright grower, shoots light,
brown color, fair grower, succeeds best on strong
soils. Productive in the west, does well in eastern
Iowa and western Illinois. Hardiness 5. Fruit,
medium to small, round conical, yellow and striped
and sometimes splashed red. Quality very good to
best, season September.

Day. — Originated in Maine, where it is much
grown. (Description by R. N. Day.) Strong,
upright grower, and. needs but little pruning.
Hardiness 2. (?) Size medium to large; flat, slightly
inclined to be conical; color when fully ripe, a
greenish yellow. Better than Wealthy in quality,
being mildly sub-acid, sprightly, tender in the high-
est degree, and very agreeable in flavor. Season,
from September 10 to middle of October.

Dyer (Pomme Royal). — Tree spreading, moder-
ately vigorous, not very productive in the west.
Hardiness 7. Fruit, large round, frequently uneven
and angular, surface rough like Swaar, and vein
russeted, dull yellow, not attractive, but of best
quality. Flesh yellowish, juicy and rich, very
tender and fine grained. It is among the best des-
sert apples grown. It is well to try this in the
north, top-worked on some of the hardy stocks.

Maiden Bhish. — Tree vigorous spreading, early
bearer and productive, is among the most profitable
apples grown where it succeeds. Hardiness 10 in
nursery and 6 in orchard. If introduced in the north
it should be procured from the south, far enough to
insure a sound tree, and the tree should be four

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 227

years old, and very carefully handled. With these
precautions it is thought to be a profitable tree as
far north as north central Nebraska. Fruit large,
flat or oblate, rich, smooth yellow and fine blush on
the sunny side. Season, September to October,
quality very good for cooking, but not so good for
dessert, having some astringency, and too much
acidity. Valuable for market.

Prices Sweet. — Very strong upright grower, both
in nursery and orchard. Is a perfect tree in nur-
sery. Hardiness 4 in nursery and 2 in orchard.
Its only weakness is like the most of our hardiest
varieties: sun scalding where trunks are not pro-
tected.

In Minnesota is said to patch blight at the inter-
sections of limbs, no such trouble noticed in
Nebraska. Fruit medium, round oblique conic.
Yellow, mostly covered with red stripes ; very sweet ;
quality only good. Season, November.

Alexander. — A strong upright grower, good in
nursery, and makes a very large handsome tree in
orchard. Origin, Russia. Hardiness 3. Has been
discarded to a great extent on account of its liability
to blight. Fruit very large, oblate conical; red
streaked on yellow ground. Both calyx and basin
are large and deep; quality poor, flesh is coarse and
use only the kitchen. Season, October. It is not
a good bearer.

Autumn Strawberry. — Vigorous and healthy in
nursery, and makes a fine round top tree in the
orchard. Is a good bearer. Hardiness 4. Fruit

228 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

medium size, round, and streaked and splashed
with light and dark red. Quality good to very
good; flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy, acid, with pleas-
ant flavor. When ripe it is apt to bitter rot at the
core and spread to the surrounding flesh.

Lowell. — Tree spreading, vigorous; light green
foliage and yellowish shoots. Hardiness 4 or better.
Fruit large and even size, round, yellowish green,
with a greasy or tallowy excrescence, from which
it is often called Greasy Pippin or Tallow Pippin.
Quality very good. Flesh tender and fine grained
and juicy, with yellowish cast, sub-acid, aromatic.
Use, dessert and kitchen, and is a fine market va-
riety. Season, August and September.

St. Lawrence. — Tree moderate regular grower
with heavy solidly welded branches, attaining great
size in the orchard. Of Canadian origin. Hardi-
ness 3, and extremely productive with age. A very
profitable autumn variety, and responds quickly to
a good top dressing of some fertilizer. Fruit round,
large, rarely conical ; yellow, with most pronounced
dark red stripes covering the whole surface which
give it a unique appearance and once seen will
never be forgotten. Quality very good, though too
sour to suit all for dessert; fine for the kitchen.
Season, October.

Jeffries. — Tree healthy, moderately vigorous,
shoots slender, early and abundant bearer. Habit
diverging to upright. (Its quality should place it
in every amateur list.) Fruit medium to large, flat.
Yellow ground splashed crimson. Flesh quite yel-

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 22Q

low; fine grained and breaking or melting, juicy,
aromatic and delicious. Quality best; use, table
and kitchen. Season, September and October.

Mr. Piper says of this variety : ' 'For early fall we
have the Jeffries, which is one of the heaviest
of bearers. I have taken 4^ bushels off a
tree less than 4 inches in diameter. The apples
are equal in flavor to a good pear, and are
first-class in every respect. Any one who has bought
the Jeffries once will buy it again if he can get it. ' '

We have not tried this apple top worked, but
think it would be well to try it in some of the
crabs and the hardiest of the apples, for the
north. Mr. Piper in the same paper says the Wythe
Salome and Pewaukee should be top worked, and
as the Jeffries is not, we presume that in hard-
iness it will range about with these varieties, or
better.

McMahorf s White. — Tree a fair grower, some-
what irregular, shoots and bark light colored and
dotted like the E. G. Russet; foliage, large, light
green. Hardiness 2. Fruit, large round, some-
times drawn in at the apex, like the Haas, though
not so abrupt; color light green and yellowish and
sometimes faintly blushed on the sunny side.
Quality good; flesh, white and juicy, and pleasant
sub-acid flavor. Use, kitchen and market. Good
bearer. Season, October to through November.
This is generally placed on the winter lists, but
keeps about with the Wealthy, or later.

Peerless. — A Minnesota seedling originated in

230 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

Rice county; seed planted spring of 1868, from
Duchess apple, supposed to be fertilized by Tal-
man Sweet. Original tree began to bear in 1875,
and has produced more bushels of fruit than any
other tree either of apple or crab in that part of
the state. It bore 3 bushels in 1878 and kept
increasing till in 1886 it bore n bushels. Mr-
Harris, the special agent of the government, visited
the tree in September, 1 890, reported it as in fine
condition. Of the quality of the fruit he said
in January following, " It is really a better apple
than the Wealthy." Season not given but sup-
posed to be fall.

Catherine. — Another Minnesota seedling with a
great local reputation. Seed from a seedling
apple brought from Canada in 1854, to Houston Co.

This tree is growing ten miles west of the Mis-
sissippi, and six south of the Root river, on a high
elevation. The spread of the top is about 30 feet ;
i foot from the ground, has a diameter of 16 inches,
and has borne as high as 30 bushels at one time.

For fear of misleading let us refer to these won-
derful seedlings again. They only show the pos-
sibilities of these trees as such, and do not give
assurance that they can be propagated and be of
value in the same latitude.

WINTER VARIETIES.

Ben Davis. — Tree fine grower, symmetrical, and
will yield the largest proportion of marketable trees
from a given number of root grafts of any variety.

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 23!

Hardiness 5 in nursery and while young in the
orchard, but when established in the orchard and
sound, with age, it is as good as 3 or better. This
rating refers to the Missouri valley. East of
the great inter-river divide it is very tender in
the north, especially after it has come into bearing.

Fruit, large, ovate conic, yellow ground striped
with carmine, shaded to mottled greenish yellow
on the shady side.

Quality barely good, by some rated poor. Flesh
moderately fine grained, not very juicy, very mild
sub-acid, and lacks tone in flavor. Season, Decem-
ber to late winter, and under favorable conditions
till early summer.

This is the great market apple of the southwest.
It is an early and abundant bearer, and if it were
some hardier, and as good as Grimes' Golden it
would be the perfection of tree and fruit. It should
not be grown in the north on very strong soil, but
rather poorer ones on the highest lands, and if
care is taken to plant sound trees and get them to
a bearing age so, they will be found to stand as well
as the Walbrige, and nearly as well as the Wealthy.
There are trees near Battle Creek, Nebraska, that
have been in bearing over twenty years and are
still very sound and look as if they might be good
for many more years.

Notwithstanding its lack in quality and the
prophecy that it would soon be of little value as a
market apple ("when people found it out"), it still
maintains the lead, though this may not beheld

232 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

long in the future. Its great beauty, even and uni-
form size and coloring will make it a hard compet.
itor to crowd off the market.

Winesap. — Tree spreading and moderately vig-
orous, very dark brown shoots and bark, somewhat
irregular. Hardiness 6. Fruit medium to small.
As grown in the north it is below medium. Round-
ovate, and sometimes flat. Color red to deep red.
Quality very good for table and baking, poor for
pastry. Flesh firm, and breaking when mellow.
Rich acid flavor. Is considered a valuable cider
apple in the southwest where it is much grown,
and is among the most valuable of the market
apples.

Willow Twig. — Tree spreading, shoots slender
with drooping habit; foliage and bark light yellow.
Hardiness 5. Has the reputation of blighting and
liability to injury from sun scald. Trunk should
be protected if high, and where planted on high
well-drained land there will be little trouble with
blight.

Fruit large, round, yellow, faintly blushed and
striped with light red. Quality poor. Will do
for cooking late in spring, which is its use, except
for market where its long keeping quality, and fine
size and beauty will always find for it a good mar-
ket. A fair but not heavy bearer.

Jonathan. — Tree not a very strong grower.
Shoots slender, grayish, with rather sparce light
foliage. Buds small. Hardiness 6. Fruit, as
grown in the north, medium or below. In the

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 233

south it is large, round or ovate-conic. Color,
waxen yellow, finely covered with blush or finely
striped carmine over its whole surface. Quality,
best. Flesh, yellowish white, very fine grain,
juicy, sub-acid, aromatic with a very pleasant fla-
vor. Season, early winter.

Rawles Janet. — Tree fair grower in nursery, with
an upright spreading habit, shoots, slender and
taper; grayish olive colored bark; hardiness, 5; fruit,
medium size, round or obscurely conic; color
slightly mottled green, and, on the sunny side,
more or less distinctly striped and blotched light
and dull red ; quality, very good for dessert, poor
for the kitchen; flesh, fine grained, brittle and juicy,
very mildly acid; season, late winter and spring.

Minkler. — Named for S. G. Minkler of Illinois,
who originated it. Tree very rank grower and
very irregular; bark light color, shoots darker with
heavy, thick dark green foliage; in orchard it
makes a flat top, with heavy drooping branches;
very productive; hardiness 3 to 4; fruit, medium
to large, round, greenish yellow, covered with light
and dull red stripes. Quality, only good; flesh,
greenish yellow, fine grained and melting when
fully ripe. Agreeable sub-acid flavor: use, market
and kitchen.

Rome Beaiity. — Tree, thrifty spreading and pro-
ductive; shoots, slender with a high color; in orchard
makes a symmetrical round headed tree. Blossoms
late, nearly as late as the Janet. Fruit, large to
very large, roundish ovate; surface, smooth, yellow

234 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

striped and mixed light and dull red. Quality,
good. Use, market. Flesh yellow, coarse grained,
sub-acid and lacks tone. Very popular market
apple in the south west. Season late winter.

Northwestern Greening. — This apple is of Wis-
consin origin, where it is being sought after on
account of its fine appearance and reputed hardiness,
although the latter is doubted by some who have
grown it. However, it is worthy of trial. Size,
large, 3 to 3^ inches, shape nearly round, very
regular, surface very smooth, often green, but yel-
low when fully ripe, resembles Lowell. Dots scat-
tering, mostly dark with some very light; basin
wide, shallow a little folded or gathered; eye, rather
large, open; cavity, mediiim, regular, a little russet
in bottom; stem medium, rather slender; core, large,
nearly closed; seeds, small plump, grayish brown;
flesh, yellow, rather coarse, juicy; flavor sub acid;
quality, good. Season, December to February in
Wisconsin. (Report of U. S. Pomologists 1886.)

Scotts Winter. — We have here a variety that is
a seedling brought to notice by Dr. T. H. Hoskins
of Newport, Vt. It originated near that place and
seems to be esteemed in that locality and in some
of the northwestern states for the hardiness of the
tree and its brilliantly colored fruit. Although it
is a little too tart for dessert purposes, it is liked for
cooking. It is called one of our native ironclads.
My specimens were from Vermont; size, small,
about 2% inches; flat, conical, irregular, surface
smooth, light yellow, almost hidden by bright red,

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 235

blotches and stripes; dots minute, almost undiscern-
ible, light colored; basin deep, narrow, waved; eye
small, closed; cavity, small, narrow russetted;
stem, medium to short, slender; core, small
nearly closed, seeds, small plump, light colored;
flesh, white, with sometimes a tinge of pink, tender,
fine grained, juicy; flavor, sub-acid, quite tart, but
pleasant; quality good; season, December to spring
in Vermont. (Report of U. S. Pomologists 1886.)
Iowa Blush.-Pzrfeok symmetrical, upright grower,
both in nursery and orchard; shoots and young
trees recurved and olive green color. Under the
bark of young thrifty trees will always be found
warty excrescences not attached to the trees, but
which can be removed, and are nearly as hard as
ivory. The outer bark is raised above them, giv-
ing the tree a warty appearance. A few other trees,
in rare cases, have this characteristic, but this is
inseparable from the Iowa Blush. Hardiness, 2;
fruit below medium, a perfect ovate in form; very
light greenish yellow, shaded and spotted or
mottled scarlet on the sunny side. In the middle
of these scarlet spots are large white dots which
give the apple a unique appearance, and make it
one of the handsomest of all apples grown. Quality,
for cooking very good to best; for the dessert, only
good. Should be kept from the air until ready for
use, as it wilts easily and loses its flavor. Season,
early winter. This tree is very productive, and its
value in the north is what the Rawles Janet is in
the south.

236 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

Grimes Golden. — Fair to good grower in the
nursery. Bark, shoots and foliage, light color. In
orchard is a very symmetrical roundish upright tree
with heavy foliage; hardiness, 6; fruit medium size,
symmetrical, or parallel sides with base and apex
flattened; irregular; surface smooth at base, russeted
near apex, and when fully ripe a dark lemon yellow;
quality best; flesh, yellowish green, fine grained,
melting and juicy, with a sub-acid aromatic, spicy
and refreshing flavor. Use, cooking and dessert,
especially the latter.

Aliens Choice. — Tree in nursery strong, upright
grower, resembling the Haas; hardiness, in nursery,
5, said to be 3 or better in orchard; fruit, medium,
roundish ovate, striped with light and dark red;
coarse grained, but good sub-acid aromatic flavor.
Season, late winter.

Wythe. — This is a seedling of the Rawles Janet,
which it very closely resembles both in tree and
fruit, being very often mistaken for that variety.
It will be only necessary to say that it is hardier
than the Janet, with larger fruit and a little better
in quality, and without the tendency of that variety
to over bear; season same as Janet. Said to crack
and scab as the tree gets age.

Pattens Greening is thus described by the orig-
inator, C. G. Patten of Iowa. " A seedling of the
Oldenburg planted by us in the fall of 1869, has
borne ten years, and in 1888, after all the trying
winters, bore fully 5 bushels; stands on trying
ground, but made a fine growth; strongly shoul-

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 237

dered, and as hardy in orchard as Duchess. Fruit
medium size to large, and uniform ; color, light to
dark green, sometimes shaded with red; flesh white,
good eating and a superb cooking apple. Season,
January."

Walbridge. — Upright, spreading, symmetrical
grower, and equals, or nearly equals, the Ben Davis
as a nursery tree. Is a stronger grower, with
heavy, blunt, light olive-colored shoots, with fre-
quently heavy pubescence at their ends, where they
will be larger than at points lower down. Buds
small and very close on the shoots. Hardiness, 3
or better; fruit medium size, ovate conic, light
green, with narrow, broken stripes of light and
dull red; quality fair to good; flesh greenish white,
fine grained, not juicy, acid and lacks flavor; use,
market; season, midwinter. A late bearer.

Suttorfs Beauty. --Tree symmetrical, upright
grower, with brownish, cinnamon-colored shoots;
hardiness, 5; fruit, large, handsome, round, regular;
surface, smooth, yellow, mottled and splashed car-
mine; quality, good to very good; flesh, white,
tender and breaking, melting when fully ripe, and
very juicy; flavor, sub-acid to acid, pleasant, aro-
matic; use, kitchen, market and table; season, late
winter.

Salome. — Originated in Illinois, where it is very
popular. This tree has been condemned by the
Iowa Horticultural Society as too tender for gen-
eral planting in the state. This is rather too sweep-
ing a condemnation, as it may be and doubtless is

338 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

of considerable value west of the inter-river divide,*
where it is promising grown on high lands, both in
the northern and southern districts of the state.
The tree in nursery is a moderately good grower,
symmetrical, upright, with a very close top; foli-
age, light green, large or rather thick leaves,
inclined to be ruffly; hardiness, 5 to 6; fruit, below
medium size, ovate conic; color, yellow, partly
covered with light red, on which are narrow, faint
stripes of darker red, very handsome; quality, good;
flesh, yellowish white, fine grained, with pleasant
sub-acid flavor; use, kitchen and table; season,
late winter and spring. This apple corresponds in
size, shape and quality to Iowa Blush, but is a bet-
ter keeper and not so hardy, probably valuable,
but should not be planted at present in high lati-
tudes only in amateur lists till it has established a
reputation.

It is recommended to be top worked on Whitney
No. 20 in northern Illinois.

Iowa Keeper. — Tree, strong, spreading grower;
throws out its branches at right angles to the tree;
hardiness, 2; fruit, medium to large, round, with
flattened ends ; eye small, calix open ; stem,
medium, set in deep, narrow basin; color, yellow,
one-half covered with bright crimson; dots, numer-
ous, white; season, midwinter to early summer.
(Day.)

While Pippin (Canada Pippin). — Its origin is
obscure, but is supposed to be Canada. Tree, vig-
orous, upright, productive; shoots, dark, pubes-

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 239

cent; leaves, large, dark green above and downy
beneath; hardiness, 4; fruit, large, variable in
form, mostly round and fair; color, pale yellow;
quality, very good; flesh, yellowish white, coarse
grained, juicy; flavor, sub-acid to acid; use, cook-
ing and market; season, early winter. This apple
is much grown in central Illinois, where it is
hardy, and it is believed that if introduced* it
would prove hardy in north Nebraska and southern
South Dakota.

Cayuga Red Streak (Twenty-Ounce — not Twenty-
Ounce Pippin]. — Tree vigorous, early and prolific,
annual bearer, twiggy, like Northern Spy; shoots,
slender, highly colored, with large, healthy foliage;
fruit, very large, nearly round, surface covered
with light red on greenish ground; quality, good;
only for kitchen and drying; season, early
winter.

Talman Sweet. — Tree vigorous, spreading; in
orchard it has the appearance of having been
pruned out, as the limbs and twigs are few, though
regular and symmetrical; early bearer and moder-
ately productive; hardiness, 3; fruit, medium or
above, round, green in fall, turning to fine yellow
in spring; quality, very good; flesh, firm, white,
very sweet; use, baking and cider. Not good for
dessert where a sweet apple is desired, as the flesh
is tough and never melting, even when over-ripe.
Has the fault of dropping its fruit prematurely.

Pewaukee. — Origin Wisconsin. Tree strong,
upright grower in nursery, and maintaining the

240 DESCRIPTION OK APPLES AND PEARS.

habit in orchard. Not an early bearer, and in
some localities is not profitable on that account.
Hardiness, 6; is on the list for northern Illinois,
where it is said to do well, while in the Missouri
valley it is not hardy in the north ; should be top
worked; fruit, large, round, greenish yellow, with
dull red stripes and splashes; flesh, very coarse,
but pleasant sub-acid flavor; not rich, but generally
rated as good; season, early winter.

Roman Stem. — Tree moderately vigorous, pro-
ductive and desirable for the north. Hardiness in
orchard, 4; in nursery, very tender. Trees should
be grown far enough south to insure their sound-
ness before planting. Fruit, medium size, round,
sometimes conical, yellowish green and somewhat
russeted at apex; quality, very good to best; flesh,
whitish yellow, fine grained, juicy; flavor, mild
sub-acid, rich; use, dessert; season, December and
January.

Wolf River. — Tree, very strong grower; hardi-
ness, 6; fruit, large to very large, round or oblate,
yellow and covered with stripes of mottled red
and crimson; quality, good, with mild sub-acid
flavor; season, early winter; sometimes on the fall
lists.

Mann. — Has proved too tender so far for any
place in the west.

Okabena. — Origin, Minnesota. Said to be a
seedling of the Duchess fertilized* by the Wealthy,
in 1871. The parent tree is still standing and is
healthy and productive; good tree in nursery being

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 241

an upright grower, resembling the Wealthy; hardi-
ness i to 2. Fruit, medium, roundish oblate; early
winter and will probably be late fall grown south
of latitude 42° or 43°. Color, yellow, striped,
splashed and blushed carmine, very handsome.
Quality, good. Flesh, fine grained, tender and
juicy. Not sufficiently tested to warrant extended
planting but is promising.

There is a very great variety of very excellent
and hardy seedlings that are being propagated
under different names, but it is not thought worth
while to describe, for however hardy these original
trees may be they do not transmit it to their
progeny by any known method of propagating.
For this reason it should urge upon the planter and
experimenter the advisability of planting these
seeds largely, for the regions where apple growing
is so difficult.

While it is true that the young trees will in
nearly every case be very tender, they outgrow
this if properly handled the first two years.

I would plant the seeds in drills, and the first fall
in November bend them over and cover quite
heavily with some mulch or litter. The next
summer carefully examine them and mark those
having heavy, good leaves and a freedom from thorns?
and at about the same time again in the fall take
them up carefully and cover root and branch
about a foot deep, and plant in orchard the next
spring.

Where good trees from the nursery are sue-

242 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

cessfully grown in the orchard we could not afford
to start our orchard with seeds, but for the territory
named and for the purpose of producing new vari-
eties, this is advisable.

One of the best seedling orchards in the west is
that of Mr. Thompson, of Grundy Center, Iowa.
While in a bad location, the trees are, many of
them, very large, and have astonished the critics
many times with their fine, large and good keeping
apples, which have taken many premiums.

Some of these have been named and are listed,
but not yet established of value beyond older sorts
as grown in the nurseries.

NEW RUSSIAN APPLES.

Not having many of these in fruiting we are
dependent upon the descriptions and opinions of
others. There is no other fruit that has attracted
so much attention and elicited so much discussion,
and where the conclusions are so varied, and the
contestants so positive either one way or the other.
After having given this a very careful consideration,
my conclusions may not be less positive.

It is evident that many of the most conflicting
reports may be harmonized. Some are basing
their conclusions upon the behavior of certain
varieties against the same with others when the
names do not refer to the same apple. There is as yet
but a moderate number of all the importations that
are distinctly and certainly classified, as established
the same throughout the United States. For instance,

'DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 243

some declare that the Hibernal is the same as
L,ieby, Ostrakof, Glass, Romna, Pendantear, Silken
leaf, and Juicy burr, while others claim that they
run in families so closely related that these are or
may be many of them separate varieties.

That they have as a class been sorely disap-
pointing is admitted by their friends, in this that
(i) they are more subject to blight than our com-
mon varieties, and (2). they are not hardier (with
exceptions), and (3) they have not proved to be
keepers, but mostly summer and fall varieties, and
(4) they are of poor quality.

If this were given as a deliberate opinion of the
entire lot it would not be necessary to prolong this
chapter, but happily there are exceptions to all, or
nearly all, the above.

Another cause should be noticed that has led to
their condemnation.

That tree man has seized upon this theme as
one showing the finest field for extensive cultiva-
tion. He has opened his picture book and made
his stake on the "Russians." None know better
than the nurserymen how few of these sales have
delivered genuine Russian varieties. Even if they
have been so, if of the great majority of these
varieties, they would be better to be almost any-
thing else. President Morrison, of the Minnesota
Horticultural Society, gives an instance of a con-
versation with one of these brush missionaries who,
he said, was "making a specialty of the Russians."
He was asked what was his best winter variety

244 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

and answered, "I am running the Yellow Trans-
parent for my best winter apple. ' '

As this is one of the earliest of the summer
apples, if they were even delivered true to name
the purchaser would not conceive an exalted
opinion of the keeping qualities of these much
discussed apples.

It is the habit of the American people to be very
sweeping and radical in their conclusions, either in
praise or condemnation, and in the sweeping con-
demnation that some have given these trees they
are sweeping out very much chaff to be sure, but
with it some grains of pure gold. This is a matter
of little moment. If they have no need of them
they lose nothing.

I think it is not claimed that where such varie-
ties as the Ben Davis, Jonathan, Winesap, Roman
stem, Grime's Golden, Iowa Blush, etc., are easily
grown that there is any use for the new Russians,
but they cannot be grown everywhere, and the true
test of merit in this matter is: Are there any of
these varieties that can be grown over any consider-
able territory where any of our other varieties can-
not be? If a single one can be shown that will take
such a place, then the time and money used
in introducing the whole lot has been well spent.
That there are some, and quite a few, of this char-
acter there is no doubt whatever.

The principal value of them will be in the
extreme north, and especially in the black prairie
Lands of the Mississippi valley, where the growing

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 245

of apples of any kind has been a constant fight, all
the way from the seed to the bearing tree, and
quite too often a losing fight.

Through the kindness of Prof. Budd, of Iowa, a
special list has been prepared for this work includ-
ing all varieties which are good to best in quality;
giving all the seasons of the year; hardy, and as
free from blight as our common varieties.

Before introducing this list let us drop a word of
caution: To get these varieties true to name it will
be better to correspond direct with some reliable
nursery, or procure them through the Agricultural .
College of your state. If the orders are given
through dealers the chances are very remote that
one, even, will be what is ordered.

Another caution will be, that where other desir-
able varieties can be grown there is no need of
them, and a risk, always, of introducing blight.

In the spring of 1883 a bulletin was issued by
the Iowa Agricultural College giving an outline of
experiments with, and investigations of, some oi
the fruits of the steppe sections of east Europe and
North Central Asia. Since that time have been
made several importations of cions and rooted
plants from the parts of east Europe where the
summer heat is nearly or quite equal to ours, and
they have been sent out by thousands for trial
across the continent on our northern borders. The
present notes are a summary of the reports received
from trial stations and of observations on the
College grounds up to date, of a part of the va-

246 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

rieties and. species under the supervision of Prof.
Budd.

Blushed Calville. (22 M.) * * * This at
the west will prove more valuable than Yellow
Transparent. The tree is much hardier, more
nearly free from blight, and the fruit is about as
early, as large in size, is handsomely blushed, and
it is less perishable and better in quality.

Anisette. (No. 185.) * * * Of the Duchess
family and hardier at the North. An annual and
full bearer of fruit like Duchess, but finer in grain,
less acid and earlier. Will prove valuable over a
large part of the United States.

Lubsk Queen. (No. 444.) * * * As hardy
as Duchess and noted for beauty and continuous
bearing. Fruit, large, smooth, with varied shades
of red and pink. Flesh, fine grained, sub-acid and
very good for so large a fruit. This is placed with
the summer apples because it colors up early and
ships well at an early date, but it keeps well at
fruit stands and can be easily kept through Sep-
tember.

Longfield. (No. 161 and 57 M.) * * Tree
not hardier than Wealthy, but not so liable to sun
scald. On dry ground will prove very profitable
up to the north line of the state. An annual and
full bearer of medium sized yellow fruit, hand-
somely blushed. Will be popular as it never fails
to bear, is not excelled for cooking and jelly mak-
ing, and pleases all for dessert use. After it has
borne two or three heavy crops it should be

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 247

manured or the heavy crops of fruit will run too
small. Season, autumn, but with very early pick-
ing, it will keep nearly as well as Jonathan.

Gipsy Girl. (56 Vor.) * * * A fine tree in
nursery and orchard. Fruit, large, smooth and
remarkably handsome. A famous train-boy apple
in east Europe. Will be prized over a large part
of the country. Season, late fall.

WINTER APPLES.

Aport Voronezh. * * * We introduce the
A'port of Central Russia from several points. It
has been sent out as Aport, 23 M. , 4 Vor., and 12
Orel. We have kept these importations separate,
but they all appear to be identical. Fruit, large,
smooth, yellow, with much red in broken stripes
and splashes. Flesh, yellowish white, slightly
coarse, sub-acid, aromatic, quality very good for
any use. Mid-winter here, and will keep through
winter at the north.

Ostrakoff. (4 M.) * * * This is hardier
than Duchess and less subject to blight. An early,
heavy and continuous bearer, and needs manuring
to keep up size of fruit after it has borne heavy
crops. Fruit, medium to large, even in size, yellow.
Flesh, firm, sub-acid and fine in quality. Mid-
winter here, and will keep until May on its north
limit of growth.

Aport. (No. 252.) * * This was sent us by
Dr. Regel as the true Winter Aport. It is not
identical with the Aport Voronesh above noted. It

248 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

is proving to be an early and continuous bearer,
and promises to be very valuable. Fruit, medium
to large, oblate, yellow, with splashes and stripes
of red and crimson. Flesh, fine grained, sub-acid,
nearly best in quality.

Regel. (No. 169.) * * * This was received
by the College from Dr. Regel, of St. Petersburg,
under the name of Green Sweet. But a mistake
was evidently made as this is- not sweet, has a fine
color and is a late keeping winter apple. It much
resembles Repka Malenka in shape and color, but
it is larger in size and of better quality. In season
and flavor it is much like Rawles Janet.

Zuzoffs Winter. (No. 585.) * * In the
Bulletin of 1890 we did not credit this as a very
hardy variety. Our recent reports show it to be as
hardy as Wealthy and less subject to blight. It is
an annual bearer on account of its very late period
of blossoming in the spring. Fruit large to very
large, beautifully colored, fine grained, tender,
mildly acid and nearly equal to Northern Spy in
quality. Season about that of Grimes Golden. In
tree it is not hardier than Wealthy and it should
be top-worked in trying positions in North Iowa.

Boiken. * * A variety imported from Tran-
sylvanis. It is now a favorite variety in Eastern
France. The tree seems to be as hardy as Wealthy,
and is an early and continuous bearer. Fruit
medium to large, yellow, with handsome carmine
stripes and splashes. Flesh snow white, fine
grained, sub-acid and best in quality. Season, late

DESCRIPTION OK APPLES AND PftAKS. 249

winter. Will be very valuable for top working at
the north.

THE CRAB APPLES.

'In the past we have propagated and sent out for
trial some of the most promising varieties and
hybrids of the Siberian crabs. But at this time we
have decided that their place is taken by such
varieties of the Russian apples as the Longfield,
Marble, Recumbent and other sorts.

"The Longfield, for instance is superior to any
of the crabs for jelly, marmalade, pies, sauce, etc.
It is also a better bearer and its fruit has a value
for dessert use. The only crab we now pronounce
valuable is the one known as Virginia crab, which
is only valuable as a stock for top-working, but it
is not as valuable for this use as the members of
the Hibernal family."

GENERAL NOTES.

"It will be urged by friends who have had con-
siderable experience in growing and fruiting the
east European fruits that we have omitted some of
the varieties they have found most valuable, and
included a number with which they have not been
wholly satisfied on account of blight or some other
cause.

"But it must be kept in mind that this is a
report on the varieties and species we will distrib-
iite at this time, and that varied soils, elevations
and exposures bring us varying reports. The notes
as now given are a summary of the behavior on

250 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

our own grounds and on the grounds of a large
proportion of our reporters over an immense area
of our country. ' '

We cannot too strongly impress the importance
of planting apple trees on the highest and dryest
land available, and furnishing no protection on the
north and west. If the elevation is not more than
10 feet above the general level of the adjacent
lands, it is a great advantage in furnishing air drain-
age, equalizing the temperature in summer and les-
sening danger from frosts in the blossoming period.

Another benefit resulting from the selection of
dry soil is that it permits deeper setting, which is
a protection to the tender roots we are compelled
to use in root-grafting.

If compelled to set the family orchard on low,
black colored soil, get our selection of best varie-
ties for such soil, set the trees shallow and ridge up
for drainage and root protection.

We sent out low headed trees, and our advice is
to keep them low. In setting, lean the trees at a
strong angle toward the one o'clock sun. They
will have an awkward appearance at first but they
will soon become erect.

In the above lists, three stars (* * *) indi-
cate the variety to be hardier on suitable soils than
the Duchess; two stars (* *) indicate the variety
to be hardier than Wealthy, except as noted in
special cases. One star (*) indicate the variety to be
hardy as Roman Stem, except as noted in special
cases. (Rttssian a*)f)lc report />;> Prof. BudcC).

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 25!

Excelsior. — This with the three following is a
seedling originated by Peter M. Gideon, of Minne-
sota, the originator of the Wealthy. Tree from
Wealthy seed, strong upright grower, said to be
as hardy as Duchess. Fruit, medium to large.
Color, light yellow; striped with bright red.
Quality, best. Season, September.

October. — Strong grower, and profuse annual
bearer of large red apples, clear acid, a first-class
culinary apple. From crab seed.

Gideon. — A good rather upright grower; fruit,
medium size to large, yellow with a vermillion
blush on the sunny side. Quality, mild sub-acid
and very good. November.

Peter. — This the originator calls "the best of all
apples." The description following, like those
before, is his, and some allowance will be made
for the possible partiality which might exist on
this account. "Origin, Wealthy seed, and in form,
size and color the exact duplicate of that apple, but
differing in flavor and season, keeping from 4 to 6
weeks longer. The fruit adheres well to the
tree, and in tree it is a little hardier than Duchess,
yet we would not recommend it as far north as
some of our extra hardies, though it stood top
grafted in 1884-5, where it made 4 feet of growth
and bore apples the following season near the
Wealthy and some of the Russians that failed to
bear an apple. At the Iowa state fair in 1886 the
Peter apple was pronounced by the judges to be
superior to the Wealthy in every respect."

252 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

In a private letter Mr. G. says that this apple
was not fully tested when the list was made and
that the apple is a keeper; keeping in his cellar
when picked early, till August. It will be remem-
bered that the Wealthy as grown at his place is a
fair keeping winter apple, while in this latitude it
is a fall apple, therefore it will not be best to rely
on this as a winter sort when grown in 42 and
below. As to the hardiness of these apples there
can be very little doubt, as the mercury there occa-
sionally touches 45 below, and 35 very often.

PEARS.

It is better for the ordinary fruit grower for home
consumption to plant pears very sparingly, as they
are not, as a rule, successfully grown in any part of
the northwest east of the mountains. There are
plenty of these varieties that are hardy enough so
far as ability to endure cold is concerned, but when
about the bearing size, they are very apt to die
with fire blight, or pear blight. This disease is
claimed by the scientists to be different from the true
apple blight, but that it will spread from one of these
trees to the other, there is no doubt in my mind.

Flemish Beauty is the best of all the older varie-
ties, and the freest from blight, is a moderately
strong grower, branching to a spreading top, early
bearer; productive, and of very good quality.

Bessimianca. — This is of Russian origin, and
less liable to blight than the foregoing, but inferior
in quality. Tree a slow though regular grower,

DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS. 253

with very dark bark, and dark heavy foliage. Fruit
medium size, green or faintly blushed or russeted;
seedless.

Kieffers Hybrid. — Cross, Sand pear and Bartlett.
Tree a very strong and very upright grower, yel-
lowish bark and glossy good foliage. It is tender
while young in northern Nebraska, but becomes
hardier with age, and will probably be grown to
some extent there. Fruit is large and handsome.
Not of best quality, but will always demand a good
price for market, and is, when fully ripe, fair for
dessert. Not as subject to blight as Flemish Beauty.

Idaho. — This has come to us from its western
home as a priceless gem, but it has proved here to
be tender and subject to blight. It is valuable
where it originated.

Kurskaya. (392.) — Said by Prof. Budd to be
very hardy, and free from blight on all soils. Fruit
Bergamot shaped, medium size and excellent qual-
ity. Russian.

Mongolian Snow Pear. — This is hardier in tree
than Flemish Beauty, and its leaves are always
clean, handsome and perfect. On dry soil it will
prove valuable up to the 42d parallel. It is a
regular bearer, even in such unfavorable seasons as
that of 1892. Fruit above medium in size, and
when ripened in the house it is much better in
quality than Kieffer, L,e Conte or any of the Chinese
pears we have tasted grown in the south. It should
be ripened in the house and can be kept until late
in autumn. (Bndd.}

254 DESCRIPTION OF APPLES AND PEARS.

Whitney No. 20. Apple. Called "Whitney
Crab." — Tree, a moderate very upright grower;
shoots, dark and stout; foliage heavy dark green;
hardiness 2 in nursery, i in orchard; fruit, small to
medium, conical, yellow nearly covered with red,
faintly striped; quality very good; season, August
and September.

Hislop Crab. — Tree, strong upright grower,
making a round head in orchard. Hardiness, i;
fruit, nearly 2 inches in diameter, conical, dark red,
almost black, quality good until too ripe, when it
becomes mealy and tasteless; season, October to
November.

There are probably 50 or more varieties of crab
apples and hybrids which are crosses between the
apple and crab that are of more or less value; some
of them for high northern latitudes are very valu-
able, but as a class they are very much subject to
blight, and their dissemination should on this
account be discouraged. The Martha, Gen. Grant,
Strawberry, Minnesota, and Briars Sweet are
reasonably free from it, but all are too well-known
to require description.

Yellow Transparent. — (This was omitted in its
order and inserted here.) Tree, fairly good grower;
shoots yellow; foliage light green; hardiness, 2 to
3; said to blight badly south and east but has not
blighted here to any great extent; is an early and
good bearer. Fruit medium or above; color,
golden yellow; quality, very good; season, August.

CHAPTER XVI.

Evergreens.

r I SHERE is a very general impression that these
•*• trees will not grow successfully west of the
inter-river divide, especially in the north. It
seems to be true of many varieties that they cannot
be grown as easily, and do not generally grow as
rapidly in this location as in places further east,
and along the Mississippi valley. For instance the
Norway Spruce, which is among the best and fast-
est growing of all in northeastern Iowa, is almost
a failure in northeastern Nebraska and southern
South Dakota. On the other hand, the Scotch
pine seems to do as well or nearly as well here as
in the more favored eastern locations. The west-
ern cedars also do quite as well, but are not quite
as rapid growers. There are several other varieties
that do well here and will be described hereinafter.
The principal reason for the impression that we
can not grow these" trees here is that they have
had, in transplanting such inexcusably bad treat-
ment that the surprise is, more that any grow, than
that some or many die.

It is in the first place of little use to bother with

any other than a nursery grown tree to start with,

8*5

256 EVERGREENS.

and this may not be what we are looking for either.
If it has been transplanted several times, or cut
under, so as to cause it to throw out a new system
of small roots from near the tree, it is a proper tree
for our purpose, and with careful handling we will
make a success in changing it from the nursery to
its new habitation. The object we attain by this
transplanting or root pruning, is the cutting off of
straggling long roots and compelling a new growth
that we can secure when we lift it. If we could
practically get all these long roots and preserve
them carefully, the tree would be as sure to grow
as if we had given it the above described treat-
ment, but this is so near impossible as to be so
practically.

A tree for the lawn should be any where from 3
feet upward, according to the price the purchaser
is willing to pay, and the risk he is willing to take
with it. After a tree is 3 feet high it is as sure to
grow as it will be at any time after, and as it gets
more age and size the chances are that we shall get
a lesser proportion of roots to the top and thereby
decrease our chances of success. Unless staked
solidly after planting, too, the larger trees are more
apt to be loosened by the winds.

Another cause has added to the supposed uncer-
tainty of introducing. them, which is the practice of
planting them in the lawn or front yard in the
grass. This is where they want them, but they do
not want to grow there, and will not without
many precautions being taken, In many cases

EVERGREENS. 257

this yard has been raised by earth from the bottom
of the cellar, and as the bottom conies out last this
top soil is apt to be too poor to grow even a fair
crop of weeds. ' 'Whatever is worth doing is worth
doing well1' and it is better to plant but a few trees
and do it well than to plant many, half do it and
lose the most of them.

In making these suggestions, and giving the
directions that will follow, it is assumed that the
tree is a good one and that the nurseryman has done
his duty, which is not by any means the case always.
Sometimes trees are sent out in such bad con-
dition that no treatment could possibly save them.

If every one who reads the foregoing would heed
it carefully, and follow the directions, there would
be little loss sustained on account of the planter,
but we feel like repeating, in order to give empha-
sis to this matter of protecting the roots of ever-
greens while out of the ground.

It seems that the ordinary planter does not
believe that the evergreen grower has not exagger-
ated in the requirement of absolute protection.

When he says that under some conditions an
evergreen will be killed by an exposure in the sun
of ten seconds or less, it is not thought that it is to
be taken literally, but to mean that more care must
be exercised in handling them than the ordinary
fruit trees. It does mean literally just that, and if
the instructions are followed, thousands of trees
will be saved where they are lost by pursuing a
less rigid attention to the instructions.

258 EVERGREENS.

Dr. Lyons says: "We must not even allow the
earth to dry on the outside of the evergreen roots,
if we want the trees to live."

There are plenty of these trees of the best varie-
ties that will do exceedingly well in the northwest-
ern part of Iowa, northeastern Nebraska and the
whole of South Dakota and Minnesota, and when
they are placed in the hands of the planter in good
condition, and then handled by him as directed,
they will be extensively grown as they should
be.

Fruit and forest trees may be handled more care-
lessly and recover, but not so with the evergreen.
The sap is resinous, and by some chemical com-
bination is held in solution in the fluids so
long as they are kept moist, but almost as soon as
the outer surface of the roots and rootlets become
dry, this resin is deposited in the cells which are
thereby clogged, and the tree is as truly dead from
that moment as it will be in a month after it is
planted when the last needle has dried up and
gone, and it stands there a dry and red monument
to what was once a "thing of beauty."

There is another cause of the failure to meet
evergreens here as we do in the Mississippi valley;
that is the lack of adaptation of varieties to our cli-
mate. We have been groping in the darkness for
more than a hundred years; longer than the 'chil-
dren of Israel were looking for the promised land.
We have tried to acclimatize to our dry atmosphere
the eastern trees, and those from foreign countries,

EVERGREENS. 259

where the air is constantly li timid. Where the
conditions even approximated those of the home
of the tree, in this respect, there has been
the nearest approach to success, as in the Austrian
pine; and where these* conditions were the most
dissimilar, the failure has been the greatest; as in
the Irish Junipers. The white pine is an illustra-
tion of the value and vitality of our northwestern
kinds, but this has been neglected, for the reason
that it was "too common," exactly what should
have crowded it to the front.

Now, and strange enough quite recently, we have
discovered right here at home at the west of us, trees
that are unapproachable in hardiness by any of the
eastern or foreign kinds, and peerless in beauty.
The scholars; the art students of the world; the
critics of exclusive New England; the poet, the
botanist, all worship at these shrines of beauty.
Their loveliness cannot be described in words; one
must see them to appreciate them, and if that one
has one little spark of love of the beautiful, it will
be kindled into a grand fire of devotion when for
the first time they stand face to face. These are
principally the western White spruce, the Pungens;
Concolor and Douglass spruces described hereafter.

At present the scarcity and great demand for
these trees hold them at high prices, but this will
soon change, and when they can be procured
abundantly and cheaply, all other kinds will retire
before them, and the revolution will be an accom-
plished fact

260 EVERGREENS.

These hardy and beautiful evergreens are strik-
ing illustrations of "the eternal fitness of things."

For a grove of evergreen trees they may be from
i to i y2 feet high without the necessity of shad-
ing, provided they have been transplanted as
described. Better always send to the nursery where
you know they are grown, than to give orders to
unknown parties. This may sometimes do just as
well but one time with another it will lead to dis-
appointment. If a smaller tree of the ordinary
kinds is to be used for the grove it will be safer to
shade them in some artificial manner. It is not
good to plant them as some do in an improvised
nursery, along the north side of a row of willows,
as they will reach out their roots and rob our plants.
It is well, however, in such a case to plant them in
nursery rows, running north and south and quite
closely in the row with a view of protecting them
partially by the shade of each other. Trees of the
size last described can be planted in such a row
about i foot apart. In massing them in this way
they are more easily shaded, and after two years'
cultivation can be planted out where they are to
remain. In this way we shall get a full stand in
the grove.

It will not be necessary to give minute instruc-
tions for handling them when first coming into the
hands of the planter, he will keep in mind at all
times that the roots must not be dried for a single
half minute, it is not necessary, and any one can
find a way to avoid it.

EVERGREENS. 261

If trees are for the lawn it is still a good plan to
plant them out first in some cultivated ground for
say, two years, when advantage can be taken of a
favorable time to remove them to their permanent
homes, and it can be done with such care as to
make success a certainty.

This treatment is not absolutely necessary, as
they may with proper care be introduced to the lawn
at first. To do this we must dig a hole considerably
larger than the roots seem to require, and if the
soil is not good carry it away and use earth from
some other place where it is good for filling back.
When refilled to the required depth, set in the tree
with the roots in natural positions, and be sure
that the earth is thoroughly worked in among the
roots to fill all the interstices. This must be done
with the ungloved hand. No water will be
required if the earth is naturally moist so as to
readily u pack" in the hand. If not it must be
made so.

The earth being all back in its place and the
roots all nicely covered to the depth of 4 or 5
inches, tread it as hard around the roots as it can
be made by the stamping, and weight of a heavy
man. It will not get too solid. Some use a pav-
ing maul, commencing as soon as the roots are
sufficiently covered to avoid injury, and pounding
as solidly as it can be done, but usually the weight
of a man vigorously applied will be sufficient.

If in digging the hole it is found that the ground
is very dry it should be filled with water and

262 EVERGREENS.

allowed to dry away a few times before planting.
For this reason it is well to have the holes dug
some time before the trees arrive.

When they are planted with little care in the
sward and fail, the nurseryman is assured that they
were well watered all summer. This he thinks is
true, but in reality it is more than likely that not
one little drop of water has reached one root during
the entire summer.

I have often likened this watering by throwing
on a pail of water to throwing water on the roof of
a house to water the house plants within. Try it
sometime, throw down one pail of water on the
sod, and after it has soaked away we shall find that
it has soaked down only from i to 2 inches.

To water these trees in such a place we must
prepare for it before the tree is planted. Bore
two holes down about 2 feet, and about 3 feet
apart, with a post auger, or other implement, and
plant the trees between them. These holes may
be filled with any coarse litter, brick bats, or cobble
stones, and about once a mouth during the summer,
if there is not a sufficient rainfall, fill them with
water and after soaking away fill once more. A
board may be placed over these holes to prevent
accident as well as to fill them, only they are apt
to be removed.

Shading will be found beneficial, or rather pro-
tecting from the severe drying south winds. This
is done easily by nailing together a few pieces of
old boards into a square shield some larger than

EVERGREENS. 263

the tree is high. A stake is then driven into the
ground on the south side of the tree, quite closely,
and leaning heavily to the north, to which the
shield is nailed. This is a very important precau-
tion, and is of little trouble. These shields can be
prepared at any time before the trees arrive, and if
5 mall trees are to be used one wide board will
answer.

Some have been successful by using a barrel
with the heads knocked but and a few staves also
displaced on the north side. If staked up a few
inches from the ground it will answer, but there is
danger of placing it in such a shape that the hot
sun will get full force into the barrel in a still day,
and the protection be worse than nothing. The
flat square board shield is the better. These will
not be required there but one year, when they can
be safely removed.

The artificial shading for the small row of trees
may be made by setting small stakes at intervals
in the row, nailing crosspieces to their tops, and
then nailing a wide board to these, or branches of
trees, or a lattice of corn stalks or lath.

Pruning or Cutting Back is done for the purpose
of lessening the evaporating surface of the foliage
to correspond with the loss of roots. It also will
generally add to the appearance of the tree to shorten
it in all around. It will do no harm to cut out
the buds, even if the center shoot on such trees as
the spruce and balsams are removed by accident or
otherwise, new buds, called adventitious, will be

264 EVERGREENS.

produced from the cambium layer under the bark
and grow through it and replace the lost member.
This shortening in should be done severely. Sup-
pose a tree has a diameter of head of about 2 feet
reduce it to about i foot, cutting so as to bring
the tree into a symmetrical form.

If you have a hedge of any of the evergreens that
is irregular, prune it to the desired shape, but do it
while in the growing season, so as to stunt it and
thicken it up.

Many evergreens make all their season's growth
in a month or less, growing very rapidly during
this time, frequently 2 inches per day. These
are such as the spruces, pines and balsams,
while the Cedars, Arbor Vitses and Junipers
grow like a deciduous tree through the most of
the season.

Growing Evergreens from Seed is only per-
formed successfully by experts, and is not profitable
unless grown in such quantities as to warrant the
planter in devoting his whole attention to it.
These seeds mostly germinate very readily, but are
destroyed by a hot sun in a short time. They
require some sun, but it is admitted to them
through lattice work, or screens of some kind that
will alternate sunshine and shade during the day.
Lath frames are made for this purpose, 4 feet wide
by about 6 or 8 feet long, the space between the
laths is the width of a lath, and the beds 3 to 4
feet wide. These beds should be run east and west,
so the lath will be north and south, otherwise some

EVERGREENS. 265

of the trees would be constantly in the sun, while
others would be shaded the same.

Some seasons are much more favorable for doing
this work than others. When we have frequent
showers followed by hot sunshine, and hotter winds
they are almost sure to "damp off," unless extra
care is used to prevent it. Damping off is the kill-
ing of the young plants at the ground surface,
while the roots and tops are all right. This does
not occur when they are self sown under the parent
tree, and it is supposed that the thick bed of needles
which always is found there is the secret of this.
We may take a hint from this and cover our seed
beds, as soon as the seed is planted, with these
needles to the depth of a half-inch. The plants
will find their way through. We have used coarse
sawdust with fair results, but the nearer we can
approach nature the better.

The seed should be sown quite thickly, and very
lightly covered. The beds should be prepared by
working the earth as finely as possible. Some sift
all the earth that they use through a sieve of about
1 8 meshes to the inch. When the beds are so pre-
pared, and the ground smoothed and patted level
the seed are sown, and covered by sifting on more
earth till they are covered to the depth of about %
of an inch when it is patted down again, the needles
applied, and this is ready for the germination. The
screens should not be placed on till there is a show
of plants pricking through. Should the weather
be very dry after the Feeds are planted, it may be

266 EVERGREENS.

necessary to water, as the seeds being planted so
shallow must be kept in moisture to secure their
growth.

These plants will remain in the seed beds two
years, when the strongest will be removed and the
weaker ones allowed to remain another year. They
are removed to the open ground and there shaded
as has been before described.

A light, sandy soil, well mixed witli vegetable
mould is the best for these seed beds, and if the
soil is tenacious, it is improper and should be
mixed as above. It will be time well spent
to get leaf mould that is fine and well disinte-
grated and mix with sand, and then mix again
with about equal quantities of this heavier soil,
where such, or similar soils are not at hand for
the beds.

The practice of Robert Douglass was to shade
with artificial bowers, made by setting posts in the
ground standing about 8 feet high; to these are
nailed crosspieces to support boughs or trees,which
are then placed on in sufficient quantities to make
a natural broken shade.

In the ordinary lath frame seed beds, ic will be
well to set small stakes along the edges, to which
will be nailed fence boards resting upon the ground
on which the lath frames will rest.

A very small space will grow an immense num-
ber of these trees, and it has occurred to me that
these beds for small plantations might be made in
boxes and kept under cover in a well lighted

EVERGREENS. 267

building. Here the sun, hot winds and supply of
rain could be controlled.

A pound of Norway Spruce seeds will sow a
strip about 4 feet wide by 20 in length and will be
about 58,000 seeds.

The following table compiled by Mr. Douglass
will give the number of different seeds to the
pound, and will be a guide in sowing:

SPRUCES (ABIES).
A. Normanniana, Nordmans fir ....................... 8,000

A. Pectinata, Common silver fir ....................... 8,000

A. Pichta, Siberian silver fir ........................... 40,000

A. Fraseri, Frasers Balsam fir .......................... 43,000

A. Canadensis, Hemlock spruce ..................... 100,000

A. Excelsa, Norway spruce .............................. 58,000

A. Alba,, White spruce ................................... 160,000

A. Concolor, Colorado spruce .........................

Picea pungens, Colorado blue or "silver" spruce..! 10, 000
Pseudotsuga Douglassii, Douglass spruce ......... 45,000

CEDAR.

C. Atlantica, African Cedar ............................ 7,000

PINES (PINUS).

P. Cembra, Cembran pine ................................ 2,700

P. Strobus, White pine ................................... 20,000

P. Austriaca, Austrian pine ............................. 28,000

P. Silvestris, Scotch pine ............................. 69,000

P. Laricio, Corsicanpine ................................. 33,000

P. Rigida, Pitch pine ...... ,w ............................ 66,000

P. Pinaster, Sea side pine ................................ 12,000

P. Ponderosa, Yellow pine .............................. 16,000

L,arix Europa, European Larch ....................... 70,000

ARBORVIT^ o. (THUJA).
T. Occidentallis, American arborvitoe .............. 320,000

ARBORVIT^ ORIENTAUJS (BIOTA O.)

Biota Occidentallis ......................................... 33,000

PEAR.
Common seeds ............................................. 12,000

ADBle.... ...................................... 12,000

268 EVERGREENS.

Scotch Pine. — Is one of the most satisfactory of
the coarser kinds and is very easily transplanted.
At one time it was considered as a perfect tree for
shelter belts, and even for ornament had a place
with many. Time, however, has proved it to be
less valuable than was supposed. Its fault is in
becoming ragged and unsightly after it has stood
about 20 years. It is when young very vigorous,
and when pruned back occasionally to keep it
within bounds is very handsome, and will for these
reasons still occupy a prominent place in the lists.

White Pine. — Is the timber tree of the great
northwestern forests, and for this purpose it has no
rival. Those who have been brought up with it
hardly appreciate its beauty, as the New Bnglander
does not the Hemlock. He has become so accus-
tomed to it, and perhaps fought his way to a very
poor farm by years of hard toil over the ashes of
these trees. It is nevertheless among the most
beautiful of all. No other tree has such soft and
feathery needles; no other tree can make quite the
mournfully delicious music, as the wind sighs
through its branches, and the manner in which the
long lithe swaying branchlets pack together on the
wind side to make it "air-tight" is peculiar to this
tree alone. Long live the white pine, the great
North American evergreen. It is one of the sad-
dest commentaries on the greed and destructiveness
of man, that this magnificent tree in its natural
forest is slowly but surely fading away before his
devastating and triumphal march. The white

EVERGREENS. 269

pine forests of New England are of the past, and if
the present rate of depletion in the northwest is
continued, which it is hoped it will not be, many
are living now who will see the last giant fall, and
the last immense raft of logs float slowly down the
Mississippi. Even now the devastation has reached
such a state that the climate of that region is much
changed. Where the beech, hickories and pecans
grew readily within my memory, they now barely
maintain their existence. .

It is believed that this tree has been of greater
value to mankind than any other, and its perpetua-
tion in large tracts is the duty of mankind in
return. It is readily grown, and over a very wide
area, adapting itself to more different soils than
any other conifer.

"Ours is no seedling, chance sowed by the fountain,

Blooming at Beltane, in winter to fade;

When the whirlwind has stripped every leaf on the mountain,
The more shall Clan Alpine exult in thy shade. ,
Moored in the rifted rock,
Proof to the tempest's shock,
Firmer he roots him the ruder it blow;
O that some seedling gem,
Worthy such noble stem,
Honored and blest in thy shadow might grow."

Austrian Pine. — Is so near like the Scotch, as
to be distinguishable only by those habituated to
seeing both, when the difference is marked. The
branches are heavier and more rigid, and the
general expression is more rugged and coarse.
The buds are quite different, the former being
lighter colored, sometimes so bubescent as to be

370 EVERGREENS.

nearly white; plump at their base and running to
a slim, sharp point, while the latter are longer,
blunt and darker colored. It is not hardier than
the Scotch pine, but holds its age better. It is
considered very valuable in its native home in the
mountainous parts of Austria, where it grows to
the height of 150 feet in some cases.

Yellow Pine (Pinus ponderosa) Dougl., var. scop-
ulorum Kngelm. — A medium-sized tree with red-
dish bark, and a yellow, rather resinous wood.
The leaves are from 3 to 5 inches long; and are in
twos or threes. The cones are 2 to 3 inches
long, and ripen in the fall of the second year.

This interesting tree, which occurs so abundantly
in the Rocky mountains, is the only pine native to
Nebraska. It forms quite dense forests in the
northwestern and northern portions of the state,
extending from the Wyoming line along Pine
Ridge and the Niobrara river to Long Pine creek
in Brown and Rock counties. It occus also on the
North Platte river as far eastward as Deuel county.
In the Loup valley it originally grew in many can-
yons, and remnants still occur in Valley, Greeley
and Custer counties. It appears to be wanting in
the Republican valley.

This is one of the hardiest of the pines. Fine
trees occur abundantly upon the sides and summits
of the rocky hills of the north and northwest por-
tions of the state. Good trees may be seen in
Dawes county, growing in the tough prairie sod,
with nothing to protect the trunk or roots from the

EVERGREENS. 271

heat. A study of the tree in its native habitat
shows that it requires very little moisture either in
the soil or the air. It appears to be one well suited
for planting in the central and western portions of
the state.

This tree grows in the higher altitudes of the
state, ranging from more than 5,000 feet above the
sea on Pine Ridge (in Sioux and Dawes counties)
to about 2,500 feet on the Niobrara^in Rock and
Keya Paha counties). On the North Platte it ranges
from nearly 6,000 feet (in Scott's Bluff county) to
about 3,500 feet (in Deuel county). In Custer
county it grows at an elevation of about 2,500 feet,
while in Valley and Greeley counties it descends
to about 2,000 feet above sea level. (Univ. Bulle-
tin No. 1 8. Prof. Bessy.)

This tree must be handled with great care as it
is not easily transplanted.

Mountain pine. (P. Montana or P. Mugho). — Is
a dwarf species found growing throughout the
Rocky Mountains, and in Montana. Its foliage, or
needles are like the Scotch pine, and its expression
is that of a dwarf tree of that species. It grows but
a foot or little more in height, and spreads out by
the weight of its own branches bringing it to the
ground. It holds its color well in winter, and is
valuable for such situations on the lawn as require
evergreen bushes of this kind.

Red Cedar. — A medium, rather slow growing
tree that is well known. There are two species
found in the west, that, although quite closely

272 EVERGREENS.

resembling each other, prove to be practically very
different, as that from the north, sometimes called
Platte river or Niobrara river cedar is entirely
hardy, and among the most valuable of all the
evergreens for a hardy wind break, while the
southern cedars are tender in the north. The objec-
tion to it for ornament is its discoloring so badly
in winter when it becomes unsightly. Its timber
is valuable for posts, or other uses that require an
indestructible material. Fence posts have stood
in sandy lands for forty years, and been still quite
sound.

Silver Cedar. — This is a species from the Rockies,
and like so many of those mountain evergreens, has
the same silvery cast, which makes it quite dis-
tinguishable from the foregoing. It is not hardier,
but holds its color better in winter, and is a more
beautiful tree at all times.

American Arborvitce. — This makes the best and
largest trees of all the Arborvitses, though there
are others that, for ornamental purposes, are supe-
rior. The Arborvitses do not have a foliage of
needles like the other evergreen coniferae,but have
a two-edged branchlet, with inbricated leaves, is
pungent, and the aroma from the bruised leaves is
pleasing. It stands shearing into any desired form,
and for this reason is much used in ornamental
architecture. In its native state it grows well up
to the Arctic ocean, generally in low or swampy
places, where it attains a height of 40 to 60 feet,
and is much used for telegraph poles. Is fairly

EVERGREENS. 273

successful in the west, though on dry soils and dry
exposures it grows slowly, and browns considerably
in winter.

Siberian Arborvitcz. — This is a variety of the
above, has darker foliage, is more compact, and
holds its color better in winter. It grows very
slow, and is useful on the lawn where trees or large
shrubs of this sort are needed. It has no connec-
tion with Siberia.

Globosa Arborvittz. — Called also "Roundhead."
Is in habit much like the foregoing, but much more
compact and symmetrical, being frequently almost
perfect globes without shearing. It is lighter
color, and valuable as a lawn tree, seldom growing
beyond 2 or 3 feet in height.

Pyramidallis Arborvitcz. — This is one of the best
of all these sports from the American, for orna-
mental uses. Its habit is sharply upright, trees
10 feet high, being naturally but 2 or 3 feet in
diameter at the ground. It holds its color as well
as any and better than the most. It has a habit of
sending up several central stems, but they do not
show as they hug as close to the main body as if
they were tied there. It should be in every good
lawn, and will always attract attention and admira-
tion.

This variety like all the other sports is propa-
gated mostly by layering, or from cuttings with bot-
tom heat. There is another tree of the same name
on the foreign lists that reproduces from seed. We
have the plants but a foot high. It seems to be

' 274 EVERGREENS.

hardy but browns worse if possible in winter than
the red cedars.

Norway Spruce. — This has been in the near past
perhaps the most popular of all the spruces. Bryant
says it is more valuable than either the White or
Black, and Michaux says it grows to the height of
150 feet in its native country, and requires 100
years to mature. As an ornamental tree in the
State of Illinois and the eastern half of Iowa it is,
when young, or was before the advent of the spruces
from the Rockies, without a peer, where a grand
stately tree of large size is required, but after pass-
ing twenty or thirty years it loses its symmetry,
becomes ragged and unsightly, measureably, in the
locations described, but to a very marked degree in
the Missouri valley and west, where it has not the
quality of thrift and beauty even while young.

White Spruce. — This is so much like the Norway
that one accustomed to handling both might not
see the difference, yet it is a distinct species and
the difference easy to see when the attention is
called to it. In Nebraska it is a very much better
tree and much hardier and more valuable in every
way. This is called the "White Spruce of Wiscon-
sin". There is another variety of this, or it is
claimed by some a distinct species, which is not
established, and not probable. It will be described
under the name of the following,

Black Hills Spruce. — Foliage is much darker,
and more silvery than the foregoing, a slower
grower, and the expression of the tree is entirely

EVERGREENS. 275

different, being more rigid, and closer topped.
Another important variation is in its ability to
stand unaided where the Wisconsin variety which
is very hardy, frequently fails. It is probably a
seedling that has in some manner wandered away
to the Black Hills country, where in the last hun-
dreds or perhaps thousands of years, it has in con-
formity to the law of the survival of the fittest been
adapting itself to that climate, until now it stands
before us as a practically distinct species, but has
not and never will lose its botanical identity. It is
one of the most valuable and should and will be
largely planted.

Concolor Spruce of Colorado. — This is one of the
most beautiful of the Rocky Mountain spruces, hav-
ing but two rivals, one a peer and the other a
superior. We quote and condense a description
from the Boston Congregationalism. ('The tree with
that bright foliage is the Concolor. As the name
indicates it is even colored, the same the year
around. But you say, 'What a marvelous beauty
this has, ermine and emerald blended. Such a
sheen ; a tree dressed in glory ! What is it?' It is a
robe of matchless beauty the Great Horticulturist
has given these trees, making them the most
attractive of any thing on earth. They are held in
reserve for these latter days, when nature and art
unite to make home and lawn and landscape so
attractive to the eye and taste. Note the contrast
of this rare color with the deep green of the pines.
They are true to their nature — some trees put on

276 EVERGREENS.

wonderful beauty while young; but these retain
their attractiveness down to old age. But in
order to see these trees in all their glory, you should
see them while they are bearing their cones. All
are dressed in their marvelous attire of silver and
green. On one tree the cones are of a deep red
purple. What a contrast to the other hues —
another has cones of lightest green, and another
contrast. The cones grow erect at the top of the
tree, and are perfect in form, about the size of an
ear of Sweet corn. As they mature these colors
seem to deepen, and then from the cones that clear
gum exudes; the sun shines, and it seems almost
too beautiful for earth. I note that these trees do
as well at the east as they do in their own habitat
and you will soon have these mountain treasures
there. I have tried selecting seeds from the rarest
specimen and find that among the thousands now
coming up, most of them fairly sparkle with silver."

The above description was evidently written by
a lover of trees, and while it is somewhat florid, it
is not overdrawn, as words are poor for painting a
beautiful tree or flower. This description will
apply to the Douglass, and with greater force to the
Pungens, the most beautiful and hardy of all.

Douglass Spruce. — In habit like the hemlock
from which it acquired its botanic name, Seudo-
tsuga, Tsuga being the hemlock species.

Seen at a distance good specimens are taken for
the Pungens, and it is said that the specimens
grooving at the greatest elevations produce the

ENERGREENS.

277

greatest proportion of the silvery tinted speci-
mens.

It is a very rapid grower, somewhat inclined to

DOUGLASS SPRUCE

be straggling like the European larch when very
young, but when they are I to 2 feet high they
stiffen up and grow vigorously. In hardiness will
rank about with the Norway spruce.

EVERGREENS.

Colorado Blue Spruce. Or Colorado Silver spruce
(Picea Pungens). — This tree was sent out from the
Rocky Mountains where it was found growing in

COLORADO BUTE SPRUCE.

the best perfection on the eastern side, but on the
north sides of the hills and peaks, and at great ele-
vations. The oldest tree I have seen stands in Pil-
ger, Nebraska, on the farm of I. R. Layton, and is
supposed to be about fifteen years, possibly more.
It is a very silvery specimen.

EVERGREENS.

Douglass tells of specimens in Massachusetts,
Illinois, Iowa, Kansas and Nebraska, that are 20
to 30 feet high. In color they range from dark to
light green, and from light frosty to deep blue.

The following is copied from Hill:

"This is the king of all the spruces, clothed in
royal robes of silver and sapphire, a very Kohinoor
among the gems of the Rockies. It is a child of
the storm king, growing at an altitude of 8,000 to
10,000 feet above the sea level. It is generally
found where there are deep gorges, or on the north
of the ranges. We would naturally suppose that
it would not endure a sudden change, or thrive in
a hot climate. There are fine specimens growing
in Washington and also in North Carolina.

uThe question arises, since it is not found on the
lower altitudes, or among the foot hills, why does
it endure such a diversity of soil and climate? The
answer is, it could not possibly grow there. The
Douglass and Ponderosa and Concolor, all have
large seeds and send out a strong plant, and there-
fore they are found lower down. Pungens seed is
small, 110,000 to the pound. In the higher alti-
tudes are frequent showers, and often moss in the
woods, and the ground is seldom dry. It is not
hot enough to kill the plants, and so, on the north
side of the hills and ranges, nature has provided
for their propagation.

4 ' The cone of the Pungens is about one-half the
size of the Norway, and the needles are short and
sharp-pungent, hence the name. They are pol-
ished like glass."

280 EVERGREENS.

The length of the needles as given above is not
as I- would give it, they in my specimens being
much longer than the Norway.

This was formerly called Menzies spruce.

Hemlock. Abies (or Tsuga) Canadensis. — A very
beautiful tree and should be in every lawn where
they are hardy enough to stand. Holds its color
well through the winter, and like the White pine
is very soft and flexible. Mehan says, "It would
not be exaggeration to pronounce this the most
beautiful of all evergreens." But this was in Penn-
sylvania, where the climate was just fitted to it.
It does not do so well in dry climates and dry
exposures.

Balsam Fir. — In its younger days this is one of
the most popular of the evergreens for ornamental
planting. It is perfectly symmetrical, and nearly
all trees are uniform in shade, being very dark
green, and tapering regularly from base to apex.
In the west it loses its beauty when 20 to 30 feet
in height, becoming ragged, and limbing off near
the ground. If the soil is kept very fertile there is
less danger of this.

In conclusion let us add here what has been
omitted, that there is no better precaution can be
taken with so little trouble in handling evergreens
than puddling. This consists of dipping the roots
of the young trees as soon as they are dug into soft
mud, made about the consistency of batter. If of
quite stiff clay it is better. No one may claim
that he has done his duty in sending out evergreens
who has neglected this.

CHAPTER XVII.

Humbugs.

IT is thought that some space could not be used
better than in describing some of these "ways
that are dark, and tricks that are vain." Before
doing so we must ask your indulgence. This will
not be of interest to all our readers, for the larger class
are fully able to take care of themselves. But there
is a large class that, through lack of time or incli-
nation to inform themselves and who are very indus-
trious and excellent citizens, will fall an easy prey
to the deceptive wiles of itinerant humbugs of all
kinds, and more especially in this line. It has been
estimated that in the purchase of trees alone,
through overcharges, and worthless stock some of
the states are annually robbed of close to $1,000,-
ooo. Verily, * ' the American people love to be
humbugged."

There is no class of people representing any
special industry or profession that can show a larger
percentage of honest, upright pains-taking and
intelligent people than is found in the American
nurserymen. While there are exceptions in indi-
vidual cases, the rule stands unchallenged. If we
deal directly with them, which can generally be

282 HUMBUGS.

done, very few mistakes will be made. To deter-
mine where to place an order it is necessary to use
the best judgment and not be overcome by the fine
talk and blandishments of any one. There are
"nurserymen" whose only claim to that name con-
sists in their having bought and planted out a few
root grafts, and whose knowledge of all other mat-
ters connected with the business is very limited.

The trees to be planted should be of proper varie-
ties, well handled, and laid down in good condition.
This is of more importance than that they are
grown in any particular locality.

Dealers. — Palmerston said "Ireland is my dif-
ficulty. ' ' The nurserymen may well say the same
of these middle men, and they do say it, and regret
the apparent necessity of dealing with them, but
see no way at present of avoiding it. Dealers are
those who arrange as to terms, price, etc. , previ-
ously with some nursery, then hire a lot of men as
their agents, make the season's canvass, and then
u pack out " at the place named. It is in its best
sense a sale at wholesale. If these dealers were all
honest there would be little harm done, but they
are not always so, and the class of men that they
hire are put on a strictly u revenue basis."

It will be seen that the nurseryman has no con-
nection with any deals with the planter, yet these
"agents" represent invariably that they are te
agents of the nursery. In some cases nurserymen
of otherwise good standing have given to the
agents of these dealers certificates of agency, of

HUMBUGS. 383

such a nature as to relieve them from any legal
responsibility, but drawn in such a way as to give
a common person the evidence of bona fide agency.
In return for this it is presumed that the dealer
pays a better price for the stock. In other cases
the dealers have refused to have labels put upon
the stock, as they ' ' prefer to make their own varie-
ties." In one case a very large lot of pistilate
strawberries were bought and billed out alone,
either through ignorance- or cupidity. This is worse
than robbery. The plants will grow but they will
not bear and the labor and pleasurable anticipation
of seeing the wife and babies gathering in the heap-
ing baskets of crimson beauties, as they looked in
the pictures, will end only as it began, in the dis-
appointment of a dream.

The better plan for all would be to sell through
bona fide agents, giving to each one a certificate as
such under the court seal, then employ only such
men as would obey orders, and make a contract
that to deceive any one should cause discharge.

The best way would be for every planter to send
direct to the nursery, but this is out of the question.
The nurseryman has the same right to live that
any one else has, and if he depended on dispos-
ing of his goods in this way he would be compelled
soon, either to give up living or change his
vocation.

With all the ills surrounding the present system,
it is still better than to wait for the trade that
would never come. From this we see that under-

284 HUMBUGS.

lying all other objections that may be made to this
system is the fault of the public, which alone has
the power to change it, but which never will. If
we could eliminate the dealer and employ agents
the system would be relieved of its worst objections.

The nurseryman, either through himself or his
bona fide agent, is to be commended for going out
and rustling for his share of the business.

The Salome Apple. — This is still being sold at
two to three times its value on the representation
that it is protected by a patent, and that but one
nursery in the United States has the right to prop-
agate it. There is no patent on any tree; never
has been, and never will be as long as the people
retain their senses.

Patent Process. — For the apparent purpose of
deceiving, and for no other conceivable reason, a
large nursery keeps this prominently before the
people, thus inducing their salesmen and the public
to believe that no other nursery can propagate in
the way they claim to do it. It is only a trade
mark; and no one else has a right to use these
words as describing any mode of propagating; but
there is no patent on any manner of propagating
anything; never has been, and never can be.

Fancy Prices. — Strange as it may seem the local
nurseryman does not suffer in competing against
those who put prices down, but the reverse.
There is an impression that the higher the price,
the better the goods. The same goods are worth
so much money, and selling them at double the

HUMBUGS. 285

price does not enhance their value. A neighbor
bought a bill of Concord grapes for $100.00 which
could have been furnished for $10.00 at a fair profit.

The State Nursery. — This is another ingenious
mode of swindling. The operator lives at the
capital, or pretends to, and is the "Superintendent
of the State Nurseries." In his attire he is gotten
up regardless of expense, has a fine rig and driver.
The latter calls at the house of the victim informing
him that the state nurseryman has been sent there
and he is invited out to see him. On being intro-
duced he is met with cold but dignified cordiality.
He tells his man that he is fortunate in having
some influential friend at the capital who has
secured for him some of the state's goods, which
are not sent out till they have been tested and
fruited five years. The common every day farmer
is not proof against such dignity, style and patron-
age. He is flattered by the call of this great man
and signs gladly whatever he is asked to, and will
boast to his neighbors of his luck till he finds that
they have all been "selected" in the same way.

There is no such thing as a state nursery, and no
trees or other goods are grown, or bought and sold
for profit, by any state (with the possible exception
of S. Carolina).

Budded Apple Trees. — This fraud has been
exposed so often that there ought to be few who
are not posted in it. The operator travels with
" two sticks," one he says is cut from a grafted tree,
which is very much discolored, while the other is

286 HUMBUGS.

sound, and he says was cut from a budded tree. He
is made to believe, without a particle of evidence
except the word of the stranger that budded trees are
for that reason always sound, while grafted ones,
for the same reason, are always unsound. A sale is
made at two or three prices, but the ordinary
grafted tree is delivered in every case. I have
examined nearly 100 of these trees and have yet to
find one not grafted. The wrong is in the deception,
and exorbitant price, as the trees are actually better
than if a budded tree was really delivered. Any
one can determine by cutting one of these trees
whether they are budded or grafted. Examine
plate No. 10, which gives the form of a splice cr
root graft. Cut into the tree just above the roots,
where there is usually an unevenness that will
indicate the splice, this will be found and the parts
can be separated, as the wood in a graft never
grows together, but is encased in new wood which
forms over it.

Prof. Budd, in State Register, Feb. 18, 1887,
says: "As these budded apple tree chaps are well
distributed over the state, the real facts should be
kept before the people. Trees budded on any
obtainable stock, or seedlings, are not worth plant-
ing in any part of Iowa, as not one seedling in 500
is as hardy as our common grafted sorts. Hence,
if the Duchess of Oldenburg, Wealthy, or Whitney's
No. 20, or even the crabs should be budded above
the crown on common seedling stocks they will
soon go out by root killing. But the wily agent

HUMBUGS. 287

claims their trees are budded on French Crab
stocks. If so, this is still worse, as the so-called
French Crab seed is from the Perry making sections
of south France, and their seedlings are as tender
with us as the peach. Absolutely there is nothing
in the artful story with which so many are now
being gulled."

Tree Blackberry. — These are sold at the present
time at the same price as the following, #3.00
each, or two for $5.00. One hundred should be
bought for the price of 'one. They are made by
cutting back a strong cane of any common variety
and causing it to throw out branches. It resembles
a tree, and is taken up in the fall and cellared The
next year it bears fruit, and like all other black-
berries dies in the fall, so far as the tree is con-
cerned, but the root lives, and the next year there
will be a crop of sprouts or suckers, like any other.

Evergreen Blackberry. — This is not a myth, but
is of no value in our climate. In its native home,
Oregon, it is a partial evergreen.

Half down and balance in fruit when trees bear
is another very ingenious scheme. The price is
doubled, so that half price is full price, and the
operator does not figure on his prospective profits
on fruit.

Promises outside of the contract, are not binding.
If one is promised anything that he relies on he
should see that it is written in the order. The
only safe way is to demand an exact duplicate of
the order. A card with the names of trees and

288 HUMBUGS.

amount all bundled into one amount under a
" blanket" is of no value. This will also prevent
"stuffing" or "padding" the orders, which is
sometimes done.

Grape Vine Raspberry. Another myth. There
is no such thing outside of the prolific brain of the
vender. The only thing real about it is the price.

Tree Currants. — These are made as shown under
"Propagation," which see. They are an oddity,
but not worth as much as the bush. They cost but
a trifle more and should be sold at the same price.

In General, pass by anything claimed to be new
and of great value, if there is a great price attached
to it. If new it is untried, and if it does prove to
be of value, it will be on the general market soon
at a reasonable price.

It is common in many places where a local
nursery has established a good trade, and a good
reputation, to try to break it down for the purpose
of picking it up by outsiders. In such cases they,
either by an explicit agreement or a tacit under-
standing, "double up" and all tell the same story,
such as, "He has sold out," or "Hasn't some kind of
goods that they are selling," or "Is bankrupt," etc.
All such stories should be carefully investigated
before placing confidence in them. I remember
that when a boy, in going to a strange orchard
after fruit, I always went first to the trees having
the most clubs under them.

" Prove all things; l:oM fast that which i3 f^

INDEX.

A. PAGE.

Abundance plum 155

Adaptability to climate 33

Advantage of small trees. ..57, 75

Agawam grape 211

Agents 42

Alexander apple 227

Alexander peach 161

Allen's choice apple 236

Ancient Briton blackberry.. 193

Anisette apple 246

Aport apple 247

Aport voronesh apple 247

Apples, description of. 217

Apricot, Russian 163

Apricots..., 157

Arborvitae 272

" American 272

1 Globosa 273

Pyramidallis 273

1 Siberian 273

Artificial pollenizing 88

Autumn strawberry apple... 227

B.

Balsam fir 280

Bartell dewberry 199

Beder wood strawberry 183

Ben Davis apple 231

Benoni apple 226

Berberry 200

Bessimianca pear 252

Birch, weeping 141

Blackberries 191

" Covering 193

Black heart 31, 77, 111

Black Hills spruce 274

Black Naples currant 1JM5

Blight 106

PAGE.

Blushed Calville apple 246

Boiken apple 248

Borers 81, 97

Botan plum 155

Brighton grape 212

Bubach No. 5 strawberry ... 185

Budding 119, 285

Buds on the roots 27

Buffalo berry 200

Buhach HO

Burrowing animals 100

C.

Canada peach apple 221

" pippin apple 238

Canning fruit 68

Capt. Jack strawberry... 183, 184

Catherine apple 230

Cayuga red streak apple 239

Cellar wintering 45

Chas. Downing plum 153

Cheney t>lum 147

Cherries". 169

" Russian 175

" Soils for 170, 172

" Varieties of. 172

Choke cherry 177

Cion and stock, uncongenial 23
Cion not modified by stock.. 23

Circulation in trees 27

Cleft grafting 123

Climate, adaptability to 33

Clinton grape 212

Coe grape 212

Cole's quince apple 220

Collar, the 21

Colorado blue spruce 278

Colvert apple 225

290

INDEX.

Concolor spruce 275

Concord grape 211, 213

Conditions promote hardi-
ness 35

Corn stalks for protection. .. 99

Cooper's E. White apple 221

Covering strawberries 182

Crab apples 248

Crescent City plum 153

Cro-s fertilizing 83

Croton grape 213

Cultivating young orchard. 57

Currants .". 194

Curved hedge rows 137

Cut backs 30

Cuthbert raspberry 188

Cut leaved weeping birch... 141

Cuttings 116

D.

Day apple 226

Dealers 42, 282

Delaware grape 213

Desota plum 146

Dewberries 198

Dibbles 28

Double working 126

Douglass spruce 276

Downing gooseberry 198

Duchess grape 213

" ofOldenburg 219

Dwarf Mt. Juneberry 199

Dyer apple , 226

E.

Early harvest apple 218

Early Richmond cherry 172

Early Victor grape 213

Elvira grape 213

Empire state grape 213

Enemies of the orchard 91

Eng. Morello cherry 173

Enlargement near graft 26

Evergreens 138, 225

For the lawn 261

From seed 264

Groves of... 260

Not moved in fall 52

Pruning 263

Evergreens Puddling 280

" Root pruned .» 32

" Shading 262

" Transplanting 556

" Watering 262

Excelsior apple 251

Exposure 48

F.

Fall apples 223

Fall handling 48, 52

Fall orange apple 225

Fall wine sap apple 225

Feeding the trees 64

Flemish beauty pear 251

Flowering shrubs 140

Forest garden plum 146

Forest rose plum 152

Fruit blowing off ,„,, 59

Fruit, thinning the 66

" Canning 68

" Gathering the 67

" Keeping the 68

Fungoids 99

G.

Gathering Fruit 67

Gideon apple... 251

Gipsy girl apple 247

Goethe grape 214

Gooseberries 196

Grafting 122

Top 17, 128, 131

Top, stocks for 132

Wax 126

Grapes 203

Arbor for 208

Covering 209

Kinds of. 208

Planting 204

Pruning 206

Ripen in shade 209

Soil for 203

Trellising 205

Winter protection 210

Grapes of most value 216

Gregg raspberry 189

Grime's golden apple 236

INDEX.

291

PAGE.

Gross Pomier apple 223

Ground moles 100

Grouping varieties 138

H.

Haas apple 223

Hagloe apple 222

Hammer plum 153

Hardiness of trees 33

Hardy trees, list of 36

Haverland strawberry 185

Hawkeye plum 147

Heeling in 50,

Hemlock 280

High fertilizing 27

Hill's Chili peach 161

Hislop crab 254

Houghton gooseberry 198

Humbugs 281

I.

Idaho pear 253

Industry gooseberry 197

Insects „ 88

Borers 81, 97

Borers not in sound

wood 98

Damage by 92

Fruit eating 96

Leafcrumpler 94

Leaf eating 94

Sap suckers 95

Tree crickets 98

Use of. 91

Insecticides 109

Iowa blush apple. 235

Iowa keeper apple 238

Japan plums 154

Jeffries apple 228

Jessie strawberry 183, 184

Jonathan apple. 232

K

Keeping fruit 68

Kerosene emulsion 110

Keswick apple 222

Kieffer's hybrid pear 253

Kilbourn peach 101

PAGE.

Kilmarnock 141

Kind of trees to plant 45

Kurskaya pear 253

L.

Lady grape 214

Landscape gardening 135

Late Richmond cherry 174

La Versalles currant 196

Layering 118

Laying down peaches 157

Location and soil 47

London purple 109

Longbunch Holland cur-
rant 196

Longfield apple 246

Lowell apple 228

Lubsk queen apple 246

Lucretia dewberry 199

M.

Maiden blush apple 226

Making the orchard 41

Management of orchard 63

Mann apple 240

Maquoketa plum 153

Martha grape 214

McMahon's white apple 229

Merrimac grape 214

Mice 98

Michigan vs. Nebraska trees 15

Milton plum 153

Miner plum 151

Minimum temperature 39

Minkler apple 233

Mongolian pear 253

Montmorency cherry 174

Moreman plum 154

Moore's early grape 214

Mountain pine 270

Mulberry Teas weeping 141

N.

Natural pollenizing 84

Northwestern greening 234

Norway spruce 274

Number of trees to the acre 60

Nursery, the 13

Nursery to orchard 37

292

INDEX.

O. PAGE.

October apple 251

Ogon plum 156

Okabena apple 240

Older raspberry 189

Orchard, making the 41

Crops in the 63

Enemies of 91

In sod 49

Laying out the 53

Making by contract... 43

Management 63

Ostheim cherry 173

Ostrakoff apple 247

Own roots 14, 18, 26

P.

Paris green 109

Parker Earle strawberry 184

Pattons greening apple 236

Peaches 157

" Training on trellis 157

" InS. Dak 163

" In the north 34

Pears 251

Pear blight 251

Peerless apple 229

Peter apple 251

Pewaukee apple 239

Planting root grafts 28

Planting trees 53

Plowing with no dead fur-
rows 28

Plums 143

" Species of 143

' ' Varieties of. 143 to 156

Plumbs cider apple 224

Pocket gophers 100

Pocklington grape 214

Poplar peach , 161

Propagation 115

Budding 119

By seeds 116

Cuttings 117

Grafting 122

Layering 118

Root grafting 124

Side grafting 125

Protecting trees 56, 76

Pruning and hardiness 39

Pruning in general 71

Prices sweet apple 227

"Puddling in" at planting. 53
Pyrethrum 110

Q-

Quaker plum 148

Quality and hardiness 37

Quassia chips 110

R.

Rabbits 98

" Protection from 99

Raspberries 185

" Mulching 188

" Planting 187

" Propagation of 186

" Protecting 186

Rawles Janet apple 233

Record in trenches 50

Red astrachan apple 219

Red cedar 270

Red Dutch currant 196

Red June .apple 218

Regal apple , 248

Replace and use 56

Roman stem apple 240

Rome beauty apple 233

Root grafting 124

Root grafts, cultivating 31

" Firming 32

" Planting 28

" Protecting 30

" Winterkilling.. 29

Robinson plum 152

Rolingstone plum 148

Russian apples, new 242

Russian apricot 164

Russian cherries 175

Russian crab 217

S.

Salome apple 238, 284

Salway peach 161

St. Lawrence apple 228

Sand cherry 176

Satsuma plum 155

INDEX.

293

Scotch pine 268

Scott's winter apple 234

Seedling apple 241

Seedlings, tender 14, 17, 20

Self-fertilizing strawberries 180
Shaffer's colossal raspberry 189
Short root and long cion.... 20

Side grafting 125

Silver cedar 272

Small fruits 179

Small trees, advantage of 57, 75
Smith's improved goose-
berry 198

Snyder blackberry 193

Soil and location 47

Sops of wine apple 221

Souhegan raspberry 189

Speer plum 148

Spring budding 121

Strawberries 179, 182

Strawberries, fall 32

Stripping in nursery 74

Suckers 26

Summer queen apple 218

Sun scald 80, 102

Superknowledgist 113

Sutton's beauty apple 237

Sweet June apple 218

T.

Talman sweet apple 239

Tap roots indispensable 16

Tetofski apple 217

Thinning out fruit 66

Tong-Pa peach 161

Top grafting 17, 128. 131

Turner raspberry 188

Tyler raspberry 189

Type of roots governed by
stocks 16

U.

Use of insects 88

Utter's red apple 224

V. PASE.

Van Buren plum 148

Varieties of strawberries 183

Victoria currant 195

W.

Wager peach 164

Walbridge apple 237

Warfield strawberry 183

Watering trees 54

Wealthy apple , 224

Weaver plum 147

Weeds to shade the ground.. 36

Weeping trees 141

" Willow 141

Whip grafting 122

White grape currant 195

White hellebore 109

White pine 268

White pippin apple 238

White spruce 274

Whitewash 104

Whitney No. 20 254

Whole root vs. piece root. .13, 24

Wilder grape 215

Wild goose plum 152

Willow twig apple 232

Wind breaks 5g

Winesap apple 232

Winter apples 230

Wintering in cellar... 45

Wolf plum 147

Wolf river apple 240

Worden grape 211

Wyant plum 147

Wythe apple 236

Y.

Yellow pine 270

Yellow transparent 254

Yield of strawberries 183

Z.

Zuzoft's winter 248