NYPL RESEARCH LIBRARIES 3 3433 08184257 1 ■. m 7- «A<-*S^^^ 4*K TV ■•>^ \ -*. :\ 4 lOTES ON THE NOETHWEST, OR VALLEY OF THE UPPER MISSISIPPL COMPRISING THE COrNTRY BETWEEN LAKES SrPERIOR AND MICHIGAN, EAST; THE ILLINOI? AND MISSOURI RIVERS, AND THE NORTHERN BOUNDARY OF THE UNITED states; — INCLUDING IOWA AND W; SCONSIX, PART OF MICHIGAN NORTHWEST OF THE STRAITS OF MACKINAW, AND NORTHERN ILLINOIS AND MISSOURI. BTf WM. J. A, BRADFORD. NEW YORK AND LONDON: ' * - ■ A ;^»^ WILEY AND PUTN AM. • '^''^-^^ '- 1S46. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by WILEY AND PUTNAM, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. R. Cbaiobbad's PoT^er Press' 112 Fulton Street INTRODUCTION The present work covers, in part, new ground geographical- ly : — and differs in design, plan, and mode of treatment, from those that have before appeared descriptive of some portions of the district of which it treats. Though for more than a century and a half known to the French Missionaries, the voyageurs, and the coureurs des bois, and to those few who went out as discoverers and ex- plorers, yet it was almost wholly an unknown region to our American geographers only twenty years since. Mr. Darby, in his Gazetteer date 1827, says that much of the portion west of the Missisippi is unknown. Most of the books that have been pubhshed in relation to this country, have been designed only for guides to travellers and emigrants ; — and have consequently been subject, so far as the general reader has been concerned, to the twofold objection that they were too much in detail to be of interest to them, or to embody that kind of information, in that shape, that would be valuable ;— and also that by the rapid transitions constantly in progress in this part of the country, they very soon became antiquated and not to be confided in IV INTRODUCTION. for present information, and possess only the value of a past year's almanac ; the fate necessarily of books of mere details. The country of which the present volume treats is one of great interest intrinsically, and especially at this time vi^hen two new sovereignties are about to be established within its limits. And the object of the wTiter has been, to put together some notes upon it, in such form as will be inter- esting to persons seeking general inform.ation in relation to the United States, and of such a kind as will be more per- manent than the usual chapters of detail. The physical geography of a country will, of course, re- main unchanged, while the descriptions of towns given to-day will hardly apply to the same place wdien the earth shall come again to the same place in its orbit. The same is true of the history of a country. What has transpired will not be effaced by a new page, but what is once written will remain. The other portions of the work are not of so permanent a nature, yet a considerable portion of the remaining three parts will not very soon become obsolete. The population and municipalities, the state of society, and the pursuits of the people, wall undergo modifications. They are, however, made to occupy a subordinate place in the w^ork. The physical description of the country has been drawn almost exclusively from two sources : the writer's own ob- servation, and the very excellent and graphic report of Mr. Nicollet to the Topographical Bureau of the War Depart- ment of the United States : from which, being the only pub- lished description of a considerable portion of this country, INTRODUCTION. V narrated in very animated style, large extracts have been transcribed literally, as better than a reproduction in new shape. The history has been collected from a variety of sources : some of them of undoubted authenticity. Some of the older relations, hov^^ever, to which resort must be had to ascertain the early events connected with the discovery of the country, are not to be received without caution. The practice among the French of publishing books in names of other persons, not the authors of them, has thrown doubts over some of its story. M. Tonti disclaimed the author- ship of the volume published in his name ; and it is proba- ble the same liberty may have been taken with others. Parts III. and IV. are principally the result of the writer's observation, aided in some particulars by Mr. Wetmore's Gazetteer of Missouri, by a contribution of a gentleman of Wisconsin, and by some few public documents. The reports of Mr. Owen and Nicollet, being very full and correct on the geology of this region, large extracts from them have been transcribed in the Appendix, and that part of the volume consists of little else than extracts from these reports and Mr. Keating's descriptions. These form the most complete and satisfactory account of the geology of the district that can be furnished ; and it was thought best to in- sert them literally. On that account this has been placed in the Appendix, though the subject would make it more ap- propriate to the body of the work. In the Appendix also is a very curious and interesting extract from Mr. Owen's Report, giving a minute description of some earth work VI INTRODUCTION monuments in Wisconsin. These two portions of the Ap- pendix consist of matter suitable to the body of the work : — and to many readers will have more interest than I dare to hope for the original matter. The only reason for placing them in the Appendix is that they are not original matter. This will be a sufficient apology to most readers for the length of the Appendix. The design of the work is to make an instructive volume for the library — and at the same time, though not strictly a guide, yet more useful to the emigrant than a book of mere details can be, by imparting to him those general ideas of the country which will be always of no less value than a knowledge of minute particulars in relation to certain places. CONTENTS. PAGE IjfTRODUCTION ...... , ... Hi Part I. — Physical. Geography 1 " II.— History * . . 60 " III. — Population, Political. System, Civil Divisions, Mu- nicipalities, Topography ... , lOS " IV. — Society, Laws, Pursuits, Life, Habits, Health, Pub- lic Lands . . ...... 139 " V. — Indians, Monuments ...... 174 Appendix A. — Geology .... .... 201 " B.— Monuments 271 " C— Plants .... .... 281 " D. — Table or Distances, Elevation and Latitude . 291 PART I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. This country (west of Lake Michigan) was almost un- known to geographers twenty years ago. The report of Rev. J. ^lorse to the Secretary of War, in 1821, states that in 1819 there were but three famihes settled from the mouth of the Illinois up two hundred and forty miles, and Darby, in his Gazetteer (2d edit., 1827), says, "of this immense re- gion" (included between Lakes Michigan and Superior, Rivers Missisippi and Red, the State of Missouri and the northern boundary of the United States) " much remains unknown, and of those parts that have been explored, our information is generally imperfect." [Verb. Michigan.] Galena was settled in 1828; and in 1833, after the Black Hawk war, settlements began on Rock River and the northern parts of Illinois and in Iowa, upon the tract purchased of the Sacs and Foxes. In the list of rivers flowing into the Upper Mis- sisippi, in the same work, are several defects and errors. On the right side. Root and Wabsipinicon and Checagua (or Skunk) are omitted ; and that now known to the inhabitants of Iowa as Tete des Morts, is called Galena. On the left, some considerable streams are not named. The falls of St. Anthony are placed, in the same authority, in latitude 44°, which is one desree south of their true situation. It is said that the list is given mostly on the authority of Schoolcraft, and they are also ?nore minutely detailed from the 2 2 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. circumstances that the valley of the Missisippi is yet imper- fectly known, of great importance in the geography of the United States, and that the source of intelligence is recent and respectable. Mr. Darby well said that the knowledge of this region was imperfect ; for we are informed by Mr. Schoolcraft, to whom he refers as a source recent and respectable, that the Rock River Rapids extend six miles up Lue river. Their length is, in fact, fifteen miles. Another striking instance of the errors in regard to this country, is in the statement of Mr. Brackem-idge, that the St. Peter's enters the Missisippi forty miles below St. Anthony, and is navi- gable one thousand miles to its source — when, in fact, it is nine miles from the falls, and its whole length is less than five hundred miles. In some maps of this country, still more recent, published within twelve years of the time of writmg this, there also appear similar inaccuracies. It is, in fact, only since the termination of the Black Hawk war, and the settlement of the country consequent thereon, that it has become known to geographers and to the world. The country which is here intended to be included in the name of the Northwest, or the Upper Missisippi valley, is bounded on the east and southeast by the Lake Michigan and the waters connecting it with Lake Superior, and by Illinois River ; on the south, southwest, and west, by the Missouri River ; and on the north by the line separating the territory of the United States from the British Possessions. It comprehends about 10° of latitude, from 39° to 49°, and 14° of longitude, from 87° to 101° (10° to 24° from Wash- ington), and contains about 300,000 square miles. A large part of this tract, consisting of the northern portion, is still held by the Indians ; and the Notes, excepting those relating to the geography, history and climate, will, for the most, apply to its remaining or southeastern portion. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 3 This country has some very pecuhar natural features. The most remarkable of these is the innumerable multitude of lakes that spangle its northern surface, the remains, no doubt, of a vast sea that once covered the whole country extending north from the Gulf of Mexico, and perhaps reach- ing to Hudson's Bay. Besides this, there are two great natural features belong- ing to the Valley of the Upper Missisippi, which perhaps are never fully realized but by actual inspection. The first consists in the uniformity of elevation, and the shape of the surface. The country, from the outlets of the Illinois and Missouri to St. Peter's, and from the Lake Michigan to Council Bluifs, and beyond that point westerly, is a vast plain, slightly inclining, ascending to the north and to the west. By observations taken between the Missisippi and the Lake, the elevation above the Atlantic has been found a little exceeding 500 feet : and west of the river, in the same parallel, toward the Missouri, something over 700 feet. At St. Peter's it is about 700. Nicollet states, as the result of over one hundred observations taken at Camp Kearney, near Council Bluffs, that that point is 1037 feet above the Gulf; and the elevation of Rock Island, in the same lati- tude, on the Missisippi, he says, is 528 ; and the height of Fort Pierre Chouteau, on the Missouri, he states at 1456 ; and the lower end of Lake Pepin, in the same latitude (44° 240, "^10. The mouth of St Peter's, in about latitude 45°, 744 feet. There are a few elevations above the general range, called mounds : but with the exception of these, the surface is marked only by ravines running from the general level dow^n to the beds of the streams, wdiich are usually from 100 to 200 feet lower. The other remarkable promment feature is the vegetable covering of the surface. There are large tracts of country 4 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. > wholly destitute of tree or shrub, and covered only with a luxuriant growth of wild grass, and beautifully interspersed with flowers of every hue and variety, each successively making the prairie to look gay with their presence from April to October. This beautiful natural meadow is not more pleasant to the eye, than it is genial to the culture and grateful to the toil of man. It consists of a very dark brown vegetable mould, in appearance like a mixture of the light feathery part of ashes with a rich ooze. It is mellow beyond the conception of those who are acquainted only with the hard, stiff soils of the Atlantic slope, and as rich and pro- ductive as it is mellow. It is turned over by a prairie plough running on wheels and set to cut the turf in a regular and uniform parallelogram, about three inches thick, and fifteen or eighteen inches wide. This ploughing should be done during the springing of vegetation, or one of the three sum- mer months ; though May would usually be considered bet- ter than August for the operation. If done in May or June, it will, in some cases, be ready for a fall sowing, the same year. This mould is from one and a half to two feet deep usually, and sometimes more than that ; and for whole sec- tions, for several townships of six miles square in extent, a person could not find more gravel in the same quantity of mould than in his flour barrel. Below this rich mould is a subsoil, which seems not 'unsuitable to cultivation, being similar in appearance to the soil of the timbered lands, a yellow light clay, or clay loam. The country is a limestone formation. The timber is only on the streams, and consists of elm, ash, black walnut, butternut, maple, mulberry and iron wood on the bottoms, and on the upland white, red, black, and burr oak, shell bark and common hickoiy, with occasionally linden, birch, \^ld plum and cherry, locust, and some other. On the Wisconsin and St. Croix are heavy PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 5 growths of pine, and for several years past a great business has been carried on upon the Missisippi in getting lumber down from those regions to the towns along the river. The best portions of this Upper Missisippi Valley are upon the western shore of Lake Michigan, including the eastern portion of Wisconsin ; the Illinois and Rock rivers, and their tributaries ; the Missisippi on both sides ; and gene- rally the whole of Iowa. In Iowa the prairies are less ex- tensive than in Illinois, and the proportion of wood is greater. In the southern portion of Iowa, below the Iowa River, the soil is more stiff than to the north of that river, where, by a slight admixture of fine sand, it is made more friable and mellow. By reason of this quality, and being also, for the most part, more level, the land south of that river retains its moisture later in the spring, and the soil thus loses the advantage of time which the climate would give in the differ- ence of latitude. The soil of the prairie is deeper, and is said also to be richer at a distance from timber than in its vicinity. By scientific examination, it has been found that carbonate of lime enters into its composition in proportion of from twenty to forty per cent. In timber lands the proportion is much less. The first settlers, however, take the timber land for the convenience of fuel and making improvements. Thus the best land is actually the last taken. The soil is of such fer- tility, that in a few years, if the fires are kept out, there will be an abundant growth for all purposes. In the Gazetteer of Missouri, by Dr. Beck, published in 1823, it is stated that St Louis county is generally prairie : yet, in fifteen years after that date, it was almost wholly covered with a thrifty growth of timber. The same is the case with other places. The following statement of the geological structure of that 6 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. portion of Illinois known as the military bounty tract, situated in the northern part of the State, is extracted from a volume called ''Illinois in 1837." As it is applicable to all the valley of the Upper Missisippi, with very slight variations, a very accurate idea may be derived from it of the structure of any portion of that country. In Iowa generally the vegetable mould at the top is a little thicker than it is here stated: — " A scientific gentleman who has recently examined the central parts of the Military Bounty Tract, has given the following as the geological structure of the upland prairies in that region. That the same general structure prevails throughout the entire peninsula (between the Illinois and Missisippi Rivers), and all the central and northern parts of the State, is most probable. 1st. Vegetable mould, formed by the decomposition of grass upon the original clay soil, eight to thirty inches : 2d, pure yellow clay, three to eight feet : 3d, gravelly clay, mixed with pebbles, four to ten feet : 5th, limestone rock, two to twelve feet : 5th, shale, covering a stratum of bituminous coal, generally four to five feet thick : 6th, soapstone ; then sandstone. The bed of lime- stone seems to be universal in this region, it having been discovered in all the wells that have been dug, and in all the banks of water-courses of any magnitude." Although no part of this region can with propriety be denominated hilly, yet upon the Wisconsin, Fox, the head waters of Rock and Milwaukie Rivers, the country is consider- ably diversified with hills, or rather swells, and valleys. The only hills worthy of particular notice, not only in this vicinity, but in the whole section under consideration, are the Ocooch and Smoky Mountains, which are broad and elevated ridges rather than mountains. The former is situated about twelve miles north of the Wisconsin, one hundred miles above its mouth; and the latter about forty miles south of the portage PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 7 between the river just mentioned and Fox River of Green Bay. (Long's Expedition, v. ii., p. 335.) The blue mounds, near the Wisconsin ; the Platte mounds, near Platteville ; the Pilot-knob, near Galena ; the Table mound, three miles south of Dubuque ; Sherald's mound and Pike's mountain, may also be named among the lesser elevations of this region, as also Sinsinewa mound. There are some eleva- tions also near the right bank of the Missisippi, above Lake Pepin ; and, in fact, on both sides in that part of the country. The Coteau des Prairies is an extensive and elevated table- land, dividing the waters which flow into the Missouri from those falling into the St. Peter's and Missisippi. A range of highlands extends from the Ocooch, on the Wisconsin, to Lake Superior, supposed by Long and Dr. James to be a con- tinuation of the Ozark mountains. The northern section of this highland usually goes under the name of Porcupine Hills. " It is neither a mountainous, nor a hilly, nor an absolutely fiat country," says Nicollet, " exhibiting undulations of the surface that are not entitled to these usual appellations. There are hillocks, swells and uplands, but they have a lon- gitudinal and horizontal rather than a vertical projection. In other words, it is a beautiful arrangement of upland and low- land plains, that give it an aspect sui generis. The first Frenchmen who explored it, and the British and Americans who followed them, were so forcibly impressed with this novelty in the appearance of the topography, that they employed new names to designate it. Hence we have the expressions coteau des prairies, coteau des hois [highland prairie, highland ivoods], hauteur des terres [summit of land], and rolling, fiat, or marshy prairies. There is still sufiicient variety in the irregularities of its surface, and the distribution 8 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. of the water-courses, woodlands and prairies, to bestow interest and value upon its several sub-divisions. *' The basin of the Upper Missisippi is separated, in a great part of its extent, from that of the Missouri, by an ele- vated plain, the appearance of which, seen from the valley of the St. Peter's, or that of the Riviere Jacques, looming, as it were, a distant shore, has suggested for it the name of coteau des prairies. Its more appropriate designation would be that of plateau, which means something more than is con- veyed to the mind by the expression, a plain. " Its northern extremity is in lat. 46°, extending to 43° ; after which it loses its distinctive elevation above the sur- rounding plains, and passes into rolling prairies. Its length is about two hundred miles, and its general direction N.NW. and S.SE. Its northern termination (called ' tete du coteau,'' in consequence of its peculiar configuration) is not more than fifteen to twenty miles across ; its elevation above the level of the Big Stone Lake is 890 feet ; and above the ocean 1,916 feet. Starting from this extremity (that is, the head of the coteau), the surface of the plateau is undulating, forming many dividing ridges, which separate the waters flowing into the St. Peter's and the Missisippi from those of the Missouri. " Under the forty-fourth degree of latitude the breadth of the coteau is about forty miles, and its mean elevation is here reduced to 1,450 feet above the sea. Within this space its two slopes are rather abrupt, crowned with verdure, and scolloped by deep ravines thickly shaded w4th bushes, form- mg the beds of rivulets that water the subjacent plains. The coteau itself is isolated in the midst of boundless and fertile prairies, extending to the west, to the north, and into the val- ley of the St. Peter's. " The plain, at its northern extremity, is a most beautiful PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 9 tract of land, diversified by hills, dales, woodland and lakes : the latter abounding in fish. The region of country is pro- bably the most elevated betw^een the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson's Bay. From its summit, proceeding from its western to its eastern limits, grand views are afforded. At its eastern border, particularly, the prospect is magnificent beyond description, extending over the immense green turf that forms the basin of the Red River of the North, the forest-capped summits of the hauteurs des terres that sur- round the sources of the Missisippi, the gi'anite valley of the Upper St. Peter's, and the depressions in which are Lake Travers and the Big Stone Lake. " The other portions of the coteau, ascending from the lower latitudes, present pretty much the same characters. This difference, however, is remarkable : that the woodlands become scarcer, whilst the open prairies increase in extent. It is very rarely only that gi'oves are met with, to which the N'dacotahs, or Sioux, have given the name of Tchan Witah, or Wood Islands. When these groves are surrounded by water, they assume some resemblance to oases, and hence I have assigned this name to some of them on my map. " These oases, possessed of a good soil, well w^ooded, offering an abundance of game, and waters teeming with fish, ofier inducements for permanent settlements. In this region there are frequent instances of a marsh or lake furnishing waters to different hydrographical basins, — a fact observed by the Sioux, and which they express in the compound word of iheir dialect, mini-akipan-kaduza ;* — from 7ni?ii, water ; akipan, division, share ; and kaduza, to flow, to run out." [Nicollet, pp. 7, 8, 9, 10.] * Mr. Nicollet seems to mistake the application of the phrase nnni- akipan-haduza. Akipan is probably a ridge of land, or, as the white set- tler calls it, in the very word of the Indians, a divide. The phrase is pro- 2* 10 * NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. The country from Platte River to Council Bluffs is thus described by Nicollet [p. 39, et seq.] : — " It will be recollected that I have represented the whole bed of clay, divided into two portions by a band of iron- stone, as having a nearly uniform thickness of 200 feet, and tliat it is intermixed with lumps of gypsum and limestone, together with nodules of pyrites ; so that a soil, produced from such materials, could hardly be expected to throw up anything but a meagre vegetation. It is of a character, too, to be so acted upon by atmospheric agents, as to exhibit, by the wear and tear of its superficial portions, every variety of fanciful summits — domes, cupolas, towers, colonnades, &c.; imparting to it a remarkably picturesque appearance, especially when contrasted with the dense vegetation that borders the river, and a narrow slip of prairies crowning the summits of the hills that are seen to extend themselves on either side. " The same physical causes, under other circumstances, produce new effects, that add to the beauty and grandeur of the scenery. Thus, the rains furrow and cut through the plastic and seleniferous clay, down to the most resisting limestone, giving rise to a sort of advancing platform, with a perpendicular elevation of from 30 to 40 feet, resembling a succession of long lines of parapets. " But I have now reached the proper place to treat of a very interesting phenomenon observed in the midst of this cretaceous group. It manifests itself by the occasional appearance of a dense smoke at the top of some conical hill, or along a line of country bounded by the horizon, so bably applied to a ridge, and not to a marsh. So Nicollet has himself ap- plied it on his map to the ridge separating the waters of St. Peter's from those of the Missisippi. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 11 as to awaken the idea of distant volcanoes ; hence I have chosen to call them 'pseudo-volcanoes *'The smoke from these hills and the crevices in the plastic clay is said to last at the same spot for a long time — say two or three years ; indicating at them a large accumu- lation of combustible materials. It is not, to my knowledge, accompanied by luminous vapors, and is silently wafted along the valley which it mournfully shrouds. The observ- ance of this phenomenon, associated with the frequent recurrence of a peculiar light and spongy stone that the Missouri carries down and strews along its shores, and which has been mistaken for pumice-stone, has led to the often-controverted opinion that there was a volcanic region on the Upper Missouri. There are, however, no true volca- noes over any portion of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains ; and it was this belief that led me to the adoption of the word pseudo-volcano. Neither is the sub- stance found in these regions, and commonly called pumice, a true pumice ; and, by a similar analogy to that which has prompted the name of its probable origin, I have called it a pumiciform stone {roclie pumiciforme). " Before proceeding to account for the appearances and circumstances attending these smoking hills, I must add a few more facts concerning their traditional and recorded history. There were none in activity when I ascended the Missouri in 1839 ; and so would seem to have been the case at the passage of Lewis and Clark at the beginning of this century. But, previous to my arrival, since the memorable expedition last referred to, and during a period of three years, they were seen, as my information goes, by many in- telligent persons engaged in the fur-trade, all of whom are naturally observ^ant, and most of them of unquestionable authority. I have no doubt, therefore, of the existence of 12 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. these hills ; and, in truth, upon a distance of 130 miles from Scalp mountain to beyond the Karmichigah, or Great Bend, there is nothing to be seen but a black zone, known to the voyageurs as * les cotes hruUes ' — ' collines hruVees^ — viz : burnt bluffs, or burnt hills. '' In other respects, the character of the vegetation, which is always scant upon this zone, indicates, in a measure, the epochs when it was visited by these subteiTanean fires ; the blacker and more sterile parts being the most recently burnt. They are pointed out by the voyageurs, and I have indicated several on my map. The fossil shells, that I have preced- ingly enumerated, lose their brilliant opalescent appearance, and are partly calcined, though still preserving their specific distinctions. Layers of the clay are also met with, so altered as almost to deserve the mineralogical name of por- cellanite ; in fact, all the minerals belonging to the formation exhibit the alteration which might be supposed produced by exposure to that sort of action now to be assigned. " I believe that these pseudo-volcanic phenomena may be compared with those described as occurring in other portions of the globe, under the name of terrains ardens ; although they are not here accompanied by the emxission of flames. They are evidently due to the decomposition, by the perco- lation of atmospheric waters to them, of beds of pyrites, which, reacting on the combustible materials, such as lignites and other substances of a vegetable nature in their vicinity, give rise to a spontaneous combustion ; whilst further reac- tions (well understood by the chemist) upon the Hme con- tained in the clay bed, produce the masses and crystals of selenite that are observed in the lower portion of this inter- esting deposit. This is the theory which, with some Httle confidence, we have formed of these pseudo-volcanoes. " It may be interesting to future travellers to learn that, PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 13 in order to collect both fossils and most interesting speci- mens of crystallized selenite, without taking the trouble of making diggings, it is only necessary to perambulate the zone of plastic clay shortly after it has been washed by heavy rains. Under such circumstances, should they b^ favored moreover by the reflections of the sun, they will be struck with the appropriateness of the designation of these hills, as applied both by the voyageurs and Indians — name- ly, of shining mountains. In truth, it is not unlikely that these hills, a portion of them attaining an elevation of from 500 to 700 feet above the river, were some of those referred to by the Sioux of the Missisippi, who, conversing with the first white men who visited them, and long afterwards with Capt. Carver, spoke of the Shining Mountains of the West. " These (so named) pseudo-volcanoes are not, however, confined to the valley of the Missouri. Traces of them are not unfrequently found over the more westerly regions, as far as the upper portions of the rivers called by the Indians Mankizitah and Washtey. The name of Mankizitah-ivatpa, usually translated by that of " White-earth-river" (or simply White river), means, more properly. Smoking Earth river ; whence I have concluded that these indications of i^seudo- volcanoes were at the same time evidences of the recurrence of the upper members of the cretaceous formation, the limit of which I have assigned as being somewhere eastward of the Black Hills. The name of ' Mauvaises Torres' (bad lands) has been applied to districts cut up into deep and in- tricate chasms, from which the traveller could hardly hope to extricate himself without the assistance of a good guide, and that are doubtless due to the burning out of their pseudo-volcanoes . " However this may be, there can be no doubt that the region of country drained by these rivers which I have last 14 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. mentioned, will present a wide and fertile field of discovery to any geologist whose good luck it may be to give it a thorough exploration. For there he will find an opportunity not only of studying the continuation of the secondary cretaceous formation previously described, but likewise of discovering the approach to a tertiary formation ; the equiva- lents of which are doubtless to be found to the west of the Rocky Mountains, as they have already been to the east, on the Atlantic borders." This country is probably one of the most remarkable on the earth, for the variety and abundance of its mineral de- posits, and especially for those which are of most extensive use in the arts. The sulphuret of lead occupies about one degree of latitude, extending north from a point on the Mis- sisippi, some eight miles below Galena, and lying on both sides, varying in width till it covers as great an extent from east to west. On the east side of the river the mineral is found principally in a clay matrix, at a depth of sometimes only five or six feet from the surface ; on the west side of the river it nms at the depth of one hundred feet or more, overlaid with magnesian limestone. To the south-west of the lead deposit is a very abundant bed of iron, extending from the Maquoqueta River south and west to the Wabesepi- nicon, in the counties of Jackson and Clinton, in Iowa. The extent of this mineral deposit is not known, but is proba- bly forty miles or more northeast and southwest, with a breadth not less than twenty or thirty miles. The copper region extends north from the lead deposits to Lake Superior. Its precise limits are not known, but it embraces about 300 miles square ; it is found south of latitude 43°, in large quantities, and beyond 47° north. From east to west it has an equal extent, being found in situ on Blue Earth river, west of the Missisippi, in 94"^, and east as far as PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 15 between 88° and 89°. Probably in nearly the whole tract between the Rivers Wisconsin and St. Croix, and the Missi- sippi and Lake Superior, it is very abundant. To the south of the lead region, that is, on Rock River, on the east, and south of the Wabesepinicon, on the west of the Missisippi, is a vast bed of bituminous coal (called by Owen the great Illinois coal field), of a good quality, at no great distance below the surface. The country is principally of magnesian limestone formation. The rock is, for the most part, covered with several successive layers of clay, each of the depth of many feet, and is generally not found in digging the wells of greatest depth. At the bluffs of the Missisip- pi, however, and on some other streams, it outcrops. The superstrata of clay are covered with a pure vegetable mould, unmixed with other matters, of a depth from eight or ten inches to three feet or more. In some localities, as at Iowa City, are deposits of a fine madrepore or encrinitic marble. The country has not yet been explored sufficiently to inform us to what extent these abound, nor how great a variety of minerals it contains. Mineral salt, and saltpetre, are to be considered among them. The country has about all the varieties of forest trees common to the same latitudes on this continent ; including five or six species of oak, the walnuts, ashes, maples, elms, hickories, locusts, mulberries, aspens, and poplars, one vari- ety of which is very abundant, known as the cotton wood, &c. There are very few birches, and the writer has not seen any beeches or chestnuts. Of wild plums, the varieties are almost endless ; many of them are good, some nearly equal to the best cultivated plums, some indifferent. Iron- wood is abundant on the bottoms. The prickly ash, hawthorn, grape, and gooseberry, are among the shrubs and vines. The vegetation is not only 16 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. varied according to the latitudes, but by the respective situa- tions of bottom and upland. But the vegetation of the Mis- sisippi and Missouri rivers, on the same parallel, does not appear to vary much. On the east of the Missisippi the coni- ferae are found in a lower latitude than to the west of it. Nicollet says, in reporting the characteristics of the country, in his progress up the Missouri : — " From the mouth of the Platte River the forests are nar- rower. The principal trees are the American and red elm, the soft maple, Canadian poplar, white and red ash ; the most common undergrowth, horse-briar, fox and false grapes, red root, grey dogwood, currant, and gooseberry, with shriibs and dense rushes along the banks of the river. The same trees and shrubs grow on the numerous islands that are generally bordered with black and long-leaved willows. In the higher situations, and at the head of creeks, we meet with the black walnut and mulberry, bass-wood, nettle-wood, intermingled with the common hawthorn, prickly ash, &c. On the high grassy or rocky banks, the black and bur oaks constitute the principal growth, but occasionally intermixed with the wild cherry, red cedar, hornbeam, wild roses, and sumach. The low prairies bordering the rivers have a deep fertile soil, and abound with sedge-grasses and leguminous plants. Finally, taking a pictorial view of the country, the verdure of its hills and prairies affords a pleasing contrast with the naked sand-bars in the rivers. " I have been thus particular in describing the vegetation of this part of the country, not only as a feature in its physical geography, but as a point of comparison with the more northerly regions which I have yet to describe." — Nic.y p. 30. The most important vegetable, native to this region, on account of its use as well as its abundance, is a grain called wild rice, by some of the Indians, malomini, or menomoni. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 17 It is similar to the rice of the southern States, if not the same ; is a principal article of food among some of the na- tions residing here, and gave the name to a tribe that, for the most part, subsisted on it. There are also, it is said, the wild potato, and wild onion, found here. The former, as the writer was informed by Le Claire, late interpreter to the Sac and Fox Indians, gave the name to the Wabesepinicon river : Wabe-se-pin, potato, or white potato, icon, abode, or resi- dence. There is a piece of prairie also, some miles north of that river, called, by the French, Pomme de terre (or potato) prairie. Some of the streams are supposed to have derived their names from the wild onion. Chicago, or Chicagua, anything with a strong smell, is the name applied to this vegetable, and to the skunk. The sun-flower, the artichoke, and the resin plant, grow abundantly in places. Mr. Doty, in a letter to Gov. Cass, says the wabessepin resembles a potato, is mealy when boiled, and grows only in wet clay ground, about one and a half feet deep. The crane potato, called sitchauc-wabessepin, is of the same kind, but inferior in quality. The Indians use these for food, as well as the menomini, and another long and slender root called wa- tappinee. Probably it is the first of these that is referred to by Nicollet, in the following extract, as the prairie turnip : — " The future inhabitants of this region, among its most interesting specimens of vegetation, w^ll find, as trees, the American and red elm, lime tree, bur oak, white ash, ash-leaved maple, nettle tree, large American aspen ; as shrubs, the hazel, red root, peterswort, &c. ; as herbs, alum- root, tufted and American vetch, wood sorrel, sedge and pas- tm'e grasses. " The intermediate prairies are characterized by small depressions, filled with rough grasses, and bordered by the Canadian cinquefoil, the germander, southern lily, and but- 18 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. ton snake-root. Extensive beds of the Virginia strawberry are frequently met with in low places ; and in the vicinity of Salinas, a species of clover called buffalo clover. On the arid slopes is the pink milk vetch, inhabited by millions of Spanish flies. Sandbrakes are generally full of mustard and dwarf amaranths ; whilst the stony-grassy borders are fring- ed with dense bushes of the mimosa tribe and long-leaved willows. Finally, all the high prairies abound with the silver-leaved psoralia, which is the prairie turnip of the Americans, the pomme des prairies of the Canadians, and furnishes an invaluable food to the Indians." Of grasses, the growth is very luxuriant and various. Fitted for the abode of the innumerable herds of buflalo that formerly roamed over it in divided empire with the In- dian, this country affords perhaps the best pasture, whether natural or artificial, on the earth. Many of the varieties of the English cultivated grasses are found here. The fox tail, the crow foot, and the oat grass are native here. On the bottoms is a very luxuriant grass, growing on a round stem or culm, eight to nine feet high, which cattle eat with avidi- ty. There is also a sweet scented grass, having nearly the smell of savory. On all the upland prairie is a very nour- ishing grass, growing from two to three feet, which furnishes the winter food for cattle and horses. This grass is exceed- ing good, both for summer and winter food, and both for beef and butter. The latter article in the prairie country of Iowa is unusually sweet and delicious. The buffalo and beaver, formerly abundant, at the discovery of the country, have withdrawn. The former are now west of the Missouri River. A few beaver may perhaps occasion- ally be found in the more remote parts of the country, in the highest latitude. The elk is yet on the border settlements in Iowa : the deer is very abundant. To the west, toward the PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 19 mountains, is a small horse which the Indians take and use under their rudely made saddles. The prairie wolf is very numerous. At about ten miles from Jackson County seat, on the travelled mail road to Dubuque, and fifteen miles from this last, the writer once passed seven of these animals in company, at another time three. The panther is occasionalJy seen. The lynx more frequently. Of these, the writer once saw three at a time. There are some badgers. The raccoon is very numerous ; and, next to the wolf, most destructive to the domestics of the farm-yard. Bears, and some cats are found in parts of the country. The rabbit is very abundant. Foxes do not inliabit, so far as known to the writer, any part of this country. The skunk is not often met. In grounds appropriate to their residence, the muskrat are abundant. The gophar is an animal very singular in his appearance. He is twice the size of a common rat, mouse-colored, having a large pouch on either side of the head. His feeble bark or squeal may sometimes be heard in riding along the prairie, which is very closely studded with his conical house-top, standing above the surface, much resembling ant-hills. All the varieties of squirrels inhabit here, and there is a field mouse of a larger size than the common animal of that name in the eastern part of the continent. The weasel is occasion- ally found, and there is a small animal, striped like the little striped squirrel, living in the prairie, having a long body and tail and very short legs, which is commonly known there as the prairie squirrel, though I think he is of the weasel tribe, having more resemblance to this animal in form than to the squirrel. This creature and the gophar are very destructive to the corn-fields, and compel the farmer frequently to plant his corn twice and three times. The wild turkey is found in great numbers on the wooded bottom lands ; the prairie hen is frequently seen by hundi'eds 20 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. in the prairie. The hawk, buzzard, eagle, owl, and a small paroquet, and several varieties of woodpeckers, are met oc- casionally. The woodcock, snipe, and quail, are abundant. There is a very peculiar bird inhabiting the wet prairies and marshes, about the size of the prairie hen, and having a close resemblance in color and shape ; the principal difference being in a longer neck, and a bill of very peculiar construction. It is some nine or ten inches in length and bent over at the end like a sickle, the hooked part being from one to two inches long. The swan and pelican are seen occasionally on the Missisippi, in the latitude of the lower rapids. Farther north and west they are believed to be more abundant. To one of the lakes in the north-west the Indians have given an appel- lation which signifies "the place where the pelicans nestle." Geese and ducks are very abundant on some of the w^ater- courses ; and occasionally a gull, similar to the saltwater-gull, is seen. The small, slender-legged bird, with a shrill, mourn- ful note, which is found running about the shores and marshes near the sea, in the east, commonly called the peewit, is here. Robins, sparrows, swallows, and the other small birds com- mon to the east, are also inhabitants of this region. Of reptiles, the Upper Missisippi cannot be said to be very prolific ; though in some localities this division of ani- mated nature is sufficiently represented. The varieties are, the great yellow rattlesnake, the prairie rattlesnake (called by the Indians massasauga, great adder), the copperhead, the bull snake, the milk snake, the black snake, the moccasin ; and in the rivers the water-moccasin, with a number of small adders. There is one of this tribe called the death-adder, said to be as fatal as the copperhead or rattlesnake. The writer saw one specimen of an unknown and very peculiar kind of snake. It was in the road about one mile back from the river, at the foot of the lower rapids. Its length was ap- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 21 parently not over fifteen inches, its diameter one and a quarter or one and a half inches, square, not round, its color a dull yellow or buff, with one or two darker but faint lines drawn upon it. At the distance of about two or three inches from the extreme point of the tail the square shape of the body abruptly terminated, like a stick notched, and cut down so as to describe a circle on the end of the parallelogram, and from thence it was a regular cone to the point. Having sat upon my horse and viewed it for some time, I was satisfied that its motion and mode of attack must be very different from the common varieties of the snake ; as, though it wriggled like the worm, it made no perceptible advance, and I inferred, from its lack of longitude, that it could not make much pro- gress in the common way. Upon reference to Shaw, Dr. Goldsmith, Fleming, and other writers on Zoology, I can find no description of this very singular animal. Dr. Morse, in his Geography, does not notice it. Beside the coluber, and the toad, and frog, and turtle, and the common worms, reptiles are not numerous. The people inhabiting this country are the Menominis or Malominis, the Potawatomies, the Winnebagoes, Chippewas, Dahcotahs (called by the French Sioux), and Sacs and Foxes : this last band is always called, by their own people, Musk- waka. The Sacs call themselves Saki. Beside these there are several thousand eastern Indians removed from New York, who inhabit the northeastern part of Wisconsin, near Lake Michigan. RIVERS. The Missisippi and Missouri, the principal rivers of this country, are well known. The Missouri, rising in a moun- tain region, flows with a rapid current, about four miles an 22 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. hour, is very turbid and muddy, and is subject to a great rise. Three times, since the country was known to the whites, it has risen thirty or forty feet above the usual high-water mark. The last rise was in the summer of 1844, and was very disastrous, overwhelming the whole bottom country between the bluffs. The Missisippi, rising from lakes in the midst of a champaign, and flowing through a similar region, and over a wide bed, from bluif to bluff, has a slower current, generally from two to two and a half miles an hour, is a clear, limpid stream, and is rarely known to rise more than ten feet. In the spring of 1844, however, it had a rise of fifteen feet or more. The Missi-sippi, or, according to other Indian dia- lects, Massi-sepo (so the Musquakas speak it), great river, is in length, as given by Mr. Nicollet, the latest and most accurate authority, in his report to Congress (p. 125), 2,896 miles, reckonins^ to its " utmost sources at the summit of the hauteurs de terre, or dividing ridge between the Missisippi and the Red River of the North." From this point to the mouth of Leech Lake River is 221 miles ; to Wanomon or Vermillion River, 248 ; to the head of the Kabikons, or Little Falls, 269 ; to the mouth of Kagi-wigwan (Crow-wing) River, 515; to the Karishon (Crow) River, 667 ; to the mouth of St. Peter's, 704 ; St. Croix, 746 ; upper end of Lake Pepin, 781 ; Chip- peway River, 810; Black River, 861 ; Upper Iowa, 918; Wisconsin, 970 ; head of the Upper Rapids (Rock River Rapids), 1159; head of the Lower Rapids (Des Moins), 1287; Illinois River, 1470; Ohio River, 1680; from thence to the Gulf of Mexico, 1216. Rock River comes into the Missisippi on the east, about nineteen miles below the head of the Upper Rapids. The Lower Iowa River enters on the west, about forty-five miles below Rock River ; and the Moingonan, or Des Moins, about fifteen miles below the head of the Lower Rapids. These rapids extend about PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 23 eleven miles upon the river ; the upper rapids are about fifteen miles in length. Mr. Schoolcraft, who considered, as did Nicollet, the Lake Itasca to be the source, computed the whole length of the river at 3,160 miles, or 264 more than Nicollet. This, probably, was occasioned by the addition of estimates not very accurate from point to point upon the river, founded upon the reckoning of the boatmen. Major Long, who measured the height of the falls of St. Anthony with a plumb-line, in 1817, states it to be sixteen and a half feet. In this he agrees w4th Pike, who visited it twelve years before him. Carver called it thirty feet. Hen- nepin, the first European who saw and named it, in 1680, says it is fifty or sixty feet high. For reasons hereafter mentioned, in the historical part of these notes, full reliance cannot be placed on Henepin. It may be, however, that the ponderous body of water is gradually wearing away the stone which makes the bed of the river before it falls, and that thus the height is constantly diminishing ; or, by the falling of the stone, and the consequent receding of the fall, the same effect might be produced. It is stated, by Nicollet, I think, that in a half mile the whole fall is seventy-five feet. In relation to the recession of the falls, and the whole descent of the water, Mr. Keating says : — " The river (Mis- sisippi) runs upon a bed of sandy alluvion, resulting from the destruction of the bluffs, but in many places the rock is laid bare. These observations upon the geology of the bluff upon which the fort is erected correspond with those made at the Falls of St. Anthony, with this exception, that, at the latter place, our observations are limited to the three superior strata, viz : the slaty limestone, with organic remains ; the blue limestone, destitute of these ; and the sandstone, with a loose texture. The falls are occasioned by the fissures which occur in the superior limestone, and which allow the water to 24 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. penetrate through this bed to the sandstone, which, being of a loose texture, is soon washed away ; in this manner, thick plates of limestone are left unsupported, and soon fall by their own gravity. This process is constantly causing the fall to recede towards its source. What time has been required, what lapse of centuries has been consumed, in bringing the falls to their present situation, it is not in the power of man to decide ; but we may well see that it must have been immense. The difference of level at the head of the fall and the level of the river at the fort being estimated at about one hundred feet, and the strata running in a hori- zontal position, we can readily account for the additional strata observed under the sandstone at the fort, and which are concealed at the falls." [Long's 2d Exped., v. i., p. 309.] By the Sioux these falls are called Rara, from Irara, to laugh (or, perhaps, Irara, which, quickly spoken, would sound Rara). The Chippewas call them Kakabikah, severed rock. Major Long tells a romantic story in connection with these falls. It is thus : — An Indian of the Dacota nation had united himself in his youth to a female called Ampato Sapa, the Dark Day, a name which, if given at her birth, and not afterward bestowed in allusion to her unfortunate end, would seem to show that these people possess the power of divina- tion. They lived happily together many years. Two chil- dren were the fruit of their union. The man, having ac- quired renown as a hunter, aspired to be elected a chief. To increase his dignity and importance, and to strengthen his influence, he resolved to add another wife to his house- hold, and fixed his choice on the daughter of a man of influ- ence in the tribe. When he made known his determination to his wife, she endeavored to dissuade him, by reminding him of their long-cherished love, and the happiness they had PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 25 enjoyed together. Finding no arguments available, and, in fact, that he had already executed his purpose of a second marriage, she observed her opportunity, launched her light bark canoe, and placing her children in it, pushed off into the stream above the fall. Her death song was heard, clear and shrill, by her friends upon the banks of the river. She recited, with a mournful voice, the pleasure she had enjoyed when the undivided object of her husband's affection. As she fell faster and faster down the current, her voice became lost in the sound of the cataract. Her boat was borne to the edge of the cascade, was seen for a moment in the spray and mist that hovered over the water, and disappeared, to be seen no more. The Indians say that, often, in the morning, a voice is heard singing a mournful requiem, the burden of which is the inconstancy of her husband. And some assert that the spirit of Ampato Sapa has been seen wandering about the place with her children in her bosom. For a description of the head-waters and superior course of the Missisippi, I quote Mr. Nicollet, the most recent, the most accurate, the most lively, and the most graphic descrip- tion given of this stream. " The Missisippi holds its own from its very origin ; for it is not necessary to suppose, as has been done, that Lake Itasca may be supplied with invisible sources, to justify the character of a remarkable stream, which it assumes at its issue from this lake. There are five creeks that fall into it, formed by innumerable streamlets oozing from the clay beds at the bases of the hills, that consist of an accumulation of sand, gravel, arid clay, intermixed with erratic fragments, being a more prominent portion of the great eiTatic deposit previously described, and which here is known by the name of hauteurs des terres — heights of land. " These elevations are commonly flat at top, varying in 3 26 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. height from 85 to 100 feet above the level of the surround ing waters. They are covered with tliick forests, in which the coniferous plants predominate. South of Itasca Lake they form a semicircular region with a boggy bottom, ex- tending to the southwest a distance of several miles ; thence these hauteurs des terres ascend to the northwest and north, and then stretching to the northeast and east, through the zone betAveen 47° and 48° of latitude, make the dividing ridge between the waters that empty into Hudson Bay and those which discharge themselves into the Gulf of Mexico. " The waters supplied by the north flank of these heights of land, still on the south side of Lake Itasca, give origin to the five creeks of which I have spoken above. These are the waters which I consider to be the utmost sources of the Missisippi. Those that flow from the southern side of the same heights, and empty themselves into Elbow Lake, are the utmost sources of the Red River of the North, so that the most remote feeders of Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Mexico are closely approximated to each other." — Nic. Rep., p. 57, et seq. The principal creek of the five above-mentioned feeders of Lake Itasca comes into the east bay of the lake, and is from fifteen to twenty feet wide, and, at the time of Nicollet's visit, two or three feet deep. This he considers the infant Missi- sippi. Mr. Nicollet went up this stream three or four miles, and thus describes it : — " As a further description of these head-waters, I may add that they unite at a small distance from the hills whence they originate, and form a small lake, from which the Missisippi flows with a breadth of a foot and a half, and a depth of one foot. At no great distance, however, this rivulet, uniting itself with other streamlets coming from other directions, sup- plies a second minor lake, the waters of which have already PHYSICAL geoghapiiy. 27 acquired a temperature of 48*^. From this lake issues a rivulet, necessarily of increased importance — a cradled Her- cules, giving promise of the strength of his maturity ; for its velocity has increased ; it transports the smaller branches of trees ; it begins to form sand-bars ; its bends are more decided, until it subsides again into the basin of a third lake, somewhat larger than the two preceding. Having thus ac- quired renewed vigor, and tried its consequence upon an additional length of two or three miles, it finally empties into Itasca lake, wdiich is the principal reservoir of all the sources to which it owes all its subsequent majesty." — Nic. Rep., p. 58. " For the first twenty-five or thirty miles the bed of the river contracts or dilates, according to the character of the shores. Its navigation is gi'eatly impeded by erratic rocks, trunks of fallen and decayed trees, as well as impending branches of living ones, and rapids, which, in proportion to the changes of level in the bed of the river, carried along our frail canoe with the rapidity of an arrow, or left us, when wanting, in perfect repose. I may remark here, that, on this river, like all those of this region of country, where, on the narrow- ing of the valley, there grows nothing but willows and aquatic plants on the shores, with a fine sand ?d bottom, its bed is peopled wath innumerable shells, especially unios and ano- dontcE. So far, I saw not a solitary fish." — Nic. Rep., p. 60. At fifty miles below Lake Itasca the river acquires a greatly-increased width. I give again the words of Mr. Nicollet : — " At this stage of its progress, the Missisippi river is wide, winding itself in large folds, as if to take masterly possession of the country ; whilst its waters are enlivened by innumer- able flocks of wild fowl. Then comes another contraction of the river, which soon opens again, and extends itself to 28 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. Pemidji-gomagjOT Pemidji Lake, sometimes called Lake Tra- vels. So far, the Missisippi has received the contribution of ten rivers ; its wide and flattened bed, completely covered by water, presents a lake (or rather pool) from forty to fifty miles square, clogged up with aquatic plants, with intermedi- ary spaces of clear water, looking like channels ; but among which it is difficult to discover the true course of the river, for, at certain seasons of the year, the whole is nothing more than a marshy prairie. ''^PemidjiLake has not received from geographers the atten- tion that it merits ; so that I cannot resist the temptation of describing the impression it made upon me. It is a magnifi- cent sheet of water, from ten to twelve miles long, with a breadth of from four to five, perfectly clear, and without islands ; the eye having a free command over gently-swelling hills, receding, and thickly Avooded ; and it is said that no other river but the Missisippi empties into it, save an obscure rivulet at its northern extremity. I must confess that, in crossing it, I felt melancholy that, even with my artificial optics, I could not descry any evidences of civilisation — no cottage of the agriculturist ; no meadows, no herds, nor any of those cultivated fields whose mellow shades contrast so gracefully with the foliage of the forest. The piercing, soli- tary cry of the Northern diver — the precursor, according to the Indian tradition, of high winds and hurricanes — was the only evidence of living nature that presented itself." — Nic, pp. 60, 61. From Sandy Lake, in about latitude 46^ 45^, to Crow-wing River, a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles, the Missisippi may be navigated by small steamboats. In high stages of water, they may pass over the intervening rapids to the Kabikons, or Little Falls, one hundred miles further. Mr. Nicollet further says : — PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 2^ " Over the whole route which I traversed after leaving Crow-wing River, the country has a different aspect from that which the banks of the Missisippi above the Falls of St. Anthony present. The forests are denser and more varied ; the soil, which is alternately sandy, gravelly, clayey, and loamy, is, generally speaking, lighter, excepting on the shores of some of the larger lakes. The uplands are covered with white and yellow pines, spruce and birch ; and the wet, low lands, by the iVmerican larch and the willow. On the slopes of sandy hills, the American aspen, the canoe-birch, with a species of birch of dwarfish growth, the alder, and wild rose, extend to the very margin of the river. On the borders of the larger lakes, where the soil is generally better, we find the sugar-maple, the black and bur oaks (also named over-cup white oak, but differing from the white oak), the elm, ash, lime-tree, &c. Generally speaking, however, this wood-land does not extend back farther than a mile from the lakes. The white cedar, the hemlock, spruce pine, and fir, are occa- sionally found ; but the red cedar is scarce throughout this region, and none, perhaps, are to be seen but on islands of thgse lakes called by the Indians Red Cedar Lakes. The shrubbery consists principally of the wild rose, hawthorn, and wild plum ; and raspberries, blackberries, strawberries, and cranberries, are abundant. " The aspect of the country is generally varied by hills, dales, copses, small prairies, and a great number of lakes; the whole of which I do not pretend to have laid down on my map. The natural beauties of the country are, however, impressed with a character of sternness and melancholy ; the silence and solitude of which are interrupted or revived only by the flocks of water-fowl that congregate about its waters, to nestle amidst and fatten upon the wild rice. The naturalist, how- ever, has still an endless field of observation in the insect 30 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. world, for everywhere life manifests itself in some form or other. It is, indeed, remarkable, that the more we advance to the nortli (to within a certain extent, nevertheless), the more the mosquito appears to be abundant, as every voyageur knows by sad experience. " The lakes to which I have just alluded are distributed in separate groups, or are arranged in prolonged chains along the rivers, and not unfrequently attached to each other by gentle rapids. It has seemed to me that they diminish in extent on both sides of the Missisippi, as we proceed south- wardly, as far as 43° of north latitude ; and this observation extends to the Arctic Region, commencing at Bear's Lake, or Slave Lake, Winnipeg Lake, &c. It may be further remarked, that the basins of these lakes have a sufficient depth to leave no doubt that they will remain characteristic features of the country for a long time to come. Several species of fish abound in them. The white fish {corregonus alhus) is found in all the deep lakes west of the Missisippi ; and, indeed, from Lake Erie to the Polar Sea. That which is taken in Leech Lake, is said, by amateurs, to be more highly flavored than even that of Lake Superior, and weighs from three to ten pounds. There is another species of this white fish, called, by the Indians, tuliby, or ottunihy (the corregonus artedi), wdiich resembles it, but is much less esteemed. Both species furnish a wholesome and palatable food. Among the other species of fish that inhabit these waters, are the mashkinonge, or mashkilonge ; the pike, or jack-fish ; the pickerel, or gilt carp ; the sucker, or true carp ; the perch ; a species of trout, called, by the Chippeways, namogus, &c., &c. These lakes, which are somewhat deep, swarm with leeches ; and, among the amphibious reptiles, there are several species of terrapin and turtle, of which Mr. Say has PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 31 described three of each kind in the appendix to the Second Expedition of Major Long. " The portage between these lakes and rivers is effected by means of intricate paths, the key to which it would be well to have, as, without it, an Indian war in this quarter might present still more difficulties than those experienced in Florida. For this reason, I have been particularly careful in laying these portages down on the map, which I could not have done had I adopted a smaller scale. It must be borne in mind, that, in this region, during six months of the year, no use can be made of either horses or carriages ; it is abso- lutely necessary to have recourse to bark canoes. Any one consulting the map to study the portages, will soon perceive that an enemy, after crossing one of the larger lakes, may make his escape in almost all directions. In this respect, its utility becomes, I think, obvious, not only to travellers, but to the civil and military department of the national adminis- tration."— Nic, pp. 64, 65. " St. Peter's is in my opinion the finest site on the Missi- sippi river ; the natural beauty of its environs adding to its importance and grandeur. Upon reaching this place the traveller is already premonished of the magnificent scenery which he will enjoy in ascending the river through its long, naiTow, and deep valley. At the confluence of the St. Peter's and the Missisippi, there is an extensive and fertile plateau reaching far to the west, and presenting to the delighted gaze a level country, interrupted by moderate undulations of the surface, and beautified by intervening prairies, tracts of wood- land, and lakes. Fort Snelling is located on the rocky point at this confluence of the two rivers, the sight of which inspires a sentiment of self-protection in the civilized man thus con- fronted with the wilderness. Looking to the right of the fort, we behold a continuation of the valley of the Missisippi, 32 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. whilst to the loft be2:ins that of the St. Peter's. The former has a character of sternness, produced by the denuded and abrupt escarpments of its banks, the wear of which forms rude taluses at their bases. The latter is more graceful, having gently sloping borders, divided into natural terraces, covered by a luxuriant, grassy sward. Three miles from Fort Snelling, and on the right bank of the Missisippi, there is a very pretty cascade. Four miles further, we reach the celebrated Falls of St. Anthony, which, examined in detail, with the noisy boiling of its waters, rebounding in jets from the accumulated debris at its foot, its ascending vapors, and the long and verdant island that separates the two portions of the falls, with the solitary rocky island that stands in front, altogether form a grand and imposing spectacle. " From St. Anthony's Falls may be visited the Lake of the Isles, Lake Calhoun, Lake Harriet, and other lakes. Then, crossing the St. Peter's near its mouth, the traveller ascends the Pilot Knob, from the summit of which he enjoys a mag- nificent view, embracing the whole surrounding horizon ; and if he will conclude his excursion by going to two natural gi'ottoes in the vicinity, should his journey have commenced under the auspices of a bright rising sun, he may flatter himself that it has been most actively and pleasurably per- formed. " The name of St. Peter's (the St. Pierre of the French), it appears, has been immemorially given to the spot or land- ing at the mouth of the river St. Peter's ; but whence the name is not known. Father Hennepin, who was the first to visit the Falls of St. Anthony, in 1680, makes no mention of this river ; but his book is Avritten very confusedly, and, as he gives no details of his route, perhaps had no occasion to visit it, and was also molested by the Sioux, the omission is explicable. On the other hand, Lesueur, in the jomiial of PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 33 his third journey, in 1700, names the St. Peter's as famiharly known and acknowledged by traders. As for my part, I have no hesitation in assigning its origin to a Canadian by the name of De St. Pierre, who resided for a long time thereabouts. Carver, in referring to the supposed fortifications which he visited below Lake Pepin, mentions a Mr. De St. Pierre ; but this was sixty-four years after the travels of Lesueur. How- ever, waiving any further inquiry into the origin of this name, it is desirable that it should not be changed, because it is an important link in the history of the geographical discoveries made in this region, as well as a constant point of reference by travellers over it ; so that any change would throw addi- tional obscurity upon the early history of the country. "The name which the Sioux give to the St. Peter's River is Mini-sotah ; and to St. Peter's as a station, Mdote-mini- sotah. The adjective sotoh is of difficult translation. The Canadians translate it by a pretty equivalent French word, hrouille — perhaps most properly rendered into English by blear; as, for instance, mini-sotah, blear water, or the entrance of the blear water. I have entered upon this explanation because the word sotah really means neither clear nor turbid, as some authors have asserted ; its true meaning being found in the Sioux expression, ishta sotah, blear eyed. After the same manner they call the Falls of St. Anthony rara, from Irara, to laugh, descriptive of the imitative sound they are supposed to produce. The Chippcwaj^s are more accurate ; by them the Falls are called Kakahikah, or severed rock ; and the St. Peter's River Ashkibogi sihi, the Green Leaf River." — Nic, pp. 68, 69. " From actual measurements made by Mr. H. Sibley and myself, the width of the St. Peter's at the crossing-place, above its confluence, is 320 feet ; that of the Missisippi, below Fort Snelhng, and outside of the gorge whence it issues, 3* 34 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. is 576 feet. The intervening space between these twQ. mea- sured spots is the rock point on which the fort stands, and a grassy bottom, the whole measuring 1263 feet. The mean height of the plain supporting Fort SneUing and the Indian Agency is 106 feet above the common low water of the two rivers, and the height of the Pilot Knob above the same level, 262 feet." — 16., p. 67, et seq. Lake Pepin, about 110 miles below St. Peter's, excels all other points on the Missisippi, below St. Anthony's, in the beauty and majesty of its scenery. It is an enlargement of the Missisippi, in some places three miles wide, and averag- ing about two and a half, filling the whole space from bluff to bluff, except at two points, where a small meadow appears, and extending in length twenty-one miles upon the river. Its greatest width is at the southern extremity. The rapid cur- rent of the river here settles into an almost stagnant pool, and the lake presents a smooth and nearly motionless expanse of w^ater without a single island, though the river, in its whole course, has a great many, dotting and diversifying the water scenery at short distances. The majestic bluffs of limestone that wall in the lake, stretch with more regularity, and rise to a height more nearly uniform than in other parts of the river. The Lake is at times considered dangerous when ruffled by storms. " Le lac est petit, mais il est malin," said Major Long's interpreter. On the eastern bank, about midway on the Lake, the rocky bluff rises to a height of 4.50 feet, the superior 150 feet being perpendicular, and the remaining portion below very abrupt. It forms a point projecting into the Lake, with a small estuary on either side. This point has received the name of the Maiden's Rock, from an incident which is related by Major Long. In the band of Wapasha inhabiting the village of Keoxa was a young Indian maid called Wmona, '* the first-born." PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 35 She had conceived an attachment for a young hunter, which was reciprocated, and they had frequently met, and agreed upon an union. Her family favored the advances of a warrior of distinction, and repelled those of her chosen lover. Her expostulations were unheeded. Her friends drove away the hunter, fixed a day for the nuptials with the warrior, and commanded her to comply. Winona had, in an uncommon degree, the affection of her brothers, and they besought for persuasive rather than compulsory means toward her. A party was formed to Lake Pepin, to obtain the blue pigment used by the Indians. At this time the warrior, who was present, encouraged by her friends, again urged his addresses, and was again repelled. Vexed by her obstinacy, her parents threatened her, to compel obedience. " Well," said Winona, " you will drive me to despair. I have told you that I cannot love him, and that I wish to live a maiden. You say that you love me, and yet you have driven away the man of my choice. Well ! let it be so. But soon you will not have a daughter and sister to torment with your false professions of affection." She withdrew from the company, and while they were pre- paring the feast, wended her way slowly to the top of the bluff. When at the summit, she called to her friends, up- braided them for their cruelty, and began to sing her death- song. Her friends rushed toward the base of the bluff, en- treating her to desist, while others madly ran up the hill to prevent her fatal design. But she was resolved, and as she finished her song, threw herself from the precipice, and fell, a corpse, at the feet of her distressed friends. The Upper Rapids of the river (in speaking of that portion of it below St. Anthony's), commonly called Rock River Rapids, extend in length about fifteen miles, upward from the foot of Rock Island, which is four miles above the mouth of Rock River. The whole fall in this distance is about twenty- 36 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. six feet. It consists of several chains of ledges, to each of which the navigators of the river have given distinct names. The depth of water in some places, at the lowest stages, does not exceed three feet. The current is so rapid at one point near the head of Rock Island, and at one or two other points, that a boat, in ascending, cannot be perceived to make any progress. The Des Moines Rapids begin at three or four miles above the mouth of Des Moines River, and extend upward about eleven miles. The whole fall is about twenty-two feet. The descent is more regular, and consequently the current more uniform than on the Upper Rapids. Boats of moderate burden pass over both of these rapids at all stages ; and at some times the river may be passed by any boats to St. An- thony's Falls. The national government have long had it in contemplation to improve the navigation over these rapids ; but it can never be done properly, until the system of log- rolling is laid aside, and the sectional jealousy that withholds the needful appropriation, doling out a scanty modicum at a time, and riding upon it a hundred other appropriations for as many different objects. The Upper Rapids may be improved at a very trifling cost, by letting in Rock River through the Marais D'Osier, or Willow Swamp (sometimes called Marais D'Ogee, and Meredosia), which extends from that river to the Missisippi, and through which, at high stages, the waters of the two rivers actually mingle ; or, by bringing the same stream upon the Missisippi about ten miles above its present embouchure, over an intervening low and level tract of only tliree miles in width. From Gen. Victor Collot, former Governor of Gaudeloupe, who travelled in the United States in 1793, the following description of this river is taken : PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 37 " The province of the IlHnois is, perhaps, the only spot respecting which travellers have given no exaggerated ac- count. It is superior to any description which has been made, for local beauty, fertility, climate, and the means of every kind which nature has lavished upon it for the facility of commerce. " This country is a delightful valley where winds one of the most majestic rivers on the globe, and which, after re- ceiving the vast Missouri, is still augmented by an infinite number of smaller rivers and creeks, all navigable and fitted for the construction of mills and machinery of almost every kind. " This valley is full of small lakes and villages, and inter- spersed with woods and natural meadows, strewed with medicinal and odoriferous plants. Across these meadows flow numerous rivulets, sometimes murmuring beneath the flow- ers, and sometimes displaying their silver beds and their transparent waters, pure as the air which is breathed amidst those romantic spots. On each side of those vast meadows, which are level as the surface of the calm ocean, rise lofty and venerable forests, which serve as boundaries, while their thick and mysterious shades fill the mind with reverential awe and enthusiastic contemplation." In the foregoing description, Gen. Collot has reference to the river bottom only, on the Missisippi between the bluffs. " This valley," he says, " is bounded on the right and left by two small chains of mountains running parallel with the banks of the river, but never more distant than four or five miles. " The chain on the east begins to be perceived from the mouth of the river Kaskaskias, and runs in the same direc- tion, as far as the Prairie Du Chien, situated 240 leagues higher. 38 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST "These small chains rise commonly 150, and sometimes 200 feet above the level of the lands which separate them from the waters of the river. These masses of rock are composed sometimes of grey stone, flint with which the In- dians tip their arrows, or millstone, but most frequently of limestone. " The lands which run along between these chains and the bed of the river, form, as I have already observed, vast meadows intersected with small woods ; the whole of these lands are the product of successive deposits, occasioned by the overflowings of the river. Trees half burnt are often found in digging, together with pieces of earthen and iron utensils. The whole is a bed of sand, the surface of which is covered with a vegetable layer four or five feet in thick- ness."— Collot, p. 232, et seq. One or two extracts from Nicollet will close that part of the notes having relation to the physical geogi'aphy and scenic aspect of the giant river. " The whole country embraced by the Lower St. Peter's and the Undine Region [or Mankato Valley], exceeds any land of the Missisippi above Wisconsin River, as well in the quality and quantity of its timber as the fertility of its soil. The forests of the valley on the right bank are connected by groves and small wooded streams of the adjoining prairies with the forest called Bois-francs ; and they extend so far southwest, as to include the lands of the upper waters of the Mankato River. *' The forest trees, as reported to me by Mr. Geyer, are chiefly soft maple, American and red elm, black w^alnut, the nettle tree, bass wood, red and white ash ; the undergrowth, the common hawthorn, prickly ash, high cranberry, red root, grey dogwood, fox grapes, horse briar, and moonseed. Among the herbs, are the wild and bristly sarsaparilla, Indian PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 39 turnip, the gay orchis, and others ; rushes and the flowering ferns are abundant along the low banks of the rivers. The valley prairies are rich in pasture grasses and leguminous and orchideous plants, such as the yellow ladies' slipper, American and tufted vetch, and others. The lowest parts near the borders of the woods, and those subject to inunda- tions, are filled with the high weeds common to such places — as the ragged cup, tall thistle, great bitter-weed, the tuber- ous sunflower, and others. '' Swamps are frequent, and some of them contain extensive tracts of tamarack pines. Cedars grow intermixed with red birch on the rocky declivities of the Lower Mankato River. Red and bur oak, with hazel, red root, peterswort, and the wild rose, are the trees and shrubs of the uplands. There are, besides, thickets of poplar-birch, that are frequent in the elevated prairies near the river. The prairies are very luxu- riant, and generally somewhat level and depressed ; the gum plant and button snakeroot are their most abundant and con- spicuous herbs. "Along the Missisippi, a length of 180 miles, from St. Peter's to Crow-wing River, the valley is wide, with river banks of moderate elevation, affording beautiful sites, that contrast remarkably with the bold escarpments exhibited below the Falls of St. Anthony. In this ascent of the river, which is full of rapids, it is necessary to have recourse to the pole or the tow-line ; and, generally, following the left bank, under good guidance, and with sufficient hands to stem the current, portages may be avoided. This left bank presents almost a continued level of from ten to twenty feet in eleva- tion, forming a retreating succession of terraces that are delightful to the view. The superincumbent soil is composed mainly of sand, gravel, and clay, intermixed with erratic blocks. The sylva consists of white and black oak, white 40 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. and blue asli, red elm, two or three species of maple, the lime tree, birch, a few hickories and walnuts. The western shore is more generally interspersed with swamps and wood- lands, well set with pines, birch, and sometimes with exten- sive camps of the sugar-maple."— (A^zc, p. 54.) " The first steamboat arrived at St. Louis in 1819. Since that time the Upper Missisippi is covered with these boats ; and the number of arrivals yearly at Galena and Dubuque is upwards of 1000. A few boats go above. In the summer of 1844, two boats were used to run regularly from Galena to St. Peter's. No summer has passed in the last five years without the passage of some boats up the river to that point with parties of pleasure, to enjoy the cool prairie breezes and rich scenery of that upper region. Beside the steamboats, there are keel boats used for conveying produce and merchandise ; flat boats, and dug outs or canoes, rudely made of logs. Occasionally a Mackinac boat, sloop-rigged, is seen there, brought over from the lake by the Fox and Wisconsin rivers. The obstnictions which are so annoying to the navigator below the mouth of the Missouri, known under the name of planters, sawyers, snags and rafts, are but rarely found above the confluence of the two streams, in the Missisippi. The river has an annual rise, from April to June, of some six to ten feet ; and there is sometimes a second rise about September. The usual velocity of the current is about two miles an hour. The water is very clear. Missouri River. — Of the Missouri River much less is known than of the Missisippi, and it is also at this time much less an object of interest. The current of the Mis- souri is said to be about four miles an hour, or double that of the Missisippi. Its water is turbid, and in these two par- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 41 ticulars it greatly differs from the other river, with clear waters and a moderate current. The fall of the Missisippi from St. Peter's, and that of the Missouri from Pierre Chou- teau, to the confluence of the two rivers, are in the ratio of 45 to 85, according to Nicollet, and therefore the average rapidity of the Missouri is nearly twice that of the Missi- sippi.* The great rapidity of current in the Missouri render- ing that river difiicult of navigation, even by the power of steam, in the upward voyage, is not the only obstacle, how- ever, to the passage of boats upon it. Its velocity and force constantly bring along and heap up sand bars, a characteris- tic of nearly all the western rivers, except the Des Moines and Rock Rivers, which have rocky beds. Beside the ac- cumulating and shifting of sands, the same cause fills the river w^ith planters, snags, and sawyers, which are all the same thing, that is, drift w^ood partly buried in the sand so as to hold in position, while projecting to the surface it pre- sents a point upon which the boat strikes, and is wrecked. The different names given to this kind of obstruction have reference merely to the position in which they become fixed. The Missouri in the lower part of its course is very tur- bid, bringing down a great quantity of mud with its waters. This character, it has been said, it loses above the Platte, 600 miles from its mouth. The difference in the descent of its cun-ent above that point, as given by Nicollet, renders the miles fr. m. alt. alt. at m. * F. P. Chouteau 125o 1456 - - 3S8 = 1068 St. Peter's 786 744 - - 3SS = 356 From these measurements it appears the Missouri falls 106S feet in 1256 miles, or over 80 feet in .100 miles, and the Missisippi 356 feet in 786 miles, or over 40 feet in 100 miles, or 5J ins, nearly in a mile. The fall of the Missouri is, however, unequal : in the upper 650 miles, starting from Fort Pierre, the descent is 4S4 feet, a little over 8 inches to the mile : in the remaining 600, to the mouth, it is 584 or 12 inches nearly to a mile. 42 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. assertion very probable. Above Yellow Stone it has a fall of 362 feet in 17 miles : the upper fall is 90 feet. The tributaries are almost innumerable. The most considerable in length and width is the Platte, but it is too shallow for navigation. The bottoms of this river are higher than the Missisippi, and rather narrower. The distance from the mouth of the Missouri to the mouth of the Osage is 135 miles : to Kansas River 382 — Nishnabatona 540 — Platte or Nebraska 618 — Council Bluffs 676 — Sioux River about 860 — James River about 950 — Poncah or Niobrarah River 1018 — Fort Pierre Chouteau 1256. These distances, given by Nicollet (except the Sioux and James), are the results of measurements made by him. To the Yellow Stone the distance is said by Flint to be 1880 miles, the whole of which distance is navigable ; from the mouth to the Gulf of Mexico is 1400, making in the whole a navigation of about 3300 miles from the Yellow Stone to the Gulf. " On reaching the Coteau du Missouri, there are no fur- ther apparent traces of the cretaceous formation. It is a rolling prairie, the soil partly covered by a short, sweet- scented, and grateful verdure. An inspection of the gulleys shows that the basis of this soil is the erratic deposit previ- ously described. The siliceous particles of the soil are blackened by the smoke of the vernal and autumnal fires of the prairies ; and, as the growth is too scant to prevent the dust from being raised by the almost incessant winds that blow over them, the traveller is very much inconveni- enced. There are no springs to quench the thirst ; and it is only at wide distances apart that small pools are met with, bordered by aquatic plants, tow^ards w^hich the experi- ence of his guide is necessary to bring him to his bivouac, PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 43 where he must needs have recourse to the dried dung of the Buffalo for fuel. It was in the hope of extricating ourselves from difficulties of this kind, that we made an examination of the forks of the East Medicine River, which empties into the Missouri about fifteen miles below Fort Pierre. " This last-mentioned river derives its name from a beau- tiful hill on its right bank, called by the Sioux Pahah- ivakan — translated by the voyageurs, ' Butte de Medicine,' and, in English, Medicine hillock, or knoll. It is to be re- marked, in fact, of the prairies of this region, that they pre- sent such low insulated hillocks, to which the Sioux apply the somewhat generic name of ?'e or pahah, according as they are more or less elevated above the surrounding plain. The affix, wakan, indicates that the locality is to them pecu- liarly remarkable, or even sacred, and a spot which they select in preference for some of their ceremonies." — Nic, p. 44. The secondary rivers of this region are the St. Peters, St. Croix, Chippewa, Wisconsin, Rock, Moingonan or Des Moines, and Illinois falling into the Missisippi, and Tchan- sansan or James, and Tchankasndata or Sioux, falling into the Missouri. The Fox River or Outagami, falling into Lake Michigan, is also to be placed in this class. Other streams that are of some importance are the Crow Wing or Kagiwigwan, Karishon or Crow, Iskodo Wabo or Rum, or Spirit (the meaning, I think, is White Fire Water), Sappah or Black River, Hokali or Root, Upper Iowa, Penaca or Turkey, Maquoqueta or Bear, Wabesepinecon or White Potato abode, as the interpreter told me* (or rather, I think, * Mr. Leclair, former interpreter of the Sacs and Foxes, gave me the above definition of the name of this river : Wabe, white ; pin, po*^ icon or nicon, abode. It may be so: and the third syllable, se, -'■^ **•' expletive. But Wabe-sepo, or sipi, is white river. This tribcCrably 44 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. White River abode or place of council), Wabe (white) sippi (river) necon (abode or council place), Iowa or Anketoskesha (horse), Checaqua, and Salt River, all these fall into the Missisippi. The Blue Earth, or Mankato, falling into St. Peter's ; the Chariton, the Grand River, Little Platte, Nish- nabatona, Inyan Yankey, or Little Sioux, flowing into the Missouri ; Shayan Oju, flowing into Red ; and a number, almost endless, of smaller rivers. St. Peter's River, called by the Sioux Mini-sotah (blear water), and by the Chippeways Ashkibogi (green leaf), rises in a region of lakes at the head of the Coteau des Prairies, and running southeast soon expands into the Big Stone Lake, and farther on, after receiving two considerable streams, the Izuzah and Tipsinah, again forms a small lake (called Qui parle, or Echo Lake), below which the volume of water is again much increased by the addition of other branches, the Litpah and the Manya Wakan, and farther down by the Pej- uta Zizi, or Yellow Medicine ; below which are a series of rapids and falls for thirty or forty miles to the Tchanshayapi or Red Wood, another branch, which, starting in immediate contiguity with the sources of Moingonan, and seeking St. Peter's by a not very winding course, falls into it on the right in about 44° 35^ N. Below this the river is navigable to its mouth, about 250 miles. In this part of its course it receives the Waraju, Little Waraju, and Mankato, or Blue Earth, on its right bank, and immediately turning, runs in a right angle to its former course, and receiving a great number of small streams on both sides, and on its left the Witahantu, of larger termination nica, nicon or icon, to express something more than abode or ' '■'■nee. Thus they call the city of Washington, Washitonica or Wash- Wlin, 0> jj. pi-obably means place of council, or perhaps abode of the ence of hr. Doty gives the name of the root as Wabesepin PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 45 size, enters the Missisippi in lat. 44° 52' about eight miles below the Falls of St. Anthony, which are in 44° 58" 40"", as given by Nicollet. The whole length of this course is 470 miles. The St. Croix River has its extreme sources in Lakes Nidjichwe, Miminis, Upper St. Croix, and other lakes that lie very contiguous to and nearly surrounding the Kagino Lake, which is the head water of the River Mashkeg, falling into Lake Superior, and another small lake that gives rise to the Wassakude, or Burnt Wood River, also a tributary of the great lake. From these sources several branches flow, and unite in one stream. It has a succession of rapids at about fifty miles below the junction, and at about the same distance below are falls, near the latitude of 45° 30". From this point to the Missisippi it is a handsome and navigable stream, and expands into a lake called by the same name, by which it becomes united to the Missisippi, in less than 100 miles from the falls, in lat. about 44° 45^ The Chippeway River is composed of several branches, the longest of which, called Manidowish, rises in several small lakes north of 46°. It has falls below 45°, and after a short course below them of fifty or sixty miles, unites with the Missisippi, at the lower point of Lake Pepin. The euphoneous Mini Kette Kittigan, a small lake of four or five miles in diameter, in lat. 46° 10", is the source of the Wisconsin River ; which, with a winding course, and a succession of rapids, rolls down a small stream till below the latitude of 44° 30", where it suddenly expands into a cir- cular pool of a mile and a half or two miles in diameter at the foot of the lower rapids ; and then, in a bed considerably 46 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. wider than its upper course, describing a very regular semi- circle or rather semi-ellipse, which spans about one degree of latitude, in Avhich it receives no tributary, it approaches the Fox River of Green Bay within one mile, where, making a bend at about right angles, it runs south-west, and afterward nearly west, receiving after its recession from Fox a great many small streams, it enters the Missisippi after a course of more than 150 miles from the Fox, in lat. 43°. This latter part of its course can be made navigable for steamboats by clearing the bed of sand in some places. It is proposed to do this, and by a canal from this to the Fox, of one or two miles, to make a clear navigation from Lake Michigan to the Missisippi. All these rivers named after the St. Peter's have their whole course in Wisconsin. Rock River rises in Wisconsin, and after a main southerly course for a considerable distance, in which it has entered the State of Illinois, it turns westwardly, and directing its current toward the Missisippi, finds that stream four miles below Rock Island and the foot of the Upper Rapids, which is the most beautiful point on the great river below Lake Pepin. Small steamboats have been to Grand Detour, upwards of a hundred miles from its mouth. This is very difficult, how- ever, to be done in the spring floods, and can only be done then. At the best water the rapids at the mouth are only covered but little more than one foot. If the obstructions higher up this stream could be removed, those at the mouth might be obviated, by making it debouch into the Missisippi through the Marais D'Osier, or at a point a little below the village of Hampton, about midway on the rapids of the latter river. The country upon Rock River and its tributaries is one of surpassing beauty. On the Pectanon, or Pectanonica, a principal branch, commonly called Peckatonica, and on the PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 47 Yellow Creek, a tributary of the latter, the scenery is un- commonly fine. The MoiNGONAN, commonly called Des Moines, is the most important stream tributary to the Missisippi on its west- ern bank, above the Missouri. This stream, it is said by Nicollet, is called Inyan Shasha by the Sioux, and Moingo- nan by the Algonquins. A river, which appears to be this, entering the Missisippi on the west, is called by Hennepin and Lahontan Otenta. It is called Moingona by Charlevoix, Des Moines (Monks' River) by Lewis and Clarke. Pike makes no mention of the river, but calls the rapids immedi- ately above, on the Missisippi, De Moyen ; on the map ac- com.panying his volume, they are both marked with the name Des Moines. It is called by Collot, Moins (Less) River. The Shetek Lakes, the fountain of the Moingona, are on a ridge of land from which springs the source of Red Wood River, a branch of St. Peter's. It is a region of lakes and wet prairie for more than a degree of latitude south of the ridge. The Sunkaku, or Brother, is the highest principal branch on the left. The Lizard enters a short distance be- low, on the right. Some forty miles below, another princi- pal branch enters on the left. The Racoon fork, after a longer interval from the last, enters on the right. This branch is about 200 miles from the mouth of the river, and a large distance above as well as most of that below, to the mouth, is navigable, being interrupted at several points at present, but susceptible, by very moderate improvements, of uninterrupted navigation for about 300 miles. The bed of this river is for the most part rock, in which it differs from the streams generally in this region, which, with some excep- tions, are sandy. In the spring floods, this stream may be navigated for two or three months as high as the Racoon by 48 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. such boats as ascend the Upper Missisippi above the Rapids. To render it navigable at all times by such boats, it requires to have a fcv/ loose rocks removed, some snags drawn out, and, in a few points, an artificial embankment, to overcome the sharp angles. With these operations, the river may be navigable for 300 miles. Perhaps the making slack water at certain distances, would further improve it. Capt. Guion, of the Topographical Engineers, describes it as being the most beautiful and fertile country on which the eye of man ever rested. The Tchanshetcha Lake, which is the source of the Watumwan, a branch of the Mankato, which, in its turn, is tributary to St. Peter's, is separated from the Des Moines only one mile and a half, and by a short canal, boats may pass through into the St. Peter's. Nicollet, in his report, gives an extended and very excel- lent description of this river, from which we take the follow- ing extract : " The Des Moines empties into the Missisippi in 40° 22' latitude north ; and its sources, heretofore supposed to be in 43°, are extended on my map to 44° 3^ north. It is fed from the beautiful group of lakes, previously described as the SJietek lakes, towards the middle of the plateau of the Coteau des Prairies, at an elevation of 1580 feet above the level of the sea. The waters of these lakes flow from northwest to southeast, swelling themselves by innumerable tributaries until they enter the Missisippi at an elevation of about 444 feet above the Gulf of Mexico. " The course of the Des Moines cannot be less than 400 miles ; whence it would follow tliat the average of its descent is nearly three feet to the mile, with a current approaching in velocity that of the Missouri. The river flows constantly in a deep valley, from its sources to within a few miles of its confluence with the Missisippi, where it spreads over low PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 49 grounds. In its upper part, its bed is upon sand, rolled peb- bles, and shingle {gallets). " Like most of the rivers in this region, it has its sources in lakes and swampy grounds, and has a tortuous and slug- gish course till it reaches a greater declivity about 43^ of latitude, w^hen it becomes much more rapid and direct, and frequently pitches impetuously over rocky beds of carbo- niferous limestone forming frequent bluffs on alternate sides. This rock, which misfht furnish an abundance of excellent building materials, is overlaid in some places by deposits of coal. Penned up, as it were, between the valleys of the Missisippi and the Missouri, and those of their adjacent tribu- tary streams, the Des Moines has no large tributary of its own. Flowing through a wide and deep valley, the principal waters which it receives are the drainings through deep and lono- ravines, intersecting its shores, and rendering the travel along them inconvenient and painful." The head streams of the Illinois span a large tract of coun- try. The Kankake, its southern main constituent, rises in a swampy ground south of Lake Michigan, and flowing nearly westerly for more than 100 miles, unites w^ith the Des Plaines or Maple River, both of which names are transla- tions of its Pottawatami appellation, Sheshikmaoshike, which, from its size and the direction of its course, may dispute with Kankake the title of principal constituent of the United Stream, at a few rods below the point where Otokakenog (uncovered breast), another primary branch, mingles w^ith it, comincr from the northwest. This last stream has received the name of Du Page, from a man who was buried on its banks. When the three streams are united into one, it receives the name of Illinois : but it has still another primary branch coming from the northwest still further west, which enters 4 50 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. only twenty miles below the confluence of the others, called, by the Indians, Pishtaco, and by the inhabitants of the country, in modern times, the Fox River of the Illinois. The cha- racter of the country on the Upper Sheshikmaoshike is simi- lar to that about the sources of the Kankake, very flat, wet and marshy, and is, for the most part, prairie or untimbered land, covered with tall grass, wild rice, and other aquatic plants. The course of the Illinois, as constituted by these several streams, is nearly south for a considerable distance. It then takes a course more westerly, and, becoming navi- gable for steamboats below the falls at a point where is built the town of Peru, it pursues its course through a country which, if it be surpassed, is only by the Moingona and Sini- sepo or Rock River, and St. Peter's. It is, in the whole length of the united stream, three hundred miles or more to the mouth. For fifty miles of its upper course it is not navi- gable, to the lower rapids; below this point it is navigable for 250 miles to its mouth. Below these rapids the current is almost imperceptible. On account of the very slight descent of the river the Missisippi when full sets back the waters of the Illinois for seventy miles. It frequently overflows its banks. The Vermillion is considerable in size, and adds a large volume to the waters of the principal river, but it is not navigable. The Mackina, Sangamon, Spoon and Crooked Rivers, lower tributaries, are sometimes set down as navi- gable. The Sangamon is so. Before entering the Missi- sippi it receives many minor streams, and the Macoupin, scarcely less than those last before named. The other tributaries of the Missisippi on the west, be- tween Des Moines and St. Peter's, are the Iowa and Red Cedar, both of which may be said to be navigable, the Wa- besepinicon, Makwaketa, Turkey or Penaca, Upper Iowa, Haka (or Root), and Lahontan. The Tchansansan, or James PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 61 River (a tributary of the Missouri), is a fine navigable stream passing through a beautiful and luxuriant region, the follow- ing account of which is given by Mr. Nicollet : " We reached the river Jacques, at a very celebrated spot, called by the Sioux Otuhuoju — meaning, literally, the place * where the oaks spring up,' but which I have designated on my map as the ' Oakwood Settlement.' " The estimate which I have made of the distance between this place and Fort Pierre is about 110 miles ; its actual ele- vation above the sea is about 1,340 feet, and the descent from the Coteau du Missouri to the river Jacques not less than 750 feet. The last fifty miles, by our route, belong to the east slope of the Coteau du Missouri ; but, as we were obliged to select our ground, allow^ing for this, the whole direct distance is probably forty miles. In a similar way, estimating the distance to the head of the Coteau des Prairies, which is tliirty miles to the east, the basin of the river Jacques be- tween the two coteaux, and in the latitude of Otohuoju,* may be laid down as having a breadth of eighty miles, sloping gradually down from an elevation of 700 to 750 feet. These dimensions, of course, vary in the different parts of the valley; but what I have said will convey some idea of the immense prairie w^atered by the Tchansansan, w^hich has been deemed by all travellers to those distant regions perhaps the most beautiful within the territory of the United States. " I hazard, in conclusion of my remarks on the physical geography of the valley just described, the suggestion that it has been scooped out by some powerful denuding cause, and that its original geological character w^as such as is now observed in the Coteau du Missouri and the Coteau des Prairies, by wdiich it is bounded. * About 45° 15'. 52 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. " It is only necessary lo cast a glance over the map, to form an idea of the importance of Tchansansan river. It takes its rise on the plateau of the Missouri, beyond the parallel of 47° N. ; and after pursuing nearly a north- and- south course, empties into the Missouri River below 43°. It is deemed navigable with small hunting canoes for between 500 and 600 miles ; but, below Otuhuoju, it will float much larger boats, and there are no other obstacles in its navigation than a few rafts. When Ave turned away from the river in latitude 46° 27', its breadth was from 80 to 100 feet ; and we could discover by the water-marks on its banks, that, in the season of freshets, it widens out here to 100 yards, and south of Otuhuoju to 200 yards. The shores of the river are generally tolerably well wooded, though only at intervals ; the trees consisting principally of elm, ash, burr-oak, poplar and willows. Along those portions where it widens into lakes, very eligible situations for farms would be found, and if the Indian traders have hitherto selected positions south of the Otuhuoju, it was doubtless in consequence of its more easy navigation into the Missouri." [From Otohuoju to the mouth is from 250 to 300 miles. Very little is known to us of this river beyond the above very scanty description of Mr. Nicollet.] " I have already stated, I think, that the lower portion of the Coteau des Prairies forms two spurs; one of which turns off the rivers that have been precedingly described into the Missisippi, the other into the Missouri. The divisional line of these two spurs is plainly indicated by the course of the Des Moines from 43° 30'' of north latitude ; and the one now referred to is a prominent ridge, separating the waters that empty into the Des Moines from those that flow westwardly into the Missouri. But, as it falls ofl" in a gradual slope when it has reached already 42"^ of latitude, the head-waters then PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 53 take first an E. and afterwards a SSE. direction, and are divided from each other only by moderate swells or midula- tions of the coimtr}'", that cause them to ramify into a rain of streams, carrying their waters, after long ramblings, easterly to the Missisippi, and southerly to the Missouri, until they finally unite. " To the north and west of Nodaway, or Snake River — meaning a particular species of snake — several important streams take their rise on that side of the Coteau des Prairies I am now considering, to empty themselves, of course, finally into the Missouri. I shall now give an account of those which appear to be least generally known. "Inyanyanke River, or Little Sioux. — The name of this river implies that there is a rock somewhere along its course.* It has been heretofore designated as the Little Sioux River, and has its origin from a gi'oup of lakes, the most important of which is called by the Sioux Miniwakan, or Spirit Water; hence its name of Spirit Lake. This lake has a triangular form ; being about seven miles wide at its largest extremity, and seven miles in length. It is not remarkably well wooded; the smaller lakes to the north of it being better supplied in this respect. " TcHANKASNDATA RivER, or Sioux RivER. — This is the Big, or simply the Sioux River, and is one of the most im- * " Inyanyanke River is said to be navigable for canoes. As I saw but the two extremities of this river, and having obtained no reliable informa- tion concerning its intermediary courses, I do not insist on its accurate representation on my map. I may most probably have placed it too high up one of its tributaries — the Otcheyedan — a name derived from a small hill, the literal meaning of which is ' the spot where they cry,' alluding to the custom of the Indians to repair to elevated situations to weep over their dead relations." 54 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. portancc to the country through wliich it flows. Its Indian name means tliat it is continuously lined with wood. Its sources are at the head of the Coteau des Prairies, not more than a mile from those of the St. Peter's, and separated only by a low ridge. Its length cannot be less than 350 miles ; in which distance there are two principal bends — the more southerly and smaller being terminated by a fall, said to be the only obstacle to its entire navigation. From this circumstance, the upper part of the river bears another name : the Sioux calling it Watpaipakshan, or Crooked River, and the French, la riviere Croche. It flows tlirough a beautiful and fertile country ; amidst which, the Ndakotahs, inhabiting the valley of the St. Peter's and Missouri, have always kept up summer es- tablishments on the borders of the adjoining lakes, whilst they hunted the river banks. Bufl'alo herds are confidently ex- pected to be met with here at all seasons of the year. *' Wassecha, or Vermillion River. — This river is scarce- ly more than sixty miles long. It issues from two lakes, which the Frenchmen have named Lacs aux Bois leger — Light-wood Lakes. Near its entrance into the Missouri, it forks, owing to a remarkable promontory that juts out of the prairie, and to which are attached many romantic traditions that I have not time to recount. The river is not well wood- ed ; it is navigable by canoes a portion of its length ; and is the last that empties into the Missouri among those flowing from the western side of the Coteau des Prairies. At its mouth is the upper end of an entensive prairie, about fifty miles long, between the Tchankasndata and the Missouri Rivers ;* having some analogy in its general appearance with * " This is the bottom designated by Lewis and Clark as the Buffalo prairie, in consequence of the great number of these animals that they eaw there. Pierre Chouteau & Co., of St. Louis, keep generally a trading- post upon it." PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 55 the American bottom of the State of IlHiiois, opposite St. Louis. Belonging to this is a beautiful grove, on a point of land called by the French ' Pointe-au-Cerf ' (Stag Point). The Sioux name for the prairie is Huppanokutey ; or, by contraction, Huppankutey ; meaning, where they hit at the elk. " We reach now a country differing essentially from that previously described, both in respect to its climate and soil, and, consequently, in its natural productions. Whatever it may lose, however, in estimation of the agriculturist, is fully compensated to the geologist, who discovers within it the beginning of the great cretaceous formation that underlies the hydrographical basin of the Upper Missouri." The lakes of this country could not even be named, for their multitude. A brief description of each of them would make a large volume. They exceed in number five or six hundred. A description of one of the largest, and remarka- ble also for the qualities of its water, called Mini-wakan, is subjoined from the report of Nicollet, frequently quoted before. It is nearly in the northwest portion of the valley. A body of water, called by the French, Mille Lacs (the Thousand Lakes), is about fifteen miles in diameter, nearly round, situated east of and near to the Missisippi. " The appearance of Mini Wakan Lake did not realize the anticipations we had been led to form of it from popu- lar account. The lake is on the plateau of the Shayen-oju, and is surrounded by swells and hills, varying in height from twenty to 250 feet, that so project into it as not to permit its whole expanse to be seen but from one spot, which I shall presently describe. " The prominent hill-top, previously alluded to by the name of Miniwakan-chante, is the only beacon to the travel- ler leading to the lake ; but even from its summits no idea 56 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. can be formed of this beautiful slieet of water. He must go to a smaller eminence, known as the Butte du Mileau by the French voyageurs, whence alone the eye can take in the principal contours of the lake. *' The greatest extension of Devil's Lake is at least forty miles — but may be more, as we did not, and could not, ascertain the end of the northwest bay, which I left undefined on the map. It is bordered by hills that are pretty well wooded on one side, but furrowed by ravines and coulees, that are taken advantage of by w^arlike parties, both for attack and defence, according to circumstances. The lake itself is so filled up with islands and promontories, that, in travelling along its shores, it is only occasionally that one gets a glimpse of its expanse. This description belongs only to its wooded side ; for, on the opposite side, the shores, though still bounded by hills, are destitute of trees, so as to exhibit an embankment to the east from ten to twelve miles long, upon an average breadth of three-quarters of a mile. The average breadth of the lake may be laid down at fifteen miles. Its w^aters appear to be the drainings of the surround- ing hills. We discovered no outlets in the whole extent of about three-quarters of its contour we could explore. At all events, if there be any, they do not empty into the Red River of the North, since the lake is shut up in that direction, and since we found its true geographical position to be much more to the north than it is ordinarily laid down upon maps. A single depression at its lower end would intimate that, in times of high water, some discharge might possibly take place ; but then it would be into the Shayen-oju. "As to the natural history of the waters of the Mini- wakan, it is shortly told. They are too brackish to be drunk, excepting by horses, who swallow them with avidity ; they have a deeper green color than those of the neighboring PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 57 lakes that are not salt. I had no means of ascertaining the density of the water of this lake ; but having caused several gallons of it to be evaporated by distillation, I subsequently made an analysis of the residue, which proved to be a mix- ture of sulphates and hydrochlorates of soda and magnesia." The true meaning of the name is undoubtedly neither En- chanted, nor Devil (as Mr. Nicollet calls it) ; but medicinal, or, as w^e usually call it, Mineral Lake. This is evident both by Mr. Nicollet's description, who says he analyzed it and found it to contain soda and magnesia in sulphates, and by his own translation of the same w^ord when applied to a river and a hill. In describing East iMedicine River (which is the English name he applies to it), he says, it derives its name from a beautiful hill on its right bank, called by the Sioux Pahah-wakan, translated by the voyageurs, " Butte de Medicine," and, in English, " Medicine Hillock." The lat- ter word in the name is the same in each. One in conjunc- tion with mini, water ; the other with pahah, hill. The lake should therefore be called Mineral Lake ; and the hill which they name Mini Wakan Chante is Mineral Lake Heart. The Dacota word Wakan, in the vocabulary given by Major Long, is interpreted *' mysterious medicine." There is one feature in the scenery of this country, rather too partial and confined, perhaps, to be worthy of an extended notice, but yet certainly too remarkable to be entirely passed over. In some places the limestone stands out high above tlie surrounding surface, isolated and naked, in the form and appearance of great mural escarpments, sometimes looking like an old castle or tower. About the Tete des Morts, in Jackson County, and near Dubuque, on the Catfish, and on the Little Maquoqueta, in the settled portion of Iowa, are some of these appearances. On La Hontan, or Canoe River, there is one very remarkable specimen of this work, in a 4* 58 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. heap of disintegrated sandstone, thirty-six feet high, four miles north of the river. Anot'acr. on the Verniilhon, called the castle, twelve miles north of the latter, on the Iowa side of the river. In Wisconsin they are more frequent. The points most particularly interesting on account of scenery, in this country, are the Rock River Rapids on the Missisippi, Lake Pepin, St. Peter's Station, the Falls of St. Anthony, and the point of the peninsula between Lakes Su- perior and Michigan. It is scarcely possible, says Charle- voix, speaking of this last, to see a more beautiful country than this tongue of land. It is terminated by a handsome river, Manistic, which is full of fish of all kinds. This description of the physical geography of the country, will not present a clear and vivid picture to one who has not seen a similar, but who has been confined to a forest or a mountain scenery. The mighty rivers of this region must be measured by travel, the prairies must be crossed, and the lakes be mirrored to the eye, before the mind comprehends the terms of the description. " To look at a prairie up or down," says Nicollet, " to ascend one of its undulations ; to reach a small plateau (or, as the voyageurs call it, a prairie planch t), moving from w^ave to wave over alternate swells and depressions ; and, finally, to reach the vast interminable low prairie that extends itself in front, — be it for hours, days, or weeks, one never tires ; pleasurable and exhilarating sensations are all the time felt ; ennui is never experienced. Doubtless there are moments when excessive heat, a want of fresh water, and other priva- tions, remind one that life is toil ; but these drawbacks are of short duration. There is almost always a breeze over them. The security one feels in knowing that there are no concealed dangers ; so vast is the extent which the eye takes in ; no difficulties of road ; a far spreading verdure, reheved PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 59 by a profusion of variously colored flowers ; the azure of the sky above, or the tempest that can be seen from its begin- ning to its end ; the beautiful modifications of the changing clouds ; the curious looming of objects between earth and sky, taxing the ingenuity every moment to rectify ; — all, everything, is calculated to excite the perceptions, and keep alive the imagination. In the summer season, especially, ever}'thing upon the prairies is cheerful, graceful, and animated. The Indians, with herds of deer, antelope, and buffalo, give life and motion to them. It is then they should be visited ; and I pity the man whose soul could remain unmoved under such a scene of excitement." PART II. HISTORY. The History of this country, though modern, brief, and scanty in incident, is yet mixed with fable. It was early visited by the French voyageurs and missionaries from Canada ; but the object of the voyageurs was trade and gain ; and while their talent lay not in writing, their interest probably prompted them to withhold, rather than blazon, the discoveries which they made. Gabriel Sagard, a Franciscan missionary, if he is to be believed, was in the country of tlie Hurons, about the Lake of that name, as early as 1624, and went as far as Mackina. French missionaries were settled in Michigan in 1634. In 1634, w^e learn from Charlevoix, Bre- boeuf and Daniel, missionaries were with the Hurons ; and about eight years after, it is stated by the same good authority that others went to the Sault St. Marie. About the same time (1642) some Jesuits received a depu- tation of the Saulteurs, who invited them to go into their country. These savages then occupied the country about a rapid which is in a strait by which Lake Superior is discharg- ed into Huron. It has since been named Sault St. Marie. The missionaries were pleased with the opportunity of know- ing the country, which none of them had ever traversed. Father Isaac Jogues and Charles Raimbaut were sent to 62 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. attend the deputies of the Saultcurs ; and their voyage had all the success that they could reasonably expect. They were wtII received by the savages, who seemed to them to be a very good people. Father Mesnard, a Jesuit missionary, it is related, was with the Indians on Lake Superior in 1661, and in 1665 Alouez, a missionary of the same order, traversed the same, and the other northern lakes ; and in 1668 he, with Dablon and Marquette, formed a missionary settlement at Sault St. Marie. I think this event is placed by Mr. Bancroft in 1669. In the same year other missions were established by the Jesuits in the country near the Lakes. These enterprises made known the country, and in 1671 Mr. Talon, the king's lieutenant of Canada, took measures to secure the dominion of France over all the northwest. For this purpose he selected Nicholas Perrot, a man of good ca- pacity and education, and having furnished him with a suffi- cient force, and given him the proper instructions, sent him forth on his expedition. Perrot went as far west as Chica- go, at the bottom of the Lake Illinois, now called Lake Michigan, where the Miamies were then residing, and visited all the northern nations with whom the French at that time had any trade, and invited them to meet him in the following spring at the Sault St. Marie. At this Congress all the na- tions of the north were present, by their delegates, except the Mascoutins, Kickapous, and Illinois, to whom, for want of time, notice of the meeting was not given. The Illinois were then on the Missisippi. The Sieur St. Lusson arrived at Sault St. Marie in May, charged with a special commis- sion to take possession of all the country occupied by these people, and to receive them under the protection of the king. The ceremonies on the occasion were an address by Perrot, the erection of a cedar post and a cross, with a declaration HISTORY. 63 by St. Lusson of the act of taking possession, and of the protection of the king. — {Charl. Hist, de Nouv. Fr.) This was the first poHtical event that transpired in the lake country, in which Europeans were parties ; the former inter- course with the country having been for the purposes of trade or of rehgion. And as it is the first, so it is also one of the most important political epochs in its history. It diflfers also from prior pages in being authenticated, while the events that are said to have preceded it, as well as some subsequent relations of discoveries beyond the lakes, to the west, must be considered as apocryphal, or rejected as wholly spurious. Mr. Talon, having been very active in setting on foot ex- peditions for discovery in the north and west, and in extend- ing the dominion of France over the nations inhabiting or rather roaming over those countries, was anxious to discover the sources, course, direction, character, and outlet of a great river which had been mentioned to the French by the Indi- ans, and which was supposed to reach the sea on the west, or to fall into the Gulf of Mexico on the south. This river was called by the Indians Massa-sepo, or Missi-sipi, great river. For this purpose he sent father Marquette, a Jesuit, who had been at Sault St. Marie, with Joliet, a citizen of Quebec, and two or three voyageurs, to ascertain the truth of their representations. Talon, at his own request, was recalled in 1672, and the discovery of the river, which has been imputed to Marquette, though it may be doubted, and the more extended discoveries of Hennepin, Tonti, and La Sale, La Hontan and La Sueur, were accomplished under the government of his successor. Count de Frontenac. Whether Marquette ever, in fact, performed the service to which he had been appointed by Talon, and actually discov- ered the Missisippi, must be considered rather apocryphal. It is not to be stated as an authentic event, or as one, even, 64 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST demanding tlie credence usually given to the higher class of probabilities. Marquette himself never returned to Quebec to give a re- lation of his voyage, but remained a year or two, after the supposed time of its occurrence, among the Indians living about Lake Illinois (now Michigan), and died there in 1675. It is generally stated that notes of the voyage were not pre- served by himself or his companion. His patron. Talon, had gone to France before he went (if he did go at all) to the Missisippi. The brief narrative that has been published of their supposed voyage, does not name the point from which they embarked, on or near the Strait of Machinac. It was not published till after the upper Missisippi had been explored by Hennepin and La Sale. It gives no particulars which were not made known by them ; and there is much dis- crepancy as to the time Avhen the voyage is alleged to have been performed. In the relation published in the name of Marquette, it is stated that they embarked on the 13th of May, 1673, and arrived at the Missisippi on the 17th of June. The statement published in the name of Joliet dates the arrival at the Missisippi the 15th of June, 1674, differing both in the year and the day. Heriot, again, states it to have taken place in June, 1672. Book-making was then, as now, a trade at Paris, Amsterdam, and London ; and it is probable that the few brief pages annexed to Hennepin, Description d'une nouvelle pays, &c., purporting to be the statement of Marquette and Joliet, and the whole of the volume was a work manufactured by some author to suit the reading mar- ket of the time. Such was the case with the work ascribed to the Chevalier Tonti, the companion of La Sale, who, when the work was mentioned to him by Mr. Iberville, denied having any hand in it, saying, it was apparently written by HISTORY. 65 some adventurer, who, having some defective notes of the country, had pub H shed them under his name. In addition to the other circumstances which make the authenticity of the relation pubhshed as Marquette's doubtful, Lochman, who published a collection of the travels of the Jesuits, printed in London, in 1743, makes no mention of the pretended voyage of Marquette — but in his preface he has this remark : " The Jesuits have been proved to exaggerate so greatly in their accounts, to give so much into the marvel- lous, and to assert so many falsities, that, like the shepherd's boy in the fable, many people wont believe them, even when they do speak the truth. For this reason I judge it neces- sary to examine their relations very carefully, and to com- pare them with those of such travellers as are in the great- est repute for their veracity and talents." The omission by so judicious a compiler to include in his work a narrative of so important a discovery as that of the Missisippi River, with remarks like the foregoing, coupled w^ith the facts, that Mar- quette's journal was said to be lost, and that in the narrative published as his, no particular descriptions are given, shows that the relation ascribed to Marquette was, as above sup- posed, considered spurious, or that, if genuine, it was includ- ed in that class of travels that were unworthy of belief. The supposition applied to this, that it was the work of a literary speculator, may be also extended to the second volume of Hennepin, as already hinted. But there is more probability in favor of his first volume. Indeed, the fact that he ascended the Upper Missisippi in 1680 is beyond doubt; and it is quite probable that he was the first discoverer of that river. Before, however, entering upon the relation of his very important expedition, the substance of the relation of Marquette will be given, which, whether true or not, yet, having been frequently referred to by writers as credible, and G6 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. particularly in a late history of this country, by an author of much literary fame,* I should not feel warranted to lay aside as condemned, and wholly to omit. One other step, also, in the progress of discovery in this region precedes both the voyage of Hennepin and that of Marquette. In the year before Marquette's voyage, that is, in 1672 or 1673, Claude Alouez and Dablon, the two mis- sionaries who had been with him in 1668 at the Sault, ascended the Fox River. In passing up the river, they per- ceived, on the banks of the rapids, a kind of idol, very badly formed, and w^hich appeared rather as a freak of nature, where they had expected to find a work of art. It was a rock, whose summit, at a distance, appeared to be in the like- ness of a man's head ; and the savages had taken it for the tutelary deity of their country. They had painted it all sorts of colors, and never passed it without offering tobacco, arrows, or something else. The missionaries, to satisfy the Indians of the impotence of their pretended divinity, over- turned the stone into the river." — Char., vol. ii., p. 250. On the 13th of May, 1673, Father Marquette, a Jesuit, embarked, as the relation says, with Mr. Joliet, a citizen of Quebec, who was the director of the expedition, and five other Frenchmen, at some point on or near the Strait of Mackinac, which is not named, and arrived at the Bay of Puans (Green Bay), at a village inhabited by Kikapoos, Miamis, and Mascoutins, where they obtained guides, who accompanied them on their way as far as the Wisconsin River ; and passing down the Wisconsin (miscalled, in the relation, the Mesconsin), they arrived on the Missisippi on the 17th of June. They proceeded down the river, from the mouth of the Wisconsin, more than one hundred leagues, • Bancroft.— History of the United States HISTORY. 67 without exploring the country, or seeing any of its inha- bitants, so far as mentioned, except that, three clays after leaving the Wisconsin, they discovered a much better coun- try; when, on the 25th of June, being the eighth day of their travel on the Missisippi, they went ashore, and found some fresh traces of men upon the sand, and a path which led to a prairie. The men remained in the boat, and Marquette and Johet followed the path till they discovered a village on the banks of a river, and two other villages on a hill, within half a league of the first, inhabited by Illinois Indians. It is not stated on which side of the Missisippi the river was found, nor is it described by any name, or otherwise designated by the travellers. Mr. Bancroft supposes it to have been the Des Moins. This river, in fact, flows into the Missisippi, at about the distance mentioned. The relation makes mention of passing the river Peckita- noni, as the Missouri was then called, and the Ohio, called by them the Ouabouskigou, the name of the Wabash being pre- served till its junction with the Missisippi. The Chuoanous (Shawnees) inhabit the banks of the Wabash, the relation in- forms us, who are said to be so numerous, that they have thirty- eight villages on the river. They descended the river as low as lat! 33°, where they found a village of the Arkansas ; and being satisfied that the river flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, they turned their course up the stream, and, ascending the river, they passed through the Illinois to the Lake. Their rela- tion gives the distance from the Pekitanoni (or Missouri) to the Ouabouskigou (or Ohio) at twenty leagues. The actual distance is two hundred miles. So great a mis- lake could hardly be made by a person who had been over the ground. Nothing whatever is stated in relation to the country traversed, which was through nine degrees and a half of latitude, and, by the windings of the stream, 68 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. one thousand miles, or more, except finding the tliree rivers, Des Moines, Missouri, and Ohio, and Indian villages at three points on the river.* * The foregoing is abstracted from a narrative appended to the work pub- lished in the name of Hennepin, called " Nouvelle Decouverte d'une Pays vaste," and comprising twenty-six pages. Marquette's relation is said, by Charlevoix, to be contained in the " Recueil des Voyages of Thevenot," printed in Paris in 1687. I have not seen Thevenot, but it is probable that the relation referred to is the same as that from which the above is abridged. But all relations put forth under the name of Marquette must be considered apocryphal. Additio7ial JVote. — The relation as contained in Thevenot has just been published in Paris. It is the same referred to above. It is impossible to conceive that a person who has made a discovery so important, should pass, for the space of one thousand miles, down this noble and majestic stream, in itself one of the wonders of the world, and then new to all the world save himself and a few hunting bands of Indians, and possessing some very remarkable peculiarities; and should, in a volume expressly designed to communicate his great discovery to the world, have given such a meagre account of it ; passing the two chains of rapids without intimat- ing or apparently knowing that such were on the river ; naming none of the eight considerable rivers coming in from the west, nor those on the other side, except three of the principal streams which might be known by accounts given by the Indians. The book states but two items in rela- tion to the country— that there was a chain of very high mountains on its bank, immediately below the Wisconsin ; which is an error, there being no such chain. The only elevation here is Pike's Mountain, and that but little more than two hundred feet above the common level. The other is the distance from Missouri River to Ohio, two hundred miles, said to be twenty leagues, While everything is omitted that would naturally be told, the volume relates that they saw geese and swans without feathers, as these birds had a fashion of shedding them at this season ; and also monstrous fish, and other monsters. Beside all this, it is known that Marquette never went east of Lake Michigan after the pretended voyage, but died on the lake about two years after. And the relation under his name was not pub- lished till eight years after the voyage, and a year or more after the disco- very by Hennepin, and then came forward to fill up a desideratum in a collection of voyages published by Thevenot, which could not decently appear without a notice of this river, the discovery of which had then HISTORY. 69 Soon after the time when this expedition is stated to have happened, Mr. Robert CavaHer de la Sale was appointed by the king of France to conduct an expedition, and make dis- coveries in the north-western parts of North America. Mr. Tonti was associated with him in the enterprise. On the 7th of August, 1679, they embarked with Father Louis Henne- pin, a Franciscan missionary, and two other priests and thirty men, on board a small vessel which La Sale had built, at a short distance above the Falls of Niagara, and commenced the voyage. They proceeded up lakes Erie, St. Clair, and Huron, and passed into the lake called TUinouac by the Li- dians, Illinois by the French, and now known as Lake Michi- gan. Lake Erie was at that time known under the name of Conty ; Huron was called Orleans ; Michigan, Dauphin and Illinois ; Superior, Conde and Tracy ; and Ontario, Fron- tenac. After pursuing the voyage as far as the Bay of Puans, now called Green Bay, La Sale sent back his vessel to Nia- gara, while himself and his associates proceeded to the Southern part of the lake, where by appointment they were to aAvait the return of the vessel. The ship however foundered on the lake, and nothing was afterwards heard of vessel or crew. La Sale and his remaining associates coasted southward along the western shore of the lake as far as the mouth of a river designated by Hennepin as the river of the Miamis, now called St. Joseph's, which was the point agreed upon between them and their companions who had departed in the ship, as the place of rendezvous, and where they were to be become known. Further : the express object of La Sale's expedition was to discover the Missisippi — which could not have been if it had been already discovered, as pretended, six years before he undertook it, by his own countrymen, under the direction of his own government. 70 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. joined by some of tlieir company whom they liad left at Mackinac. Here they built a fort. They then passed up the river as far as the point where a narrow portage of about a league divides it from the Kankake or southern branch of the Illinois River, where they crossed to the stream last named. This branch of the Illinois was called by the Indians Theakeke, wolf, because the tribe of Indians called by tliat name, commonly known as the Mahingans, dwelt there. The mode of speaking it by the French was Kiakiki, and became corrupted to Kankake. From the point of land- ing on the Miami River the portage extended over a w^et champaign to the neighborhood of the source of the Thea- keke, on which, at a village inhabited by Miamis, Mascotins, and Ouiatinons, the hardy and intrepid voyagers launched their bark canoes to descend b}^ the Ilhnois and Missisippi Rivers, only heard of, but unknown liefore, through vast re- gions of unrevealed and doubtful country, whose forest and prairie might then, so far as known to them, receive for the first time the foot of man, or might resound with the yell of the lurking and blood-loving Indian. The Theakeke springs out of lands w^hich are so miry that a person can scarcely walk over them. And the country, for a great extent, upon the river, is of the same description. " That country," says the relation, " is nothing but marshes, full of alder trees and rushes, and we could have hardly found, for forty leagues to- gether, any place to plant our cabins, had it not been for the frost, which made the earth more firm and solid." The com- pany had taken their departure from the Fort at the mouth of the St. Joseph's, or River of the Miamis, on Lake Michigan, on the 3d day of Dec, 1679, and it v/as near the close of the same month when they arrived at the village of the Illinois, on the river of that name, a distance of more than one hundred leagues from the Fort. In this journey, after pass- HISTORY. 71 ing through the great raarshes already mentioned, near the sources of the Theakeke, they came to a vast plain^ on which nothing grows but grass and weeds, which at that time were dry and burnt, it being the custom of the Miamis to set them on fire every year for hunting the buffalo. From this, it appears that the annual burning of the prairies is an ancient practice of the Indians. It is supposed to be ow4ng to this custom that those lars^e tracts in the west are desti- tute of timber. The travellers embarked again at the Illinois village, and continued to fall down the river for four days longer, when, on the first day of January, 1680, they came into and passed through a lake which is described as seven leagues in length and one broad, and was called by the Indians " Pimi- teoui" (pimitewi), that is, a 'place where there is an abun- dance of fat beasts — a common way of describing a place by them ; as Missi limachinac, a great plenty of turtle. This lake is that enlar2:ement of the river now known to the western settlers and travellers as Lake Peoria. It is said in the narrative that the river never freezes below the lake. There was a village of the Illinois Indians at this lake, who endeavored to dissuade the travellers from their design of descending the Missisippi and navigating that stream ; — representing it as inhabited by very ferocious tribes of savages, filled with formidable animals, full of rocks and rapids to- wards its mouth, which falls into a hideous and bottomless gulf, and horrid whirlpool, that swallows up everything com- ing within reach of its force. The travellers remained with these Indians some time, and at the foot of the lake they built a fort, which La Sale called Crevecoeur, and to which the Indians gave the name of Chicago. Terror of the Indians, and the hardships and perils of the travel, had caused the desertion of several of his men. He had lost his ves- 72 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. sel, and the lives of otlicrs had been sacrificed with tliat acci- dent, and lie was surrounded with perils and difficulties. These circunmstances of grief and disappointment may have suggested the name which he gave to his fort.* Thus far, however, though having had perils to encounter, and having experienced some disappointments, they were not greater than might be anticipated in such an undertaking. It was now, also, mid winter, and they had to encounter the rigors of a northern climate. Yet their undertaking was not frustrated, and they had information of a better state of things before them. They learned, by conversation with other In- dians, that the dangers of which they had been told by the Illinois did not exist, but that the Missisippi was in fact navi- gable from its source, and was inhabited by well disposed Indians who would offer them the pipe of peace. La Sale therefore resolved on pursuing his enterprise, and took his measures accordingly. He directed father Henne- pin to proceed to the Missisippi with two of the company, * Fort Crevecceur was built upon an elevated site on the bank of the river, the exact location of which may be determined by the following ex- tract, which probably has relation to the same spot, from Mr. Patrick Kennedy's Journal of an expedition undertaken by himself and several coureurs de bois, in the year 1773. The journal is a circumstantial ac- count of a progress up the Illinois River. He says : — " August 7. This morning being very foggy, and the river overgrown with weeds along its sides, we could make but little way. About 12 o'clock we got to the old Pioria Fort and village, on the Western shore of the river, and at the southern end of the lake called the Illinois Lake, which is nine- teen miles and a half in length, and three miles in breadth. It has no rocks, shoals, or perceivable current. We found the stockades of this Pioria Fort destroyed by fire, but the houses standing. The summit on which the fort stood, commands a fine prospect of the country to the east- ward, and up the lake to the point where the river comes in at the north end." He gives the distance from the mouth at 210 miles, and above Lake Demi Quian 39 miles. HISTORY. 73 while himself, with three others, should return to Fort Fron- tenac, where they had first embarked, to procure some further supplies ; and that the Chevalier Tonti, Avith the rest of the men, should remain to garrison the fort at Crevecoeur. Here he remained with his little band of soldiers for many years. The companions of La Sale, in the subsequent disastrous expedition in which he lost his life, found Tonti still at the fort, in 1686, and La Hontan also, in 1689, says he was then residing there, when he returned from his expedition up the St. Peter's. Father Hennepin, accompanied by only two Frenchmen, Anthony Auguel, surnamed Picard du Gay, and Mitchel Ako, left Fort Crevecoeur on the 29th February, 1689, and on the 7th March, reached the Missisippi. Hennepin, with his com- panions, proceeded up the river as far as the falls, which were named by him St. Anthony of Padua. He observed the Des Moines River (called Otenta), and another at the west, which was probably St. Peter's, but which he does not mention by any name. This river, some years after the date of its dis- covery, by Hennepin, received the name of St. Pierre, from a trader of that name, who resided upon it. It has been sug- gested, however, that the true name of this river is " Sans Pierres," without stones : it being at the mouth entirely clear of stones. A few years after this time, the Des Moines, or Otenta, is mentioned in the maps by the name of Moingona. He found also the Black River, on the east side, above the Wisconsin, which was called by the Sauteurs (or Chippe- was), Sappah, and by the Naudowessiouns, or Sioux, Cheba- deba. And above the Chebadeba, he entered the beautiful and romantic lake which he called the Lac des Pleurs, and which has since received the name of Lake Pepin * The * Major Long says it was first called Lake Pepin in the manuscript of Le Sueur ; Charlevoix calls it Bon Secours. 5 74 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. travellers proceeded up the St. Croix River, v^^hich they called Riviere de la Tombeau, because an Indian grave was there. On the 1 2th of April they were captured by the Isauti,* or Chippewa Indians, and were unable to proceed further than the St. Francis River. They were informed by the Indians, that there was another fall, about twenty or thirty leagues above St. Anthony's, near which lived a tribe of In- dians called Tintonha, or prairie Indians. Having remained two or three months in captivit}'' they passed down the river, leaving Ako behind, and ascending the Wisconsin, passed down the Fox River to the Bay of Puans. While they were passing Lake Pepin Avith their Indian captors, a council was held to deliberate on putting to death the prisoners. Those who were in favor of this design cried all night, as is custom- ary with them when they wish to prevail on their companions to consent to the death of their captives. On this account it was named by them Lac des Pleurs, as before mentioned. Father Hennepin must undoubtedly be considered the dis- coverer of the Missisippi. The supposition that Marquette was there before him, may or may not be in accordance with the fact. No relation was given of it ; no information or ad- vantage appears to have been derived from it. When La Sale started on his expedition from Fort Frontenac, it seemed to be for the purpose of discovering a river known only to the Indians, not of merely visiting a place already known. It is also stated in the volume which passes as the second work of * The Indians of the St. Mary's were called by the French, Sauteui's (that is, Indians of the falls) of St. Mary'j. Those who dwelt by the FalLs of St. Anthony, were called also Sauteurs, and corruptly Isati (Esaute). They are the Chippewas. The Lame of Naudouessies, by which the Sioux were called, was probably Nordouest, applied to them by the missionaries and traders of Lakes Superior and Mackinac, who had been acquainted with them some years, and which the Indians converted into Nordouessi. HISTORY. 75 Hennepin that he saw Johet at Quebec, and being informed that he had been upon the Missisippi, he questioned him in relation to it ; and was answered that he had never been further than the country of the Hurons and Ottawas. These Indians inhabited, the first south, and the last north, of the Straits of Mackinac. This story of the interview with Joliet may or may not be true ; but there is nothing, leaving it out of the case, to induce even a strong belief that Marquette and Joliet had been to the great river ; and the honor of its discovery must be given to Hennepin. La Sale having made his preparations to maintain the posi- tion he had established at Lake Pimitewi, as a point d'appui for the prosecution of his discoveries, returned to that post, and in 1 682 he descended to the Missisippi, and fell down that stream to its mouth. And this is the first undoubted dis- covery of the Lower Missisippi, though the narratives before mentioned have related that both Marquette and Hennepin had gone down the river nearly to its mouth. It was in March that La Sale came to the Missisippi and prosecuted his discover}'' to its mouth.* He took possession of the country of the Arkansas Indians, and arriving at the mouth of the river on the 9th of April, took possession of the country there according to law — [Ch., v. 2, p. 276]. On the 11th he reim- barked and ascended the river. On this voyage he left colo- nies at Kaskaskia and Kakokia. The country of the lower Missisippi is not withm the scope of this work, and events relating to it will be briefly noticed only as they have connection with the discoveries or settle- ments in the upper country. La Sale, after his voyage down the river, returned to France for the purpose of making a * Charlevoix says he embarked on the Missisippi on the 2d of February, and going down the river, took possession of the country of the Arkansas on the 4th of March, 76 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. voyage thence by sea lo discover tlie mouth of the Missi- sippi ; and in 1684 he sailed with a large force destined for the Gulf of Mexico. He was unsuccessful in his design of finding the mouth of the river ; but having built and fortified two forts on the gulf, which he garrisoned with some of his men, he departed from the Bay of St. Louis, in the northwest part of the gulf, to make an overland expedition to his fort on the Illinois, and to obtain a knowledge of the country and its inhabitants. After travelling 150 leagues to the northeast, ho returned to his fort in the Bay of St. Louis on the 17th of October, 1786. Having remained here two months, he re- solved to make a second attempt to pass over to the Illinois River, and taking twenty men wath him, he departed a second time from Fort St. Louis, resolved not to return till he had found the Illinois. His second departure from the fort took place on the 7th of January, 1687. Before he had proceeded as far as on his first attempt, he was murdered with three others of his company, by some of his own men. His brother, M. Cavalier, with father Anastasius, M. Joutel, and others of the party, made their way to the Illinois, and up the river to Crevecoeur, w^here they found Mr. Tonti and his garrison, and were hospitably received, and after remaining some daj'S, proceeded on to Quebec. The next voyage in order of time is that of the Baron Lahontan. He started from Machinac on the 24th Sept., 1688, and from the Bay of Puans, called by him the Bay of the Potaw^atamies, on the 30th of the same month, with a large detachment of French and five Ottawa hunters, pro- vided Avith new canoes filled with provisions, munitions of war, and articles for traffic with the natives. Near the Bay, on the banks of the Fox River, at the time of Lahontan's voyage, were villages of Sakis, Potawatamies, and some Malominis, and the Jesuits had a house there. A great HISTORY. 77 trade was carried on in peltries and Indian corn, which the savages trafficked with the coureui's du hois. At this period, and even prior to the first enterprise of La Sale for the discovery of the Missisippi, there was a con- siderable trade with the Indians of this region. It is said in 1779, that more than two hundred loaded canoes pass through the Straits St. Marie and Machinac to Montreal. Lahontan entered this river on the 29th September, and the warriors of each of the three nations came in turn to his cabin to entertain him with the dance of the calumet and of the captain : the first in token of peace, and the second in compliment to the traveller, to signify their consideration and regard for him. He departed from this place on the 30th September, and passed up the Fox River, which he called the River of Puans. In his passage up the Fox he stopped at a village of the Kickapoos, and of the Malominies, to whom he made presents, receiving in return two or three bags of the meal of wild rice. He arrived on the 9th at a fort of the Outagamis, where he was well received, and left on the 11th. On the 13th he landed at a place where he found the Chief of the nation. He here received an ac- cession to his company of ten Outagami wamors. This fort was at half a day's journey from the head of Fox River or Puans, and embarking at noon on the 16th, he arrived on the evening of the same day at the portage of the Wiscon- sin. They were occupied two days in transporting their canoes and baggage over this portage. He describes the Fox as salt and muddy. The country upon the river seems to have been anything but agreeable to him. He speaks of the river as desolate, and says it is bordered with steep hills, marshes, and frightful rocks. On the 19th of October he embarked on the Wisconsin, and in four days he was at the Missisippi. Passing up the Missisippi he came on the 2d 78 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. November lo a river which lie called Long River. On the 3d he entered into the mouth of Long River, which he describes as forming a sort of lake full of rushes. The river, he remarks, is the stillest in the world. He ascended the stream 200 leagues, which occupied him sixty days. He lays down the course of the river from west to cast. It is not easy to conclude, by the account given of this jour- ney, upon what river Lahontan travelled this great distance upon the course he describes. The course of St. Peter's is at this day very different, being first for a large distance from its source from northwest to southeast nearly, and in the latter part of its course about south southwest, and north northeast. If he ascended St. Peter's to its source, he might easily have passed to the waters of Red River, which now at times mingle with those of the former. Mr. Nicollet supposes that Cannon River answers to the Long River of this traveller. The station of the traveller, the large num- ber of his company, the incidents w^hich he relates, and the particularity of his description, forbid the idea that his narra- tive is purely fabulous. But there is not, at this day, any stream in that region upon which he could have ascended so far. If he had gone upon the waters of the Red River he could not have failed to perceive that he was going down and not ascending the stream. The Cannon River is a short stream, upon which he could navigate scarcely one sixth of the distance named. We must suppose that since that time, a considerable change has taken place in the waters of that country. It may be, that Cannon River communicated with St. Peter's, or with other waters, and that beyond, to the west, some communication existed with the Missouri. This supposition is not unsupported. The early travellers to this part of the country received accounts from the Indians of a vast lake that existed, as they said, far to the northwest, HISTORY. 79 which they represented as larger than Superior. Charlevoix speaks of this lake, as well as other writers of that time. " The country of the Assinipoils," he says, " is in the neigh- borhood of a lake which bears their name, with which we are but little acquainted. A Frenchman, whom I saw at Montreal, assured me he had been there, but had seen it only in a transient manner, as one sees the sea in a harbor. It is the common opinion that this lake is 600 leagues in circum- ference ; that its banks are delightful ; that the climate is very temperate, though it lies to the northwest of Lake Supe- rior, and it contains so great a number of islands, that it is called in that country the Lake of Islands. Some Indians call it Mitchinipi (Great Water) ; and it seems, in effect, to be the reservoir or source of the greatest rivers and all the gi'eat lakes of North America. All the following rivers are said to have their rise from it : the Bourbon, which runs into Hudson's Bay (Red River) ; the St. Lawrence, which car- ries its waters to the ocean ; the Missisippi, which falls into the Gulf of Mexico ; the Missouri, which mixes with the last ; and a fifth, which they say runs westward, and conse- quently discharges its waters into the South Sea. I do not, however, warrant all these facts, which are supported only by the accounts of travellers ; and, much less, what the Indians have related, that in the neighborhood of the lake are men resembling the Europeans, who are settled in a country where gold and silver are so common that they are employed in the meanest uses." The face of the country, and the peculiar physical charac- teristic which it at present has, being diversified with a clus- ter of numerous lakes, which, with the addition of a body of water not very great, would make a Lake of Islands as extensive as that named, favor the story. A branch of Red River, rising in the country of the supposed lake, now bears 80 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. llie name of Assinaboin, and a tributary of the last, called Mouse River, rises within a mile of the Missouri. Long says, " although many have supposed that the waters of the Missisippi are separated from those running northwestwardly into the Pacific, and northeastwardly into the Atlantic, by a mountainous range of country ; yet, from the best information that can be had on the subject, the fact is quite otherwise. The old and almost forgotten statement, of savage origin, that four of the largest rivers of the conti- nent have their sources in the same plain, is entitled to far more credit. The rivers alluded to, are the Missisippi, St. Lawrence, Suskatckawan, and Oregon.* Agreeably to the accounts of Col. Dixon, and others, wdio have traversed the country situated between the Missouri and Assiniboin, a branch of the Red River of Hudson's Bay, no elevated ridge is to be met with ; but, on the contrary, tributaries to both these streams take their rise in the same champaign. The w^atcr courses are represented as chains of lakes of various magnitudes, while lakes and stagnant pools are scat- tered in every direction, without ridges or perceptible declivi- ties, to show the direction in which they are drained." — V. ii., p. 380. The tract included between the Missisippi, Crow Wing, Red River, and the ridge spreading over the. sources of the Missisippi, forming nearly a parallelogram of 100 by 150 miles, lying northeast and southwest, is mostly, at this day, a collection of lakes and water. There is very clear evi- dence, from geological indications, that the whole Upper Missisippi was, at one time, submerged ; and it is highly pro- bable that, in the gradual subsidence of the waters, which * Colonel Long is probably mistaken in naming the Oregon as one of the four alluded to. Charlevoix is probably more correct in naming the rivers. HISTORY. 81 may not have taken place in 1 690 or 1 700 to the extent it has now attained, a great lake may have covered all that area, — or, at least, that the physical geography of the country at that time may have presented some difference in the quan- tity and disposition of its hydrographical outline. In the pre- sent century, the Missouri has so changed its course that Nicollet was unable to find some of the bends described by Lewis and Clarke, thirty years before. The supposition of Nicollet, that he passed through Can- non River, is not improbable. The sources of Cannon River are within four or five miles of an eastern branch of Blue Earth River, and the intervening ground is a perfect level. The communication may, at the time of the voyage, have been complete, or been made so by a freshet, and he would thus have passed through the Blue Earth into St. Peter's. It is not improbable that the St. Peter's itself once pursued this course, more in unison with the course of the river higher up, and disembogued where the mouth of Can- non River now is. At this day the St. Peter's, at the mouth of the Blue Earth, makes a bend at right angles with its former course, as stated above. It is well known that at high stages of water, boats may now pass into Rock River through the Marais D'Osiers, thirty miles above the mouth of Rock River. Lahontan's descriptions are too particular, and his narra- tive too circumstantial and too probable, to one acquainted with the northwest, to be discredited, merely on account of a supposed impossibility of performing the voyage, because of the physical unfitness of the country at this day. His work was, it is true, decried in its time by the Jesuits, but this was for the reason that he had spoken lightly of them ; and, because, from ignorance of the country and the people, state- ments which are now known to be correct, would then have 6* 82 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. been deemed improbable, and received with distrust. After navigating the St. Peter's, Lahontan went down the Missi- sippi, taking notice of the Des Moines River, which he called Otenta ; the same name by which Hennepin had designated a river falling into the Missisippi from the west ; visited a village of Otenta people, probably Illinois, and passed down to the Missouri, up which he sailed some dis- tance, meeting some Arkansas and a band of unknown In- dians, and proceeded down as far as the mouth of the Ohio, called by him, Ouabach (Wabash) ; and then, ascending the Missisippi, passed up through the Illinois, on which, at Fort CreveccEur, he met with Sieur Tonti, who, it appears, was yet remaining vs^here he had been left nine years before by La Sale. Lahontan was probably the first European who had as- cended the Missouri, as well as the St. Peter's, and must be considered the discoverer of both these noble rivers. The river now called Des Moines, was laid down in the map accompanying Lahontan, and mentioned by him, and also by Hennepin, under the name of Otenta. In Charle- voix, and in the Histoire Generale des Voyages, published in 1757, it is called Moingona. A person who has seen this country, knows 'that it has undergone great changes at more than one epoch. It bears evidence that at one time the whole surface of the Missisippi valley has been submerged ; and we make a short digression in this place, to state more fully our opinion on this matter. There is no doubt that, at some remote period, by the con- vulsion of an earthquake, the land of this valley has been upheaved, and has thrown off the water that covered it, which may have extended from the Gulf of Mexico to Hudson's Bay, separating our hemisphere into two conti- nents. Such was my own decided opinion, frequently HISTORY. 83 expressed, at the first sight of this region ; and I have found since that others have had the same opinion. There has been a second change subsequently, in which the streams that drained off the waters of this country have been confined within narrowed beds. Upon all the streams of this coun- try, the banks at present confining their waters are low bottom lands, the alluvion of the streams, generally from six to twelve or fifteen feet in the principal rivers above the common stage of water. Behind these are bluffs forming a wider bed, in w^hich it is probable the stream once flowed. My conjecture is, that at some upheaving of the earth by an earthquake, since the epoch of the denudation, another part of the lakes and waters, that had been left after the first, has been thrown off, and thus the streams, which convey off these waters, have been diminished and their beds narrowed. In 1663 Canada was visited by a very violent earthquake, which probably extended to this, country. It is known to have extended west to the region of Lake Michigan. To Europeans the Missisippi country .was then unknown. My conjecture is, that this earthquake not only was felt at that period on the Missisippi, but that it may have been repeated also, or rather continued, and that, by a gradual upheaving, the consequence of these earthquakes, a change may have been effected in the hydrographic condition of this country since it was seen by Lahontan, and that rivers may have extended then farther than their channels now run, and some of the ground then forming their beds has become dry. Though there is no authority for stating that this earth- quake actually rent the earth of the Missisippi valley, yet, as it is known to have been felt in a neighboring region, and probably was here also, the relation is here given as con- nected in its effects, though not in time, with this portion of our story. The story is, in the main, true, though the 84 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST, lights in the air and the lowing of the sea-cows may have been painted by the alarmed imagination of the witnesses. In 1663 Canada was visited with a great earthquake, which extended nine hundred miles east and west, and perhaps fur- ther. The following account is given by Charlevoix : — " Trees were thrown into the air with as much force as if a mine had been exploded under their roots, and some were found fixed in the earth by their tops. A person could not feel more secure upon the water than upon the land. The ice which covered the River St. Lawrence and the streams, was broken and thrown together ; large blocks of ice were thrown into the air, and the places which they had left threw up a large quantity of sand and mud. Many fountanis and small streams were dried up ; in others, the waters were impregnated with sulphur ; and there were some whose beds even, in which they had flowed, could not be distinguished. " Here the waters became red, there they turned yellow ; those of the river were all white, from Quebec to Tadoussac, a space of thirty leagues. The air had, also, its phenomena. A constant thundering was heard in it ; they saw, or ima- gined they saw, in it spectres of fire, bearing torches in their hands. Flames appeared in it which took all sorts of figures — some of pikes, some of lances ; and burning brands fell on the roofs without setting them on fire. From time to time meanings increased the terror. Sea-cows were heard lowing on the Three Rivers, where never before these fish had appeared ; and their lowings had nothing like that of any creature known. In a word, in the whole extent of three hun- dred leagues from east to west, and more than one hundred and fifty from south to north, the land, the rivers, and the shores of the sea, were, for a long time, by intervals, in such an agitation as the Prophet King represents when he relates the wonders which accompanied the departure from Egypt of the people of God. The effects of this earthquake were HISTORY. 85 infinitely varied ; and never, perhaps, was there more cause to think that nature w^as to be destroyed, and the world coming to an end. " The first shock lasted half an hour, without cessation ; but, at the end of a quarter of an hour, it began to be less violent. The same day, at eight o'clock in the evening, there was a second shock, as violent as the first ; and, in the space of a half-hour, there were two others. Some persons counted thirty-two in the following night, some of which were very strong. * * * * '^ Half way from Tadoussac to Quebec two mountains were levelled, and of the earth which was thrown down by them, a point was formed, which was advanced a half-quarter of a league into the river." These several voyages of Hennepin, La Sale, and La- hontan, had made the world acquainted with the noble Missi- sippi from St. Ajithony's to the Gulf, and with the St. Peter's, and Missouri, and Wisconsin, and Illinois, and with a vast extent of territory, containing the richest soil upon the earth, and some of the richest deposits of metals within it. The dominion of the French in America had been extend- ed by the discovery and acquisition of all that territory lying west of the Lake Michigan to the River Missisippi, and of the much greater and more magnificent region comprehended under the name of Louisiana : embracing all that country which it is within the scope of this work to describe. La- hontan, it should be named, took formal possession of the country of St. Peter's, by setting up landmarks of his travel ; and Louisiana included the Missouri River, of which it does not appear that the French gained any jurisdiction by his visit beyond what might be claimed by the right of discovery merely. The earliest visitors to Lake Superior had become ac». 86 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. quainted with its rich deposits of copper ore. More than one of the pubHshed descriptions mention it, and it is stated by Charlevoix tliat such was the purity of the ore that one of the monks who was there, and w^ho had been bred to the business of a goldsmith, made from it some sacramental articles " The savages," says Charlevoix, " on account of tlie quan- tity of fish furnished by Lake Superior, and of the respect inspired by its vast extent, have made it a sort of divinity, and offer to it sacrifices in their manner." He thinks, never- theless, it is rather to the genius of the lake than to the lake itself that they address their prayers. " If one may believe them," says he, " the origin of the lake has something divine in it. It w^as formed, they imagine, by Michabou, the god of waters, in order to supply them with beaver. In the strait by which it is discharged into Huron, there is a rapid, caus- ed," he says, "by great rocks, called Sault St. Marie. These rocks, according to the Indians, are the remains of a cause- way which God had built to hold the waters of the river and those of Lake Alimepegon, which filled this great lake." *' In places on its borders, and about some of its islands," says the waiter above-named, "we found large pieces of copper, which are yet the object of the superstitious adoration of the savages. They regard them with veneration as a present from the gods who inhabit the waters. They collect the smallest fragments of it, and preserve them with care, but make no use of them. They say that formerly they have seen a large rock, all of the same mineral, raised much above the water ; and, as it is not now to be seen, they say that the gods have removed it somewhere else. But there is reason to suppose that in the lapse of time the waves of the lake have covered it with sand and ooze : and it is certain that we discovered in many places a large quantity of this metal •without even being obliged to dig much. On my first voyage HISTORY. 87 to this country I knew a brother of our order who was a gold- smith by trade, who, while on his mission at Sault Ste. Marie, had gone in search of it, and had made chandeliers, crosses, and censors of it ; for the copper is often almost wholly pure." The savages supposed that when Michebou formed Lake Superior, he dwelt at Missi-Mackinac,* where he was bom. This name is properly that of a small island, nearly round and very high, situated at the extremity of Lake Huron, and it has become extended by custom to all the country about. The island may be three or four miles in circuit, and may be seen at twelve miles distance. There are two other islands at the south, the most distant of which is five or six leagues long, the other is very small, and perfectly round. Both are well wooded, and the soil is very good, while that of Missi- mackinac is but a sterile rock, and scantily covered with a little moss and grass. It is, however, one of the most cele- brated spots in Canada ; and it was a long time, according to some old Lidian traditions, the head-quarters of a nation which bears the same name, and which counted, they say, thirty bands, scattered over the neighboring country. It is said that the Iroquois destroyed them, but it is not said at what time, or on what occasion. It is certain that no vestige of them remains : but I have read somewhere that our early missionaries have seen some remnants of them. This is the account given by Charlevoix, and he adds that the name signifies much turtle. * This name means much turtle, and the first part is the same as the first part of Missi-sippi, i.e., much water, or great river. The French travellers called it Michasippi, and Michilimackinac. Perhaps also the w^ord Michebou is corrupted in the same way. Miche is probably Missi, great, and the whole word, Great Spirit. The name of the Great Lake also before spoken of is given Michinippi. It should be Missi — the same word again 88 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. Mr. D. Iberville, who had the commission of the French king for that purpose, found the mouth of the Missisippi in March, 1700, and ascended the stream some distance. He deputed his father, Mr. Le Sueur, with twenty men, to make an establishment in the country of the Sioux, and to take possession of a mine of copper on the Green River (now called Blue Earth), which puts into St. Peter's on the left, at 40 leagues above the mouth. Le Sueur could not ascend the Green River on account of the ice, though it was in September, and was obliged to build a fort, and w^inter there. As soon as the season would permit, in April, he visited the mine, and in twenty-two days drew from it more than thirty thousand pounds weight of the mineral. He selected four thousand of that which appeared best, and carried it with him to France. — {Chad., v. 4, p. 165, et seq.) Mr. Nicollet, who explored that countiy in 1 838, could not find the place referred to, though its situation is very exactly pointed out hy Charlevoix. In 1710, the king granted to Mr. Crozat the exclusive privilege of trading in Louisiana for sixteen years, and the property in himself and his heirs for ever, of the mines, ores and minerals, that might be discovered and worked. In 1717, Crozat surrendered the grant to the king, and he trans- ferred it to the western company, w^hich at this time was formed by Mr. Law. Under the auspices of this company, a German colony w^as settled a few miles above New Or- leans. The company held it until 1731, when it was retro- ceded to the king. The grant included the country of the Illinois, which was rather indefinite, but probably was intend- ed to include all the country in the Missisippi Valley that had been visited by the French, which would extend north to the territory of the English settlements in Hudson's Bay, and west as far as the country was then known. HISTORY. 89 This country, whose discovery and occupation has been chronicled in the foregoing very concise epitome, comprises about three-fourths of a milUon of square miles in extent, mostly of a soil that has not its equal on the earth, and covers nearly in latitude the whole of the northern temperate zone. Its features are peculiar. Most conveniently and beautifully distributed in grove and prairie, the settler finds the labor of subduing it but the sport of a season ; fertile as the chemistry of nature can produce, the husbandman almost forgets he is subject to the law laid upon his first parent, and is Scarcely conscious that in the sweat of his brow he earns his bread. It is not more beautiful to the sense, than grate- ful to the toil, of man. In the enterprises, humble in means and m the mode ot prosecuting them, silent, imapplauded, hazardous and toil- some, great m their resuUs, a few brave and polite French- men, accompanied by two or three pious, peaceful and zealous disciples of the cross, surmounted with comparative ease and impunity, obstacles which, to explorers of different matenal, would have presented pictures of blood and death. The acquisition of tliis invaluable country was made by them almost without disaster, which, if attempted by others, would probably have made our peaceful story a series of most moving tragedies. The Frenchman forgets not that the uncivilized, as well as civiUzed man, is his brother, and he deports himself as man to man. The sturdy Saxon treats the Indian like a dog. The Frenchman adapts himself to all situations, and to all people. The American thinks every- thing is to be accommodated to him. But the churchmen were also greatly useful in inspiring the savages with peace- ful emotions, by their religious emblems, services, devotions and instructions. By these means, and by such deportment, aided by a few presents judiciously bestowed, and with such 90 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. influence superadded, as the possession of their formidable fire arms, mostly unknown to the natives, gave them, they were enabled to conciliate the untamed children of the forest and prairie, and to avoid many encounters Avhich a more rude and inconsiderate treatment of the savages would doubtless have provoked. In 1720, a colony of Germans made a settlement on the banks of the river, a few miles above New Orleans. They were quite numerous, amounting to 1500. In 1723, some Capuchin, and, in two years after, some Jesuit missionaries, settled in the country. For nearly a century following this time, the country w^as peopled with very few inhabitants, and the events that occurred were few ; and saving the trea- ties by which the political relations of the country were changed, and the dominion successively transferred from France to Spain and England, and afterwards to the United States, are of little interest. In this period, however, that is, in fifty years succeeding the building of Fort Crevecoeur, and the first establishment of the French in that quarter, several settlements were made on the American bottom, a few miles below the mouth of the Illinois. These were at Kaskaskia, Kahokia, and Prairie du Rocher, a few miles north of the others. A settlement was also made at Vincen- nes, on the Wabash, originally called St. Vincent's ; and several points on the Missisippi were visited by them, as the river Des Moines, Prairie du Chien, Prairie Pomme de Terre, Marais d'Osier (Willow Swamp), now corrupted into Meredosia Swamp, and other places. In 1729 there was a conspiracy of the Natches Indians against the French residing at Fort Natches, which, by the incredulity, blindness and obstinacy of the commander, Che- par, who had full notice of the conspiracy, which his rapacity and misrule had caused, resulted in the massacre of 2000 HISTORY. 91 settlers, with circumstances of the most revolting barbarity, and the captivity of a great number more. In 1752 one of those hostile irruptions, so common among the savages of this continent, took place between the Outagamis and Mitchi- gamis, which is thus related by Bossu, a French traveller, who was in the country at the time : — "In 1752, the Kahokias met six Outagamis hunting. They took them prisoners, and burned them. One of the Outagamis escaped, however, from the stake, and having returned to his nation, related to them what had been done to his companions. The chief of the nation called an assem- bly, in which it was resolved to send bundles of rods to mark the number of warriors and the day of departure to their allies, the Sioux, Sakis and Kikapoos, who went with the Outagamis to the number of 1000, to revenge the death of their brothers who had been burned by the Kahokias. They embarked in 180 canoes on the river Wisconsin, and de- scending that stream and the Missisippi, landed near a vil- lage of the Michigamis or Missigamis, below the Fort of Kahokia, with which tribe it appears the Kahokias, who had burned their countrymen, were domesticated. The com- mander of the allied invaders ordered ten or twelve of the best runners to throw themselves into the village, which was immediately done. They fell upon the enemy's village, and killed all they met, sounding the death dry, and having dis- charged their arms fled with great speed. The Missigamis pursued. The Outagamis and their allies lying concealed in the tall grass, discharged their arrows at the approaching foe, by which twenty-eight were killed, and immediately fell upon the village, and killed men, women, and children, set fire to the village, and led away captives those who were not slaugh- tered. This battle took place on the 6th of June, 1752. The Outagamis lost four men : the Missigamis, in killed and 92 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. prisoners, about eighty. The alUes, content with their re- venge, re-embarked with their prisoners, and returned to their own country. — Bossii, i., p. 129, et seq. In 1762, France, by a secret treaty, ceded Louisiana to Spain, to prevent it from falUng into the hands of the Eng- hsh, with Canada, which it now became manifest must become the property of the latter nation by conquest, and which was actually given up to the English in the following year (1763), by the treaty of Paris. Twenty years after- ward, by the treaty of peace between England and the United States, that part of Canada lying south and west of the great lakes, and. comprehending a large territory which is the sub- ject of these sketches, was acknowledged to be a portion of the United States ; and twenty years still later (in 1S03), Louisiana was ceded by Spain back to France, and by France sold to the United States. Lr 1763, Mr. Laclede, who, in the preceding year, had received a charter to trade with the Indians, from the French governor at New Orleans, ascended the river, leaving New Orleans in August, and, on the third of November, arrived at St. Genevieve ; and, in the following spring, v/ith thirty others, on account of insufficient accommodation at St. Gene- vieve, passed over the river to Fort Chartres, a post esta- blished by the French in 1732. In the half century from the building of the fort of Creve- ccEur, 1680, up to the period of that of Fort Chartres, many French settlements had been made in that quarter. The principal were St. Vincent's, on the Wabash, and Kaskaskia, Kahokia, and Prairie du Rocher, on the American Bottom, a large tract of river alluvion in Illinois, on the Missisippi, opposite to St. Louis. But here, being informed that all the IlUnois had been given up to Great Britain, they crossed the river, and established themselves at St. Louis, on the right HISTORY. 93 bank. Many of the French m the settlement just named followed them, others went to New Orleans, and those places became nearly abandoned. — Nic, pp. 75, 77. Some of these people, however, especially those from Fort Chartres and Prairie du Rocher, who went to New Orleans, finding Louisiana transferred to Spain, returned to Illinois. — 16., 79. One of the most remarkable occurrences belonging to the history of the Upper Missisippi happened at this period, in consequence of the change of dominion over the Illinois country. The Indians, having become attached to the French, refused to acknowledge the sway of the power to whom the latter had surrendered the country. This event is thus related by Nicollet : — " In the meanwhile, the second year after the treaty of peace had elapsed, and the British had not yet been able to take possession of Ilhnois. This was owing to the opposi- tion made by several Indian tribes, who, as alluded to above, had refused to abide by the treaty, and were waging a most cruel war against the British. These tribes had formed a confederacy, under the command of Pontiac, a bold warrior, who had already become celebrated for his prowess, and his devoted attachment to France during the whole of the war which the latter had carried on against Great Britain in America. The confederated Indian army was composed of Hurons, Miamis, Chippeways, Ottawas, Pottawatomie s, Missourias, &c. The name of Pontiac was the terror of the whole region of the lakes ; and, by his bands, he effectually interrupted the British intercourse with the rest of the nations that had remained friendly to that government. The taking of Fort Michilimackinac, the attempt at Detroit, and the attack upon the schooner Gladwin, on Lake Michigan, are 94 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. memorable events, evincing a spirit of cunning and daring highly characteristic of the genius of the red man. " In the winter of 1764-65, Pontiac, whilst engaged in his acts of depredation, learned that an armed British force was about to start from New Orleans, to take possession ol the left bank of the Missisippi. He immediately proceeded to the neighborhood of Fort Chartres, accompanied by four hundred warriors, to oppose this occupation of the country ; and, finding there some Illinois Indians who had placed themselves under the protection of the French garrison, he proposed to them to join him. But these people, disheartened by recent calamities, and, as it were, foredoomed to a fijial extinction, w^ere unwilling to assume a hostile attitude towards their new rulers, from whom interest, if not gene- rosity, would lead them to expect the same protection which they w^ere then receiving. To this refusal, Pontiac replied with characteristic energy : ' Hesitate not, or I will destroy you with the same rapidity that fire destroys the grass of the prairie. Listen, and recollect that these are Pontiac's words.' Having then despatched scouts upon the Missisippi and the Ohio, he hastened w^th some of his warriors to Fort Char- tres."— Mc, p. 80. He here had an interview with the French commander, professed his friendship for the French, and offered his ser- vices in resisting the English in attempting to take possession of the country. His offers were rejected, of course ; and, after a short time, he returned to the north, made peace with the British, and received a pension from them. — Ih., p. 81. Pontiac afterward resided at St. Louis ; and, on a visit to the Kaskaskia Indians, was make drunk, and, while in that state, was murdered by a Kaskaskia Indian, hired, it is said, by an Englishman, named Williamson. This murder roused the vengeance of his friends, and brought on wars whicli HISTORY. 95 resulted in the almost total extinction of the Illinois nations, —Nic, 81, 82. Pontiac was a remarkably good-looking man ; nice in his person, and distinguished by taste in his dress. His complexion was very light, approaching that of the whites. His origin is uncertain. Some suppose him to have been an Ottawa, others a Miami ; but, on the best authority, he is stated to have been a Nipissing. — Ih., p. 82. The rapid extermination of the Illinois nations of Indians affords a vivid illustration of the warlike tastes, the litigious disposition, and of the habits of the northern Indians, as well as a sad moral lesson on the decay and extinction of races and nations. At the time when La Sale undertook his great project of the discovery of the Missisippi, in 1679, the Illinois were a populous and powerful nation. They had, at that time, suf- fered greatly in the recent and long-continued w^arfare with their eastern neighbors, the Iroquois, which had not yet terminated. The accounts given at that time represented that one village on the Illinois river contained, conjecturally, ten thousand. Charlevoix mentions only four bands : the Tamaroas, at the mouth of the Missouri ; the Moingonas, at the Des Moins River, as now called ; the Kaskaskias and Kaokias, upon and south of the Illinois river. The Michi- gamis and Peorias were, no doubt (certainly the first), of this nation ; but whether distinct tribes, or divisions of one or more of the other tribes, may be doubtful. The desolating war of the Iroquois gave a severe shock to the Illinois, from which they never recovered. About seventy years after this period, the combined forces of the Sauks, Foxes, Sioux, and Kickapoos, in 1752, made a descent by the river, as already related, upon a village of the Missigamis, and killed a large number ; and, a few years afterward, the murder of Pontiac, a renowned 96 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. chief of one of the northern tribes, Avho appear generally to have acted in concert, by a Kaskaskia, aroused a vengeance of those allies, which was imappeased till scarcely the vestige of this great nation remained. Thus, about a century of savage war exterminated one of the most numerous nations on that part of .the continent. At this day, the Kaskaskias and Peorias number, conjointly, about one hundred and fifty persons, which is all that is now to be found of the Illinois nation. It is true that the tribes are not always extinct when the name is lost, and it is quite probable that many hundreds might have escaped the general destruction, who became adopted by their vanquishers, or united w^ith other tribes. These associations are customary among all the Indians ; and instances are very common both of a union with other friendly bands, and of adoption of prisoners of war. On the right bank of the river, at the period of the found- ing of St. Louis, there were no Indians at that place nor in the whole extent of country south of what is now the south- ern line of the State. Thus, at the conclusion of the wars following the death of Pontiac, except a portion of the Peoria tribe, who had survived those wars, and who were finally ex- tirpated by the Sacs and Foxes in the beginning of the present century, the southern portions of the country now forming Ilhnois and Missouri, or that below the Illinois and Missouri Rivers, was uninhabited, except by the few French and those who lield the military posts for the English Government. Carondelet, sometimes called familiarly Vide poches, was settled in 1767. In 1769, Blanchette, the hunter, built his cabin on the bank of the Missouri, the first building of the village now called St. Charles. At the same period Floris- sant and Portage des Sioux were first inhabited. In 1780,* a party of British and Indians made an attack * Nicollet, p. 84. HISTORY. 97 upon St. Louis, and attempted to take possession of it, in consequence of the friendly disposition of Spain to the re- volted colonies. There were but 150 males in the place, while their invaders numbered, according to the various state- ments, from 900 to 1,500. The inhabitants of both sexes, the women taking a part in the battle, made such a vigorous resistance that the assailants were compelled to retire, after revenging themselves by the death of sixty and the captivity of thirteen of the inhabitants, who were outside of the pali- sades. In 1785, called the year of the great flood, the Missisippi rose fifteen or twenty feet higher at St. Louis than ever before known, and at some narrow points on the river, thirty feet. The villages of St. Genevieve, Fort Chartres, Kaskaskia, St. Philippe, and Kahoka were totally submerged. St. Gene- vieve was at that time situated on a bottom prairie, that has since been entirely washed away. The winter of 1799 was distinguished for its extreme cold : as had been also the year 1768. In 1778 a body of Virginia militia, under command of Gen. George Rogers Clarke, made an incursion into the Illinois country, then in possession of the British, and captured Fort Chartres, Kaskaskia, and other neighboring posts on the Missi- sippi ; and St. Vincent's on the Wabash, now known as Vin- cennes. In the same year the country was organized as a county, by the Legislature of Virginia, called Illinois County. It was subsequently ceded by Virginia to the United States, and in 1787 made a part of the Territory Northwest of the Ohio River. In 1800, on the establishment of a separate territorial government in Indiana, it was included in that gov- ernment, having, at that period, about 3,000 inhabitants. In 1803 the United States, by treaty dated April 30th, ac- quired of France the whole of the vast and beautiful country 6 98 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. known as Louisiana, with the same extent that it formerly had in the hands of France, and that, at the date of the treaty, it had in the hands of Spain. By act of Congress, of 31st October in the same year, the President of the United States was empowered to take pos- session of the country ceded, and provision was made for the temporary government thereof. By act of March 26th, 1804, the country was divided into two territories. The southern was called Orleans, and em- braced the country east of the Missisippi River and south of the Tenitory of Missisippi, and west to the western limit of the purchase. The northern portion, being all the remainder of the country that was purchased by the treaty, was annexed to Indiana as a district by the name of Louisiana. Indiana had been erected into a Territorial Government by act of May 7th, 1 800, to take effect on the 4th July following : with all the rights and privileges which, by the ordinance of 1787, for the government of the Territory Northwest of the Ohio, had been secured to the settlers of the northwest. The act of 1804, which annexed Louisiana to Indiana, extended these rights and privileges to that district. The executive power, which was vested in the Governor of Indiana, was extended to the district. The Governor and judges of Indiana were empowered " to establish in the said District of Louisiana inferior courts, and prescribe their jurisdiction and duties ; and to make all laws which they may deem conducive to the good government of the inhabitants thereof:" provided, that no law shall be valid which is inconsistent with the consti- tution and laws of the United States, or which shall lay any person under restraint or disability on account of his religious opinions, profession, or worship, in all of which he shall be free to maintain his own, and not be burdened for those of another." (Sec. 12.) And it was provided, by sec. 13, that HISTORY. 99 " the laws in force in the said District of Louisiana at the commencement of this act, and not inconsistent with any of the provisions thereof, shall continue in force until altered, modified, or repealed by the Governor and judges of the In- diana territory as aforesaid." The laws in force at the date of the act were those in force at the time of the cession, and prior thereto, under the governments of France and Spain. This was the body of law known as the civil law, — and the District of Louisiana thus presented the anomaly in law of the common law engrafted upon the civil. These laws, it is believed, have not been repealed ; but, by the oversight, pro- bably of the judges and advocates in the courts, no notice has been taken of them, and they have fallen into oblivion, and at tliis day would perhaps be considered as obsolete. The whole of Upper Louisiana now stands in this singular condition of a country, in which those laws that were not only her birthright, but were expressly saved to her by statute when the common law was added to her code, have become obsolete and lost by the prevalence of the common law, under the administration of judges and practice of courts that were unacquainted with the civil law, and through inadvertence did not consider the force of the statute by which the older was retained. In 1809 a separate government w^as established over the Territory, now State, of Illinois, consisting of a governor and judges, who jointly exercised the legislative functions. At that time it contained about 12,000 inhabitants. In 1812, it was allowed a legislature and a delegate in Congress. In 1818 the State Constitution was adopted, and Illinois was admitted into the Union. At the period of the hostilities between this country and Great Britain, which began in the year 1812, our government had estabUshed a military post, and erected a fort, at Chica- 100 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. go. This was feebly garrisoned for a short time in the sum- mer of that year. On the 15th of August, 1812, Capt, Heald, in command of this post, having received orders to that effect, prepared to evacuate the fort and to proceed to Detroit by land. Having destroyed that portion of the arms and ammunition that would not be necessary to his march, and could not be conveniently transported, he commenced his march with fifty-four regulars and twelve militia, and accompanied by an escort from Fort Wayne, and a few friendly Miamis. The women and children accompanied the expedition. The party had proceeded only a little over a mile, when they were attacked by a body of hostile Indians. The friendly Indians stood aloof, and Capt. Heald, after a short skirmish, in which all the militia and twenty-six regu- lars were killed, surrendered on a promise of protection by one of the chiefs. The Indian force amounted to 500, their loss in the battle was fifteen. At the outbreak of hostilities, the Sac and Fox Indians resided at the country about the mouth of Rock River. They were induced to join the English, and operate with them and their other red allies against the United States. They were present at one or two skirmishes in the neighbor- hood of the lake, and it is believed that they composed the force, or a part of it, of the attacking party at Chicago. I think this is asserted in a narration of the wars of that tribe, published some years since. But being disgusted, it is said, with the barbarous atrocities of the allied English and red men, they, in a very short time, abandoned the cause, and returned to their country, where they remained quiet during the war. In 1815, the several tribes of Indians inhabiting the north- west, who had been drawn into hostilities with the United States, by the wiles and gratuities of Great Britain, made HISTORY. 101 treaties of peace and friendship. The. Potawatamis of the river Illinois, the Kickapoos, the lowas, the Tetons, the Sioux of the lakes, the Sioux of the river St. Peter's, the Piankeshaws, the Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatamis, with bands of the Wyandot, Delaware, Seneca, Shawnee and Miami tribes, all of which eight tribes and bands united in one treaty ; the Yanktons, the Sacs of the Missouri, the Foxes, the Osages, the Kanzas, the Mahas, each came into treaties of amity. The Sacs, of Rock River, were invited by the Commissioners on the part of the United States to enter into treaty at the same time : they declined it at this time, but in the succeeding year, in 1816, they signed arti- cles of a treaty of peace and friendship ; and in the same year three other tribes of the Sioux, who are designated as the Sioux of the Leaf, the Sioux of the Broad Leaf, and the Sioux who shoot in the pine tops, also the Winnebagoes of Wisconsin River, and in 1817, the Menominis, Ottos, and Poncaras or Puncas. In 1819, similar treaties were made with the Pani Mahas, the Pitavirate or Noisy Panis, the Pani Republic, and the Grand Panis. In 1816, the united tribes of Ottawas, Chippewas and Potawatamis, residing on the Illinois and Milwaki Rivers, and the southwestern parts of Lake Michigan, relinquished their right to the lands ceded by the Sacs and Foxes in 1804, lying south of a due west line from the southern extremity of Lake Michigan to the Missisippi, and also ceded a tract beginning on the left bank of the Fox River of Illinois, ten miles above the mouth of said Fox River, and extending to Lake Michigan, lying on both sides of the Des Plaines about equally, and in its whole width twenty miles. In 1818 Illinois was admitted into the Union as a State, and Missouri in 1821. After the organization of the state government in Illinois, 102 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. the population increased rapidly, and pressed upon the Indian territories and settlements. Jealousies arose, aggres- sions took place, irritations were created, on both sides. In 1827, the Indians attacked two keel-boats which were trans- porting military stores to Fort Snelling, and killed two of their men, and wounded others. General Atkinson, thereupon, marched into the Winnebago country, and brought in Red Bird, a chief, and six others, who were held in confinement for trial. Red Bird died in prison. The others were tried, and a part of them convicted, and executed in December, 1828. Black Hawk, a Sac chief, whose Indian name was Muckatai-mishakiahkiah, was one of those imprisoned, but he was acquitted for want of proof. It is said that he after- ward confessed his participation. His long imprisonment increased his former irritation. It had inflicted a rankling wound, which the blood of the Americans alone could cure. In 1830, a treaty was made by the Sacs and Foxes, and other tribes, with the American government, in which they ceded all their lands east of the Missisippi. Black Hawk dissented, refused to leave the ceded country, and was supported by a party of the Sacs. Having received personal abuse and insult, it is said, from the whites, instigated by his opposition to the treaty, and a desire to retain his old home ; irritated by personal indignities, and being promised the aid of the Chip- pewas, Ottawas, Potawatamis, and Winnebagoes, and in- formed, also, that the British were ready to help him, he commenced hostilities. Previously, however, it is said, he proposed a compromise with Keokuk, the head of the treaty party, and offered to give up the mineral region on the pro- mise of Keokuk that he would endeavor to have the Rock River peninsula, where they had long resided and cultivated, and where they had buried their fathers, restored to them. In expectation that this arrangement would be made, they HISTORY. 103 went on their winter hunt in 1830 ; and on their return, in the spring of 1831, found their village and country in posses- sion of the whites. On the appearance of the United States troops. Black Hawk and party, who had previously refused to leave their lands, fled across the river. In 1832, they re-crossed, when a brigade of one thousand mounted volun- teers was organized, armed, and equipped, and immediately marched to Rock Island, where they found General Atkinson, with four hundred regulars and a small body of militia. General Whitesides, the commander of the volunteer corps, marched up Rock River, and burned the prophet's town, a village of the Indians ; and this must be considered the com- mencement of formal hostilities. Upon Rock River they found another small band of volunteers, under Major Still- man. This last band, having undertaken a scouting expedi- tion to the distance of thirty miles north of Dixon's Ferry, unexpectedly met a party of Black Hawk's men in ambush, and immiediately took to a precipitate and disorderly flight. Their commander ordered them to retreat to the high ground and make a stand ; but so terror-stricken were they, that they forgot the latter part of their order till they had reached their head-quarters at the river. This rout still furnishes the sub- ject of many a quip and piece of merriment at the expense of those who were engaged. It is supposed the Indian force was about seventy. This was on the 14th of May. On the 24th of June, a party of the militia, said to be about one hundred and fifty, on their march to Galena, were met by a superior number of Indians, about two hundred, and, after a severe contest, retired into their blockhouse. On the 21st of July, a general engagement took place, near the Wiscon- sin, between General Henry's brigade of militia and the whole Sac force. Black Hawk was driven from the field, leaving sixty-two of his men dead. General Henry's brigade 104 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. went in pursuit, and, on the next day, reached the Blue Mounds ; and being rejoined by General Atkinson and the regular troops, and the other brigades, the whole force arrived at Helena, on the Wisconsin, on the 26th. On the 2d of August they overtook Black Hawk near the Bad Axe, and again defeated him in a decisive action. The American force con- sisted of four hundred regulars and parts of Henry's, Posey's and Alexander's brigades of militia, in the whole 1300 men. General Atkinson, in his account of these engagements, states that the Indian loss, in both, was three hundred. He returns only eighteen killed, and four wounded, of his own men, at Bad Axe ; and states the Indian loss at one hundred and fifty killed, and thirty-five captured. Black Hawk him- self escaped ; but, about three weeks afterward, was brought into the camp a prisoner by some Winnebagoes. Thus ended the three months' movement, commonly called the Black Hawk w^ar. It was succeeded immediately by a ces- sion of a strip of country on the w^est of the Missisippi, fifty miles wide, extending north from Missouri to the neutral ground, in a treaty concluded by General Scott in September of the same year ; and, in the summer of 1833, the settlement of Iowa by the white man was commenced. Two small strips were successively purchased in 1836 and 1837 ; and, in 1842, avast tract, estimated to contain about 23,000 square miles, or 15,000,000 acres, centrally situated between the two great rivers, was added to the former purchases. On the 1st of August, 1829, by a treaty with the Winne- bagoes, the United States acquired a large tract, beginning at the mouth of the Pee-keetanon, or Pectanon, and following up that river and the Sugar Creek branch, and across north- wardly to Fox River, and down the Wisconsin to the mouth, and southerly from thence to Rock River, at a point forty miles from its mouth, and up that river to Pectanon. A large HISTORY. 105 and valuable tract of about one hundred miles, north and south ; and, on its greatest extent, east and west, about the same, being 6000 or 7000 square miles. And, on the 29th of July, same year, another large tract, between Rock River and Lake Michigan, and a strip on the Missisippi, from Rock River to the reservation on the Wis- consin, was ceded by the Chippewas, Ottawas, and Pota- watamis, which cessions included nearly all the land between Lake Michigan and the Missisippi, and between Rock River and Wisconsin. By a treaty, made the 15th of July, 1830, a tract of twenty miles in width, extending from the Missisippi to the Des Moines, was ceded by the Sacs and Foxes ; and another similar tract adjoining it on the north, by the Sioux. Its southern line, on the Missisippi, is near the Wisconsin. On the 8th of February, 1831, the Menominis ceded a tract lying between Winnebago Lake, Fox River, and Green Bay, on the north, and Milwake River, south, and Lake Michigan, east. And in October, 1832, the Potawatamis ceded their land lying between Chicago River and Kanakee, and the Fox of Illinois. In September, 1832, the Winnebagoes ceded the land lying on the west of the Rock River, above the Pectanon branch, to Lake Puckaway, and bounded west by their cession of August, 1829. In 1836, Michigan was made a sovereign state, and admitted into the Union. A new territorial government was, at the same time, organized over Wisconsin, which included all the Black Hawk purchase, and extended west to the Mis- souri River. In 1838, a new territorial government was established over that portion of Wisconsin which lay west of the Missisippi, called Iowa. In the five years intermediate between the departure of the Sacs and Foxes, in the summer 6* 106 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. of 1833, and the establishment of the territorial government in 1838, the Black Hawk Purchase had gathered a white population of 22,000. In 1840, at the taking of the census, in June, it contained 43,000. It is supposed that the usual annual increase by emigration since that time has been about the same, or something near ten thousand yearly ; and, with a sufficient allowance for an augmented natural increase, in proportion to the greatly augmented basis, the whole yearly addition to the population cannot be less than 12,000, or, for the six years, to June, 1846, 72,000 ; which, added to the 43,000, makes the whole 115,000. This is believed to be under the true amount, as, in 1843, and the spring of 1846, an unusual impulse was given to emigration by the acquisi- tion of new territory, and the allowance for natural increase is made very small. It is more probable that the whole actual population at this time (July 4, 1846) is 150,000. Wisconsin, as constituted by the division into two terri- tories, had, at that time, July, 1838, 21,000 inhabitants. By the census of 1840, it had 34,000. Its increase in the two intermediate years had been much less than that of Iowa, but in some subsequent periods it has been very gi'eat; and it contains, by a recent census, about 160,000. The least total amount that can be assigned to the two territories is little more than 300,000, at this time. Acts have passed Congress, in June and August, 1846, for admitting both territories into the Union with the attributes of sovereignty. They will probably be adopted by the peo- ple ; and, in the present year, two new and bright stars will be added to the Union. At the moment that Congress was acting upon the admis- sion of Iowa and Wisconsin into the Union, a treaty was in progress, and is now completed, by which the Potawatamis have ceded their lands lying east of the Missisippi, Missouri, HISTORY. 107 and between the Sioux and the Missouri State north Hne. The tract contains 6000 or 7000 square miles. The Indians have stipulated to remove in two years. By this cession, the Indian title has become extinct in the whole tract between the Missisippi and Missouri Rivers. The Sioux hold a strip on the northern frontier of the new state, which is the only Indian country, except the neutral ground, now within the limits fixed by Congress for the State boundary. The authorities relied upon for the foregoing statements are, Gabriel Sagard, Hennepin^ Lahontan, Charlevoix, Histoire Gen. des Voyages, Paris, 1757; Bossu, Lockman, Churchill, Heriot's Hist. Canada, Pike, Schoolcraft, Nicollet, Long, Laws of Congress, Public Documents, &c. PART III. ^^»i^VK^>i*'>ii^>^V Population — Political System — Civil Divisions — Municipalities — Topography. The population of this region, at the present time, exceeds by computation, 750,000 ;* viz. — in Ilhnois, north of the lUinois River, about 240,000 ; in Missouri, north of the Missouri River, about 240,000; in Wisconsin, about 160,- 000; in Iowa, probably exceeding 120,000. This multi- tude has nearly all been planted on the territory within twenty years, mostly indeed within fifteen, excepting a few scattered settlers on the Illinois and Missisippi and Missouri Rivers. Galena was settled in 1828. They are from all States of the Union, from Germany, Ireland, England, Scot- land and Canada. There are a considerable number of Franco-American families from Canada and from the early French colonies in the Missisippi valley ; and it is as com- mon to hear a certain uncouth French dialect, known in that country under the name of Gumbo French (a term applied both to the people and the dialect), jabbered in the streets of * By the census of 1840, Northern Missouri contained 160,821 ; Northern Illinois, including counties that lay across the Illinois River, 160,755; Iowa, 43,000; Wisconsin, 30,000; total 393,000. I have added 50 per cent, to Missouri and Illinois. Iowa has increased at the rate of about 12,000 per year, which would be 115,000. Wisconsin, by a census just taken, is found to have 155,000, and three counties not returned. 110 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. Dubuque, as it is to hear English spoken there. The greater part of this population between Illinois and Rock Rivers, and between the Missouri and Iowa Rivers, comprising a district of some two hundred miles in width from north to south, in the centre, but narrowing toward the extremities, is from the Ohio Valley and the South. Pennsylvania and Virginia, west of the Alleghany, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Tennessee and North Carolina, have sent their colonists to these latitudes. North of these Hues the larger portion is from the Northem States, east of the mountains, and from Europe. They are, many of them, men who have not derived much knowledge from education, but have been schooled only in the world, and learned in the knowledge of men. They have shaken hands with privations and hard- ships, and with luxury have but little acquaintance. There are, however, many well informed, of the softer as well as of the rougher sex, living in the homeliest style of rustic life. Iowa is divided into 39 Counties, 25 of which are orga- nized,— and into townships of greater or less extent accord- ing to population, but generally comprehending more than one geographical township, into which the whole country is first divided by the government surveys. Other portions, where the population is concentrated at particular points, are incorporated into towns or cities. Between these two last, there is very little difference in substance, if any. The mu- nicipal authorities have in each very similar powers. In the towns, affairs are managed by a single board called trustees, and in the other, in the more usual form of Mayor and Alder- men. In either case the municipal government has the power to assess and levy the taxes, to ordain the by-laws, and to appoint the officers. In the townships, as politically established, the government is in the hands of inspectors. But even in these smaller depositories of power the differ- POLITICAL SYSTEM. Ill ence consists more in the actual exercise than in legal grada- tion. The power to be exerted is little else than appointment of minor officers. Those little democracies, erected in some of the States under the name of towns, where all the powers of the local government are exercised by a vote of the peo- ple, are wholly unknown here. Lee county is situated in the point between the Rivers Missisippi and Des Moines. It is very thickly populated, notwithstanding a large portion of its lands were reserved to the Half Breeds of the Sac and Fox Indians, and there was consequently a difficulty in obtaining title. This difficulty has been overcome by purchase and partition, and the settlers now are owners of the soil. The Des Moines Rapids ex- tend over a greater part of the Missisippi boundary, upon which are situated several towns which promise to be among the flourishing places of the State. Keokuck is below the rapids. It is seated on the bluff, which here comes quite to the river, and by its steep and high ascent, makes a very inconvenient site for a town. But the advantage of its situa- tion overcomes this unkindness of its topographical charac- ter, and bemg at the mouth of the Des Moines, and at the foot of the lower rapids, at the point where both the obstruc- tions of rock and ice begin, and having a good landing, it must of necessity have both a rapid and a solid progress. Nashville, on the rapids, has a better situation, though this also is built on rather a steep ascent. Montrose, at the head of the rapids, the site of old Fort Des Moines, is situated on a low ground, in a wide part of the river opposite the Mor- mon town, Nauvoo. Here there is a broad and handsome plat sufficient for a large city. The town has a very slow progress, and will not keep pace with some others on the river. Fort Madison is the most populous town in the coun- ty, situated about twelve miles above the head of the rapids, 112 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. on the Missisippi, on one of the finest town sites in that part of the river. It is an elevated bank, twenty feet or more above the water mark, forming nearly a level of sufficient extent for a city of the largest class. Its soil is sandy, and from its relations with the river must be very healthy. It has at pre- sent, by estimation, from twelve to fifteen hundred inhabitants. There are some interior flourishing villages in this county. Des Moines is next on the river, extending from the Che- kakwe or Checaqua River, nearly to the Iowa. Its river boundary is not so good as that of Lee county, the bank being, for the greater part, a low bottom, and presenting only one favorable site for a town, which is at the mouth of Shokokon or Flint Creek, at a bluff called by the Indians, Shokokon, from the abundance of chert found on the surface, and by the Whites, Flint Hills. The Indian appellation or mineral feature to which it was owing, should have furnished a name to the modern town : and Chertburg, or Shokokon, would have as good sound, and more sense, than the thread- bare Burlington. The place is partly on the irregular edge of a bluff, and partly on a low bottom, being an inconvenient place for a town ; but having had a great impulsion at first from the location of the land sales there, and the temporary seat of government also, it made a progress, which, backed by a very popidous interior behind it, and having a good landing, has been more rapid than any other place, and it is now beyond all other towns in the Territory in population, in trade, in prosperity and wealth. The number of its inhabit- ants is exceeding two thousand. The county of Des Moines is the third in population. Van Buren and Lee being first and second. The three counties have probably not much less than 40,000 inhabitants, which is very nearly equally divided. The land of Des Moines county is good ; there being little difference in quality throughout this Territory. Being, how- TOPOGRAPHY. 113 ever, of rather a large proportion of clay, and of rather a level surface, it is not ready for the plough so early as some lands further north. Augusta is a small village on Skunk River, about eight or ten miles from Burlington. New Lon- don, Franklin, and other small villages, are scattered upon the prairie, in this count}^ Louisa is a very small county on the river, next above Des Moines. Wapello, on the Iowa River, is the capi- tal. It has two or three other small villages, but is prni- cipally remarkable for having formerly had an Indian town, the residence of Black Hawk, within it, and the river Iowa running through it. A part of the large island, called by the Indians Mascotin (Prairie Island), is in this coun- ty. The word, by a natural metamorphosis, has been called by the French Muscodin and Muscatine, and under that change has given name to the slough or branch of the river that divides it from the main, and to the county at its upper end, adjoining Louisa. This island presents a singu- lar feature in the topography of this part of the river. It is nearly twenty miles from north to south, and about half of that extent in the other direction, and is a bottom prairie, but little elevated above the river, and nearly a mechanical level. It is made by a small portion of the river which passes around it, joining the main stream again, after a course of twenty-live or thirty miles, a short distance above the Iowa River mouth. The upper end of the island is about twenty- five miles below the mouth of Rock River, and nearly the same above the mouth of Iowa. Muscatine county, beginning on the island, and extending some sixteen or eighteen miles above it, is well watered, hav- ing the Red Cedar traversing it from north to south, at ten or twelve miles from the Missisippi, in nearly a parallel direc- tion, and the Wapsinonoc Creek farther west, a tributary of 114 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. Cedar. This is a well settled county. North of the Iowa River the soil loses some of its alumine, with which it was rather surcharged in Des Moines, and becomes more mellow by an admixture of sand, which is probably silico-cretaceous. The surface also becomes more undulating, and the union of these two conditions overcomes a degree, more or less, of latitude, and the season for beginning cultivation is, there- fore, about the same in this distance. Apart from this con- sideration, I think the change is for the better in regard to fertility, and that the tract of country between the Iowa and the Maquoketa, or Makwaketa, is perhaps rather the best on the river in this point. It is, however, inferior in another, hardly of less importance to the farmer, that is, in the quantity of timber. With this article the region now under our obser- vation is rather scantily supplied. Bloomington is the county seat of Muscatine county. There are a few small villages beside, Moscow on the Cedar, and Salem and Wyoming on the Missisippi. The City of Ellenborough, a mere embryo with a sounding name and a most ample charter, has been projected, and having a good site, may at some day exchange its em- bryo for an actual existence. Bloomington is a place of much business. It has one of the best positions, geographi- cally, in the territory, and is one of the most important towns. Its population probably is nearly 1500. It has the disadvantage of a bad site, both locai and relative, it being on a steep bluff, and in the immediate vicinity of Mascotin Island and Slough above mentioned, which last is apt to be a cause of disease. The region above Muscatine county, as far as Maquoketa River, including Scott and Clinton counties, and part of Jackson, is very scantily supplied with timber. It is highly fertile, however, and a handsome country. The banlis of the river, on both sides, from Bloomington to the Wabesepinecon, TOPOGRAPHY. 115 are the most beautiful on the River from the mouth to this point; and on the west side, the whole Hne, for a distance of nearly forty miles, from Bloomington to Spencer's Creek, would make one continuous city site. Davenport, in Scott county, about thirty miles above Bloomington, is on a most beautiful inclined plane, almost of a mathematical exactness, of a very slight incUnation, only sufficient to be perceived by the eye, and to shed the waters. It is sufficiently sandy to become dry immediately after a rain. This plane extends back about half a mile, from the river to the bluff. The banks on both sides are high and dry ; and immediately fronting Davenport is the town of Rock Island on the Illinois side. The river is little more than half a mile wide. Immediately above the two towns is the island of Rock Island, having a rock foundation : a very unusual character, the islands gene- rally, in this river, being alluvial. The scenery at this point is very beautiful— said to excel, in this particular, any spot below Lake Pepin. Some individuals have taken advantage of the division of the river into two streams, at this point, to appropriate the narrow portion passing between the Island and the Illinois shore to milling purposes. By running a dam across at the head of the island— which, by reason of the very little depth of the water, and a rock bottom, they were able to do at a very trifling expense— they have availed of this immense body of w^ater, being about one-third of the whole volume of the river, and with a head of five feet. Beside this, there are several other points upon these rapids, where equal advantage may be made of the river in this way. And at a time not remote, this will become a principal grain market for the country around, and a place of great industrial activity. Rockingham is a small village four miles below Davenport, opposite the mouth of the Rock River. At the purchase of the territory 116 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. by our government, the Indians reserved a tract of one mile square at the head of the rapids, and a similar tract at the foot, for Mr. Antoine Leclaire their interpreter. On the lower reservation is the town of Davenport, and it is intended to have another town on the upper tract. Adjoining the upper reservation, above it, is the little village of Berlin. Fifteen miles further up the stream is another, Camanche. This last is in Clinton county. Fifteen miles to the west of this last a town has been laid out for the county seat of the county. It is called De Witt. The site is in a handsome prairie, having groves upon three sides, at a distance of from one to three miles, and to the northward open to a much greater distance. There are many eligible spots for settlement in this as well as in Scott and all the northern river counties. The settlements have been made lower on the stream, and have progressed westward a hundred miles from the river, while these fine lands have been passed over from a dislike to go so far north, — a very insufficient consideration to place in the balance against contiguity to the river ; which, furnish- ing a great channel for transportation, must always make a difference in the price of produce in the river counties by no means to be overlooked : while the difference in temperature is so slight that neither man nor beast is sensible of it, and the feeding season would not be more than a week or two, at most, longer in these counties than in the lower counties of the territory. Lyons is a busy little village, w^ell situated on the river, in this county, about ten miles above Camanche. At this point begins a change in the topography of the land adjacent to the river. The road from Lyons to Charleston, about twenty miles above, in Jackson county, is over a very rough, broken country, very little of which, in a distance of three or four miles from the river, is favorable to cultivation. It is generally covered with timber. The land, however, at TOPOGRAPHY. 117 a few miles back is very good ; and a man who wishes to see the handsomest timber in the territory, must go to the forks of the Maquoketa or Makwaketa ; and upon its south fork are some of the finest prairie and prairie farms. The north- ern part of Jackson county, between this river and Dubuque, is generally well-timbered and well-watered, and is a very inviting tract for settlement. This is also one of the best watered tracts in the territory. Makwaketa River, Tetes des Morts, Deep, Brush, and Bear Creek, and smaller streams, drain the country— some of them having fine water power. Twenty-two miles above Charleston is Bellevue, also in this county, situated on a fine plateau, well elevated above the river. Andrew, in the centre of the county, is laid out for the county seat. Between the Wabesepinicon and Makwa- keta Rivers, is a region furnished very abundantly with iron. At Bellevue, a striking change takes place in the geological formation; the line of the lead mineral commencing here, and passing up to the northwest through the counties of Dubuque and part of Clayton, and thence east into Wisconsin, defines perhaps the richest lead deposit in the world. It is of the kind called Galena, or sulphuret of lead. The river marks a remarkable division in the character of the " diggmgs," those on the east side being clay " diggings," in which the mineral is found in the clay, within a few feet of the surface, while on the west side the mhier is obUged to sink his shaft through the rock more than one hundred feet. It is thought, however, that the greater abundance of the mineral in the rock deposit is more than a counterbalance to the case of obtaining it in the clay. Dubuque, situated in a bay of the river, upon a sandy alluvion, in the centre of these " diggings," is the second town in the territory in population and business. The rough character of the country upon the river bank, which, as 18^ NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. already said, commences near Lyons, continues through this county, and as far north as the settled parts of the territory. At the neigliborhood of Dubuque, it extends six or seven miles. Much of the land near the river is unsuited to culti- vation, in consequence of this unevenness of surface. There is, however, much excellent farming land in this and in Clay- ton county. Some of the Turkey River country is very handsome. Van Buren county, situated on the Des Moines River, back of Lee, is the best interior county, and by many is con- sidered the best county in the Territory. It is the most populous. The lands generally upon this river have been already mentioned as exceedingly fertile and beautiful. There is an abundance of good coal here. Keosaqua is the capital town, situated in the bend, which the Indians call Keosaqua (or Kebesaqua, as Gen. Pike and Major Marston have it) peninsula.* There are several other toAvns in this county, populous and thriving. The other interior counties of the old purchase, Henry, Jefferson, Washington, Johnson, Cedar, Linn, Jones and Delaware, are of as good land as the front tier. Linn county has been said to excel all the others, in the more just proportion of timber and prairie land, and in the greater depth of its soil. These counties contain no towns of consequence, with the exception of Iowa city, the seat of government for the Territory, which is situated in Johnson county. This young city is situated on a very beautiful plateau on the left bank of Iowa River, about eighty miles from its mouth, by the windings of the stream, though not much more than half that distance in a direct line, and at the head of navigation on that river. Small steamboats go up to * The writer considers the true name to be Kebe-saki, or Kebe-osaki, the last part of the word meaning island, and the same which is used tJJ designate the tribe, commonly called Sac. TOPOGRAPHY. / 119 the city two or three times a year. There is here a fine capitol, erected at a cost of over $100,000, and paid for by the sales of lots on the section given by Congress for that purpose. In Jefferson county is the town of Fairfield, in which the Land Office for the Des Moines Land District is situated. In Henry county is Mount Pleasant, a handsome town upon the prairie. This county has also several villages, among which is Salem, a settlement of Quakers. The other counties, formed out of the late Indian purchase, Davis, Appenoose, Wapello, Monroe, Keokuk, Mahaska, Powesheck, Tama, Marion, Lucas, Polk, Dallas, Jasper, Wayne, Clark, Story, are of a character similar to those of the older settlements. The soil throughout has but little variation ; and with the exception of a few swamps, and a very small number of sand spots of little extent, the whole country is susceptible, by the mere upturning of the plough, with the most careless after-tillage, of being made one garden. Wapello, Mahaska, Marion and Polk, are situated upon the Des Moines River, which is already described as contain- ing some of the most fertile and beautiful land in Iowa. Wisconsin is divided into twenty-four counties. Upon the lake are Racine, Milwakie, Washington, Sheboyegan, Manitowoc, and Brown. Grant, Crawford and St. Croix, are on the Missisippi. The other counties are Iowa, Green, Walworth, Rock, Jefferson, Dane, Dodge, Portage, Fond du Lac, Marquette, Calumet, Winnebago, Sauk, Richland and La Pointe. Grant county is in the southwest corner of the Territory, situated in a bend of the Missisippi, which washes it west and south, and having the Wisconsin on the north, it is bounded by a water line throughout, except upon the eastern side. Lying within the mineral tract, it has a very valuable 120\ NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. deposit oi lead ore. The soil is excellent ; but by reason of the broken and uneven surface, some portions of it are not well adapted to the plough. It has a fair proportion of tim- ber, and is a w^ell-watered tract. Beside the two principal boundary rivers, it has the Grant, the Platte, consisting of two principal branches, one of wdiich is called Little Platte, uniting about twenty-five miles from the mouth, and other smaller streams passing through it. CassAfille is a small village on the Missisippi. It has the advantage of a hand- some site, and will probably increase in importance as the country to the north and east shall become settled. Lead ore has been found in the vicinity, and the lands behind it present external indications of containing mineral. Platteville is a more populous town, and there is a good business done at it. It has a pleasant interior situation near the Little Platte River, and is surrounded by a rich mineral and agricultural reo-ion. The Platte and Grant Rivers afford good water power, but are navigable for a short distance only. In mere business, Platteville has a rival in Potosi. In other particulars, especially in what is pleasing to the eye, Platteville has the advantage. Potosi has a larger popula- tion, is near the Missisippi, and the centre of very profitable "diggings." There is, in all the mining towns, a mixed population, the miners, as well as others who follow them for supplying their wants, and for making a subsistence from them in various ways, being from all parts of the world, and some of the last class especially, of rather a " miscellaneous character." Among the miners there is a good portion of shrewd men, true men and enterprising. Potosi is strongl^^ marked with the characteristics of a mining town. Lancas- ter, a small interior village, on an elevated ridge, is the county seat. It has around it an inviting agricultural country. The broken lands of Grant county are, for the most part, TOPOGRAPHY. 121 on the borders of the Platte and Grant Rivers, and in the vicinity of the Missisippi. Almost every small stream also has its romantic bluffs and dales, but the county notwith standing has advantages, as an agiicultural and grazing coun- try, in soil, timber and water, and in its salubrity and its river borders ; apart from its exhaustless stores of lead ore, which are from time to time laid bare by the enterprise and industry of the miners. The country generally west of the Pectanon-(so called by Long), or, as commonly called by the inhabitants, the Peka- tonica, and south of the Wisconsin, is rather broken, but contains many spots highly suited to agriculture. The coun- try, how ever,as a whole, as well as that west of the Missi- sippi, is admirably adapted to grazing. Grant county, just described, is included in this tract. A portion of Iowa county is also within it. This is an extensive county, bounded by the Ilhnois State line and by the Wisconsin River, for its south and north boundaries, and is one of great capabilities. It has an abundance of lead mineral, and cop- per ore also has been found and worked. The eastern part of the county is a fine agricultural tract ; and the whole country east of Pekatonica, to the lake, may be said to be a most delightful and fertile farming region. Mineral Point is the county seat of Iowa county. It has also the Land Office for the District, and is a point of much business, rendered so by the large number of miners engaged in the vicinity, by the smelting of the mineral, &c. Iowa county contains a large proportion of prairie, extend- ing, in its southern part, from Green county on the east, westwardly to Grant county, and in its northern part from Dane county on the east, along a beautiful dividing ridge, which extends westwardly into Grant. On this ndge runs the United States road leading from Fort Winnebago to 7 122 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. Prairie Du Cliicn. The timber in Iowa county is upon the borders of the Wisconsin and Pekatonica Rivers, and in beautiful groves scattered here and there upon the surface of the prairie. In all the prairie country it is expected that the growth of timber will be increased as settlement pro- gresses, by the exclusion of fires, and the breaking up of the prairie sod. The lead ore region of this county extends from the Illinois line north to the Blue Mounds, 36 miles, underlying the whole county, longitudinally. But a small part of its mineral lands has yet been opened by the spade of the miner, and it will be a long time probably before the richest lodes will be reached. Most of the lead taken in this county is carried to Galena for shipment to market. The lead region extends easterly to the waters of Sugar River, a branch of Pekatonica, about seventy-six miles, geo- metrically, east of the Missisippi at Cassville. With the change in the geological character of the country, there is also a modification of its topographical features and scenery. The surface becomes more even, and gradually assumes the appearance more decidedly of a plain country. In the southeastern part of Wisconsin, the proportion of prairie country is increased, though about the upper banks of Rock River, Fox of Illinois, and Maple, all of which head within it, as well as upon the small streams, there is a suffi- ciency of good timber. Racine, the southeastern county, bounded by the Illinois State line and the lake, contains a large portion of beautiful and rich prairie with a gently un- dulating surface, which is now dotted with numerous thriv- ing farms. It has two prosperous and growing villages, Racine and Southport, the former containing more than 2000 inhabitants, the latter nearly that number. The population is stated upon conjecture, without precise information, as the growth of these lake towns has been so rapid, that the TOPOGRAPHY. 123 ascertained population of one year may be scarcely more than a moiety of the succeeding. They are the points of landing for the great mass of emigration by tlie northern route, and the quarters, consequently, of a temporary and fluctuating population, which drifts thence over the whole surface of the territory, and into Illinois and Iowa. The business of these towns depends upon the prosperity and increase of the agri- cultural population in the interior. Milwaukie county is washed on its entire eastern boundary by Lake Michigan, on which, at the mouth of Milwaukie River, is situated the city of Milwaukie, which has become in about ten years from its foundation one of the first class of towns in the west. The population of the city exceeds 8000, or as some suppose, is not much less than 10,000. The growth and prosperity of the country may be inferred from the fact that in 1834 there were but two or three build- ings on the tract which is now covered by the dwellings of its numerous residents. The country contains a wide tract of timber land, which lies immediately back of the city, and is now well peopled with hardy and industrious farmers from the northern States. The surface of the country is undulat- ing and its soil very good. The eastern portion of this ter- ritory has a great advantage in its connection, by the Lakes, with the eastern markets, and being in all the essential attri- butes of soil, timber, and water, not inferior to the country west of the Missisippi, it is a most desirable country for emigi'ants. Proceeding north to Green Bay, the country is more tim- bered, and undergoes a radical change of soil. In the neigh- borhood of the Bay the soil is sandy, and following the river to Fort Winnebago, at the Portage, the country is hilly and well timbered. Between Green Bay and the Lake is a northern vegetation of white pine, spruce, birch, &c. Near 124 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. Green Bay are large marshes of wild rice and cranberries, and near the Wisconsin River, in the western part of the Territory, are extensive swamps, having an abundant growth of the latter plant. The town of Navarino is situated at the head of the Bay, and Green Bay is the name of a town on the lower shore near its mouth. On the north bank of the Wisconsin River, from the Great Bend near the Fox portage, running westwardly nearly to the Kickapoo, is a range of high, abrupt, thickly-wooded mountains, a rare feature in the topogi'aphy of this country. The interior countries, south of the Fox and Wisconsin, cover a fine body of farming lands. Rock county has a very advantageous situation on the upper waters of the Rock River, and has the requisites de- sired by the farmer of being well watered and timbered. Among the interesting and inviting features of the interior counties of Wisconsin are the small lakes found in Dane, Jefferson, Fond du Lac, and other counties. The shores of these beautiful reservoirs of limpid waters furnish many most delightful sites for farms. They are mostly found in the interior counties immediately south of the Wisconsin River and east of Sugar River, a branch of the Pekatonica. In all of them are found excellent fish, the pike of a large size, catfish, black bass, yellow perch, mullet, &c. A group of these lakes, four in number, stretch from northwest to southeast in Dane county, having an outlet in a branch of Rock River. This group is called The Four Lakes. Madi- son, the present capital of Wisconsin, and seat of justice of Dane county, is seated on a narrow isthmus, between the third and fourth lakes north. Proceeding northward from the southern tier of interior counties, the timber becomes more abundant. TOPOGRAPHY. 125 The Blue Mounds, in the northeastern part of Iowa County, are remarkable elevations, the greatest height being 1,001 feet above the level of the Wisconsin at Arena, in the same longitude, as measured by Dr. Locke. They are about twelve miles from the river, south ; and thirty from Madison, nearly west. St. Croix is a new county, west of Crawford, on the St. Croix and Missisippi Rivers. Though far to the north it is finely situated upon the Missisippi, and has very superior ad- vantages for the lumber trade. It has great forest wealth, containing probably the best pine region in the United States next to the lumber tracts of Maine. With this valuable ar- ticle of trade, and with very superior facilities for getting it to a most extensive and rapidly increasing market— there must of necessity be a very large business done in this di- rection. It is the opinion of the writer that this portion of the district also contains large deposits of copper ore. The eastern boundary of this county is the Chippeway River, and a Ime thence running northeasterly to the Michigan state line, and with that line to the Lake : its western is coterminous with the Territory ; its northern with the United States, ex- tending from about 44i° to 49^. Such was its boundary till 1845, when it was divided, and La Pointe, a new county, made in 1845, has been taken from that portion of St. Croix which was north of the mouth of Muddy River and Yellow Lake. Crawford county is also of great extent ; including nearly the whole space northerly from the Wisconsin to the Michigan state line. This county has the Wisconsin on the south, the Missisippi southwest, the Chippeway on the west. It is watered also by the Bad Axe, Black River, Prairie La Crosse, and several other streams. Its breadth from east to west is by no means proportioned to its great north and south stretch. 126 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. It has a variety of soil and a diversified scenery. There is an extensive bottom between the two main rivers, on which is situated the old French town of Prairie Du Chien, tliree or four miles from the Wisconsin, a scattered settlement, rather than a town. It had been long occupied by the French, having been settled about the period of the revolution, and was a considerable trading post, and a rendezvous for the Indians and British. In 1814 the United States established a garrison there, and still maintain it. Within a year or two a deposit of copper ore has been found in this vicinity. On the Wisconsin is an abundance and variety of valuable timber, especially white pine. This is perhaps to be considered as the southern limit of the pine region, though scattered groves of it are found further south. Since the purchase made of the Chippewas in 1842, of a tract of land which covered the northwestern peninsula of Michigan, six counties have been laid off therein, by that state. They are Michilimackinac, Schoolcraft, Chippeway, Marquette, Ontonagon, and Houghton. There are few settlers on the tract. The eastern point of the peninsula is a spot of peculiar beauty. Owing to its latitude, and to its vicinity to the lakes, the united influence of temperature and exposure to the winds, it is not to be desired for agi'iculture. A great portion of the tract is, no doubt, rich in copper ore, and other mineral wealth. There are thirty-seven counties of Illinois wholly or par- tially within the district treated of in these notes. Joe Davies, Carroll, Whiteside, Rock Island, Henderson, Mercer, Han- cock, Adams, Pike, Calhoun, are on the Missisippi River. The two last are on the Illinois also, being bounded by both rivers. Whiteside and Rock Island are on Rock River also, as well as on the Missisippi. Lake and Cook are on the Lake Michigan. Brown, Fulton, La Salle, Marshall, Peoria, TOPOGRAPHY. 127 Putnam and Schuyler are also on the Illinois river beside Calhoun and Pike above-named; Rock Island, Whiteside, Ogle, and Wimiebago, on Rock River. Joe Davies is a mineral district. The lands about Galena, Fairplay, and Ehzabeth, and in some other "diggings" in this county, are very rich in mineral. The county has a good soil, but is not of great value as an agricultural country, by reason of the broken nature of its surface. It is drained by Sinsinewa, Fever, Small Pox, and Apple Rivers. The country at the head of Apple River is a very beautiful and fertile district, and contains some handsome farms. The population of the county has greatly increased since the census of 1840. It was then 6,180. It now probably exceeds 10,000, of which nearly half is at Galena. The first settlements were made in Galena, in 1828. This place is situated about three miles from the Missisippi, upon a little stream commonly called Fever River, or otherwise Bean River, being by the winding of the stream, six miles from its mouth. The river was first named by the French, and it is now disputed whether the appellation bestowed by them was F6ve, or Fievre. The circumstance that a small stream next below, and but a small distance from it, is called Small-Pox, and that the first place has had its share of the fevers of the country, may seem to favor the idea of the Fever. The pulse may be consulted to decide the important question. By a law of Congress of February 5th, 1829, the Surveyor of the Pubhc Lands was directed to lay out a town on Bean River, in Illinois, at and including Galena. The town increased with a great rapidity. Miners pressed in from all quarters, and it became at once the metropolis of the lead diggings. Such it is, and will, no doubt, continue. It is most singularly situated, on the side of a steep bluff, 128 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. and consists of two narrow streets running parallel with the river ; and, tliongh they are placed as near as possible, the foundations of the houses upon the second are upon a level with the roofs of the first. Such is the business in this little nook, that the lower street always presents the appearance of a large and thronged city. Scarcely any street, in any city, has more of a crowd and bustle. Lately, some houses have been built on the opposite, or left, bank of the river, which is a better site than the original ground. The lower part of Joe Davis, and the adjoining part of Carroll, is a very sterile tract, quite unusual in this country, except in a few points where the sand has been heaped up by the streams or the winds, or by the joint action of both. One of these causes, probably the river, was the agent in piling up sand here for several miles in extent, where, perhaps, there was formerly a deflexion of the river, or an expansion into a lake. Carroll county may not be ranked among the good agricultural counties, and is without minerals. Pro- ceeding down the river, the land improves in quality. Whiteside has more good land. In this county Fulton has a good situation on the river, and a pleasant site. The exor- bitant ferry charges have some influence in deciding against the prosperity of so small a village. Albany, also on the river, is a small village, with a site rather inferior to the former place. Rock Island is at the mouth of Rock River, extending a long distance on the Missisippi, in a narrow strip, having the little villages of Cordova, Port Byron, Hampton and Moline, and the town of Rock Island on the river. The latter is a place of some business, has 1000 or 1,200 inhabitants, and oc- cupies nearly the site of the old Sauk village, called Senisepo Kebesaukie, Rock River Peninsula. It is at the foot of the Upper, or Rock River, Rapids, opposite Davenport, known TOPOGRAPHY. 129 to all who pass the river as the most attractive in natural scenery of any place within the usual route of the boats. Mercer, Henderson, and Hancock, have some good land, but a large amount of waste upon the river, and an undue proportion of prairie. The towns of New Boston, Oquawka, Navoo (the city of the Mormons), and Warsaw, are upon the river in these counties, the two last in Hancock, as also Carthage, the county seat, back from the River. Hancock is a populous and important county. Warsaw, situated at the mouth of the Des Moines, has a commanding position. It is partly on the bluff and partly below. It will be the depot for a considerable back country in Illinois, and for the pro- ducts descending the Des Moines, which last will be of great amount when the State of Iowa shall become more popu- lous, and the navigation of the river shall be improved. It is also the point where, in low water, the steamboats discharge their cargoes, Avhich they are unable to transport over the rapids, the town being a short distance below. From here, the keel-boats, laden with goods, are towed up by a class of light draught steamers. Adams, the next county on the river, is, in territory and population, one of the most important in the State. Quincy is the lara;est and best built town on the left bank of the river, between Alton and Galena, with the exception of the city of the " saints," so called as " lucus a non luccndo." Quincy is one hundred and fifty miles above St. Louis, and over one hundred and twxnty above tlie mouth of the Illinois River. It is the depot for the trade of a large country north of the river, and a populous, handsome, and flourishing town, with the Land Office for the district. Below Adams, a large tract, extending from river to river, forty miles or more in average breadth, and from north to south about the same, is formed into the county of Pike. It 130 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. is the fourth county, in population, of Northern IlUnois, or, rather, it is one of the four highest ; for, without a late census, the numbers are only matter of estimate, and there is not, pro- bably, a great difference in amount between the four. Adams, Cook, and Fulton, may be supposed to contain from eighteen to twenty thousand each, and Pike sixteen or seven- teen thousand. Cook, Adams, Fulton, Pike and La Salle, are among the most populous and valuable counties in the State. Cook is on the lake. By the census of 1840, there were 10,201 inhabitants. Since that time, about 4000 have been added to the town of Chicago, and it is probable that the county now contains 18 or 20 thousand. Chicago has now about 10,000. It is the foremost town in the State in population and business. It is the principal port on the lake for north- ern Illinois and Iowa. Here great quantities of wheat and other produce are shipped, partly brought across the country from Iowa, for the New York market ; and most of the pas- sengers by way of the lakes, are landed at this place and at Milwakie. The Land Office for the District is here. La Salle is an extensive county lying on both sides of the Illinois River. It is above the navigable waters of the river. The Illinois and Michigan canal passes through it, and it is thereby rendered accessible both from the lake and the Missisippi. It has probably exceeding 15,000 inhabit- ants. Ottawa is the county seat, situated at the junction of Fox River, on both sides of the river, a few miles above the lower rapids. Bureau, Kendall, and Peoria, follow, in descending the Illinois. Peoria is important for its population and ex- tent ; its fertility, and resources, and business ; and in the beauty of its situation is not exceeded by any portion of TOPOGRAPHY. 131 country on the banks of this river, which drew so much the admiration of travellers to the country in former times. The town of Peoria is situated on the river, at or near the site of old Fort Crevecoeur, at the foot of the Lake Peoria, a little more than 200 miles from the mouth of the river. This fort was built by La Sale, as a point d'appui for prose- cuting the discovery of the Missisippi. It is the county seat, and a place of much business. Fulton, Schuyler, Brown and Pike, the last extending to the Missisippi, and already described, cover the most valuable, fertile, and beautiful tract, in the State, except some part of the land upon Rock River : in two important conditions having advantage over the last, being some two to three degrees farther south, which gives them a more propi- tious climate for agriculture, and a more genial ; and also having an open navigation generally through the year, while Rock River is locked up through the winter, and has but a difficult navigation at any time. Fulton is in the first class of counties for population. Spoon River waters this county, and enters the Illinois about forty miles below Peoria. Schuyler is below Fulton : not varying much from it in soil, in which particular both are highly favored. Schuyler is less populous than Fulton. It has Crooked Creek passing nearly centrally through it. Rushville is the county seat, a place of some business. Brown county is less populous than Schuyler. The latter contains about 10,000 inhabitants, the other, two-thirds of that number. For some miles above the point of junction, the two rivers approach very near together, and pursue an almost parallel course. The narrow peninsula is formed into the county of Calhoun. Knox, Kane, Warren, are populous interior counties. 132 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. Knoxville, Monmouth, Macomb, and other villages, are upon this tract. Illinois presents in general an agreeable and beautiful suc- cession of grove and prairie, similar to the country w^est of the Missisippi, varying slightly in two particulars, rather to the disadvantage of the former ; — the proportion of timber is rather scanty in Illinois, and of consequence the prairies more extensive ; — and the soil is not of so great depth as on the west side of the river. The prairie on both sides, how- ever, is extremely fertile, and very agreeable to the sight. This region, or any portions of it, must be seen to be appreciated. Much better is a man's own eye to convey a faithful description to him, than the tongue of another. The quiet beauty of the prairies, the graceful outline of their sur- face, or the rich, mellow, genial, quality of their soil, is not understood without inspection ; nor does the mind of one only accustomed to the recesses of forest or mountain scenery, or to the still narrow^er barricades of vision formed by the high and compact lines of masonry in a city, take in the idea of a broad expanse of plain, stretching to the hori- zon on every side, without tree or shrub ; unfenced ; and still, after miles of travel, presenting a similar scene, limited only by a similar horizon ; adorned only with a variegated carpet of luxuriant flowers ; relieved only by the graceful undulations of its surface. The country about Yellow Creek, a small tributary of Pectanon, presents a very beautiful specimen of prairie scenery. As you approach it from Galena, it rather sud- denly appears to view in coming over a ridge, and the eye is astonished with the unexpected and agreeable presentation. Near the head of Little Rock River is another beautiful but different view. Yellow Creek is in the state of nature. Little Rock River is a handsome prairie covered with a TOPOGRAPHY. 133 cluster of the neatest looking farms, with handsome fences and handsomer buildings, altogether presenting the most agreeable picture of agricultural life, ever seen by the writer. Such are some of the topographical characteristics of the branches of Rock River. This country has been highly commended, but the reality will not be found to be exagge- rated by the description ;— the original cannot be heightened in the picture. Ogle, Winnebago and Whiteside, and Rock Island, are counties upon Rock River. They contain some of the best specimens of western lands and western farms. Great quan- tities of wheat are raised here and in the whole Rock River country. Northern Missouri has forty-three counties. In its other political organization it is similar to Iowa. The counties are : St. Charles, Lincoln, Pike, Ralls, Ma- rion, Lewis, and Clarke, on the Missisippi ; Warren, Mont- gomery, Calloway, Boone, Howard, Chariton, Carroll, Ray, Clay, Platte, Buchanan, Andrew, Holt, Allen, on the Mis- souri ; and Audrain, Caldwell, Davies, Clinton, Livingston, Macon, Randolph, Monroe, Shelby, Knox, Scotland, Schuyler, Adair, Linn, Highland, Putnam, Mercer, Grundy, Han'ison, Gentry, De Kalb, Nodoway, between the rivers and the north line of the state. Northern Missouri presents no ver>^ striking change in its geology or in the essential features of its physical geography from the characteristic formation and internal structure, or from the superficial aspect, of the country, that has been described. It is a limestome country, and a plain. The principal points of diiference are that in the eastern portion the proportion of prairie is rather less, and the soil much thinner. The subsoil is similar. Springs are not so abundant. The larger proportion of timber is an improvement m point of scenery. Proceeding west and 134 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST south these differences diminish ; and on following the Mis- souri the land is perhaps equal to the best on the Missisippi. The land first described is that portion east of the ridge which divides the waters of the Missisippi from the tributaries of the Missouri. It is about one degree in width between the ridge and the Missisippi, and extending from the Missouri River to the north line of the state, a little less than two de- grees. The four main branches of the Chariton, and the eight or ten of the Grand River, pouring down their streams in nearly parallel courses, from north to south, and in very- close contiguity, the whole dozen or fourteen streams being within the range of a degree and a half, or about a hundred miles, forms a peculiar feature in the topography no less than in the hydrographic character and agricultural capacities of this region. It is needless to say that such a country pos- sesses fine farming lands : and beyond the Grand River westerly to the Missouri, particularly the Platte valley, is equal to any other, and presents strong allurements to emi- grants. A great difference in the social condition of this portion of the tract exists, in the institution of slavery : and a conse- quent difference is produced in the industrial pursuits, which everywhere distinguishes free from slave labor. This is the only portion touched by our notes where slavery is allowed. St. Charles' county lies between the Missisippi and the Missouri, extending back fifty miles, and being, in greatest breadth, about twenty. At the point of confluence of the two rivers, is a large tract of low bottom land, extremely fertile, but subject to overflow at the occasional high waters of the river. The upland above is rolling, being in nearly equal parts prairie and timber, watered by Cuivre, Big Creek, McKoy's, Femme Osage, and Dardemie : the land pretty TOPOGRAPHY. 1^5 good, for this portion of the country. The county contains iron, coal, and it was formerly supposed that there was copper on the creek, which the French, from that belief, named Cuivre. Some marble also exists, and potter's clay and Spanish brown, of good quality. The county is divided, politically, into five townships, and has several towns laid out, the principal of which is St. Charles, a very pretty town on the left bank of the Missouri. The settlement of St. Charles was commenced in 1780, while that country belonged to Spain :— and soon after emigrants began to go there from the United States. Emigration was encouraged by the Spanish policy of granting lands to settlers. It is about twenty miles from St. Louis, has increased very greatly in twelve or fifteen years past, and now contains probably about 7,000 inhabitants. Portage des Sioux, an old French village on the Missisippi, contains about 400 inhabitants. Lincoln county is on the Missisippi, next to St. Charles on the north. A considerable portion of the lands of this county are covered with old Spanish grants. The quality of the land generally is not good, along the river counties from the Missouri to the north line of the state. There is a wide strip of bottom land, part of which is low and subject to overflow. Along the travelled road through this county, and for some distance north of it, water is very scarce. Troy is the county seat, and a well-built town, twelve miles from the Missi- sippi. Pike county, the next on the north, was originally mostly a timbered tract of land, and has many streams passing through it. The largest of these is Salt River, which runs through the northern part of the county. It is said to be of good soil, compared to some of the neighboring country. There are several mills in the county. Bowling Green is 136 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. the capital town. Elk Lick is medicinal. Clarksville and Louisiana are villages on the Missisippi within this county. Ralls county, on the river, next north of Pike, has some branches of Salt River passing through it, and Spencer's Creek. It is said also to have good springs. Iron, sulphur, and coal are found within it. New London is the county seat. Marion county has a portion of its lands drained by Salt River, North and South Creeks, and North and South Fabius. It has coal of a good quality, and it is said to possess nitre in great abundance. There are several salt springs. As nitre is an element of fertility, the county should be pro- ductive, and it is considered to be so. There are many mills on the streams within the county. Palmyra is the capital, a very handsome flourishing town. Here is the land office for the northern district of this state. A town is laid out on the river, called Marion City. Hannibal, also on the river, is a flourishing town, and a place of some trade. Salt River, which has been mentioned as passing through portions of this county and Pike, is the largest stream be- tw^een the Missouri and Des Moines, flowing into the Missi- sippi. Lewis county is north of Marion. It is advantageously situated on the Missisippi, being favored with two or more good landings. The site of La Grange is high and dry. The county is watered by Wyaconda, North, and South Fabius, and Fox creeks. Monticello, in the centre, is the county seat. North of Lewis, and the most northerly river county in the State, is Clarke. The land of this, as of the last county, is good, the soil becoming better toward the northern part of the State, than in the counties lower down, near the TOPOGRAPHY. 137 Missouri. St. Francisville is the principal town, situated on the Des Moines River. Warren, Montgomery, Callaway, Boone, Howard, Chari- ton, Carroll, Ray, Clay, Platte, Buchanan, Andrew, Holt, Allen. This range of counties on the Missouri contain generally a richer soil than those on the Missisippi. Howard county is populous, well timbered, abounding in coal, not of the best quality so far as worked, and watered by several small creeks. The large streams called Chariton and Grand River flow into the Missouri in Chariton and Carroll counties. Boone is the second county in the State in population, next to St. Louis ; Howard is the third. Boone contains about, or exceeding, 25,000. Howard over 20,000, estimating from former rate of increase. Accurate information on this point, at this time, however, is wanting. Callaway, Clay and Ray are also populous counties. The tract comprising Howard, Boone and Callaway must be considered the best in the State, as it is the most populous. It is inhabited by farmers, whose industrious and skilful cultivation of the excellent land upon which they have settled, has made them easy in circumstances, and developed the resources of a rich coun- try. Columbia is the county seat of Boone, centrally located. Fayette is the capital of Howard. Glasgow, on the river, in the same county, is a flourishing town. The southern portion of the country, which is the subject of these notes, is passed with less observation than that comprised within the territories, as being both better known, and also the less interesting to many, because more populated, and therefore oflering less inducements to settlers. The soil also below the Des Moines is inferior to that north of that river, and the country by no means so inviting. Portland, Frank- 138 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. lin, Chariton on the river, and Carrol and Huntsville back from it, are towns of some importance. It has akeady been said, in treating of the physical geo- graphy of this country, that it was remarkable for the great number of lakes. The lake region extends from 49° to 43°, or over six de- grees of latitude, and lies chiefly to the east of the Tchan- sansan (or James), in 98° of long. From the head waters of the Des Moines to the country about the heads of the Missisippi, they are so numerous on the western part of the valley, that a small addition to the water surface would make it doubtful whether it should be called land and lake, or sea and island. South of 43° the remaining four degi'ees of lat. to 39°, is traversed by a vast number of running streams ; and these two portions may be very properly dis- tinguished, with reference to these grand characteristics, as the river country and the lake country. It will be at once perceived, on stating this difference in the hydrographical features of the country, that there is a corresponding difference in the topography ; that the inclined plane of the southern portion, reaching its summit, is changed for the more level plane ; and that the northern part is less cut and scooped by the numberless deep ravines that mark the lower country, serving it as channels for draining it into the principal streams. The upper country is described by Nicollet as very beau- tiful, and affording many fine farm sites. PART IV. Society. — Laws. — Pursuits. — Life. — Habits. — Health. — Public Lands. The population of the Upper Missisippi is of various origin and mixed character. The germ is French. Colonies from France, and from the French stock in Canada, were first established at several points in this valley ; and, from time to time, the voyageurs, or French boatmen, and the coureurs des bois, or traders, have visited nearly every part of this extensive region, some of whom fixed a temporary residence, and others a permanent dwelling, among the native tribes, with whom they became mingled, and frequently connected by marriage. The descendants of these French, both of the unmixed and the mixed blood, are numerous in the country, and to them many accessions from the same race have been made in modern time by emigration from Canada. A great part of this population is illiterate : though among them are many persons of good education, fine intellect, and a refine- ment, peculiar to their nation, beyond that of the best of the other population. Such may be found in the humble and laborious occupation of digging in the mines. I lodged in the house of a farmer, one of these people, on the banks of the Missouri, opposite to St. Charles, having the refinement of the French gentleman, and a mind capable of discharging 140 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST the functions of the highest oiRces in the nation. He had been acquainted with the country twenty-five or thirty years, and had been to the mountains, as many of these men do. It is not uncommon for young men of weaUhy famiUes in St. Louis to leave the refinements and hixuries of the city for a trading trip to the mountains, or to Santa Fe. To this initial population have been added, Germans, English, Scotch, Irish, and a mixture from each of the States. They are, of course, of every shade of character ; and the traveller from the denser and older portions of the world would fre- quently have his astonishment excited, on entering a very rough log-cabin, consisting of one room, w^ith a puncheon floor and mud chimney, to find a farmer of a cultivated mind and manners,* or a lady who has graced the gay and fashion- able parties of the city, or, frequently, her superior, whom education has endowed with the solid and shining accom- plishments of woman, and fitted for the highest spheres of life. Among these may be found, in most free intercourse and fellowship, the differing and various shades of character : the rough in extreme, but honest and worthy; the vulgar and clown of all shapes and dimensions, whether rich or poor, laboring or professional ; the counterfeiter and horse-thief, sitting side by side with the judge and senator. There is a general and equal association of all persons, without regard to character, condition, or circumstances, making society one smooth and perfect level. This is not a very agreeable con- * The remarks of Mr, Birkbeck, an intelligent and observing English- man, who came to Illinois about the period when it became a state, made in relation to the western people generally of that time, will, I think, well apply to the population now inhabiting this portion of it: — " Refinement," he says, " is unquestionably far more rare than in our mature and highly- cultivated state of society ; but so is extreme vulgarity. In every depart- ment of common life, we here see employed persons superior in habits and education to the same class in England." SOCIETY. 141 dition ; but it is the result of circamstances in a new country, where all are poor, where all are incommoded, all seeking the one thing needful (worldly speaking), and seeking it in the same way, and surrounded by nearly similar accidents. The ladies in the towns are not very easy under it, and try to remedy it; but they go again to the other extreme, and the result of the separation and selection which is adopted in the little towns is infinitely amusing, and a sufficient burlesque upon the more pretending, but generally equally oddly- assorted, select circles of the rich and vulgar in the larger cities. This condition of things is rather unfriendly to the courtesies and premeditated civilities of social intercourse, which are still more hindered by that want of acquaintance which is a necessary incident to the sudden filling up of a new country with people from all parts of the world. There is a general prejudice against the New Englander throughout the south and west, which, among the ignorant here, amounts to detestation ; but, with this exception, the population agree very well. The condition of the territories in regard to schools is not good, and the standard of education is low in the whole country, including that portion within the States. The standards of the bar, the pulpit, and in medical science, are all at a low point. A young man who has had a schooling of one year, and the same amount of reading in law, fre- quently without instruction or direction, sometimes by an apprenticeship, is made a lawyer; such, at least, he is designated by legislative enactment, and the license of the court, but he is often, in a double sense, an infant in law. I believe a less qualification suffices for the pulpit, or the prac- tice of medicine. There are also instances of a similar want of preparation in other pursuits. Persons are found engaged in trade, and employed in some of the mechanic 142 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. arts, without having passed the usual apprenticeship. This condition of things pervades the whole fabric of society. Judges have been appointed here of less than twenty-five years of age, and of only two or three years' practice at the bar ; and a judge of that green age sits alone on a trial involving life or death ! In this way, the laws are administered, under the sanction of Congress and the gov- ernment of the United States ! There has been a singular and radical change of the sys- tem of law by which this country is governed. The whole of this territory was first discovered and settled by French- men, and charters and ordinances for its goveniment were granted and established by the king of France. By this means, the civil law was extended over the country, and be- cam.e the birthright of its inhabitants, in the same way and by the same means that the common law became the birth- right of the original thirteen States. The country west of the Missisippi was afterwards possessed and governed by Spain, which, as well as France, has the civil law for its code. Thus, in the portion of country west of the Missisippi, the civil law prevailed by a double title ; — both by birth and baptism it became the law of the land. It has never been formally abrogated, yet it is utterly extinct. By the ordi- nance of 1787, for the government of the Northwestern Ter- ritory, the common law was extended over that country; and, by subsequent enactments, it has been established west of the river. Perhaps it was supposed that the system of the common law was so entirely repugnant to that of the civil, as to operate a repeal of the latter. It is, however, more pro- bable that the lawyers and judges, who had been practitioners of the common law, did not inquire if that might be engrafted on the civil, but wholly overlooked the fact that the latter had ever had force there. However that may be, whether by LAWS. 143 some real or supposed efficacy of the ordinance, or by some other means, the principles of the forum have been sup- planted by those of Westminster ; — and the common law, with some statute modifications, is the only law. The character of the legislation is not so good as it might be. The members of the legislature are mostly very young, and uninstructed in the principles of legislation or the ope- ration of law. The enactments are of course neither con- ceived in wisdom nor drawn up with skill. In this particular, however, some of the old states are not at all in advance. The most objectionable enactments of the territories will stand comparison with the laws of Maryland. Society here is yet in that stage when a man's only thought is to gain a subsistence ; and he cannot give attention to the improvement or refinement of his own mind, or of the public mind or morals. By the constitution of Iowa, however, a most extensive and solid foundation for a system of Public Schools in that State has been laid, by the following provisions : " 2. The General Assembly shall encourage, by all suit- able means, the promotion of intellectual, scientific, moral and agricultural improvement. The proceeds of all lands that have been or hereafter may be granted by the United States to this State for the support of schools, w^hich shall hereafter be sold or disposed of, and the five hundred thou- sand acres of land granted to the new states under an act of Congress distributing the proceeds of the public lands among the several states of the Union, approved A.D. 1841, and all estates of deceased persons, who may have died without ' leaving a will or heir ; and also such per cent, as may be granted by Congress on the sale of lands in this State, shall be and remain a perpetual fund, the interest of which, together with all the rents of the unsold lands, and such other means 144 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. as the General Assembly may provide, shall be inviolably appropriated to the support of common schools throughout the State. "3. The General Assembly shall provide for a system of common schools, by which a school shall be kept up and supported in each school district at least three months in every year ; and any school district neglecting to keep up and support such a school, may be deprived of its proportion of the interest of the public fund during such neglect. "4. The money which shall be paid by persons as an equivalent for exemption from military duty, and the clear proceeds of all fines collected in the several counties for any breach of the penal laws, shall be exclusively applied in the several counties in which such money is paid or fine collect- ed, among the several school districts of said counties, in the proportion of the number of inhabitants in such districts, to the support of common schools, or the establishment of libraries, as the General Assembly may from time to time provide by law." The principal employments here must always be those connected with agriculture. The soil, greatly superior as it is to all other within the United States, cannot fail to invite a crowd of laborers to the harvest. But it is better even for grazing than for tillage. The grasses, in several varieties, grow with astonishing luxuriance. Some of the bottoms bear a grass from eight to nine feet high. The prairies have been mentioned and partially described already. The geological structure of these lands was ex- hibited, and the general appearance of their surface indicated in speaking of the physical geography of the Upper Missisip- pi. The prairie lands are similar on both sides of the Mis- sisippi. Conjecture is at fault in endeavors to account for their origin. Two circumstances unite to retain them in PURSUITS. 145 their condition, and prevent the growth of grove and forest over the spaces covered only with the long grass and flowers. The roots of the grass are exceeding tough, and form a sward w^iich keeps down the slower vegetation of the em- bryo forest, which is here, as elsewhere, conceived within the mould of the teeming earth. This sward is so compact and strong, that five or six yoke of oxen are necessary for a breaking team, w^itli a very large plough running on wheels, called a prairie plough. The other circumstance adverse to forest growth, beside the sward, is the amiual burning of the prairies by the Indians and hunters, which has been prac- tised since the country was first visited by the French in the seventeenth century, and is said, by the discoverer of the Missisippi, to be an old custom of the natives. The bodies of timber are almost exclusively on the streams, and the spaces between are prairie ; presenting, at their junction, the similitude of shore and sea ; which likeness, no doubt, in- duced an old sailor (whom 1 know) to fix his residence and build his house on one of these points^ as the projections of the groves into the prairie are called, w^here, in prospect lay before him a wide expanse of prairie " Stretching In graceful undulations, far away As if the ocean in his gentlest swell Stood still, with all his rounded billows fixed And motionless — " The prairie has, for the most part, this undulatnig surface. Some of it is broken by ridges and deep ravines, some only slightly undulating, sufficient to shed the waters, some a dead level as true as could be drawn with a line. Of course some of these tracts of prairie are wet, others dry. On these prairies, so long as the country is only partially settled, 8 146 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. and the lands unappropriated and unfenced, the cattle of the neighboring settler make their summer range, finding the most abundant and the sweetest pastures. At the end of their summer feeding these cattle are all good beef without any stall feeding ; and the butter is the most delicious in the world. During a residence of six years in Iowa, the writer scarcely ever ate butter that was not superior to the choicest butter to be purchased in any of the eastern cities. The prairie grass is also cut by the farmer for his winter feeding, and supplies a coarse but sweet and excellent hay. In most places in the new settlements it is the only hay used. In a few years' mowing, however, the weeds succeed to the grass, and it becomes necessary to go further for the hay, or to introduce the English hay upon the farmer's ow^n grounds. The cost of breaking the prairie is from $1,50 to $2 per acre, at this time, in the older parts of Iowa, and other places where settlements have been made ten or fifteen years. In the newer settlements, it is always higher ; and all expenses of living, and the price of labor, are greater. In the first settlement of Iowa, as high as $5 an acre was paid for breaking. The wages of a farming hand was then from $25 to $30 a month; now, it is about $8 to $10. Provisions then bore about the same proportion to the present prices. The cost of making a prairie farm at this time in the river counties, or in the parts of Iowa known as Scott's purchase, comprising all the country to which the Indian title was extinguished prior to the treaty of 1842, is subjoined : PURSUITS. 147 Price of a quarter section, 160 acres, at $1,25 per acre $200 Breaking forty acres, at $2- - - - - 80 Fencing with post and rails, 5 rails high, 40 acres, or 5280 feet, 6 rails for every ten feet, including 1 to each pannel for post, will take 3168 rails, at about $1 per hundred, say $32 ------ 32 Cost of setting uncertain. $312 The price paid for getting out rails is usually 62 g cents a hundred. If brought from a distance, the transportation will of course increase the price. They are brought down the Missisippi, and sold at the landing at the foot of the Upper Rapids, at $2 a hundred. The cost of a cabin may be set down at $50 to $150; and with stable and sheds, may make the whole amount to $500. Eighty acres of land is quite sufficient, — will yield as much as 200 acres in the east, and, especially while the pas- ture and hay may be taken from the public lands, should be the limit of a farmer's purchase. This would reduce the cost $100, or save him that sum to add to the improvements. The product of an acre ranges from 50 to 80 bushels of Indian corn, from 30 to 40 bushels of wheat, from 70 to 80 of oats. All the roots grow Avith great luxuriance, onions attaining to five or six inches in diameter ; radishes, and the long roots, to double the common size in the east. Potatoes, and other garden vegetables, are of superior quality and abundant yield. The farmers of this country are generally men of good habits, and of good information and sense. They are also hospitable and kind. With the small expense which I have 148 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. set down, and with the addition of a httle farm stock,* a far mer makes himself comfortable, nay, independent, for life. He has, it is true, a rough dwelling, but warm, and his table is abundantly supplied wqth all that is produced on the soil, and generally with the necessaries from the stores. He can have his bread, and potatoes, and beef, and pork, almost without a thought. He knows nothing of the toil, cost and skill requisite to manage a farm east of the mountains. His cattle range the richest pasture in the world, and his hogs find their food in the abundant mast of the groves. His plough merely turns the sod, and no artificial garden mould can be made to rival the fertility and easy tillage of his fields. The only thing that can be suggested unfavorable to the soil of this country is, that its very great productiveness may not be propitious to habits of industry in the cultivator. Standing upon the bluff of the great river, and casting around the eyes of the mind over the transvisual and into the future, I behold, at no distant point of time, but in clear and close prospect, a vast plain, and beautiful more than vast, surpassing in fertility and easy culture the most favored regions of the earth, stretching westward from the Missisippi to the Upper Missouri, and eastward to Michigan ; and from the mouths of Illinois and Missouri northw^ard to 45°, to St. Peter's, and the Coteau des Prairies, covered with a hardy and industrious population, — one great magnificent garden — clothed in green and gold ; smiling with a harvest, the boun- tiful supply to the inhabitants of the whole world. This tract covers six degrees of latitude, comprising about 150,- 000 square miles, or 100,000,000 acres. So very trifling is the unproductive land, that, with a reservation of the neces- sary wood-land and the portion devoted to the support of the * Horses are worth from #40 to $60, cows $10 to $12. These are the best prices when they are put in market. PURSUITS. 149 farm animals, one half of this amount may be put under plough if necessary ; and yielding thirty bushels to an acre, which, saving casualties, is below the average of the wheat crop ; its product would be 1,500,000,000 bushels for a year, or of Indian corn, double that quantity : — and this without the use of foreign fertilizers, almost without toil. The chemistry of nature can do no more to make the earth yield her increase, than has been done here. God has never oifered a richer vineyard to the hand of man to dress and to keep than this which is now spread out in prospect fair and wide, and oifered to the multitudes harassed and anxiously striving for subsistence against the excessive competition of the thronged avenues of life and living east of the mountains, and to the famishing millions of the superannuated hemi- sphere beyond the sea. The Upper Missisippi, surpassing all other districts in agricultural capabilities, is even more superior as a grazing country. I think it not too much to say that a given number of acres here, in the best parts of the tract, would support more than double the number of cattle which the same quan- tity of land will feed east of the mountains. Very superior beef is made upon the summer range, not surpassed by the best stalled meat. It makes butter not equalled by any other feeding. And it is said that sheep increase their size and their fleece upon the prairies. The advantages over other countries for wool growing may be perceived at once by a short statement. The sheep have the summer range upon the prairie without cost, and the expense of their winter feeding is trifling. The prairie hay is put up by the farmers at a cost of $1.50 to $2 per ton. Suppose a thousand sheep will be wintered on one hundred tons of hay, which is near enough to the truth, beside their other food. The cost of one hundred tons of hay will be from $150 to $200. In 150 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. most parts of the country hay is worth at the lowest $10 per ton, and the expense of their feeding would be $1000. Here is a difference, at the least, of $800. Their other feeding would farther diminish the sum total of the expense. In this business of wool growing a farmer may make himself independent for life with $1000 or $2000. The cost of getting it to market at Boston or New York does not exceed one cent per pound, a mere trifle on the value. The exports of wheat, hides, w^ool, beef, and pork from this region may be made to supply the world. There is even now a large excess over the consumption of the coun- try. Great quantities of wheat are converted into flour by the mills of the country, which make the best quality of superfine flour. The advantages for milling are not sur- passed, and the making of flour will, in a very short time, become one of the great branches of industry of the coun- try. Butter and lead will also be heavy items of export. Mining is one of the principal pursuits of the inhabitants of this region. There are probably from tliree to four thou- sand, or more, persons digging for lead in the mineral dis- trict. This tract, as has been already stated, extends over a portion of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois. There are about fifty furnaces employed in smelting the mineral. The veins vary from one inch to one foot in thickness ; and also differ greatly in the depth, or descending extent. A vein of half an inch thick will usually give a profit for working it, in rock digging, where blasting is necessary. The crevices which contain the veins of ore, usually run from east to w^est, nearly, with a small variation. This direction is very uniform ; though some have been found quartering, and a few, chiefly from Mineral Point to Wiscon- sin River, having a north and south direction. Those which PURSUITS. 151 have been found running to this point on the west of the river, are very small veins. There are tv^o modes of digging for the mineral ; by sink- ing a shaft or vertical aperture, which is the more usual ; or by opening a drift, w^hich is the name given to a horizontal cavity. In many cases, in working a shaft in the rock dig- gings, on the west side of the river, the digger goes down more than a hundred feet before finding a crevice. The horizontal angle of the crevices varies from zero to a right angle, the same crevice taking alternately all directions. Some skill is necessary in selecting the spot for operations. The proper ground is known to the experienced miner, by several indications. The form of the surface is one of the signs. The ground has usually a depression transverse to the general slope. There is sometimes a change in the vegetation. A rank growth, in a direct line, of the long- rooted plants, is one of the indications. Pieces of crystal- lized lime are found on the surface, which are familiarly called the lead blossom, and, on digging, detached fragments of rock containing some mineral are usually taken out very near the surface, and sometimes found without digging, called gravel mineral. Black flowers imprinted on the rock, as if by the action of gunpowder, resembling ferns, are also indications of ore. When these signs are sufficient, the miner commences " prospecting," as he calls it. The ore, or " mineral," as it is always called by the miners, is found in crystalline form, from the smallest size visible, to masses of half a ton in weight. It is usually found in black or ferruginous clay. It sometimes fills the whole crevice, and is then called " sheet mineral ;" some- times in detached pieces, and is called " chunk ore." In the rock diggings there is usually a thick stratum of lime- stone overlying the rock which contains the mineral, which 152 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. superior stratum is called the " cap rock." The fissures containing the ore frequently expand into large caverns. They are generally, in this case, found studded with stalac- tites of calcareous spar on the roof. In the clay diggings the ore occurs in detached fragments, and is called "float mineral." The surface of the ground, in certain parts of the mining district, is completely honejxombed with the shafts of the diggers, to the danger of cattle and travellers. The work- men descend into the shafts, and raise their mineral by means of large tubs fixed to a rope and w^indlass. The mineral is very pure, generally yielding about 80 per cent, of lead. An analysis of two average specimens of galena is given in Mr. Owen's report as follows : — 1st spec. 2d spec. Sulphur ------ 16.00 14.63 Lead - - 84.00 85.37 100.00 100.00 Mr. Owen, in his report to the government, gives the fol- lowing statement of the process of mining : — " When a miner sets out in search of lead ore, he usually begins by what is called ' prospecting ;' that is, on those spots where surface or other indications lead him to expect a discovery of ore, he commences digging holes or sinking shafts, usually on the summit or the declivity of a hill. Should he fail in the first attempt to reach gravel mineral, or to come upon any signs of neighborhood to a fissure, he soon abandons the spot, and begins to dig elsewhere. The ground in many portions of the lead districts is found riddled with such pits, called, in the language of the Wisconsin miner, ' prospect holes.' Should he reach encouraging symptoms, PURSUITS. 153 or actually strike upon a vein, or upon detached pieces of ore ranging downwards, he continues his labor, often with very great profit. " When, after preliminary examinations, he decides to sink a shaft, with the view of striking a crevice, he is compelled, until he reaches the rock, to wall up the shaft with logs. " These shafts, of irregular form, usually approaching a cylinder, are generally from four to five feet across. Some- times the rock is soft enough to be quarried with hammer, gad, and pickaxe ; at others, it is found necessary to blast it with gunpowder. " The mode of descending is by means of a rope of raw hide, and a common windlass worked by one or two men. By the same simple contrivance, the ore is raised to the sur- face. Sometimes, but rarely, ladders are used to ascend and descend. " When a miner is fortunate enough to discover a produc- tive vein accessible from a hill-side, he forms a drift, and very conveniently conveys the ore out in wheelbarrows — of course, at a very trifling expense. " The shafts are sunk in this lead region to the depth of fifty, one hundred, or one hundred and fifty feet. They are usually abandoned as soon as the mine is inundated with water, unless the miner, by drifting (that is, working horizon- tally) until the external surface of the hill is reached, can readily drain the mine. There is but a single instance in the district where a mine has been prosecuted after being flooded with water, which could not thus be got rid of — namely, at Hamilton's diggings, near the Peccatonnica, where the mine is readily drained by a small steam-engine. The water in this mine was struck at the depth of thirty feet, and the mine has been worked with profit thirty-five feet below that point. " In the deeper diggmgs, the damp (carbonic acid gas) 8* 154 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. sometimes accumulates in such quantities towards the bottom as to render it dangerous to work. This happens chiefly in the hot months of summer ; and at such seasons the miners are frequently compelled to discontinue their labors. " The means of ventilation yet employed are very simple. A cloth funnel, its upper portion so placed as to receive the breeze and to deflect it into the shaft, is the only contriv ance. " The lead ore, which, with a few local exceptions, is alone found or worked in this district, is the galena, or sul- phuret of lead ; the same species of ore from which nearly all the lead of commerce is derived. " One of these local exceptions, however, is to be found at Mr. Brigham's mines, near the Blue Mounds, wdiere car- bonate of lead is raised in considerable quantities along with the galena. This carbonate is also found in other portions of the district. It is very easily reduced — more so than the sulphuret, inasmuch as the carbonic acid is more readily expelled than the sulphur." The value of the lead sent down the Missisippi annually for several years has been something over one million dollars. A considerable quantity also goes by the lakes to New York : and probably, taking into the computation what goes out in both directions, and ^vhat is used in the country, the whole produce of the mines is one and a half million dollars. It is evident, upon an examination of this statement, that the business of mining is not a very profitable one to those engaged. Taking the whole value to be one and a half million dollars, of which one-third goes to the smelter, we have one million dollars to be divided among, say 3,000 la- borers, or three hundred and thirty-three dollars to each, as the result of the year's labor. But this is very unequally PURSUITS. 155 distributed ; and perhaps ninety in each hundred actually realize much less than this, while a few make fortunes. In the northeastern part of this district, on lands south of Lake Superior, lately purchased from the Chippewas, is a body of copper ore, supposed to be the richest in the world. It is almost pure in some specimens : so that, as taken from the earth, it was wrought into church vessels by some of the French w^io first visited the place ; and a portion of the large rock deposited in the ground of the War Department at Washington has been polished so as to present the appear- ance of sheet copper. Many companies and individuals have taken leases of the govermnent, and commenced operations there. Some of them have had good success, and have found silver as well as copper. This will no doubt soon be an important business, and give regular employment to many persons. The iron and coal will also at no distant time be worked ; and in Clinton and Jackson counties, in Iowa, in the great coal district in Illinois, and perhaps on the Des Moines, in Iowa, wdll be a great number of laborers engaged in quarrying coal, and in digging and working iron. In the territories of Iowa and Wisconsin, which comprise the principal part of the district subject to these notes, the channels of industry are not yet shaped by the small and ir- regular streams that have only partially occupied them. The business of the country has hardly yet taken a direction ; and all the secondary pursuits, trade, the mechanic arts, the pro- fessions, have not acquired the consistency or development of matured form. The professions are doubly stocked ; the other pursuits are many of them not sufficiently filled ; there is that languor in industry and enterprise, necessarily conse- quent upon a rapid growth. The circulation is sluggish — the arteries are not well filled with a healthy fluid. Money is wanting, wealth, means, men, enterprise, are needed, to ]56 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. bring up the business of the country to a parallel with its population. The first has moved on with a slow and laggard step, while the last has pressed on with a series of continued strides outstripping the imagination. Men and capital, men with capital, and men skilled in the arts, and enterprising, are they who are wanting there. Mill-wrights, and millers, tan- ners, and leather-dressers, saddlers, shoe-makers, wool-card- ers, brick-makers, brick-layers, stone-masons, and carriage- makers — traders with capital, knowledge, and liberal views of trade, will all find a broad field and a fair chance. The emigrant comes to this country frequently in his large, covered freight wagon, drawn by four horses, containing his household utensils, called, in the language of the country, plunder : his wife, and girls, and small children, put in to make stowage, and himself, and one or two of the bigger boys on foot, driving the cows and hogs. In this way he travels day after da}^, and week after week, sometimes month after month, stopping by the side of a brook at night, cooking his food with the wood lying near, making his supper Avith spice superior to that of the Indies — a good appetite — and sleeping at night on the bank of the stream, where he had before spread his table : his board and couch supplied by nature. If the weather is inclement, all bundle into the wagon or on the ground, beneath its cover, and slumber there. When he finds a place that suits him for settlement, if it is unoccu- pied, he is of course at no loss for accommodation. He has the same lodging that he had upon his journey, and, being his own entertainer, any defects in the entertainment will not make a difference between such good friends. He lodges in the wagon or by its side, cooking his repast from the faggots lying in the grove, till he has laid up a log cabin for his resi- dence. This is generally constructed of logs as taken from the grove, unshaped, and with the bark on : with a puncheon LIFE. 157 floor, as he calls it, that is, made of split logs not sawed or dressed, with a chimney of sticks and mud, and with one door and one half-window. The chinks of the cabin are stopped with chunks of wood and filled in with mud. In this residence, consisting of one apartment, w^ith a furniture corresponding with the style of the architecture, his family of half a dozen find accommodation, and travellers are lodged w^hen they ask it. Here he lives in content ; breaks up forty acres of prairie and fences it, drops his seed, and, without the expense or labor of spreading foreign fertilizers over his field, has an abundant crop. His bread and potatoes come almost at his bidding. He lives an easy and a happy life, certainly. He treads upon flowers. His path is literally strewn with them. The prairie around his cabin is a flower-garden. The dew, which is only poetry to the man of imagination, and sparkling romance to the novel-reading miss of the city, is to him an every-day reality, bathing his feet when the lark sings to his going out in the morning ; spreading his fields with a silvery mantle, and filling his stacks with a golden harvest. But life in a new country has its privations and hardships. Notwithstanding the ease with which he gets bread, there are many of the comforts of living that he cannot obtain. To the man Avho has been used to them, their loss is severely felt ; but to the roving emigrant, to the real pioneer, they are unknown. He has always hung on to the skirts of civilisa- tion, but without knowing its advantages or comforts ; and, whenever a new purchase has been made, his w^agon-wheel has pointed the way to the settlers coming after him. Thus he passes his life : sojourning in the purchase a few years till another is made, and then hastening away to a new abode to occupy that in turn till a settler upon a neighboring town- 158 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. ship, or a new acquisition from the Indian, furnishes an incentive to move again further west. This first class of moving emigrants, or pioneers, com- monly select for their residence a position in a grove, or dense body of timber, where, by the exclusion of sunbeams, and almost of the atmosphere, a perpetual dampness reigns. This is frequently upon a low bottom, or on the banks of a stream. Though he has no intention of passing his life there, yet the fancied wealth of the timber region, its superior value, as he thinks, over the prairie, decides his choice in favor of that position ; and, neglecting the high, open, healthy prairie, that spreads before him, a sea in extent, a virgin soil unequalled and inexhaustible, where, in two years, he might be the possessor of a rich farm, he seeks the immer- sion of a dense and damp forest, where, with his poor cabin and his habits of life, his exposure and hardship, combined with the atmosphere and the decaying vegetation, the fever and ague is soon added to the list of his comforts, and sets its mark of pallid emaciation on the countenances of the family. This injudicious selection has led to the supposition that the country was more unhealthy than, in fact, it is. The following, from Birkbeck's Notes, is a lively picture of Western life in some positions ; exhibiting the effect of a situation like that above-mentioned : — " Our journey across the Little Wabash was a complete departure from all mark of civilisation. We saw no bears, as they are now buried in the thickets, and seldom appear by day ; but, at every few yards, we saw recent marks of their doings — * wallowing' in the long grass, or turning over the decayed logs in quest of beetles or worms, in which work the strength of this animal is equal to that of four men. Wan- dering without track, where even the sagacity of our hunter- HABITS. 159 guide had nearly failed us, we at length arrived at the cabin of another hunter, where we lodged. " This man and his family are remarkable instances of the effect on the complexion produced by the perpetual incar- ceration of a thorough woodland life. Incarceration may be a term less applicable to the condition of a roving backwoods- man than to any other, and especially unsuitable to the habits of this man and his family : for the cabin in which he enter- tained us is the third dwelling he has built within the last twelve months ; and a very slender motive would place him in a fourth before the ensuing winter. In his general habits, the hunter ranges as freely as the beast he pursues. Labor- ing under no restraint, his activity is only bounded by his own physical powers. Still he is incarcerated — ' shut from the common air — buried in the depth of a boundless forest — the breeze of health never reaches these poor wanderers. They are tall and pale, like vegetables that grow in a vault, pining for light.' " The man, his pregnant wife, his eldest son, a tall, half- naked youth, just initiated in the hunter's art, and three daughters, growing up into great rude girls, and a squalling tribe of dirty brats of both sexes, are of one pale yellow, without the slightest tint of healthful bloom. '' In passing through a vast expanse of the backwoods, I have been so much struck with this effect, that I fancy I could determine the color of the inhabitants if I was apprised of the depth of their immersion ; and, vice versa, I could judge of the extent of the clearings if I saw the people. The blood, I fancy, is not supplied with its proper dose of oxygen from their gloomy atmosphere, crowded with vegetables growing almost in the dark, or decomposing, and, in either case, abstracting from the air this vital principle."— iVo^e5, 138, et seq. 160 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. This description of Mr. Birkbeck may not be exaggerated in reference to some portions of the population. Indeed, it strikingly reminds the writer of some specimens he has met with ; but it would lead to great error if taken as a picture of the country. In other situations, remote from the streams, and on high ground, particularly in the prairies, the country cannot be said to be unhealthy. In all parts of the country, it is true, the fever and ague and bilious fever are rather fre- quent ; but there is also an exemption from some of the dis- orders prevalent in other parts. The usual forms of colds, hoarseness, coughing, sore throat, and pulmonary affections, are almost unknown. Bilious disorders and affections of the liver are the diseases of the country ; but, it is believed, there has been less fatal sickness, and less of prevailing epi- demics, than in most other portions of the country in the first settlement and turning up of the soil. The case described by Mr. Birkbeck was partly owing to situation, but more, probably, to habits of life, and privations and exposure. Apart from the partial causes of disease existing in parti- cular situations, arising from the exhalations of the rivers, the decaying vegetation of the bottoms overflowed and left dry, or the marshy or wet grounds which are not strangers to any country, there is no general unhealthiness in the climate itself. The atmosphere of the country is in an unusual degree adapted to the preservation of health ; as is proved by its effects upon the throat and lungs. The prairies send not forth pestilence ; and what is purer than the breeze from the lakes ? The temperature is variable, it is true ; but the air is arid and the circulation free and brisk, and these qualities forbid that the great and sudden vicissitudes should create disease. These changes are sometimes so great in a brief space as to be incredible. The writer is conscious that it requires an easy faith to believe the assertion that he once HEALTH. 161 knew Fahrenheit to fall from 52 plus to 4 minus in twenty-four hours. The greatest degree of cold in a winter is greater here than on the Atlantic in the same latitude, as the philosopher would judge from his scienc^ without the testimony of a witness. The great reservoir of latent caloric, in the deep bed of the Atlantic, must of necessity mitigate the extreme rigor of the atmosphere from the earth. In a residence of sixteen years on the Missisippi, the writer thinks that no winter passed when the thermometer did not go as low as 24 below zero, by Fahrenheit, in lat. 41^ to 42^. There is not, however, a great deal of snow in the winter, nor is there generally much rain in the summer. In most of the seasons within the WTiter's observation, the crops would have suffered by drought, if it had not been for the abundant dews. The spring is a shorter season here than east of the moun- tains. Wild flowers make their appearance from the 10th to the 15th of April. The fall is a most delightful season. The heats of summer correspond exactly, measuring by the ther- mometer, with other places in the same parallel. But the atmosphere is not so dense, and of course the heat has a greater effect upon the human system, and the rays of the sun, coming with less refraction, produce a stronger glare upon the eye, as well as a more scorching heat in the veins. Next to the air in preserving health, perhaps superior to it, is pure water. This is a limestone countr}^, and of course all the water is impregnated with this stone. The writer is no physician ; — but he considers a limestone w^ater as particu- larly favorable to health. The water is of an agreeable taste, pleasant, and very clear. But the inhabitants have a very disgusting practice of drinking from the rivers and running streams, into which every unclean thing enters. The bucket is thrown from the steamboat within one or two rods of the 162 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST crypt that serves one or two hundred persons. All the dwellers on the banks carry their water from the same pol- luted stream. And if a more fortunate resident on the banks of a creek drinks from a less vitiated source, yet this is not without its share of decaying vegetation and other matters injurious to health. This is a surprising inattention to com- fort and decency, as well as to health, when it is known that a pure spring may generally be struck at twenty or thirty feet from tlie surface. If with this impure and unhealthy habit, joined to the ex- posure from the dwelling, from its insufficiency as a shelter, from unaccustomed labors and hardships, and from the exha- lations of undrained and of newly cultivated country, the amount of sickness and of mortality is not more than double the amount in a like population in other parts, the climate of the country ought to be considered salubrious. A few remarks extracted from " Peck's Guide to the West," inserted in that work as a quotation, have the concurrence of the writer : — " Much disease, especially in the more recently settled parts of this country, is consequent to. neglecting simple and comfortable precautionary means ; sometimes this neglect is owing to misdirected industry, and at others to laziness or evil habits. " To have a dry house, if it be a log one, with the open- ings between the logs well filled up, so that it may be kept warm in winter ; to fill up all the holes in its vicinity which may contain stagnant water ; to have a good clean spring or well, sufficient clothing, and a reasonable supply of provisions, should be the first object of a settler's attention. But fre- quently a little wet smoky cabin or hovel is erected, with the floor scarcely separated from the ground, and admitting the damp and unwholesome air. All hands that can work are HEALTH. 163 impelled, by the father's example, to labor beyond their strength, and more land is cleared and planted with corn than is well tended ; for over-exertion, change in the manner of living, and the influence of other debiUtating causes, bring sickness on at least a part of the family before the summer is half over. * * * * * * * " Many persons, on moving into the back woods, who have been accustomed to the decencies of life, think it is little matter how they live, because no one sees them. Thus we have known a family of some opulence to reside for years in a cabin unfit for the abode of any human being, because they could not find time to build a house ; and whenever it rained hard the females were necessarily engaged in rolling the beds from one corner of the room to another, in order to save them from the w^ater that poured in through the roof. This cabin was intended at first as only a very temporary residence, and was erected on the edge of a swamp, for the convenience of being near to a spring. How unreasonable must such people be if they expect health !" THE PUBLIC LANDS. The immense body of unappropriated and unsettled lands in this country, comprising more than 270,000,000 acres,* is commonly denominated government lands, and in all action upon them, both by individuals and by public bodies, legis- * By the returns in the Land Office, dated June, 1845, which is the latest return, the whole amount purchased of the Indians, and yet in the hands of the Government, not granted to individuals, surveyed and un- surveyed, amounts to 272,825,055 acres. At the time of writing this note, a treaty, just concluded with the Potawatamis, and also another, are before the Senate. These will probably make the amount about 300,000,000 acres. 164 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. lative or judicial, they are treated as the property of the government ; — as if the government held them in fee simple. Such an idea of an estate in fee in the government cannot, however, be sustained upon any recognized principles of politi- cal law in this country. In England, it is true, the doctrine for- merly obtained that the property of all the lands in the realm was vested in the crown, and that the king might dispose of them as pleased him, without restriction. Under our government an original tenure in fee of the lands within the national do- main, has never been acknowledged as an incident of sove- reignty, or as in any way an attribute or prerogative of the government. The government with us is considered to have neither power, domain, prerogative, property, nor revenue, but as trustees for the States, and expressly given by the con- stitution. Such dominion as the government have over the public lands is not original, but acquired — it gives them not an estate in fee, but an interest in nature of a right of possession with a lien or mortgage, for the payment of the expenses of ex- tinguishing the Indian title, of surveying and of bringing into market ; and that interest not in the nature of a usufruct, but fiduciary. The Indian nations who formerly inhabited or roamed over these lands knew nothing of separate property, nothing of estates in fee, or less — they recognized no tenure, or investi- ture of title. Their claim was to a right of hunting. By their treaties they give up that to the government of the United States. And it is all they have to give. They cannot convey more. They cannot convey what they do not possess. They do not convey any absolute title, but relinquish their claim, which is a right of possession merely. No person, or body politic, or community, can convey to another what such person or body has not in itself : nor can any grantee acquire PUBLIC LANDS. 165 any title by grant from another which the grantor did not possess. What is the Indian title ? It is mere occupancy for the purpose of hunting. It is not like our tenures. They have no idea of a title to the soil itself. It is overrun by them, rather than inhabited. It is not a true and legal possession. [Vattel, b. 1, ^ 81, p. 37, and § 209, b. 2, p. 96. Montes., b. 18, ch. 12. Smith, Wealth of Nat., b. 5, ch. 1.] It is a right not to be transferred, but extinguished : regulated by treaties, not by deeds of conveyance. It depends upon the law of nations, not upon municipal right. [J. Q. Adams, Fletcher vs. Peck, Cranch, vol. 6, p. 121.] But beside that the Indians have no idea of individual property in the land, and pretend to no right but as a com- munity, and that founded on a residence or occupancy, that residence itself is not of a permanent nature. They occupy only till they find a more convenient spot, or till they are driven from the one which they select by some neighboring hostile tribe, and then seek another hunting-ground in the vast expanse of unoccupied country before them. In this w^ay the Sauks have passed from the lower waters of the St. Lawrence to the Missisippi. Their last occupation of the mouth of Rock River and the western bank of the Missi- sippi, was made at the period nearly of the American Revo- lution, when they were driven south by the Chippewas. It is only about ten years ago, as stated by Nicollet, that the northern Chippewas drove the Sioux to the south of their old limits, and compelled them to pitch their tents some hun- dreds of miles farther, stretching to the west and south of the Missouri. If, however, it were otherwise, society could not allow that a small community of 5,000 or 6,000, if civilized men, claiming property in severalty, and by a permanent tenure. 166 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. « should occupy exclusively a territory sufficient to sustain ten millions of people. These lands are then in the state in which all lands are originally, and the title to them is to be acquired in the same way in which all titles are at first acquired, by occupancy ; which is as good as title by deed, and better, as an original is better than a derivative title, which all titles by deed are, and which must be resolved ultimately to an original title by oc- cupancy. The settler, then, has a good title to these lands, against all the world, but the government, absolute — and against the government upon the condition of paying the lien for expenses, which has been fixed at Si. 25 per acre. The government neither has, nor can it acquire, by any principle known to the law, a fee simple in the lands. The only way in which it can be acquired is by the settler, by occupancy. Title by occupancy is not only a legal and valid title, but it is the onhj title by which lands are or can he originally held, except where the English doctrine holds, which gives them to the king. In this country they are held by the law of nature until relinquished by the bands of red men, who have resided on them, and then, not belonging to the govern- ment as by the English law they belong to the crown, are open to the first occupier Occupancy is the ti'ue ground and foundation of property, or of holding those things in severalty, which, hy the lata of nature, unqualified by that of society, were common to all mankind. — Black. Com., v. 2, p. 158 ; 26., p. 8. This is not depending on the authority of Blackstone alone, but it is also the doctrine of Grotius, Puffendorf, Locke, Rutherforth, Vattel, Montesquieu, Burlemaqui, Smith, and others, who have treated of natural and political laws. The writers upon natural law say that originally all things PUBLIC LANDS. 167 were in common. That primarily and originally all the peo- ple who were upon the earth had an equal undivided right in the earth and the things that were upon it. Some of these things were by nature incapable of a property in them, that is, of a dominion and ownership by one man, to the exclu- sion of the rest ; — such as the ocean, the air, &c., these must remain in common. Other things are capable of ex- clusive property in an individual, as the earth. The original community of goods in these things that were capable of ownership would become, they say, inconvenient as mankind increased and society progressed. Under this condition of things, " the most effectual way," says Rutherford, "of secur- ing the peace of mankind is by introducing an exclusive pro- perty. * * * The common claim which all men origin- ally had to all things is taken away by the introduction of property as far as this exclusive right extends. * * * * When mankind were few in number, and lived together in the same place, they could easily meet to divide their com- mon stock, and to assign to each other his proper share by eccpress consent, agreement, 07' compact. But after their numbers were increased, and they were settled in different parts of the world, very distant from one another, it became impossible for all of them to meet together. This method therefore of introducing property by express consent was rendered impracticable. Some consent, however, has been shown to be necessary to make the introduction of property consistent with justice ; and a tacit one would be sufficient for that purpose. Such a tacit consent is called occupancy. Indeed occupancy is but one part of the act." • The other part of the act, as stated by Rutherford, is the consent of the rest of mankind, and this consent is presumed if they do not assert their common right and interfere with his occu- pancy. 168 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. " Upon the whole then," says Rutherford, " property can- not be introduced consistently with justice, unless by the common consent of mankind. The consent which is neces- sary for this purpose might either be given expressly when all mankind could meet together, and such agreement is called division ; — or else it may be presumed, in consequence of the future proprietor having, without molestation, taken and kept possession of the thing which he intends to make his own, and such a tacit agreement is called occupancy." " But though either division or occupancy might give pro- perty in the first ages of the w^orld, when all the joint com- moners could meet together, the way of introducing property by division is now at an end. The great numbers of man- kind, and their remoteness from one another, have rendered it impossible for them all to meet, and to divide the common stock of goods, or such parts of the common stock as have not yet been appropriated. There is therefore at present no other method left for beginning property hut occupancy only ; all things which were not appropriated formerly, must now he appropriated hy occupancy or not at all^ — Ruth. Ins., V. 1, p. 42 to 50. Mr. Locke goes much farther. He does not consider any consent, express or tacit, as necessary on the part of the rest of mankind. But he places the right to property by occu- pancy, absolutely in the act of taking possession and improv- ing, on the ground that a man has a property in the labor of his hands ; and this labor being bestowed on an unappro- priated thing, makes it his own. The Indian lands in this country are in the condition as- serted by Rutherforth of all lands originally. They are held in common. The common claim is not taken away in them by the introduction of property. This stage of things lias not yet arrived among the Indians. Under this condition PUBLIC LANDS. 169 the lands are transferred to our government. Before their transfer, thousands of years before, the principle of occu- pancy as giving a title to such common unappropriated lands has been established as a fundamental principle in the original acquisition of property. These lands, therefore, are a subject for the application of the principle ; and they be- come the absolute property of the individual who occupies and improves them. Rutherforth says that before this right of property by oc- cupancy can attach, it is necessary the " thing seized upon should he certain and determinate. '''' In the case of the pub- lic lands, it is always understood to be a quarter section of the public survey. This renders it determmate. But I would add one other condition, and that is, that it is neces- sary also for the occupant to pay to government the expenses of the Indian treaty and the survey. These two conditions complied with, and I believe it impossible to establish any other principle known to the doctors upon natural or politic law, whereby a title to these lands can be acquired, and wholly impossible to show any fair and solid argument against the equity and legality of the title by occupancy, — or the propriety of its application to the lands in question. If Congress, unmindful of this law, and treating the pub- lic lands as if government had the fee in them, shall continue obstinately to persist in the illiberal policy which they have maintained, and which is founded no less upon ignorance of facts, than upon error in law, the time will come when the settlers will disregard the lien of government, and take pos- session of the lands without refunding the expenses of the treaties and surveys. A permanent pre-emption law was passed in September, 1841, by which the occupants of the public lands are secured in their possessions — and every person being the head of a 9 170 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. family, widow, or single man, over the age of twenty-one years, a citizen of the United States, or who has filed a declaration under the naturalization laws, to become a citi- zen, who shall make a settlement on the public lands in per- son, and inhabit and improve the same and erect a dwelling- house thereon, shall be authorized to enter a quarter section of 160 acres, or a less legal subdivision, at the Land Office of the District. The title by occupancy is thus limited by the enactment of the legislature, which defines the extent which the occu- pancy may cover ; — and, at the same time, to that extent, fortifies and confirms the title. The system of public surveys is a very complete admea- surement and marking of the whole body of public lands. As soon as the claim of the Indian occupants is extinguished, the land is first run off and marked in township lines, which are divisions of six miles square. Afterward the township is divided into sections of one mile square, each section and quarter section being marked, by blazing a tree, as the tech- nical phrase is for marking it with an axe ; or, if the corner to be marked is in the prairie, by driving a stake and throw- ing up a sod, marking at the same time on the tree or the stake the number of the township and section. The town- ships are numbered from south to north on a base line, and the north and south ranges are numbered on both sides of an arbitrary meridian, east and west. The sections are num- bered, beginning at the northeast section of the township for number one, running west, and alternately east, terminating with number thirty-six in the southeast corner. Section numbered sixteen in each township is appropriated to schools, and transferred to the States for that purpose. Those lands not entered under the pre-emption law, are offered at public sale, previous to whicli no otlier person, not PUBLIC LANDS. 171 having a pre-emptive right, can purchase. After they have been offered at pubhc sale, they are open to every purchaser at private sale. The price of all the lands is fixed at a uniform minimum of one dollar and a quarter per acre. A bill is now before Congress, providing for the graduation of the prices of those that have been a long time in the market. The graduation of the price of public lands, and a liberal permanent pre- emption law, are objects of the greatest importance to all the west. In the year ending December 1, 1844, 6,693,368 acres of new land were offered in the market, beside a great amount that was then on hand that had been previously offered : of this amount 1,747,158 acres wxre sold, mostly in small sub- divisions of 80 and 160 acres — an excess over both the precedmg years. In 1843, the number of acres sold was 1,605,264. There has been a great misunderstanding on the part of the executive branch of the government, in relation to the value of the mineral lands. Mr. Spencer, when Secretary of War, in his annual report (1843 ?) stated the value of the mineral reservation in the lead district at $50 per acre ! ! ! and recommended their sale at an extravagant sum ($20) as the minimum. Now, the statement already made of the annual proceeds of these lands, shows them to be of no gi'eater value than farming lands ; and if they were put up for sale to-day, at the minimum of $1,25 per acre, a great portion of them would remain unsold. A law has passed Congress at the present session to offer these lands for sale at a minimum of $2,50 per acre. Under this law but a small portion of the mineral reserve will be sold to actual miners, who know its value, though perhaps a good deal may be disposed of to unwise speculators. 172 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. The proposition has sometimes been suggested of ceding the pubhc domain to the States respectively, in which it is included, at a certain price per acre (say 50 cents, or what- ever the net proceeds may be under the control of the United States government), to be paid on the receipt of the proceeds of sale. The advantages of this plan would be, reducing the patronage of the national executive very considerably ; and giving to the State governments in some degree the con- trol of the lands ; who would have power to modify the policy of the land system so as to favor or retard the settle- ment of their own State. The objections to it, among others, would be that it might lead to collisions between the State and National governments, and that the stipulated price (of 50 cents per acre) would never be paid to the United States. This last objection could be obviated by making the land officers bound to the United States, as well as to the State, and requiring them to pay its portion immediately to the United States, without first going into the State Treasury, and giving an action against them to the United States for its recovery. Perhaps such provisions would exclude also the danger of collision between the general and the local govern- ments. One other benefit w^ould arise from it. It might be managed with better understanding, and more economy, by the State governments, and some revenue saved by them for improvements. Under such a plan, moreover, the difficulties attending the settlement of conflicting or doubtful claims, would easily be overcome. There are now between one and two thousand cases of suspended patents, or undecided claims, in the land office, many of w^hich have remained so for years, and which never can be settled without additional legislation of Con- gress. The number of land officers in the United States is 134, subject to reappointment every four years, in the eight PUBLIC LANDS. 173 surveying districts, and sixty-three land offices ; beside sixty or seventy officers and clerks in the City of Washington. All this executive patronage may be dispensed with by the proposed system, except about a corporal's guard at Wash- ington. The knowledge that would be brought into the administration of the land laws by the change, would be a great consideration. By the intimate knowledge which the State Governments have of this interest, a standard for the graduation of prices might be attained, much more accurate than that of mere time. If the surveys were made under the authority of the States, a farther economy may be made in that part of the business, probably. But if the surveys should be made by the United States, the eight Surveyors General, and a large number of officers at Washington, could not be dispensed with. PART V. INDIANS.— MONUMENTS. The Indian tribes now inhabiting the country under our con- sideration are the Chippewas, inhabiting the country toward the sources of the Missisippi, above St. Peter's, and toward Lake Supe- rior. With a small band of less than 200 inhabiting about Black River, they amount to 7,780 The Menominies in Wisconsin, - - - - 2,508 The New York Indians, " . . . _ 3,293 Oneidas of Green Bay, ------ 720 Potawatamies of Huron, ------ 100 Stockbridge of Green Bay, 207 Stockbridge and Munsee, - 388 Dahcotahs (Sioux), 25,000 Winnebagoes, 2,183 Potawatamies, --- - 2,200 44,379 Perhaps the Oneidas, Stockbridge, and Stockbridge and Munsee are included in the New York, and if so, they are repeated, and there should be deducted from the above - - 1,315 43,064 The whole number is therefore, in that case, about 43,000. Of these the greater part, the Sioux, Potawatamies, and the 176 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. Chippcwas of the Missisippi, amounting to about 35,000, are at a distance from the white settlements, and have but httle intercourse with them ; and about 8,000 or 9,000 are near the wliites, and either reside among them or frequently visit them. The Sauks and Foxes, about 2,000, left this district last fall, for the land allotted them by the government south- west of the Missouri. There are several small tribes on the west bank of the Missouri ; and high up that stream the Mandans, Arikarees, and Blackfeet, occasionally pass east of the river, and roam over parts of the district comprehended within our pages. The Blackfeet reside partly within it. The early French travellers to this region mention many tribes who have now disappeared ; some of whom have been known in later times, and others who perhaps have not been heard of except through them. — Charlevoix names the Octo- tatas,* otherwise called Mactotatas, near the mouth of the Missouri, and the Moingonas, on the river of that name ; also, the Peorias, Tamaroas, Caokias, Kaskaskias, and Mitchiga- meas, who were tribes of the Illinois ; Mascotins and the Saulteurs of St. Marie, whose name he gives in their own language as Pauoirigwiwhac, the Nokets on Green Bay, the Ochagras, and the Kickapoos, are frequently named, and the Outagamis, who are the Foxes, and are now called by them- selves Muskwakas. The Isati were mentioned as inhabiting about the Falls of St. Anthony, and perhaps have that name by corruption from Saulteurs, which seems also to have been applied to them. They are probably the Chippeway. It is said by some that the name of the river Theakike was taken from a tribe of that name. All the travellers have spoken of the Naudoessies, so they spell it, who seem to have been the Dacotas, the name applied to them being no other than their * They are called by others Ottoetatas, and may be the people now called Ottoes. INDIANS. 177 own way of speaking Nord-ouest, the name of description used by the French, though singularly enough, they did not recognize it in the Indian change, but received it as an ori- ginal Indian name. It may easily be conceived how the name became fixed on them. When they visited the French settlements, as all the tribes in this quarter did, and described the place of their residence, the French themselves applied the word Nord-ouest, in reference to the situation of their country. In their subsequent visits, to make themselves known from the other numerous tribes who visited them, they used the word which the French had applied to them, as a much more intelligible description to them than their proper name ; and their pronunciation of it was Nordouessy. The term thus became an appellative, which the French mistook for an original name. There was a tribe also called Massisagua, or Massisakwa (for it is not easy to distinguish accurately the Indian sounds), which is the name by which they call the prairie-rattlesnake. The first half of the word is the same as the name of the river, and means, great. The whole word may, therefore, mean, great adder. The last portion of it is, perhaps, the true name of the tribe which we now call Sak, and Saki.* The French make strange work in Avriting an Indian name. Ottawas, they make Ouctawaks ; Wabash, Ouabache and OuabaskiQ;ou. Hennepin puts down the Tintonhas on the St. Peter's, and Hancton (Yanckton) further north on the Missisippi. Lahontan enumerates, on Lake Huron, the Hurons, Outawas, Nockes, Missisaugues, Attikamek, Outchipoues (Chippewas), or Sauteurs (of St. Anthony). On Illinois Lake (Lake Michigan), Illinois, Oumamis, Maskoutins, See Note on p. 118. 9* 178 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. Kickapous, Outagamis, Malominis (Mcnominis), Pouteouta- mis, Ojatinons,* Sakis ; and, north of Missisippi, Naudoessis, Assimpouls (Assiniboins), Sonkaskitons, Atintons, Clistinos, Eskimos. To the west, on the river called Long River, which is St. Peter's valley, he mentions the Panimoha (Paw- nee Maha), now on the Missouri ; Okoros, or Eokoros, near the mouth of Long River ; Essanapes, sixty leagues further up the river ; and the Gnacsitares, still further up. He says : the Eokoros had twelve villages and twenty thousand war- riors ; and that they were much greater before their recent wars. He describes the Mozemlek Indians to the west, on a river which, at one hundred and fifty leagues from his place on Long River, discharges itself into a great salt lake, three hundred leagues in circumference, having at its mouth six large walled towns, and many others around the lake. The people around this lake call themselves Tahuglauk. All this was reported to him by the Gnacsitares, and was, no doubt, not correctly understood. The River Chayen-oju comes from a salt water region, to the north, and empties into the Red River, The Mozemlek may have lived on that, or on the Red River, which discharges itself into Hudson's Bay. The final syllable of their name may have been mistaken for lac, the whole name being derived from some lake in that vicinity. There is a band called Esconabe, to the north and east, in Canada, who may be the same as the Essanape. Both the Mozemlek and Tahuglauk are described as wearing beards and clothing. Charlevoix also relates that he received information of some Indians inhabiting about the Great Lake in the Northwest, which has been before men- tioned, who wore buttons on their clothes, and looked like Frenchmen. I must repeat my belief in the probable occur- * This is spelt, by Charlevoix, I think, Ouiatinons (Weatinons), and may be the tribe of the Miamis now called Weas. INDIANS. 179 rence of some great convulsion of nature, which has destroyed both lakes and men, since that country was first seen by the whites. The Wahpacootas, a band of the Sioux, or Dacotas, now dwell where Lahontan found the Eokoros ; and, higher up, where he found the Essanape and Gnacsitares, are the Wa- petons, another band of the same nation. Farther west are the Yanctons, and beyond, the Teton, or Titonwan, and Yanctoni, all bands of the Sioux. Farther in the north and west are the Chippewas, Assiniboins, Blackfeet, Mandans, Arrikarees, Gros Ventres, and Arripahas. There are eleven bands of the Dacotas. Five of them are named in the last preceding paragraph. The others are the Medawekantons, Sisseton, Santis, Sioune, Ogallala, and Hunkpapa. From the name of one of these bands, probably Sioune, the French called the w^hole Dacota nation Sioux. Formerly, the Assiniboins were a tribe of the same nation, from whom they separated. A tribe was mentioned, by all the travellers, under the various names of Klistinos, Knistinos, and Kristinos. The Illinois, a powerful nation, occupied the northeastern portion of the tract comprised within our limits, residing on both sides of the Illinois River for nearly the whole extent of the State, north and south, and from the Lake to beyond the Missisippi. They were divided into several bands, under the names of Tamaroas, Michigamis, Kaskaskias, Kahokias, Peorias, and Moingonas. Of this numerous and powerful nation, the only remnant is a band of Kaskaskias and Peorias, numbering about one hundred and fifty. By long and bloody wars with the Iroquois, before they were knoAvn to the whites, the Illinois nation had become much reduced and enfeebled. The cession of Louisiana by France to Spain and England, by partition, in 1763, caused much dissatisfaction among the 180 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. numerous Indian tribes, and eventually led to wars among themselves, which resulted, mediately, in the almost total extinction of the Illinois. Pontiac, a celebrated chief of some of the lake tribes, perhaps Huron, had endeavored to stir up all the nations of Northern Louisiana and the lakes to resist the transfer of dominion. He was afterward murdered by a Kaskaskia ; and, in revenge of his death, his friends made war upon the Illinois, which nearly destroyed the latter nation. Of the small remnant, a part were cut off by the Sauks, in the beginning of this century. To the north of the Illinois were the Saukis, on the Wisconsin River ; the Pota- watamis, at Green Bay, together with the small band of Nokes ; and, further up the Fox River, the Musquakis, called, by the Chippewas, Outagamis, now the Foxes ; and, to the north of that river, the Menominis, who remain there to this day ; and, betw^een there and Lake Superior, some of the Chippewa bands. The Winnebagos are not mentioned by that name. Nor do we hear of the Dacotas, or of any of that nation, by the names they now bear ; but, from the place of residence, it is probable that those visited by Lahontan were different bands of this nation. The Menomini country, at present possessed by them, is bounded by the Wisconsin River to the west, the Fox River south, the Wolf River to the east, and on the north by lands lately ceded by the Chippew^as to the United States, by treaty of 1842. The Nokes, at the earliest mention we have of them, consisted only of a few families, scattered here and there, but mostly frequenting the bay of that name in the northwest part of Green Bay. The Malominis, says Charle- voix, have a single village only, on the river of that name. They are a very handsome race, and the best-made of all the nations inhabiting Canada. They are larger than the Pota- watamis. I am assured that they have a common origm with INDIANS. 181 the Noquets and Saulters, and also a language similar to theirs. But they say that they have also a peculiar language of their own, which they keep to themselves. [Char.^ vol. 5, p. 430.] Long says they are of a very light color, and that even before their admixture with the French, they were lighter than their neighbors, — and they are often called the White Indians. The Saukies, though small in number, are divided into two factions, of which one is attached to the Outagamis, the other to the Potawatamis. [Char., vol. 5, p. 432.] When the whites first came to the St. Lawrence, the Saukis were living in the country about its mouth. They afterward migrated to the west, and were found by Hennepin about the bend of the Wisconsin River. They probably extended northward to the Chippeway grounds : as they subsequently had a difficulty with that nation, which resulted in the removal of the Sauks to the south, and their establishment on Rock River. It appears, however, that in retiring south, they did not yield their possessions on the Wisconsin, which they subsequently sold to the United States. The contest by which they were driven from, the Wisconsin to the Rock River may have been about the time of our revolution, as Long and Maj. Marston agree that they came to the latter place at about that period. Here a portion of them resided at the breaking out of the war of 1812, and still remained till the Black Hawk war in 1832. A part of the tribe left the Rock River settlement about the beginning of the present century, and took up their residence on the Missouri, where they have since remained. Some of them have been mixed with the Potawatamis. And the Shawnees are descendants of a seceding band of Sacs. The main body, formerly numbering about five or six thou- sand, gave up their Rock River lands to the whites, and removed west of the Missisippi, which cession was the cause 182 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. of the Black Hawk war. They resided between the two rivers till the last fall (1845), when, according to their treaty of 1842, they removed west of the Missouri. Mr. Schoolcraft gives the following sketch of the contest with the Chippewas, by which they were compelled to retire south : " The St. Croix River, at the falls (says Mr. Schoolcraft), is the battle-ground of Wahbojeeg, a celebrated Chippeway war chief of the last century, and testifies to an event in In- dian tradition. Like most of the incidents in Indian warfare in this region, it is connected w4th the restless spirit, erratic adventure and ambitious daring of the tribes who are this season (1832) arrayed in hostility to the settlements on the Wisconsin. It is one of the links of the curious train of history of the Sauk and Fox tribes who have fought their way from the St. Lawrence thus far across the continent, and been successively embroiled with each of the white powers^ and perhaps with some exceptions Avith each of the Indian tribes of the north. They appear by their language and traditions to be Algonquins, and may be traced, as a starting point, to the north shores of Lake Ontario. They appear to have been driven thence for perfidy. They lived long at, and gave the name to Saganaw. They Avent to the Fox River of Green Bay, which is named after them, and here embroiled themselves with the Menomones, the Chippe- was and the French.* They were finally driven thence by force of arms. They fled to the Wisconsin, Avhere Carver * It does not appear on what authority Mr. Schoolcraft gives the above relation. The character of the Sauks or Musquakas is not perfidious. It is true that the Sauks, if not the Foxes, came from the lower St. Law rence, below the lake But when the first French visited Green Bay, prior to 1700, they found there the Outagamis or Foxes, and at the portage the Sauks. The union of the two bands more probably occurred there, after a contest between them for possession of the country. INDIANS. 183 speaks of their villages in 1766 ; thence to their recent resi- dence on Rock River, and by the last tragic act in their his- tory, are confined to a Hmit commencing west of the Missi- sippi. We speak of the Sauks and Foxes as connected in the gauntlet-like warfare they have maintained ; for they appear to have been intimate allies from the earliest times. The Indian name of the one tribe signifies those who went out of the land* (osaukee), and the other Redearths (Mus- kwakee), known by the nom de guerre of Foxes. " While resident at Green Bay they occupied also Lac du Flambeau, and extended themselves to Lake Superior, and southwest of its shores, to the Sauk and Little Sauk Rivers above the Falls of St. Anthony. While thus located they seem to have fallen out with the Chippewas, and leagued with the Sioux, whom they have of late so strenuously fought. With the aid of the latter, at first covertly given, they maintained the possession of the rice lakes and mid- land hunting grounds. But they were finally overthrown in a general defeat at these falls by the combined Chippewa bands of Lake Superior. The latter came down the St. Croix by its Namakagon branch. They were led by Wah- bojeeg. Their spies reached the falls without having en- countered an enemy, but they unexpectedly found the Foxes (whom they called Ootaighamees), with their alhes, encamped *Mr. Schoolcraft is probably nearly right in the etymology of the names Sauki and Musquakie. In a note to the relation furnished by Maj. Mars- ton, at the end of Dr. Morse's Report to the Secretary of War, it is said, that Saukie means red bank, and Musquakie yellow bank, — undoubtedly an error. Kebesaukie is the name for peninsula. The last half of the word therefore probably corresponds with the last half of peninsula, and means island, which is " out of the land" or a place in the water, given to them probably because of an insular residence at some time in their history. This was my own idea of the etymology of the name before I saw Mr. Schoolcraft's version. Mus mean red, — and he may be right in the derivation of Musquakie. 184 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. at the Other end of the portage. A partial action ensued. It was rendered general by the arrival of the whole Chip- pewa force. It was a fierce and bloody action. The Foxes made a resolute stand. But they were overpowered and fled ; and they have not since reappeared in that region. Among the slain several Sioux were found ; and this is said to be the first actual testimony of the Sioux being leagued with them in the war against the Chippewas. But this as- sertion is hardly reconcileable with the date of the war in other places. Wahbojeeg or the White Fisher, who is noticed as the leader on this occasion, is said to have led out seven other expeditions against the Foxes and Sioux. He died at Chegoimegon, in Lake Superior, in 1793." The Sauks and Foxes took no part in the war of 1812. A body of them left their place on Rock River, and wxnt to the Lake and offered their services to the British. But tak- ing disgust at the atrocities of some of the allies practised upon the Americans, they soon returned to their village, and remained inactive during the war. They are generally a tall, w^ell-made people, with faces expressive of more intellect than would be found in an equal number of whites taken by chance, even with the advan- tages which the latter possess in education. In character and manners they are very respectable and dignified. Brave, pacific, hospitable, honest and generous ; the condition of civilisation, the habit of industry and the discipline of educa- tion, would make them equal to the best men in any country. Their ideas of the social duties are very good ; and it is the custom for one of their principal men to go through the vil- lage daily, at sunrise, exhorting all to do good. Wennebea, who accompanied Maj. Long, was a Sauk of a reflecting and judicious mind, and of a moral disposition. Major Long says, with a view to ascertain what were INDIANS. 185 their (the Sauk) ideas of moral excellence, we asked Wen- nebea what, in their opinion, constituted a good man. He immediately replied, that, " in order to be entitled to this appellation an Indian ought to be mild in his manners, affable to all, and particularly so to his squaw. His hospitality ought to be boundless. His cabin, as well as all that he can procure, should be at the disposal of any one who visits him. Should he receive presents, he ought to divide them among the young men of his tribe, reserving no share for himself. But what he chiefly considered as characteristic of a good man, was to be mild and not quarrelsome when intoxicated. ***** " It is the duty of a good Indian to offer sacrifices to the Master of Life. The business of men consists in hunting, fighting, building their lodges, digging their canoes, taking care of their horses, making wooden spoons, &c. ; while it is the duty of the women to hew wood, to carry water, to plant and raise corn, to take care of their families, and, in the absence of the men, they must attend to their horses, build their lodges, &c. Man's chief and best occupation is hunt- ing. He will never fight unless aggrieved by his enemies, in which case it becomes his duty to resent the injury. A good hunter is held in high esteem, and will obtain as many wives as he chooses, because they know that he can support them, but the good warrior is esteemed the first man in the nation. " A woman, in order to deserve the appellation of good, ought to be endued with most of the qualities which consti- tute virtue among civilized females. To be obedient and affectionate to her husband is her first duty. Kind to all her children, partial to none : affable and courteous to all men, avoiding however the appearance of familiarity with any. Her chastity should be inviolate, even at the risk of death. 186 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. She ought to be industrious, in order that her husband may be wealthy, and able to extend his hospitality widely. # " Wennebea thought that when the Master of Life made the white man, he gave him the power to improve in knowledge and the arts : he taught him how to manufacture all the arti- cles that he wanted, such as cloth, guns, &c. To the red man he gave nothing but his bow and his dog, intending him therefore for no other occupation than that of hunting. " This appeared to be a favorite idea with Wennebea, and from it he drew the inference that the red man was predes- tined to remain stationary, and to live by hunting. " There is probably a similar system of ethics to that above explained by Wennebea, adopted by most of the red nations in the valley , though there is a diversity of national traits ; and the habits and conduct of all may not conform equally well with the standard fixed by their principles. There is also, of course, every shade of individual character, as among the whites. It is very common for white men who go among the Indians, or meet with them, to judge of the character of the tribe or nation from the character or act of an individual ; and the traveller who loses any of his chattels among a com- pany of red men, reports the nation to which they belong as a nation of thieves. That is as sensible and just as if a party of Indians on a visit to W^ashington, or New York, should be robbed of some article, and upon that circumstance should say that the Americans were a nation of thieves. " The red man has usually a great deal of sagacity, shrewd- ness, cunning, and practical wisdom, in part resulting from his want of education. The same thing is observable from the same cause in the white man. Those who study men instead of books, acquire a greater sagacity than those who read much, for the reason that they who devote their time to INDIANS. 187 books, have the less for observation of men ; — and those who meddle not with books, have no object upon which to direct their observation but men, apart from their attention to their particular art or pursuit. " Early in the 18th century a French trader, who went out to the country of the Missouris, made them acquainted with fire-arms, and sold them gunpowder and muskets. With these new weapons their success in hunting was greatly increased, and they obtained plenty of game and much fur. Another trader went to them afterward w4th gunpowder, but the Indians being supplied did not wish to purchase. The trader invented a plan to sell his stock to them. The Indians inquired how powder was made in France. He made them believe that it was sown in grounds similar to their prairies, and that they had crops of it, as of some grain which w^as known to the Indians. The Missouris were pleased with the discovery, and sowed their gunpowder, and were obliged to buy of the Frenchman all he had, to make up their supply for hunting. The trader did not remain till harvest : but the Indians soon found out the trick. Fearing to return himself, the Frenchman sent his partner out with goods to trade with the same people, as the profits of this traffic were too great to be abandoned. The Indians found out that he was asso- ciated with the one who had duped them. They gave him the public hut in the middle of the village to deposit his goods in, and wdien they were all opened and unpacked the Missouris came, and those who had bought gunpowder of his partner took some of his goods ; and the Frenchman found himself soon relieved of his stock in trade, but without re- ceiving an equivalent. He complained to the chief, who told him with great gravity and dignity that he should have jus- tice done to him, but for that purpose he must wait for the gunpowder harvest ; that his subjects had no means at pre- 188 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. sent of paying, but that after that harvest was over, he might rely upon the word of a chief, he would order a general hunt, and that the skins that should be taken, should be used to pay him for his goods, and for the important secret his part- ner had communicated to them." [Bossu, i., 146, et seq.] The Dahcotahs are the most numerous, powerful, and warlike people east of the mountains, within the limits of the United States, except a nation called Pagans, who exceed them in numbers, but do not equal them in spirit and military power. They seem to have been at all times ready to lend their arm and di'aw a bow for other tribes, not as Swiss, nor requiring aid in return, but from a love of war. We find them going in aid of the Foxes to the attack on the Missiga- mis, about 600 or 700 miles ; and again, a few years subse- quent, taking part with the Sakis in that war with the Chip- pewas, when Wahbojeeg compelled them to leave their residence on the Fox and fix their wekeab on Rock River. They are the dread of all their weaker neighbors. They have, at several times within a few years, been embroiled with the Chippewas, the Poles of the north, whose wont is to stand, without regard to odds, and to fall every man on his track, rather than to fly. Besides the Chippewas they have, within a few years, had a difficulty with the Saukies, and they are now in hostility with the Potawatamis, Ottoes, Omahas and Pawnees. The Chippewas, small in person, and of a quiet and meek aspect, have an indomitable spirit, and a prowess that shrinks from no encounter. They are greatly inferior in numbers to their neighbors, the Dahcotahs, and are moreover disunited and scattered, a part of them being joined to the Ottawas, and living east of Lake Michigan : that part within our limits being less than 8000. The Winnebagoes, called by themselves Oshungulas, ac- INDIANS. 189 cording to Maj. Marston, are poor, indolent, and filthy in their persons. They have the hatred of their white neighbors, who suspect them of taking their hogs, and, whether with or without cause, have fixed upon them the imputation of pilfering. They are on very good terms with the Dahcotahs, and of course fear not to be drawn into a quarrel w^th any of their neighbors. The Potawatamis, though living at a distance from the whites, have less of the Indian characteristic than most of the other tribes. They are peaceably disposed, domestic in their habits, and some of them clothe themselves in the manner of the whites, especially the half-breeds. The lowas formerly inhabited a part of the country between the two rivers. They have now gone over the Missouri. They call themselves, as stated by Mr. Marston and others, I-ho-wa. They have a bad character. To questions put by Maj. Marston to the Sauks and Foxes, they answered that they were in alliance with the lowas ; stating, as a reason for it, that they were a bad people, and it was better to have their friendship than their enmity. The answer shows that the Sauks are, in their politics at least, very much like some other politicians that we know of. In the Indian character generally there is the like diversity as among the whites. There are, however, some traits that are prevalent not only in tribes and nations, but which appear to belong to the red man wherever he is found, from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf to lat. 49°. I believe it is common to them all to make the performance of their promise depend upon con- venience and interest. This may be regarded as an Indian trait : though there are many of them who are faithful to their promises, under all circumstances, even to death. The stories of Winona and of Ampato Sapa show that the 190 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. female is capable of the heroism of love, of constancy, to death, and of a nature sensitive in extreme. The history of former days, and occurrences of recent date, show that the warrior is possessed not only of animal courage, but of the truest heroism, and fortitude almost superhuman. The deeds that are related of Pontiac, the descent of the alhed Sioux, Sakis, and others, upon the Illinois in 1752, and the contest of the Chippewas with the Saukis, and other events of past time in the Indian annals, show that they have not been surpassed in bravery by warriors of more enlighten- ed nations. And the instances of recent occurrence show that the spirit of former days still lives with them. Three years since a small party of sixteen Delaware s and one Potawatami were hunting on the neutral ground between the Missisippi and Missouri. When they were about leaving their camp one morning, they were fired upon by a large party of Sioux, and some of their number wounded. They told the Potawatami to make his escape if he chose, but that they intended to fight by their wounded men, as long as one re- mained alive. They did so, and only the Potawatami es- caped to tell the story. More recently, a party of fifteen, of the same tribe, who were trapping otter on the head waters of the Kansas, were attacked by a large party of Sioux and Chiens. The Dela- wares stood their ground until the last man was killed. They are, says the Superintendent, the bravest of the brave. With this excess of courage, they are extremely forbearing, slow to resentment, and acting generally on the defensive. Mr. Schoolcraft, speaking of the Indians of Cass Lake, says the Indians approached in their canoes in a body, with a welcome, which could hardly have been more cordial had we been old friends. They represented their residence to be on a large island bearing southwest from the entrance (Col- INDIANS. 191 caspi, or Grand Island). On approaching it a number of Indians were observed running across an elevation and point- ing to a bay be3^ond. It was the best place of landing. They were assiduous in directing the men to the spot. They ranged themselves along the shore, fired a salute, and then came eagerly to the water's edge, giving each one a hand as he alighted from the canoe. He who has formed his estimate of an Indian from the reading of books, in which he is de- picted as cruel and morose, without any insight into his social character, need only to be ushered into a scene like this to be convinced that he has contemplated an overshadow- ed picture. We found these Indians to be frank, cheerful, and confiding. The present condition of the Indians in this region is very favorable. They have generally lands of most exuberant fertility, have farmers and blacksmiths residing among them by appointment of government, receive large annuities of money and goods, and have schools and religious instruction also provided at the expense of the government. Some of them cultivate the land, and are beginning to evince a taste for the arts and condition of civilized life. The Stockbridges and Brothertowns, living near Lake Michigan, have been na- turalized, and become citizens of the United States. The Oneidas are improving their condition. Many of them are good farmers, and possess the comforts of civilized life. They attend church. The Chippeways, Dalicotahs, and Winnebagoes have schools. The Pottawatamies and Meno- minies are without any. The Sauks also had a provision for schools in their treaty of 1832. The government have also, in some of the treaties, stipulated for the establishment of mills, and these are maintained in some of the tribes, in ad- dition to the farms and blacksmiths. Annual reports are made to the government by the agents, of the numbers and 192 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. condition of the Indians, accompanied by statements of the teachers, which show gi'cat numbers of the children are in attendance on school, and derive much advantage from it. The condition of the Indians would no doubt be much im- proved if the operation of the laws were well understood, and their influence upon the circumstances and upon the disposi- tion and character of the Indian were appreciated by those having the power to change them. But unfortunately, those who see them, if they are disinterested, are without the power to remedy them. If one not bearing official relations to the governm.ent or the Indians, should offer his counsel and com- municate his knowledge to the proper department, it would not be well received ; and even if the Superintendents sug- gest any change, the evils that are described are not perfectly understood by persons whose lives have been always passed at a distance. It is as difficult to make such comprehend the condition of matters among the Indians, as it is to make a foreigner fully understand in a few words the working of our political system. A few men who understand them, it is true, do get into Congress, but ail attempts to set matters right, if made, are overpowered by the great majority who do not understand them, and who cannot be made to understand them by the discussion had upon them on the floors of the capitol. The same difficulty is in the way of a proper dis- position of the public lands. A Secretary of War, some three or four years since, recommended that the mineral reserves should be sold at a minimum of $20 per acre ; while those acquainted with them well knew that if offered at $1.25, the gi'eat body of them Avould remain in the hands of the government. This defect of a practical knowledge in those who are called to shape the laws, has been the cause of a ten years' war in Congress, against a permanent pre-emp- tion system, and a graduation of prices. The discussion INDIANS. 193 upon those matters alone has cost the people hundreds of thousands of dollars, beside a large probable loss of moneys that would have been received into the treasury if they had been adopted ; and at the same time injustice and wrong has been suffered by the settler, and the business of the Land Office uselessly increased by the examination of conflicting claims. So long as a few traders control the intercourse and mono- polize the trade with the Indians, and the lav/s are shaped so as to favor their designs and interests, the red man must, of course, suffer wrong and injustice, in every shape which avarice can suggest, and cunning devise, for enriching the trader at the expense of his less adroit customer. We are not of those who clamor against our own govern- ment, and slander our own worthy fathers, for an imagined ill-treatment and oppression of the red man, which a morbid sensibility only, not a discerning judgment, may perceive. There is neither fraud nor oppression in purchasing the Indian lands for a full value and more than any neighboring tribe would give him. Neither is he injured by removing him from the society of the white man to those scenes that are congenial to his nature, and where he may freely enjoy those pursuits which he fondly imagines will make the hea- ven of the good Indian. But, under the laws regulating trade and intercourse with him, the red man suffers injury, not from the government, but from the traders. It is a matter of some importance, in a state of war between the United States and any foreign nation, that care should be taken to cultivate a good disposition among the Indians on our borders, that our relations with them should be pacific. To ensure this, two things are especially to be regarded, viz.: That our laws controlling our Indian relations be calculated to benefit and give satisfaction 10 194 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. to them ; and that the force of agents be increased. The laws at present existing, governing the trade with the Indians, are void of that wisdom and justice which is necessary to con- vince the Indian of the kind dispositions of our government. I will refer here to one prominent feature of them. It is that which destroys competition. Monopoly is always odious — odious to the buying class, because, destroying competition, it enables the seller to have his own price for his goods ; and odious and unjust to all other persons, because it violates that first principle in a free government, that the citizen is not to be restricted of his natural rights and liberties farther than is necessary for the good of the whole community. There is nothing in which the violation of this principle is more prac- tically oppressive than in the restraint of trade. Trade is a natural right, in which no man should be restricted but for a great and palpable public good. But in no other direction or department of trade is the principle so thoroughly odious, so oppressive, and so likely to lead to results burdensome to the government, and dangerous to the citizen, as in the Indian trade. The Indian shows not his inferiority to the white man so much in anything as in the arts of trade. Even under the circumstances most favorable to the Indian, he will be generally overreached by the white man. Monopoly places him completely in his power ; free and open competi- tion compels the trader to be more moderate in his exactions, and to relax somewhat of the horse-leech appetite which he IS at liberty to indulge Avhen his avarice has full play, and which constantly grows with what it feeds on. There are two plans of obviating the ill effects of this system of mono- poly. The first has been suggested: a free and healthy competition. The other is, the establishment of factories by government, and the sale of goods on. government account, at regulated prices and moderate profits. This last mode, as a INDIANS. 19o n matter of revenue, is not to be overlooked ; as, v^ith the most moderate profits, it might be made to pay the expenses of our Indian agencies. The impositions of trade are, perhaps, the most feh of all the oppressions to which the Indian is sub- ject. It is one of which advantage can be taken both by the alien enemies of our government, and by citizens who feel aggrieved in being cut off from a lucrative pursuit to which they feel they have a right ; and by means of which the Indian may be stirred up to acts of hostility against our people. Another evil of the present system is drunkenness. Mr. D. Jones, Indian Agent at Green Bay, says, in his last report to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs : — " I respectfully call your attention to a subject I submitted in my last annual report, and of which I still entertain a favorable opinion. I mean a system of suttling for the Indians similar to that of the army. If such a system were established, it Avould not only prevent, in a great measure, the introduction of whiskey among them, besides furnishing all their wants at reasonable prices, but would also do away with the annual collection of large sums of money, taken from the Indians at every pay- ment, by the traders for whiskey. I am satisfied that at least one quarter of the annuity paid to the Menominis is col- lected by traders, at the annuity payment, for whiskey." Governor Chambers, in his last report, says : — " I have heretofore taken the liberty, in my annual reports, to express the opinion that our system of trade and intercourse with the Indian tribes is, in this region of country, rapidly destroying them ; and I repeat that they are the victims of fraud and intemperance, superinduced by the large sums of money paid them annually by the government, without proper guards to protect against the superior cunning and avarice of unprinci- pled white men. The dictates of humanity, apart from con- siderations of sound policy, demand from the national legisla- 196 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. ture an investigation of the abuses practised under the present system, and, as I beheve, a radical change of it." Pontiac has already been mentioned, and the part he took in opposition to the transfer of the dominion of the Illinois country from the French to the English. He was born about the begnming of the eighteenth century, and died a few years after that exchange of masters, about the year 1767, killed, it is said, by a blow from a Kaskaskia. He seems to have been possessed of a great degree of bravery and cruelty, if the deeds of his savage forces and allies were countenanced by him. He is said to have been an Ottaw^a, though this is not certain. By some he is called a Huron, others say a Sauk. He belonged to some of the tribes about Lake Michigan, but further I have not seen an authentic statement. He appears to have had great influence with all the tribes in the neighborhood of the Lake, Ottawa, Huron, Miami, and others, though his power failed to induce them to take up the tomahaAvk to resist the English domination. His hatred to the English seems to have been instinctive and invincible. His designs were great, and his energ}'' and boldness sufficient for all occasions. He was not without that very frequent accompaniment of Indian character, treacheiy. A hundred men possess the qualities, where one acquires the character, of a hero. It is necessary that accident and circumstance concur to bring the qualities to the observation of the world. Pontiac was favored in this respect. The nations of red men in that quarter had not lived in harmony the most per- fect. From the Dahcotahs on the west to the Iroquois, east, and from the Hurons on the Lake, to the Ohio, for a long course of years, bloody wars had carried almost extermina- tion to some tribes and nations. A single generation had witnessed the numerous and powerful Illinois nearly swept from the land. This was a school to make a warrior, and INDIANS. 197 opportunity to bring out the hero. Besides the part they had in this savage warfare, they had joined the French in their successive w^ars of this period, and had seen the mihtary art in its scientific and formidable shapes, w^ith the aid of tactics and strategy, and its attendants of cannon and all the weapons of civilized war. Pontiac was made of the metal to improve under this teaching, and he accordingly came out of it as good a specimen of the Indian hero, as any other, perhaps, of whom we have knowledge. Muckatah Mishakiahkiah (the Black Sparrow Hawk), the Sauk chief known in our day, usually called Black Hawk, was in person below the middle size, of that nervous tempe- rament which unites strength with activity, and crowns the union of these faculties with courage and a spirit that seems never exliausted, and cannot be subdued. At the age of fif- teen, on an occasion of some outrage committed upon a por- tion of the Sauks by some Indians of a neighboring tribe, he followed the band of avengers, who pursued and chastised the foe, and entitled himself to the rank of a brave. He was frequently engaged in hostile encounters, and had become the first warrior of the nation. Not liking the treaty of 1830, by which the chiefs of the Sauks had ceded their lands east of the Missisippi, and having other causes of irritation, as already mentioned, he commenced that system of hostility known as the Black Hawk War, the result of which is given in the historical part of this volume. He seems not to have been cruel or treacherous, but to have tempered his courage with generosity and humanity. He had less opportunity than Pon- tiac to display before the whites his heroism, as he had also not so great a school in which to leam the art of war. He was probably the more amiable man of the two. A strong attachment to their friends was common to both. A high order of intellect belongs to the Sauk tribe, and a man could 198 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. not gain much distinction or influence among them without this quahty. These two warriors have obtained as much fame as any others whose deeds were done or life passed within the hmits of these notes. I have mentioned the error of the laws regulating trade and intercourse with the Indians. There is a great and radi- cal error in the plan of civilisation. The attempt is made to reduce the roving and free spirit of the child of the forest at once to the drudgery of a systematic, continued industry, to the toil to which man is reconciled in the civilized condition only by his urgent wants, and his restless desires and ambi- tion. But the red man is without the incitements, he feels not the wants, and of course will not assume the burden and labor, of civihzed life. Why should he change his whole habit and system of life, and giving up ease and liberty, take to himself toil and slavery ? His condition does not require it, and his nature, spirit and habits, all revolt at it. But at the same time that he is invited to this disaojreeable change, he is impelled to an acquaintance with artificial wants, by sending clothing, comforts, luxuries and gewgaws to him ; and his ambition is raised by these displays, and cherished by reading. It is all precocious and impractical. It is like attempting to make a child walk erect at once, before it has made the primary locomotive process by crawling. Civilisation will not come per saltum. It is a creature that neither will fly nor leap. It is the creature of artificial wants and extra-natural appetites ; those again are the creatures of habit, and habit in its turn is generated by circumstances. Through all these conditions man must pass in his progress to civilisation. Instead, therefore, of attempting to bring the red man at once into the unnatural state of civihsation, it should be done by degrees. He should be placed in an intermediate state, where the wants are fewer and the labor MONUMENTS. 199 less intense. He should be invited to a pastoral life, rather than to the more toilsome and more intricate and skilful labors of agriculture. Let government, instead of the farm- ing implements and the articles furnished through the traders ; and preceding the schools, give them sheep. It will not be so opposite to their habits ; so above their skill ; or so revolt- ing to their spirit, to tend the flocks. The occupation v^^ill give them an article, v\^ool, which will suggest new w^ants, clothing, They will appropriate it to those wants. Those wants gratified, and a surplus of a valuable commodity left to them, they will create new w^ants, and will exchange that commodity for something to supply the new want, gratify the new desire. In this way by steps they will acquire both the wants, and the ways and means, of artificial society. But they will neither fall nor jump into them. • Some of the tribes have indeed passed very rapidly from the wild state to civili- sation ; but a transition state is more natural, more whole- some, and will in the end produce greater results, both nume- rically and morally. There is a very singular monument, or collection of monu- ments, of an unknown race, an unrecorded time, and an unexpressed purpose, existing in this country. These are conical elevations of earthwork standing in the prairies, or sometimes crowned with a grove, of very regular shape, from five to ten feet usually, in height, or sometimes more, and from thirty to fifty or more in diameter, having a circular base. They are usually found in groups or collective ranges, some half dozen or more being placed in line, in con- tact or close contiguity at the bases, extending usually from east to west. By what people constructed, at what time, or with what design, have been involved in doubt. It seems, however, that their design must have been for receptacles for the dead. These monuments are very frequent, and the 200 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. writer has met with them in many places, in a small compass within forty or fifty miles of the Missisippi. Their perfect regularity of shape, size and direction, forbid the idea of a natural formation. It is said the present inhabitants know notliing of them, and have no traditions, and therefore the inference is drawn that they were the works of another race, who had become extinct before the tribes now there possessed the country. To my mind, however, the inference is not a legitimate one. The Indian traditions are of the creation, the deluge, the first appearance of man and woman upon the earth, great eras connected with the formation and peopling of the earth, and kindred to them. But of the extinction of tribes or nations by war and pestilence, and the inhumation of heaps slain by disease or battle, they pass down, I believe, no story. If these were constructed but a few centuries ago, the living descendants of the people who reared them might be now uninformed of their date or object. Mr. Locke has given an account of some very singular works of this kind in the likeness of quadrupeds, which has been printed in the Appendix to the Report on the geology of the mineral district, by David Dale Owen. Mr. Locke's account is subjoined, as a part of the Appendix to these notes. APPENDIX. (A.) GEOLOGY. The country under consideration is of the secondary forma- tion, consisting of the mountain Hmestone group, and princi- pally, in some parts almost exclusively, of the cliff limestone. It bears marks too distinct to be overlooked, of having been once submerged. The shape and peculiar smoothness of the surface at once gives this idea, which is confirmed on inspec- tion, by finding among the superior strata near the surface, stone composed wholly of fossil marine shells. The uniform slope of the land, also, is another evidence of the same fact. This feature has been mentioned in describing the physical geography. It is about as regular from the Gulf to St. Pe- ter's, as the bed of the sea upon one of our sand beaches, and in the whole distance of more than 1000 miles, does not much exceed a rise of 1000 feet, or one foot to a mile. At the sources of the Missisippi and St. Peter's, we reach the height of land between the Gulf and Hudson's Bay, the Avaters of Red River, which run into the last, starting almost in contact with the two others. Indeed the passage can be made in boats at seasons of high water, from St. Peter's to Red River. It may be therefore regarded as a certain fact, 10* 202 APPENDIX. thai formerly the sea covered this whole valley, from the Gulf to Hudson's Bay, dividing North America into two con tinents, of one of which the Alleghany, of the other the Rocky mountain range formed the nuclei. This would seem to be at a very remote period, as there are indications that it has been inhabited at an antediluvian period. Pieces of pottery have been found in different places, more than fifty feet below the surface, in digging wells : and this position can hardly be accounted for, without supposing a great dis- turbance of the upper strata of the earth, and also a con- siderable lapse of time. There is a very abundant deposit of coal in several portions of the valley : beside the large Illinois coal field : generally regarded as evidence of an ante- diluvian vegetation. According to Mr. Guion, there are large beds of coal on the Des Moines. The erratic deposits are found upon the surface upon very distant points in this region. They are mentioned by Nicollet upon the Tchan- sansan and Tchankasndata, as well as high upon the St. Peter's , and the author has observed them upon the Wabe- sipinicon. Mr. Schoolcraft says the rock on the southern shore of Lake Superior consists of granite, slate, and sand- stone. The country bordering on the Missisippi, within the inha- bited portions of Iowa, and below, is chiefly a mountain limestone. In some localities, as already mentioned, are strata of fossil cretaceous formation, composed mostly or wholly of shell. At the top of the bluff at Burlington, at about 150 or 200 feet above the mark of high water at the usual stage of the river, covered only w^th a thin layer of chert and vegetable mould of a few inches, is an encrinitic limestone which may, from appearance, be altogether of this shell. And, at Iowa City, the same shell composes a very soft, fine-grained marble of a dingy-white color, which re- GEOLOGY. 203 ceives a fine polish, and is a highly ornamental and valuable stone. There is also a soft, black, variegated marble, like the Egyptian, and some other marbles in the southern por- tion of Iowa, betw^een the Des Moines and low^a. In some parts of this district bituminous coal has been found, and on the east side of the Missisippi is an extensive bed. Further north, about the Wabesipinicon, is a region of iron, then the great bed of galena or sulphate of lead, and in the farther north the copper district. This is probably the richest mineral region in the world ; and to the geologist and mine- ralogist, an extensive and profitable field of research. The banks of the Missisippi contain great quantities of the pre- cious stones, wdiich are washed out by rains and carried down by the stream. In some places, within four or five years, the writer has found some very beautiful agates and cornelians in the streets of the towns ; and, in a stroll of an hour on the shore, has loaded his pockets with them. There are several very accurate and complete descriptions of the geology of this country. And, instead of attempting to give my own account of it, I shall embody in this part of my work the published account of Long, Owen, and Nicol- let, &c., which, together, include the greater part of the country w^iich is the subject of this volune. My own obser- vation of the country, geologically, being very cursory and partial, and the survey of these gentlemen, all scientific men, furnishing a very satisfactory description of the country in this respect : I transcribe their observations in extenso, Mr. Nicollet's observations extended over a large portion of this region, and his remarks below give us the result in several different localities. He says : " The region comprised within my map is covered by a species of deposite of the kind for a long time known by the name of diluvium ; but, as this word implies a theoretic idea 204 APPENDIX. as regards the accumulation of such deposits, the cause of which is still open to controversy, it is now very generally abandoned, and the designation of erratic deposits, among others, adopted in its stead. I have, therefore, used the latter expression, as comprehending a vast deposit of sand, gravel, pebbles, clay (arranged in zones, and occupying almost always the bottoms), and masses of rocks transported to a distance from their original position, usually called erra- tic blocks. This deposit always occurs between the vegeta- ble soil and the rocky strata of all ages that constitute the geological basis of each section of country. To the north and to the south of the western portion of Lake Superior, as far as the upper half of St. Peter's River, it overlies prima- ry rocks ; south of the St. Peter's, to the west and east of the Missisippi, it covers silurian rocks ; whilst, on the Upper Missouri, it rests upon a cretaceous formation, everywhere mixing itself with the detritus of the rocks in place. The thickness of this deposit is very variable ; sometimes only quite superficial, and, when of a more important character, from 150 to 160 feet in depth. It is met with, indifferently, with its erratic fragments, on the summits of hills, on the upland plateaux, over the plains, and in the valleys. It has contributed towards levelling the original irregularities of the soil, by filling up hollows ; or varied them, by transporting over the country new materials ; whilst the subsequent action of water and weather has further brought about its charac- teristic features. " The erratic blocks of this deposit are not generally rounded, but they are still boulders. Those which have the rounded appearance, most usual to boulders, among a great many that I had an opportunit}^ of examining, owe it to their exposure to the atmospheric agents which have worn them down. This is made evident by examining those portions of GEOLOGY. 205 tliem which are buried in the soil, and, in this way, protected ; their angles and corners show but little erosion. On the other hand, wherever there is a deposit of pebbles, its origin may be easily traced to local causes that have acted long after the arrival of the eri'atic deposit now under considera- tion. " It is difficult to determine the direction whence the ma- terials of the erratic deposit came. The presumption is, judging from the nature of the erratic blocks — the analogues of which are found in higher latitudes — that they were brought from the north to the south. " On the borders of the great lakes, on the flanks of valleys, and where traces of recent floods are apparent, the erratic blocks are in great abundance. Their size varies from a few inches to a few cubic feet ; yet this seems to bear no relation to the distance whence they are supposed to have come. On the contrary, it appears that the largest are often found in the highest spots, and at a greater distance from their origin. I did not find them more abundant on the northern slopes of hills than on the southern. Their oryctognostic distinctions are — granitic sienite, resembling the Egyptian red granite ; a true sienite, with white feldspar ; a granite, with a large proportion of feldspar ; gneiss, amphibolite, red jasper, quartz pebbles, and a great variety of agates and cornelians. These last are carried off" by the streams, and scattered in great numbers over the shores of the Missisippi and Missouri ; but they have no value, and are collected by travellers merely as reminiscences. The sand and gravel are composed of the small fragments of all these rocks ; the sand, though varying according to places, being principally siliceous. It is this sand which constitutes the predominant ingredient in the soils of the whole region embraced in the map, modified according 206 APPENDIX. to localities by the presence of carbonate of lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, &c. *' The uplands that border on the rapids are based upon the mountain or carboniferous limestone, as the contained fossils indicate. The limestone, of a dirty color, and much broken up, is the matrix of numerous siliceous and calcareous geodes. These fine geodes, picked up by all travellers, are found on the banks of the rapids, having fallen from the adjoining bluffs. Within a iew years, there has been a road opened leading to Warsaw, and, being cut off from the bluff, has exposed to view the stratum in which the geodes occur, and their position therein. They are observed to be slightly compressed, their greater axes being parallel to the stratifica- tion of the limestone, which is horizontal. As I have col- lected a number of them, I shall describe, mineralogically, a few of those that have appeared to me the most interesting in their mineral association, viz.: — 1. Siliceous geodes, the cavity of which is filled with pris- matic crystals of limpid quartz (quarz hyalin). 2. Siliceous geodes, filled with crystalline quarz, the pyra- midical terminations of which are of a red color. 3. Siliceous geodes, filled with crystallized calcareous spar (variety, en tete de clou of Haiiy). 4. Silico-calcareous geodes, with rhombic calcareous spar. 5. Silico-calcareous geodes, with confusedly crystallized calcareous spar. 6. Siliceous geodes, enclosing calcareous spar and crystalline sulphuret of zinc. 7. Siliceous geodes, containing mamelonated chalcedony, of a red color. *' These geodes vary in size from four or five inches in diameter to twelve or fifteen. " The following section exhibits the several subdivi- GEOLOGY. 207 sions according to mineralogical and oryctognostical distinc- tions of character at Burlington, and in the descending order : — 1. Superficial soil - _ - 2. Chert - 3. Yellow limestone, with spatic encrinites and productae --___. 4. Calcareous argillaceous marl, with few fossils 5. Siliceous limestone ----- 6. Oolitic limestone, with productae - - - 7. Bluish clay ------ 8. Yellow compact limestone . - - - 9. Compact siliceous limestone, with veins of cal- careous spar ------ 10. Oolitic limestone - . - - - 1 1 . Saccharoidal blue limestone, with veins of cal- careous spar, and impressions of small orthis and strophomena ----- " The valley of the ' Red Pipestone' extends from N.NW. to S.SE., in the form of an ellipsis ; being about three miles in length, with a breadth, at its smaller axis, of half a mile. It is cradle-shaped, and its slope to the east is a smooth sward, without trees and without rocks. Its slope to the west is rugged, presenting a surface of rocks throughout its whole length, that form a very picturesque appearance, and would deserve a special description if this were the place to do so. But I am now more particularly interested in defining its geological features. " The principal rock that strikes the attention of the observer in this remarkable inland bluff is an indurated [metamorphic) sand-rock, or quarzite, the red color of which diminishes in intensity from the base to the summit. It is 25 feet. 2 u 10 (C 3 11 2 li 2 u 3 n 3 n 8 ii 1 11 1 2 11 208 APPENDIX. distinctly stratified ; the upper beds being very much wea- ther-worn and disintegrated into large and small cubic frag- ments. " The whole thickness of this quarzite, which immediately overlies the bed of the red pipestone, is twenty-six and a half feet. Its strata appear to have a small dip to the NE. The floor of the valley, which is higher than the red pipestone, is formed by the inferior strata of the quarzite, and, in the spring of the year, is most generally under water ; the action of which upon the rock is apparent in the great quantity of fragments strewn over the valley, so as to render it uncom- fortable to walk over them. The creek, by which the valley is drained, feeds, in its course, three distinct small basins, at different elevations, that penetrate down as far as the red pipestone. " This red pipestone, not more interesting to the Indian than it is to the man of science, by its unique character, deserves a particular description. In the quarry of it which I had opened, the thickness of the bed is one foot and a half, the upper portion of which separates in thin slabs, whilst the lower ones are more compact. As a mineralogical species, it may be described as follows : compact ; structure, slaty ; receiving a dull polish ; having a red streak ; color, blood red, with dots of a fainter shade of the same color ; fracture, rough ; sectile . feel somewhat greasy ; hardness not yield- ing to the nail ; not scratched by selenite, but easily by cal- careous spar ; specific gravity, 2.90. The acids have no action upon it ; before the blow-pipe it is infusible per se, but, with borax, gives a gi'cen glass. " According to Professor Jackson, of Boston, w^ho has analysed it, and applied to it the name of catlinite, after Mr. Catlin, it is composed of GEOLOGY. 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X = -1< •Aita-bj3 ogpadg 1— ( lO o o o 1-i rH ci (ji 00 o o o o o in •lunupisaa siioooniS OT 1-4 o in 1-5 C» CO CO CV S^ O o o o o •uninpisai snouiuiuiy d d in si r4 1 ,2 ' 1 s o x v. o ^ "3 Ci-> »n o d „ O JO cs' e S 0)0 c •i s ' .§ .§ So C! <- 1 n-C >. s.i: CO s =* c 75 =« (D * -^ rH ■^ •lf«5(lB Ul in o o o o 00 aiqnps aajiwui oiut^Sjo "* d M « CO 1" •Saii[nq Aq ssoq in Ln p ec in M ci -^ rA ■♦J a cS ^a -6 " .i u s 1 1 S5 -- C tS O- 1 S S§ s ". ^ 1 • i 3S S ^ "S 3 3 Sm *** - 0> li 1 ^,5 1^ *- si's a 03 95 o o o 1 in " 5 S £ ^ It 1 if- ■Is 1 111 « in -J^ £ " 03 a "5 in o CO °6 § -a^" tD 0) *" ll c ^ *-> cti ^ S-s §" c5S . »« QJ ^ +* s ° a 'i= '-■^ ^ s > i^ >; V §-l Pi" 02 fa < H 02 ;i i^H »? ec •* in l^H i-H F- 1 i-H r-^ ^_: « o *-^ !H — *^ 'i 5 ■■= ° s ° s so 0.2 £0-5 — o I 2 50 'x *^ 13 • si - »« o S 25 efl q;> -4-a to fl CS O .a w 266 APPENDIX. " To a correct appreciation of the results obtained from the above table, it may be remarked, that the organic matter of the soil (sometimes called geine) — the food of plants — the substance, which, by the action of air and water, has been prepared, or is in course of preparation, to enter into the circulation of the plant, — is that portion of the soil which chiefly communicates to it its prolific qualities ; and that, all other things being equal, a soil may be expected to be pro- ductive, in proportion to the amount of organic matter it contains.* " This organic matter is in part soluble, and in part inso- luble, in alkali. The soluble portion of it is supposed, with much plausibility, to be that which is abeady prepared to become nutriment for plants ; the insoluble portion is regarded as that which, by the action of air and moisture, and other influences, will hereafter become so. " If this theory be an accurate one, it follows that those j^oils which contain a large proportion of soluble organic matter will be fertile for the time ; but that they must also contain a good supply of insoluble geine to preserve their fertility. And thus the column of soluble organic matter in the table is that which measures the present productiveness, and that of insoluble organic matter that which indicates the durability of the soil. " The salts which enter into the composition of a soil are considered by agricultural chemists as its stimulating ingre- dient. Chaptal, in his ' Chemistry applied to Agriculture,' sa3'-s (a little fancifully, perhaps), ' The salts are to plants, wliat spices and marine salts are to man.'t It is certain that " * An exception to this rule, which should not be overlooked, exists in the case of bog or peat soils ; which, however, possess in general but little soluble organic matter." " t Dr. Dana improves on this idea. He says : ' The earths are the plates, the salts the seasoning, and the geine the food of plants.' " GEOLOGY. . 267 the salts in any soil exert upon the organic matter a chemical action, and contribute to regulate and facilitate the process of nutrition. Without an adequate supply of saline material, then, a soil lacks one of the essential ingredients of fecundity. " To form an estimate, from the above table, of the quality of the Wisconsin soils, it is necessary to compare its results with similar results obtained in countries in which, by actual culture, the value of the soil has, to some extent, been proved. The difficulty here is, that such analyses of soils have very rarely been made or recorded. Professor Hitch- cock, in his Report, of the year 1838, on the Economical Geology of Massachusetts, furnishes a valuable table of this kind, exhibiting the analyses of one hundred and twenty -five specimens, which, as he informs us, may be considered as about the average quality of the soils of that State. He adds : ' As this is probably the first attempt that has been made to obtain the amount of geine in any considerable number of soils, we cannot compare the results with those obtained in other places. They will be convenient, however, for comparison with future analyses.' " And they do accordingly furnish data for a comparison, both interesting and important, between the soil of Massa- chusetts and that of Wisconsin. " The following are the results obtained from Professor Hitchcock's table : Average quantity of soluble geine (organic matter) ------ 3. 90 per cent. Average quantity of insoluble geine (organic matter) - - - - - - 3.70 per cent. Average specific gravity of soil - - - 2.44 " 268 . APPENDIX. " My own table, as will have been remarked, shows the results for the soils of Iowa and Wisconsin to be — Average quantity of soluble organic matter - 4.80 per cent. Average quantity of insoluble organic matter 5.13 Average specific gravity of soil - - - 1 .84 " The first result which strikes the eye is the large amount of organic matter in the Iowa and Wisconsin soils, compared with those of Massachusetts — nearly one-third greater. " The second is the great specific gravity of the Massa- chusetts soil, compared with those of Iowa and Wisconsin — nearly one-third greater. " A more careful inspection shows that the amount of organic matter is, almost to mathematical accuracy, in the inverse ratio of the specific gravity of the soils. " It would be a hasty inference thence to deduce the con- clusion that soils are rich in geine, in proportion to their specific lightness ; yet the coincidence, in this respect, is marked and worthy of attention. " If further analysis of soils in various portions of this and other countries should exhibit similar results, it would appear that a simple trial of the specific gravity of a soil may, in a general way, furnish an approximating test of its fertility. " Be this as it may, the dark mould which prevails over a large proportion of Iowa and Wisconsin, so rich in geine, and of so small specific gravity, has proved itself, wherever the farmer has trusted to its certain returns, instead of attempt- ing the more hazardous venture of the mine, an excellent and productive soil ; especially adapted to the culture of every species of culinary vegetables and small grain, and produc- ing, probably, as good Indian com as the State of New York, or any other State of the same latitude. " It will be observed, from the table, that the power of GEOLOGY. 269 absorption is generally in proportion to the amount of geine and the lightness of the soil.* " This is an important item to the cultivator. Lands pos- sessing this power in a considerable degree readily absorb the dew in dry weather ; and, in Avet weather, do not suffer the superfluous rain to accumulate on the surface. " A striking feature in the character of the Iowa and Wis- consin soils, as the table shows, is the entire absence, in most of the specimens, of clay, and the large proportion of silex. This silex, howxver, does not commonly show itself here in its usual form — that of a quartzose sand. It appears as a fine, almost impalpable, siliceous powder, frequently occurring in concreted lumps that resemble clay ; and, indeed, it was often reported to me incorrectly as clay — an error ultimately detected by analysis. " This almost impalpable powder, the chief constituent and almost sole residuum of the Iowa and Wisconsin soils, is so highly comminuted, that, when examined under the micro- scope, for the most part, its atoms present no crystalline or even granular appearance. " This fine siliceous residuum, after being boiled with strong aqua regia, lost but 10 per cent. ; of which but 5 per cent, was alumina. " This absence of any material per-centage of clay in the soils under consideration prevents the rolling lands from washing away ; and it imparts to the streams a crystal clear- ness, which even after heavy rains is hardly disturbed. The appearance of these transparent rivulets flowing over a soil, " * ' In general, the more finely the parts of a soil are divided, the better they absorb water.' — Chaptal. " This applies particularly, as the sequel will show, to the soils in question." 270 APPENDIX. wliich wlien moistened by rain is often of an inky blackness, arrests, by its singularity, the eye of a stranger. " Whether the lack of clay in the Iowa and Wisconsin soils will render them less durable, may be doubted. A coarse sandy soil, the open pores of which suffer the rain to percolate, carrying with it the nutritive geine from the surface, requires an admixture of clay before it can become rich and durable ; but the minute grained siliceous powder of this dis- trict forms a species of soil entirely different from the above — one w^hich, without any such admixture, retains moisture and geine in much perfection. " I believe it to be peculiarly adapted to the groAvth of the sugar beet, which flourishes best in a loose fertile mould, and which has of late become, in some European countries, an important article of commerce. It is estimated that the amount of beet sugar manufactured in France during the last year was 100,000,000 pounds, and in Prussia and Germany 30,000,000 pounds. In the western part of Michigan, in as northern a latitude, and in a climate similar to that of Wiscon- sin, 240,000 pounds are reported by the papers of that state (how accurately I know not) to have been manufactured du- ring last season. " In concluding this brief notice of the soils of this district, which I regi'et that time does not permit me to extend, I may add, that I know of no country in the world, with similar mineral resources, which can lay claim to a soil as fertile and as well adapted to the essential purposes of agriculture." (B.) Extract from Mr. OwerCs Report to Congress. *' EARTHWORK ANTIQUITIES IN WISCONSIN TERRITORY. *' I present this subject, not as a discovery, but merely to add such evidence to the discoveries and pubhcations of others as seem, from the doubts I have heard so repeatedly expressed, to be necessary to convince the majority of readers of their correctness. In the 34th volume of ' Silliman's Journal,' is a communication from Richard C. Taylor, Esq., on the sub- ject of these idenical works, in which he describes them as being ' in the form of animal effigies.' The figures given by Mr. Taylor are so unlike any ancient tumuli in other parts of the country, that I had, ever since noticing them, felt a strong desire to examine the originals. On entering Wisconsin, I was so engaged in other pursuits, that I had forgotten the ' effigies,' until, upon examining the ' sandstone bluffs,' eight miles east of the Blue Mounds, I literally stumbled over one of them, overgrown with the rank prairie grass. I was at once convinced of the correctness of Mr. Taylor's representa- tions, and not a little astonished that some well-informed per- 272 APPENDIX. sons there, in the midst of these strange groups, should still pretend to dispute their artificial origin. The same ambition to exercise an independent judgment might lead the same individuals to dispute that the ruins of Herculaneum are arti- ficial ; the same argument might be used — ' that they just come so in the earth.' Without going into any discussion in regard to the origin, history, or design of these figures, I shall merely represent their form and dimensions with as much accuracy as a very particular sun'^ey of a few of them ena- bled me to attain. I shall not even pretend to say that they are like animals ; for this the reader can determine for him- self. I have not attempted, in any degree, to represent them as they might once have been, but exactly as I found them on the day that I surveyed them. " The method pursued in making the surveys is represeni- ed in plate No. 1 , Antiquities. Here, for convenience, I make use of the names of the parts of an animal. The figure deli- neated is the foremost one of the two, between which the road passes, and which are on the verge of a small prairie, about ten miles east of Madison, the capital of Wisconsin. Small stakes were set in the following points, viz : the eye, the fore foot, the shoulder, the hip, the hind foot, and the end of tlie tail. The angular positions of these and other points were determined by measuring, with a tape measure, the sides of the several 'triangles which those points form, in such a man- ner that the determined side of one triangle shall be the base of a new one. After the determination of all the triangles, their several diameters and distances were measured and noted ; and, finally, to determine the bearing of the whole figure, the magnetical bearing of the line from the hip to the shoulder was registered on the field-book. The following is a copy from the field-notes, in reference to the above figures : MONUMENTS. 273 Triangles. Eye to shoulder, - - - - Shoulder to foot, - - . - Fore foot to eye, - - - - Eye to nose, _ _ _ _ Nose to shoulder, - - - - Eye to point half way between the ears, Shoulder to same point Shoulder to hip Fore foot to hip Shoulder to hind foot Hind foot to hip Hip to the tip of the tail Hind foot to the tip of the tail a Diameters. Of the neck . . _ Of the fore leg - _ - Of the body Of the hind leg - . _ Of the tail . - - - " Distances. From the eye to the front From one ear to the other From shoulder to armpit From shoulder to back From hip to rump From hip to flank From hip to insertion of the tail Length of the throat 13* Feet. Inches, 23 0 29 4 37 8 20 4 35 10 11 0 24 10 38 4 57 0 47 8 28 10 38 0 41 6 Feet. Inches 13 0 11 0 14 7 9 9 8 0 Feet. Inches. 7 6 14 0 9 9 8 4 7 0 9 7 7 6 12 0 274 APPENDIX, " Observations. — Ears distinctly separated. Two trees, sixteen inches in diameter, growing in the nose. Ground sloping gently towards the feet. Both the fore and hind legs curved a little back\vards. The tail a little hollowed on the upper side. Height, or relief of the figure above the natural surface, about three feet ; and the back somewhat steeper than the belly. Bearing of hip to shoulder N. SS*^ W. " It will be seen, by examining the above notes, that they determine twenty-five points in the circumference of the figure ; and that the connecting of these points by lines, and thus completing the outline, permits no exercise of imagina- tion. The figure from the earth is simply transferred to the paper, on a scale of the one hundred and twentieth part, in linear dimensions. Seven other figures were surveyed with the same degree of particularity, and the distances between them and the relative positions of the same group accurately noted. " The ' military road' from Prairie du Chien to the Four Lakes, after crossing the Wisconsin River, and ascending a small tributary, occupies the height or dividing ridge between the waters of the Wisconsin on one side, and those of Rock River and some smaller streams on the other, for the distance of eighty or one hundred miles, occasionally descending into a moderate valley, and crossing a small rivulet, a head branch of some of the incipient streams. Most of the route is on a high open prairie. From the Blue Mounds eastward to the Four Lakes, the country abounds with the earthwork antiqui- ties, of the origin of which the present aborigines are as ignorant as ourselves. About seven or eight miles eastward from the Blue Mounds, the road descends into the valley of a head branch of Sugar River, a tributary of Rock River ; MONUMENTS. 275 and here, near a bluff of sandstone, of a very picturesque and fantastic outline, commence our particular descriptions. '^ There is a group of works about eight miles east of the Blue Mounds. It is on the great road from Prairie du Chien, through Madison, to Lake Michigan — a road so decidedly marked by nature, that I presume it has been the thoroughfare, the ' trail,' the great ' war-path,' ever since the region in the vicinity has been inhabited by migrating man, and will continue to be his pathway until the hills and the rivers exchange their places. The sand-bluff surmounted with pines is here a picturesque object ; and the streamlet and springs not very distant, with a few scattering trees for fire, have long made it a camping ground. Mr. Taylor has represented only one of the two 'effigies' which occur at this point ; the other was probably so overgrown with grass and small hazel-bushes as to escape his observation. Our encampment was near this place ; and in the midst of some discussion with regard to the tumuli, they were opened to see whether they were stratified, and whether the black mould continued underneath them, even with the surrounding surface. No. 2 was composed of sand, w^ithout any change to mark an original surface below, although it is now over- gi'own with gi'ass, and is covered with a thin black mould. The wdiole of this descent, near the bottom of which the figure lies, has evidently been formed by the disintegration of the soft incoherent sandstone bluff contiguous ; and at the time of forming this tumulus, it was very probably destitute of loam at this point, as it now is at a point still nearer the bluff. A section of the embankment near the gap exhibited a thin line of this loam, even with what might be supposed to have been the original surface of the groimd. Alluvial stratification is positive proof that a formation is not artifi- cial ; but the absence of a base of mould is not positive 276 APPENDIX. proof of ihe same thing ; for llic constructors may have removed the surface on commencing their work. Many of our tumuH liave not only a base of m.ould marking an origi- nal surface, but ashes, coals, bones, and artificial implements deposited at the bases of tumuli, of various forms and heights, from two to seventy feet. " In examining the tumuli of Wisconsin, I did not at any place discover a ditch or cavity from w^iich the earth to con- struct them had been taken. They abound along the natural road, occupying the fertile and commanding hill-tops, and the gentle slopes into the valleys ; being uniformly raised from a smooth and well-formed surface, always above inun- dation, and well guarded from the little temporary currents produced by showers. " The backs of the ' effigies' were uniformly placed up- hill, and the feet downward, as at the sand-bluff. There are some points on the surface of soft ground where we naturally expect chasms, ruga3, mammillary points, and undulations. These occur from the uprooting of trees, from avalanches, from the settling of banks, from the action of temporary streams and currents of water. Mammillary points are often left along the sharp crest of a hill, and insular mounds are not unfrequently left in low alluvial bottoms — certain points of upland having withstood that action of the currents which has carried away and degraded the surface to a lower level. But there are other situations where we expect to find, and do actually find, the surface evenly graded into smooth undulations, as on the dividing tables between the heads of streams, and in the tops of moderate hills, where no current has room to accumulate ; and especially if the same region be prairie, w4th the surface protected by the strong roots of wild grasses. " Just such a situation is this part of Wisconsin where the MONUMENTS. 277 geologist suddenly and unexpectedly meets with these groups of gigantic basso-relievos, which appear to him as decidedly artificial as the head of Julius Caesar on an ancient coin, not- withstanding anything which may be imagined or said to the contrary. [Another] " figure is about one mile and a half from the blufi" above described. It appears to be solitary ; lies on a low, level, smooth ground, and seems to have been muti- lated ; the parts which I have called the legs seem to have been partially washed away. If intended to represent an animal, the head is evidently too large, and the attitude very stiff and rectangular. But I have drawn it as I found it, without any inclination to make it more like an animal than it was made in the original design, with all the defacements which several hundred years have imprinted. The distance from this third figure to the next group is diminished on the plate. It is really one-fourth to one-third of a mile, where, on our progress towards Madison, we approach the termina- tion of the valley in which our figures, so far, have been sketched. Here, upon the side of a hill sloping gently to- ward the road, are three figures, and an embankment ; the sizes, distances, and relative positions of which have all been drawn to a uniform scale of forty feet to the inch. " Leaving the group last described, and proceeding still eastwardly towards the Four lakes, we ascend a ridge, and pass out of the valley containing the six figures [above des- cribed]. The road for about two miles lies over broken, thinly-timbered ridges ; beyond which it crosses a small prairie, and again enters woodland. Just at the entrance of this woodland are two [other] figures. The pathway passes, with scanty space, between the nose of the one and the tail of the other. These are the most perfect, if we consider them as ' efiigies' of animals, of any of the figures here re- 278 APPENDIX. presented, and are singularl}'- alike in their form and dimen- sions. A short distance (500 or 600 feet) to the west of them is a natural swell of ground, with an artificial tumu- lus on the top of it, overlooking the two figures. " If these figures were originally intended to represent animals, they might have been much more distinct and speci- fic than they now are. It is obvious that any minute deline- ations must soon be obliterated by the agency of the weather. Most of them have the upper part of the head, the ears, or antlers, apparently too large — at least it appears so in the drawings. But this part, in the originals, is not raised from the ground so high as the other parts, and appears like several small parts trodden down and blended together. In the eighth figure, especially, there is a decided notch or separation still remaining between the two horns or ears. They are the favorite resort of badgers, which, finding them raised and dry, have selected them for burrowing ; and it is wonderful that they retain their outlines so perfectly. But, above all other creatures civilized man will obliterate them the most speedily ; and it is much to be regretted that the multitude of extraordinary figures raised like embossed ornaments over the whole of this part of the country, could not be accurately measured and delineated before they shall be obliterated for ever. The reader will please to observe thai these observations were made, as it were, by stealth. I had other duties to perform, and was enabled to take these measurements by an enthusiasm which awoke me in my tent at midnight, assisted me to prepare my breakfast before day, and sent me into the cold bleak fields on a November morn- ing, to finish the admeasurements of a whole gi'oup of figures before the usual time of commencing the labors of the day. I had no time to turn aside to examine still other groups, evidently more extensive and interesting than those which MONUMENTS. 279 v/e have endeavored to represent. Mr. Taylor has repre- sented the effigies of birds, and one of the human figure, as occurring here ; and I am happy, with a full conviction of the general accuracy of his representations, to call the reader's attention to his interesting paper. " On one of the hills I saw an embankment exactly in the form of the cross, as it is usually represented as the emblem of Christianity. Some of the surveyors brought in sketches of works in the form of birds with wings expanded ; and I heard of others in the form of lizards and tortoises. From what I have seen, I should think it very probable that these forms are to be found. But, in order that their existence should excite in the public that interest wdiich, as relics of ancient history, they really possess, they should be so ex- actly surveyed and depicted that their representations can be relied upon with confidence. I object to the very careless and imperfect manner in which most of our antiquities have been examined, by wdiich they have been rather guessed at than surveyed. Although I have given a pledge not to undertake to make animals of these figures, yet, to the eyes of all, except very sagacious people, they will look very like animals ; and the question will arise, what kinds of animals w^ere intended to be represented ? In the originals, the size is so great, and the outline more or less obscured by herbage and undershrubs, that the impression of an effigy is much less decided than when the same is dhninished and brought into one point of view, in which all the parts are under the eye at once. A comparison of the difference of expression, form, and attitude, does not strike one at all in the originals, while it is very decided in the diminished copies. Mr. Tay- lor suggests that those w^ere intended to represent the buffalo, though he acknowledges the representation to be imperfect, especially in wanting the ' hump.' It appears to me that the 280 APPENDIX. figures 1, 2, 3, and 6, might have been intended as effigies of the bear ; the chimsy proportions, and want of the caudal appendage, appear Uke that animal. Figures 5, 7, and 8, have decidedly an expression of agility and fleetness. They may have been intended for the conger, or American tiger — an animal still existing in that region. The only general disproportion to that animal is the length of the head." (C) CATALOGUE OF SOME OF THE PLANTS OF THE UPPER MISSISIPPI [Mr. Geyer''s List, loitli Additions.'] Platanus, Sycamore. Catalpa. Several species of Anemone. Aquuligia, Delphinium, Thalictrum, Menispermum, Nymphaea, Sanguinaria, Nasturtiums, several species. Arabis, Cardamine, Dentaria, Erysimum, Draba, Lepidium, Cleome. Polygala, Violet, several varieties. Grass of Parnassus. Columbine. Larkspur. Meadow Rue. Moonseed. Water Lily. Bloodwort. Wall-cress. Ladies' Smock. Toothwort. Winter cress, hedge mustard. Whitlow grass. Cress. Milkwort, 3 species. 282 APPENDIX, Hypericum, Arenaria, StcUaria, Spcrgula, Linum, Geranium maculatum, Oxalis, Celastrus, Euonymus, Rhamnus, Ceanothus, Vicia, Lathyrus, Phaseolus, Glycyrrhiza, Psoralia, Amorpha. Pelalostemon Dalea. Astragalus, Bastard Vetch. Lupinus, Cercis, Potenlilla, St. Johnswort. Sandwort. Stitchwort. Spurry. Flax. Cranes' bill. Wood sorre] Grape. Staff tree. Spindletree. Buckthorn. A variety of this genus is used for tea among the Chinese poor. Red root. New Jersey tea. Vetch. Vetchling, everlasting pea. Kidney bean. Liquorice root. There are several species, viz., esculenta, argophylla, cuspidata, lanceolata, — called by the Canadians pomme de prairie, pomme blanche, and pomme de terre. Milk vetch, many varieties. Lupin. Rcdbud. Cinquefoil. PLANTS. 283 Strawberry, Rosa, Crat^gus, Epilobium, CEnothcra, Circaea, Myriophyllum, Hippuris, Ribes, Ribesia and Grossularia, Hydrana^ea. Sium, Aralia, Cornus, Galium, Aster, Erigeron, Solidago, Ambrosia, Xanthium, Helianthus, Helenimn, Achillea, Senecio, Artemisia, Soncbus, Lactuca, Phellandrium Aquaticum, Fragaria. Rose, blanda and lucida. Hawthorn. Willow herb. Tree primrose, many var., — serrulata, ceespitosa, albi- caulis, pinnatifida, biennis. Enchanter's nightshade. Water millfoil. Mare's tail. Currant and gooseberry. Water parsnip. Spikenard. Dogwood. Bedstraw — allied to madder. Starwort, 10 var. Fleabane, 6 var. Golden rod, 8 var. Bitterweed. Clot burr. Sunflower. Sneezewort. Millfoil. Ragwort, 4 var. Wormwood, 7 var. Sow thistle. Lettuce, a new species not in Herbarium ; arid banks of a lake formed by James' River. Fine leaved water hemlock, an active medicine, delete- 284 APPENDIX. Leontodon, Mentha Viridis, Pulegium, Piperita, Wahu, Cornus sericea, (( ii Eupatorium perfoliatum, Ranunculus bulbosus, Aquatilis. Cymbalaria. Sceleratus. Repens. Abortivus. Vitis riparia, Hieracium, Bear grape. Vaccinium tenellum, Lobelia, Campanula, Ash, Apocynum, Asclepias, Gentiana, Phlox. Heilotropium, Lithospermum, rious ; horses, on eating, become paralytic. Dent de lion. Spearmint. Pennyroyal. Peppermint. Indian arrow. Red willow, swamp dog- wood ; the liber is used by the Sauks for smoking, called Kinicanik. Thoroughwort, boneset. Buttercup. River bank grape vine. Hawkweed. The sugar whortleberry. Several var. Bellflower. Fraxinus. Indian hemp. Wild cotton, swallowwort. Gentian, 8 var. : the lutea, most esteemed in medi- cine, not one. Turnsol. Several species. The roots PLANTS. 285 Myosotis, Hydrophyllum, Lye opus, Monarda, Hedeoma, Solanum nigrum triflorum, Physalis, Pentstemon, Mimulus, Gratiola, Veronica, Pedicularis, Verbena, Lysimachia, Glaux maritima, Utricularia, Plantago, Amaranthus, Chenopodium, Salsola, Saiicornia, Rumex, Polygonum, Laurus benzoin, Eleagnus argentea, of some afford a lac for dyeing and painting. Scorpion grass. Water leaf. Water horeliound. Mountain balm. Wild pennyroyal. Nightshade. Ground cheiTy. Several species. The grandi- florum, a beautiful species about 3 feet high, is found at Prairie Du Chien and other points. Monkey flower. Hedge hyssop. Speedwell. Lousewort. Vervain. Loosestrife. Saltwort. Bladderwort. Plantain, 5 var. Amaranth, prince's feather. Goosefoot, wormseed. Saltwort. Glasswort. Dock, 4 var. 40 var. (Persic, buckwheat). Spicebush. Oleaster. A shrub from 8 to 12 feet high, producing IS6 APPENDIX, Sliephcrdia arg., Euphorbia, Callitriche, Urtica, Parietaria, Morus rubra, Ulmus Americana, " Fulva, Ostrya, Salix, Quercus, Juniperus, Sisyrinchium, Cypripedium. Convallaria, Uvularia, Allium stel., " angulosum. Erythronium, Trillium, Smilax, Triglochin, Polamogeton, a dry, farinaceous, edible drupe, about the size of a small cherry. Similar to above, called by the natives rabbit berry. Berries small, red, cluster- ed, succulent, acid. Resembling cactus, 5 var. ^ Water star. Nettle. Pelhtory. Red mulberry. American elm. Slippery elm. Also one or two other species. Hop-horn-beam. Willow, many species. Oak, many var. ; white, red, black, mountain, overcup white oak, burr, chinqua- pin, &c. Juniper. Blue-eyed grass. Lily of the valley. Lily, yellow hly. Garlic. Dog's tooth violet. American herb Paris. Green briar. Arrow grass. Pond weed. PLANTS. 287 Arum, Sparganium, Junciis, Tradescantia, Alisma, Cyperus, Dulichium. Scirpus, Carex, Alopecurus, Panicum, Stipa, Agrostis, Poa, Festiica, Bromus, Triticum wheat, Elymus, Atlieropogon. Sesleria, Lepturus. Crypsis, Beckmannia, Andropogon, Struthiopteris, Equisetum, Baptisia tinctoria, Podophyllum, Wake robin. Burr reed. Rush, 4 var. Spiderwort. Water plantain. Cypress grass. Club rush. 8edge, 10 var. Foxtail grass. Panic grass. Silk grass, feather grass, long awned grass. Bent grass. Meadow grass, 4 var. Fescue grass. Brome grass. Dog wheat. Wild rye. Also, a new spe- cies of Ely. Or a new ge- nus between rye and bar- ley. Moor grass. Thorn grass. Arrow grass. Beard grass. Fern. Horsetail. Wild indigo. May apple, otherwise called 288 APPENDIX. Silene, Ladies' slipper. Cassia marilandica, Datura stramonium, Black root. Rattlesnake's master Jerusalem artichoke Humulus lupulus, Hazel. Oxycoccus macrocarpus, " hispidulus, mandrake, wild lemon, duck's foot. Wild pink. American senna. Devil's apple, Jamestown weed, thorn apple. Hop. The red cranberry. White do., similar to gaultheria, or partridge berry, called mountain tea, used as substitute. (( u Acer, Maple. " Sugar Maple. Juglans, " Scaly Bark Hickory, J. Cortice squamosa. " Pignut Hickory. Bitternut Hickory. Swamp Hickory. Black Walnut. White Walnut ; or, Butternut, Locust, black, white, honey. Cedar, red. Pinus, Pine. " white. " yellow. Juglans cinerea. (< (( PLANTS. 280 Piniis, black. '• spruce. Prickly Ash, Xantlioxylliim Fraxineum. Wild Plum. Wild Cherry. Crab Apple. Raspbeny. Blackberry. Dewberry. Sumach, Rhus Hemp. Isopyrum. Actaea rubra. Uvaria triloba. Leontice. Corydulis. Dielytra. Sisymbrium. Stanley a. Capsella. Polanisia. Hudsonia. Claytonia, Chickweed. Xanthoxyllum, Am.er. Rhus triloba. Sida, coc. Hosachia. Oxytropis. Phsea. Homalobus. Desmodium. Schranbia. Darlingtoma. Pencedanum. Polvtoenia. Osmorhiza. Syraphoricarpus . Vernonia Liatris. Kuhnia. Boltonia. Gutierrizzia. Aplopappus. Grindelia. Chrysopsis. Silphium. Iva axil. Echinacea. Rudbechia. Lepachis. Copeopsis tinct. Dysodia. Gaillardia. Hymenophyllus. Antennaria, everlasting. 14 290 APPENDIX. Ciiamaerodos. Geum. Amelancliier. Gaura, coc. Menzelia, orn. Zizia, aur. Thaspium. Navaretia. Convolvulus stans. Evolvulus Arg. Echinospermum. Onosmodium. Ellisia. Lophantus. Physostegia. Androcera. Chelone. Monniera. Gerardia. Othocarpus. Castilleja. Orobanche. Oxybaphus, Umbrella Wort. Kochia. Obione. Atriplex. Cirsium, 4 var Nabalus, 3 var. Lygodesmia. Troximon . Forestiera. Acerates, vir. flo. Collomia. Comandra. Peristvlus. Spiranthes. Ammianthium. Zigadenus, Helonias. Elocharis. Muhlenbergia. Yilfa. Calamagrostis. Arundo. Spartina. Aristida. Catabrosa. Koeleria. Glyceria. Uniola. Polypodium. AvSplemum. Marsilea. DISTANCES, ELEVATION AND LATITUDE. 291 (D.) 1 s Ot o <]> 6 'S?, V ; 1 — 1 ■^ d O X3 O o • I— t »-l •<-> -(^ Vl ui? G o r5 "^ 13 O 'X2 -^ 3 5- t-> ^ -H O 0) o .-1 O) • ^ ^ fc^ fe;^^ • 1— ( o & m ■^ O CJ o uo i-o O O o ci ^:§ ^ C^ CO Tj- r-< CO T-i CO 1^ ^ o ,— 1 .QO O o r- CI t> 1— ( o .4^ • s g 'bD a ^w o •^ CI o C! Ci T-H T—i 1— 1 • ^H ^ £ o 05 T-f -H O O Ci Ci CV o o O hI 0 CO 05 C5 Oi Ci 00 CO 00 Ci a o on t— H ^ CO O l> o O O t't' Ci rr- GO in 1 CI CJ CO C( CO d CO •<* Cl ^ m O j^ ^ f CI CO oo !> Tt O GO cr> V CD ■B <;o pfiTS o CO d U-O CO 1— 1 O CO Ph HO Oi 1— 1 i-i CI CO O O l> 1> GO c J «» '^ 0 CJ CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO < o i—i to %^ ^•00IX9I\[ **-> C! '^ . O 1 CI 1 C? CI 1> 00 o % ^ « JO ji'no 9iU CJ CO CO CO a> <1 aAoqB s9pn;iiiv -4J 1 s^ •00TX9J\[ Co o T-1 ■o '^ -^ •^ O CO -Tf o '-0 r~ V_0 1-H — 1 O c o CO Ci o o w o o SO •^3 a .5 o aqi uio.IjI "*^ ^ CO "^ o 1> t-H C} CI *\ .\ #s CO CO o 3 So •90Btd o; aoB^d moij l>3 o O O -Xi CO O C3 CI '-I O T-H ■^ i— 1 CJ '^ O ^5* d CO '-H CO o CO o q -3 • I— I 1 1 1 1 o r. 1 1 1 1 be c m o > #N ^ c3 ^ •T3 1 « 1 1 — 1 *-' o '-^ 1 — 1 G o " o ^ 5 GO '*- , .2 'l^ 'B ^ g § o ^5 1 s OS® a) ^.2 1 — 1 -1 > O) tH ^ '-I t> , B ^ 292 APPENDIX. (D.) — Contiimed. CD a o O r^ t-i o c o CL, o V2 'fee G o i> o o o o o ^3 o 'T3 O 'T3 O O O ^6 o r— * • o ^ I o o CO CO CO 05 O o CO Ci CI (M 05 O ^ O Ci o o o o I O '!# Ci CO O CO O a :: c) CO o CO -j< o •nT CO o !> •* o CO a o CO o o o ^ 1—1 l-H CO CO CO Ti< ■f o CO CO JO jpr) 9ir; 9A0qB S8pn;p|y o o !> 00 o o o 00 o 1 ^ v: o -i-j T3 a ^ >> ^ s 0) •+-■ o •ooixai\[ JO JPO aq; moj j O 3i O C3 CO o o? t^ c? CI CO CO !> t~ Ci o; eoB^d UIOJjJ CO O rl CO CO Tt T-I o > CO 1^ o a o CI CO o o ' CD a CD > a* 'c o x; c 1^ c x: CO »\ Xi" •-1 "o > b-< T= Q » s Q 2 CD CS a; > o o o « o Xi a o 2 o o Ph o CO '^ r* o CO CO 00 CO GO O I t^ CO Oi o CI ■4-> CO 1 0) ■4-> j3 •-■ o o , C m rt ;:::^ S feS 5 > "^ . c P5 J3 o s -a c:3 o ■ S 3 o a a. ^72 a- DISTANCES, ELEVATION AND LATITUDE, 293 ( D . ) — C ontinued . d odd 06 odd oodo do o 0 UO 0 00^ 0 0 UO CO 1-1 VQ CO ■^ 1 1 0 T-H 1— 1 1 OJ 0 Tf 1 1 0 1 1 cy CI CO uo CO CO T? tH c^ C^* I— 1 I-H rj a Of CO CO '^ Ti* 0 0 a> 000 Oi CJ CJ 1> CD 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 CO CO CO '^ Tjl C>J VI 0 T-l CJ CO -^ 0 CI 00 UO CD '^ 0 1 1 1—1 CO 1 CO Tj< 0 •^ -^ '^ -^ ri< -^ 1 0 1— t 1— 1 V.J l-O "* 1 CO 1 1 1—1 0 CO . 0 -* 1 CI rr- 0 0 0 ,3 0 1 , Ci 0 CO (N I— 1 t- 0 C~ £> 00 0 00 C-' «-i 1—1 y-i 1-4 1—1 1—1 CJ 0 y^ GC 0 C> 0 0 CJi 1-H 1-H 1 1 ■^ 0 1 ,-1 0 0 1 1 0 1—1 Ci ■^ CO 0 0 1 — 1 r-l —1 T-l «\ «\ #\ CJ c* CO CO (M (M 01 CJ CJ CI CJ CI Ot cT (••^ !> t^ fp CO C( CJ 1 1 00 0 0 c> 0 1 1 CJ Tj- 1 CO Tl< t-l ir-l 1—1 1-H ■^ •- 1 X 2 v; 1x1 0 1—4 0 1 1 1 CD 0 1 1 0 c u > 1 1 1 0 ^ ' 1 1 be > 1 V r— 1 • ^^ a 1 0) (1) 1 0 1 a -0 1 0 SH- IS m 1=1 0 0 '3 c > CD • i— < 0 > Pi sippi Mountain island, or trempe a I'Eau of the Miniskah River, or Whit Reminicha (Montagne la French) upper Pepin Top of Reminicha Lahontan River, the rr River of the American of the French) St. Croix River, the mou St. Peter's, the mouth - 0 > 1 — 1 S G 0 Indian agency s Pilot Knob, the to Falls of St. Anthony, U. G 0 'm^ > G 0 0 0 '-G 0 1 ' CO G 0 s Wabezi, or Swan Rive above the mouth Kagi-wigwan River, the Corbeau River of the wing River of the iVm 294 APPENDIX, (D.) — Continued. •T3 O o o 60 Si o 00 """si d > s <1 <^ 73 o o o o o 0 0 "o •^ Tj< CO CO -kJ o o^ o^ c^ -j( 0 CJ o s •»^ CJ CO CO -^ CO 0 > cu ^ • ^^ K* 5 CJ CO o CO rO CO o o o 1 ,^ 1^ •^ o o CO 0 0 • I— I *h. i?S T— 1 c< T? CO ri f— 1 © ^^ *4^ 1—1 00 -^ LO 00 CO ^-13 ^— ( rH 1—1 1—1 c^ d --1 t^ s ?; *^ c t- r- r~ r- t- i> r- — •c << 0 '^ Ti< TJH -^ •-4 T5< rj< )Oixaj\[ 1j o 1 CO 1 V.-0 o 0 V.O 0 UO l> 00 JO Jino aq; co CO ri^ aAoqB sapnjT^xv *H 1—1 rH 1 — 1 1— 1 1— ( I— i ■—1 +j •ooixai\[ eo t~ 00 ^ vro o 00 '^ ' sj ri 2^ >, JO JinO 0 Ci 0 00 cc cc aq; moa^j; ^ cf o\o\ CJ cf cf CJ a s •aaT2i;d i o »— < CO ^-! O 00 0 an c; o; aoBTd CI CJ r-( i-< XI -T Ci W 3 raojj^ '■-; , O 1 mild V4 1 1 1 1 r) ;-i 1 1 O TS o s ^ 0 a, ervation. Falls, the head ■milion River, ti Marais aux Ni :h) - - mouth ad ing- house on • the entrance Tr avers, the e ppi - - it's island - Missisippi, at t eurs de Terre, eea the Missisi the north - ^^ o i: >-4 ri tn 0 ^ ri 7i 0 O •S o Little O • Nest savanna igle of the Fr Lake River, Cass, the old land r ppi e or L he Mis School es of t the H idge, b River 51 o cn ^ (-1 !h-. ''anomon Ri^ mouth ;ue of Missisi ji Lak ce of t Lake, t sourc mit of iding-r nd Red abik( the agle d'A; eech ake QJJ c o O JS 4-> -*<-> emid tran asca tmos sum Div pi a W t^ W h^hJ ^ t^'^ 1 DISTANCES, ELEVATION AND LATITUDE. 295 (D.) — Continued. m 12; o • 1— ( •■<. C-^ k^ 1— H •sr^ m >i O ^ Oh ^^ < o -Ki 1— H ^ M^ 50 C4 5* O =0 o <;i H O ^ fe «» o O w ^ vj ^ m < H o xn o -t-> C -— ' n •-• V> r3 (D c o > r> uO LC o o 'M >rr Ol Ci CO '^ O^ ^w 00 '^ O O t~- ^H O 1—1 CN TC TJ* u':) T— t o o o O O CJ 'd '-^ o o cc t~ t~ TT "^ "^ "^ "^ "^ "^ r- ^ «.^^ o o I o I o o Ci o I on • _, rv} ^^■} O CO O CQ l-O ^C?0 0 Cn OTfCOCi _<;j — ^ ^ I I CO I ^ O O O o fin c d O fi O) HI > ■ I— t P5 O C3 Pll o 3 c o d) J5 r— ( > -W -4-> r- hJ yA O -^5 Tl fl c O o -»^ tn H r ■^ ?^ > ^ ►> c^ o o 5^ o o c^ f-l 0) fc- e^ 1 O) hn ^ 3 :-l a 1 c o p-^ IV v-> -Q ■XI ^ * c o Ui -«-^ r-« o tJ 1 o .4.^ X b(; rf) n n> o ^ I T3 G CO 1 "^ ' ID , -4— > 't^ CD C ^ o C S-i xn o ^- ^ fi r. 0) O be > • I— t -£: o rt.G 02 be xn --^ o (D I— 1 Oi <5K o 296 APPENDIX. (D.) — continued. I d o TO 3 bO O o fe •-J TO ■T3 P . <^J tS CJ . G £3 O CO .3 TO .Sot 6 <3 C s-t aj . 2 rv 6 6 c o d d d d c d 2 [i, d d • 02 •zo4 '^ ^ o ,^ •^.^ 1—1 d OvOi-l CO -^ocooo H ^ a Tt CO O T}< CO ^ ^ 1—1 c Ul • 00 Ci o v-o o CJ CO 1-1 o o o '^2 S Hi < < — 1 C^i O O O 1—1 ^H tH r- 1 CJ CO xro g •^T^Tf^-Tf'^'^"^"^^'^"^"^ "^"^"^ O r ^ W I 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 ' " .^ ' ' ' O CO "end ait Plui fo TO JJ T^ C O pq <> O larlotte) Outardes, ea a - end of the S ompany's foi vi^re Lac a I the Woods - H > TO ort CI aux ( it end west € ganagi heast Bay C or Ri ike of -§ t William - nd Portage, east end nd Portage, west end (F use Portage, or Portage tage to Arrow River, eas tage of Height of Land, ^ nd of Height of Land nd in the Strait - nd at the entrance of Sa rked Rock, near the sout nd in Lac La Croix nd in Lac La Croix ny Lake River, Hudson uth of Rainy Lake River, of the French nt in Namekom Lake tage du Rat, outlet of La o TO U s ^HcartOs-,t-rt«f3j;;nro.^Q -ss f2000f2(S3:HSs22;5S ^^ DISTANCES, ELEVATION AND LATITUDE. 297 (D) — Continued. O O < o I— H K < o o o CO CO o o o o o rt be c o 0) o •0Dixai\[ aq:i 9AoqB sapn:m[V o > OJ tn O 1:4-1 O m o Ph a a r-* ■^6 o CO CO o 0 o Gi O :2 ' CJ i I ' CO O 00 i-H CO CO o -^ •* OJ -^ OJ OS 0^ O O 00 O 03 o o 0 ^ I I 5 I I o -^ CO o o Tt< o O CO eo — I O 00 CO CO l> CO 00 CO -r-t O 'O o ^ -* ^ O CO O Ci 0 CO 01 CO 0 :o I I I I 1—1 Z! o c rt to S o ' o bo c3 c „ CO •— < f^ 'TS C g m 's £^ , I i-^ CyJ . r^ rf (U O _ 13 I o ^ -So m c! be -^ p a d a; . o St; xf5^' ■> bx; g i-^ o o > > 73 r< '^ :" ij >|:^co ^^ s.s ' ^ 3 S 2 o Q S ■ w ' 0 H a; 3 .> a ;: o ^, ,13 § 3 .S ^ o •- T 2 S "^ '^ G hJ -^ ^ D- ?5 PC; ,0 r- •; '/5 "^ bC ,^ - —^ a ^ QJ .^ O o . -^ a- < O « cH o o c -^ GO ^3 rt « GO 6 ;:3 ffi W Q Ph 2h' 3 o o -t-> d) I— ' ^3 I — I • .--^ "S 2 « <^ „ Q ^ o ,—1 > g .t ^■'- . bcP O A tn -. CO 298 APPENDIX. (D.) — Continued. Ul ^ O 1— 1 H l-H ^ U} O Ph 1^ J •^ < •Si o Co 1—1 1 H-l •f^ »— 1 -t1 ilr*^ P^ s^ o o o s^ H o 1^ t^ o CO r-r'' 1 — 1 ^ CQ < H , 1 -1 O •i^ o <^ o , » , ■^ d d d 6 6 d d c d o o o o 3 a> GG Q QQQ « Q «Q <"^ ■^ ^ 'fi ^ o o o o o o CO o o * T^ o et "^ CO CO CO CO c-r ^v^ O x^ C5 ^ i-H GO 1 rf >-< 1 r- 1 o -^ Tj* 1 =^ Tf. (— ' o o ' OJ 1 CN ' '^ uo ' r-( ^s *— ■ • 1— 1 0 c CO CO CO Tj' VO VO VO o o t~ c 1-5 C- C5 C!> Oi o> 0> Oi o Cs Ci , ^b O v-t o ''"^' O' o ■>* o o ■^ »— < O CO 1— 1 C r^i T-( C> TT o ^ CO CI UO 5 ••^ 3 CJ O .-H o CC ^ o CO O 1> tH o CO !> 3 VC CO (N 0 -r 'I* Tf -tH T-( CO CO rr o o T— 1 Ci ^ o Tt Tj< rt< -* "^^ -Tfl o o o o TT ^ XI< Tl< ri< TT* ^ -^ '^ ^ ^ ■^ ■^ ^ ^"ODIX 9H JOJl no -f CO — 1 Ci , T-H '—I 1 1 1 1 1 o ^ 1 CO o CO en aqj 8 AOqB E^ r~ ' t- 1 GO ' 1 1 1 1 OS O CO 1-H sapnj n\ a *~ O r- : «.-. A • r^ -*- ' o Co rt £ * >— m ^ 1 GO O CO O 00 C>} -* o 00 CC' O -*-> . ■ •* ] ^ r~ 1 1 r- „ ^ o o 1 Cl 1 (N V-O o I-i c- .2 s c T-H t-i 1-1 Oi. 1 CJ ' CO CO CO Tj< rj< -B^ c p-l 1- o 3 O 50 , TO OO CJ C? GO 1 ■^ 1 C5 o OO vT* r- U ri ^ ^ ' r- CO CO "«:< o 1 ro ' CO CI r— 1 •^ o bJD ' ' • " ' r^ , , t» 1 rj 1 1 O) 1 1 1 I C A ^ ID -^ •*-> G ,£: o •— _r; O ^ ■^ S a> -»>> ri2 11 2^ 1 o c ■ o p o • . 1 s • 1 • 1— 1 a; 1 xs 1 CO 1—4 I 3 C > o ."^ - .^ •4— f DO <1> ID ♦J o o c o -4-» -*■ c » c c < t ■J ■3 -1 J 0 3 ■H 0 f- 1— .^ • -H t^ ^ • 1 o -^ r22 >^ (V, rf CD PC ^ --H o P. i 1 o s s o p^ ID ;-< '!U • «— 1 > 1 1 CO OO tH 1 CO < < c »— p -1 rx 5- cr. p:; »- ^ O ;- -t-j t. 2 ® o O p - "E 5 - J= o o o o rn o 1 -a a o (D > 1 o *- .^ CO 'ti ■!:; ?5 •i-i l*^ ,-». ^^ c ■» j:. 5 "> 1 C .2. li S^dS^ % > H 'a I— t o C/2 -3 o V a. m CO c a. Q U V (U ♦^ c3 u o u v c: o 03 02 o g> 3 to c -a 03 V rf ffi H u k< * a >< V DISTANCES. ELEVATION AND LATITUDE. 299 (D.) — Continued. to (^ 05 o ^50 CO o <^ 0) o 6 c a G O m o 3 rf O > o o m is ^ C3 .—I > cti ri bt 'XJ C c m 13 rt 7^ s: '^ c ^ O ff ^ O G ri -u -. CJ C rt « ^ "^ '^ CI- o O o o o W I >; \^ -4-J o 3 5=; CJ O o 13 C '^ S S o ' '^ o zc -^-^ k> rt > 3 O o «" .2 c ^ o a> t: ^h:i o < o ■ q Si ryj O O J •-; >. o ■4-' "^ S . 2-C jj OJ J Ch cd ^ '-''T3 O 5 rt " X o -C ? s ? = -^ ^ r. o _o rt .^ :s; i2 rt y} 1-4 o = W 3 ■-^-3 3 r3 -t-" O ii oj c « I C ri '^ e A t^ 5 f- >'' ^ rt SS WCO ^ *j ^ 3 V2 ffi 300 APPENDIX. (D.) — Continued. X 0) d • r\ S-H 1^ ^ ;-i CO ^'_2 « c« .2 ^2 1— < GQ O 'bo 1— t 'iH ^^xj ■^ § C T! o *— • *2 6 § o « o "^ o . c . 3 -< If) Nicoll Lewis no Nicoll 30 do. do. Major pedi Nicoll Lewis Nicoll ol CO '2 '^ o LO o l-H CO i> 1 O 1 C5 --^ 1 1 O 1 "I" ^ 'Sd c! — 1 -^ -* -^ CJ 'T m o •J o 6 a o •I— I o -^ ■ cr o t^ O t~ GO C' CO O 1-1 CO CO es o 'S' Cl -* O c •^ o CO ^ O) ir: i> i> o Ci r-l O OJ CIh «0 o oo -TT* ^ CO TT O ^ t-H (N ^ "5 1 o GO 00 00 00 00 OO OO Ci Ci O Ci 05 < CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO o l-H •to •O0TX9I\[ JO jjnr) aq^ CO oo CO 1 1 1 1 1 CO 1 1 o 1 1 T?* < 8AoqB sapn:}i:)[y *i e4 •g O O O f^ V) CO I—' Q •00TX9J\r i GO . " CO CO C5 ^ O 00 o o o s GO C3 a) c qi uio.1 J o 1— f 1 "-1 uo r— * OJ ^ C- O t^ Tj* UO O O CO o t> t- C5 C> I> O 00 .\ .\ «\ 1— 1 >— ! r— 1 Ua •90Bjd Co 5J 1 1 o o o o o o oo C) o o o 0} 8DB]^d UIOJ^ -^ N" o T— 1 r-i cj CO CI c; r- CJ CJ CO J M 1 1 1 1 5_( I I 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 3 o '/3 J^5 a; o o w a> > 3 O 72 o -^ > C c >• )f Missouri Rivi the mouth oone county, le ooper county, r , southwest of ge, right bank ty landing - ', the mouth vorth, the land S i ?■' c o •-r-"s5 t- *-' •' oj 0) c: '^ o "^ »— r-- rv C > CU Cj .— • - ■ -! > o •4-} o 18 mil Goebel's lin coi Gascon a( Portland left ba Osage Ri Nashvill Boonvilli Grand R Old Fort Lower L Kansas E Fort Lea DISTANCES, ELEVATION AND LATITUDE. 301 (D). — Continued. j^ '"C ^ Sooccooo s CO CO CO CO o CO o ^ 1 rH I^ O L-O -t< CJ 1 1 CO o Tf< 1> 1 1-1 I 1 1 t- r~ T# rl CJ CO Tj< ^ ^ o -* CO - CO CO o o -* -* T}< o o a V.O o o CO ■^ T? :m OJ o -«i< CI CI ^ CI "* CO CJ o O Tf ^ O '^ Ci 1 CO o CO I^ o 1 "* 1 o ^ GO Tf CI CI ^ r-l CO TI< c* CJ Ti' "* o o T-H Ci O C3 o o o o 1—1 1—1 1—1 1-1 CJ c? 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Among thirty thousand volumes In the Mercantile Library at St. Louis, there are, it is said, seventeen thousand which are never called for by anybody. Tliis is pretty well for the St. Louis Library, for It indi- cates that more than one half of the books, seventeen thousand to wit, are of some po- sitive value. In other words, only thirteen thousand are "popular" works. 'Tls true, 'tis pity, and pity 'tis 'tis true, that as the average human being perversely desires for his bodily food such substances as with least nourishment provoke most excitement of the palate; soiu his mental diet he Is prone to desire "sensation" ratherthan improve- ment or menial growtli and health. If essays and homilies upon this subject would produce reform, the reading world wsuld have been reformed long ago. As in many other attempted improvements and refor- ■ mations, no small damage to the cause they advocate has been done by injudicious writers and lecturers, clerical and lay. All fiction, all works of imagination, every- thing but hard facts, have been objected to, until the careless listener or reader comes to suppose that useful reading includes only that which is dry and dull. Con- sequently young people delight in flctitious reading, as If It were a luxury of sin; and the zest of disobedience is added to the other pleasures of Action. One cause of the absolute trashlness of too many books is found in the fact tliat their authors know nothing. There are works of imagination, and the r;, 1er will recall many of them, which stinV^.-ate in- quiry into the history bot'.j of literraur?^ and events; and which, while they confound an ignorant reader with his ignorance, excite one who knowssomething to desire to know .more. When to the understanc^ing of what you read general knowledge is necessary, ,or when to follow a fictitious author you must iuvestigate facts, no small good may arise from his works as a part of education. But a writer who knows nothing can state nothing and can suggest nothing. His themes and incidents are divided between the common-place and the unnatural ; and ' readers of as limited knowledge as himself [can follow and enjoy him. Except in the ■negative benefit that one who reads non- sense is better employed than if he were do- ing worse, very little good is realized by the reader&|rho tliumb the less useful half of a public library to piece ^^ while the standard works are left clean and unsullied by finger marks. i ^' "In youth, wliile Tne mind is fresti arid lin- ' occupied, it Is comparatively easy to give a good direction to the mental powers. Boys laud girls like fads, unless thej' are put 'before them in repulsive ways. They ask, "is It true?" "When the leading points of history are presented tc them In an ani- mated and pleasant stj'le, they find more satisfaction in sach reading than a jaded novel reader can In the freshest romance. Tlie young are also usually fond of travels i and adventures. With a foundation of actual knowledge laid in, in youth, readers discriminate for themselves, and intuitively between such works of Imagination as arel worth reading and such as are not. A shal- low pretender to authorship is intuitively idetected, and summarily tossed aside. If " young people are induced— led, not forced— to begin their reading aright, the chances are largely in their favor that their critical knowledge will make them pretty good judges afterward. OiLr ^ I ■