lake thy > Aa phe ah , Kebe bal Thins fee rs te ‘ee ea eh feo Tht ph 1 oe Peter eee “er “A ¥ ae ” iy ” ar oe or vere . * theyre abe hed ’ . wen Ge let : r gkyr bora’ gee Ey i Sane " ee A ill pe » » fog fash at ae Me ¢ Vv Piet ie aR Kh ve ie Rr iy Jy oe < — rt. + a 23) . 3 waren Saloat tier he dided Ther tied Bare Heres *, are tea 32 4 ghee Madsct etal boars pais * prs Seep e “* oa Ne ae Arpad tt J dea coh eet RS. pate Wp ese Dye ft Sa Meet: fate en be a eenesl oe Meds ‘ oP “ “ye “ res be peat 34 se ton! at ~ ans se Borel 2 Se oe " “eerees er ba a 4 b date asses oY ~ ead eenee ret he 4 . on yy vee it oe . — pe al ig, let 2h > a nn a y bier pin Os ea. BI Y PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL, EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS IN THE SCIENCES AND THE ARTS. EDITORS. THOMAS ANDERSON, M_D., F.RS.E., Sm WILLIAM JARDINE, Barr, F.RSE.; - JOHN HUTTON BALFOUR, A.M., M.D., F.R.SS. L. & E., F.LS., REGIUS KEEPER OF THE ROYAL BOTANIC GARDEN, AND PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE AND BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, FOR AMERICA, HENRY D. ROGERS, LL.D., Hon. F.R.S.E., F.GS., STATE GEOLOGIST, PENNSYLVANIA; PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE ~ UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW. JANUARY ....-. APRIL 1860. VOL, XI. NEW SERIES. EDINBURGH : ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK. LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMANS, LONDON. MDCCCLX. . ) THE i EDINBURGH NEW oe . - WY 4 nae. oe" Of 3 — | : Pi ebh ee bes ce ae y ; : ‘? ae) x | PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, OLD SAM. > ¢ ” « ‘ THE EDINBURGH NEW PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. Observations on the Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature, and particularly on the Relation between the diferent Forms of Alternation of Generations and the more Ordinary . Modifications of the Reproductive Process. By GrorGE Oeitvir, M.D., Lecturer on the Institutes of Medicine in Marischal College and University, Aberdeen.* an’ § 1. Origin of Organic Beings. The time is not yet out of mind when the doctrine of spon- taneous generation was the great point of discussion in the _ physiology of reproduction. Now that this question has been set at rest by evidence as conclusive as any of a negative _kind can well be, the attention of physiologists is chiefly directed to the relation between derivation in the ordinary way from two parents, and that other mode of origin from a single pre-existing form, of the prevalence of which among _ the lower species additional evidence is continually brought _ before us. In this mode of origin, which has received various names from authors, such as Gemmation, Homogenesis, and Monogenesis, a portion of the body of the parent becomes the seat of a certain independent manifestation of vitality, _whereby the plastic processes are so much intensified that, in _ * Read before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Sep- _ tember 1859. NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI. NO. 1.—JAn. 1860. A 2 Dr George Ogilvie’s Observations on the —~ the course of time, the part is converted into a distinct organ- ism, capable of detachment from the parent, and fitted to maintain a separate existence. Such a detached gemma may be termed a free zooid, or phytoid. In the ordinary form of reproduction, again, that by the co-operation of the sexes, otherwise termed Heterogenesis, or Digenesis, a fusion takes place of two highly vitalized portions of the same or kindred organisms, and results in the formation of a fecundated germ, possessed henceforth of an independent vitality, endowed with a capacity for ultimately acquiring the structure charac- teristic of the species, and destined to be thrown on its own resources, by its extrusion from the protecting envelopes, as soon as its organisation is sufficiently advanced for this con- dition. In all but the very lowest forms of life; the conjugat- ing algze, a difference is observable between the two factors of embryonic life, which are recognised respectively as male and female, or as the spermatic and germinal elements, § 2. Relations of Ova and Gemme. It is strongly contended by some that there is such an in- compatibility between these two modes of propagation, that, in proportion as any portion of the parenchyma of the parent is engaged in the one course, it is proportionally disabled for the other. This opinion is founded on these alleged peculiarities of the sexual elements in their mature condition; 1st, That singly they are not capable of any farther development, but yery soon lose their vitality, and undergo decomposition ; and 2d, That they both differ very remarkably in appearance from all self-developing foci of vital action, and, in particular, that the germinal element of animals, or the unimpregnated ovum, though it may occasionally present a general resem- blance to a gemma or bud, is always to be distinguished from it, by containing in its interior a peculiar nucleated cell, the germinal vesicle. But some, at least, of these peculiarities can no longer be maintained as constant characters. Quatre- fages states that he has seen segmentation take place, inde- pendently of impregnation, in the ova of Hermella and Unio, Genetic Cycle t in Organic Nature. 3 Boake no farther development follows. In regard to the _ structural characters, again, even putting aside the evidence concerning the germs of the viviparous aphides as somewhat discordant, though, certainly, on the whole, in favour of the essential identity of ova and gemma, the observations of Mr _ Lubbock on the agamic ova of Daphnia, and those of Mr Smith of Kew, Professor Braun of Berlin, Radlkofer, and others, on the unimpregnated ovules of Coelobogyne, appear conclusive _ to establish that bodies elaborated side by side with the true _ germinal elements, and in some cases undistinguishable from f them i in appearance, may undergo development independently ‘of impregnation ; while those of Dzierzon and Siebold on the hive-bee, go to show that the very same germs may undergo evolution either with or without impregnation, developing, in the former case, a female, and in the latter a male progeny. We can hardly, therefore, as it would seem, avoid adopting Professor Owen’s conclusion, that there is no essential differ- ence between an ovum and a gemma, and that the one may pass into the other by insensible gradations. We may assume, perhaps, that up to a certain point, the development of the new focus of vital action may go on all the same for a gemma or an ovum; but that towards the period of maturation the changes which take place in the latter to fit it for impregna- tion cause such a tension, as it were, of its vitality, as is in- compatible with its continuance in the majority of cases, unless re-invigorated by the access of the spermatic element. § 3. Aliernation of Generations. Propagation by gemmation has been regarded as perpetuat- ing the individual rather than the species, the successive _ zooids or phytoids preserving more completely than the pro- _ geny of embryonic origin the characters of the parent stock ; _ and it has been thought, too, that there is a tendency for the _ plastic power to wear out, in process of time, so that a recur- _ rence of sexual generation at intervals is necessary to pre- serve the pristine vigour of the species. However this may be, there is reason to believe that the a2 4 Dr George Ogilvie’s Observations on the more highly organized the species is, the more dependent it is on the frequent recurrence of sexual reproduction in the genetic cycle. At least, we find that in the lowest forms there may be a very prolonged pullulation of gemmee, the sexual act recurring only at distant intervals, and in some cases not being as yet positively known to occur at all; while in the higher animals we meet with no obvious phenomena at all of the nature of gemmation. In those of the lower species in which both modes of propagation are well-marked features, we find that they have a tendency to succeed each other in a regular order, with corresponding differences in the immediate progeny, to which the term of alternation of generations has been applied; and this expression, though open to some objec- tions, has come into very general use. A complete parallelism, however, cannot be maintained for all the cases that go under this name; andas I am not aware of any systematic analysis having been made, to determine the nature of the differences, it is my object on the present occasion to bring forward certain distinctions which have impressed themselves on my mind,as of fundamental import- ance, depending principally on the period in the life-history of the species, at which a process of gemmation is interpolated ‘in the genetic cycle. The gemmation sometimes occurs just before, and is, as it were, ancillary to sexual reproduction—sometimes it occurs after it, when it is subservient rather to the progress of development. In the former case, what may, on the whole, be considered as the most typical of the diverse forms belonging to the species, is still defective in having no proper organs of reproduction—a function which is vicariously performed by a set of gemme detached from it. The original stock is really neuter; but true sexes appear in these buds, after they have been transformed by a process of development into isolated zooids or phytoids. They may be considered as a highly in- dividualized form of those organs which were wanting in the parent stock. Such organs constitute, at least, the essential part of their economy ; and although, along with them, there may be present also others, more or less fully developed, for ee 7 Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature. 5 discharging functions, such as alimentation and locomotion, required-by their status as free zooids, yet their great office is reproduction, and this end effected, their life speedily comes to a close. In this they contrast strikingly with the stock from which they were derived; for it is endowed with much _ greater permanence of life, frequently detaching during its _ period of vigour many successive swarms of sexual zooids, just as among the higher animals the same parent may develope many successive broods of young. ‘On the other hand, when the budding process occurs in the course of development, the gemme are detached from the immediate product of impregnation, while it is still in a rudimentary condition, comparable to the first stage in the evolution of the ovum of the higher animals. The germ- parent never itself attains to the full development of the species, but remains the whole term of its brief existence in a rudimentary state ; but the progeny, which it buds off, acquire, in due course, the typical form, or at least give origin, | mediately or immediately, to others which do so. These two kinds of zooids, however, though differing so _ widely in their relations and structure—in the one case the primary products of impregnation, the precursors of the perfect form, and without sexual characters, in the other derivative and with distinct sexes—have yet this one point in common, that the great end of their existence is the multipli- cation of the race—an end to which the nutritive and animal functions are always subordinated. Such, indeed, is the oc- casional degradation or non-development of structure, that some zooids of both kinds might readily pass for mere egg- sacs or proliferous cysts. § 4. Protomorphic Alternation. For the better distinction of these varieties of alternation, and for the purpose of bringing out more clearly what I con- sider to be their points of correspondence with phenomena occurring in the-higher animals, I have found it convenient to divide the life-history of an organic being into three stages, oe ee 6 Dr George Ogilvie’s Observations on the all of which come out prominently in one form of alternation or other, while, as I shall presently endeavour to show, they are covertly represented even in those species, in which no phenomena of alternation are recognised. The first, or what I term the Protomorphic stage, is that which intervenes between the fecundation of the germ and the first appearance of the characteristic or typical organisation of the species ;. the second, or Orthomorphic, that which corresponds to the development and full perfection of this organisation; while the third, or Gamomorphie, is that of the formation or matura- tion of those structures in which the spermatic and germinal elements are generated, in preparation for another act of fecundation, as the commencement of a new genetic cycle. In one of the forms of alternation just noticed, the interpo- lation of gemmation takes place in the protomorphic stage— that is, prior to that development, by which the features most characteristic of the species are gradually evolved. Of this we have an example in the case of the Trematode Entozoa, so often referred to by writers on the subject of alternation. In these animals the immediate product of the impregnated ovum is a free zooid, which never rises itself above a rudi- mentary condition, or acquires sexual organs, but which, by a process of asexual gemmation (monogenesis), ultimately originates others, which do attain to the typical character of the species, in the general organisation, and commonly also in the sexual relations, and then propagate in the manner of the higher orders. For another illustration, we may turn to an allied family, the Cystic Entozoa, now known to be merely rudimentary forms of Cestoid worms. Their transformation into the latter is their most notable change, but, prior to it, they present us with a series of successive forms, all referable to the cystic phase. The typical form is the “‘ Tznia-head,” which is not the immediate product of impregnation, but is derived as a gemma from the primary cyst, into which the contents of the ovum are first developed. With great differences of detail, this general relation is to be traced in all the species. Thus, in the Echinococcus hominis, a vesicular mass is formed from ar ae BS. > Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature. 7 § E the primary cyst, by the pullulation from its interior of second- _ ary and tertiary structures of a like kind. Numerous gemma are developed from the last-formed cysts, having the general characters of “ Twnia-heads.” In another species or variety of Echinococcus, similar “* Teenia-heads” are formed, in con- nection with vesicles budded off from the interior of the _ primary cyst, without the intermediate pullulation of other __eysts. In Cenurus, also, there is a formation of a multitude of “Tenia-heads” from the original cyst, only they are budded off from a special thickening of the lining membrane —not as in Echinococcus, from its whole interior. The Echinodermata might also be cited in illustration, though they differ from the generality of cases of alternation, - the primary form budding off but a single secondary one. As an example of protomorphic alternation in the vegetable kingdom, the case of the mosses may be referred to. Im- _ pregnation is now admitted to be as necessary a step in the reproduction of these as of any phanerogamic plants, but it is not the immediate precursor of the formation of an embryo. In mosses, the germinal element is represented by the central cell of the archegonium; and this, when fecundated by the spermatic filaments contained in the cellules of the antheri- dium, developes by endogenous formation a whole mass of cells, which, by a process of transformation in the course of growth, assumes eventually the form of the theca or capsule, with seta, calyptra, operculum, peristome, columella, and internal mass of dust-like spores. The spores in germination give rise to confervoid threads, which, after ramifying into a mass of tangled filaments—the protonema—send up here and there a leafy axis, bearing eventually, like the original one, antheridia and archegonia. In thus regarding the case of the mosses as parallel to that of the Trematoda, and illus- trative of protomorphic alternation, of course I look upon the _ nascent axis as the true embryo, and the fully-developed moss - as the typical form, and regard both the theca and the pro- tonema as intermediate forms, no more represented in the higher plants, than the gregariniform zooids of distoma are in ~ ypme _ grades of animal life. 8 Dr George Ogilvie’s Observations on the § 5. Gamomorphic Alternation. The other form of alternation, before referred to, is that in which the process of gemmation is interpolated in what has been here termed the gamomorphic stage, i.e., after the general acquisition of the typical conformation of the species, and in connection with the development of the organs which form the sexual elements. To this head I refer the alterna- _ tion of polype and medusa forms, which is so common a fea- ture in the life-history of the hydraform zoophytes, the nor- mal or typical form being assumed to be that of the polype, and the medusa form being regarded simply as a highly in- dividualized generative organ detached from the system of the polype. This view readily enough commends itself to our judgment in those species of Laomedea, &c., in which the me- dusiform zooids have so much the character of mere genera- tive appendages, while the zoophyte condition stands promi- nently forward as the typical or orthomorphic phase, being represented by structures of greater permanence than the brood of minute and rudimentary medusoids which they throw off, and occasionally attaining considerable dimensions by the repeated pullulation of new polypes. But in the case of the Hood-eyed Meduse, the primd facie aspect of the case is en- tirely the other way ; for not only are they themselves of much more conspicuous dimensions and elaborate organisation than the medusoids of the compound zoophytes just referred to, but the polype stock from which they spring is of such in- significant proportions, that it generally goes under the name of a larva, the resulting meduse being regarded as the typical or perfect form of the species. Thus, Professor Owen remarks, “The medusiform ovigerous locomotive or distributive indi- vidual of the Coryne and Campanularia geniculata is eyi- dently homologous with the polypiform ovigerous individual, which seems to nurse, as it were, the ova into ‘ planule’ in the Campanularia dichotoma, and the nutritive gemmiparous polypiform individuals in all the compound Radiaries would seem, rather than the oviparous medusiform ones, to manifest the typical form of the species. . . . Superadd, however, Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature. 9 distinct nutritive and circulating organs to the free moving _ ovigerous individual from the rooted polype, and prolong its existence, and it would then cease to have the ancillary cha- racter of a nurse to the ova of the fixed individuals, and would assume that of the perfected form of the species; and _ such, in fact, is the case with the larger gelatinous Radiaries, called Meduse.”* Now, in so far as perfection means ela- borateness of organisation, it is not, of course, to be denied that the medusa is in advance of the polype; but as regards the selection of the phase to be taken as the typical form of the species, I do not see how we can avoid these conclusions :— 1st, That the bare-eyed medusoids are really homologues of the parts of reproduction, inasmuch as they pass by a con- tinuous gradation into generative organs of the simplest kind and, 2d, that in so natural an order, the relative position assumed for the puny bare-eyed Medusz must hold also for their portly brethren of the hood-eyed kind. My limits prevent me giving anything like a detailed view of the declension referred to from free medusoids to simple tunicated ova attached to the body ‘of the parent; but the following may be noticed as observable links in the series.t In Campanularia dichotoma, the medusoids are no longer free as in C. geniculata ; they have also more of the polype- form, and remain during their brief period of life attached to the edge of the horny “ ovigerous capsule,” characteristic of the zoophyte, and there emit the ova or spermatozoa with which they are charged; after which they wither away like blossoms, to be succeeded by a new expansion. In Campa- nularia lacerata, the ovarian sac advances to the mouth of ' the capsule; but, instead of a bell-shaped envelope, becomes invested merely by a thick gelatinous coat. In Sertularia generally, the appendages, with somewhat of the medusoid conformation, mature and discharge their contents while still within the “ ovigerous capsule.” In Cordylophora, the only medusoid features presented either by the spermatic or the ovarian cyst, are the presence of a central tongue or colu- * Parthenogenesis, p. 12. t See several papers by Dr T. 8. Wright in previous numbers of this Journal. 10 Dr George Ogilvie’s Observations on the mella to represent the proboscidiform mouth, and the exist- ence of phlebenteric canals in its wall. In Hydractinia, we have the columella without the canals; and the cysts of some species of Plumularia and Eudendrium are, if possible, of still simpler structure, the latter containing but a single ovum. The progress of degradation reaches its maximum in the common Hydra, in which the large Meduse of the « Hydra tuba” are represented only by spermatic and ovarian cysts, of the most rudimentary organisation, attached to the exterior of the polype. Closely allied species sometimes differ remarkably in this respect; and even in the same species there may be as great a diversity in the opposite sexes; thus in Laomedea geniculata, the ova are formed in free swim- ming medusoids; the spermatozoa in simple cysts perma- nently attached. Variations of the same kind occur also in the allied order of Physograda. Such variations, though per- plexing to the systematic zoologist, are especially valuable to the physiologist, as indicating the true relations of the forms which occur in dimorphous species; and I think they are fully sufficient to bear us out in the conclusion, that both the bare-eyed and the hood-eyed Meduse are to be considered as gamomorphic zooids, and the polype stock from which they sprang as the typical form in each case. In the one, the or- thomorphic form is, as usual, the most conspicuous phase of the species, while in the other it is quite eclipsed by the re- sulting gamomorphie zooid, which is really a part of itself— a detached and overgrown organ of its own system. Ag parallel cases, I would refer to the relation subsisting between the solitary and catenated Salpe, which, as described first by Chamisso, may be regarded as the original basis of the doctrine of alternation, and of which Mr Huxley has since given us a most lucid and philosophical account—to the detachment of reproductive zooids, made up of caudal seg- ments, budded off from some Annelida, as described by MM. Edwards and Quatrefages—and to the derivation from the “ Tenia-head” of the proglottides, or cucurbitiform segments _ of the “ body” of the tape-worm. In the vegetable kingdom we have also a very parallel case in Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature. 11 the reproduction of the ferns. In these plants, it is well known the sexual elements are not formed in connection with the con- spicuous vegetative stem, but in minute derivative phytoids, termed prothallia, which are produced bythe germination of the spores. The prothallia bear antheridia and archegonia; and the embryo, formed on impregnation from the central cell of one of the latter structures, grows up from the prothallium, which comes to have very much the appearance of the seed-leaf of the young shoot. The prothallia I regard as gamomorphic phy- toids, parallel to the medusiform reproductive zooids of the Polypifera. Hence I feel obliged to dissent from the paral- lelism which Hoffmeister would establish between the repro- ductive process in ferns and mosses. This great authority regards as equivalent structures the prothallium of the former and the leafy axis of the latter, on the ground of their being - the parts which bear. the sexual organ ; and argues from this a corresponding relation between the frondiferous stem of the fern and the seta and capsule of the moss, as the immediate products of impregnation in the two cases respectively. A comparison of objects of such primd facie diversity—objects more unlike than even the large Meduse and the ovarian eysts of the Hydra—ought not, I conceive, to be adopted, ex- __ cept on the most convincing evidence. But there is no such cogency in this case, on the admission of the general view which has now been advanced ; for we have a readier solution of the difficulty, in assuming that the interpolation of an inter- mediate form occurs at a later stage of the genetic cycle in ferns than in mosses. For this view we have ample warrant in the analogy of the animal kingdom, where we find corre- sponding differences between the Cestoid and Trematode Ento- zoa, and between the latter and the Polypifera, among which, indeed, even nearly allied species differ in this matter of the interpolation of gemmation. Such a view, I submit, is a less tax on our powers of.conception, than to regard the minute and - fugitive capsule of the moss as the equivalent of the perennjal and towering stem of the tree-fern. _ And it is to be borne in mind that the difference here is not merely one of a primd facie kind, In some respects it increases the more we con- 12 Dr George Ogilvie’s Observations on the template it; for it is clear, as Mr Jenner observes,* that the persistent character of the leafy axis of the moss, and its yielding, in perennial species, many successive sets of spori- ferous capsules, assimilates it, quite independently of structu- ral features, rather to the stem of the fern than to its prothal- lium, which is an organ even more evanescent than the cap- sule of the moss, its existence terminating when the embryo formed in it has begun to germinate. § 6. Orthomorphic Alternation. In the intermediate period of the life-history of the species, that here termed orthomorphic, which intervenes between the appearance of the general typical character of the family and the maturation of sexual organs, gemmation, though perhaps a more frequent character than either in the incipient or ter- minal stages, rarely comes before us as a case of alternation of generations, in consequence of the gemme commonly re- maining in adhesion to each other, so that their separate indi- viduality is lost, and the whole aggregation passes as a single plant oranimal. This is especially the characteristic arrange- ment in the vegetable kingdom, and in Polypifera and Poly- zoa among animals. Where the gemme do become detached, however, the case may assume the aspect of a form of alterna- tion, as we see strikingly exhibited in the propagation of the Aphides. I may here briefly explain why I am disposed to refer the alternation of the Aphides to the commencement of this stage, rather than to the protomorphic. It is because the organisa- tion has already acquired that partially advanced development characteristic of the larve of other insects, before the process of gemmation comes into play. We cannot say here that the primary product of impregnation buds off a set of embryos of a higher organisation; it is rather a larva—that is, a * Edin. New Phil. Jour., New Series, Vol. III., p. 269, The occasional con- version of the fruit of the moss into a leafy shoot has been thought to indicate its analogy to the stem of the fern. Is it not rather a viviparous inflorescence, such as occurs at times in the higher plants ¢ Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature. 13 naked embryo—already so far organised on the insect type, that buds off a series of similar larve, the last only of which become perfect insects. § 7. Resumé of the Varieties of Alternation. On the grounds above stated, it becomes necessary to dis- tinguish these three varieties of the so-called alternation of generations,—that is, of the alternation of gemmation with sexual reproduction :— 1. That in which the gemmation occurs in the protomorphic or germinal stage, prior to the appearance of the typical organisation ; 2. That in which it occurs in the gamomorphic or later stage of the life-history,—that is, in connection with the maturation of the reproductive organs; and, 3. That in which it occurs in the orthomorphic or interme- diate stage,—that is, during the manifestation of a more fully developed condition of the typical organisation, but prior to the maturation of the sexual organs. The contrast lies principally between the two former varieties. They cannot, indeed, be identified or confounded, as they are by many authors, without losing sight of two im- portant points of difference ;— 1. In the budding-stock, which in gamomorphic alternation has both a higher organisation and a greater permanence of life than are possessed by the protomorphic zooid or germ- parent of the typical form ; ~ 2. In the off-sets or concluding links of the respective se- ries, which have really nothing in common but the single point of sexual completeness, the medusoids, prothallia, and other gamomorphic forms being generally of the most rudi- mentary structure. Hence, in the one case, we speak of the typical organism ‘and its germ-like matrix; in the other, of the typical or- _ ganism and its sexual offset. Both the matrix and the offset may assume, indeed, the form of independent beings, but their life is always transitory and provisional, having reference to 14 Dr George Ogilvie’s Observations on the one common end,—the multiplication of the race,—though by different means. The great function of the germinal or pro- tomorphic zooids is the evolution of the more perfect embryos, of which they serve as budding-stocks; that of the sexual or — gamomorphic zooids is the development of ova and spermato- — zoa. These ends accomplished, their vitality ceases, while the typical organism, the offspring of the former class, or the parent stock of the latter, as the case may be, has a much more permanent duration, and may go on for a long time in perfect vigour, sending off crop after crop of ova, or of sexual gemme, according to its mode of propagation. The distinctness of these varieties of alternation is further shown by their occasional co-existence in the same species, as in some Cestoid worms, and perhaps in a more latent form in the case of the Polyzoa* and of some Annelida. These, how- ever, are exceptional cases, for it would appear that organisms which are propagated by protomorphic gemmation do not ordi- narily throw off sexual zooids, and that species in which the latter phenomenon occurs do not usually furnish instances of proembryonic forms. § 8. Continued Pullulation in the same stage. The regularity in the alternation of free zooids with true embryos is frequently obscured in nature by the intervention of a process of pullulation, or budding off of like forms; in con- tinued succession, at some particular stage in the life-history of the species, so that sexual zooids recur only at intervals, separated by periods during which a series of neuter forms occur of the same general character, if not all absolutely alike. In some cases, the number of interpolated links appears to be fixed; but in general it is variable, and frequently the re- currence of the sexual form which closes the series seems to depend on circumstances, the true ova being commonly formed on the approach of winter, or other conditions adverse to the continuation of active vitality. * Allman’s British Fresh-water Polyzoa (Ray Soc.), p. 41. Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature. 15 ~ _ A course of-pullulation may be thus interpolated at any stage. It is met with in the germinal stage in the case of the Trematoda, and in the gamomorphic or sexual stage in a few medusoids ; but more commonly it occurs in the orthomorphic stage, being interposed between the first appearance of the typical characters, and the development of the structures which originate the sexual elements. In fact, the orthomorphic gemmation, just noticed as one form of alternation, almost always runs on into a continued course of pullulation, the re- sult being either a swarm of free zooids, as in the case of the Aphides, or else a composite structure, like the leafy stem of a plant, or the polypidom of a zoophyte. The latter alternative is the more common ; for the tendency of the gemma, in most eases of continued pullulation, is to remain during their whole term of life in connection with the parent stock, either di- rectly, or through the medium of their predecessors in the series of offshoots. * § 9. Protomorphic Alternation in relation to Embryogeny. Though the well-marked cases of alternation, due to the evolution of protomorphic zooids, are confined to a few of the lower orders, a certain nisus or tendency in this direction—a fresh start, as it were, in the course of germinal development— may be traced with more or less distinctness in all cases of embryogeny, as in all instances there is formed first a cel- lular germ-mass, from one point of which there is subsequently developed a new axis of embryonic growth. The embryo, in short, may be said to be budded off from the primordial germ-mass, much as the larval distoma is from the gregariniform product of the Trematode ovum. There are, however, two points of diversity. In normal development, the _germ-mass gives rise only to a single embryo, and no separa- tion takes place between them. The later growth appears simply as a more advanced state of the former, which wastes * In the tabular views of the Genetic Cycle, given at the end of this article, such continued pullulation—as being only an occasional phenomenon—is printed in a smaller type. 16 Dr George Ogilvie’s Observations on the away, pari passu, with the growth of the embryo, becoming a mere appendage of the latter, or disappearing altogether, In alternation or metagenesis, again, the immediate product of the ovum gives rise to numerous gemme, every one of which may acquire the characters of a typical individual of the spe- cies; and we find that these gemme generally become com- pletely separated from their germ-parent, and assume the form of independent organisms. But although the detachment of the later growth, and its multiplication, give an apparent dis- tinctness to the cases in which they occur, there are yet phenomena of an intermediate kind, which indicate a certain community of nature between them. Such are the following :— 1. The duplication, in whole or part, of the embryonic axis, as an occasional abnormality, even in the higher species, re- sulting in the formation of a double monster. In the eggs of the pike, according to M. Lereboullet, “ the formation of these monsters may be determined at pleasure, by placing the eggs in unfavourable conditions for develop- - ment.” In this case the blastodermic ridge forms on its sur- face two tubercles instead of one, and from each of these an embryonic fillet is produced, the further development of which gives rise to double embryos of various kinds.* 2. The regular formation of a double embry from the ovum, in the case of the Polyzoa. Here the immediate product is a ciliated germ-mass, like an infusorial animalcule, from a protrusion of which, according to Professor Allman, a pair of polypes are budded off in suc- cession, the process presenting, as he observes, some remark- able analogies, tending to bring the whole process of gemmation and generation within the domain of the so-called “ law of alternation of generations, ’} though neither the two first-formed gemme, nor those which afterwards pullulate from them, ever become detached, while the original germ-mass becomes as completely reduced to the condition of a mere appendage of the * An, Nat. Hist., 2d Series, xvi., 49. t British Fresh-water Polyzoa (Ray Soc.), pp. 41, 33, 34. * — Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature. 17 structures derived from it, as in the case of the ovum of any vertebrated animal. 3. The variable character of the gemmation of Tenia- heads in the cystic Entozoa—solitary in the Cysticercus, but multiple in the case of the Caenurus and Echinococcus. * 4. The co-existence among the Echinodermata of cases resembling ordinary embryogeny, or the metamorphosis of insects, as in Echinaster or Holothuria, with others, consti- tuting the majority of the class, in which the embryo, though still solitary, stands out as a distinct structure from the so-called larva, and has in so far the character of a derivative zooid. The case, therefore, seems to stand thus. Embryonic gem- mation may be said to occur in all cases, though in the higher animals only in a latent form; while in the lower species, it is so exaggerated as to acquire a wholly new character. So long as the exaggeration is merely in its distinctness, or in the more complete detachment of the gemma, the affinity of the process to the normal course of embryogeny is sufficiently apparent ' (as in the Echinodermata). Even when a new element of dis- crepancy is introduced by a multiple gemmation, we can still find a parallel in the embryogeny of the higher animals, though now only as an occasional abnormality. But when the breach is yet further widened by one or more repetitions of the process of gemmation, we have results so totally unlike the ordinary course of reproduction in the majority of animals, that it is with some difficulty we can realize any community between them. § 10. Gamomorphic Alternation in relation to Sexual Maturation. As the appearance of a new centre of organisation in the cellular germ-mass may stand in the higher species as a re- presentation of protomorphic alternation, so to the contrasted form—marked by the formation of sexual or gamomorphic * An argument of all the greater cogency if Ceenurus be, as Siebold contends, a mere variety of Cysticercus. Even in admitted forms of Cysticercus, how- ever, such multiple gemmation of Tawnia-heads has been observed. NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI. NO, 1.—JAN. 1860. B 18 Dr George Ogilvie’s Observations on the zooids—may we trace a certain correspondence in the matura- tion of the reproductive organs. Such a correspondence is suggested in particular by the following considerations :— 1. The periodicity and lateness of development of the organs of reproduction in most species, and their greater or less inde- pendence of the rest of the system in some cases. This is so much the case in the Polyzoa, that, in the opinion of competent judges, they hold the position rather of derivative gemmee, than of mere organs of the particular polypes, in connection with which they. are developed. Thus, Professor Allman remarks, “ Tf the formation of the ovary be attended to, it will be seen that this body is developed at a later period from the walls of the original sac-like embryo, which have undergone slight changes, and have become the endocyst of the more mature polyzoon, ~ and it will be at once perceived that this development of the ovary takes place in a way which may obviously be compared with the formation of a bud; that—at least in Aleyonella— it occupies exactly the position in certain cells that the buds destined to become polypides [polypes] do in others, and that, at an early stage of polypide and ovary, it is scarcely possible to distinguish one from the other ; so that the idea is immediately suggested, that the body here called ovary is it- self a distinct zooid, in which the whole organisation becomes so completely subordinate to the reproductive function as to be entirely masked and apparently replaced by the generative organs.” On similar grounds he argues, that the spermatic organ “may perhaps be more correctly considered, like the ovary, as a distinct sexual bud, having the generative system so ehormously predominant as to overrule and replace all the rest of the organisation ; this bud, like the ovary-bud, being also unisexual, but with a male function.” 2. The transition in certain families, as the Polypifera, and even among closely allied species, from cases in which the re- productive organs are integral parts of the system and of very simple structure, to others in which they occur in detached zooids, having the character of distinct and well-organised animals. 3. The accidental nature of the characters which principally Genetie Cycle in Organic Nature. 19 distinguish these zooids from the ordinary organs of reproduc- tion—detachment, and complexity of organisation. The transition just noticed in the order of Polypifera is sufficient to show that differences in these points cannot be allowed any weight in a question of this kind. In regard particularly to what may be termed the adventitious organisa- tion of the reproductive zooids, as compared with mere organs fulfilling the same function, this conclusion is strengthened by the contrast of a phenomenon of an opposite kind,—the degrada- tion of individuals in certain species to the position of mere sexual mechanisms, these individuals being truly distinct from their origin—not mere zooids budded off from other forms, but animals developed independently from impregnated ova. The males of certain Rotifera, and still more those in the Cirripedia which are termed parasitic or complementary, are examples in point. In the structures now contrasted, we have examples of the two extremes of organisation ; in the one case we have a member organised above par, so as to simulate a com- plete animal ; in the other we have a true animal, so far below par in its structural development, as to resemble a mere organ. The contrast shows in a striking way that the suppression of normal parts in an animal, or the development of adventitious structures in connection with any particular organ, are not of essential importance in determining what has been termed by © some authors “ zoological individuality.” The other character—that of detachment—hinges on the proportionate development of the somatic life, that is, the life of the body as one whole, and the more or less independent life of its several organs or what we may term the topical or regional life. In the higher animals, the special actions of the several organs are as completely subordinated to that of the body as a whole, as are the powers of local corporations to the central government in any well-ordered state ; yet there still remains sufficient evidence of the real existence of a dis- tinct topical life. The antlers of the deer, and the hairs and teeth of animals generally, furnish well-marked illustrations of it. The first set of teeth, for instance, are formed, each in its own capsule, by a process of local growth, quite independent B2 20 Dr George Ogilvie’s Observations on the of that of the neighbouring tissues, nay, in so far opposed to it, that, at a certain stage of development, the integuments of the gum are partially disintegrated to allow of their eruption. A tooth thus generated by independent growth, sometime after attaining maturity, undergoes a process of decay ending ~ in its ultimate removal, when a new tooth, of the second denti- tion, takes its place by a similar process of local development. In its turn this tooth also is shed, and though in most species it has no successor, yet in a few there is a constant succession during the whole lifetime of the animal. Such also is the case with the growth of the hair in all species. Hence in such local formations as teeth, hair, &c., we have, both in the way in which they are marked off from the neighbouring parts, and in this succession of growth, maturation, and decay—repeated again and again, and epitomizing, as it were, the life of the animal on which they grow—evidence of a vitality quite as defined perhaps in itself as that presented by the free zooids of the lower species, though the functional dependence on the common circulation and the mechanical bond of a common integument prevent their exhibiting the more obvious pheno- mena of a separate life. But as we descend in the scale of organisation, we come to species where, from the absence of centralising influences, the several organs—which are possessed of a vitality, less energetic perhaps, but more enduring than in the higher—become emancipated, as it were, from the control of the general system, and appear as zooids, that is, in the guise of independent beings, rather than as integral parts of the same animal—suggesting the similitude of the feudal system of the middle ages, or of a loose confederation of In- dian tribes, rather than of a well-ordered polity of our own © day. And though the proper organs of reproduction, from their partial independence even in the higher animals, seem, as we might expect, to manifest most clearly this emancipation from the controlling influence of somatic life, yet it is seen very distinctly in others also, as, for instance, in the peculiarly modified tentacle of the Argonauta, which, when filled with spermatic fluid, is detached from the body, and finds its way spontaneously to the female, for the purpose of impregnation. Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature. 21 4. In the vegetable kingdom the correspondence of the archegonia formed in the prothallia or detached reproductive phytoids of ferns, to the intra-ovular structures of flowering plants, furnishes also an analogical argument of great weight in support of an essential community of nature between the proper organs of reproduction, and all such isolated gamomor- phic forms, whether of the vegetable or the animal kingdom. This correspondence has been most satisfactorily traced by Hoffmeister and others, through the intermediate orders of Lycopodiacez, Marsileacez, and Conifer; but I need not make farther allusion to a subject on which I have nothing new to bring forward, and which, in any case, could not be fairly treated in the limits of this paper. i It formed part of my original plan, to make a few observa- tions on the relations of metamorphosis to alternation or me- tagenesis, and to follow up these general statements with some remarks on the principal modifications of the reproductive process in the leading groups of both kingdoms of nature, with the view of showing how far the protomorphic, ortho- morphic, and gamomorphic stages are represented both in the — alternating and non-alternating species; but the extent of my first draught of the subject has shown me how impracticable this would be within the limits of such an article as the pre- - sent. In the meantime, therefore, I must content myself with such indications of these relations as are suggested by the annexed tabular views to which I have had occasion to direct attention in the course of this paper.* * It is only since these remarks were sent to press that I have seen Radlko- fer’s observations on the function of reproduction in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. In the latter, this‘author distinguishes very clearly the varieties of alternation here termed Protomorphic and Gamomorphic, but in animals he seems only to recognise the first, so far, at least, as I can understand the translation of his paper in the “ Annals of Natural History” (2d series, vol. xx., pp. 241, 344, 439). TABLE I. S = ° = > SS 38 Pd > % ~~) ) nm — ot “bo oO r=) on Pm 3 2 So 22 ORDINARY REPRODUCTION. ‘WOAO MHL #0 NOMVaNNORE “gozoyemiedg UIA sTle9 pue eAQ “oT ‘sjueuery eATjonpordey oy} Jo TOVULIOT | ‘sojadg 10430 OULOS PUB Msung UT sprosnpe Arepuodes JO VoHeTATINd Emo, paywueyeD oy Jo “vdywg’ ut “SOPOT oNVuLLEdG pus UBVAG JO sv sploog WLopIsMpey Jo ‘wuafediipog ut sv ‘sommjonng eationpordey sodord ey} jo queudoyoaog “"EOVLS OIHAHONON VO | “‘DDMUNT, OYA JO SUMS » OULD ‘SpUvTH oNvaedg put UBLVAG OANYVUIMT oy} JO ONSSEY, ONL £ naofdiigog oN) 30 .,8448-0y8e|q PUL sesoydouoy ,, OU], “B'O ,“Sx00}g-poorg ,, JO WOTeUIIOT | “peuyS{10 oT) OMT] ‘WAIW'T uy JO SULIBAS OArssoDoNS JO ‘HYTP Uy tutoprd {jog 8 sv Zursyoo sod4[og JO sop1es BJO ‘nozhjog pus puafdhjog uy Loren ) “‘PUOBYT OY} PUB BAIT WLIOFLIVdIAD OY} Jo “porary, UT ‘sohiquigg PeXBN 10 Barer] JO osvo oy} UT stsoydioureze py) cc PROY-VIUA, ,, 04} Jo “Vapro7s9y Ut ¢ AueZoLsqurg jo sesvyd oatssooons ot} ysnoiyy fUIYOIN Bog 10 YsyLVIgG Oy} JO ‘yvUMopouryIT Ut ‘3B ‘u10g yeordsy, oy} JO yuomdoroaeg “EOVIS OIHAUONOHLUO Comonumg pe ‘sesuy ‘na0DIsn4Q OUIOS UT SB | ‘ppoywuisy, yy Jo SOLIGUIG, ULOFLVOIED) OY} JO “UOHVAUVSIQ oruoLiquany JO ,,COVIT, OAT ,, 04} JO ‘npunsapouryrgy 24} JO OSI, 4} JO “Ze ,,‘spng-oAIquy ,, JO WOT}eULIO,T | ‘cap ‘npopwuia4y, OULOS ‘sngI0I0NRYO Ut SB ‘sprooz oyydiomt0z0.1g OATWALo Jo UOTE | *sUlIOg oTUTeFe1p pur “WeLO jo—ppowuiasy, Ut SsulIog O1sAH Jo—vep20180) Ut | £ snag ‘mwnundig ‘niunnoiny jo—vwunepounyrgy Ut *Ga—pwoz orydsourojyo1g v Jo .hpog Ls10q [MP », 10 ssBpY-ULIOH IVNTIA) Og} 50 ¢ ‘uA ey} wor yuomdoyeaog ArvutIg *SOVLS DIHAUONOLOU ‘'STIVNINV' NI @IOAO OILANAD I 9299.1 ‘SNOILVUANAD JO NOLLVYNUGALIV 23 Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature. PHANEROGAMIA. *(sernyjog Arepuooeg 471M ‘auafuo outos ut 10) ! ‘NOILVANOOTA VI[AOT Yt soqny-Uorfog pus > | spyozoseyyWY Supayezdoo sornyyoy YT “VIpLomy pue SOTPOY [VULMLIIG) UIT sovs-oLIquIGT JO B[[PO-ULIOF) YALA “BrUoZoyory Jo “2A ‘sjueueyH earjonpordey oy} jo worem0g ‘wuafuo) Uy ,,Soypoq snouyuATe,, oy} Jo pue = || FeeaT UT VITTWNROL AAwpUOdEg wUOIsvO00 Jo MOFFUINTTN *sUyeid-Uo][og PUB so[nag Jo | ‘ sproydy [erTeqorg Jo ‘suey ay :"Z1A ‘semmjonyg Satjonpordey azcdoad oy} yo yuomdoroaog ‘EOVLS OlLHAYONONVO £ susag Jo soaodg puv wiSavi0dg *sUvFIQ [V1O],T OT, ‘sossopg JO BIVBYOWT 2 "RIA ,,‘84904g-poorg ,, JO WorywuLIO,T ‘sq snonppep Wo. podojeaop soutpoUtOs ynq ‘uoFsoypE uy Suyuyeuras AT~V19UT ‘s}ooYg aAyssoooNg JO NOTIN ‘quUl[q Zut9Mop7 | Io ‘usa ‘sop 9} JO sTxy oaTjujoZeA Io wI0g yeordéy, oy} Jo yuomdoroaog . “HOVLS OIHAUONOHLUO “SHUT AV[NT[OD opuokiqurgy ayy =| —F saesoyT Jo stxe Ayo] OY} Jo VNTIE_ ON] . aya ,‘spug-okiqury ,, Jo worywuLI0T “wuafuog Uy Losuedsng 94} JO WOySstATp OFwUADZUNy —| { SJUOUIUTLY OWIUO4OAT OATJVALIOG JO UOHVINITMg SPUOMIVIL] OLMLOMO,OI OUT OFVUTULIET 10498] ON UT ‘aosuadsng 10 ofiquio-o1g IepnTIeD om 70 | worma § pay ‘woogy, 049 jo ‘sssoyy puw wonvdeyy uy ‘WOH poyepunoeT oy} Wor yuomdoyoaog ArvurIg ‘HOViS OIHAUONOLOUE ‘SENVId NI @IOAO O1UGNGD ‘TL 92992 ‘VIANV9OLdAYO 24 Observations on the Genetic Cycle in Organic Nature. Table III. PERIODS OF INTERPOLATION OF GEMMATION In THE GENETIC CYCLE. PROTOMORPHIC. ORTHOMORPHIC, GAMOMORPHIC. Mosses and Hepaticze Ferns and Equiseta Plants of all Classes. Polypifera Polypifera Echinodermata ’ (Polyzoa) * | Polyzoa apa Trematoda ‘ Cestoidea Cestoidea (Annelida) Annelida (Syllis, &e.) Aphides Gemmation is exceptional, in any stage, among the higher Articulata and Mollusca, and is unknown as a normal arrangement among Vertebrata. Table IV. RESTING PERIODS IN THE GENETIC CYCLE. Mosses and Hepaticze protospores Ferns and Equiseta gamospores Phanerogamia Between the Protomorphic (embryogeny) and the Ortho- seeds } { morphie (vegetation commencing with germination). Conifers present also another resting period, in the middle of the Gamomorphic stage (during the maturation of the fruit). } In the middle of the Protomorphie stage. } Between the Orthomorphic and Gamomorphic. Animals in general, } { Between the Gamomorphic (maturation of the reproduc- eggs OF ova, tive organs) and the Protomorphic (embryogeny). Have also a resting period or sted state) during Insects, Trematoda, &c. } their muamare osis, ay e easly at of ao Ortho- morphic stage. ~ Mammalia have no obvious resting period, the mature ova requiring immediate a which is at once followed by segmentation and the development of the embryo. The bodies which, under the names of statoblasts, bulbs, resting spores, &c., perform the part of eggs or seeds in some ies of animals and plants, appear to be gemma, which may be termed accessory, as lying out of the direct genetic cycle. 25 Peruvian Gleanings. By Dr ArcurBaLp SMITH. I shall first notice the supposed osteological type of wor- mian bones in all the crania of the Peruvian Indian race, alluded to by Daniel Wilson, LL.D., in the «‘ Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, New Series,” Vol. vii. No. 1. Find- ing, upon due inquiry at the Medical College at Lima, that neither its deacon nor professors could give me the least in- formation on this subject, I applied to Dr Lorenti, one of the best authorities in Peru on such subjects, and he at once as- sured me that Tshudi’s statement is utterly untrue. But, fur- ther to satisfy myself on this point, I went to the Museum, and saw there five native Indian skulls from ancient tombs, in which the sutures were visible. In mummies and heads covered with integuments and hair, the sutures were not ac- cessible: there is one mummy with a finely formed head worthy of a Grecian philosopher. But of the five bare crania, only one showed signs of a wormian bone at all ; another skull was so compressed on the forehead that the bulk of the brain must have been in life pressed back on the occipital region. The same artificial shape of skull was also pointed out to me in one of the encased mummies; but these were evidently exceptional specimens. The super-occipital or inter-parietal wormian bone represented by Dr Wilson, on the authority of Dr Tshudi, as characteristic of all the skulls of the Peruvian Indian race, is not even traceable in any one of the five skulls in the Lima Museum. Besides, the skull from the ruins of Pachacamac, or the Temple of the Sun, seven leagues to the south of this capital, which was deposited by me in the Edinburgh Museum in the time of Professor Forbes, and to which, last year, I drew Professor Allman’s attention, has no such peculiarity ; neither have two skulls from the Chinchas, in the possession of Professor Simpson, the osteological pecu- _ liarity in question, and therefore none such can be said to be — of the Peruvians as a race.* * Since writing the above, I have been introduced to Dr Charles Scherza, of the Imperial Austrian frigate “Novara.” I directed his attention to Dr Tshudi’s statement, and since then I have seen him on his return from the 26 Peruvian Gleanings. An ethnological inquiry of not less interest than the cra- niological one, is, I think, the oriental origin of the ancient Peruvians. In a town on the coast of Peru, and in the province of Lambayeque, called “ Eten,” there has existed from time im- memorial an isolated community, that never liked to see stran- gers among them, nor to intermarry beyond their own border. They speak Spanish like the other natives of the coast, but also use a special language not understood by other Indians or inhabitants of Peru. It would not be allowable, perhaps, on the grounds of language alone, to conclude that the people | of Eten were of different origin from other Peruvians. The Indians of Cusco, in the south, are not at this day well un- derstood by the Indians of Cajamarca in the north; yet both these populations radically speak one Quichua language. In the same way, a native of the Isle of Man and of Skye in the Hebrides, though speaking radically the same Celtic tongue, do not easily comprehend each other in colloquial intercourse. But notwithstanding the speciality of a speech hitherto unique in Peru, the inhabitants of Eten have no physical peculiarities to distinguish them from the other native Indians of the coast ; and accident has at length revealed the source of the unknown language of Eten. Among the Chinese lately introduced to Peru to occupy the place of the emancipated negro, it is ob- servable, that natives of different remote provinces of that great Eastern empire speak an idiom often differing so much, as to make them unable to converse in-Chinese ; but it has so happened, that some of them having come in contact with a natiye of Eten, they could understand each other. And thus the special language of Eten is in reality a Chinese dialect, and therefore the Peruvian Etenians are of Chinese origin. The fact appears to be perfectly well attested, and is here believed by people of the best information on the subject, I have, the other day, seen in the family of Don Juan Rodrigues, who was the first to introduce Chinese labourers into Peru in ancient Temple of Pachacamac, where he excavated skulls from the tombs. _ He assures me that he has inspected at least fifty crania, and that none of them presented the characteristics of a super-occipital or inter-parietal wor- mian bone, He has six fine specimens to speak for the Inca race in Europe. Peruvian Gleanings. 27 the years 1849-50, an Indian girl from the neighbourhood of Eten, and a Chinese from the neighbourhood of Pekin, so very like in features that I took them for brother and sister. I often amuse myself by contrasting the different countenances of the Chinese of different provinces of China, when, on pay- days, about eighty of them employed in paving the streets of Lima meet at Mr Rodrigues’ office. This gentleman tells me that the greater part of the Chinese imported to Peru are from the north of China, especially from Shanghae, Amoy, Loting, and some also from Canton, Macao, and other places. Those with high cheek-bones and obliquely set eyes are said to be principally from the interior of China, and owe their special physiognomy to a mixture of the Tartar blood. But the greater part of the Chinese introduced into Peru from the above-named districts in China are, like our native Peruvians, of Inca race, without this cast of countenance; and I observe that those who have it are often of shorter stature than others of their countrymen. I have learned from landed proprietors who employ the Chinese on their estates, that they bury their dead with provisions for a future journey beyond the grave to their native land, much according to the practice of the ancient Peruvians. Mr Rodrigues further tells me, that they also use in China religious images very similar to those found in the ancient tumuli and tombs of Peru; and altogether, it is impossible to. see them among our Indians, without being struck by the strong family likeness between the two people. In taking leave of this subject, I may mention, as a remark- able coincidence, that the Peruvian skull from Pachacamac in the Edinburgh Museum was there marked as a Malay speci- men, a mistake no doubt originating in certain points of re- semblance, though there could not be a doubt of its being Peru- vian, as I took the precaution of writing in my own hand, on the frontal bone, before presenting it to the Museum. There is another point to which I would here advert, not because it appears to me of transcendent importance in itself, but as a curious instance of the facility with which even men of science give credence to what is rare and wonderful, rather than to what is probable—I mean the assertion that cats, car- ried to the elevation of 13,000 feet, invariably sink, after being 28 Peruvian Gleanings. seized with very singular shocks of tetanus. This supposed fact I have seen quoted, upon the authority of Dr Tshudi, by no less a philosopher than Baron Von Humboldt. Now, since my return to this country a few months ago, I have taken pains to ascertain whether the alleged fact is true, or merely a special incident of travel greatly exaggerated and expressed as a general fact. The result is, that at Tuctococha, the mines of Dr Maclean, only ten minutes’ walk beneath the snow-line of the Western Cordillera, the central Andine range of Peru, and far above 13,000 feet, cats live easily. In the important city of Puno, in South Peru, at the elevation of 13,000 feet, there are probably as many cats as there are huts or houses. In the province of Lampa, and department of Puno, is situated one of the loftiest mountains of the Cordillera, and which is called Pomaci. Near the summit of this snowy Andine peak there are mines and miners’ huts within the region of perpetual snow; and in every one of which there is a cat, with this speciality, that all these cats are black. This peculiarity I quote on the authority of General San Roman, the present Minister of War in this country, and proprietor of silver mines in the summit of Pomaci. Mr Basagoitea likewise, at present Chief of the Custom-House department at Callao, and lately Guano Commissioner in England, is a native of Puno, and he assures me that not only in the city of Puno and neighbourhood, but in much higher stations, as Huallata, Apo, Rumihuasi, and Crucero a small Indian hamlet on the confines of Peru and Bolivia, where it is so cold that the water is carried as ice in baskets, the cat is a constant inmate of the-Indian’s hut. Dr Destruge of Guayaquil, and Dr Espinoa of Quito, have personally assured me that cats inhabit the Indian huts on the Hacienda del Pedregal in the Chimborazo, at the elevation of the snow-line. And to conclude all that I would here advance on this topic, I may say that Dr Lorenti, a well-known and highly esteemed man of science, who has travelled over a great part of the Andes, assures me, that wherever he found an Indian home, there he found the cat domesticated. It only remains for me to say, that in this country no one would for a moment distrust the witnesses I have named, and that their evidence in this matter is fully Peruvian Gleanings. 29 ratified by the concurrent testimony of all the miners and ’ Deputies of Congress from the Sierra, &c., with whom I have made it a subject of conversation, as a point interesting to European men of science. On the Goitre and Cretinism in the Cordillera. Ihave seen it stated that the highest elevations of these _ diseases on the Cordillera is 14,100 feet. One would think that such precision of statement should be grounded upon exact observation. Before leaving Edinburgh for Peru in November last, I had an opportunity of expressing my doubts on the subject to the author of that valuable work —the Physical Atlas. With the frankness and candour becoming his position in science, I found him most will- ing to receive the few hints which my long experience of Peru authorized me to offer on this topic. I therefore con- clude, that the brief notice I can offer in illustration of the habitat of goitre and cretinism in our Andine climates may not be altogether useless in the present state of European knowledge on the subject. Goitre may be met with at the specified elevation of 14,100 feet, or at 15,000 feet, but only in travellers or visitors at the mines, &c., from the valleys where the disease isendemic. In all the inter-Cordillera warm valleys of Peru, looking eastward, goitre more or less exists; and the usual mode of getting rid of it in recent cases is, to abandon the warm climate of the sheltered valley for the cool table lands or cold heights of the Cordillera. In the region of the Andes, where cold prevails all the year through, goitre is never endemic ; and cretinism is very rare in Peru, even in those parts where goitre abounds. Thus, in the valleys of Cusco and Huanuco, those affected with goitre are generally as acute in mind as those that are free of this malady. I understand the same is generally the case in Sucre, the capital of Bolivia, where goitre is common in some districts and not in others—a difference ascribed to the quality of the water. Dr Lorenti, who long resided in Huancayo, says that goitre contracted there, is removed by a change to the cooler climate of Juaja,a few leagues distant ; that the town of Concepcion, 30 Peruvian Gleanings. five leagues from Juaja, has goitre, whereas La Geronimo, only one league to the south of Concepcion, has it not—an immunity ascribed to the good water of the latter locality. In the warmer and lower districts to the east of Juaja, and also in the mild climates of Andamayllas, there are very largely developed goitres; and those affected by them are, by Dr Lorenti’s account, often dull and stupid, and their children generally deaf and dumb, and are called “ Upas” or “ Opas,” in the Indian Quichua tongue. But of all parts of Peru the remote province of Patas is the most infected with goitre, and even cretinism. This province, more than any other part of the Sierra of Peru, consists of uneven broken ground—succes- sions of high hills and deep hot valleys, in which the sugar- cane and tropical fruits are freely produced. The town of Patas, the ancient capital of the province of the same name, is a mining place, from which silver, gold, and gold-washings are exported. The temperature of this auriferous town is warm throughout the year; and though it rains abundantly from October to April, during the dry season it is entirely free from frost. Its population is estimated at 150. The town rises on each side, from the bottom of the valley, like an amphi- theatre, and is divided by a small ravine into two parts. On one side of this natural boundary almost all are said to have goitre, many among them deaf and dumb, and also idiotic and ill-shaped, as well as ugly. On the opposite side of the ravine or rivulet, the goitre is not only less in size, but much less frequent. On the side where the malady abounds, the - people drink spring-water ; while on the side that it prevails least, they drink from running water. Ata distance of one league from the town there is a supply of brackish water, and those who drink of it are free from goitre, and it is a cure for those afflicted with it. The above account I repeat on the authority of Mr and Mrs Marcos,—-the governor and his lady, —of the district of the Maration de Conchucos. Two months past I attended this lady at the Italian Hotel in Lima, and cured her of endemic goitre, which she had contracted during eight months’ residence in Patas, where her husband had mines. Finding that both she and her husband and their daughter (ten years old) became affected with goitre, they Peruvian Gleanings. 31 abandoned their mines, and retired to the colder regions, where _ Mr Marcos and his child recovered, and the goitre became much reduced in herself. I should from all these facts con- clude, that in the Andine valleys of Peru goitre is never endemic above an elevation of from 9000 to 10,000 feet ; and that if acci- dentally met with in the Cordillera,it must have been contracted elsewhere. I may add on this subject information received by me regarding other parts of the American Continent: for example, Dr Dertruge (a most competent authority, as one of the medical attendants of the army of Bolivar in Venezuela, New Grenada, and Ecuador) tells me that he has seen some cases of goitre, and even of cretinism, in the warm district of Riobamba, and in the mild climates of the Quebradas, or glens of the hill lands of Quenca, less elevated than that of Quito ; but that in New Grenada he has seen goitre of so enormous a size as nearly to conceal the face, and also cases of cretinism, especially in the provinces of Locovio, Marequita, and Ocana, but only in warm climates, never in the Cordillera, where it _ appears incapable of development. Dr Lorenti confirms these ‘statements. On the Vestiges of Extinct Glaciers in the Lake Districts of Cumberland and Westmoreland. Part I. By Epwarp Hott, A.B., F.G.S. With two Plates. In the following pages I propose to describe the principal effects referable to glacial agency along the southern water- shed of the range of mountains stretching from Bowfell on the west to High Street on the east; reserving for, I hope, a future occasion, the like phenomena of the northern slopes. This primary line of watershed passes across most of the highest points of the central chain along the limits of the two shires, and is a serious obstacle to intercommunication between the northern and southern districts, the lowest of the passes by which it is crossed—Dunmail Raise, at the head of Gras- mere, being 725 feet above the sea. This watershed was once the snowshed of two systems of glaciers, which, flowing in op- posite directions, drained the snowfields of Scawfell, Bowfell, 32 Edward Hull on the Helvellyn, Fairfield, and High Street, with their accompany- ing heights.* The Highlands of Britain and Ireland are generally recog- nised as having been the seats of glaciers during the Post- pliocene Period of the Northern Drift ; but the mountains and valleys of North Wales have alone been treated in a syste- matic manner by more than one author,t while the probably no less interesting regions of Cumberland and Westmoreland, the Killarney mountains in Ireland, and the Scottish High- lands, in all of which the traces of extinct glaciers are re- markably distinct, are almost virgin soil, as far as this part of their history is concerned. In the case of the Lake District of England, observers are still sadly in want of maps on a sufficiently large scale, and having the physical features accurately portrayed. The maps of the Ordnance Survey may, however, soon be expected for Westmoreland ; and with the contour lines of the “six-inch” scale, observations on the glacial and drift phenomena (which are so closely connected with relative and actual elevations) will be much facilitated. Mr J. Ruthven’s Geological Map, in which the formations are traced according to the classifi- cation of Professor Sedgwick, is generally accurate as re- gards the geological boundaries, but is defective in the shad- ing, a defect which is painfully felt when dealing with the local causes which have guided the movements of old ice- streams. Northern Drift.—The Carboniferous district of Lancashire, stretching southward from Morecambe Bay, is covered by a thick accumulation of gravel, generally in a matrix of Boulder clay, often forming terraces along the banks of rivers to a depth of 100 feet. This gravel, with boulders of all sizes, is formed of the detritus of the mountainous district fimme- diately northward ; and along with blocks of slate, grit, and * For fuller descriptions of the physical features and geological structure of the Lake District, see the Memoirs of Professor Sedgwick and Mr W. Hop- kins, in the Transactions of the Geological Society, London. t Dr Buckland, Mr Darwin, and more recently Professor Ramsay, who, in a recent work of the Alpine Club, “ Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers,” has described in great detail the glacial vestiges of the Snowdon range. Vestiges of Extinet Glaciers. 33 porphyry, there are included, south of Kendal, boulders of Carboniferous limestone from the hills of that formation, which form the advanced outposts of the mountains towards the south. I mention these blocks particularly for this reason, that they are derived from ranges of hills too low ever to have been the seat of glaciers, so that their presence, so far from their pa- rent masses, must be due either to the transporting power of shore ice, or to their having become imbedded in the bergs of ice which, as shall presently be shown, drifted down from the loughs and fiords of the interior. On approaching the valley of Windermere, the depth of the Drift as a whole decreases ; and, owing to the irregularity of its bed, it occurs in force only in the hollows and along the flanks of the valleys. As we trace it towards the mountains, it loses its stratified aspect, and becomes a chaotic accumula- tion of rock fragments, generally rounded or sub-angular, fre- quently striated and imbedded in a base of mud, covering the. flanks of the hills to a height of about 800 feet. At the head of the valley of Windermere it forms somewhat terraced sur- faces, distinguishing it from moraines, which in this district almost invariably occur as an aggregation of rounded heaps, differing altogether from any form assumed by marine Drift. The shape of the moraines, such as that of the valleys of Easdale, Grisedale, and at the head of Langdale, is indeed quite peculiar, resembling a collection of large barrows ; and it is a@ point on which I am still in doubt, whether their present aspect is that which they originally assumed, or whether it is due to atmospheric agencies. Rock-surfaces.—The hills of Ireleth slate and Coniston grit, which enclose the lakes of Coniston, Esthwaite, and Windermere, in striking contrast to the rugged outline of the _ mountains of “ chloritic slate and porphyry” (Professor Sedg- wick) of the interior, have received a rounded and undulating outline. The Coniston flags, however, which form an inter- mediate zone, from their extreme liability to split along the planes of jointage, cleavage, and bedding, frequently rise in small serried ridges, running parallel to the strike (north-east to south-west). The cause of this rounded outline may, I think, be clearly NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI. NO. 1.—JAN. 1860. c 34 Edward Hull on the traced to the wearing and grinding agency of ice, not in the form of glaciers, but as floating bergs. On close examination, the rock-surfaces are found resolving themselves into rounded and oval bosses, frequently grooved and striated in lines ra- diating from the interior mountains. These appearances must be due to the wearing action of floating ice; for, independently of other considerations, it is impossible to suppose that this comparatively low-lying dis- trict was overspread by one broad sheet of ice as a glacier. This moulded form of rock surface prevails at least as far south as Kendal and the southern extremity of Windermere. The striations and groovings range towards the south, scarcely ever deviating more than 20° from the meridian ; but, as re- marked by Professor Ramsay in the case of the striated sur- faces of North Wales, it is only when the natural covering of detritus or turf has been recently removed that the finer stria- tions become apparent. In general, the oval or rounded forms of the naked rock—even where it stands, and has stood for ages, prominently out of reach of all protection—is faithfully preserved, while the finer ice-marks have yielded to atmo- spheric erosion acting along the planes of cleavage (see fig. 1). The hollows are generally filled with drift-gravel in a base of red clay, with boulders of porphyry, which sometimes rest as perched blocks on the slates and grits of the Coniston series. As particular points where the striations may be observed, I may mention the Coniston road, above Hawkshead; the porphyritic rocks, both on the east and west flanks of Skel- with Fell; a remarkably fine example on the Coniston road, half a mile south of Brathay Church; and several positions in the * Old Hundred” of Troutbeck, above Ambleside. Passing now to the consideration of the glacial vestiges of the higher valleys, I shall describe them under the two heads in which they appear naturally to arrange themselves in a glacial point of view. 1st, Those valleys which have been channels both for float- ing ice and glaciers. 2d, Those which have been occupied by glaciers only. — The first class comprises the lower and larger valleys of the mountainous district, as Windermere, Coniston, Little Vestiges of Extinct Glaciers. 35 and Great Langdale, Ambleside, Grasmere and Troutbeck. They all exemplify glacial phenomena ; but, with the excep- tion of their higher reaches, they do not appear to have been occupied by glaciers. For reasons presently to be stated, I at- tribute these phenomena solely to the action of ice floating down these channels when they were occupied by the glacial sea. Tn treating of these valleys 1 shall commence with that of the Rotha, which was the first to come under my observation, and which forms the principal prolongation of the great valley of Windermere. Valley of the Rotha (Ambleside and Grasmere).—At the head of Windermere, the grooved surfaces—of which I have already given examples—are continued into the valley of the Rotha, and rise on its flanks to a height of about 400 feet above the level of the river, as may be observed along the road to Kirkstone Pass, above Ambleside. All along the alluvial bed of the valley, from Ambleside to a considerable distance beyond Grasmere, the examples of well-formed roches mou- tonnées are both numerous and striking (fig. 1). On one of these ice-worn bosses, fluted and grooved with striations ranging due south, the new church of Ambleside has been erected ; and grouped around are several fine examples. One feature in these bosses deserves special notice. When viewed sideways, they appear as prostrate cones or wedges pointing up the valley, or nearly north ; thus proving the movement of the ice to have been from north to south. These bosses are at an elevation of 130 feet above the sea. On the road to Patterdale, at an elevation of about 600 feet, the striations are exactly parallel to those of the bottom _ of the valley, though they cross transversely the ridge which divides Stockdale from Scandale, a proof that the direction of motion was here independent of the form of the valley. Higher up, by the sides of Rydal and Grasmere lakes, the striations are parallel to the longitudinal axis of the valley. The flanks are covered with Drift to an elevation of about 400 feet above Grasmere. In some places this formation presents a slightly terraced surface ; and its generally smoothed and undulating slopes, similar to those which the Drift assumes in Lancashire and Cheshire, show that it is a truly marine de- 36 Edward Hull on the posit, and not to be classed with the products of subsrial glaciers. It may be traced from Windermere valley into those of Stockdale, Troutbeck, and Scandale, gradually ascending along their, sides till it passes into moraine gravel, at an ave- rage elevation of 850 to 900 feet. In composition and want of arrangement this marine Drift resembles moraine matter, of .which it is indeed only another form. Itis to be recollected, however, that neither the cir- cumstances under which it was deposited, nor the materials themselves, were favourable to the development of planes of © bedding. It is composed of gravel and boulders, angular and rounded, polished and striated, imbedded in a matrix of clay of various hues, from dull brown to deep red and purple. This latter colour prevails much in the glacial accumulations of the higher valleys; and I could not but recollect, in connection therewith, the red colour of the boulder-clay of Lancashire. On close examination, it was evident that the clay itself was formed by the trituration and decomposition of the felspathic rocks of the mountains. Several fine examples of roches moutonnées occur above Grasmere—lying as cones, or inclined planes, with their apices pointing up the valley; and when we enter Easdale, and examine the surfaces of the rocks on both sides of the valley along the western flank of Helm Crag, it is impossible ‘not to be struck with the ice-moulded forms which they as- sume up to an elevation of about 1000 feet. Great Langdale.—The glaciated aspect of the rocks at the entrance to this valley is conspicuous, especially along the flank of Skelwith Fell. About half a mile from Brathay . Church, on the Coniston road, the surface of the ‘* Coniston flags” has been bared for several yards, and exhibits a system of parallel flutings and striations, ranging 8.S.E. This, within the limits of a few degrees, is the invariable direction of the striation south of the Brathay, and is independent of the form of the ground. The ice has pursued the same southerly course, whether ascending along the flanks of Skelwith Fell and Oxen Fell, or crossing the more depressed district at the head of Windermere ; and it is astonishing how completely the inequalities of the ground seem to have been ignored. Vestiges of Extinct Glaciers. - 37 _An interesting section in Boulder-clay occurs N.W. of Lough- rigg Tarn; it is of a deep red colour, resting on a grooved sur- face of felspar porphyry. The chloritic slates, which form the flanks of Great Langdale along the northern shore of Elter Water, are remarkably ice-moulded and grooved, to an eleva- tion of 650 feet above the lake. Along the bottom of the valley roches moutonnées protrude, and boulders are abun- _dantly strewn over the surface. The strie range E. 10° S. in the line of the axis of the valley. At the village of Langdale, ice-moulded, polished, and fluted surfaces are remarkably fresh; and I would here remark, that the fine-grained slates of this part of Langdale exhibit the glacial striations in greater perfection than the harder trap-rocks of other parts, the latter having suffered more by weathering along the planes of cleay- age. The oval and generally glaciated surfaces are suffi- ciently evident in the bedded porphyry which sets in above the village, but the fine groovings and striations are seldom exhibited. Langdale Moraine.—Although the bottom and sides of Langdale present frequent instances of perched and strewn blocks and accumulations of gravel, there does not appear to be any object which might not have been produced by float- ing ice, until we arrive within half a mile of its upper extre- mity. Indeed, the ascent of this valley is so very gradual that it is improbable glacial ice could have moved along it; and the upper limit of the ice-worn surface seems to preserve a perfect level along the sides of the valley, which may be distinctly traced by the eye, from some positions above Elter Water, at 650 to 700 feet above that lake. Combining these circumstances with the fact that we meet with no undoubted instance of a moraine till we approach the head of the vale, it appears to me the more probable supposition, that the glacial evidences of this valley (as already stated) are attributable to the action of icebergs floating down when it was filled by an arm of the sea, to a level of about 1000 feet. On approaching the ascent to the Stake Pass, at a height, of about 500 feet, we meet with a well-defined moraine, formed of large rounded mounds of gravel, and strewn with boulders. This moraine at one time probably crossed the entire valley, 38 Edward Hull on the and must have produced a lake, till the mountain torrent, which everywhere has left evidences of its power, hewed for itself the channel which it now occupies. Although at so low an ele- vation, this moraine to all appearance has never been covered by the sea, and is one of several proofs that the glaciers have occupied the valleys after the sea had retired. (Pl. L., fig. 3.) The head of the valley is surrounded by a steep though not vertical wall of felspar porphyry and slate, stretching from the northern shoulder of Bowfell to the Langdale Pikes. The Stake Pass crosses the lowest portion of the ridge at an eleva- tion of about 1500 feet, and forms a portion of the central watershed. On reaching the level of the pass, I was surprised to find the whole surface covered by mounds of gravel and boulders, extending some distance down the valley towards Borrowdale, and bounded by the crags of the northern shoulder of Bowfell (see Plate L., fig. 2). It is not improbable that this may be the terminal moraine of a glacier which descended along the higher reaches of the Derwent ; but its occurrence in such a position appears to me not easily accounted for. The aspect of this moraine resembles a vast collection of tumuli; and fancy might well point to it as the sepulchre of a battle- field. . Plate L., fig. 3, represents the relative positions of the mo- raines of Great Langdale and of the Stake Pass. Little Langdale.—Towards its head, Little Langdale parts into three branches. The north branch leads up to Blea Tarn, and contains fine examples of roches moutonnées, perched blocks, boulders, and glacial striations. These last, near the Tarn, point S.E. down the valley. The central branch contains a well-formed moraine (Plate II. fig. 4), which probably at one time formed an embankment across the valley, in which case it would have produced a lake ; but the mountain torrent has scooped a channel between the southern side of the moraine and the mammillated bosses of porphyry which form the ridge. The southern branch skirts’ the base of Wetherlam; and, judging by the remarkably smoothed and grooved surfaces of its flanks, has been subjected to an intense degree of glacial action. Around the copper works, the striations are visible Vestiges of Extinet Glaciers. 39 at many points, and range nearly due east, in the direction of the valley. This direction is continuous beyond Little Lang- dale Tarn; but here the boundary-ridge is interrupted by an opening trending southward, and immediately the striations ‘bend round in that direction. The flanks of Oxen Fell and - Skelwith Fell also exhibit the southerly striations; and it is evident, from this and similar instances, that some influence had been constantly acting upon the ice, forcing it to the southward. Where the ice has held an easterly course, it is due entirely to the elevation of the ridges which bound the valleys. If we suppose these influences to have been either prevalent north winds or currents of the sea, it is an addi- tional evidence that the glaciation of these valleys has been produced by floating ice, up to a certain level. Stockdale.—The flanks of this and the adjoining valleys of Seandale, Rydale, and Troutbeck, are overspread by a hete- rogeneous accumulation of gravel and boulders in a matrix of red and gray clay, which towards the lower parts of the val- leys assumes a somewhat terraced aspect. I have already stated that this is probably not true moraine matter, but the incipient form of marine Drift. Towards the head of Stock- dale, however, at a height of 950 or 1000 feet, it passes into a true moraine, which occupies the head of Kirkstone Pass (1200 feet), and extends down on the northern side into Pat- terdale for about 300 yards. On this side the moraine is more perfectly formed than on the side of Stockdale, and con- sists of the usual assemblage of rounded mounds of gravel, with strewn and perched blocks, covering polished surfaces of cleaved felspar porphyry. I do not think, however, that the remarkable block from which the pass derives its name is a true glacier-perched block, but has fallen from the crags which bound the pass. This is the last of the valleys which I shall attempt to de- scribe on the southern side of the watershed. The descrip- tion of those on the northern side I propose reserving for a future occasion ; and shall content myself with remarking, that the great valleys of that part of the district exhibit similar phenomena, the striations and course of the ice having been northward. Thus the flanks of Grisedale, one of the wildest 4 40 Edward Hull on the gorges in the Lake District, having its sources in the heart of Helvellyn, are ice-moulded up to an average elevation of 600 feet or more above the bed of the river. There are also re- markable examples of perched blocks of huge size, and well- defined, if not extensive, lateral moraines. That this valley has been the trough of a glacier, extending almost to its en- trance, there is the clearest evidence, in the existence of a large terminal moraine. The elevation above the sea of this moraine is not more than 550 or 600 feet; and its position is within a short distance of the entrance into Patterdale and the head of Ulleswater (380 feet), The moraine is about a quarter of a mile in length, and formerly extended right across the valley ; but the impetuous mountain torrent has hewn a channel, and has levelled the ground for a breadth of 100 yards. This glacier, extending from Grisedale Tarn to the terminal moraine, was three miles in length, with an average breadth of 400 yards; and, judging from the height. of the polished surfaces along the flanks of the valley, 600 to 800 feet in depth. If I have hesitated in the cases of the valleys of Langdale, Grasmere, Rydale, Stockdale, and Troutbeck, to admit of the existence of glaciers occupying their entire lengths, I certainly have no such hesitation in the case of Grisedale, where the terminal moraine, placed near the very mouth, leaves no room for scepticism. In the case of the former valleys, the well- defined moraines are situated near their heads; and the glacial phenomena which are exhibited along the bottom and sides of these valleys, and extended beyond into the open country, being such as are known to be producable by the action of floating ice, I am disposed to refer them to this agency. Without entering upon the question whether the valleys of the first class may not, at an earlier stage of the glacial epoch, have been occupied by glaciers, I only here maintain, that the marks of the former presence of ice are such as are capable of being produced by bergs floating down from glaciers which precipitated themselves into the sea, as in Tierra del Fuego, and, at a former period, in Scandinavia, where the rock sur- faces along the fiords are grooved and ice-worn to and below the water's edge. : Vestiges of Extinet Glaciers. 41 _ The two great facts to which the glacial evidences of the Lake District (as far as I have observed) appear to point are these: first, that the sea stood at a level sufficient to float ice charged with boulders over ridges and hills, which are now at elevations of 800 to 900 feet; and, secondly, that after the sea had retired, glaciers descended the valleys as low as 500 feet above the present sea-level. The reader will therefore bear in mind that I have not now entered upon the question of any changes previous to these, the most recent and most apparent. Tarns—The production of tarns, or small mountain-lakes, by the agency either of moraines forming embankments, or by the scooping action of glacier ice, has been illustrated in the case of the High Alps and North Wales by Professor Ramsay.* Not less satisfactory are the examples of this kind in the “Lake District,” where these lonely basins of water abound; and distinguishing between tarns and the larger and less elevated sheets to which the term “lakes” more properly belong, I think we may safely assert that there is scarcely one of the former in whose production glacial ice has not been concerned. Indeed, as a scientific distinction, it might be advisable to restrict the term “ tarn” to those lakes which can be traced to the formation of glacial agency. Of the tarns belonging to the Southern Watershed, per- haps the most interesting examples, as connected with glacial vestiges, are Stickle Tarn, Easdale Tarn, and Blea Tarn, which I shall describe in this order :— Stickle Tarn.—This basin is fed by a stream which descends a gorge scooped out along the north-eastern flank of the Langdale Pikes. The sloping ledges of porphyry, which form a conspicuous feature at the upper sources of the brook, are striated E. and W. in the direction of the valley; and at an elevation of about 1800 feet, lateral moraine shingle, formed of deep red gravelly clay, with perched blocks, is strewn along the flanks. The tarn, which reposes at the lower end of this valley, is bounded through half its circumference by a wall of precipitous cliffs, whose extremities are united by * Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc,, vol. viii., &c., “ Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers,” 3d edit. NEW SERIES.—VOL, XI. NO. 1.—JAN. 1860. D 9 F a 42 Edward Hull on the a well-defined. moraine—thus forming and completing the basin. The interior edge of the moraine is but slightly curved, and forms rather the chord of the arc. It consists, as usual, of large mounds of gravel and clay, on which boulders lie scattered in all positions; and over the south-eastern extre- mity of the moraine, the brook to which the tarn gives birth leaps forth, and is precipitated in a succession of cascades into Langdale. From the ice-worn character of the rock surfaces along the sides of the tarn, it may easily be inferred that the glacier which deposited the moraine, and thus became the primary agent in the formation of the tarn, at one time cas- caded down the declivities. But in this remarkable little tarn, there is an object almost unique in its kind, and which the tourist frequently notices without being aware of its true meaning. At about the centre of the tarn, a smooth, oval boss of rock, about twelve feet in length, rises about two feet above the water at its centre. On this is perched a natural monument of the transporting agency of ice in the form of a boulder, nearly round, and (judging at a distance of 100 yards) about four feet in diameter (Plate II. fig. 5). It has a most singular effect, thus placed in solitude, and isolated, by a circular sheet of still water, from the blocks, which strew the banks of the tarn in profusion. By its permanence in so critical a position, it shows how com- pletely the lake has been protected from storms, and from changes in the level, as a combination of these circumstances would probably have long since swept the block into the depths of the lake. Easdale Tarn.—Crossing to the east, over a tract of rocky ground of an elevation of about 2000 feet, we arrive at the edge of the deep basin which incloses Easdale Tarn. That the valley of Easdale was occupied by a glacier, there is un- doubted evidence on all hands. A moraine of large dimen- sions stretches out from the base of the crags above the tarn, and threatens to block the valley, which perhaps it once did. The flanks of the valley are strewn with boulders and perched blocks of huge dimensions ; and the dark mammillated masses of trap are conspicuous, especially south of the lower end of the tarn, where they resemble the upturned sides of a ship, Vestiges of Extinct Glaciers. 43 grooved with glacial stri# ranging east, visible even at a dis- tance when the beams of the western sun glance athwart their flanks. This smoothed and ice-moulded character of the rocks is apparent to the junction of the valley with that of Grasmere ; and is also exhibited along the flanks of Helm Crag, which forms the boundary of the valley on the north- east side. It is probable that the lower end of the glacier entered the head of Grasmere valley by the channel at the foot of Helm Crag, while a portion of the ice lined the summits of the cliffs over which the waters of Sour Milk Ghyll are precipitated, and thus assumed on a smaller scale the appear- ance of the lower extremity of the “ Glacier des Bois.” I have already referred to the moraine at the head of Eas- dale Tarn. A second and less elevated moraine, partly sup- ported by a ridge of ice-worn trap, strewn with boulders, forms an embankment to the lower end of the lake itself. The brook has worn a channel to a depth of 100 feet into the mo- raine without reaching the solid rock, so that it is probable that the lake rose higher before the channel was worn to its present depth; and as the process proceeds, it may sink lower. The perched blocks on the mountain sides along the southern flanks of Easdale are remarkable. They may be seen at ele- vations of nearly 2000 feet (estimated); and one example, conspicuous at some distance on descending from the tarn towards Sour Milk Ghyll, occupies so critical a position on a shelving ledge, that had the district ever experienced an earthquake, it would infallibly have been precipitated into the valley below. Blea Tarn.—This little sheet of water occupies a hollow near the pass between the two Langdale valleys. On the east and west the basin is. bounded by lofty crags, whose surfaces are glaciated to a height of 250 feet above the tarn. On de- scending from the tarn towards the main valley, the examples of roches moutonnées and perched blocks are numerous and well pronounced. The striations range S.20°E. A ridge of these ice-moulded bosses of porphyry stretches across the lower or southern side of Blea Tarn, and at first appears to be the agent in banking up the lake; but on following the ridge to the spot where the brook escapes, it will be found that —_ 44 On the Vestiges of Extinet Glaciers. the lake is really due to a small moraine, which fills up a gap between the ridge just mentioned and the rock surfaces at the west side of the tarn. Rock in situ does not reach the bed of the brook till it has fallen over several feet vertically of moraine gravel, and boulders. There are two other little tarns which I visited—those of Grisedale and Loughrigg—whose formation does not appear to be attributable to moraines, as they are completely surrounded by solid rock basins. In the case of Grisedale Tarn, from its situation near the head of a pass or watershed, and partly inclosed by steep and high cliffs, it may not improbably afford an instance of the “ scooping” power of ice or snow when charged with fragments of rock, to which Professor Ramsay has referred the existence of some of the mountain lakes of Wales. To recapitulate. The facts here detailed appear to show— 1. That there have been glaciers at different levels, descend- ing as low as 500 or 600 feet after the retirement of the sea which deposited the Drift. 2. That the Drift-sea rose at least as high as 1000 feet, probably much more. 3. That many of the tarns owe their formation to embank- ments of moraine gravel. 4, I infer—that (for reasons stated above) the glaciation of the larger and less elevated valleys, together with the hilly districts south of the mountainous tracts, is due to floating ice of the Drift-period, in the form of bergs and coast ice. 5. That there were at this period some agents, whether cur- rents or winds, or both, impelling the icebergs southward, so that they always moved in that direction, unless prevented by barriers. It is only proper to state in conclusion, that not being fur- nished with an instrument for measuring altitudes, some of the numbers in the above pages are only estimations. However, as there are many positions—as the summits of the mountains, the more marked prominences and passes, the surfaces of the lakes, &c.—the elevations of which are well known, the author had frequent data to guide him, and feels confident that the numbers stated are close approximations to the reality. 45 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and Com- bustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. Being the substance of a Paper read before the Aberdeen Philo- sophical Society, 11th February 1859. By ALEXANDER D. MILve. By Combustion is usually meant the chemical combina- tion of two or more bodies with the evolution of light and heat. Our present inquiry refers to combustion effected for the production of heat by means of ordinary fuel. ; There are two modes in which this subject may be inves- tigated. We may begin with first principles and ascertained scientific data, and from these descend to general laws and rules for practical guidance; or we may set out by compar- ing those conditions under which good or bad results have been attained in practice, and thus arrive at general rules which shall be applicable wherever the same conditions or circumstances recur. The former method we intend chiefly to follow, and shall endeavour to show that many valuable data have been attained by careful scientific research ; that they admit of very wide application ; and that the deductions are of the highest practi- eal importance to all who employ fuel as a source of heat. Both the modes of investigation referred to have been ably followed out by Drs Ronalds and Richardson. It is here intended to view the subject in a somewhat different aspect; reducing the more important points to a systematic form, and calling attention to some phases of the inquiry which are not generally understood, although they appear to be of great im- portance. To illustrate our meaning, we may refer to Table III., in which is shown the inseparable connection between Draught, Initial Temperature, and Economy of Fuel. The substances generally used as fuel are wood and coal in all their varieties. They owe their heating powers to one or both of two simple substances—to carbon, or to carbon and hydrogen. The heat is evolved as an accompaniment or result of the combination of the oxygen of the atmosphere 46 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and with the combustible. With carbon, the resulting compound is carbonic acid CO,, a transparent colourless gas; with hydrogen, the result is water HO, in a state of vapour. The nitrogen of the air passes along with these gases, not altered farther than by being heated to the same temperature as the carbonic acid and vapour of water. Atmospheric air contains 23 per cent. oxygen and 77 per cent. nitrogen by weight. The transformation that occurs in the combustion of carbon may be thus represented, atomically :— Carbon, 1 atom = 6: ) Products of Combustion. Atmos. air, { Oxygen, 2 atoms = 16: J Carbonic Acid, = 22° containing | Nitrogen, 53°6 Nitrogen, 53°6 75°6 756 Or, assuming carbon as unity,— Carbon, fe Products. Ai taint Oxygen, 2-667 § Carbonic Acid, 3°667 Mie oe { Nibegen, 8-933 Nitrogen, 8-933 12°6 12°6 In the case of hydrogen, the atom of which is represented by unity, we have,— Hydrogen, 1: \ Products, ; i's Oxygen, 8: { Water, 9:000 Ar, COnERInINE { Nitrogen, 26-8 Nitrogen, 26-800 35°8 35°8 Hydrogen therefore requires, as compared with an equal weight of carbon, three times as much oxygen, and conse- quently three times as much air. When we use the term “perfect combustion,” we mean that these combinations have occurred. But combustion may be imperfect. The carbon, or part, may be separated as soot; or if, while the carbon is at an intense heat, the supply of air be suddenly diminished, the oxygen may combine with two atoms carbon instead of one, and thus form carbonic oxide CO, instead of carbonic acid CO,. Or the hydrogen and carbon, where both are present, eo. -——s Combustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. 47 may combine, forming hydrocarbons, such as tarry vapours, coal-gas, &c.; or the hydrogen may escape unconsumed. At present, however, we shall consider the laws which are con- nected with the perfect combustion of carbon and hydrogen separately. The data relative to the calculations are given in Table I., which explains itself in so far. In columns 5 to 10, the temperature 60° is assumed as the mean; and 32° as that from which it is usual to calculate the expansion of gases by heat. Columns 13 to 16, relating to specific heat, are of great importance. When we cool different gaseous, liquid, or solid bodies, they give out different quantities of heat; which, - numerically, are called specific heats. Two stan- dards are used for comparison—air and water; to the latter we shall adhere in subsequent calculations. If water is assumed as 1-000, air is -2669; that is, water requires nearly four times as much caloric to raise its temperature any given number of degrees as is required by air. The specific heats, by different observers, vary to some extent. We give those generally adopted. It yet remains to be determined whether specific heat continues constant at all temperatures: experiments by MM. Dulong and Petit would seem to indicate that at high temperatures, say 1000°, gases require more caloric to raise their temperature than at low temperatures. - The heating powers in column 17 are by Andrews, and are expressed in parts by weight of water heated 1° Fahr. by the caloric generated in the combustion of 1 part by weight of the combustible. The data may be relied on, as the results for carbon by Despretz, Grassi, and Andrews, vary only 2 per cent.; and for hydrogen, the results by Dulong, Hess, Crawford, Grassi, Fabre and Selbermann, and Andrews, vary only 8 per cent. The results for compound combustibles, such as olefiant gas, containing both carbon and hydrogen, approach closely to the theoretical results. as calculated from the separate heating powers of their components. Column 18 shows the approximation in the cases of olefiant and light carburetted | | 7 Pe * 48 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and hydrogen gases. In most treatises on fuel, the subject is rendered unnecessarily intricate by assigning to each hydro- carbon a separate heating power. They should evidently be regarded as mixtures of so much hydrogen with so much gaseous carbon, because, in their ordinary combustion, they are previously decomposed by the influence of heat into their two elements, which burn in succession; as in the case of illuminating gas. Carbon as a Source of Heat. More or less pure, it is met with in various forms, as fuel. We will proceed to give the particulars of its “ perfect com- bustion,” in a tabular form, and also examine some of the phenomena which attend its application to heating purposes. In Table II., the process of combustion, without reference to its application, is represented. All the caloric generated is regarded as being present in the products of combustion—viz., the carbonic acid and nitrogen. The mean specific heat of this gaseous mixture is found in column 8; in order to ascertain the temperature to which it is raised, as in column 11; and the total amount of sensible heat it contains, as in column 10. As regards column 10, experimenters having ascertained that the caloric generated by 1 part carbon heats 14,220 parts water (specific heat 1000) 1° Fahr., it becomes a simple matter to find how many parts of the products of combustion (specific heat -2596) will be raised 1° Fahr. +2596 : 1-000 :: 14,220 : 54,776; which may either be regarded as parts heated 1°, or one part heated 54,776°, if such were possible. To find the temperature, column 11, we have to consider— If the heat generated is such as will raise 1 lb. of the gaseous products 54,776°, what will be the temperature, seeing that the weight of these products is 12-6 ]b. Thus,—54,776° ~ 12°6_ = 4347°, which is the intensity of temperature produced, sup- posing no loss by radiation or conduction, and the specific heats to be the same at high temperatures as at low. ~ Effect of Excess of Air.—We have seen that 1 lb. carbon in being burned requires 116 lb. air, and that the temperature Combustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. 49 produced is 4300° to 4400°, when exactly this quantity of air isused. But if excess of air pass through the ignited carbon, or enter by any other channel, so as to mingle with the true products of combustion, it will share in the caloric generated. Suppose twice the requisite amount admitted, or 11-6 1b. in excess for 1 lb. carbon, what effect is produced ? In the gaseous current we now have,— Carbonic acid, as before, 3-667 lb. at ‘2210 specific heat, Nitrogen, do., 8-933 ,, ‘2754 A. Air, in excess, 11-600 ,, ‘2669 s Sum, 24-2001b.at ‘2631 mean sp. heat, Instead of, 12-600 1b. at -2596 do. We may now find the heating effect of the caloric generated on this new gaseous mixture—and also its temperature. Heating Effect. —2631 : 1:0000: : 14,220° : 54,048°, the temperature to which 1 lb. of the mixed gases would be raised by the heat generated in the combustion of 1 1b. carbon. Temperature.—54,048° diffused over 24:2 lb. gives 2347°, which is the utmost temperature to which this new mixture can possibly rise ; instead of 4347° with the minimum quantity of air. On this point we may remark generally,— _ 1. The caloric generated is neither increased nor dimin- ished by excess of air. In all cases, it is capable of communi- cating 14,220° heat to cold water. 2. But this caloric is diffused through a greater quantity of matter when excess of air is used, and the consequence is a reduction of temperature as we increase the excess. 3. The degree of reduction may be found as above, by taking into account the increased quantity of gaseous matter in con- nection with the varying specific heat. 4. In the combustion of carbon, as the specific heat of air is nearly the same as that of the original products of com- bustion, the mean specific heats, with various degrees of excess, vary very little. The reduction of temperature is therefore almost exactly in proportion to the increase in weight. (This does not hold good in the combustion of hydrogen.) NEW SERIES.—YOL, XI. NO. 1.—JAN. 1860. b 50 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and * Application of the Heat from Combustion of Carbon to Praacticl purposes. To present some features of this part of the subject at one view, Table III. has been drawn up. Its minuteness will obviate the necessity of repeating the calculations, and will also render more evident the mutual dependence of the various principles involved. By 1 draught, or 1 equivalent of air or draught, we mean that no more air has been admitted than is necessary for perfect combustion—viz., 11°6 lb. per lb. carbon. 2 draught means 11-6 Ib. in excess, and soon. We have assumed draught in excess from 1 to 2 equivalents rising by tenths, and from 2 to 20 by greater intervals, and it includes all air mingling with the products of combustion in any way. Many persons do not seem to be aware of the extent to which excess of draught frequently exists in the ordinary use of fuel, and such may hastily conclude that the principles we advert to, and the formule founded on them, are inapplicable. me remark, therefore— 1. It is well known that draught may be so increased that with a thin open stratum of fuel the fire will be at last ex- tinguished. 2. The oxygen of the air must come into immediate contact with every particle of carbon before combination takes place ; but it frequently occurs that parts of furnaces, more especially towards the fire-bridge, are not covered with fuel, and other parts so thinly as to allow the air to pass in streams. 3. Air is often admitted by openings above the fuel, with or without intention, at improper times. Such air is not at all required where the fuel is entirely carbonaceous,—such as coke &c.,—as the combustion is entirely confined to the fuel on the grate; and in hydrogenous fuels, it is required only during the period when the inflammable hydrogen compounds are being - evolved, and not at all when the carbonaceous residue or cinder is burning alone on the hearth. ‘ 4. Many instances occur where the same amount of draught is maintained, whatever be the fluctuations of work done or fuel consumed. Combustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. 51 _ 5. The analyses of waste products by various observers show excess in many cases. . In Table III., for every degree of excess of air, we have given the new mean specific heat (column 6); the heating power constant on cold water (8), but varying slightly on the increased products (9); the pyrometrical effect, or utmost temperature attainable in each case (10); and the diminution of temperature per cent. (11). The most important points here involved are— 1. Absolute amount of Caloric generated—As before remarked, this is the same in all cases where carbon is con- verted into carbonic acid by combustion in air. “The various observers weighed the carbon, but not the air; and their re- sults coincide. It must be remembered that they cooled down the products to their original temperature by ice or cold water. This heat is capable of communicating 1° Fahr. to 14,220 Ib. water per Ib. carbon, but its value may be otherwise expressed, according to the purpose to which it is to be applied. __ Expressed in pounds water raised from freezing to boiling,— 32° to 212° = 180°. 14,220 + 180 = 79 lb. Raised from mean temperature to boiling point,— , 60° to 212° = 152°. 14,220 — 152 = 934 Ib. Raised into steam from mean temperature,— 60° to 212° = 152° Latent heat in steam, 965° Raised into steam from boiling point,— Latent heat in steam, 965°. 14,220 + 965 = 14°74 lb. } 1117°. 14-220°-+.1117 = 12-73 Ib, 2. Utmost Temperature, or Pyrometric Intensity.—In column 10, this is given for every degree of draught. The mode in which it is determined has been already indicated. This temperature can be expected in practice only when all the heat produced is present in the gaseous current, at the point where we look for such temperature. In most cases part of it is immediately radiated and absorbed, as in steam boilers where the furnace is inside or immediately under; but 52 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and where the fire is surrounded by non-conducting material, such as brick, the temperature in the space immediately over the fuel may be expected to agree generally with the Table. An inspection of the Table will show, that with every ad- dition, however small, of air in excess, the utmost temperature attainable decreases. For instance, the current of hot gases rising from a fire of charcoal with a draught of 2 equivalents, or double that requisite for perfect combustion, would indicate about 2000° were a pyrometer freely suspended in it. By reference to column 6, it will be seen that the mean specific heat of the current varies only slightly as we increase the proportion of air. The diminution of temperature is therefore almost exactly in proportion to the increase of draught, and we are thus able to reduce the matter to a formula or rule easily remembered. Formula 1. To find the initial temperature due to any amount of air or draught, divide 4400° by the equivalents of air. The results by this formula coincide closely with column 10. Example.—Required the initial temperature where 1} equivalents of air are given, or a draught of 17,4 Ib. air, per Ib. carbon, instead of 11:6 Ib.? 4400 + 15 = 2933°. With double draught? 4400° + 2 = 2200°. With ten-fold draught? 4400° + 10 = 440°. By the term “ Initial Temperature,” as used above and sub- sequently, we mean the temperature of the gaseous current arising from combustion, after all the atmospheric air from any opening whatever has been added to it, and before any of the caloric has been abstracted. This formula applies, without any material qualification, to the use of all purely carbonaceous fuels, such as coke, wood, charcoal, anthracite, &c. ; and as the laws of nature are in- exorable, we must suit our modes of procedure to their require- ments. We will afterwards see the important bearing of initial temperature on economy of fuel, extent of heating-sur- face in boilers, &c. To the use of common coal or wood in its natural condition, this rule also applies ; with a qualification, however. Imme- diately after fuelling, and while the volatile hydrogen and rd Combustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. 53 hydrocarbons are being evolved, air ought to be admitted above the fuel, or through the fuel in excess, because these volatile elements burn in the furnace, and not on the hearth. And while this goes on, the initial temperature due to the carbon will be modified by that due to the hydrogen, which is about one-fifth less for the same proportion of air. But so soon as the hydrogen element disappears, we have carbon alone, in the shape of charcoal, coke, or cinder, and at this stage all fuels become amenable to the law under consideration. In many applications of fuel, intensity of temperature is required. as in metallurgic operations, the manufacture of alkalies, &c. Cast-iron melts at a temperature of 3000° to 3300° ; a draught of 1-5, producing a temperature of 2951°, could not, however long continued, melt a single grain of that metal. 10 draught might boil water, but not melt lead ; 5 draught, giving 908° temperature, might melt lead, but not copper. In all such cases, the quantity of fuel does not decide the temperature, or determine the effect ; all depends on the re- lative amounts of fuel and air. A very small opening in the door or elsewhere of a reverberatory furnace may cause much loss of time and fuel, by its paralyzing effect on the tempera- ture of the gaseous current. 3. Amount of Heat carried off by the “ Waste” Producis of the Combustion of Carbon.—By “ waste products,” we mean the gaseous current after it has been applied to heating pur- poses. As before remarked, carbon generates 14,220° heat ; but to obtain it all, we must cool the gaseous current to its original temperature—that of the atmosphere. In the testing experi- ments by Andrews and others, this was done, but is not practicable in the ordinary use of fuel. The departing cur- rent must of necessity be, in all cases, as warm as, and is in general much warmer than, the surface or body to which it has communicated caloric. This involves loss of heat; and - we will now consider the laws which regulate the loss under varying circumstances, and draw such general conclusions as may be practically useful. 54 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and Suppose a current of heated air to issue from an orifice ; what data are required in order to estimate the amount of caloric contained in it, as compared with the amount in the same current at atmospheric temperature? The data are— 1. Its weight ; 2. Its specific heat; 3. Its temperature. Example.—In one hour 1000 Ib. gaseous matter—specific heat -2596, temperature 560°—escape. Required the caloric present over that present at a temperature of 60°. 1000 Ib. at -2596 sp. heat = 259-6 Ib. water at 1-0000 sp. heat, and 259°6 lb. water heated 500° = 129,800 lb. water, heated 1°, which would be the amount of caloric lost in one hour. Suppose, also, that during the same period we had consumed 120 Ib. carbon, what is the loss per cent. ? Total heat generated, 14,220° x 120 = 1,706,400", Loss as above, 129,800° = 7°6 per cent. In general we may therefore affirm,— 1. The loss by heated waste products increases with the temperature at the moment of escape from contact with the body receiving the caloric. In future, it will be convenient to call this the “ Terminal Temperature.” 2. The loss also increases with the quantity or weight of the waste products. 3. Also with the specific heat. But, as before observed (column 6, Table III.), this element does not vary to any notable extent in burning carbon with varying equivalents of air. Under all circumstances it ranges from -2596 to -2669. But as the subject admits of more rigid calculation, and as we believe the principles involved to be of the highest import- ance in practice, we have inserted the columns in Table III., immediately succeeding column 14. This latter column con- tains, for each case, the weight of water, equal in capacity for heat to the whole gaseous products per lb. carbon. For example, the heat which would raise the waste products from 1 lb. carbon, with a draught of 14, 200° temperature, as indi- cated by a thermometer, would raise 4°82 lb. water 200°, or 1 lb. water 964°(= 4:82 x 200°), as in the Table. By multiplying column 14 by the degrees of temperature in the escaping gases, we thus obtain the loss for any terminal tem- Combustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. 55 perature in degrees of heat on 1 lb. water per lb. carbon consumed. Now, each lb. carbon generates 14,220°; so that we are able to find the loss of heat per cent. in each case. Each result given in the Table is calculated in the same manner. Terminal temperatures up to 550° may be: ascertained by means of a mercurial thermometer. For higher temperatures other means must be employed. A reliable pyrometer for high temperatures is still a desideratum. In most steam- boilers working stationary engines, where economy is at all consulted, the mercurial thermometer ought to be sufficient. Although the calculations have rather a formidable appear- ance in detail, the results may be got at once by avery simple formula. Formula 2.—To find the per-centage of loss of heat by waste products, multiply the terminal temperature by the equivalents of draught. The constant number 4400 is to the product, as the whole caloric, capable of being generated by the carbon, is to the loss. Examples :— Terminaltemp. 500°x Draught 13—= 650°= 14°8 per cent. less on 4400°. Do. 300°x do 18> 540°= 122 do. Do. 600°x do. 20=1200°= 273 do. Do. 3000°x do. 10—=3000°= 682 do. Do. 4400°x do. 10=4400°=100: do. These results agree closely with those given in the Table ; and if we are correct in our premises so far as known scien- tific data extend, the principle is of immense importance, and deserves attention. The guantity of carbon consumed, either as coke, charcoal, cinder, &c., does not affect the result. With -a terminal temperature of 600° (which is common), and a draught of 2, or twice the air necessary for perfect combus- tion (which is equally so), the loss cannot but be, at least, 26-7 per cent. of the heat generated, whether from 100 grains or 100 tons of the carbonaceous material. When we bear in mind that anthracite and several other varieties of coal contain 90 to 98 per cent. carbon; that char- coal contains about as much, the volatile ingredients having been expelled; and that even ordinary bituminous coal con- tains 80 to 90 per cent., about 50 per cent. remaining on the 56 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and hearth as purely carbonaceous coke or cinder, the extensive application of the formula now given must be very evident. By its aid, many problems which arise in ordinary practice may be solved—at least approximately, or in proportion as we are able to ascertain, with accuracy, the terminal temperature and draught. We give a few examples. Example.—With one draught, we find the terminal tem- perature from a boiler-furnace to be 1000°. What saving of fuel might be expected by increasing the boiler surface so as to reduce the terminal temperature to 400°? 1000°x 1 = 1000 = 22-7 per cent loss. reduced to 400°x 1= 400= 91 do. Probable saving, 13°6 per cent. Example.—With 2 draught, which is much more common than 1, we would have,— 1000°x 2 = 2000 = 45-4 per cent. loss. reduced to 400°x 2 = 800 = 18-2 do. Probable saving, 27-2 per cent. The further effect of properly regulating the draught would be,— 1000° x 2 = 2000 = 45-4 per cent. loss. reduced to 400°x 1= 400= 91 do. os Probable saving, 36-3 per cent. Example—With 2 draught, and terminal temperature 600°, what saving might we expect from adopting Green’s Fuel Economizer, or any similar apparatus, to absorb and utilize the waste heat by reducing the temperature to 200° 2 600° x 2 = 1200 = 27-0 per cent, loss. reduced to 200° x 2= 400= 9:1 do, oo Probable saving, 17-9 per cent. Example.—With a draught of 14%, the terminal tempera- ture of a reverberatory furnace is found to be 1500°. Required the saving, if the heat were applied to evaporating purposes, and the temperature reduced to 300°? J Combustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. 57 ..1600°x 1 4, = 1800 = 40-9 per cent. loss. 300°x 1% = 360= 82 do, Probable saving, 32°7 per cent. (It may perhaps tend to strengthen confidence in this formula to state that, in the writer’s experience, 30 to 35 per cent. saving of fuel has been in some cases effected, by simply reducing and regulating draught, without any reduction of the terminal temperature.) 4. Excess of Air as diminishing the effective and increas- ing the non-effective Caloric in heated Gaseous Currents.— Against diminishing excessive draught, it may be, perhaps, urged, that it will, by raising the initial temperature, also raise the terminal temperature, and so leave us where we were as to economy of fuel. But we shall endeavour to show, that it is absolutely impossible to obtain so much heat from the same fuel in the one case as in the other. Suppose the case of a steam-boiler, steam at 14 lb. pressure. The temperature of the steam and also of the water will be about the same at all points—viz., about 250°. The iron of which the boiler is formed, being the medium through which the heat is communicated, will be somewhat higher in tempera- ture—suppose it 300°. Lastly, suppose this boiler heated by currents of gaseous matter, containing the caloric generated by the combustion of a constant weight of carbon, with vary- ing proportions of air or draught. It is evident that, under all circumstances, the gaseous cur- rent, in the case supposed, must retain at least 300° tempera- ture, that being the temperature of the receiving surface of iron. Up to 300°, therefore, the caloric in the current is non- effective ; above 300° it is eficient, and capable of being com- municated, if the heating or absorbing surface is sufficiently extensive. Referring again to Table III., we find that the waste pro- ducts, at a terminal temperature of 300°, contain, for varying draughts, the following per-centages of the whole heat gene- rated, which per-centages are, in this case, non-effective. 1b. carbon generates heat capable of evaporating 14°75 lb. water. NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI. NO. 1.—JaNn. 1860. F 58 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and Proportion of | Proportion of | Duty of car- Heat — Varying | effective heat | non-effective | bon per lb. Fast |genae| heron | Cf | pe enc aaa surface. absorbed. | absorbed. | evaporated. Constant. | Constant. | Constant, 100 100 800° : 93-1 69 13°71 100 100 800° 15 898 10-2 13-24 100 100 800° 2: 86°6 13-4 12-77 100 100 800° 25 83:3 16°7 12-08 100 100 800° 8: 80:0 20:0 11:80 100 100 800° 4: 73°5 26°5 10°84 100 100 800° 5: 67:0 83-0 9°88 100 100 800° 10- 84:3 65°7 5-06 The proportion of non-effective to effective rises rapidly, and the loss is absolute and inevitable with these draughts; as the boiler, however extensive its surface, cannot absorb caloric from a current which has fallen to its own temperature. The last column shows the diminishing effect as to the quan- tity of water raised into steam. We have reason to believe that 5 to 10 equivalents of air are admitted, very frequently, in one way or another; and, if so, the waste of fuel, or rather of heat, cannot be less than we have stated; it may be more from the action of other causes. For practical guidance, we will express the principle in- volved, in a formula. Formula 3.—To find the proportion of caloric which is non- effective in the use of carbonaceous fuel, multiply the tempera- ture of the body or surface to which the heat is applied by the equivalents of draught. 4400 is to the product as the whole caloric capable of being generated is to the proportion that is non-effective. This formula differs from the last in one respect only: it gives the minimum loss, supposing our arrangements are most complete, and that all the heat is absorbed which can possibly be ; while formula 2 gives the actual loss as determined from the temperature at which the products actually escape, which Lae ee ee Combustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. 59 is generally much higher than that of the absorbing surface or Consideration of the points we have referred to will serve to give definite views as to the economizing of fuel and heat by applying waste products to heating water and other purposes. To render effective a gaseous current which has become non- effective, we have simply to present a body of lower tempera- ture; by this means a farther quantity of caloric is absorbed. We reach the limit when the current becomes so cold as to be incapable of creating sufficient draught by its ascent in the chimney. But however low we may reduce the terminal tem- perature, excess of draught still continues to increase the pro- portion of caloric which is finally non-effective. 5. Excess of Air as it affects the Amount of Surface re- quired for the Absorption of Heat.—We shall now show that excess of air not only diminishes the effective heating power of gaseous currents, but renders a more extensive surface ne- cessary for the absorption of the same amount of caloric. Or, taking, for example, the raising of steam, we find that as we approach the minimum of draught necessary for perfect com- bustion, the available heat is not only increased in quantity from the same fuel, but less boiler surface is required than with excess of air. In general terms, and without anything approaching to de- monstration, this ought to be allowed, when we consider that, as the excessive draught is diminished, the temperature is in- creased; and that as the temperature of a heating body in- creases, its power of heating another body increases also ; and, lastly, that as the heat received by the boiler-plate in- creases, the steam raised from its surface increases in exactly the same ratio. The gaseous current, as it passes along the flues and sides of a boiler, communicates heat by actual contact; above or around the fire or flame, heat is communicated by radiation also. With regard to the rate or velocity at which a current commu- nicates its heat by contact alone, experiments by Dulong and Petit may be referred to. They found that gases cooled other bodies by contact in the following ratio:—‘ When the differ- 60 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and ence of temperature (between the gas and the body) is doubled, the velocity of cooling is increased 2°35-fold.” (Gmelin, p. 238, vol. i.) The inference is, that heating by contact of gases observes the same progression, as a similar agreement exists between the phenomena of radiation and absorption. _ But, in the absence of direct experiment as to the appli- cability of Dulong and Petit’s law to heating by gases, we shall merely assume that the amount of heat communica increases with the difference of temperature in arithmetical progression; that is, when we double the difference between the temperature of the current and that of the boiler, double the quantity of caloric is communicated; and so on for other differences. This makes ample allowance for the probability that the part of the boiler surface in contact with the current may increase in temperature to some extent also, as we raise that of the current itself. Suppose, as before, that, to raise steam, we employ carbona- ceous fuel under different degrees of draught, assuming the temperature of the water as 250°, and that of the boiler 300°; carbon used, same weight in every case. Carbonaceous fuel used, 1 1 1 1 1 1 Varying oka of f draught or 4 ct aa 1: 15 2° 25 8: 4: Corresponding initial tempera- ture in each case, see Table Iil., : 4847° | 2951° | 2233° | 1797° | 1508° | 1182° Temperature of absorbing sur- face in each case, . : 800°} 800°] 800°} 800°} 800°; 800° Difference of temperatures in each case, . . | 4047°) 2651° | 1933° | 1497° | 1208°| 832° Corresponding decrease in the amount of caloric absorbed by an equal amount of boiler surface, taking 1 draught as unity, . *1-00 65 48 | 37 “30 20 , Proportion of caloric which is effective, or capable of being ' absorbed in each case, as : found by Formula 8, : ‘93 | -90 | -86 | 838 | 80 | “7 We thus see that with excess of air above what is chemi- cally required, there is not only a diminution of the amount of Combustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. 61 heat which can possibly be absorbed (see formula 3), but the absorbing power of the boiler is also diminished, and that in a much higher ratio. We have not only less available caloric, but we require additional absorbing surface to obtain even this smaller amount. The rates at which the surface absorbs caloric or generates steam, as given above (*), refer to that part of the boiler to which the gaseous current is first applied ; but its course throughout is influenced in the same way. The first square foot of surface with 1 draught is equal in power of raising steam to the first 5 square feet with 4 of draught ; consequently, less remains for the other parts to absorb in the former case. With limited draught, in short, the same boiler surface will absorb much more heat, or a much smaller boiler surface will absorb the same heat. The advantage may be gained, therefore, either in the shape of economy of fuel, or economy of boiler surface. To construct a formula which shall express accurately the operation of the law here involved is impracticable until far- ther experiments have been made. The data required are— first, The exact ratio which exists between the rate of commu- nication of caloric from gases to absorbing surfaces, and the difference of temperature between the two. Secondly, The co- efficient of absorption for any given thickness of boiler-plate : for example, how many pounds water will be raised into steam per hour from 1 square foot of boiler-plate 3 inch in thickness, exposed to a current whose constant heat is 2000°? Were these data known, it would not be difficult to find mathemati- cal expression for the absorption of caloric at every part of the course of the gaseous current. Keeping in view that we have hitherto referred to purely carbonaceous fuel, or .to that part of ordinary fuel which is carbonaceous, the importance of regulated draught must be evident to all who have followed us, whether previously fami- liar or not with the principles which regulate combustion. The endeavour we have made to arrive at precise numerical results will, we feel confident, be appreciated by those who are interested in this important subject. 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N QOL N | F9RET | SELZL |SZFLO- |ZESLO- |680-08 |808-TS} 90L6- | FT N ‘uoFOI9IN OGIT | SSGb | S83 | 198S- oot O QOL O | OSL-IL | GFL-IL |68F80- |F4680- |S8E-FE S898) S6OLT | 8 0 ‘weBLxQ . ‘yrqua|yeqno| ‘at | ‘at | ‘sta | “sus ‘uaZorpéyq | “sMorp puv uoques | -wy oy se " ‘ Disguises of Nature. 79 instances produces the effect by its sole action, also, unaided, produces the effect resultant from a double action. Were such a law of affinities or attractions as I have sug- gested to regulate the external phenomena of creation, we might expect that, as we do in chemistry, so here we should find many affinities opposing each other, and that the attrac- tion of the colour or appearance of the soil, or habitation of the species, would only be one of many elements by which the conditions of its form and appearance would be deter- mined. This would meet an objection which might other- wise be raised against my suggestion—viz., that on many animals there is no indication, or at least no apparent in- dication, of an affinity in appearance to the character of the place in which they are found. True, the answer may be likened to that used by the phrenologists, who, when some man with all the good bumps commits an atrocious crime, explain the anomaly by telling us he had counteracting bad _ bumps. The answer, by force of association, rather approaches the ridiculous ; we are inclined to look upon it as a quirky evasion, but this is owing to its misuse and exaggeration ; in sober earnest, it is so only when misapplied. Every one of us, if we ask our own conscience, must admit that we have a - constant fight going on between our good and our bad inclina- tions; and the same struggle between opposing qualities, between opposing habits, and opposing laws, is to be seen in every branch of science. Should my view appear of a nature tending to throw light upon the phenomena of creation, 1 apprehend it will not be found of less weight if I go a little further, and offer to extend it to the phenomena of life (as in contradiction to the phenomena of creation). These are by no means the same thing. If applicable solely to the phenomena of crea- _ tion, my suggestion might apply to all such cases of per- _ manent similarity to the solum in quo as I have adduced; but could not, or at all events could only by a more compli- cated and indirect route, apply to cases of temporary or sea- sonal variation. No original law of attraction by similarity could regulate the appearance of the variable hare at its creation, because such attraction could only affect it once; 80 Andrew Murray on the and if the hare were once created white or brown, its creation is over, and further change through that law at an end. But if we look upon the rule as subsisting not only at creation, but all through life, and as a great law or influence affecting life, then the subsequent changes of the hare from brown to white, and back again, are in accordance with it. The greater white- ness of all animals at the Poles is explainable ; we perceive under what law the fish or the bird assumes the hue of its feeding-ground, although we remain in ignorance of the modus operandi of the law. There is yet a further step, which the advocates of a modi- fication of species might not hesitate to take—viz., to abandon the idea altogether as a law of creation, and confine it to a rule of life. Combined with a belief in the modification of species, it might help us to see how, through its influence, so far as outward appearance is concerned, an Alpine hare might become the Arctic species ; how the desert locust might be de- rived from the common one; how a moth like a weather- beaten, lichen-encrusted rock, should proceed from one from the woods, and so on. There may be truth in the idea that changes in species do arise from the modifications of climate, food, &c.; but I confess that, in the present state of my in- formation on the subject, I am not inclined to look upon such instances as the above as cases where such modification has taken place, but rather as instances of the exercise of the ori- ginal law I have assumed, or of some other such law of equi- valent force and application ; and would hold, that while such law may be exercised co-ordinately and simultaneously with one producing a certain amount of modification of species, it cannot be substituted for such modifying principle; still less can the instances of its operation be adduced as proofs of the existence of that principle. As I have already said, the fact of a great family resem- blance subsisting among all the creatures belonging to one continent and its dependencies, although not properly falling under the head disguise, must not be lost sight of in consider- ing this question, and would seem to have a special bearing upon this phase of it. That such great regional resemblances exist, every naturalist knows. Contrast the deep and gloomy Disquises of Nature. 81 Javanese forests, with their gorgeous epiphytes and poisonous- looking plants, with the fir-clad alpine scenery of Norway— - the arid plains of Africa with the beauty of our West Indian Islands—the strange Australian scrub with the Tartarian steppes—and see how distinctive and marked is the general character of each; and not less marked in general effect than in individual detail. Show an experienced naturalist or botan- ist a new plant or animal, prating nothing of its whereabouts, and yet ten to one he will correctly tell the country from which it has come. There is an undefinable facies about them which enables the practised eye to allot to them their proper station, as the detective officer is said to be able to tell the felon, meet him in what company he may; and this family, or rather regional facies, extends around the particular country as the air of its climate envelopes it—as, for instance, in the Gallapago Islands, which lie nearest to America, although 500 or 600 miles distant from it, it is found that although the ani- mals are for the most part distinct, they yet bear the Ameri- can facies. . Now, although we find this regional character so well marked as I have stated, it stands to reason that all are not equally well defined. Where the contrast in climate and con- dition of life is great, the difference in organic productions is great likewise. The contrast is much greater between the fauna and flora of this country and West Africa than between those of this country and North America; and of course the converse is true likewise. Where the conditions of life are similar, the animal and vegetable products, although distinct, are found to be similar also. This gives rise to that most in- teresting class of plants and animals known as representative plants and animals. _ But this is a word which is used with two significations, only one of which is properly applicable to my present in- quiry. One kind of representative species (and that is the kind with which I am not at present dealing) is where a spe- cific function is allotted to widely different species, in countries _ whose climate and conditions greatly differ. For example, the scavenger duty, which in cold countries is mostly per- formed by the burying beetles, is in tropical countries per- NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI, NO. 1.—JAN. 1860. I 82 Andrew Murray on the — formed by heteromerous beetles, a totally distinct tribe. These represent each other in their functions, although not in their form or character. The representative species with which I have to deal are those which are found, in similar countries, replacing each other both in form and funétion. As in plants, the Cacti of South America replacing the Hu- phorbie of South Africa, the Zpacris of Australia taking the place of the heath of the Cape, &c. ; in insects, the Hleodes of California taking the place of the Blaps of Siberia, the Eucrania of the deserts of Northern Patagonia replacing the Ateuchi of the deserts of the Old World; in reptiles, the crocodile of the Old World superseding the alligator in the New; in birds, the ostrich in Africa represented by the rhea in South America, and the emu in Australia ; in mammals, the leopard represented by the jaguar, the camel by the llama, and so on. Now, it is to be observed that this class of representative species is only to be met with when similar conditions of life exist in both countries. The ostrich, rhea, emu, for instance, find the climate and the extensive plains suited to their structure and mode of life, in all the three countries where they are found ; they are not to be met with in mountainous countries; the prehensile tailed monkies, the agile squirrels, &c., are only to be found where there are trees; and so in every other instance. Would it not, then, appear that the general character or facies of the animals in different regions is the result of some special influence or condition in the coun- try peculiar to each? and if we adopt this view, must it not follow as a corollary, that, where the conditions are the same, we should see the same facies appearing in each. Now, in point of fact, in those cases where the conditions approach to the same, we see enough to show it to be probable that it is so. I would go further, and say that there is good ground for holding that, were they really identical, we should see the same facies reappear. Let me illustrate this by two or three instances showing the effect of different degrees of nearness of condition. Compare the United States with Europe: the conditions are similar but distinct; so is the fauna. Compare the salt deserts of the Caspian with the salt deserts of the Mormons: the conditions are here more similar; and recent Disguises of Nature. 83 discoveries tell us that the facies of the fauna of these two countries is singularly alike. Compare the Gold Coast, Gabon, &e., and a portion of the coast of Mozambique. Among the Coleoptera, we find Goliaths in both, and many other species allied to species on the opposite side of the continent. They are not the same, but only belong to the same genera. Is this the result of intercommunication, and does it indicate the exist- ence of a similar zoological belt extending across the country ! It is mere conjecture to say, No ; subsequent explorations must solve the question; but it seems in the last degree improbable that the climate of the coast should extend through the centre of the land. And, lastly, compare the fauna and flora of the Arctic regions of Europe, of Asia, and of America, where the conditions cease to be different, and we find that there there is no longer a separate facies—the type of all three is the same. The light in which 1 look upon these facts is, that where, in a similar latitude, we have similar conditions of existence, we have dependent upon and flowing from that similar zoo- logical provinces, or separate, distinct, and isolated patches, having nothing whatever to do with each other, but, at the _ same time, possessing allied species; and this I maintain, ‘not through intermixture of species, or by modification of spe- cies, or by the passage of the same species from one continent or one part of a continent to another, but by the same con- ditions of creation presenting themselves for the evolution of the creative idea. Of course, in saying this, I do not speak of identical species, which may have passed from one place to another by the ordinary means of migration or inter- communication. I speak of the general typical resemblance which we find in species distinct and peculiar to each region ; and my idea is, that as close a general resemblance would have been found, although each of these regions of the continent of which I speak had been separated from each other by thousands of miles, irrespective of latitude and hemisphere ' (the same conditions, of course, existing in other respects). In short, if we could find two countries exactly corresponding in every respect, however widely separate, I should expect to find, not, of course, the same species in both (for as we have dif- ferent species in our own and every country, so we must expect 84 Andrew Murray on the to find them there), but species of the same families and of the same genera, and, more than that, species very closely allied in form and appearance. It may be said, it is easy to argue from an if; but I think here I am able to offer something more than an if. No doubt the northern Arctic shores which I have instanced are not widely separated from each other; but lam able to refer to instances of places widely separated pre- senting conditions as nearly as possible identical, and pro- ducing species correspondingly similar. The first case is that of the blind cave animals found in the caves of Europe and Kentucky. Here, in a nearly corresponding latitude, yet in position separated by half the globe, are caves extend- ing for miles into the bowels of the earth; and far in the interior of these caves,* where impenetrable darkness and everlasting silence reign, living eyeless creatures are found— more particularly a number of different kinds of insects. The number of genera and different forms yet known is few, but the number of species is considerable—almost every freshly examined cave furnishing something new. Now, the extra- ordinary thing is, not only that, in the different caves in Europe, the new species found in almost every fresh cave’ belong to already known cave genera,t but that the species found in Kentucky also belong to the same genera. The first species discovered there was Anophihalmus Tellkampjii, which so exactly corresponds in form and appearance to the European species, A. Schmidtii or A: Bilimekii, that any one but an entomologist would say they were the same. Adelops hirtus and Adelops Tellkampjii have since been found; and, in their turn, they so exactly resemble the Carniolan species Adelops Milleri and Adelops Freyeri, that the same may be said of them. Here, according to my view, the creative influence, acting under the same conditions, produces the same results—that is, produces creatures as nearly identical as can be without being the same. Nature never repeats * Schiodte says of the Carniolan caves, that the blind insects are not found until about two miles from the mouth of the cave. t The cave genera are, with one exception, confined to caves ;—the one ex- ception is the genus Adelops, of which some blind species are found, not in caves, but in dark places, under moss, &c. —._ . — ne a Disquises of Nature. 85 herself; and we could not, therefore, expect the very same. And the inference I draw receives a double confirmation from the fact, that a great many of the European caves may be viewed as thoroughly isolated, and as free from communication as the Kentucky from the Carniolan; and I know of instances in which the inhabitants of such caves are not specifically distinct _ the Auvergne species from the Pyrenean, the Pyrenean from _ “the Carniolan, and so on. I may therefore say, that in the ; case of these caves we have a subterranean region as distinct and well defined as any purely geographical region in the upper world. Whether we may find other species of Anoph- thalmus or Adelops in the caves of Australia, or in caves yet to be discovered in tropical countries, is another question, and one which would not necessarily much affect the view I have taken, even although the species which might there be found should belong to new genera; for, in the first place, there may be more genera yet to be discovered in Europe—(I have no- doubt there are)—and already we know several European genera which have not been found in America, and the con- verse may in all probability be yet found to be the case with regard to America; so that the mere discovery of a new form would go for nothing—the rather that our knowledge of the fauna of the subterranean region is as yet too limited to allow us to say whether a new form bears its facies or not ; and, in the second place, the temperature, or, what is still more likely to affect the fauna of caves, the degree of moisture, may be sufficient to constitute a different class of subterranean region. The European and American is a wet subterranean, the Aus- tralian may very probably be a dry one; but if it should prove not to have different conditions, I then should most confidently look for the occurrence in them of new species of the European genera, Anophthalmus and Adelops. Another region, sui generis, may be adduced as possess- ing in a certain, though less marked degree, special conditions of life under which similar peculiar forms have been evolved in _ distant countries, viz—the interior of ants’ nests. As already _ gaid, entomologists have of late years found many Coleopterous insects, not met with elsewhere, in the interior of ants’ nests. ’ Some of these (the Clavigeri, the Formicosomi, ¥c.) are invested 86 Andrew Murray on the with the outward appearance of the ants among which they live; others have no special resemblance to their hosts; but the point to which I press attention here is, that the true ant-nest species are found in ants’ nests, and nowhere else ; that a pecu- liar facies (in many cases a peculiar structure) belongs to most of them, probably to all which exclusively inhabit ants’ nests. The search into ants’ nests for these exceptional Coleoptera has been carried on very keenly for some years past in Europe, but as yet little has been done in foreign countries. The little that has been done has furnished very interesting results, and results quite in keeping with the view I have been main- taining. Species of Paussi (a marked genus with an excep- tional structure, and believed to be absolutely confined to ants’ nests) have been found in Spain, in West Africa, at the Cape, at Natal, in the East Indies, at Hong Kong, in Aus- tralia, &c. Researches in North America have likewise shown resemblances to our European species in other less exceptional species found in the ants’ nests there. We must remember, however, that such a habitat is less defined and restricted, and more subject to the intrusion of external influences than the other special regions of which we have been speaking. There is another kind of condition allied to the last, also drawn from the insect kingdom, which furnishes another in- stance in support of my position. I mean the singular coinci- dence of form and appearance shown by all the species of water-beetles, wherever found. The conditions of life in a piece of water vary little, and we see as little variation in the appearance of its occupants. Entomologists have had their ingenuity exercised in endeavouring to account for the presence - of apparently the same species of water-beetle (for instance, Colymbetes notatus) in distant countries—in New Zealand and Great Britain ; and I have myself suggested, that the eggs — or larvee may have been transmitted in the water-vessels of ships ; but it may be that the species is distinct, only that the characters aré too slight to catch our eyes. At any rate, there is no doubt about the fact, that water-beetles are so close in structure to each other as to allow of only a very few genera, the great majority belonging only to a small number of distinet forms ; and the chief difference appears to depend upon their Disguises of Nature. 87 being carnivorous or vegetable feeders. Again, there is a small beetle (dZpus fulvescens) found on our shores half-way be- tween high and low water mark, and which certainly passes more than the half of its existence under the sea. There are two or three others of similar mode of life, but I more particu- larly refer to this one. Its usual place of abode is between the flat strata or leaves of shale or other foliaceous rock ; and it is provided with means of securing and enveloping itself _in-a sufficient supply of air to last during its submersion, so as to maintain life, and move about unwetted. On the coast of Chili, a similar small species (Thalassobius testaceus) is found living under the same conditions, and having the same facies as our pus ; sufficiently distinct to be made into & separate genus, but a genus taking its place next to “pus. It may be said, that if my views on this point were really sound, we should in like manner find the fishes and mol- lusea of our own seas, and of those of Chili, &c., bearing the same type. But this by no means follows ; for observe, in the first place, we are here comparing an animal created to suit an abnormal condition with those in a normal con- dition, and it might be expected that the abnormal condi- tion would express itself more forcibly in any deviation of structure than the normal condition; and, in the second place, we are comparing land animals with sea animals, and we are not entitled to assume that the amount of variation in the condition of life necessary to influence the creative idea in the one is the same as that in the other; or that the same tests indicate the relative amount of variation in condi- tion of life in both. On the contrary, we have every reason to _ suppose that the reverse is the case—namely, that the creative jdea in sea animals was (or is) influenced by a less amount of variation in the conditions of life than in land animals. In all animals and plants, the phenomena of life bear a perfect relation to the phenomena of creation. As already said, the animal created in and bearing the typical facies of any geo- graphical region, is suited to the conditions of life in that region, and thrives better there than anywhere else; and cannot live at all in regions which are much opposed to its native one. The reindeer could not live in the deserts of 88 Andrew Murray on the Sahara, nor the lion in the snows of. Lapland. In fact, we may say, that where we find one set of phenomena, we shall also find the other. If we find a region of which the flora and fauna are typically peculiar, we shall find that that flora — and fauna is not suited, at all events not so well suited, to any other region. They may live in another region which has approximate conditions of life to their own, but will not thrive in it so well as in their own; and however similar the other region may be to it, they will never make their way in it in opposition to its own native fauna and flora, so as to usurp their place. If, therefore, in nature, we find a special fauna confined to a special district, we may assume that the same conditions which influence its restriction to such local habitat also influenced its original creation. Applying this to the question of the relative amount of variation in condition of life necessary to have influenced the phenomena of creation in land and sea animals respectively, we see that if this had been alike in kind and amount, we should have had the same facies in sea animals nearly all over the globe; because temperature and some other particulars, which will suggest themselves of their own accord to the reader (the great differ- ence in the amount of which forms so important a condition of life on land), are so equal all over the sea that they could form no efficient barrier, were their effects no greater there than what they areonland. All the differences that we can detect between one region and another in the sea, would prove no barrier to the passage of most animals on land. We must therefore allow, that the inhabitants of the sea are either more susceptible than land animals (and that both in the phenomena of creation and of life) of the differences in the medium in which they live, or else that there exist in that medium other elements influ- encing the inhabitants of the sea, which on land do not affect animals, or which we cannot appreciate. If we admit this, we can have little difficulty in suggesting some of the specialties which may have given rise to different marine regions. The difference between the extent of sea and dry land in different ' parts of the globe, the greater depth and wider extent of the sea in the south, the different distribution of land, the dif- ferent ingredients of which the shores are composed, combined Disgquises of Nature. 89 _ with temperature, depth, climate, weather, currents, and pos- _ sibly even some small difference in the relative proportions of the chemical constituents of the sea itself,—all must operate in affecting the phenomena of life and creation ; and it is through the influence of such particulars that we can explain the differences of type in the marine fauna and flora of seas separated from each other only by a few miles of land—as, for instance, the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico at the Isthmus of Panama, or the Mediterranean and Red Seas at the Isthmus of Suez. g If there be any such law, it must have been in operation during past geological epochs as well as at the present time; and wherever we can find any stratum containing animal and vegetable remains, marked by a similar facies to that of the animals and vegetables which we now find in any existing region, surely we may draw from them a tolerably correct inference as to the climate and nature of the country in which such bygone forms once lived. If we find, for ex- ample, that the fauna and flora of the oolitic period bears a certain resemblance in facies or type to the present fauna and flora of Australia, we may assume that those regions of which the oolitic strata are the debris bore in their time a correspond- ing amount of resemblance in physical condition to the pre- sent state of Australia. So much for similar conditions of locality producing similar plants and animals. It remains to consider what are the con- ditions which so influence the creative or vital powers, and how they operate. Can my suggestion of the attraction of resemblance to the character of the birthplace have any bear- ing here? Its application is certainly less apparent, but, I should say, may still exist. We must remember that there may be, and no doubt are, many points of resemblance which our faculties are unable to appreciate, but which yet exist ; and many which, although we cannot nominate, we yet are sensible of. Most men have some idea of their own of the general character of the different continents—something in- describable, but which yet associates well, in their ideas, with the plants and animals which they know to inhabit them. The essential element of some such inappreciable character may be that which, communicated to the whole animal and NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI. NO. I.—JAN. 1860, K 90 Professor William B. Rogers’s vegetable creatures of a continent, gives them that general empirical resemblance which we admit, but cannot embody in words or explain to another. Notes on the Aurora of the 28th August, and several sub- sequent nights, as observed at Lunenburg, Massachusetts, Lat. 42° 35’, By Professor Witt1aM B, Rogers. With a Plate. We place on permanent record in our pages the subjoined very interesting description of the remarkable Aurora borea- lis of the end of August last, by our esteemed correspondent, Professor William B. Rogers of Boston, United States, in the hope that its publication may assist in the identification, or the co-ordination at least, of some of the phenomena with those witnessed at the same date in other quarters of the globe. Recent intelligence indicates that an auroral condi- tion of the atmosphere, of unwonted brilliancy, prevailed at the same epoch throughout an unprecedented extent of the earth’s surface, being visible on the west side of the Atlantic as far south as Havana, and on the east side in many parts of Europe; how far to the west and east, we cannot at present report. What is more worthy of note than even its occur- rence within the tropics, is the fact of its appearance, with identity of date, in the southern hemisphere, in Australia, at our very antipodes. A diffusion so nearly world-wide of a dis- turbance in the electric equilibrium of the earth’s atmosphere seems to lend to this aurora the character and interest of a cosmical phenomenon, and to suggest that philosophers must look for its exciting cause either outside of the earth alto- gether or deep within it. Nothing will so tend to the dis- covery of the cause, whatever it may have been, as a careful comparison and analysis of the aspects and phases of the aurora, observed simultaneously at many remote localities and faithfully described. The reader will find an account of the phenomenon as it was witnessed on the 28th and 29th of August and Ist and 2d of September at Havana, in an ab- stract of a paper read before the Académie des Sciences, Paris, by M. Poey, on the 17th October, and printed in the journal called L’Jnstitut ; and he will see a mention of an Aurora Notes on the Aurora of 28th August. 91 5 Australis on the 28th of August, &c., at Victoria, in the Lon- don Illustrated News of the 19th of November. Letter, Professor W. B. Rogers to Professor H. D. Rogers of Glasgow. “© My pear Brotruer,—tThe close of the past summer was _ marked by a succession of auroras, which, for number and magnificence, have rarely been equalled in this latitude. The favourable position of our hill, commanding the whole horizon, Ted me to note in some detail the varying phases of the phe- _ nomenon on the night when it was most brilliant, and to mark its recurrence at other times throughout the period of its con- tinuance. Knowing that you will be curious to compare these observations with the effects which, as I learn, were observed at the same time in Great Britain, I send you a copy of my notes, compiled from memoranda taken at the moment of ob- servation. _ This memorable period of auroras was ushered in by the superb display of the night of Sunday, August 28-9, of which some details are given below. After this the phenomenon was repeated with more or less splendour for the eight follow- ing nights, that is, until the night of Monday, September 5-6. Two of these later displays, those of Thursday and Friday, © were scarcely inferior in beauty to the first, while that of Friday, in some of its features, was the most interesting of them all. The uniformity with which certain of its phases recurred, and the’ marvellous exhibition of pulsations which marked it when most brilliant, are described somewhat mi- nutely in the accompanying notes. In all the lesser displays, as in that last mentioned, the formation of the obscure seg- ment in the north, with its marginal bow of light, was the prominent phenomenon; and the shooting up of streamers from this arch was accompanied by an exhaustion of its light and a breaking up of the dark space, which, after a pause, was reproduced as before. - For several days during this auroral period, the telegraph wires were ‘observed to be charged; and so powerful were these waves or currents of the induced electricity, that, on some lines, they enabled the operators to correspond without the use of batteries. Between Boston and Portland, the line 92 Professor William B. Rogers’s was worked for two hours by the aurora alone. A similar result was obtained between Braintree and Fall River, between Boston and Fitchburg, and on the vast stretch of wire from Pittsburg to St Louis, as well as on other routes, having more or less of an eastern and western direction. “ Aurora of the night of August 28-9. ** A few minutes before 8 P.M. of the 28th, my attention was called to an appearance resembling a number of elongated, thin, slightly luminous clouds, collected chiefly in the eastern and western quarters of the sky, united by others extending over head in nearly parallel directions. These were quickly replaced by converging columns of the same vapour-like aspect, mingled with more transient luminous streamers, clearly showing the auroral character of the phenomenon. Through- out most of the northern half of the sky the stars were dim- med by what seemed to be a luminous haze, which in some places quite eclipsed their light, and which itself glowed changefully with a golden and crimson colouring. These tints, so indescribably delicate and rich, were brightest in the eastern and western quarters of the sky, where they continued to appear in varying flushes overspreading a wide space, until near the close of the first great display of the evening. In the earlier stage, the obscure space on the northern horizon had not assumed the usual arched form, and was sufficiently - translucent to show a few flaky clouds floating within its con- fines. “At 8.20, this dark space had become more opaque, and had moulded itself into a symmetrical arch, bounded by a broad luminous band. Quickly groups of streamers shifting from place to place arose along the arch, and then appeared in a long array flashing from nearly every point far up into the sky, while similar luminous columns, spreading along the horizon beyond the east and west points, and extending up- wards, united with the long beams dimly stretched over from the north to mark out a second obscure segment in the oppo- site or southern part of the heavens. } “As these luminous columns rapidly brightened and ad- vanced, the southern segment, which they delineated, grew more distinct and regular, forming in a short time a great Notes on the Aurora of the 28th August. 93 arch, whose dark area embraced a much wider space and greater altitude than its counterpart in the northern quarter. From this time the luminous columns rising from the southern arch continued to increase in brightness, while those on the north grew fainter and less regular, and the arch from which they ascended relapsed into a changing shapeless form. “ At 8.50, the southern half of the heavens had become the seat of the most striking phenomena, and so far outshone the north, that the display might well be called an Aurora Aus- tralis. Here was seen a vast dark arch, embracing about 130 degrees of the horizon, and rising to a height of 50 degrees, bounded above by a broad luminous zone, from which the in- termitting, far-flashing columns of silvery and golden light seemed to emanate. These gradually encroached upon the arch below, which, as it became depressed, drew with it a border of increasing brightness. At the same time, the lu- Mminous columns lengthening upwards began to mark a point of convergence south of the zenith, corresponding to the upper pole of the dipping-needle. Sometimes two, sometimes three - or four would flash up to this part of the heavens, and, linger- ing for a moment, would seem to unite around the pole, often leaving, as they retreated or dissolved away, irregular flakes of light encircling the polar point. *“ These phenomena continued with little general alteration for many minutes, the southern arch slightly declining in height but not in brilliancy, and another but less luminous arch forming in the north, and sending its flashing streamers towards the magnetic pole, whither also continued to converge the golden and crimson beams emanating from the eastern and western quarters of the horizon. After a time, these con- verging flashes began rapidly to increase in number and bril- lianey, encroaching more and more upon the southern and northern arcs of light, until, at about 9.15, the latter were entirely obliterated amid the suddenly increasing splendours that overspread the whole sky. «“ At 9.30, the display attained its highest magnificence. The dome of the heavens was hung around with white, and golden and rose-tinted streamers converging from all quar- ters towards the magnetic pole, and uniting there in a circle of continually varying brilliancy and colour. Over the glow- > — » ON 94 . Professor William B. Rogers’s ing stripes of this marvellous pavilion, there came broad flushes of the richest crimson light, at first at intervals, and then more permanently, until it suffused all the upper part of the sky and the whole southern quarter except a narrow space next the horizon, where only a few faint streamers were to be discerned. “These phenomena continued with little abatement of splendour for about half an hour, the light diminishing some- what in the lower part of the sky, especially towards the north and south, but still glowing in changeful beams with broader » flashes of crimson and gold over a wide space around the magnetic pole. « At 10.19, the general illumination had ceased, but broad masses of rose and yellow light still hung over the eastern quarter, and less distinctly in the west, while pulsating beams continued to play at intervals around the magnetic pole, and to flash over other parts of the sky. At 10.30, nothing re- mained of this wonderful spectacle but a faint auroral arch low down in the north, accompanied by a few dim streamers. “ At this time I discontinued my observations ; but from the reports of others, it appears that the phenomena recurred in great splendour between one and two o’clock in the morn- ing (29th), when the crimson colour was particularly remark- able. Still later, at 3.30, I saw a fine auroral arch in the north, with a long arra yof streamers rising from it. * During the evening, when the illumination was at its height, the light was so great, that several of my friends, standing out on the lawn, were able to read with ease the ordinary small print of a newspaper. As the evening ad- vanced, the breeze from west by north, at first feeble, became quite strong. At 9 P.M., the barometer marked 29-5 and falling, and the thermometer 56°, an unusually low tempera- ture for the season. “ Aurora of the night of September 2. “ Early on the day of the 2d, the wind became strong from west, with a light haze. Barometer 29-2, lower than for many days. Temperature at 10 A.M. 60°. As the day advanced the wind veered to north-west, the air growing clear and showing scattered cirrus and cirro-cumulus clouds. A clear sunset was _ Notes on the Aurora of the 2d September. 95 followed by a peculiar greenish and purplish light extending round the horizon, even beyond the north. Over the north- east quarter, the air, to the height of thirty degrees, had a dark opacity, unlike that caused by mist or cloud, but rather resembling a shadow, and yet having the effect of arresting the light coming from beyond. “ At 7.30, an irregular, obscure space began to form along the northern horizon, and a faint flush of whitish light to appear at a point a little north of east. * At 7.50, a faint arch of white light made its appearance, resting on the horizon a little north of the east and west points, and culminating some distance below the pole-star. This continued to rise until 8 P.M., when its apex was within a few degrees of the pole. At this time two broad but faint beams extended from the ends of the arch towards a point a little south of the zenith, forming a second but much fainter arch. Within the northern arch appeared a narrower lumi- nous band, concentric with the exterior curve, and separated from it by a dark opaque space. Between this and the horizon there was an obscure tract traversed by faint, vertical beams, which terminated at the inner luminous arch. (See fig. 1, Plate III.) * At 8.10, the arch had declined to about two-thirds the height of the pole, but was very symmetrical and distinct, displaying the inner concentric band and some streams in the dark, space below, but none rising from the east and west extremities. “ At 8.15, a long, bright streamer shot out from the west end, while the other extremity became suffused by a broad mass of light, giving forth another streamer. The two concentric _ arches, verging into the luminous space, still retained their regular form throughout the rest of their length. * At 8.20, the inner luminous curve had vanished, and the eastern end of the arch was replaced for a considerable dis- tance by. a broad mass of light, giving origin to- several streamers. (See fig. 2, Plate Ill.) It now slowly descended arid faded, until at 8.35 it began again to rise and to acquire more distinctness. “ At 8.40, the top of the arch reached nearly to the pole-star, the east limb had resumed its regular form, and the west limb 96 _ Professor William B. Rogers’s was replaced by an irregular space without distinct streamers. but displaying an intermitting or pulsating light. “ At 8.45, the arch had declined in height, and was so faint as to be hardly visible except at the flanks. “ At 9 P.M., it had grown luminous throughout, had ascended a little, and developed a faint inner arch, while occasional streamers rose from the eastern end, now broken and irre- gular. Soon they vanished, while others shot up from the western extremity. The upper are became irregular from the effusion of dim waves of light upward. (See fig. 3, Plate III.) “ At 9.7, the inner arch below the broad irregular zone of light had become strongly luminous throughout, forming a narrow concentric curve, extending to the horizon on both sides. The apex of the outer curve was less than half the height of the pole. No streamers were visible within or near the arch. « At 9.20, the inner arch had vanished, the upper are at the same time becoming higher and fainter by diffusion, while dim streamers appeared on the horizon near the western ex- tremity. Presently a low, luminous segment showed itself on the horizon beneath the arch; the latter now resolved itself — into an array of bright streamers, with equidistant shadowy spaces between them, to which was quickly added a similar array of short streamers beneath. (See fig. 4, Plate III.) ‘‘In a moment the streamers began to shoot upwards to a great height, and to exhibit, first in the eastern quarter and then at various points, flashes of crimson and golden light, while near the horizon at one or two places stripes of prismatic colour gleamed for a few seconds, looking like bright fragments of a rainbow. “ At 9.30, the streamers had extended and grown brighter, while the low luminous segment, diffusing itself upward, had merged into the outer arch, which now reached nearly to the pole-star. At this moment the arch began to send off sueces- sive waves of light, rapidly following one another towards and beyond the zenith, some of which could be distinctly traced as great continuous curves, resting on the eastern and western points of the horizon, and moving as if they revolved about a diameter connecting these points. “ At one time two of these vast arch-like waves were seen at eee Notes on the Aurora of the 2d September. 97 the same moment, the one following the other at no great dis- tance as they swept upwards and across the zenith. “In a few seconds, however, this phasis of the wave move- -ment gave place to more rapid and seemingly broken pulsa- tions, flitting upwards in close succession through the northern, eastern, and western quarters of the sky, and visible, though less distinctly, in the south. This wonderful appearance, _ though difficult to follow in its details, exhibited everywhere a convergency of the lines of motion towards a point consider- ably south of the zenith, and seemingly correspondent to the upward direction of the dip-needle. “ At one moment bright streamers shooting from the horizon would meet at this spot, returning for an instant a nearly con- tinuous illumination throughout their length, at another they glowed chiefly towards their upper part, where they united to form the auroral crown. “When these luminous phenomena were at their height, every spot to which the eye was directed, except the southern quarter near the horizon, was traversed by quickly successive flashes of white, greenish, and pale roseate light, all seemingly moving upwards, and presenting, when viewed together, the appearance of alternate spaces of illumination and obscurity chasing one another along the great streamers converging to- wards the magnetic pole. _ “These upward pulsations of light seemed to be a phenome- non distinct from that of the streamers themselves, which ap- _ peared to be comparatively stationary, though but indistinctly and partially visible. * As this impressive effusion of light went on, the northern arch broke up into an irregular faintly luminous space, but quickly the low dark segment on the horizon expanded, and another arch began to be developed, partly within and partly above it. “ At 9.57, this double arch was complete. The pulsations were not observed in or above it, but continued in other parts of the sky, especially in the eastern quarter, where they seemed, as before described, to illuminate alternate spaces along the comparatively stationary streamers, which were only dimly discerned in their absence. * At 10.3, the arch had become triple by the appearance of NEW SERIES.—VOL, xI. NO. 1.—JAN. 1860. L 98 Professor William B. Rogers’s a third luminous bow within the dark segment. The upper- most curve now shot forth numerous streamers, and was quickly lost, leaving a double arch of great symmetry and brightness. In a few seconds short equidistant streamers formed in the dark spaces between the two concentric arches, and soon ex- tending outwards, obliterated the external bow, leaving the inner one single with a superb tiara of radiations. “ At 10.17, faint beams were seen converging towards the magnetic pole, accompanied by occasional pulsations. The streamers in the north had nearly disappeared, and the space beneath had assumed the form of a dark segment of great height with a single luminous margin. « At 10.20, the arch was very bright and showed prismatic bands near its western end, beyond which arose a broad rose- ate beam, extending more than half way to the zenith. Pulsa- tions were seen within and above the arch, and also near the magnetic pole. “ At 10,30, the dark segment below presented three bright concentric bands. Above was a luminous arch wider than usual ; and exterior to all, another but less brilliant one, from which numerous streamers seemed to arise. Again a superb flush of crimson light was diffused from the north-west, while prismatic colours made their appearance in the near extremity of the arch, accompanied by a renewal of the pulsations in that region. Meanwhile the inner and outer arches coalescing, be- came divided into a series of luminous prisms, and in a moment the pulsating movement extended over all the northern and part of the southern half of the sky. Innumerable waves of white, yellowish, and purplish light chased each other from every quarter towards the magnetic pole, while the crimson flush before referred to spread wider and higher from the west. This grand display was marked as before by a break- ing up of the luminous arch in the north, where in a few minutes there remained only a dark segment near the horizon. “ At 10.45, this latter had risen a little, and resumed its luminous bordering; while faint beams, seemingly made visible by pulsations running along their length, were seen to the south of the magnetic pole, as well as in other quarters. At this time the margin of the dark segment extended over Ca- pella, and quite extinguished its light. Notes on the Aurora of the 2d September. 99 i oe pe At 10. 55, the arch became undulated, showing both ieasere, while the pulsations became more numerous and brilliant in the various quarters in which they had been pre- viously seen. ~ “At 11.5, the eastern part of the arch had given place to groups of rosy and golden-coloured streamers, rising high. _ Quickly the same change occurred in the other limb, and the y arch was obliterated ; flushes of rosy and greenish light alter- nated in the west, and faint converging beams were visible gs near the magnetic pole. The pulsating movement now ceased to be discernible. Here the regular observations were closed, but the auroral lights probably continued through the night, as at 3 A.M. of the 3d I saw a luminous arch, with streamers, in the north. “On reviewing the various phases of this aurora, it will be seen that they recurred according to a somewhat uniform order of succession. First, the dark segment on the northern horizon took a regular arched form, and, as it rose, became i bounded above by a broad luminous curve, at the same time _ developing one or more bright concentric arches within. The streamers, previously absent or infrequent, now shot forth from all parts of the luminous zone; and as these increased in extent and brightness, the upper arch faded away, as if it had expended itself in producing them. And now the lower arch took its place, to be obliterated in its turn by a like seem- ing process of exhaustion. At length, one of the grander effusions of light coming on, the whole arch was broken up, and the dark segment below was reduced to a shapeless mass. There then occurred a comparative pause in the phenomena, until the dark segment again took form, with its one or more luminous bands, and a like cycle of development was re- ‘ | Soadea.” Supplementary Remarks on the genus Galago. By ANDREW Murray, Edinburgh. With a Plate. Since writing the paper describing the Galago murinus, _ published in last number of this Journal, I have received from my friend, the Rev. W. C. Thomson of Old Calabar, some in- 100 Supplementary Remarks on the genus Galago. teresting information regarding the habits of the genus whion at that time I desiderated. He tells me that there are two species found at Old Cala- bar—the one which I described as murinus, which is the smallest, and another about the size of a rat. - He says, * Young ones of both species are brought to us about this period of the year (July 26). Mr Robb has a young specimen of the smaller species just now, and about this time last year I became possessed of one of the larger. It was a most in- teresting and amusing pet, not only quite tame, but manifest- ing strong attachment. I had it for about six weeks in my possession, when, unfortunately both for myself and it, it took a false leap into a water-barrel and was drowned. It was a very epitome of zoology, of the size and colour of a large rat ; it had the tail of the squirrel, the facial outline of the fox, the membranous ears of the bat, the eyes and somewhat of the manners of the owl in its cool odd way of peering at objects, the long slender fingers of a lean old man, who habitually eats down his nails, and all the mirthfulness and agility of a di- minutive monkey. It hated its cage at night, but delighted to leap among the bars of the chairs ranged purposely round the table for it. It could clear a horizontal distance of at least six feet at a leap; and whenever it fell, as during its short apprenticeship it often did, and from alarming heights too, it gave expression to its parenthetic chagrin by a rough sort of purring. It possessed the curious power of folding its membranous ears back upon themselves, and somewhat cor- rugating them at pleasure; and it appeared to me that the palms of its hands, all four, were endowed in some degree with the power of suction, such as the walrus is said to pos- sess in perfection. I have seen it maintain itself in positions where the mere lateral pressure of its limbs appeared to be inadequate for the purpose ; and I once applied it to the side of a cylindrical glass shade, of which it could not embrace so much as a third of the circumference, and sure enough it maintained its position for some time, gradually sliding down until it gave way. The palm was very much depressed, always clean and glistening, surrounded by five papilliform growths, those near the roots of the fingers serving as points of opposition to them, the fingers never closing beyond the Supplementary Remarks on the genus Galago. 101 palm.” “ Mr Robb had one of your species in his possession for a considerable while. It devoured grasshoppers and even the fierce Mantis greedily, as well as moths, little as it was ; but I never saw mine muster courage enough to attack either grasshoppers or mantis, though nearly twice as large as Mr Robb’s. No doubt mine would by and bye have become less particular and more daring.” __ In compliance with the wish of some of our naturalists who haye desired to see somewhat more of the anatomy of this genus, I have added another plate (Plate V.), giving a view of the viscera of the species I described, at least of two of the most important parts of the viscera. One of these is the stomach and intestinal canal, in which it will be observed that, unlike those _ of other insectivorous animals, there is a rather long ccecum. This is of interest, from the circumstance that the absence of the ccecum in the insectivora has been attempted to be accounted for on the hypothesis, that had it been present, in- jurious consequences might have arisen from angular fragments of the elytra or hard parts of insects lodging in the ccecum and occasioning a fatal obstruction in the same way that in our own species death is occasionally caused by obstruction in the intestinal canal, originating in the presence of a fish bone or some trifling impediment of that nature being lodged in the ccecum. Here we have an undeniably insectivorous animal with a cecum proportionally six times larger than that in the human species. Another point in which the Galago differs from the normal character of insectivorous animals is, that it has only one su- perior vena cava. None of the insectivora, properly so called, have only one. I have added a sketch of the origin of the subclavian and carotid arteries, to show that there is a short innominate artery, in this approximating to the arrangement of the same vessels in the human species. The lungs also correspond to the structure of these organs in the human species, the right having three lobes and the left two; in this respect also differing from the rodents, which have always more, and sometimes many lobes. There are eight true ribs, three false ribs, and two floating ribs. The dental formula is 102 Supplementary Remarks on the genus Galago. j2-2 1-1 8-38 | 38-8 s—-3 “I-11 P™ 3-3 ™ B=8 I have had a little hesitation whether to say three pre-molars and three molars, or two pre-molars and four molars. The dis- tinction between the posterior pre-molar and anterior molar is so slight, as to allow the formula to run either way without implying any great error in judgment in the describer. In the more close examination which I have now given to this animal, I find a structure in the front of the upper jaw which I had previously overlooked, and which is not repre- sented in the figure of the roof of the mouth which I gave in last number. It is two small orifices (as large, however, as the root of the superior incisors), situated in the middle space between the two incisors on each side, but a little behind their line. Their position suggests an analogy to Jacobson’s vesicles in the horse; and on tracing their origin, we find that they lead to the nasal orifice, expanding before they reach it into a sort of sac, which appears to communicate by a narrow and short canal with the nasal orifice, in this respect differing from Jacobson’s sac, which does not communicate directly with the exterior. To make this structure plainer, I have again given a figure of the roof of the mouth, in which these orifices are delineated, and also of a vertical section showing the form of the sac and its apparent communication with the nostril. I say apparent, because the tissues in my specimen are hardly in a sufficient state of firmness to allow me to speak with absolute confidence. The result appears to be, that there is here‘a communication between the nostril and the roof of the mouth, immediately and closely behind the symphysis, and almost in the line of the incisor teeth. What may be the use of this structure, I must leave to my Old Calabar friends to discover, contenting myself in the meantime with pointing out its probable existence. Explanation of Plate. 1. Figure of body opened, showing—a, the stomach—, the small intestines— c, the cecum—d, the diaphragm—e, the heart—f, the innominate artery —g, the subclavian arteries—A, the carotids, 2. a, the roof of the mouth showing the orifices analogous to Jacobson’s—, ver- tical section of symphysis showing the sac from which the orifices pro- ceed, and its apparent communication with the external nostril. re Oe ES Ee ee tee 103 REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS. Christianity contrasted with Hindu Philosophy. By JAMES BR. Battantyne, LL.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy, and Principal of the Government College at Benares. 8vo, pp. 236. London: James Madden, 1859. As a part of its educational system in India, intended for the enlightenment of the natives, the English Government main- tains several colleges, which embrace both an English and an Oriental department. In these institutions, instruction in the English language and literature is afforded to such native youths as desire it, while they are at the same time taught their own vernacular dialects. In the Sanscrit department, the learned language of India, and its literature as contained in the various Sastras, form the subjects of tuition. The Sanscrit colleges of Calentta, Benares, and Poona contain a considerable number of native professors, who teach Sanscrit grammar, Hindu philosophy, law, mathematics, &c. Formerly, these native professors were left very much to themselves, to teach their own subjects in their own way; and no attempt was made to impart to the students any other education of a more enlightened character. Latterly, how- ever, an endeavour has been made to introduce an improved system, and to make the Sanscrit students in some degree ac- quainted with English science and literature. The Calcutta Sanscrit College is directed by an enlightened Brahman; Dr Haug, a learned orientalist from Germany (formerly an assistant of Baron Bunsen in some departments of his literary labours), has just gone out to superintend the Sanscrit studies at Poona; and the author of the work before us, Dr J. R. Ballantyne, has for the last fourteen years presided over the Sanscrit as well as the English department of the College at Benares. He is a man well fitted for this duty; and his labours in the Sanscrit department have been carried on in the most liberal and enlightened spirit. The natives of India, the inheritors of an ancient civilisation, cannot be properly treated as if they were a tribe of savages. Learned men, whose ancestors had more than two thousand years ago cultivated and methodised the principles of grammar, and had initiated various systems of philosophical speculation, which have been discussed and modified by the successive generations of their descendants, cannot be dealt with as if their minds pre- sented a tabula rasa, on which their European instructors could 104 Reviews and Notices.of Books. inscribe any new notions they pleased. On the contrary, their minds are completely preoccupied and powerfully influenced by principles of thinking and reasoning derived from their own vener- ated writers, and grounded on the ancient sacred writings, the Vedas, which they regard as inspired. Any teacher, therefore, who would make himself thoroughly intelligible to such men, and would venture to indulge the hope of bringing them to take any real interest in the truths of European science, must study the systems in which they take a pride; must distinguish between the truth and the error contained in their speculations; must recognise and appreciate the former, while he attempts to overcome and neu- tralise the latter; and will act wisely if he takes the many truths which are embodied in the Indian theories as the starting-point and basis of the new truths, scientific or religious, which he wishes to communicate to the learned Indians. These are the enlightened principles by which Dr Ballantyne has been guided in his endeavours to introduce the science and learning of Europe to the notice of the students of Sanscrit. In pursuance of this object, he has judged it expedient first of all to bring to light the principles of the six orthodox systems of Hindu philosophy, by publishing (with translations) either some of those brief Sanscrit treatises in which they are expounded, or the introductory portion at least of those more detailed aphorisms in _ which the different systems are authoritatively explained. Simul- taneously with his labours in this department, which are still proceeding, he has been endeavouring to apply in practice the knowledge thus acquired. Finding that of the six systems of philosophy the principles of the Nyaya are the most reasonable, he has taken it as the basis of a Synopsis of science, which he has published in English and Sanscrit, for the purpose of initiating Sanscrit students in the whole circle of European knowledge, physical and moral. The Indian system in question does not, however, appear prominently after the introductory chapter, and the ‘bulk of the work is devoted to a summary exposition of western science. This work has the great advantage of being not only accurately, but scientifically rendered into Sanscrit. The author’s researches, aided by the skill and knowledge of the first- rate native scholars by whom he is surrounded, have enabled him to make use of the proper technical terms existing in the Sanserit writers, in all cases where they have treated of the particular subjects under consideration. The translation is not a literal one, which would be of little value, and nearly unintelligible to native scholars. It professes to do no more than employ equivalent terms and expressions, and this it does in a peculiar idiomatic way. The book is thus east in a peculiarly Indian mould. The work named at the head of this paper, which obtained the moiety of a prize offered some years ago for the best refutation of Reviews and Notices of Books. 105 the Hindw philosophy, and the best demonstration of the funda- mental truths of Christian theism, may be regarded as a con- tinuation of the ‘Synopsis of Science” above described. The position of the author, as head of a government college in which Christianity is not allowed to be openly inculcated, prevented him from introducing that subject into his Synopsis. In the present publication, that deficiency is in some measure supplied. It is a work of remarkable ability and interest, the production of a man gifted with great clearness of view and much speculative ac ‘mess, We have here the first attempt which has been made to reason with the learned Hindus in the technical language of their own philosophy, the most essential parts of the book being accompanied with a version into idiomatic Sanscrit. In thus succinctly present- ing the principles of our apologetic theology, together with the truths of Christianity, in the scholastic forms to which the Indian Pandits are accustomed, Dr Ballantyne has asserted a new claim on their attention, and has taken possession of ground which none of our professional missionaries has yet been able to oceupy. The plan of the treatise is as follows :— We have first an introduction, in which the author inculcates the necessity of delicacy and address in all cases where interference with long-established religious opinions is attempted, the duty of abstaining from rude assaults, and the expediency of paying atten- tion to the learned class, and generally of practising conciliation. Proceeding on the opinion that speculative error may often be allowed to lie dormant, and be neutralised, or even superseded, by sound practical principles, without being directly redargued, the author adds the very judicious remark, that a primary refutation of Hinduism is not necessarily required for the propagation of Christianity. And yet the missionary should always possess such a knowledge of the tenets which he is seeking to overthrow as may enable him most eectually to adapt his lessons to the pecu- liar tendencies and wants of those whom he is seeking to convert, The writer then supplies a brief but lucid account of the funda- mental tenets of the three principal systems of Indian philosophy, the Nyaya, the Sankhya, and the Vedanta, which may be roughly characterised as the Theistical, the Atheistical, and the Pantheistic systems. He next proceeds, in five books—headed respectively, ( 1.) A Partial Exposition of Christian Doctrine ; (2.) The Evidences of Christianity ; (3.) Natural Theology ; (4.) Of the Mysterious Points of Christianity; and (5.) The Analogy of Religion to the Consti- tution and Course of Nature—to argue the truth of Christianity as a Divine revelation, grounded on miracles and prophecy, and supported by analogy; and to deduce from its truth, so estab- lished, the falsity of any of the dogmas of Indian philosophy, atheistic or pantheistic, which are inconsistent with its funda- NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI. No. I1.—JAN, 1860. M 106 Reviews and Notices of Books. mental principles. It is the author’s opinion that reason, left to itself, would conduct the inquirer to Pantheism, as the most pro- bable theory of Universal Being; and he is therefore compelled to ground his refutation of that system on its inconsistency with the theistic principles inculeated by the Christian revelation, whose truth he has first sought to demonstrate. Though, however, this is the principal process applied by the author for the refuta- tion of Hindu errors, he also urges the difficulties suggested against Pantheism by consciousness and reason; and argues against the necessity for admitting the practical inferences drawn by the Hindu teachers from their Pantheistic philosophy, even though the principles of that philosophy were admitted, or at least left in dubio. We shall not attempt to discuss the momentous question here raised by the author, viz., Whether or not philosophical specula- tion necessarily issues in Pantheism ; and whether, if it did so, we could have any basis left from which we could establish the truth, of Christianity. This opinion is common to our author with the clergy of France, who of late years have been urging against the Spiritualist philosophers of that country, that there is no middle point between the Church and Pantheism. The maintainers of this view have lately been answered by a distinguished French metaphysician, M. Emile Saisset, who endeavours to prove the reverse of Dr Ballantyne’s proposition, and to show that, on the contrary, philosophical speculation leads to a belief in one su- preme, personal, intelligent, and righteous Creator and Governor of the universe. Dr Ballantyne begins his preface by professing that his work is “but an imperfect sketch of what the writer would wish to offer as a help to the missionary among the learned Hindus. Many topics which might advantageously receive full treatment. are here scarcely more than indicated.” This is a correct account of his book, when compared with that complete discussion of the subject which we ought to have. It is evidently nothing more than an outline of the subject, and a brief specimen of what the author is capable of producing; and we trust that he may be able to carry out what he proposes, viz., to continue his work, and to expand this imperfect sketch into a full and exhaustive discussion of the important subject-matter. The volume concludes with an Appendix of notes and disserta- tions, more or less closely connected with its central wabjoct which will all amply repay perusal. Reviews and Notices of Books. 107 MA Popular Tables, arranged in a new form, giving informa- tion at sight for ascertaining, according to the Carlisle Table of Mortality, the value of Lifehold, Leasehold, and Church Property, Renewal Fines, &c., the Public Funds, Annual Average Price and Interest on Consols from 1731 to 1858; also, various interesting and useful Tables, equally adapted to the office and the library table. By Cuar.Es M. Wix.icu, Actuary and Secretary to the Uni- ' versity Life Assurance Society. Fourth Edition. 1859. Pp.192. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. Tn size little more than that of a pocket volume, Mr Willich presents to the public a fourth edition of his “ Popular Tables?’ which, in forms admitting of easy reference, contain just that kind of information which every buyer and seller of property and in- wester of money ought to possess. It furnishes one of the most striking examples with which we are acquainted of the scientific condensation of facts gathered from a large induction. Statistical results are so skilfully combined and arranged as to make the solution of the most intricate questions a matter of simple refer- ence. A careful perusal of the Tables produces a feeling of sur- - prise at their variety and comprehensiveness. Few business men have not felt the want of such a book as this; and it cannot fail to be weleomed as a most important addition to the class of literature to which it belongs. Referring to the Index, it may be noticed that the book contains Simple and Compound Interest Tables; Investment Tables, with and without the contingency of human life; Annuity and Life Interest Tables, where one, two, and three lives are involved; Tables of the Values of Reversions and Pre- sentations of Livings ; Tables for Estimating the Fines to be paid on renewing Leases granted on one, two, or three lives, on the fatlure of one or more of the lives; Tables of Logarithms; Tables of Foreign Coins, Currency, and Measures; and many others of equal importance required in practice. We cannot, of course, give practical illustrations of all these Tables; but certain of them (Nos. 1V., VI., VII, and XV.), published, we believe, for the first time, are so important and valuable, in connection with the practical working of the principle of accumulation, that -we take the opportunity of pointing out their application and utility. Suppose a person lending such asum upon land as would form - an annual charge of L.200 upon the rents for a period of 33 years, ‘so as to repay principal and interest at the rate of 5 per cent. 108 Proceedings of Societies. The first and ordinary calculation gives the sum invested in such a transaction, : , ; : ; d : L.3200 But it is clear that, if the party making such an invest- , ment be so situated that he cannot reinvest the instalments of principal as they are paid up also at the rate of 5 per cent., the whole investment would not actually produce to him 5 per cent, over the whole period. Now, Table XV. tells us that, if no more than 3 per cent. be received on the instalments of principal after they are paid up, the sum that ought to have been paid for the annual rent-charge referred to, so as to secure 5 per cent, on the whole amount paid for the whole period, is only 2934 The difference being . : ‘ ‘ L.266 _ Comparatively small sums, like annuities and rents, can seldom be invested (except by large public companies) at so high a rate of interest as principal sums; and the Tables alluded to are thus of decided practical utility, and direct attention to one of the subtleties in transactions involving the element of future accumu- lation which is very apt to be overlooked. Besides the Tables alluded to, Mr Willich’s book contains many others pertaining to mathematical and philosophical subjects, which men of science will know how to appreciate. We cordially recommend these “Popular Tables” to the ac- ceptance and daily use of men of science and business, as combin- ing simplicity and elegance of structure with the largest amount of practical utility. 8. R. - PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, British Association for the Advancement of Science. Meeting at Aberdeen, September 1859. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. On the Necessity for incessant Recording, and for simultaneous Observations in different Localities, to investigate Atmospheric Elee- tricity. By Professor W. Toomson.—The necessity for incessantly record- ing the electrie condition of the amosphere was illustrated by reference to observations recently made by the author in the island cf Arran, b which it appeared that even under a cloudless sky, without any sensib wind, the negative electrification of the surface of the earth, always found a ll British Association. — 109 . luring severe weather, is constantly varying in degree. He had found it im- ] at any time, to leave the electrometer without losing remarkable of the phenomenon. Beecaria, Professor of Nat Philosophy in the University of Turin a century ago, used to retire to Garzegna when his screeners gy av ya — or apeaventee - atmospheric icity, night , sleeping in the room wi is _ @lectrometer, in a lo a Feehan gO could watch the sky all round, limited by the ine range on one side and the great plain of Piedmont on the other. Gales relays of observers can be got to fullow his example, and to take advantage of the more accurate instruments y advanced electric science, a self-recording apparatus must be to provide the data required for obtaining knowledge in this most interesting field of nature. The author pointed out certain simple and easily-executed modifications of working electrometers, which were on the table before him, to render them self-recording. He also explained anew ing apparatus for atmospheric electricity, consisting of an insulated vessel of water, discharging its contents in a fine stream from a pointed tube. This stream carries away electricity as long as any exists on its surface, where it breaks into drops. The immediate object of this arrange- ment is to maintain the whole insulated conductor, including the portion of the electrometer connected with it and the connecting wire, in the con- dition of no absolute charge; that is to say, with as much positive icity on one side of a neutral line as of negative on the other. Henee the position of the discharging nozzle must be such that the point where the stream breaks into drops is in what would be the neutral line of the conductor, if first perfectly discharged under temporary cover, and then exposed in its permanent open position, in which it will become in- ductively electrified by the aérial electromotive force. If the insulation is maintained in perfection, the dropping will not be called on for any electrical effect, and sudden or slow atmospheric changes will all instan- taneously and perfectly induce their corresponding variations in the con- ductor, and give their appropriate indications to the electrometer. The imperfection of the actual insulation, which tends to bring the neutral line downwards or inwards, or the contrary effects of aérial con- veetion, which, when the insulation is good, generally preponderate, and which in some conditions of the atmosphere, especially during heavy wind and rain, are often very large, are corrected by the tendency of the drop- ping to maintain the neutral line in the one definite position. The objects to be attained by simultaneous observations in different localities alluded to were :—({1.) Tofix the constant for any observatory, by which its observations are reduced to absolute measure of electromotive force per foot of air; (2.) To investigate the distribution of electricity in the air it- self (whether on visible clouds or in clear air) by a species of electrical trigonometry, of which the general principles were slightly indicated. A electrometer, adapted for balloon and mountain observations, with a burning match, regulated by a spring so as to give a cone of fire in the open air, in a definite position with reference to the instrument, was exhibited. It is easily carried, with or without the aid of a shoulder-strap, and can be used by the observer standing up, and simply holding the entire apparatus in his hands, without a stand or rest of any kind. Its indications distinguish positive from negative, and are reducible to abso- lute measure on the spot. The author gave the result of a determination which he had made, with the assistance of M. Joule, on the Links, a iece of level ground near the sea, beside the city of Aberdeen, about _8 a.m. on the preceding day (September 14), under a cloudless sky, and with a light north-west wind blowing, with the insulating stand of the 110 Proceedings of Societies. collecting part of the papereine buried in the ground, and the electrometer | removed to a distance of five or six yards and connected by a fine wire with the collecting conductor. The height of the match was three feet above the ground, and the observer at the electrometer lay on the ground to render the electrical influence of his own body on the match insensible. The result showed a difference of pres between the earth (negative) and the air (positive) at the match equal to that of 115 elements of Daniel’s battery, and therefore, at that time and place, the aérial electromotive force per foot amounted to that of 38 Daniel’s cells. Report on Changes of Deviation of the Compass on Board Iron Ships by “Heeling,” with Experiments on Board the City of Baltimore, Aphrodite, Simla, and Sleeve Donard. By Mr Joun T. Towson.—The author explained the manner in which the Compass Committee was first formed, in accordance with the advice of the Section he was then address- ing, and that two reports had been drawn up, which, with the advice of the Astronomer Royal, had been printed and “ presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of her Majesty.” There were matters of consideration which the es Committee deemed incomplete; the one was the change which took place in iron ships in proceeding to the oppo- site hemisphere; the other, the change that was ae by what is technically denominated heeling, that is, when the deck of a vessel leaned over through the action of the wind or otherwise ; if when looking towards the bow it slanted downwards to the right, it is said to heel starboard, if to the left, to heel port. The first question was undertaken by the late re- spected Rev. Dr Scoresby, who proceeded to Australia in the Royal Charter, and whose exertions in the pursuit of this branch of the inquiry shortened a most valuable life. The second question was the subject of his (Mr Towson’s) present report. Having described the principles on which his graphic illustration was constructed, he pointed out the unex- pected amount of deviation which this source of disturbance (heelin brought about, amounting, in most instances, when the ship’s head was in the position to produce the maximum effect, to two or three points in the standard compass, and often to a greater amount as far as the steerin compass is concerned. He remarked on several particulars cctinedted with this investigation. Generally the north end of the compass was drawn to the upper side of the ship,—the case with seven out of nine com- passes on board the City of Baltimore, but in the two steering compass the needles were drawn in a contrary direction. Mr Towson explained the theory on which this disturbance arose, partly from subpolar magnetism below the compass, and partly from the disturbance of the inductive mag- netism of the ships. In such ships as those under consideration, the fol. lowing empirical rule held good with respect to compasses favourably place. When the vertical force as determined either by vibrating ex- periments or torsion on board the ship, maintained the ratio, as com with the vertical force on shore, in the proportion of nine to fourteen, little or no effect was produced by heeling ; and in the case of the Simla this plan of predicting the amount of error was adopted ; a moveable up- right magnet was applied so as to produce the before-named vertical force, when it was found, “with magnet in,” no error was produced, although “with magnet out” it amounted to 24° from changing a heel of 10° starboard to 10° port. Another remarkable result appears to exist. He believed that when a ship was built with her head south-east or south- west, little or no effect would be produced by heeling. When examinin the magnetic condition of the Sleeve Donard, they were surprised to fin that the vertical was very nearly that which would give no effect from heeling. Their talented stipendiary Secretary (to whom is due the credit British Association. 111 of draw } the two reports already published) immediately suggested that ber teed, could not “ms been a | din Pulling, which we bol takes for ted ; and on ae | we found that on account of her great length Tis kad boon built diagonally, with her head south-east nearly. On the Rapidity of Signalling through long Submarine Telegraphs. By Mr F. Jenxins.—This paper detailed certain experiments undertaken at the establishment of Messrs. R. 8S. Newall & Co., Birkenhead, with a view to verify the theory of retardation, and to supply certain constants required. This theory has been well developed by Professor Thomson, and is confirmed by the results of these experiments, which have indeed only been rendered possible by the peculiar construction of Professor Thomson’s marine galva- nometer. In this instrument momentum and inertia are almost wholly avoided by the use of a needle weighing only 14 grain, combined with a mirror reflecting a ray of light which indicates deflexions with great accuracy. By these means a gradually increasing or decreasing current is at each instant indicated at its due strength: thus, when this galvano- meter is placed as the receiving instrument at the end of a long submarine cable, the movement of the spot of light, consequent on the completion of a circuit through the battery cable and earth, can be so observed as to furnish a curve representing very accurately the arrival of an electric eurrent. Lines representing successive signals at various speeds can also be obtained, and by means of a metronome, dots, dashes, successive A’s, &e., can be sent with nearly perfect regularity by an ordinary Morse key, and the co mding changes in the current at the receiving end of the cable accurately observed. The strength of the battery employed was found to have no influence on the results; curves given by batteries of different strengths could be made to coincide by simply drawing them to scales rtionate to the strengths of the two currents. It was also found that the same curve represented the gradual increase of intensity due to the arrival of a current, and the gradual decrease due to the ceasing of that current. The curves of arrival obtained for lengths of from 1000 to more than 2000 nauts, were found to agree very closely in general a ce with those given by Professor Thomson’s theory (Proceedings of the Royal Society, May, 1855). In the curves representing dots and es sent at high speeds, successive dashes appear in quite a different _ of the scale from that occupied by dots. It is in these cases obvious no delicacy of relay will enable us to indicate both of these signals at a constant adjustment, nor does any increasing strength of battery help us,—for though the variations of intensity are absolutely increased, the relative position of such changes to one another on the scale remains unaltered. The magnitude of the first appearance of a current at the far end of a cable may, however, be increased by the use of powerful batteries, and delicate instruments would permit the faintest appearance to be observed. By these means one isolated signal might be sent with great rapidity. Returning to the consideration of successive signals, when the es of transmission is diminished, the oscillations of the spot increase in size, those for dots and dashes overlap one another, and would give legible Morse signals by means of a relay. The amplitudes of oscillation representing any letter or letters were found to be proportional to the amplitude representing dots. The speed of signalling possible can there- be measured by that amplitude as soon as in one ease it is determined what speed of dot signalling is compatible with the reception of all other combinations of dots, dashes, and spaces. This amplitude is modified by the nature of the receiving instrument, by the nature of the signal, by the skill of the manipulator, &e. The ible speed of signalling was found to be very nearly proportional to the squares of the lengths spoken a iA te 112 Proceedings of Societies. through; thas, a speed which gave 15 dots per minute in a length of 2191 nauts, reproduced all the effects given by a speed of 30 dots in a length of 1500 nauts. At these speeds, with ordinary Morse signals, speaking would be barely possible. In the Red Sea, a speed of from seven to eight words per minute was obtained in a length of 750 nauts. This result very closely with the deduction from the experiments at Birkenhead, and apparently shows that the influence of electro-magnetic induction, due to the disposition of the cable in coils, does not very materially retard the ssible speed of signalling. The amplitudes of oscillation representing ots can be thrown into a curve which will be the same for all lengths. By this curve we can determine from one single observation, on any cable, the amplitude of oscillation due to any speed, and, consequently, the possible speed of signalling on that cable. This method, however, of determining the possible speed of signalling, presupposes that a con- siderable length of the cable shall have been manufactured. Mechanical senders, and attention to the proportion of the various contacts, would materially increase the speed at which signals of any kind could be trans- mitted. The best trained hand cannot equal the accuracy of mechanism, and the slightest irregularity causes the current to rise or fall quite beyond the limits required for distinct signals. No important difference was ob- served between signals sent by alternate reverse currents, and those sent by the more usual method. The amplitude of oscillation, and prs 0 distinctness of signalling, was quite the same in the two cases. An advan- tage in the first signals sent is, however, obtained by the use of Messrs Siemens & Halshe’s submarine key, by which the cable is put to earth immediately on signalling being interrupted, and the wire thus kept at a potential half way between the potentials of the poles of two counter- acting batteries employed, and the first signals become legible, which, with the ordinary key, would be employed in charging the wire. Remarks on the Discharge of a Coiled Electric Cable. By Professor W. Txomson.—Mr Jenkins had communicated to the author during last February, March, and April, a number of experimental results regarding currents through several different electric cables coiled in the factory of Messrs R. 8. Newall & Co., at Birkenhead. Among these results were some in which a key connected with one end of a cable of which the other end was kept connected with the earth, was removed from a ba by which a current had been kept flowing through the cable, and instantly pressed to contact with one end of the coil of a tangent galvanometer, of which the other end was kept connected with the earth. The author remarked that the deflexions recorded in these experiments were in the contrary direction to that which the true discharge of the cable would give, and at his request, Mr Jenkius repeated the experiments, watching carefully for indications of reverse currents to those which had been previously noted. It was thus found that the first effect of pressing down the key was to give the galvanometer a deflexion in the direction corresponding to the true discharged current, and that this was quickly followed by a reverse deflexion generally greater in degree, which latter deflexion corresponded to a current in the same direction as that of the original flow through the cable. Professor Thomson explained this second current, or falsedischarge, as it has since been sometimes called, by attributing it to mutual electro- magnetic induction between different portions of the coil, and anticipated that no such reversal could ever be found in a submerged cable. The effect of this induction is to produce in those parts of the coil first influ- enced by the motion of the key a tendency for electricity to flow in the same direction as that of the decreasing current flowing on the remoter parts of the coil. Thus, after the first violence of the back flow, —— British Association. 113 and galvanometer, the remote parts of the cable begin, magnetic induction on the near parts, to draw electricity from the earth through the galvanometer into the cable again, and is once more in one and the same direction throughout the a New tes of Double Refraction. By Sir D. Brewsrer.— exhibited to the Section a number of beautiful double slips with small pieces of decomposed glass, which he had obtained from Campana in Rome, interposed, which showed all the varied of Newton’s thin plates, and then explained to the Section how, by ion in two different places of the transmitted light and the interference of those which were retarded by internal reflexion at the surfaces of these very thin films, none of them the two-thousandth of an inch thick, the varied tints were produced. He also explained minutely properties when examined by the os pet On the Transmission of Electricity throughWater. By Mr J. B. Lixn- cheap eepse Ai i B ! = : i 4 B 4 i e : 5 g distinguished by the term “lateral distance.” He found that there was always some fractional part of the power from the battery sent across the water. There were four elements on which he found the strength of the transmitted current to depend: first, the battery power; second, the extent of surface of the immersed metal sheets; third, the “lateral dis- tance” of the immersed sheets ; and, fourth, in an inverse proportion, the transverse distance or distance through the water. As far as his experi- ments led him to a conclusion, doubling any one of the former three doubled the distance of transmission. If then, doubling all would in- crease the intensity of the transmitted current eight-fold, he entered into calculations to show that two stations in Britain, one in Cornwall and the other in Scotland, and corresponding stations well chosen in America, would enable us to transmit messages across the Atlantic. On the Phonautograph, an Instrument for Registering Simple and Sounds. By the Abbé Moigno.—The Phonautograph is an instrument which consists of a large chamber or drum, of a spheroidal form, with a diaphragm or drum-head at one end, which, by a system of levers, works the pen which records the sounds which the form of the chamber causes it to concentrate on the tympanum. The Abbé exhibited _ a drawing to the Section, which explained the construction of the instru- ment, then exhibited drawings showing the actual markings of the pen over a sheet of paper carried past it by clockwork, first, when tuning-forks sounding various notes were vibrated in presence of the instrument; second, when several notes were sounded on a diapason pipe; and, third, when a person spoke before it. In the first two cases the recording pen drew such regular curves, that the number of vibrations corresponding to the note as seconds could be counted, and they were obviously the curve of sines. In the case of the human voice, the words spoken were written below the corresponding tracings of the pen; and although these were very irregular, yet a marked correspondence could be traced, especially NEW SERIES.—VOU, XI. NO. 1.— JAN. 1860. N 114 Proceedings of Societies. vier the words contained »’s, g’s, and other well-marked low or guttural sounds, _ Report of the Balloon Committee. By Colonel Syxes.—The Report gave various preliminary details of the meetings and proceedings of the Com- mittee ; amongst these, that they secured the co-operation and use of the large balloon of MrGreen. That Professor Tyndal, and Mr J. B. Russell, and Mr John Murray, the two latter students in Glasgow University, who had been employed under Professor Thomson in charge of his meteorological instruments, had volunteered their services to accompany Mr Green, and to aid in making and recording the proposed observa- tions. Colonel Sykes also informed the Committee that an observer of light weight was available from Greenwich, and also Mr Storks Eaton, an amateur meteorologist of Little Bredy, Dorset. The Committee selected Wolverhampton as the place of ascent, spring as the time, as suggested by the Astronomer Royal, and secured through Lord Wrot- tesley the use of the instruments which had been used in the former ascent. The Gas Company at Wolverhampton offered the use of their yard, from which the balloon might aseend, and in which it might be inflated. Various causes of delay occurred, but eventually M. iot having reported the instruments and other arrangements all ready, Mr Storks Eaton was selected by the Committee to conduct the experiments, and at length General Sabine and M. Gassiot were invited to attend at Wolverhampton on Monday the 15th of August. On that day Colonel Sykes, Lord Wrottesley, Admiral Fitsroy, Dr Lee, and Mr Glashier attended at the place of ascent. In consequence of sudden, violent gusts of wind that day, Mr Green was unwilling to ascend, fearing damage to the valuable instruments ; but as he declared that no damage to life was to be feared, he offered to risk the balloon if the Committee wished that the ascent should proceed. The Committee then ordered the gas to be laid on, but various delays having protracted the preparations to the approach of darkness, when the ascent would be unprofitable, it was deforred till next day. On that day, when all preparations were nearly completed, a sudden gust of wind jerked the funnel of the balloon, and caused such a rent as to render any attempt at an ascent on that occasion impossible. Mr Green assured the Committee it would take some weeks to repair the damage. Mr Green’s terms were L.20 for the first ascent, L.15 for a second, L.20 for a third, and L.15 for a fourth, the Committee to provide the gas and pay all incidental expenses: The Committee offered to renew their operations early next year, and suggested that their reappointment should be recommended, and the grant of L.200 continued at their disposal, giving the opinion of Sir J. W. F. Herschel and other eminent scientific men that the objects to be attained were of the highest interest. On the Focus of Object-Glasses. By Mr A. Craupet.—The researches on this question tended to show the relation between the distances and sizes of objects with focal distances and sizes of their images, and to find the two points, one before the lens and the other behind, from which the distance of objects and the focal distances must be measured, and from which all proportions are in an exact ratio; for it is found, that measuring from the object-glass on both sides, double distance of object does not produce one-half of the focal distance, and vice versa. These two points are, first, the point before the lens which produces an image infinitely larger at infinite distance, and behind the lens the point which is the focus for an object at infinite distance, giving an image infinitely small ; it is obvious that these two points are on each side the zero of the scale of measure, and it remained to fix the position of another point before the lens, which produces behind the lens an image as large as nature, The eS ee British Association. 115 ‘two spaces between these two points, one in front and the other behind ‘the lens, are perfectly equal, and they are each the unit by which all dis- tances of objects and all focal distances are to be measured. Double the unit in front will give a focus one-half of the unit behind the lens, and one-half of the unit in front will give a focal distance double of the unit behind the lens, and all the other distances in the same proportion, so that knowing either the distance in front of the lens, or the focal distance, “the unit of focal distances,” in any number of parts pre in an trivance, intended to reduce or increase the aperture of a double achro- On a curious Landscape inclosed in a Specimen of Calcedony belong- ing to a Lady. Exhibited by Sir D. Brewsrer, and explained by him.— Sir D. Brewster, who had examined the specimen, ascertained that the landseape was not between two plates subsequently united, but was in the interior of a solid piece of caleedony. He stated that caleedony was and that the landscape was drawn by a solution of nitrate of silver, which entered the pores of the mineral. Sir David also stated that, above thirty years ago, he had examined a similar specimen, be- ing to the late Mr Gilbert Innes of Stow, who had paid a large price for it. Having no doubt that the figure of a cock, which it contained, now exhibited to the Section is, that the landscape had entirely Piianeared after being kept four years in the dark. When I received obliterated ; but after the exposure of an hour this morning, it reap- peared in the distinctest manner, as may be seen by looking at it against a white ” It is of importance to remark, that the figure of the cock in Mr Innes’s specimen, which was very strong in its tint, has never been seen either to disappear or to diminish in its tints. On the Present State and History of the Question respecting the Ac- celeration of the Moon’s Motion. Bythe Astronomer Royau.—lIt had been known, from the time of Newton, that the motions of the moon are dis- turbed by the attraction of the sun, and that a great part of the effect is of the following kind, viz., that when the moon is between the sun and the earth, the sun attracts the moon away from the earth; and when the earth is between the sun and the moon, the sun attracts the earth awa from the moon ; and thus, in both cases, it tends to separate the carth the moon, or diminishes the attraction of the moon to the earth. There are sometimes effects of the opposite character ; but, on the whole, that just described is predominant. this diminution were always the 116 Proceedings of Societies. same in amount, the periodic time of the moon passing round the earth would always be the same. But it was found in the last century, by Halley and Dunthorne, that the periodic time is not always the same. In order to reconcile the eclipses of the moon recorded by Ptolemy with modern observations of the moon, it was necessary to suppose that in every successive century the moon moves a little quicker than in the preceding century, in a degree which is nearly represented by —— that at each successive lunation the moon approaches nearer to the by one inch. The principal cause of this was discovered by Laplace. irst, it had been shown by him and by others that the attractions of the other planets on the sun and on the earth do not alter the longer axis of the orbit which the earth describes round the sun, and do not alter the length of the year; but they diminish slowly, but continually through many thousands of years, the degree of ellipticity of the earth’s orbit. Now, when the earth is nearest to the sun, the decrement of attraction of the moon to the earth (mentioned above) is greatest; and when the earth is furthest from the sun, that decrement is least. It had been supposed that the fluctuations of magnitude exactly balance. But Laplace showed that they do not; he showed that the increased amount of decrement (when the earth is nearest the sun) overbalances the diminished amount (when the earth is furthest from the sun); and therefore that the less eccentric is the earth’s orbit, the less does the increased amount of decre- ment at one part overbalance- the diminished amount at another and the less is the total amount of the sun’s disturbing foree. And, as the sun’s disturbing force diminishes the moon’s attraction to the earth, that attraction is less and less impaired every century, or becomes prac- tically stronger ; every century the moon is pulled into a rather smaller orbit, and revolves in a rather shorter period. On computing the effect from this cause, it was found to agree well with the effect which Halley ‘and Dunthorne had discovered in observations. The lunar tables thus amended (and with other, but minor, improvements) were applied to the computation of other ancient eclipses which require far greater nicety than Ptolemy’s lunar eclipses, namely, total eclipses of the sun. The most remarkable of these were the eclipse of Thales (which oceurred at a battle), that at Larissa or Nimrud (which led to the capture of that city by the Persians from the Medes), and that of Agathocles (upon a fleet at sea). They are all of great importance in settling the chronology. Dates were thus found for these several eclipses, which are most satis- factory. About this time Mr Adams announced his discovery, that a part of the sun’s disturbing force had been omitted by Laplace. The sun pulls the moon in the direction in which she is going (so as to aeceler- ate her) in some parts of her orbit, and in the opposite direction (so as to retard her) in other parts. Laplace and others supposed that those accelerations and retardations exactly balance. Mr Adams gave reason for supposing that they do not balance. In this he was subsequently - supported by M. Delaunay, a very eminent French mathematician, who, making his calculations in a different way, arrived at the very same figures. But he is opposed by Baron Plana, by the Count de Ponté- coulant, and by Professor Hansen, who all maintain that Laplace’s in- vestigations are sensibly correct. And in this state the controversy stands at present. It is to be remarked, that observations can here give no assistance. The question is purely whether certain algebraical inves-. tigations are right or wrong. And it shows that what is commonly called ‘“‘ mathematical evidence” is not so certain as many persons imagine ; and that it ultimately depends on moral evidence. The effect of Adam’s alteration is to diminish Laplace’s change of periodic time by more than one-third part. The computations of the ancient eclipses are very sensibly a —— a British Association. — 117 affected by this. At present we can hardly sa how much they are ‘effected; possibly those of Larissa and todos much disturbed; but it seems possible the computed eclipse of ‘because it does not appear that any other eclipse can possibly apply to the same history. The interest of this subject, it thus appears, is not confined to ical astronomy, but extends to other matters of very to establish a series of stations between the top and the bottom of Mont Blane, and to place suitable thermometers at each of them. The Council of the Society thought it right to place a sum of money at my disposal for the ase of instruments and the payment of guides; while I agreed to devote eee of my vacation to the execution of the project. At Chamonni I a number of wooden piles prepared, each of them shod with iron, to facilitate the driving of it into the snow. The one ' intended for the summit was 12 feet long and 3 inches square; the others, _ each 10 feet long, were intended for five stations between the top of the mountain and the bottom of the Glacier de Bossons. Each post was furnished with a small cross-piece, to which a horizontal minimum ther- mometer might be attached. Six-and-twenty PS mag were found neces- ‘sary to carry all our apparatus to the Grands Mulets, whence fourteen of them were immediately sent back. The other twelve, with one exception, reached the summit, whence six of them were sent back. Six therefore remained. In addition to these we had three guides, Auguste Balmat being the principal one ; these, with my friend Dr Frankland and myself, made up eleven persons in all. Though the main object of the Expedi- tion was to plant the posts and fix the thermometers, I was very anxious to make some observations on the diathermancy of the lower strata of the here. I therefore arranged a series of observations with the Abbé Veullet, of Chamouni; he was to operate at Chamouni, while I observed at the sunimit. Our instruments were of the same kind ; and in this way we hoped to determine the influence of the stratum of air interposed between the top and bottom of the mountain upon the solar radiation. Wishing to commence the observations at an early hour in the morning, 1 had a tent carried to the summit. It was ten feet in diameter, and into it the whole eleven of us were packed. The north wind blew rather over the summit; but we dropped down a few yards to leeward, and thus found shelter. Throughout the night we did not suffer at all from cold, though the adjacent snow was 15° Centigrade, or 27° Fahr. below the freezing point of water. We were all, however, indisposed. I was, indeed, es when I guitted Chamouni; but I fully expected to be able to cast this off during the ascent. In this, however, I was unsuc- cessful; my indisposition augmented during the entire period of the ascent. The wind increased in force towards morning ; and as the fine snow was perfectly dry, it was driven upon us inclouds. Had no other obstacle existed, this alone would have been sufficient to render the obser- vations on solar radiation impossible. We were therefore obliged to limit ourselves to the principal object of the expedition—the erection of the post for the thermometers. It was sunk six feet in the snow, while the remaining six feet were exposed to the air. A minimum thermometer was screwed ly on to the cross-piece of the pile ; a maximum thermo- meter was screwed on beneath this, and under this again a wet and dry 118 Proceedings of Societies. bulb thermometer. Two minimum thermometers were also placed in the snow ; one at a depth of six, and the other at a depth of four feet below the surface ; these being intended to give us some information as to the depth to which the winter cold penetrates. At each of the other stations we placed a minimum thermometer in the ice or snow, and a maximum and a minimum in the air. The stations were as follows:—The summit, the Corridor, the Grand Plateau, the glacier near the Grands Mulets, and two additional ones between the Grands Mulets and the end of the Glacier de Bossons. We took up some rockets, to see whether the ascensional power or the combustion was affected by the rarity of the air. During the night, however, we were enveloped in a dense mist, which defeated our purpose. One rocket, however, was sent up, which appeared to penetrate the mist, and rising probably above it, its sparks were seen at Chamouni, Dr Frankland was also kind enough to undertake some experiments on com- bustion: six candles were chosen at Chamouni, and carefully weighed. All of them were permitted to burn for one hour at the top; and were again weighed when we returned to Chamouni. They were afterwards permitted to burn an hour below. Rejecting one candle, which gaye a somewhat anomalous result, we found to our surprise, that the quantity consumed at the top was, within the limits of error, the same as that con- sumed at the bottom. This result surprised us all the more, inasmuch as the light of the candles appeared to be much feebler at the top than at the bottom of the mountain. The explosion of a pistol was sensibly weaker at the top than at a low level. The shortness of the sound was remarkable; but it bore no resemblance to the sound of a cracker, to which, in acoustic treatises, it is usually compared. It resembled more the sound produced by the explosion of a cork from a champagne-bottle, but it was much louder. The sunrise from the summit exceeded in mag- nificence anything that I had previously seen. The snows on one side of the mountain were of a pure light blue, being illuminated by the reflected light of the sky; the summit and the sunward face of the mountain, on the contrary, were red from the transmitted light, and the contrast of both was finer than I can describe. I may add, in conclusion, that the lowest temperature at the summit of the Jardin during last winter was 21° Cent. below zero. We vainly endeavoured to find a thermometer which had been placed upon the summit of Mont Blanc Jast year. On Electrical Frequency. By Professor W. TxHomson.—Beccaria found that a conductor insulated in the open air becomes charged sometimes with greater and sometimes with less rapidity, and he gave the name of “ frequency” to express the atmospheric quality on which the rapidity of charging depends. It might seem natural to attribute this uality to electrification of the air itself round the conductor, or to electrified particles in the air impinging upon it; but the author gave reasons for believing that the observed effects are entirely due to particles flying away from the surface of the conductor, in consequence of the impact of non-electri-- fied particles against it. He had shown in a previous communication (Section A, Thursday, Sept. 15), that when no electricity of separation (or, as it is more generally called, ‘frictional electricity,’ or ‘‘ contact electricity,’”’) is called into play, the tendency of particles continually fiying off from a conductor is to destroy all electrification at the part of its surface from which they break away. Hence a conductor insulated in the open air, and exposed to mist or rain, with wind, will tend rapidly to the same electric potential as that of the air, beside that part of its surface from which there is the most frequent dropping, or flying away, of aqueous particles. The rapid charging, indicated by the electrometer under cover, after putting it for an instant in connection with the earth, is therefore, in reality, due to a rapid discharging of the exposed parts . a British Association. 119 of the conductor. The author has been led to these views by remarking extreme touched by the hand, during a of wind and rain. The conductor, a vertical we about 10 inches long and 4 inches diameter, with its _ flat and corner slightly rounded off, stood only 8 feet above pes , or, in all, 20 feet oe the ground, and was nearly surrounded buildings rising to a higher level. Even with so moderate an exposure as this, sparks were frequently produced between an insulated and an uninsulated piece of metal, which may have been about 75th of an inch within the electrometer, and more than once a continuous line of was observed in the instrument during nearly a minute at a time, while rain was falling in torrents outside. On Sir Christopher Wren’s Cipher, containing Three Methods of jinding the Longitude. By Sir D. Brewster.—Sir David said that at page 263 of his “‘ Life of Sir Isaac Newton,” the following paragraphs would be found:—“ The bill which had been enacted for rewarding the of the a seems to have stimulated the inventive powers istopher Wren, then in his eighty-third year. He communi- cated the ts of his study to the Royal Society, as indicated by the following curious document which I found among the manuscripts of Newton :—‘Sir Christopher Wren’s cipher, describing three instruments per for discovering the longitude at sea, delivered to the Society ber 30, 1714, by Mr Wren :— ae ea AYINIXDNCVOC W EDCNMALNABECIRTEWNGRAM *ZEIYEINOIEBIVTXESCIOCPSDEDMNANHSEFPRPIWHDRA EHHXCIF ‘BZKAVEBIMOXRFCSLCEEDH WMGNNIVEOMRE WWERRC * Vera copia. Ep. Hattry.’ We presume that each of these paragraphs of letters is the description of a se instrument. If it be true that every cipher can be de- , these mysterious paragraphs, which their author did not live to expound, may disclose something interesting to science.” Sir David Brewster went on to say that soon after the publication of ‘ The Life of Sir Isaac Newton,”’ he had received a letter from Mr Francis Williams, of Grange Court, Chigwell, suggesting very modestly, that as the de- iphering of the cipher, as published, was so simple, he supposed many persons already done so; but if not, he begged to say that the mystery could be solved by reading the letters backwards in each of the three ——. omitting every third letter. He had, on the approach of the eeting of the British Association, received permission from Mr Williams to give an account to this Section of Mr Williams’s method of solving the enigma. In his letter conveying the permission, which Sir David read, he suggests that ‘‘ Sir Christopher Wren’s object was to make it too ee pane to be of use to any one else. It is possible he may have to delay for a time the publication of his inventions, — till he had improved his instruments, but was afraid that in the interval another would hit upon and publish the same discovery. He would send this cipher, then, to the Royal Society as a proof to be used at any future time.” Sir David had the following explanation then, in accordance with Mr Williams's suggestion, written upon the black boards, the letters to be omitted being written in small characters to distinguish them, and -—_— 120 Proceedings of Societies, WAcCHhMArGNwETrICeBAnLAmNCdE WeOUcNDxINiVAvOUz O.—Wach magnetic balance wound in vacuo (one letter a misprint), The omitted letters similarly read are—Chr. Wren, mdcexiv. FIeXHhEArDHwIPrPEeSHnA NmDEdSPcOleSExTUiBEIONiEYi EZ.—Fix head hippes handes poise tube on eye (one letter a misprint). Omitted letters make—Chr. Wren, mdcexiiii. PIcPEhSCrREw W ErMOeV InNGm W HdEEcLScF RxOMiBEvA Kz E.—Pipe screwe moving wheels from beake. Omitted letters make—Chr. Wren, mdeexiv. The three last omitted z’s occurring in the first part of each cipher to show that that part must be taken last. On an Improvement in the Heliometer. By Mr N. Poason.—The pur- pose of this communication is to suggest what 1 conceive to be a great _ addition to the power of any kind of micrometer used for measuring long distances on the double-image principle. It is therefore especially poe cable to heliometers, and has indeed occurred to me chiefly from i- liarity with the defects which have hitherto rendered this costly but magnificent instrument a comparative failure. It is well known to tical astronomers that the contact between two stars, however ski made, is a very unsatisfactory observation, even when the objects are pretty equal. But when one is a large bright star and the other a faint one, the difficulty and uncertainty amount to impossibility; for the faint — star is invariably obliterated on approaching within two or three seconds of its superior. The alternative is then to diminish the aperture of that half of the object-glass through which the brighter star is viewed; but here again arises another evil; the dise is enlarged by diffraction, the value of the scale sensibly changed, and definition materially injured. Hence, parallax determinations of first magnitude stars, such as Arcturus and a Lyre, cannot be satisfactorily made; but when the object is a double star, as, for instance, 61 Cygni or Castor, the comparison star can be brought between the components of the double star, and a most exqui- sitely perfect and comfortable measure obtained. Now, from ha used the rock-crystal prism micrometer when residing at Oxford last year then kindly lent me, together with a five-foot telescope of surpassing excellence, by Dr Lee—the idea occurred to me of introducing a prism, or achromatised wedge of rock crystal, into the heliometer, so as to double the image of the brighter star. By this means the dubious contact would be dispensed with; for the fainter object, by being brought midway be- tween the two images of the bright star, would be precisely similar to the present easy observation of 61 Cygni, previously referred to. The prism could be of such a constant angle as to separate the two images to a con- venient distance,—not too far, so as to render the estimation of distance difficult, but just wide enough to prevent the obliteration of a faint com- parison star, before named as one of the evils to be avoided. The prism rather improves the appearance of a bright star than otherwise; and as the images are doubled, of course half the light of each is lost, equivalent to a considerable reduction of the aperture, thus obviating the third ob- jection alluded to at starting. Armed with this addition to its strength, and taking the precaution never to observe on bad nights, when the atmosphere will not permit the use of powers from three hundred upwards —for Thold it as an absurdity to attempt to investigate tenths of a second of are with anything less—the heliometer is doubtless yet destined to’ realise the highest expectations ever raised as to its efficiency for grap- pling with that most minutely intricate and vastly importaat mol si viz., the parallax of the fixed stars. On Chinese Astronomy. By Mr J. B. Linpsay.—The object of the pre- sent paper is to draw the attention of the Section to the fact, that much British Association. 121 information may be derived from Chinese literature in order to perfect ourastronomy. The ‘‘Chun-tsiu,” written by Confucius, contains an ac- count of thirty-six eclipses (several of them total), and several comets, ong Sri and meteorites. The first eclipse here recorded was in the year our era 719, the last was in s.c. 494,—thus comprising 225 years. Confucius was born in s.c. 550, and died at the age of seventy- three in p.c. 477. In a book lately published I have given an extract of the thirty-six ecli ; but the whole of the ‘‘ Chun-tsiu’’ deserves to be translated and published. I have myself made a translation of the whole verbatim, but should prefer seeing it published by another better ac- quainted with the Chinese. The ‘‘Chun-tsiu” is a short chronicle of events ; but there is an extended commentary on it entitled the ‘* Tso- chuen,” Tso-kin-ming, who was a contemporary and an intimate friend of ius. This work should, I think, be also translated, as it . _ gives a detailed account of astronomical observations, and comes thirteen years further down than the work of Confucius. Another work, entitled the “ Kwo-yu,” supposed to have been by the same author, contains an Appendix by another person, bringing down the history to s.c. 453. The i istory was principally written, and the celestial phenomena y Szi-ma-tsien, who lived a century before our era. His work is entitled “* Shi-ki,” or Historic Memoirs. He was Imperial Historian, as was also his father,—and his work is extremely interesting, as giving an account not only of Chinese affairs, but also of the Scythians and Turks who were then on the north-west borders of China. The 123d chapter, recording foreign events, has been translated into French by Brosset, and is found in the Journal Asiatique for 1828. This chapter comprises the history of forty-three years, or from B.c. 140 to s.c. 97, shortly before the author’s death. Small portions of the “ Shi-ki” have been translated into English, but the whole deserves to be so. A translation of the whole Chinese history and literature before our era would not be voluminous; but the ‘‘ Chun-tsiu,’’ the ‘* Tso-chuen,’’ and the ** Shi-ki” should, I think, be translated first. Extended notes would be necessary to render the whole intelligible, and the Astronomer Royal might append notes on the various eclipses. The ancient Chinese classics are nine in number,—five of the first class, and four of the second. The five of the first class are the ‘‘ Shu-king,” the “‘ Shi-king,” the “ I-king,”’ the ‘‘ Li-ki,” and the ‘‘ Chun-tsiu.” The “Shu-king” has been trans- lated into French by Desguignes,—the ‘‘ Shi-king’’ into Latin by La- charme,—the “‘ I-king” into Latin by Regis, and others,—the ‘ Li-ki” into French by Callery ; but the “ Chun-tsiu” has not yet been translated into any European language. The four books of the second class have been often translated into Latin and French. Their names are, the ** Ta-tteo,” the ‘‘ Chung-yung,” the “ Lun-yu,” and~*‘ Mang-tszi,” or Mencius,—scarcely any of which have been translated into English. On the Decomposed Glass found at Nineveh and other places. By Sir D. Brewster.—He described the general appearance of glass in an extreme state of decomposition, when the decomposed part was so rotten as to break easily between the fingers, a piece of undecomposed glass being generally found in the middle of the plate. He then explained how, in other specimens, the decomposition took place around one, two, or more points, forming hemispherical cups, which exhibit the black cross and the tints of polarised light. In illustration of this decomposition, he showed to the Meeting three specimens, in one of which there was no colour, but which consisted of innumerable circular cavities with the black cross, these cavities giving it the appearance of ground-glass. In another specimen the film was specular and of great beauty, showing the comple- mentary colours by reflection of transmitted light. In a third variety NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI. NO. I.— JAN. 1860. ° 122 Proceedings of Societies. the films were filled with circular cavities exhibiting the most beautiful colours, both in common and polarised light. On Mild Winters in the British Isles. By Professor Hennessy.—He ieee out the circumstance that the meteorological observations made uring.the late remarkably mild winter tended to confirm the law which he had already announced in a letter to General Sabine, which appears in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for 1858. This law is, that during mild winters the coast stations exhibit an increase of temperature more than inland stations, and that the temperature on the west and south coasts oc areemge towards uniformity, In France, as pointed out by M. Liais, the first part of this law is found to hold good, as evinced in the comparative climatology of Cherbourg and Paris. Mr Hennessy referred these phenomena to an abnormal extension of heat-bearing currents across the Atlantic. From the greater stability of such currents than those of the atmosphere, and from the important influence they undoubtedly exercise upon our climate, he is led to infer that we are rapidly approach- ing a period when it may become possible to foretell whether the winter shall be cold or warm by knowing the conditions of a and the movements of currents in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic during the summer and autumn. On the Inclination of the Planetary Orbits. By Mr J. P. Hennessy.— The author stated, that on consulting a synoptie table of the planetary elements, some law had been obtained for the other elements, but none hitherto for the inclinations of the several orbits. This he conceived arose from the inclinations being set down in reference to the plane of the earth’s orbit; for he found that a very remarkable relation manifested itself when they were tabulated in reference to the plane of the Sun’s equator. The author had written on the board two tables : one, the ordi- nary table in reference to the Ecliptic; the other, that to which he wished to draw attention, having reference to the plane of the Sun’s . equator. In the latter, it was seen as a general law, that the inclinations . of the planetary orbits increased as the distances of the several planets } from the Sun increased. Thus, the inclination of the‘orbit of Mereury to the | plane of the Sun’s equator was but 0° 19’ 51”, while that of Neptune was 9° 6’ 51”. The only considerable deviation from regular Le cy ya being found, as might be expected, among the Asteroids: of which, if we take Victoria as a type, her inclination is no less than 15° 42’ 15”. The author considered that the faet that the orbits of the larger Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, are not more inclined, would seem to confirm a surmise of Laplace, who, in his “ Exposition du Systéme du Monde,” speculates on the order in which the planets were thrown off from the Sun, and supposes that Jupiter, Saturn, &c. were thus formed long before Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars. If so, the oblateness of the Sun would in its condition at that time have tended more power- fully than in its subsequent or present state to keep the planets near the plane of its equator. The discovery of this law regulating the inclinations of the planetary orbits appeared to him another addition to the class of facts which establish the analogy between the solar system and that of Jupiter and his satellites, it being well known to astronomers that the in- clination of the orbits of the latter to the plane of Jupiter’s equator was a function of their distances and masses, On the Dynamical Theory of Gases. By Professor Cuerk Maxwett.— The phenomena of the expansion of gases by heat, and their rg Es by pressure, have been explained by Joule, Claussens, Herapath, &e., by the theory of their particles being in a state of rapid motion, the velocity de- pending on the temperature. These particles must not only strike agai the sides of the vessel, but against each other, and the calculation of their _ British Association. 123 : therefore complicated. The author has established the follow- Tesults:—1. The velocities of the particles are not uniform, but vary ° that they deviate from the mean value by a law well known in the least squares.”” 2. Two different sets of particles will distri- velocity, so that their vires vive will be equal; and this leads chemical law, that the equivalents of gases are proportional to their gravities. 3. From Professor Stokes’s experiments on friction in ; eee that the distance travelled by a particle between consecu- ions is about ;z+}55 Of an inch, the mean velocity being about feet per second ; and therefore each particle makes 8,077,200,000 col- eer 4. The laws of the diffusion of gases, as established of the Mint, are deduced from this theory, and the absolute diffusion through an opening can be calculated. The author in- apply his mathematical methods to the explanation on this hypo- thesis of propagation of sound, and expects some light on the mysterious question of the absolute number of such particles in a given Mass, Ege ee A Hs CHEMICAL SCIENCE. New Process of Preserving Milk perfectly Pure in the Natural State without any Chemical Agent. By the Abbé Moieno.—To preserve milk for an indefinite period is an important problem, which in France has been solved in three different . M. de Villeneuve was the first to milk. M. Maben also preserved it by excluding the air, and exposing it atmosphere of steam about 10U° Cent.—thus depriving it of all the which it contained, and then hermetically sealing the filled bottles it had been heated. When about to leave for Aberdeen, I bottle which had been closed by M. Maben on the 14th of Feb- ; and after a lapse of five a half years, I found it as fresh first day. M. de Pierre has greatly improved the discovery. means which he employs to effect the preservation of milk is still heat applied in some peculiar way, by manual dexterity, first by a Swiss shepherd. All that 1 am allowed to state is, that of this new method of applying heat is to remove a sort of diustore, or animal ferment, which exists in milk in a very small quan- tity, and which is the real cause of its speedy decomposition. When this species of ferment is removed, milk can be preserved for an indefinite period of time in vessels not quite full, and consequently ex to the contact of rarified air—a result which was not effected by the process of M. Maben, or rather that of M. Gay-Lussac, as they completely expelled those gases which otherwise would have rendered it sour. I have such full confidence in the success of M. de Pierre’s process, that I had not the least hesitation in bringing along with me from Paris to Aberdeen a a vessel containing five galions of milk, fearlessly trusting it to rail- and steam-bvats, thus exposing it to all the incidents of the journey. I am so confident of the success of the process, that I pour out the contents of this vessel into Scotch glasses, with the conviction that I am giv- ing to the ladies and gentlemen of the British Association a milk as natu- ral, as pure, and as rich as when it was taken from the cow in the fertile plains of Normandy. May this potion, so sweet and so pure, be a symbol of those sentiments of benevolent affection which France, flourishing and enlightened, entertains towards her noble and great sister England! s 5 aun FREY He 124 Proceedings of Societies. Aeemioe to its greater specific lightness, cream ascends to the top of the vessel, but it can be easily made to diffuse itself through the milk by slightly shaking it before uncorking the bottle. As the vessel is not quite full, a small quantity of butter may have been formed, and the milk may have become somewhat less rich, but it will still be pure and natural milk, without any strange taste. Thanks to the progress of science, of which I am happy to be the representative, France can yield with profit to England her fruits, her vegetables, her eggs, and now offers her pre- antag milk for the wants of the army and navy, having nothing to fear rom the longest voyages, nor from the excesses of heat and cold. On a Symmetrical Arrangement of Oxides and Salts on a Common Type. By Dr Lyon Prayrarr.—Salts, according to the present views, may be constituted of an oxide and an acid; of an electro-positive ele- ment and an electro-negative salt radical; or on the type of water, in which the hydrogen is sometimes replaced by an electro-positive ele- ment, sometimes by an electro-negative compound. The author adopted the whole series of metallic oxides as typical of salts, supposing that two equivalents of the metal were present in all the oxides except the mag- netic oxide. He contended that neutral salts are not formed on the type of a basic oxide, such as water, but on that of a neutral oxide, such as peroxide of manganese or peroxide of hydrogen, of the general formula, O,(MM)O,. Two equivalents of the oxygen in this type may be replaced in a neutral salt by an anhydrous acid, so that the general formula of a neutral salt is either O,(MM)A,, or half that value, in which A represents any acid. The author showed that many facts supported the idea that an anhydrous acid could substitute oxygen directly, and vice versd. Thus, carbonate of manganese heated in air becomes peroxide, oxygen substi- tuting the acid ; while peroxide of copper loses oxygen in air, and becomes acarbonate. Barytes heated in air absorbs oxygen, and becomes a per- oxide ; heated with sulphuric acid, it becomes a sulphate: both oxide and salt being formed on the same type. The author then proceeded to show that as there are varieties of oxides, so also there are varieties of salts, each constituted on an oxide type, Salts of suboxides represent the prot- oxides ; subsalts. with two equivalents of an oxide and one of an acid, are formed on the type of sesquioxides; while those with three of a base and one of an acid, like phosphate of soda, are formed on the type of mag- netic oxide of iron. The sesqui-salts, on this view, are on the type of manganic acid, O,(MM)A, being like O,(MM)O;. The author then pro- ceeded to show how various relations became apparent, if the oxygen in the oxides were arranged in the simplest form of an axis and equator around the metallic nucleus, according to a conventional system on a plane surface. The existence or deficiency of symmetry in the structure of a body becomes thus indicated. As a general conclusion, when there is an equal balance in the molecules of oxygen, or of electro-negative bodies playing its part, then rest or neutrality results; when the structure wants balance or symmetry, then activity is manifested—basicity when the electro-positive molecules predominate ; acidity when the electro-nega- tive are in excess. By writing minus points to show the want of sym- metry, it is possible to indicate @ priori whether an acid is monobasic, bibasic, or tribasic. In conclusion, the author referred to the oxides of nitrogen, chlorine, and carbon as illustrations of the importance of sym- we Writing them all on four-volume formule, it is n double them when the compound has an uneven number of molecules of oxygen; but the oxides of an even number do not require this duplication. Further, it was shown that the symmetrical oxides are neutral or only feebly acid in character in the case of the oxides of electro-negative ele- ments. Thus hypochlorous, chlorous, and echloric acids are uneven, like a =. ae a British Association. 125 nitrous and nitric acids; while binoxide of nitrogen and the peroxides of chlorine and nitrogen are neutral, from there being a balance in the molecules of oxygen. In like manner, oxalic acid, with an uneven num- ber of atoms of oxygen, is more powerfully acid than carbonic acid, where the conditions for symmetry are more nearly satisfied. | To exhibit a ph of Fluorescent Substances. By Dr Guap- sTone.—It is well known, on the one hand, that the chemical action of light resides mainly in the most refrangible rays, and on the other hand, that these rays are altered in their refrangibility and effect on the visual = wes fluorescent substances. It occurred to the author that such would probably exert little photographic action. Hence he had made two drawings on sheets of white paper, one in an acid salt of tinine, the other in a very pale solution of chlorophyll, and had taken ote of them. Although the drawing in quinine was quite undis- tinguishable from the white paper, and the chlorophyll drawing nearly 80, when they were viewed in the same camera for adjusting the focus they were strongly marked on the photographic image by the little chemical action that had been exerted by them. The sheets of paper, and the drawings developed on the glass plate, were exhibited, showing that what theory had suggested as probable, was true in fact. On a New Mode of Bread-making. By Dr Ovutne.—By this process the carbonic acid is produced independently of, and superadded to, the flour, which consequently undergoes no modification whatever. The car- bonie acid gas is stored in an ordinary gas-holder, and is pumpéd there- from into a cylindrical vessel of water, whereby the water becomes charged with gas. This soda-water is mixed under pressure with the flour, and the resulting dough becomes vesicular on removing the pressure. It is then divided into loaves and baked. This process is so rapid that in an hour and a half from the first wetting of the flour, a sack of flour is made into two-pound loaves. The advantages of this new mode are—its clean- liness ; from the beginning to the end of the operation, neither the flour nor the water is touched by the human feet; it conduces to the health of the work-people ; it is a very rapid process; it is certain and uniform; and it prevents any deterioration of the flour, so that by this process you ean use flour which would require alum in the ordinary process. on Field Experiments on the Essential Manuring Constituents Cultivated Crops. By Professor Vorrcxer.—The field experiments, which extended over a period of four years, had special reference to the tur- nip-crops. Dr Voelcker described the plan upon which these experiments were undertaken, and mentioned the results which were obtained. Amongst other points of interest to the agriculturist, it may be noticed, as the result of four years’ experience in the growth of turnips under particular conditions.—1. That fertilisers destitute of phosphoric acid do not increase the yield of this crop; 2. That phosphate of lime applied to the soil in the shape of soluble phosphate (super phosphate) increases this crop in an especial manner, and that the practical value of artificial manures for root crops chiefly depends on the relative amount of available phosphates which they contain. Thus it was shown that 3 ewt. of super- os ea per acre produced as large an increase of turnips as 15 tons of yard manure; 3. That ammoniacal salts and nitrogenised constitu- ents yielding ammonia on decomposition, have no beneficial effect upon turnips, but rather the reverse; 4. That ammoniacal salts applied alone do not promote, as maintained erroneously, the luxuriant development of leaves; but that they produce this effect to a certain extent when salts of ammonia are applied to the land in conjunction with the mineral con- stituents found in the ashes of turnips. The Report likewise states that numerous analyses of turnips have been made, from which it appears that 126 Proceedings of Societies. the more nutritious and least ripened roots invariably contain less nitro-. gen than half-ripened roots, or turnips of low feeding qualities. In the latter, the proportion of nitrogen was found, in several instances, two to two-and-a-half times as high as in roots distinguished for their good feed- ing qualities. Similar experiments upon wheat showed that nitrogenised_ ammoniacal matters, which proved inefficacious in relation to turnips, increase the yield of corn and straw very materially, and that the in- crease of wheat was largest when the ammoniacal constituents were asso- ciated with mineral matters. GEOLOGY. On the Geological Structure of the Vicinity of Aberdeen, and the north-east of Scotland. By James Nicot, Professor of Natural History, Aberdeen.—The author said—It has been thought that a short sketch of the geology of this arr | might interest our visitors from the south. To. have had a large copy of that portion of my. Geological Map of Scotland prepared. This, of course, does not give illustrate this generally, minute details, but still I have no hesitation in saying that it is more ac- curate than any other, as I have not only corrected it in many points myself, but have had the use of much material collected by my friend Mr A. Cruickshank. Though scarcely needed, it may be mentioned that Scotland consists of three natural geological divisions :-— 1st. Southern region of Lower Silurian Rocks of Murchison or Cam- brian of Sedgwick. This region consists of greywacke and clay slate, rising into lofty broad-backed mountains, separated by wide valleys— the dales of the old Borderers. ’ 2d. Central region of Old Red, Coal, and Trap. This contains only about one-sixth of the surface (5000 square miles), but full two-thirds of the population of Scotland, and a far larger proportion of the mineral wealth and manufactures of the kingdom. 3d. Northern Region of Primary or Crystalline Strata, broken through by Granite, and set in a framework of newer formations. It contains two-thirds of the surface, but little more than one-fourth of the popula- tion. Itis in this region we are now met, and to one portion of it that I mean specially to direct your attention. The kernel of this whole region is the Granite. This forms some of the highest mountains, and some of the lowest land in the district ; of the former’ 1 may mention Ben Maedhui (only rivalled in Britain by Ben Nevis) and the Cairngorum mountains on the north of the Dee; and on the south of that river Loch-na-gar, Mount Keen, Mount Battock, and other giants of the Southern Grampians. These, the principal mountains, are usually round, massive, dome-like, with a deep corry on one side, as if formed by the falling in of one-third of the mountain, and thus bounded _by lofty, rudely prismatic precipices, rising from a dark, black tarn in the centre of the hollow. In consequence of decomposition, the granite mountains are usually covered with huge feather-bed-like rocks, piled up in cairns of rude masonry, and the shelter of the red deer and ptarmigan. The rock in these mountains is rather fine ground, uniform in structure, and often reddish coloured. It contains cavities in which the rock crystal or Cairngorum stone, the topaz, and the beryl are found, Bennachie, one of the outposts of these mountains on the north-east, though not high and easily accessible, is very interesting. It looks out on the south-west to the loftier ranges of the Grampians, with patches of snow even at the end of summer, and on the north-east over the plains of Buchan—low, —_— ee —— oe - British Association. 127 andulating, and treeless, but rapidly changing, under the industry of the inhabitants, from bleak moors to fertile pa_en Drxg A portion of these north-eastern plains too consists of granite ; in them, however, occupying the lowest, not the highest position, as in the mountains. This fact shows that the granite is the basis on which the strata rest, and hence is exposed where they have been cut away denudation. A fine section of the granite is seen in the sea-cliffs sout from Peterhead, where it is intersected by long, narrow gullies and deep . eaves, in which the restless surge of the North Sea keeps up an incessant tumult. Hence some of the more remarkable of these excavations have _ got the name of the Bullers of Buchan. ' The rock, in this region, is red or gray, according to the colour of the . It often contains hornblende, or is a syenite, as in the tract to the north of Huntly, and in other places again becomes almost a fine me or diorite. This diversity of mineral character proves the granite is not all of one period of furmation. The veins of — the granite itself, show this even more clearly. These are ifully seen in Rubislaw quarry, close to the town, where there is one very remarkable vein of coarse granite, composed of very large twin erystals of orthoclase felspar and mica, in a basis of quartz, along with long broken prisms of schorl, Davidsonite, or impure beryl and garnets. The in this vein is also remarkable for numerous cavities enclosing fluids, which Sorby uses as natural thermometers to tell the temperature or pressure under which the rock was formed. The latter, he says, was for the fine granite or main body of the rock 78,000 feet, for the coarse granite or veins 42,000 feet. Of the stratified rocks the first, Gretss, covers a wide extent in Aber+ ire, and generally in close proximity to, or resting on, the granite. It is thus seen in the valley-of the Dee above Braemar, reposing on the ite in thin even beds, at a low angle, and apparently undisturbed by inferior igneous rock. In many parts of the low country the same relation occurs, the gneiss often forming the hills, the granite the inter- vening valleys. But in other cases, as in the hills north of Ballater, the two formations are seen side by side. The gneiss, in many localities, is full of granite veins; but whether these belong to the great mass of granite, or are of a different age, is not easily determined; and the question seems never to have been fully or fairly worked out. Such veins are well seen on the coast to the south of the city, especially near Girdleness and the Cove, and also in many parts of the mountain chain on the south side of the Dee. Veins of felspar, porphyry, and of trap, are known in the gneiss on the same coast, and in many other localities. The gneiss is usually the common variety of quartz, felspar, and mica. But varieties with hornblende, passing into hornblende slate, are also common. ‘The latter are well seen in the hills along Glen Muic, and up to the top of Morven. The beds of gneiss are seldom flat or even, more often hi contorted. In the Braemar district the gneiss is covered by beds of limestone and quartzite—the latter, perhaps, only a variety of the gneiss. It often con- tains much magnetite, apparently replacing the mica. Indeed, iron, both as the oxides and pyrites, is very common in all these rocks; strongly impregnating many of the springs, and finding its way into the sands of the rivers and of the sea-shore. From the Cairngorum mountains great ridges of quartzite run north into Banffshire, and to the coast near Cullen. In some places in this region it appears to lie below the mica slate, but their exact relation is obscure. In other parts of the low country, as in Mormond Hill, the quartzite rests on the gneiss. . Mica-slate in Scotland is most common in the south- west Grampians; but 128 - Proceedings of Societies. in this district it becomes greatly attenuated to a very narrow zone. In the Glensheeard Stonehaven sections, the mica-slate appears to lie be- low the gneiss, and not over it, as usually represented. There are at tracts of mica-slate also in the north-west, between the Spey and everon, where it is intermixed with gneiss and clay-slate, but the rela- tions of the deposits are little understood. It often contains garnets, more rarely andalusite, and some other minerals. Clay-slate also covers a considerable share in this district, chiefly to the south of Banff and the Troup Head. It is quarried in several places for roofing-slates, as near the Troup Head, in the Foudland Hills,and near Gartly. These slates are wrought on lines of cleavage, the bedding being in general scarcely perceptible. It has been said that fossils— graptolites—occur in this rock; but there is no foundation for this state- ment, I formerly described these clay-slates as probably Silurian; but this is only a theory, and as the clay-slate in the southern Grampians appears to dip north below the mica-slate, this view now requires confirmation. In Glenshee a curious series of black carbonaceous slates, containing gra- phite, like those of Easdale, occur. Graphite is also found in other parts of this region, in the metamorphic strata—a most important fact in refer- ence to the theory of these rocks. . The Old Red Sandstone chiefly occurs on the outskirts of the region we are considering. The principal mass within it runs south from Gam- rie—a locality well known for its nodules with fossil fish. Another iso- lated, but interesting portion, occurs round the ancient Castle of Kil- drummy, in which impressions of plants hayebeen found. A curious mass of conglomerate at the Old Bridge of Don, probably belongs to the same adeposit. On the southern limit of the moss, the Great Red Sandstone formation of Strathmore begins, and is well seen in huge beds of red sandstone and conglomerate near Dunnottar. The conglomerate must be regarded as marking rather the shore-lines or certain peculiar local con- ditions, than any particular zone in the formation. ; Atthe other extremity of the moss, on the Spey, the Morayshire deposits begin, with numerous fishes at Pynet Burn, Dipple, &c. Still further west are the beds with reptilian remains at Elgin, probably in the upper Old Red, or some newer formation, but beyond the limits of this paper. Higher deposits are only known in fragments, Such is the portion of lias near Turriff, perhaps én situ; but other masses of clay with lias fossils, as near Banff, are more probably drifted. So also the green- sand and chalk-flints spread over the rising ground from Peterhead to Cruden—noticed and collected in 1834 by the late Dr Knight of this university—are apparently detrital masses. Their number, however, and state of preservation, show that strata of this age probably once existed here in situ, and perhaps they may still occur below the waters of the North Sea. I formerly noticed the analogy of these deposits to those in the south of Sweden, where lias rests on gneiss, and is covered by chalk; but Flamborough Head is the nearest point where the chalk is now known in situ. Last of all are the great detrital masses of the drift or boulder-clay. This forms two very marked divisions, evidently formed under very opposite conditions of the land. 1st, The lower boulder-clay, composed of thick beds of firm, brown or gray clay, full of large striated stones, some of them several feet or yards in diameter, and evidently deposited in an arctic sea, round the shores of an ice-clad land rapidly sinking in the waters. Glaciers, as the strie they have left on the rocks testify, must then have covered our mountains, and floating icebergs filled our ocean. Above this deposit are, 2d, Loose, distinetly stratified, sands and gravels, with rounded water-worn stones. These are clearly a portion ee British Association. 129 the lower masses reconstructed, as the land now freed from ice rose above the waters. The brick-clays, some blue, some red, are ly the finer materials washed out in this process, and laid down the quieter parts of the sea along the coast. lis—showing that the climate was still cold; and very city, star-fish (Ophiwra), bones of fish like full 30 feet below the present surface, bones of seen at Belhelvie, Old Aberdeen, and Torrie, er localities. All along the south coast, too, the up, attached to the large mussel by its byssus, valves islandicus and the small Leda oblonga, shown by their been imbedded in similar red clays. bogs we have remains of even a more recent period, but to ourown. In them are found skulls with gigantic horns, bones of the old urns. Two fine specimens of these skulls Museum—one from Belhelvie, another from Caithness—show range of this noble species in former times. And here the geologic history of the district ends. i Consort having entered the Section Room, Sir C. Lyett and said:—No subject has lately excited more curiosity and gene- tal interest, among geologists and the public, than the question of the antiquity of the human race: whether or no we have sufficient evi- _denee to prove the former co-existence of Man with certain extinct mammalia, in caves or in the superficial deposits commonly called drift or ‘‘diluvium.” For the last quarter of a century, the occasional oc- currence, in various parts of Europe, of the bones of man or the works of his hands, in cave-breccias and stalactites, associated with the remains of the extinct hyena, bear, elephant, or rhinoceros, has given rise to a suspicion that the date of man must be carried further back than we had i On the other hand, extreme reluctance was natu- rally felt on the part of scientific reasoners to admit the validity of such seeing that so many caves have been inhabited by a succession of tenants, and have been selected by man, as a place not only of domicile, but of sepulture, while some caves have also served as the channels through which the waters of flooded rivers have flowed, so that the remains of living beings which have peopled the district at more than one era may have subsequently been mingled in such caverns, and con- founded er in one and the same deposit. The facts, however, recently brought to light during the systematic investigation, as reported on by Falconer, of the Brixham Cave, must, I think, have prepared you to it that scepticism in regard to the cave-evidence in favour of the at pa Or man had previously been pushed to an extreme. To escape from what I now consider was a legitimate deduction from the facts already accumulated, we were obliged to resort to hypotheses requiring great changes in the relative levels and drainage of valleys, and, in short, the whole physical geography of the respective regions where the caves are situat hanges that would alone imply a remote antiquity for the human fossil remains, and make it probable that man was old enough to have co-existed, at least, with the Siberian mammoth. But, in the course of the last fifteen years, another class of proofs have been advanced, in France, in confirmation of man’s antiquity, into two of which I have personally examined in the course of the present summer, and to which I shall now briefly advert. First, so long ago as the year 1844, M. Aymard, an eminent paleontologist and antiquary, published an account of the dis- eovery, in the voleanic district of Central France, of portions of two human skeletons (the skulls, teeth, and bones), imbedded in a voleanic breccia, found in mountain of Denise, in the environs of Le Puy en NEW SERIES.— VOL. XI. NO. 1.—JaNn. 1860. P cette BE ree He Hy : : g i 130 Proceedings. of Societies. Velay, a breccia anterior in date to one, at least, of the latest oo of that voleanic mountain. On the opposite side of the same hill, the remains of a large number of mammalia, most of them of extinct species, have been detected in tufaceous strata, believed, and I think correctly, to be of the same age. The authenticity of the human fossils was from the first disputed by several geologists, but admitted by the majority of those who visited Le Puy, and saw with their own eyes the — specimen now in the museum of that town. Among others, M. Pictet, so well known to you by his excellent work on Paleontology, declared after his visit to the spot his adhesion to the opinions previously expressed by Aymard. My friend, Mr Scrope, in the second edition of his “‘ Voleanoes of Central France,” lately published, also adopted the same conclusion, although, after accompanying me this year to Le Puy, he has seen reason to modify his views. Phe result of our joint examination,—a result which I believe, essentially coincides with that arrived at by MM. Hébert and Lartet, names well known to Science, who have also this year gone into this inquiry on the spot,—may thus be stated. We are by no means pre- pared to maintain that the specimen in the museum at Le Puy (which unfortunately was never seen in situ by any scientific observer) is a fabrication. On the contrary, we incline to believe that the human fossils in this and some other specimens from the same hill, were really imbedded by natural causes in their present matrix. But the rock in which they are entombed consists of two parts, one of which is a compact, and for the _ most part thinly laminated stone, into which none of the human bones penetrate ; the other, containing the bones, is a lighter and much more porous stone, without lamination, to which we could find nothing similar in the mountain of Denise, although both M. Hébert and I made several ex- cavations on the alleged site of the fossils. M. Hébert therefore to me that this more porous stone, which resembles in colour and mineral composition, though not in structure, parts of the genuine old breccia of Denise, may be made up of the older rock broken up and afterwards re- deposited, or as the French say remané, and, therefore, of much newer date, an hypothesis which well deserves consideration ; but I feel that we are, at present, so ignorant of the precise circumstances and position under which these celebrated human fossils were found, that I ought not to waste time in speculating on their probable mode of interment, but simply state that, in my opinion, they afford no demonstration of Man having witnessed the last voleanic eruptions of Central France. The skulls, according to the judgment of the most competent osteologists who have yet seen them, do not seem to depart in a marked manner from the modern European or Caucasian type, and the human bones are in a fresher state than those of the Elephas meridionalis and other quadrupeds found in any breccia of Denise, which can be referred to the period even of the latest volcanic eruptions. But, while I have thus failed to obtain satisfactory evidence in favour of the remote origin assigned to the human fossils of Le Puy, I am fully prepared to corroborate the conclusions which have been recently laid before the Royal Society by Mr Prestwich, in regard to the age of the flint implements associated in undisturbed gravel, in the north of France, with the bones of elephants, at Abbeville and Amiens. These were first noticed at Abbeville, and their true geologi- cal position assigned to them by M. Boucher de Perthes, in 1846, in his “ Antiquités Celtiques,”’ while those of Amiens were afterwards described in 1855, by the late Dr Rigollot. For a clear statement of the facts, I may refer you to the abstract of Mr Prestwich’s Memoir, in tae Proceed- ings of the Royal Society for 1859, and have only to add that I have myself obtained abundance of Flint Implements (some of which are laid upon the table) during a short visit to Amiens and Abbeville. Two of the British Association. 131 worked flints of Amiens were discovered in the gravel-pits of St Acheul the depth of 10, and the other of 17 feet below the surface, at of my visit; and M. Georges Pouchet, of Rouen, author of a the Races of Man, who has since visited the spot, has extracted own hands one of these implements, as Messrs Prestwich and done before him. The stratified gravel resting immediatel ich these rudely fashioned instruments are buri to the post-pliocene period, all the freshwater and land shells pany being of ey ROY The great number of instruments which have been likened to hatchets, spear-heads, is truly wonderful. More than a thousand of them have met with in the last ten years, in the valley of the Somme, 15 miles in length. I infer that a tribe of savages, to whom iron was unknown, made a long sojourn in this region; and I reminded of a large Indian mound, which | saw in St Simond’s Island, i mound 10 acres in area, and having an average height of feet, chiefly composed of cast-away prereagr. throughout which arrow-heads, stone-axes, and Indian pottery are dispersed. the neigh- bouring river, the Alatamha, or the sea which is at hand, should invade, Sweep away, and stratify the contents of this mound, it might produce a us accumulation of human implements, unmixed perhaps human bones. Although the accompanying shells are of living species, I believe the antiquity,of the ‘Abbeville and Amiens flint instru- ments to be great indeed, if compared to the times of history or tradi- I consider the gravel to be of fluviatile origin ; but I could detect nothing in the structure of its several parts indicating cataclysmal action, nothing that might not be due to such river-floods as we have witnessed im Seotland during the last half-century. It must have required a ee for the wearing down of the chalk which supplied the flints for the formation of so much gravel at various heights, some- times 100 feet above the present level of the Somme, for the deposi- tion of fine sediment including entire shells, both terrestrial and aquatic, and also for the denudation which the entire mass of stratified drift has undergone, portions having been swept away, so that what remains of it often terminates abruptly in old river-cliffs, besides being covered a newer unstratified drift. To explain these changes, I should infer considerable oscillations in the level of the land in that part of France—slow movements of upheaval and subsidence, deranging but not wholly a eee the course of the ancient rivers. Lastly, the dis- appearance of the elephant, rhinoceros, and other genera of quadrupeds now foreign’ to Europe, implies, in like manner, a vast lapse of ages, separating the era in which the fossil implements were framed, and that of the invasion of Gaul by the Romans. Among the problems of high theoretical interest which the recent progress of Geology and Natural History has brought into notice, no one is more prominent, and, at the same time, more obscure, than that ing to the origin of species. On this difficult and mysterious subject a work will very shortly appear, by Mr Charles Darwin, the result of twenty years of observation and expe- riments in Zoology, Botany, and Geology, by which he has been led to the conclusion, that those powers of nature which give rise to races and permanent varieties in animals and plants are the same as those which, in much longer periods, produce species, and, in a still longer series of give rise to differences of generic rank. He appears to me to have succeeded, by his investigations and reasonings, to have thrown a flood of light on many classes of phenomena connected with the affinities, phical distribution, and geological succession of organic beings, for which no other hypothesis has been able, or has even attempted, to account. oFeegeee 2 £4! tiie F : 132 Proceedings of Societies. Among the communications sent in to this Section, I have received from Dr Dawson of Montreal one confirming the discovery which he and I formerly -announced, of a land shell, or pupa, in the coal formation of Nova Scotia. When we contemplate the vast series of formations intervening between the tertiary and carboniferous strata, all destitute of air-breathing Mol- lusea, at least of the terrestrial class, such a discovery affords an im illustration of the extreme defectiveness of our geological records. It has always appeared to me that the advocates of progressive development have too much overlooked the imperfection of these records, and that, con- sequently, a large part of the generalisations in which they have indulged in regard to the first appearance of the different classes of animals, especi- ally of air-breathers, will have to be modified or abandoned. Nevertheless, that the doctrine of progressive development may contain in it the germs of a true theory, lam far from denying. The consideration of this oe will come before you when the age of the White Sandstone of Elgin is diseussed—a rock hitherto referred to the Old Red or Devonian formation, but now ascertained to contain several reptilian forms, of so high an organisation as to raise a doubt in the minds of many geologists whether so old a place in the series can correctly be assigned to it. On the Chronology of the Trap Rocks of Scotland. By Mr A. Gerxte. —The points to be proved were—first, that there is sufficient abundance of © felspathic matter in the grits of the Silurian region of the Lammermoors to warrant the inference that felspathic matter was either ejected during the formation of these grits, or already in considerable abundance on the surface, Second, that the Silurians of the Lammermoors were contorted during the Upper Silurian period, probably between the upper and lower Ludlows, and that this contortion was attended with a wide-spread extra- vasation of felspathic matter. Third, that the Old Red Sandstone period was marked by powerful and long-continued volcanic activity, in several centres, as the Sidlaws, the Ochils, the Pentlands, and part of the hills of Lanark, Fourth, that the carboniferous period was characterised by the especial abundance and activity of volcanic centres,—so much so that there is not a well-defined zone of carboniferous beds which does not, at some part of the Lothians, display its intercalated sheets of ash or green- stone; but that these eruptions were marked by local centres alike in their extent and in the character of the erupted material. Fifth, that after the carboniferous series, there is a great gap in the chronology of the Scottish trap rocks, the next traces of subterranean movement being dis- cernible in the lias of Skye; but that contemporaneous igneous rocks are not found until towards the top of the middle oolite, where am estuarine limestones and shales, there occur in Skye and adjacent islands enormous sheets of greenstone and basalt. Sixth, that as upper secondary rocks have still to be determined in the Hebrides, we have, at present, to pass from the oolitie traps of Skye to the basalts and ashes of Mull, which, as shown by their associated fossils, are tertiary, and, probably, miocene. Lastly, that the later basalts and ashes of Arthur’s Seat ought, probably, to be referred to the later secondary or older tertiary riod. aie the Origin of Cone-in-Cone Structure. By Mr H. C, Sonsy.—This structure consists of an assemblage of imperfect cones, inclosing other cones, which all have their apexes in the same direction, and usually oceur in bands parallel.to the stratification of the work in which they are found, By examining their transparent slices with polarised light, the author has come to the conclusion that this structure is due to the growth of minute prismatic crystals, of more or less impure carbonate of lime, which, start- ing from particular points, grow upwards or downwards in such a manner that the peculiar and curious compound conical masses were formed by ee OE ' British Association. 133 the interference of the crystals with each other, and with the uncrystal- a Becepieustonat he U; s of L sr 3 on ion of t wrians esmahago, in terms of the loteclan grant to Mr Slimon. By Mr D. Pace.— During the summer, Mr Slimon and his son had diligently explored the fossiliferous tract of Upper Silurian strata in the — of Lesma- the result of their operations had been to exhibit still further f fossiliferous character of the Nilberry Silurians, and to give indyeation of a very varied and curious crustacean Fauna, altogether Paleontology. ef remains of well-known Upper Silurian had also been obtained in sufficient numbers to prove the affinities beds; and indications of both an aquatic and terrestrial Flora by no means rare throughout the strata. The specimens obtained threefold value :—Iist, As proving the true Upper Silurian epoch Nilberry strata, and thus affording a clue to the investigation of other Sub-Devonian tracts in Scotland, yet but very imperfectly under- stood; 2d, As adding new forms to the life of a former epoch, and thus ing the boundaries of our zoological knowledge ; and, 3dly, As enabling the Government Paleontologists, who had recently ublished their first monograph on the mie py Tear to understand more clearly the ‘nature of this curious family o taceans, and to correct what must now evidently appear as misinterpretations of their structure and affinities. _ Innone of the beds explored, either now or during the whole of Mr Slimon’s —- explorations, had there ever been detected any trace of fish-life. d report concluded with a recommendation, that a further grant of _ L.10 or 1.20 should be given to Mr Slimon to continue his valuable t : g : af e, 5 > On certain Volcanic Rocks in Italy, which appear to have been sub- jected to Metamorphic Action. By Professor Dauseny.—Dr Dauben called the attention of the Section to two products of volcanic action “4 with in Italy, the peculiarities of which, he thought, had not been fully explained. The first of these is the Piperino rock, met with so extensively about Albano, near Rome, which is distinguished from ordinary tuff not only by its greater compactness and porphyritic aspect, but likewise by the oceurrence in it of numerous lamine of mica, and crystals of augite, which tend to give it the appearance of a metamorphic rock, or of one which, although originally ejected as tuff, had been subsequently modified by the long-continued action of heat and pressure. The principal difficulty in the way of thus considering it arises from its alternation in several places a4 ordinary tuff, or with strata of loose scoria, as is well seen near Marino, so that it is difficult to conceive how the materials com- posing the Piperino could have been subjected to heat after their deposi- tion in the form of tuff, without the intervening layers having been sub- jected to the same operation. The other voleanic product alluded to was the rock called Piperino, found near Naples,a brecciated material, in which wavy and nearly parallel streaks of a dark gray, brown, and often almost black, colour occur, impacted in a matrix which is for the most part ash- y, and seems, mineralogically speaking, to resemble trachyte. The Fnbedded masses occur generally elongated in the same direction, as are also the pores which occur in the midst of the mass. These circumstances have been accounted for by supposing a stream of molten trachyte to have invaded a congeries of fragments of ordinary lava, and to have ' brought about their partial fusion ; but the Piperino seems to constitute a _ of the great tufaceous deposit which overspreads the neighbourhood of aples, to which no such metamorphic action is ascribable, and that which has been lately met with in the new road now constructing above the suburb of the Chiaja at Naples lies imbedded in the midst of ordinary 134 Proceedings of Societies. tuff. Dr Daubeny therefore conceives, that the liarities ; by both the rocks alluded to require further elucidation, and that their study might tend to throw some new light upon the effects of metamorphic action upon rocks in general. On the Relations of the Gneiss, Red Sandstone, and Quartzite, in the North-West Highlands. By Professor Nicot.—Professor Nicol had visited the Highlands, and had arrived at a different conclusion as to the succession of certain crystalline and sub-crystalline rocks from that arrived at by Sir R. Murchison. He contended that the great series of rocks in question were of older date than that assigned to them by Sir R. Murchison, and endeavoured to prove, by a reference to the sections which he exhibited, that the order of super-position which he advocated was the correct one. The President said, this question was a difficult one of interpretation, and the burden of proof lay upon those who, like Sir R. Murehison, con- tended that the highly crystalline rocks were of the newest date.—Sir R. Murchison, at considerable length, replied to Professor Nicol, refer- ring to sections which he had prepared, and maintaining with great con- fidence that the order of super-position he had formerly contended for was the correct one. In company with Professor Ramsay, he had exa- mined the country ; and although they were aware of the difficulties of certain obscure sections here and there, he contended that, in no country he had ever examined, in any part of the world, had he ever seen a clearer order of super-position than that which he had endeavoured to = out—viz., the super-imposition of quartz rock upon the limestone.— rofessor Ramsay confirmed the views of Sir R. Murchison, stating that he had noticed for miles the super-imposition of the quartz rock upon the limestone without any break, and felt not the slightest doubt upon the subject. Professor Sedgwick spoke in corroboration of the views of Sir R. Murchison and Professor Ramsay. Going hastily over the country, it certainly appeared to him that the order of super-position was that con- tended for by Sir Roderick, although it was perfectly possible that more extended observation might induce them to come ultimately toa different conclusion. On the newly-discovered Reptilian Remains from the neighbourhood of Elgin. By Professor Huxtey.—Having received specimens of sand- stone containing what he considered traces of Reptilia, in order to work out the problem of their character he was put in communication with Mr Duff and the Rev. Mr Gordon, but for whose efficient co-operation his labours must have been in vain. He was fortunate to obtain speci- mens containing impressions which led him to conclude it was a reptile. and not a fish. He next obtained impressions in the sandstone of what appeared to have been once a bone, resembling the bony plates of an dications, from which he came to the conclusion that the reptile was one of the crocodilian species. Looking for further coincidence, he had received a fossil, which Professor Agassiz had declared the most extra- ordinary he had ever seen; and a cast taken from it appeared to repre- sent the tail of the old reptile. He then had a cast taken from a fossil having a most extraordinary cavity in it, which appeared to be its dorsal vertebre ; from another specimen he got a piece of vertebra, such as support the hips in crocodiles; and he, too, got a bit of sandstone having an impression of vertebra, with marks peculiarly characteristic of the neck; and to ascertain what the teeth or head was like, they had obtained a piece of stone with the impression of an upper jaw and a series of teeth, essentially resembling those of a piri *; and from these and other traces he came to the conclusion that it had been a erocodilian reptile allied to the Dinosaurian series, but presenting various points of a iat _ British Association. 135 difference from all existing or fossil species, and that the period of its oe must have been that presented by the green sandstone. He gave an account of the impressions in other pieces of sandstone— which Mr Gordon had sent him—indicating another reptile, with curious which, in honour of the Rev. Mr on, he called sole vaca ve ae received two bits of rock, one con- taining a reptilian impression like a staganolepis. Protessor Owen said no one could fail to ry ressed with the extreme and accuracy with which Professor actos had examined the facts, and with the clearness with which the facts had been described; and still more with the and soundness of the deductions which Professor Huxley had made. e paper read afforded very instructive evidence of the value of the law of co-relation of structure; because, at the last meeting of the British Association at Leeds, he had arrived at the conclusion, from observing a portion of the bone then exhibited, that these specimens were reptilian in their nature, and had published that pinion in an article in the “ Encyclopedia Britannica.” He concurred entirely with the conclusions which Professor Huxley had drawn from @ more complete view of those bones. He now for the first time began to feel that the evidence of the structure of the cranium was most in- _ teresting, and n to be made known before they had a complete and satisfactory f idea of the nature of the olepis. _ On Tertiary Fossils of India. By Mr W. H. Dasa The object of this communication was to give merely a sketch of results from the stud of a large suite of fossils, collected chiefly from Burmah and Tenasserim ince, by Professor T. Oldham, superintendent of the Geological Survey of India, the details being intended for publication in the “ Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India.” The majority of the fossils was stated to be of Eocene age, most of them having been obtained from the banks of the Irrawaddy and from Prome and its neighbourhood. Professor Oldham also collected Nummulitic fossils from Kurrachee Salt Range of the Punjab, Mammalian remains from the Sewalik group; fish teeth and scales from Heinlat, Tenasserim, and Carboniferous fossils also from Tenasserim Province. A list of the Tertiary fossils was given, the majority belonging to Mollusca and to the following other classes :—Articulata—Crustacea and Cirri- s Radiata — Annelida and Echinodermata; Protozoa — Foramini- The collection was said to contain many new and undescribed ies; and to present a facies of certain amount of resemblance gene- rically, but not specifically, with those from the Tertiary deposits of Europe, whilst, on the contrary, it was mentioned as a somewhat remark- able fact, that the further we go back in geological time, so much the greater is seen to be the resemblance between the marine fossil Faunas of distant geographical areas; for instance, the Lower Silurian fossils of the furthest point yet reached in Arctic explorations are many of them absolutely identical with species from that formation found in our own country, whilst those from the more modern deposits of Cretaceous and adage age continue their relations more by representation of forms than_ identity of species,—a fact confirmatory of the important observa- tions made by the late Professor E. Forbes on the interesting subject of the distribution of species in geological time. Allusion was made to the various Memoirs on the Palzontol of India Miro have from — to time appeared, principally in the ‘‘ ‘Transactions and Proceedings of the Geological Society of Ponion,” by which we are made acquainted with the geological formation of a great part of that country, showing a suc- cession of fossiliferous strata from the MA a Tertiaries, commencing with the mammalian remains of the Sewalik Hills, believed to be of Miocene 136 Proceedings of Societies. age, and continuing through the Nummulitie group and other Eocene beds, the Cretaceous and Oolitic series, together with Lias and Trias, to the Carboniferous and Devonian or Upper Paleozoics. On the Elephant Remains at Tford. By Mr A. Bravy.—The first fossil to which I wish to direct attention is the tusk of an enormous mam- moth, which was discovered about two years since, It was lying on its side, about 14 feet below the present surface of the soil; and I had the honour of inviting Sir Charles Lyell, and other eminent geologists, to see it before it was disturbed. It belonged to an animal of the species Elephas primogeneus, and is identical with the Siberian mammoth, and, I believe, with the one found in Behring’s Straits. The tusk was de- cayed at each end, the extremities being gone, but the part preserved was over 9 feet long, and of proportionate bulk. Some idea may be formed from this of the huge size of the animal of which it formerly formed a part. It was very much incurved, being so much bent back that the bone was not more than 4 feet 2 or 3 inches across in any part. Owing to the nature of the soil, the whole tusk was very friable, most of the gluten of the ivory being decayed, so that great care was required in moving it to prevent it falling to pieces. This was done in the usual manner by the authority of the British Museum, to whom, by permission of Mr Curtis, I presented the fossil; it was, however, I regret to say, much damaged by removal, notwithstanding the care bestowed. It was nearly a year afterwards before any more bones were found. I then obtained a large tibia, and two molar teeth, probably belonging to the same animal, as they were not a great way from the tusk. One of the latter was very large, weighing about 12 lb., though, from long use, much © worn. From this, I infer that the mammoth to which it belonged must have been of great age. About the same time, I obtained several bones of a large rhinoceros. These, from their more compact nature, were less decayed ; and the tibia and one side of the jaw were very perfect, several teeth being in situ. The other half of the jaw was smashed by the workman’s pick before I saw it; but I saved several teeth. Like those of the mammoth, they were very much worn. Two of them I to the College of Surgeons. The rhinoceros has been referred to the genus Leptorhinus. Associated with these remains were some of the bones of a large ox, the horns and skull of which were very perfect, with several teeth en situ. There were also turned up, within the last month or two, some bones of a large ruminant, which I believe to be of the Minocero, or Irish elk ; but I have not yet been able to get them exhibited. About thirty years since, the late Dr Buckland discovered the bones of a mammoth in this locality ; and about the same time the late Mr Gibson obtained the beautiful collection of bones now in the Royal College of Surgeons, Associated with the remains of those giants of ancient days, are the skulls of Planorbis, Mico, Cyclon, Paludina, &e. And there are now living in the Roden, and other tributary brooks in the neighbour- hood, the lineal descendants of these fossils, the ancestors of which en- joyed the same sunshine as the mammoth and rhinoceros, the aris of those days. We boast not of the primary rocks of Scotland, but we have amongst us, living on the same estate as their ancestors, the humble Paludina, Planorbis, &e. They are interesting ; for they form, as it were, the link between the past and the present order of things. é OE ———————— ~~ British Association. 137 ~~" GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. Notes on Japan. By Mr Lavrence Oxienant.—The three ports of the empire visited by the Mission, and which fell more immediately under our observation, were Nagasaki, situated in the Island of Kinsin ; Sowinda, a ? gl opened by Commodore Perry on the Promontory of Idsa ; and Yedo, the capital city of the empire. Of these, Nagasaki is the one with which we have been for the Canaet riod familiar. In former times it was a fishing village situated in the Principality of Omura; it is now an imperial demesne, and the most flourishing port in the empire. It owes its origin to the establishment, at this advantageous point, of a settlement in the year 1569, and its prosperity to the en- lightened policy pursued by the Christian Prince of Omura, in whose ‘ it was situated; while its transference to the Crown was the re- sult of political intrigues on the of the Portuguese settlers, in conse- quence of which the celebrated Tageo Sama included it among the lands eae tothe Crown. Situated almost at the westernmost extremity the empire, at the head of a deep land-locked harbour, and in conve- nient proximity to some of the wealthiest and most productive principa- lities in the empire, Nagasaki possesses great local advantages, and will doubtless continue an important commercial emporium, even when the trade of the empire at large is more fully rosa as and has found an outlet through other ports. The town is pleasantly situated on a belt of level which intervenes between the water and the swelling hills, forming an amphitheatre of great scenic beauty. Their slopes terraced -with rice-fields ; their valleys heavily timbered, and watered by gushing - mountain streams; their projecting points crowned with temples or frowning with batteries ; everywhere cottages buried in foliage reveal _their existence by curling wreaths of blue smoke ; in the creeks and in- lets picturesque boats lie moored ; sacred groves, approached by rock-cut steps, or pleasure-gardens tastefully laid out, enchant the eye. The whole aspect of Nature is such as cannot fail to produce a most favourable ion upon the mind of the stranger visiting Japan for the first time. The city itself contains a population of about 50,000, and consists of between eighty and ninety streets, running at right angles to each other—broad enough to admit of the passage of wheeled vehicles, were to be seen in them—and kept scrupulously clean. A canal intersects the city, ed by thirty-five bridges, of which fifteen are handsomely geeetrecte’ of stone. The Dutch factory is placed upon a small fan- island about 200 yards in length, and connected with the main- by a bridge. Until recently, the members of the factory were con- fined exclusiv Be this limited area, and kept under a strict and rigid surveillance. The old régime is now, however, rapidly passing away ; and the history of their imprisonment, of the indignities to which they were exposed, and the insults they suffered, has already become a matter of tradition. The port of Hiogo is situated in the Bay of Ohosaka, op- posite to the celebrated city of that name, from which it is ten or twelve miles distant. ‘The Japanese Government have expended vast sums in their engineering efforts to improve its once dangerous anchorage. A , which was erected at a prodigious expense, and which cost the lives of numbers of workmen, has proved sufficient for the object for which it was designed. There is a tradition that a superstition existed in connection with this dyke, to the effect that it would never be finished, unless an individual could be found sufficiently patriotic to suffer himself to be buried in it. A Japanese Curtius was not long in forthcoming, to whom a debt of gratitude will be due in all time to come, from every British ship that rides securely at her anchor behind the breakwater. NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI, No. 1.—JAN, 1860. Q 138 Proceedings of Societies. Hiogo has now become the port of Ohosaka and Miaco, and will, in all probability, be the principal port of European trade in the empire. The city is described as equal in size to Nagasaki. When Kempfer visited it, he found 300 junks at anchor inits bay. The Dutch describe Ohosaka as a more attractive resort even than Yedo. While this latter city may be regarded as the London of Japan, Ohosaka seems to be its Paris, Here are the most celebrated theatres, the most sumptuous. tea-houses, the most extensive pleasure-gardens. It is the abode of luxury and wealth, the favourite resort of fashionable Japanese, who come here to spend their time in gaiety and pleasure. Ohosaka is one of the five im- rial cities, and contains a vast population. It is situated on the left ank of the Jedogawa, a stream which rises in the Lake of Oity, situated a day and a half’s journey in “ti ae > It is navi- ble for boats of large tonnage as far as Miaco, and is spanned -ktenae handsome bridges. “The port of Hiogo and city of Osaeca wi not be opened to Europeans until the 1st of January 1863. The forei residents will then be allowed to explore the country in any direction, a distance of twenty-five miles, except towards Miaco, or, as it is more properly called, Kioto. They will not be allowed to approach nearer than twenty-five miles to this far-famed city. Situated at the head of a bay, or rather gulf, so extensive that the opposite shores are not visible to each other, Yedo spreads itself on a continuous line of houses along its parte undulating, partially level margin, for a distance of about ten miles. In- cluding suburbs, at its greatest width it is probably about seven miles across, but for a portion of the distance it narrows to a mere strip of houses. Any rough calculation of the population of so vast a city must necessarily be very vague and uncertain; but, after some experience of Chinese cities, two millions does not seem too high an estimate at which to place Yedo. In consequence of the great extent of the area occupied by the residences of the Princes, there are quarters of the town in which the inhabitants are very sparse. The citadel, or residence of the temporal Emperor, cannot be less than five or six miles in circumference, and yet it only contains about 40,000 souls. On the other hand, there are parts of the city in which the inhabitants seem almost as closely packed as they are in Chinese towns. The streets are broad and admirably drained ; some of them are lined with peach and plum trees, and when these are in blossom must present a gay and lively appearance. Those which traverse the Princes’ uarter are for the most part as quiet and deserted as aristocratic thorough- ares generally are. Those which pass through the commercial and manufacturing quarters are densely crowded with passengers on foot, in chairs, and on horseback, while occasionally, but not often, an ox- waggon rumbles and creaks along. The houses are only of two — sometimes built of freestone, sometimes sunburnt brick, and sometimes wood ; the roofs are either tiles or shingles. The shops are completely open to the street; some of these are very extensive, the show-rooms for the more expensive fabrics being up-stairs, as with us. The eastern part of the city is built upon a level plain, watered by the Toda Gawa, which flows through this section of the town, and supplies with water the large moats which surround the citadel. It is spanned by the Nipon ; has a wooden bridge of enormous length, celebrated as the Hyde Park Corner of Japan, as from it all distances throughout the empire are measured. Towards the western quarter of the city, the country becomes more broken, swelling hills rise above the housetops richly clothed with foliage, from out the waving masses of which appear the upturned gab of a temple, or the many roofs of a pagoda. It will be some sati i to foreigners to know, that they are not to be excluded for ever from this most interesting city, By the Treaty concluded in it by Lord Elgin, on - British Association. 139 suburb of The only other port which has been opened by the late Treaty in the Island of Nipon is the Port of Nee-e-gata, situated jon its western coast. As this port has never yet been visited by it is sti that if it be found inconvenient as a harbour, another shall be substituted for it, to be opened on the Ist of January _ On the aeons and Hieroglyphics of the Caledonians. By Colonel J.Foxrses. Colonel Forbes developed his views in the following proposi- tions :—1. Whether found singly or in groups, those circles not surround- moot-hills or tumuli were erected for places of worship. They were also used as places for the administration of justice, and for the assembly of coun- ceils. 2. The number of stones in these fanes had reference to the number of individuals or families; and perhaps, in circles of greater proportions, were according to the number of towns or tribe, to be represented in the councils, or benefited by the sacrifices at any particular cromlech. Some of the cromlechs contained altars within the area. Occasionally the altars formed of the inclosing circle, and in other cases the altars were out- side of the circle. 4. In the same fane there were altars to more than one deity. 5. The origin of these fanes cannot be traced in any country ; and nowhere, except in the Old Testament, does history or rational tradition fix the period when, or the people by whom, any one of these monuments was erected. 6. Open to the weather, incapable of being covered, and with long avenues of approach, the form of these fanes has apparently been devised in Eastern countries possessing a clear sky and warm climate. 7. These heathen fanes of Britain were afterwards used as places of Christian worship, but cattle continued to be sacrificed in them. 8. These fanes were also used as burying-grounds for Christians. _ On the Arabic-speaking Population of the World. By Mr A. Amev- wex (a Syrian).—The Arabic has twenty-nine letters, and, with the combinations and the vowels, make about thirty-six. Seven of these letters are, to a foreigner, exceedingly difficult to pronounce. The Arabic being an original language, it has, of course, the masculine and feminine dthe dual. It has more. It has a personal pronoun, anda —— attached to the verb, like the Latin amo. It has feminine in me aged and in the plural to the verbs—so, if two people happen to be in next room, and they were talking, you would know whether they whether the speaker be a lady or a patione: or whether the party spo- ot so in any other language—partly only in Greek. We have singular, dual, and plural—plural below No. 10, and above No. 10 ; we have a plural of plurals, and a collective plural and its plural. Let us see what we can do with these roots. Take the word love. We want to use it in English: we add r, and make lover, or tng, and make loving; or prefix be, and make beloved; but you have to say the place of love, the cause of love, and the course of love (they Say it never runs smooth)! You have kill, and aknife, and butcher, and slaughter-house ! We have nine letters, say a, b, c, and, by adding or pre- fixing one or more of these to the original, we make a word. One for the a one for the instrument, one for the cause, and one for the passion. ake the word love, again, asa verb. You can only say might, should, or would, love; cause to love, command to love, ask to be loved, to be i y in love, and to fall in love (which is the worst, I think). But with us, we have thirteen other letters, and, by prefixing or adding one 140 Proceedings of Societies. or more to the original word, we change the meaning. We only — ; the accent of the noun, and make it a verb. You have something like —a cae and to presént, a récord, and to recérd. There are 65,000 words in the English Dictionary. We have 150,000 in the Arabic, and, when the derivatives are added, the language becomes really formid- able. There are a few languages in which there is more than four or five names for an object. You have sword, scimitar, and cutlass, but we have 150 names for this instrument of death. "We have 160 for an old woman, 120 for the hyena, and I should feel ashamed to tell you how many for the lion, the camel, and the horse. It is all very well for a poet, who wants to rhyme his verses, to have many words at his com- mand, but the language becomes very formidable for the scholar and the foreigner. The Arabs, who, of course, lived at first in Arabia, did not differ from other primitive nations. They traded with, warred against, hated, and loved their neighbours. Their wars were mostly with the Persians and the Abyssinians, for their poems refer to these nations in camps They had their national assemblies, as we have here now. here was one in particular like the British Association—that is, compar- ing small with great things. During the month of Moharem they ceased their wars, and they met at Ackos, where the great poets recited their oems, and arbitrators decided which was the first, second, and third best. he first was then inscribed in letters of gold, and hung up at the Kaaba. We have seven of these poems (Moallakat), and many other lesser ones. Few nations have ever produced their equal—I speak not lightly of the poetry of other nations. It was my great desire to read Sir Walter Scott’s poetry that urged me to learn the English language. They are passion- oT fond of their country. They have ideas equally as good as these es,— : Breathes there a man, &c.; or. : O! Caledonia, stern and wild. I have read several of the best poets in English, French, Italian, and Latin, but all appear to me to write too much. An Arab poet says all he wishes to say in a few verses. Iam sure all Arab poetry is b with a strong passion. The nearest to it is Pope’s “ Eloisa and Abelard. The wars of Arabs have ever been either for women or horses, and their poetry is full of expressions about them. The eyes, the lips, the breath, the neck, and skin of a woman, have more names than I could tell you of. Terreack! breath of life; wine, coffee, water of life, and paradise, The Arabs in their native simplicity are frugal, can endure fatigue, hunger, and thirst; but the Arab can never become rich, because he is so gener- ous. From the days of Abraham to this day, his great delight is to enter- tain strangers. They have no hotel charges. Brotherhood is one of their strong ties. One becomes a brother either by a present or service ren- dered. People who live in towns present—give to one of the chiefs, and he can travel amongst the tribes. Antar had made a war on a tribe, de- feated it, and was leading the people into captivity. A man called out to him, “‘ El Goman, Antar!’’—that is, The Covenant. Antar asked him where and when he ever covenanted with him. Iwas, said the man, once at such a well watering my horse. You came and wanted to do the same, but your rope was too short. Bread and salt is another thing. The refuge another. Yet France wanted others to give up the refugees whom she turned out herself. Whether Christianity ever made any great pro- gress among them we do not know. There are, however, many isti tribes, especially in Hauran and Korak. But as soon as Mohammed ap- peared, the Arab mind took a different turn, and they became a conquer- ing race. They, in fact, burst the bounds of their desert, and went out— ee | Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 141 the in one hand and the sword in the other—either submission or death. a little while came the tribute, or redemption. People re- deemed themselves by paying an annual tax, very small, and seer lived in Then they extended to Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Tripoli, to borders of the Alantire, &«. The Arabs are like the Anglo- Saxons. They conquer,—give their language, manners, and customs to the conquered nation,—and in a short time they make them Arabs.* Botanical Society of Edinburgh. Thursday, 10th November, 1859.—Mr Anprew Murray, President, occupied the Chair, and delivered the following opening address :— It is the custom for merchants once a year to make an inquiry into their affairs: to take stock, as they call it, balance their books, reckon their gains and their losses, and see what the progress of their business has been during the bypast year. It is a good and a salutary custom, and one which most of ourselves put in use to a greater or less degree in regard to our own past conduct and life, when the advent of another year invites our thoughts to such considerations. Let us, at the com- mencement of our New Session, follow this example ; let us take a retro- spective view of our position, and estimate the gains and losses which we as the representatives, at least as the only embodied representatives, of the Science of Botany in this city, have made during the past year. Let us see how the progress of Botany has been affected by the events of that period. And first, let us, like stout men, look our losses in the face. These, gentlemen, have not been small. We have no loss in the actual progress of our science to deplore ; we have no false step in the mode of con- ducting our investigations to anounce; we have no fundamental principle to correct. The science is firmly based on the natural system. Its principles are sound, and are being day by day worked out to more and more perfection. Our physiological views have received no rude check ; and we are progressing steadily and surely in our search after truth, and in the acquisition of fresh knowledge. But if we have no loss in this respect to regret, we have suffered deep and heavy loss in the persons of some of those who have been mainly instrumental in bringing the science into this satisfactory position. We have to bewail the loss of Alexandre von Humboldt and of Robert Brown, the topmost trees of all the forest. You have already heard the eulogium and the history of their labours from the pen of our excellent Professor, and I shall not do myself the injustice, nor inflict on you the tedium, of retreading the same ground. You have also heard from him an account of the loss we have sustained in the death of Professor Agardh of Lund, the great algologist. Of our young friend and fellow-member, Dr Nichol, he has likewise spoken ; and we have recorded in our minutes the sense we felt of his loss; but in speaking of him and of similar losses, I cannot refrain from uttering the reflection which has sometimes forced itself upon me, on the occasion of the death of some of those heroes of Science, who have long stood in the front rank, and full of years as well as honours, have at last succumbed * The Report of the Proceedings of the British Association is taken partly from the ‘‘ Atheneum,” and partly from Authors’ abstracts. 142 Proceedings of Societies. before the assaults of time; that their removal was, perhaps, a less loss to Science than that of some promising young man just entering on his career. They are like old trees which stand out as great landmarks, but which have almost done growing. Their powers of work are nearly exhausted ; while the fresh intellect, keen eye, and powers of labour of the young man, might justify us in anticipating a greater harvest from him were he spared than perhaps the giant could now produce. The loss of the great man is felt keenly by those who come in contact with him. His stores of information, applied by a profound and practised intellect, render his loss to them irreparable, To-day they might go to him secure of getting information on any subject they had on hand ; to-morrow, not all the reading, nor all the correspondence with all the learned in Europe, could procure it. To them the loss is irreparable. But to you or to me, and the general scientific world, who had no access to his well-stored mind, and look for no new work from his pen, the loss is one of sentiment and feeling. In the pure practical, selfish point of view, the talented young man is probably the greater loss of the two. But in this practical and selfish light, a greater loss than either is that of the matured man, as yet in the full vigour of life, prolific in work, accomplished in science, and eager and zealous inits pursuit, And such a loss we have sustained since we last met. Arthur Henfrey, Professor of Botany in King’s College, London (in which chair he succeeded Edward Forbes), has been taken from us in the prime of life and intellectual vigour, and in the full career of laborious and successful research. He was only thirty-nine years of age when he died on the 7th of September last—not a great space of time to acquire the position and to leave the numerous con- tributions to Science which he has done. His walk was specially vegetable physiology and histology. His contributions to the Royal and Linnean Societies of London were numerous and valuable; the last of which is a paper in this year’s Proceedings of the Linnean Society, on the Morpho- logy of the Balsaminacew. Not his last literary bequest, however ; for he was in course of contributing papers on Vegetable Structure to “‘ The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of London ;” and the last proof- sheets of the second edition of his papers in the ‘‘ Micrographic Dic- tionary” were only out of his hands a few days before his death, Such, gentlemen, are the losses by which the past botanical year has been distinguished. Let us now turn to the more cheerful side, and reckon up our gains, In doing so I shall pass lightly over the not light labours of descriptive and of systematic botanists. Hooker, Bentham, De Candolle, Lindley, Miers, Bennett, Anderson, Berkeley, with many others, are ably continuing their labours in this department of botany. But time will not permit me to do more than merely notice the fact, that much progress has been made in this most important and most necessary, although rather dry branch of our science. Neither shall I have to detain you with a long list of new botanical works. In that respect, the year has not been fruitful. I see a new German book (“ Die Pflanzendecke der. Erde von Ludwig Rudolph,” Berlin, 1859), which attracted my notice from being a sort of anticipation of one which most of us know is in progress by Professor Balfour and Dr. Greville,—a Climatic Flora; showing the character impressed upon different countries by the vegetation peculiar to them. It is illustrated with a number of coarse woodcuts, 7 St ee Tae Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 143 representing the different regions referred to. It shows that the idea has got abroad, or has originated in other minds besides those of our friends ; and suggests the desirableness of pushing on more rapidly the work to which we all look forward with so much pleasure. But if little has been done this year in the way of producing botanical works of a general nature, a great deal has been done in the way of pro- curing materials for such works in the future. Much new material re- garding the Flora of special regions has been published; many short notices of new plants have appeared ; and various accounts of the results of public and private expeditions have either already been published, or shortly will be so. It will, I hope, not be uninteresting to the Society, if I give a hasty notice of what has been done in this way. But, first, I would direct your attention to the fact, and claim your mutual congra- tulations upon it, that by far the greater portion of this work bas been done by members of this Society, and men educated in this school. In every one of the public expeditions which have been sent out by Go- yernment, the post of Naturalist is filled by one of our body. Of the €xpedition np the Niger, Dr Balfour Baikie is Chief. In the United ian Mission at Old Calabar, which, although not a public scien- tific expedition, has assumed so much scientific interest and importance in the eyes of the public as almost to be looked upon in that light, we have no less than three members of this Society zealously working for us—Mr Baillie, Dr Hewan, and the Rev. Mr Thomson. In Living- stone’s Expedition to the Zambesi, we have Dr Kirk and Mr Bankes, who, I think, is also an alumnus of this school ; and to Captain Palliser’s tion to the Rocky Mountains, Dr Hector is Geologist and head of the Naturalist Department. And these are not our only members who are ably working for us abroad. I shall, as I go along, have occasion to refer to others. I shall now, following the sun round the globe, give a short summary of the progress which has been made in our knowledge of Geographical Botany during the past year. In Europe, few new discoveries have been made; and in Britain, I believe, none. There may be one or two additions made to our Flora by the discovery of some minute cryptogamic plants which have escaped my notice ; but I have better authority than my own (my friend, Mr M‘Nab’s) for saying that nothing of any moment has been added to our Flora. In Africa, a great deal has been done, although little has yet been pub- lished. Mr Charles Barter, of the Niger Expedition, had addressed two letters (dated January and March 1859) to Sir William Hooker, giving an interesting account of the vegetation of tropical West Africa. These letters have been published in the Linnean Society’s Proceedings of this year, but I do not find much that is new. He states that orchids were very scarce ; aquatic plants, which might have been expected to be numerous, were not found to be so. His list only contains thirteen, among which is the Papyrus antiquorum. In regard to the economic expectations from the vegetation of Africa, he says, “Too much must not be expected of Central Africa as a cotton-pro- ducing country ; the plant needs more moisture than it would obtain in much of the land of the interior, and water-carriage should never be far distant in a country where all loads are conveyed by canoe or on the 144 Proceedings of Societies. heads of men and women. There is plenty of available land near the sea and by rivers; the great valley of the Niger would alone yield an enormous supply, It is here cotton must be looked for, and its growth encouraged. ‘The great plains of the interior are almost as useless in this respect as Sahara itself.” During upwards of two years’ exposure to the climate, Mr Barter enjoyed excellent health under the most peculiar and trying cireum- stances ; and it is only recently that the news of his death has reached England, from a rapid attack of dysentery at Balba, and while sur- rounded with comparative comforts—the first death that has occurred (such has been the care and attention devoted to health) among Dr Baikie’s small party. Mr Barter’s place has been supplied by the appointment of Mr Gustave Mann, who is to sail for Lagos on 24th November. Of the Old Calabar station, the fruits are only now beginning to come in,— zoology having taken precedence of botany in the interest of the missionaries. They are now making up for lost time, and both speci- mens in spirits and living plants in Wardian cases (as well as seeds) have been liberally sent home. The information received from these proves of much importance, and puts us right on some points in which we had fallen into error from imperfect materials. The entire history and structure of the poison-bean is now known, and will, I hope, be de- _ seribed by Professor Balfour either here or in the Royal Society this winter. There are other novelties to be described; and when the seeds and the contents of the Wardian cases develop themselves, there will be still more. Dr Livingstone’s expedition does not seem to have yet reported pro- gress on botanical points. But passing on to India, a good deal has been done, Those of you who heard Dr Hunter’s exposition to the Society last winter, and Dr Cleghorn’s papers read, will readily admit that the economic department is in good hands. I also notice a valuable and interesting paper by another member of this Society, and alumnus of this school, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. IL., 1859, entitled “ Notes on the Flora of Lucknow, with Catalogues of the Cultivated and Indigenous Plants,” by Thomas Anderson, M.D. This paper has especial value as regards the geographical distribution of plants in India, inasmuch as he has paid particular attention to distinguishing those plants which have been introduced from those which are wild. This has hitherto been greatly neglected. A botanist coming to India, and finding an Indian plant growing in any locality, is very apt to set it down as indigenous to the spot, although, in point of fact, it has been introduced from some other parts of India by the natives in these gar- dens, from which it has escaped through boundaries being broken down and the gardens abandoned, the luxuriant soil and climate of India being peculiarly favourable to such naturalisation, Dr Anderson, in eliminating the genuine wild plants of his district from those introduced or culti- vated, has performed a most useful service to the Indian botanist, and his example will doubtless be followed in other parts of the Peninsula, Dr Lindley has also, in the Linnean Society Transactions, given a valu- able contribution to ‘the Orchidology of India. I must not omit to record a work on the Mosses of India by Mr Mit- ten—a laborious work, but one labouring under the disadvantage of Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 145 want of plates, an auxiliary almost essential in all minute natural history researches. Much has been done during the past year in zoology in the Indian Archipelago; but an equal return has not been obtained by botany. Still, if she has had less interest in the scientific researches in that quarter, she has not had to mourn, like zoology, the murder of her votaries; and only grieves for the loss of Mr Motley on grounds common to all humanity. Passing to Australia, we find that the labouring oar there has been taken by Dr Mueller, Government Botanist for the colony of Victoria. He has contributed several papers to the Linnean Society during the year, the chief of which are contributions to the knowledge of the Acacie of New Holland, and a monograph of that curious tribe of plants the Eucalypti. Besides these, he has made a report to Government on the plants collected during Mr Babbage’s expedition into the north- western interior of South Australia in 1858 ; and he published the first parts of a separate work on the plants of Australia, Returning northward by New Zealand, I may notice a paper by Mr Ralph on the Tree-ferns of New Zealand. And proceeding onwards to China, we find Mr Bentham revising some parts of his Hong Kong Flora ; but since Mr Fortune’s last expedition, there has been an intermission in the receipt of botanical novelties from that quarter. Japan, however, makes up for China. Japan is the country to which all eyes are now turned. This so long hermetically sealed kingdom is at last opened. The merchant is rushing to it with his commodities, doubtless to meet the usual fate of new mar- kets—wealth primis venientibus—a glutted market, and ruinous depre- ciation to those who follow. The naturalist is preparing to follow—nay, has already tasted of the long-forbidden fruit. The Russian expedition which concluded the treaty betwixt Russia and Japan had with them a naturalist, M. Gashkevitch, who made considerable collections, a portion of which has been described and published in the Russian scientific jour- nals, but the much larger portion lost in the shipwreck of the Russian frigate, Diana, consequent upon a terrible earthquake. Other collectors have been more fortunate, and the botany of that region has been so far explored as to allow Dr Asa Gray to give a most interesting and valu- able report upon it in the “ Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,” New Series, vol. iv., and abridged in the last’ number of ** Silliman’s Journal.” I call this paper most important, not only on account of the interest which attaches to Japan at present, but from the philosophic spirit in which he uses his materials, and the important in- ferences which he draws from them in regard to two most interesting questions now occupying the minds of men of science—the mode of dis- tribution of species, and the question of the origin of species; and as I have come to a different opinion from him on more than one of these points, I shall take the liberty to point them out to you. From Dr Gray’s observations, it appears that, notwithstanding the comparative proximity of Japan to Western North America, there are actually more of its spe- cies represented in far distant Europe than in that country ; also,—show- ing that this difference is not owing to the separation by an ocean—that far more Japanese plants are represented in Eastern North America than in either. And if, instead of looking at representative species, we regard NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI. NO. 1.—JaN. 1860, R 146 Proceedings of Societies. the identical species only in the several floras, the preponderance is equally against Western as compared with Eastern North America, but is more in favour of Europe; for the number of Japanese species given by Dr Gray as also found in Western North America is about 120; in Eastern America, 134; in Europe, 157. In relation to this, Dr Gray further states that he had already pointed out, in his ‘ Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States,” ‘1. That a large proportion of extra-European types found in America are shared with Eastern Asia; and 2d, That no small part of these are unknown in Western North America. But,” he goes on, “ Mr Bentham was first to state the natural conclusion from all these data—though I know not if he has ever yet published the remark—viz., that the inter- change between the temperate floras even of the western part of the Old World and of the New has mainly taken place via Asia. Mr Bentham also calls to mind how frequently large American genera (such as Eupatorium, Aster, Solidago, Solanum, &c.) are represented in Eastern Asia by a small number of species, which gradually diminish, or altogether disap- pear, as we proceed westwards towards the Atlantic limits of Europe ; whilst the types peculiar to the extreme west of Europe (excluding, of course, the Arctic flora) are wholly deficient in America, These are among the considerations which suggest an ancient continuity of territory between America and Asia, under a latitude, or at any rate with a cli- mate more meridional than would be effected by a junction through the chains of the Aleutian and Kurile Islands,” So far Mr Bentham; but Dr Gray adds—“ The deficiency in the tem- perate American flora of forms at all peculiar to Western Europe is almost complete, and is most strikingly in contrast with the large num- ber of Eastern American forms repeated or represented in Eastern Asia.” “Let it also be noted, that there are even fewer Western European types in the Pacific than in the Atlantic United States, notwithstanding the similarity of the climate.” Now, I pray you to observe, that in Mr Bentham’s remarks he is not speaking of identical species—for it will not be denied that the number of identical species found in America, and also in Asia, is very excep- tional, and in drawing general conclusions, it is always best, in the first instance, to put exceptional cases out of view—but he is speaking of re- preseritative or congenerous species; and although Dr Gray is perfectly alive to the difference between the argument drawn from an identical species and one drawn from a congenerous species, he draws the same inference from congenerous species that he would have done from iden- tical. At one place he says—‘ The discovery of numerous closely related species, thus divided between two widely separated districts, might not, in the present state of our knowledge, suggest former continuity, mi- gration, or exchange; but that of identical species, peculiar to the two, inevitably would.” And yet not half a page distant he says—‘t That re- presentation by allied species of genera, peculiar, or nearly peculiar, to two regions, furnishes evidence of similar nature, and of equal pertinency with representation by identical species, will hardly be doubted.” Now this I utterly and wholly deny. I have satisfied myself, and I trust before I have done I shall be able to satisfy you, or at all events I shall be able to make you understand the grounds which satisfy me, that the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 147 distribution of identical species and the distribution of congenerous spe- cies are wholly different things, and not necessarily either subject to the same laws, nor necessarily furnishing evidence of similar nature and equal pertinency. My view is, that the identity of a species is proof that it has somehow found its way from one of the places where it is found to the other; but that the presence of a congenerous species is merely the evidence that similar conditions of life, at the period of their creation, prevailed at the spots where congenerous species were created. the same physical conditions in all respects at two different places, say Australia and Japan, I hold that the creative product will be typically the same (not the identical species, but the type will be the same). Of course this does not affect nor take from the value of the inference of connection to be drawn from the fact of two places having had similar physical conditions. On that argument Mr Bentham and Dr Gray may be right—probably are right; but I object to the inference being drawn from the existence of congenerous species in different places, as if that, per se, indicated anything. It is the cause of these congenerous exist- enees which may be used as an argument, not the existences themselves. Such abstraction from the argument being made, I might legitimately argue that the very reverse of the course of immigration or distribution indicated by Dr Gray and Mr Bentham was the true one—that the con- nection was between America and Europe, and not between America and Asia; for Dr Gray tells us that the identical Japanese species which occur in Europe are 157; in Eastern America, 134; in Western Ame- rica, 120. The natural inference from this, if no other facts come to derange our calculation, is, that these plants have come from Japan to Western America via Europe—that is, first to Asia, then to Europe, then to Eastern America, and last to Western America. I do not give any opinion as to this, however. I wish merely to endeavour to adjust correetly the principles on which the reasoning is to be conducted. Another point on which I suspect I differ from Dr Gray is on the origin of species. He does not commit himself to them; but from the the terms in which he speaks of the views of Darwin and Wallace, I should incline to reckon him a supporter of them. It is an exceedingly interesting and important subject, and well worthy of our devoting a few minutes to see how it stands, which I the more readily do, because it gives me an opportunity of saying a word or two in explanation of the feelings which induced me to accept the honour of being your President, when your kindness put it within my power; for you are not to suppose that I have sat in this chair for the last twelve months without frequent qualms of conscience as to the'propriety of so imperfect a botanist as I am occu- pying it, whilst so many so much better qualified in that respect sit around me. Gentlemen, I assure you I have not accepted it in the con- fidence of self-sufficient ignorance. I am perfectly aware of my defi- ciencies—much more so than you can be who know less of them—but it appeared to me that the science of Botany was so closely connected with the allied natural sciences, that it might tend to the advantage of both were the cords of attachment drawn nearer, by a President more familiar with one department being occasionally chosen to preside over the other. A similar course has at times been followed in our fellow Society, the Royal Physical ; and I felt that, with such a Vice-President as Professor Balfour 148 Proceedings of Societies. to support and prompt me, I might gratify my own feelings by accepting the honour, and occasionally, perhaps, be of use in bringing zoological facts to bear upon botanical questions. The present is a case in point, and, I think, well shows that, in considering any subject of philosophic moment relating to Botany, Zoology must not be left out of view. The position of the matter is this :—Last year, Sir Charles Lyell and Dr Hooker brought before the Linnean Society certain papers, which, by dint [of pressure, they had prevailed upon Mr Darwin to allow them so to use, containing his and Mr Alfred Wallace’s views on the origin of species. ‘These papers consisted of an uncompleted essay by Mr Darwin, not originally intended for publication; a letter from Mr Darwin to Dr Asa Gray, the gentleman of whom we are now speaking; and a paper on the same subject by Mr Alfred Wallace, who had, independently of Mr Darwin, come to similar conclusions, These were, that there was no limit to the varieties which might proceed from species; that the breeding of domes- tic animals had shown the extent to which this might be carried; that these varieties become permanent; and that, under favourable circum- stances, the variety might deviate so far as to constitute a new species ; that the mode in which such new species might be supposed to take its ground was not according to Lamarck’s hypothesis, that the supposed wants or longing of an animal ended in producing the required or de- sired structure. To use Mr Wallace’s words—‘ The powerful retractile talons of the falcons and the cat tribe have not been produced or increased by the volition of these animals ; but among the different varieties which occurred in the earlier and less highly organised forms of these groups, those always survived longest which had the greatest facilities for seiz- ing their prey. Neither did the giraffe acquire its long neck by desiring to reach the foliage of the more lofty shrubs, and constantly stretching its neck for this purpose, but because any varieties which occurred among its antitypes with a longer neck than usual at once secured a fresh range of pasture over the same ground as their shorter-necked companions, and on the first scarcity of food were thereby enabled to outlive them.” Wallace, p. 6.) With a limited number of very curious facts, which I have not space here to notice (but which all appear to me to be discon- nected with the theory by the absence of some link), and with an unli- mited amount of time, these gentlemen think they have succeeded in giving, in this way, a clue to the origin of species; and, of course, if it is once admitted as possible to a small degree, there is no reason why it may not be extended to the whole. The theory has excited much atten- tion. It is unnecessary to say itis a most important one. Sir Charles Lyell has formally given in his adhesion to it, in a speech which he made at the meeting of the British Association in Aberdeen; and Mr Darwin has in the press a volume treating of the whole subject; for it will be observed that the hints thrown out in these Linnean Society Papers are very brief, and merely indicate their authors’ views on one or two points of a great question, leaving the greater part untouched on. I happen to know, however, from a friend who has seen the proof-sheets, that the views entertained and arguments relied on by Mr Darwin in his book are the same as those in his paper, more expanded and better illustrated ; and as my objections go to the root of his theory, I may, without wait. ing for the book, indieate one or two zoological facts which appear to me Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 149 to be inconsistent with it. In the first place, the theory, if good for any- thing, must be universal. It must not be merely one of several ways, or one of two ways, of creating species ; or, at all events, if it does not apply to genera (though where the line is to be drawn I cannot see), it must be the way which is followed in those cases of congenerous species to which we have been alluding. With them, at least, it must be the sole way, if it is a way at all; and, to say truth, Mr Darwin and Mr Wallace do not seem to shrink from this inference ; for Mr Darwin says—* Each new variety or & species, when formed, will generally take the place of and exterminate its less well-fitted parent. This I believe to be the origin of the classification and affinities of organic beings at all times.” Assuming, then, the posi- tion to be, that this is the way in which species are created, or rather de- I should say the theory must fall. In a paper on an allied subject, now in the press for next number of the “‘ Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,” I notice several of such instances, The most striking, and the one which, to my mind, at once disposes of the whole matter, is the existence of species of the same genera of eyeless insects, existing in the vast sub- allied, to similar species in the caves of Hungary—to similar but dif- ferent species in the caves of the Pyrenees—to similar but different species in the caves of Auvergne—and, more than all, to similar but xg different species of the same genera in the Mammoth Cave of Ken- same genera, and all very closely allied. The physical condition of place being the same, the product has been the same; but not by immigration, nor any means of distribution which we can jmagine, can identical species—(for, remember, the theory implies that congenerous are identical species, or, what is the same thing, their descen- dants)—be found in caves so widely separated; and it is not the ‘common case of congenerous species found very wide apart, which yet may have traversed the intervening space, because these insects are found nowhere but in the caves, and not in them until you have pe- netrated far, far into the interior, usually about a couple of miles. Another instance may be drawn from our own coast. We have a small _ beetle which lives here between high and low water-mark (Apus ful- vescens), between the leaves of shale. A closely allied form, but quite distinet (Thalasobius testaceus) is found in like circumstances on the coast of Chili. Here, again, like physical condition, like product. Take another case—althougl, perhaps, scarcely so isolated as these two. Of late years, ants’ nests have been found to contain a considerable number __ Of species of beetles which live with the ants, are often excessively like them, and sometimes are unprovided with eyes. The same peculiarity prevails here—allied species, and nothing but allied species in ants’ nests _ wherever they are. For instance, among the beetles so found is the curious genus Paussus. Seventy or eighty species of Pauss are now known, and all are inmates of ants’ nests, and confined to them. Species have been found in these localities in Spain, in Natal, in Hong Kong, in India, in Australia,and so on. Here, again, like physical condition, like product. I might draw similar illustrations from the parasites in bees’ nests and wasps’ nests. Further, it were easy to draw abundance of 150 Proceedings of Societies. proof of the fact that congenerous species are at all events always found’ in similar physical conditions of life. Dr Gray allows this, although he: applies the fact differently from me. He says—‘ Whether or not sus- ceptible of scientific explanation, it is certain that related species of phenogamous plants are commonly associated in the same regions, or are found in comparatively approwimate (however large) areas of similar eli- mate.” But 1 must not dwell longer on this subject. It is a very sug~ gestive one, and readily leads one away to meet or consider objections or difficulties which will occur to any one who thinks over it; and I would only beg any of you, who may think they see a flaw in my theory, not to take it for granted that I have not an answer for it. Perhaps, when Mr Darwin's book appears, I may examine the matter more in detail in an- other paper, either here or elsewhere. Another very interesting topic, closely related to this, is also discussed by Dr Gray in this valuable paper. It is the inquiry into the distribu- tion of the ancient flora of the northern half of the globe, as connected with its present distribution. Starting with the fact, which is now pretty generally admitted, that the present vegetation is not of recent creation, he sketches, in a clear and plausible manner, the probable geological changes which have taken place since the Tertiary Period, tracing the variations or oscillations which the climate, and consequently the ancient flora, would sustain. But for this I must refer you to the paper itself. I do not know whether his views of the antiquity of our present vegetation are accepted to their full extent by botanists in general, I rather think they wait for further information, He seems to rest them chiefly on the investigations of Mr Lesquereux, who conceives that he has identified in the tertiaries and subsequent deposits many of our present trees. For instance, in the tertiaries of Vancouver's Island, he identifies the Sequoia sempervirens—a tree now found ten or fifteen degrees further south— and one which grows to as great a size as the Wellingtonia gigantea, But 1 must leave Dr Gray, and hurry on to a conclusion. Crossing from Japan to North America, we have Capt. Palliser’s British North American Exploring Expédition, to which, as already men- tioned, our member (Dr Hector) is Geologist and Chief Naturalist. A French gentleman, M. Bourgeau, acts as Botanical collector to the dition; and two letters, respectively of June and October 1858, from him to Sir. W. Hooker, are published in last year’s Linnean Society Proceed- ings. They are not without interest, but I do not find anything of parti- cular novelty. The information, both as to the plants and country, quite corresponds with what we know of them from Jeffrey and other sources, A table of the temperature of the earth and of forest trees, made at Fort Saskatchewan, furnishes data which may be useful to the generaliser. A vast number of new pines have been described, or rather, I should say, announced under names, during the last year or two. These are chiefly from Mexico; and although many may be new, I have no doubt that a still greater number will turn out tou be mere varieties or syno- nyms. The Botanic Garden here is, I may observe, not only well supplied with the cones and leaves, &c. of the Californian and other pines, but also has an exceedingly good collection of fine, healthy growing speci- mens. These unfortunately, however, are confined to one or two small plots, which might, perhaps, hold two or three examples of the trees when they reach their full size, but of course are quite inadequate to con- Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 151 tain anything like the crowd now packed in them. Space must be had for them ; and I do hope that Parliament may, in another year, be con- ‘cussed into doing something for this most urgent object. But it is obvious that this will only be done through force of concussion and external pres- sure, Members must remember that the Botanic Garden is not a matter alien to them. Next to the University, they may be said to be the parties who have the greatest interest in its prosperity ; and I would remind them, ‘that so long as they choose to continue members of this Society, it is their duty to exert themselves on bebalf of the Garden. I scarcely think that the members of societies now-a-days sufficiently consider the obligation which they undertake by joining them. They get themselves proposed and are admitted, pay their fees, and think that that is all their part of the eontract—in consideration of which they have the privileges of members, come to our meetings when they see any paper in the billet which takes their fancy, and in all other respects conduct themselves as if they were no more members of the Society than of one at the Antipodes, But I should wish much to get them to look at it in another light. I should like them to think that they are part of the Society, and that the Society is part of them; and that it is not optional with them, but a real matter of duty to push on, support, and sustain it by every means in their power. I am not 80 wild as to dream of introducing the laws of the Oineromathic—poor Edward Forbes’s early chivalrous association—in which everybody was to help everybody, under every circumstances, in purse and person. But it is not utopian to expect members, who feel themselves qualified for it, to take the trouble of giving us occasional papers—and I know several in this So- ciety who might well do it, and do not ;—it is not utopian to expect one ‘and all of us to exert ourselves to add to the stores of the Museum—al- though here, I must admit that this duty is more conscientiously performed ; and lastly, and what specially led me to speak upon the subject, it is not too much to expect us, one and all, to clamour loudly and perseveringly, at every fitting season, and at every fitting place, for a more liberal support from Government to the Garden and its Officers. Gentlemen, I think I have completed the hasty survey of the globe which I undertook, for all that South America has contributed during the last year need not detain us; and in concluding, as the term of my Presidency expires this evening, I have only now to thank you most cordially, in the first place, for having honoured me so highly as to place me in this chair; and in the next place, for the uniform kindness and forbearance which you have extended to me in my imperfect efforts worthily to fill it. The following Communications were read :— 1. Letter from Dr Joun Kirk, Physician and Naturalist to the Livingstone Expedition, relative to the Country near Lake Shirwa, in Africa. (With a Plate.) Senna, May 11, 1859. On board Steam Launch. My Dear Dr Batrovr.—From our former letters you may have heard of the difficulty we found in ascending the Zambezi. With the present steam-boat it is quite impossible; the water is confined when 152 Proceedings of Societies. low to a deep, narrow canal, as it passes the hills of Kauvabassa; it is then quite out of the question to attempt passing. Dr Livingstone and I have examined that region on foot, and found many rapids—one of great size, it seemed to be a fall of 30 feet at an angle of 30°. The only hope is at flood; then these rapids, being from 80 to 100 feet under the surface, become smooth; and what seems necessary is a boat with power sufficient to make headway in this deep part, for to pass among the shallows which then exist at the sides would be dangerous from cross currents and rocks. This part of the river is 30 miles in length. Dr L. has applied for another boat; if the Government grant it, we shall try what we can do during the next floods in December or March.* This delay has been in so far fortunate, at least it has not been lost time. Some of the party are at Tette, working out the coal district. Dr. Livingstone and I have had a wandering time ; we have been down to the sea; up Meramballa, a mountain near the Zambezi, in sight of Senna, of 4000 feet high, the summit and slopes a regular botanie garden, where during the ascent you pass, from the grassy river-banks in the first - place, through forests with orchids, gingers, balsams, and ferns. As you ascend the vegetation changes; you meet with trees not so tall as those of the base, and Dr Livingstone observed that many were identical with those of the high lands of Louda in the west. We had here the Leacodendron and the common Pteris. On the top there is a great plateau, divided by ridges and peaks, with a varying elevation from 3000 to 4000 feet; it is well watered by springs, and the crops of maize are excellent. Lime trees grow wild in the woods. Here is a fine, cool, healthy climate, within sight of the town of Senna; yet it is doubtful whether the Portu- gese ever were there—it is a region quite unknown to them, The river Shire flows on the west side of this mountain; it is a fine river for navi- gation; we could get no information regarding it. The Manganja people, who dwell near the mouth, have been a complete barrier to the Portuguese, and likewise to those of the interior. The only means of transport by water is in canoes; and the Shire being deep and flowing quickly, with very few eddies of slack currents, it would be difficult to manage the unwieldy canoes of the country; and those in them, would be as completely in the power of the people as if they travelled overland. The case is otherwise with us; we pass with ease; no care is needed; there are few shoals, and the natives themselves soon see that their poisoned arrows would be nothing against guns when we are afloat out of range. «We land daily to cut wood, and find that if one has no fear of them, there is no danger. They have never molested us, as we are the stronger; their poisoned arrows would be very little against rifles and revolvers. They have learned to distinguish between the Portuguese and English, and do not attempt the impositions they practise on the native hunters, such as taking a tooth and half the flesh of the elephants killed. The Shire flows for 100 miles nearly north, in a plain of about 20 miles wide; there is a district near the middle which is marshy and cut up into islands, overrun by elephants; but the greater part is fine land for growth of cotton, sugar-cane, and rice. All these are now culti- vated, and we can see at once the capabilities of the country. The cotton is of two sorts; one very fine in the good staple. The sugar-cane is chewed, but the people do not know the art of extracting the sugar. * We are happy to say that the Admiralty have granted a versel, ie a aoe mn i Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 153 Two crops of maize are obtained each year; and prolably many other ‘crops might be grown during the cold season, such as wheat. On either side are mountains; those of the north-east reaching 4000 feet. This would be a healthy position for Europeans. These high lands also yield erops of cotton, sugar-cane, and cereals, with various kinds of pulse, but more care is needed for their growth than in the valley, It seems a great thing to have this healthy region so near the coast, with a rich plain of enormous extent, and a navigable river leading, without ob- struction, to the sea. Dr Livingstone and I started again in April, to explore the region to the north, and following the Shire overland, for navigation was checked by a rapid, where it curves from among the mountains. We took with us a strong party of Makololos, so as to be independent of the natives, who will not dare anything unless against the weak. They are great cowards, unlike the Landeens and Kaffirs of the south. We had some idea of preparing the way for reaching the great lake, whence it seems probable the Shire takes its rise. For many days we wandered over a most rugged country. The people gave us no assistance, so that we often made a long road, which, had we known the general features of the country, would have been easy. However, it is only what all first explorers must expect. At length, however, we reached a plain which the river crossed to the east. For the 30 or 40 miles we had passed, the river flows between hills over a rocky bed, and is a series of cataracts, one after another. On reaching the plain, we struck across for a moun- tain opposite, called Dzomba, whence we hoped to have a view which might guide us in our future course. Here we met with native slave traders who, when they thought us Portuguese, looked on us with jealousy and without much fear; when they knew better, they seemed to expect that we should attack them and take off all the slaves. The English name is known far beyond where Europeans have ever pene- trated. It took us long to cross this plain, although only 15 miles across. We were led astray by the people under the influence of these traders. We had in the end to take our own way, as we had done in the former part, and cross the hills opposite. Here we found a high plateau, with a totally new vegetation; a most interesting region, which I hope to explore more fully. The flora of Meramballa was but a slight indication of what we find here. To the east we had another plain, bounded on the other side by blue hills, and in it we could just distinguish a sheet of water. Our course now was for it. The information we received led us to believe that it was of great extent. On the 18th of April we got to the-shore, and had before us one of the finest sights I ever beheld; an enormous expanse of water narrowing to the south, but reaching 30 miles in that direction ; about 25 or 30 miles across to the north, we had a water horizon like the sea, and even from considerable heights nothing more was to be seen. There are in this lake many islands, with high mountains on them, and inhabited. The people tell us, that in astorm there are great waves, and we could see them breaking against one of the shore. The water of this lake is bitter to drink; several rivers flow into it, but none out. The Shire never crosses the hills which we had passed, but keeps on the other plain, and is said to come from another lake, which they call the great lake or the Lake of the Stars, ee "2 NEW SERIES.— VOL, XI. NO. 1.—JAN. 1860. 154 Proceedings of Societies. This is called ‘‘Shirwa,”’ and reaches tothe north for at least 50 or 60 miles, being separated there from the “ Ninyessi,” by a piece of flat land, not many miles across, We waded in until the water reached our waists, in hopes of reaching a point whence we could take observations on the sea horizon, but the grass and reeds extended still farther, and we had to return covered with leeches. We had for guides then some of the slave party, and the people of the country said that they had led-us off the proper path which goes to the bank in order to drown us. However, we got back all right; and that evening found it was in lat. 15° 23’ and long. 35° 35’. Having now seen this great lake, we thought we could not do much more at present. Here was a navigable inland sea, leading up to the great lake, of which rumours have for long reached us, and for which Captain Burton is now in search. We were rather anxious, too, for those in the vessel which we had left in the Shire, under the Quarter-master and Second Engineer, who were acting alone this trip. On our return, we followed a different route, which took us over a high plateau, between 3000 and 4000 feet (the lake was 1800 feet above the Shire). This elevated region came down near to the Shire, and we found the path much easier than that by following up the river, © This seems to be a healthy part. We were out 23 days, and very seldom slept under cover; we were wet every morning with dew, and our clothes dried as we marched in the burning sun, Yet we were never delayed a day by the sickness of any one of the party, although often fatigued by evening with the heat and heavy road. The marches appear short when we came to correct them by observation; but they generally took us from sunrise to sunset, with only an hour to breakfast, and a rest of a few minutes about noon. As to the geology of the country, it is all schist rocks, with a few spots - of trap and porphyry. The strike is north and south. There is abun- dance of iron ore, which the natives reduce for knives, spears, and arrow heads, They also trade in hoes for cultivating the soil, with the neigh- bouring tribes. The people are all “ Manganja ;” speak a modification of the language of Tette and Senna. The women are distinguished by the most repulsive of savage ornaments, a ring of ivory or bamboo, like a ring for a table napkin, in the upper lip; the lip being distended round the circum- ference, and projecting like a duck’s bill. Their religion is pure deism; they believe in a god and in medicine, or the ordeal which he directs as the means of discovering crime; if it cause vomiting, it shows innocence; if it acts by the bowels, crime, and they are put to death. But the doctors have a good knowledge of which to give, for there are different plants used. The only thing coming near to an idol which we heard of was the keeping the soul of their father in a basket, which they bring out when they get drunk with beer; but we could never get them to show it to us. When dead, they turn to lions and other beasts; only witches are made into crocodiles. On our return, the Quartermaster was sick, but beginning to recover ; he had been down with fever ever since we left. He is now better. We are on our way to the mouth of the river to meet a man-of-war, with stores. We hear that the party at Tette have had a good deal of sickness; but the unhealthy season is quickly passing. — Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 155 exercise is absolutely necessary for health out here. vingstone and I have had fortunate health all along, although constantly in the most malarious districts, such as the Mangrove swamps of the Suabo, or the low lands of Senna and marshes of the Shire ; out the whole day in the sun or rain. I believe the exercise more than counterbalances all these. One day when exposed to the sun, dissecting elephant, I found I could not stand it at all ; had I been working should not have felt it. We are not without our own politics here, even in this outlandish place. The slave-trade goes on briskly from one of the mouths near Quillimane, to supply the demand at Bourbon. Those in power being of the French party, wink at it. The authorities are poorly paid, and have to make it up by other means. Trade is difficult; they lay themselves out ’ for nothing but ivory and gold. They might have cotton and sugar, and that without the use of guano, as is required in Mauritius, and by the very hands they ship off to the French. The whole of Suabo, at the mouth of the river, is splendid cotton and cane land, and in the hands of the Portuguese. Those up the Shire are quite beyond their power; and even at Shupenya, near Senna, they have to pay tribute to the Landeens. They have last autumn finished the war with Mariano, who'set himself up as independent; but there is still a great robber within a few miles of the town of Tette, which every canoe must pass on its way to Quilli- mane. We expect the Governor-General of the Province here imme- diately; he comes to establish his brother at Tette, as Governor of a new district which they call Zambezia, and which was formerly under that of Quillimane. We shall feel the want of Senhor Tito, the former commandant, who ought to have been made governor; he is the best man for it. We shall have to change our quarters, being at present established in the Residency at Tette. 2. On the Morphological Import of Certain Vegetable Organs. By Curisrorpner Dresser, Ph.D. The author gave the results of his investigations into the morphologi- eal import of certain vegetable structures, especially those entering into the composition of the flower. _ He commences his argument by contending that bud-scales, or Perule, are in many instances not metamorphosed leaves, but merely flattened i He appeals to examples in Acer and sculus, where not un- frequently the bud-scales are furnished with small lamin at their extre- mity, while they themselves remain unaltered. This proves, he considers, that the bud-scales are not metamorphosed or rudimentary entire leaves, but only represent petidles. The tubercular papilla at the point of the normal bud-scale, and which is the first part that appears in its development, suffers what he terms a quasi-paralysis, or arrest of development ; while, in the abnormal ex- amples cited, this arrest does not take place, but the papilla proceeds to be developed into a lamina, as in the true leaf—the so-called transmuta- tion in these instances resulting only from a more or less complete evolu- tion of this papilla. _ The author then endeavours to prove that the Calyx, in many instances, is a whorl of petioles—laminz, in these cases, not entering into its com- 156 ; Proceedings of Societies. position. He refers, 1st, to the calyx of lavender, where one of the sepals develops a little lamina, which is more or less completely articu- lated to it; 2d, to the calyx of Mussanda macrophylla, where one’ sepal develops a lamina, while the other sepals, which are normal, are precisely parallel to the petiolar portion of the developed one; and lastly, to the monstrous calyx of a rose (which was exhibited), where from the ” sides and apex of the sepals, leaflets in various states of development: were seen to spring, while the sepals themselves retained more or less completely their flat, phyllous, and conical normal form; in this instance the sepals are not transmuted into true leaves, but leaflets are developed upon their sides. This mode of reasoning is the same as that by which the Phyllodiwm of the acacia is universally regarded as a leaf-stalk, simply because a compound leaf is sometimes emitted from its apex. Regarding Petals, the author adduces the following :—that petals con- . tinually become sepals in monstrous flowers, and this most commonly in flowers whose sepals have most manifestly a petiolar origin, as in roses ; again, that in the Caryophyllacee flowers occur having petals with .the most fully developed and clearly defined claws and limbs, while im those plants the leaves are so constantly sessile as to afford a characteristic of the race. From these circumstances he infers that in some casés, pro- bably in roses, the petals result from petioles ; whereas in other cases (as in the Caryophyllacew) they result from entire leaves. He does not, however, consider that, in’ these latter plants, the claws and limbs of the . petals correspond to petioles and laminw. “It seems contrary to rea- * son to suppose that all the normal leaves of the plant should be sessile, as well as the leaves composing the outer floral envelope (the sepals); . whereas the members of the inner floral ni (the peel should be raised upon long stalks.” Regarding the Stamens, the author urges arguments sirailar to those applied to the petals. The stamens may pats through the stages of petals - and sepals, so “ that whatever is the nature of the petal, such is the nature of the stamen also.” Moreover, that in those plants with sessile leaves, the filaments and anther cannot correspond to petiole : and lamina. © He also refers to a monstrous stamen of T'radescantia virginica, where _ one-half of the stameh is converted into a petaloid member, which” ex- tends from the base of the filament to the summit of the anther, indicat- ing that here the whole stamen corresponds to the sessile petal, and that there is ‘thus no distinction, in this case, into petiole and lamina, The author inclines to the belief that the carpel is in some cases equi- valent to a petiole, from the fact that in certain cases monstrous carpels develop their ovules into rudimentary leaves. He does not, however, insist strongly upon this point, since he does not think it yet proved that ovules may not be true buds. Sir Thomas Buchan Hepburn, in a letter to Dr Balfour, called atten- tion to the mode in which Taxodiwm sempervirens sheds its leaves. The leaves themselves do not fall, but the small branchlets drop off, as if each branchlet was a pinnate leaf. Specimens were sent to illustrate this fact. The tree from which the specimens were taken was planted at Smeaton, a small seedling, in 1844, and is now about 28 or 29 feet high. Its mean annual growth for the last eight years, up to December 1858, has been about 2 feet 4 inches. It has not yet flowered. 157 : ~~ §CIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. | BOTANY. Distribution of Vegetable Species. By Professor Asa Gray.—A ; review of what has been published upon the subject of late years ‘makes a it clear that the doctrine of the local origin of vegetable species has been more and more accepted, although, during the same period, species have _ been shown to be much more widely dispersed than was formerly sup- 4" posed. ~ Facts of the latter kind, and the conclusions to which they point, __. have been most largely and cogently brought out by Dr Hooker, and are } among the very important general results of his extensive investigations. | '-And the best evidence of the preponderance of the theory of the local origin of species, notwithstanding the great increase of facts which at _* first-would seem to tell-the other way, is furnished by the works of the present De Caridolle upon geographical-botany. This careful and con- scientious “investigator formerly adopted and strenuously maintained ._ Schouw’s hypothesis of the double or multiple origin of species. But in | his great work, the Géographie Botanique Raisonnée, published in the _ year 1855, he ‘has in effect discarded it, and this not from any theoreti- =” cal’ objections to that view, but because he found it no longer needed to account for thé general facts of distribution. . This appears from his | qualified, though dubious, adherence'to the hypothesis ‘of a double origin, | ; as 4 dernier resgort, in the few and extraordinary cases which he could . hardly explain in any other way. His decisive instance, indeed, is the occurrence of the Eastern American Phryma leptostachya: i in the ‘Hime- laya Mountains. * * -* * ‘ I- know not whether any botanist continues to maintain Schouw’s | hypothesis. But its elements have been developed into a different and i more comprehensive doctrine, that of Agassiz, which should now be con- : templated. It may be denominated the autochthonal hypothesis, __* = In place of the ordinary conception, that each species originated in a” | local area, whence it has been diffused, according to circumstances, over more or less broad tracts—in some cases becoming widely discontinuous in area through climatic or other physical changes operating during a long period of time—Professor Agassiz maintains, substantially, that each species originated where it now occurs, probably in as great a num- ber of individuals ‘occupying as large an area, and generally the same area, or the same discontinuous areas, as at the present time. This hypothesis is more difficult to test, because more ideal than any other. It might suffice for the present purpose to remark, that, in referring the actual distribution, no less than the origin of existing species, to the Divine will, it would remove the whole question out of the field of inductive science. Regarded as a philosophical question, Maupertuis’s well-known “ principle of least action” might be legiti- mately urged against it, namely, “ that it is inconsistent with our idea of Divine wisdom, that the Creator should use more power than was necessary to accomplish a given end.” This philosophical principle holds so strictly true in all the mechanical adaptations of the universe, as Professor Pierce has shown, that we cannot think it inapplicable to the Ee Sacae 158 Scientific Intelligence. organic world also, and especially to the creation of beings endowed with such enormous multiplying power, and such means and facilities for dissemination, as most plants and_animals. Why, then, should we sup- pose the Creator to do that supernaturally which would be naturally effected by the very instrumentalities which he has set in operation ? Viewed, however, simply in its scientific applications to the question under ‘consideration (the distribution of plants in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere), the autochthonal hypothesis might be tested by inquiring whether the primitive or earliest range of our species could possibly have remained unaffected by the serious and prolonged climatic vicissitudes towhich they must needs have been subject ; and whether these vicissitudes, and their natural consequences, may not suffice to explain the partial intermingling of the floras of North America and Northern Asia, upon the supposition of the local origin of each species, Let us bring to the inquiry the considerations which Mr Darwin first brought to bear upon such questions, and which have been systematically de- veloped and applied by the late Edward Forbes, by Dr Hooker, and by Alphonse De Candolle. No one now supposes that the existing species of plants are of recent creation, or that their present distribution is the result of a few thousand years. Various lines of evidence conspire to show that the time which — has elapsed since the close of the tertiary period covers an immense number of years; and that our existing flora may in part date from the tertiary period itself. It is now generally admitted that above 20 per cent, of the mollusca of the middle tertiary (Miocene epoch), and 40 per cent. of the pliocene species on the Atlantic coast still exist; and it is altogether probable that as large a portion of the vegetation may be of equal antiquity. From the nature of the case, the direct evidence as respects the flora could not be expected to be equally abundant. _ Still, although the fossil plants of the tertiary and the post-tertiary of North America have only now begun to be studied, the needful evidence is not wanting. On our north-western coast, in the miocene of Vancouver's Island, . among a singular mixture of species referable to Saliw, Populus, Quercus, Planera, Diospyros, Salisburia, Ficus, Cinnamomum, Persoonia, or other Proteacee, and a Palm (the latter genera decisively indicating a tropical or subtropical climate), Mr Lesquereux has identified one existing species, a true characteristic of the same region ten or fifteen degrees farther south, viz., the Redwood or Sequoia sempervirens. In beds at Somerville referred to the lower or middle pliocene by Mr Lesquereux, this botanist has recently identified the leaves of Persea Carolinensis, Prunus Caroliniana, and Quercus myntifolba, now inhabiting the warm sea-coast and islands of the Southern States.* * * * At length, as the post-tertiary opened, the glacier epoch came slowly on—an extraordinary refrigeration of the northern hemisphere, in the course of ages carrying glacial ice and arctic climate down nearly to the latitude of the Ohio. The change was evidently so gradual that it did not destroy the temperate flora, at least not those enumerated as ex- * These and other data, obligingly communicated by Mr Lesquereux, have been published in the May number of the American Journal of Science and Arts for 1859. ti ih i i Botany. 159 existing species. These, and their fellows, or such as survive, must have been pushed on to lower latitudes as the cold advanced, just as they now would be if the temperature were to be again lowered ; and between them and the ice there was doubtless a band of subarctic and arctic vegetation—portions of which, retreating up the mountains as the climate ameliorated and the ice receded, still scantily survive upon our highest ies, and more abundantly upon the colder summits of the mountains of New York and New England—demonstrating the existence of the present arctic-alpine vegetation during the glacial era; and that the change of climate at its close was so gradual that it was not destructive to vegetable species. As the temperature rose, and the ice gradually retreated, the surviving temperate flora must have returned northward pari passu, and—which isan important point—must have advanced much farther northward, and especially northwestward, than it now does; so far, indeed, that the temperate floras of North America and of Eastern Asia, after having been for long ages most widely separated, must have become a second time conterminous. Whatever doubts may be entertained respecting the existence of our present vegetation generally before the glacial era, its existence immediately after that period will hardly be questioned. Here, therefore, may be adduced the direct evidence recently brought to light by Mr Lesquereux, who has identified our live oak (Quercus virens), Pecan (Carya oliveformis), Chinquapin (Castane pumila), Planer-tree (Planera Gmelina), Honey-Locust (Gleditschia triacan- thos), Prinos coriaceus, and Acorus Calamus,—besides an elm and a Ceanothus doubtfully referable to existing species—on the Mississippi, near Columbus, Kentucky, in beds which Mr Lesquereux regards as anterior to the drift. Professor D. D, Owen has indicated their position “as about 120 feet lower than the ferruginous sand in which the bones of the Megalonyx Jeffersonii were found.” So that they belong to the period immediately succeeding the drift, if not to that immediately pre- ceding it. All the vegetable remains of this deposit, which have been obtained in a determinable condition, have been referred, either posi- tively or probably, to existing species of the United States flora, most of them now inhabiting the region a few degrees farther south. If, then, our present temperate flora existed at the close of the glacial epoch, the evidence that it soon attained a high northern range is ready to our hand. For then followed the second epoch of the post-tertiary, called the fluvial by Dana, when the region of St Lawrence and Lake Champlain was submerged, and the sea there stood five hundred feet above its present level} when the higher temperate latitudes of North America, and probably the arctic generally, were less elevated than now, and the rivers vastly larger, as shown by the immense upper alluvial plains, from fifty to three hundred feet above their present beds; and when the diminished breadth and lessened height of northern land must have given a much milder climate than the present.—Silliman’s American Journal, September 1859. Remarks on the Botany of Japan, in its Relations to that of North America, and of other parts of the Northern Temperate Zone. By Professor Asa Gray.—lIt is interesting to notice that, notwithstanding the comparative proximity of Japan to Western North America, fewer oo) oe —e a a4 7 ” 160 Scientific Intelligence. of its species are represented there than in far distant Europe. Also— showing that this difference is not owing to the separation by an ocean —that far more Japanese plants are represented in Eastern North America than in either. It is, indeed, possible that my much bétter knowledge of American botany than of European may haye somewhat exaggerated this result in favour of Atlantic North Amefica as against Europe, but it could not as against Western North America, If we regard the identical species only, in the several floras, the pre- ponderance is equally against Western as compared with Eastern North America, but is more in favour of Europe. For the number of species in the Japanese column which likewise occur in Western North America is about 120; in Eastern North America, 134 ; in Europe, 157. Of the 580 Japanese entries, there are which have corresponding European representatives, a little above 8.48 per cent. of identical species, pred Western N. American basbigverscihis about 0.37 2 is Pes Eastern ee 55 » 061 pe o, ome So geographical continuity favours the extension of "jdentical species ; but still Eastern North America has more in common with Japan than Western North America has. The relations of this kind between the floras of Japan and of Europe are obvious enough ; and the identical species are mostly such as extend continuously—as they readily may—throughout Russian Asia, some few only to the eastern confines of Europe, but most of them to its western borders. To exhibit more distinctly the features of identity between the floras of Japan and of North America, and also the manner in which these are distributed between the eastern and the western portions of our continent—after excluding those species which range around the world in the northern hemisphere, or the greater part of it, or (which is nearly the same thing in the present view) which are unknown in Europe —I will enumerate the remaining peculiar species which Japan possesses in common with America :— In Japan. In W.N. America. In E. N. America. Anemone Pennsylvanica A. Pennsylvanica (Coptis asplenifolia ?) C. asplenifolia (Trautvetteria palmata) T. palmata T. palmata Caulophyllum thalictroides C. thalictroides Diphylleia cymosa D. cymosa Brasenia peltata [B. peltata] _B. peltata Geranium erianthum G. erianthum Rhns Toxicodendron R.Toxicod., var. R. Toxicodendron Vitis Labrusca (Thunb) V. Labrusca Thermopsis fabacea T. fabacea Prunus Virginiana ? P. Virginiana Spirea betulefolia S. betulefolia 8S. betulefolia Photinia arbutifolia, in Bonin. P. arbutifolia Pyrus rivularis ? P. rivularis _ Ribes laxiflorum R. laxiflorum (Penthorum sedoides, China) P. sedoides Cryptotenia Canadensis C. Canadensis Heracleum lanatum H, lanatum UH. lanatum (Archemora rigida ?) A. rigida Osmunda cinnamomea Lycopodium lucidulum (Lycopodium dendroideum) Botany. 161 In W.N. America. In E. N. America. A. Gmelini A. Gmelini C. littoralis O. longistylis 0. longistylis E. horridus A. quinquefolia C. Canadensis C. Canadensis V. plicatum (lantanoides) *A. Sibirica *A. borealis *A. borealis V.macrocarpon V. macrocarpon M. ferruginea M. ferruginea B. glabra *P. rotata *P. rotata A. Canadense P. Bistorta R. persicarioidesR. persicarioides L. liliifolia P. ophioglossoides I. setosa T. erectum S. trifolia P. giganteum S. roseus S. roseus V. viride V. viride J. xiphioides C. Iria C. rostrata C. stipata C. stipata C. macrocephala S.elongatus’ S. elongatus A. scabra A. scabra F. pauciflora A. pedatum A. pedatum O. sensibilis O. cinnamomea L. lucidulum L. dendroideum L. dendroideum The names enclosed in parentheses are of species which I have not seen from Japan ; some of them inhabit the adjacent mainland ; some are imperfectly identified. _ Those marked * are high northern species in America. Of those 56 extra-European species, 35 inhabit Western, and 41 Eastern North America. And 15 are Western, and not Eastern; 21 Eastern and not Western ; and 20 common to both sides of the conti- nent. Eight or ten of these 56 species extend eastward into the interior of Asia. On the other hand, the only species which I can mention as truly ‘ indigenous through Asia, are Euonymus latifolius, Fagus sylvatica, both to Japan and to Europe, but not recorded as ranging Blechnum Spicant, NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI. NO. 1.—JAN. 1860, T 162 Scientific Intelligence. Valeriana dioica, Streptopus amplexifolius, Athyrium fontanum, Pyrola media. Two of these species extend across the northern part of the American continent, and on to the Asiatic; another occurs on the north-west coast of America; and another, the Fagus, is represented in Eastern America by a too closely related species. It is noteworthy, that not one of these seven plants is of a peculiarly European genus, or even a Europwo-Sibe- rian genus ;—while of the fifty-six species of the Americo-Japanese — region wanting in Europe, twenty are of extra-European genera ; seven- teen are of genera restricted to the North American, East Asian, and Himalayan regions (except that Brasenia has wandered to Australia) ; fourteen of the genera (most of them monotypic) are peculiar to America and Japan, or the districts immediately adjacent ; one is peculiar to our north-west coast and Japan; and eight are monotypic genera wholly peculiar (Brasenia excepted) to the Atlantic United States and Japan. Add to these the similar cases of other American species (nearly all of them peculiarly Atlantic-American) which have been detected in the Himalayas or in Northern Asia,—such as Menispermwm Canadense (Dauricum, DC.), Amphicarpea monoica? Clitoria Mariana, Osmor- rhiza brevistylis, Monotropa uniflora, Phryma leptostachya, Tipularia discolor ? &c.—and it will be almost impossible to avoid the conclusion, that there has been a peculiar intermingling of the Eastern American and Eastern Asian floras, which demands explanation. The case might be made yet stronger by reckoning some subgeneric types as equivalent to generic in the present view, and by distinguishing those species or genera which barely enter the eastern borders of Europe; e.g., Cimicifuga fotida, Mehringia lateriflora, Geum stretum, Spireia salicifolia, &e. It will be yet more strengthened, and the obvious conclusion will become irresistible, when we take the nearly allied, as well as the iden- tical, species into account. And also when we consider that, after ex- cluding the identical species, only 15 per cent. of the entries in the European column of the detailed tabular view are in italic type (#.¢., are closely representative of Japanese species); while there are 22 per cent. of this character in the American column. For the latter, I need only advert to some instances of such close representation, as of . Trollius patulus by T. Americanus, Aquilegia Burgeriana * A. Canadensis, Rhus verniciflua tes R. venenata, Celastrus scandens % C. articulatus, Negundo cissifoliwm ¥ N. aceroides, Sophora Japonica “ S. affinis, Sanguisorba tenuifolia « S. Canadensis, Astilbe Thunbergit & Japonica “ A. decandra, Mitchella undulata ” M. repens, Hamamelis Japonica 9 H. Virginica, Clethra barbinervis “¢ C. acuminata, Rhododendron brachycarpum “ R. Catawbiense, Amsonia elliptica = Tabernemontana Saururus Loureiri me S. cernuus, Botany. 163 and many others of the same sort,—several of which, when better known, may yet prove to be conspecific ; while an equally large number could be indicated of species which, although more positively different, are yet no less striking counterparts. To demonstrate the former proposition, I haye only to contrast the extra-American genera common to Europe and Japan with the extra- genera common to North America and Japan. The principal European genera of this category are—Adonis, Epimedium, Chelido- nium, Malachium, Lotus, Anthriscus, Hedera, Asperula, Rubia, Car- pesium, Ligularia, Lapsana, Fycris, Pederota, Ajuga, Thymus, Nepeta, Lamium, Ligustrum, Kochia ? Daphne, Thesium, Busus, Mer- curialis, Cephalanthera, Paris, Asparagus—to which may as well be added Peonia and Buplewrum, the former having a representative on the mountains, and the latter in the arctic regions, of Western America, but both absent from the rest of our continent. Excepting Pederota and Busus (the latter a rather doubtful native of Eastern Asia), none of these genera are peculiar to Europe, but all extend throughout Asia and elsewhere over large parts of the world.—American Journal, Sep- tember 1859. Vegetable Hybrids—In August 1858 M. Nandin fecundated the flowers of Datura levis with the pollen of Datura Stramonium. He collected the seeds in October 1858, and sowed them in April 1859. The habit and general aspect of the plants which grew from these seeds resembled those of D. Stramonium. The flowers appeared later than those of the parents. The capsules for the most part were similar to those of D. Stramonium. In some, however, on the contrary, the characters of D. levis were so decided that it was difficult to distinguish the capsules from those of that species. Again, in some of the fruits in- termediate characters were seen,—the fourth, third, half, or three- quarters of the same fruit belonging exclusively to one or other of the parent species. Thus some of the capsules presented on one side a deep green surface, covered with sharp points, like those of D. Stramonium, whilst the other side exhibited the grayish tint and the smooth surface of the capsules of D. levis. The influence, however, of D. Stramonium — to prevail most.—LZ’ Institut, 9th Nov. 1859. of the Sea of Aral. —In 1857, the Imperial Academy of mane of St Petersburgh projected a zoological and botanical expedi- tion to explore the steppes around the Sea of Aral, and placed it under the charge of two young naturalists, MM. Sévertzoff and Bortscheff. The first gentleman was killed in an encounter with the native tribes ; but the expedition was continued by M. Bortscheff, and one of its more important results was the discovery, upon the north-east shore of the Sea of Aral, of a marine vegetation, exhibiting numerous species and entire families of plants (alga), belonging exclusively to that which abounds in a deep sea, and which has never been met with in the salt or fresh water lakes situate in the interior. This discovery presents to botanists points of great geographical and historical interest, confirming the fact, in a manner not to be disputed, that the Sea of Aral is not a lake, but the bed of an ancient sea. It was previously known that its mollusca, if not identical, presented at least a great resemblance to those of the open seas; but botanists were until now ignorant of the existence of a marine 164 Scientific Intelligence. flora upon its sea-bottom.—Compt:-rendw de la Soc. Imp. Geog. de Russe, 1859, p. 53. ZOOLOGY. Egg of Dinornis.—An egg of the dinornis was dug up, together with a man’s skull, at Kaikoras peninsula, New Zealand, about two years ago. It measured 10 inches in length by 7 in diameter, was of a dull white colour, old, brittle, and thin. In shape it was like a blunt hen’s egg, and there was a hole, evidently purposely made to extract the contents, at one end, about half an inch in diameter. This egg, which I saw my- self, belongs to Mr Fyfe of Kaikoras, Another was broken to pieces by the spade. The human skull was old in appearance, about one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness, the teeth still remaining perfect in it—Fred. A. Weld, Wellington, New Zealand. Polyps.—Van Beneden states:—1. The scyphistomes (Hydra-tuba do not produce germs, but a part of their substance is transft into meduse. 2. The terminal segment, provided with the arm, is not detached on the form of scyphistomes (Hydra-tuba), endowed with the power of living elsewhere, but it becomes a medusa like the others, and the arms are absorbed on the spot in proportion as the medusa-form ap- pears. 3. The pedicle of strobile shows a new crown of arms (brachial corona) before the first meduse are detached. 4. The’ terminal medusa, bearing the arms which are absorbed, and preserving the mouth of the - mother-scyphistome, does not present the same phenomena of evolution as the other medusa, its sisters.—L’ Institut, 9th Nov. 1859. Remarks by Dr Daniel Wilson on a deformed fragmentary Skull, found in an ancient Quarry Cave at Jerusalem. Described by Arrken Metes.—Dr Meigs, the able cataloguer of the Morton Collection of Crania, in the Cabinet of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia, embodies in an elaborate and careful thesis the results of an ingenious exhaustive process by which he has aimed at determining the race, by the form and characteristics, in a skull obtained under unusual circum- stances. In 1857, Mr J. Judson Barclay presented to the Academy a human skull, in an imperfect condition, brought from a remarkable cave visited by him at Jerusalem, with the following results :— Having received some information of the existence of a very extensive cave near the Damascus gate at Jerusalem (entirely unknown to Franks), Mr Barclay, in conjunction with his father and brother, resolved upon its exploration. Accordingly, having obtained permission to this effect, from the Nazir Effendi, they repaired to the cave, the mouth of which is situated directly below the city wall, and the houses on Bezetha. They found the wall at this spot about ten feet in thickness, Through @ narrow, serpentine passage which traverses it, they gained an entrance into the cave, The length of the cavern they estimated at seven hundred and fifty feet, and the circumference upwards of three thousand feet. The roof is supported by numerous regular pillars hewn out of the solid limestone rock, The floor from the entrance to the termination forms an inclined plane, the descent of which is in some places very rapid, About a hundred feet from the entrance a very deep and precipitous pit was discovered, containing a human skeleton ; supposed to be that of some unfortunate one who had fallen headlong down and broken his neck, or rather his skull, judging from the fracture which it exhibits. The Zoology. 165 _ bones, ofalmost giant proportions, gave evidence, from their decayed state, of having remained in that position for many years. The skull, unlike the rest of the skeleton, was in a remarkable state of preservation. Numerous crosses on the wall indicated that the devout pilgrim or cru- sader had been there; and a few Arabic and Hebrew inscriptions—too much effaced to be deciphered—proved that the‘place was not unknown to the Jew and the Arab. The explorers found many intricate, mean- dering passages, leading to immense halls as white as the driven snow, and supported by colossal pillars of irregular shape : some of them placed there by the hand of nature, others of them evidently by the stone- quarriers to prevent the tumbling in of the city. From their explora- tions the party concluded that this cavern and the Grotto of Jeremiah, two or three hundred yards distant, originally constituted one immense eave, which was formerly the great quarry of Jerusalem. ’ The cave appears, therefore, to be a very old one. An allusion to it under the name of the “‘ Cotton Grotto ” is made by Kadi Mejr-ed-din in an Arabic MS., entitled ‘‘ The Sublime Companion to the History of Jert- salemand Hebron,” and bearing date a. p. 1495. A gentleman who entered the cave subsequently to the visit of the Messrs Barclay, states, in the “ Boston Traveller,” that though its existence was long suspected, “nothing was positively known regarding it, as it has been kept carefully closed by the successive governors of Jerusalem. The mouth of the cavern was robably walled up as early as the times of the Crusades, to prevent its ing into the hands of a besieging army : earth was thrown up against this wall, so as effectually to conceal it from view, and it is only upon the closest scrutiny that the present entrance can be perceived.” The circumstances under which the skull was discovered afforded no clue to its ethnic classification ; nor does its condition furnish any very decisive guide to the era to which it should be referred. It is confidently believed by those who have familiarised themselves with the minute characteristic details of comparative craniography, that by these alone ethnical types can be determined. A skull now in the collection of the Academy of Sciences at Philadelphia, and figured in Dr Meigs’ Catalogue of Human Crania, No. 1352, as ancient Phenician, was sent by M. Fresnel, the celebrated archxologist, to the late Dr Morton, without the slightest information as to where, or the circumstances under which, it was found. After careful study of its characteristics, Dr Morton pro- nounced it to be Phenician. He afterwards learned from M. Fresnel that it was found in the sepulchral cave of Ben Djemma, in the Island of Malta, and probably belonged to an individual of that race, which, in the most remote times, had occupied the northern coast of Africa and the adjacent isles. It thus appears that Dr Morton, guided by osteologic characters alone, was enabled to announce the correct geographical locality of this skull, and perhaps also its true ethnic value ; though of this latter point Dr Meigs expresses some doubts, arising from the re- markable resemblance which this skull bears to that of a wandering Chinga of Transylvania, depicted in Blumenbach’s Decades (Tab. xi.) In like manner, some time before his death, Dr Prichard sent to Prof. Retzius two human crania, requesting an opinion as to the race to which they belonged. He pronounced one of them to be Roman, and the other Celtic, and was informed by Prichard that he was in all probability 166 Scientific Intelligence. correct ; for the two skulls had been dug up in an old battle-field at York, England, where the ancient British Celts had been vanquished by the Romans. Encouraged by such examples of success, Dr Meigs proceeded to apply - the tests which his experience in comparative craniology placed at his command. The skull, however, is peculiar, and, so far as his experience could guide him, unique. Among all the 1045 crania in the collection of the Academy, none presented a counterpart to it. Its most remark- able feature is that the occipital bone rises vertically from the posterior margin of the great foramen to meet the parietalia, which bend abruptly downward between their lateral protuberances. This striking peculiarity, therefore, gives to a skull brought from an ancient quarry-cave at Jeru- salem some of the most typical characteristics of Peruvian crania. After minutely describing the appearance which the several bones present, Dr Meigs expresses his conviction that the head has been artificially de- formed by pressure applied to the occipital region during youth; thus supplying an interesting illustration of the practice in the old world of the same custom of distorting the human head which was long regarded as peculiar to the American aborigines. After marshalling all the probable ethnic claimants for this remarkable cranium, and assigning reasons for rejecting each, Dr Meigs shows that it unites some of the most characteristic elements of the Mongolian and Sclavonian head, while differing in some respects from both; and he finally concludes that it may be referred—not as a positive and indisput- able conclusion, but as an approximation to the truth—to the people and the region about Lake Baikal. Through the Sclaves and Burats of that region, the short-headed races of Eastern Europe graduate apparently into the Kalmucks and Mongols proper of Asia; and here probably is a remarkable example of an artificially modified cranium of that transi- tional people of Lake Baikal.— Canadian Journal, Nov. 1859. GEOLOGY. Extract of a Letter from the late Mr James Morttey, Engineer of the Julia Hermina Coal-mines of Borneo. The letter from which the following is an extract was written shortly before the fearful massacre of Europeans at Kalangan, in Borneo, in which Mr Motley, his wife, and three children were murdered. Mr Motley superintended the working of the coal-fields in Labuan and Bor- neo, and was known to zoologists by the collections and notes which he forwarded to Mr Dillwyn of Swansea, and by the beautiful work which he published in conjunction with the latter gentleman—* Contributions to the Natural History of Labuan and the Adjacent Coasts of Borneo.” One number only appeared in 1855, and unless Mr Dillwyn possesses materials for its continuation, we fear it will be the last. The paper alluded to he proposed to send to the care of Mr Thomson of Banchory, to be read at the Meeting of the British Association at Aberdeen; and the hints of a modern coal now forming in the China Sea and the Malay Waters, to the extent he mentions, may incite them to investigate this very interesting subject. ‘*T have already promised to send to the Natuur Kundige Vereinigung at Batavia a description of the Measures passed through in the pit, with Geology. 167 a suite of specimens, which I have preserved, of every stratum passed through. But this will have an interest purely local, and, I think, ought rather to go to Batavia than anywhere else. On the fossils, considered alone, I am not able to write; because, though I can read plainly enough generally the date of which they tell, I cannot name them without books, which I do not possess, and have here no access to; and I have there- fore proposed to send them to be named to Professor Bleekrode of Dordt. But I have been long preparing a paper upon another subject, of more general geological interest, and embodying some new facts, and, I think, new ideas, on the progress and growth of new coal-formations, now pre- paring for future ages. Such a growth is certainly going on here on a large scale, and I suspect that nobody has ever had so good an opportu- nity of observing it as myself. In the first place, I have been for some years engaged in working in a coal-formation—that of Borneo—which, though immeasurably older than that which I believe to be gradually up the China Sea, is yet as much younger than the coal-formations of Europe (of which I have also some experience), and therefore may be reasonably expected to yield points of analogy with present formations which might escape the keenest observer of secondary strata only; and secondly, I have had, more or less perfectly, the opportunity of observing the growth of the modern deposits at many points all round this great basin—namely, the west coast of Borneo, almost from north to south, several points on the east side of the Malay peninsula, and a great part - of the east coast of Sumatra. I have here the opportunity—and it is a rare one—of seeing the cutting of our canal through some of these mo- dern beds, never before disturbed by the hand of man; and I may add, that my knowledge of botany and natural history, though not very pro- found, is enough to give me the power of recording intelligibly inscrip- tions which the Great Author is now writing upon the new pages of the vast book of geology.” On the Genus Graptolithus. By James Hatt.—The discovery of some remarkable forms of this genus during the progress of the Canada Geological Survey, has given an opportunity of extending our knowledge of these interesting fossil remains. Hitherto our observations on the Graptolites have been directed to simple linear stripes, or to ramose forms, which except in branching, or, rarely, in having foliate forms, differ little from the linear stripes. In a few species, as G. tenuis (Hall), and one or two other American species, there is an indication of more complicated structure; but up to the present time this has remained of doubtful significance. The question whether these animals in their living state were free or attached, is one which has been discussed with- out result; and it would seem to be only in very recent times that naturalists have abandoned altogether the opinion that these bodies belonged to the Cephalopoda. In the year 1847 I published a small paper on the Graptolites from the rocks of the Hudson River group in New York. To the number there given, two species have since been added from the shales of the Clinton group. Other species, yet unpublished, have been obtained from the Hudson River group; and since the period of my publication in 1847, large accessions have been made to our knowledge of this family of fossils, and to the number of species then known. The most im- 168 Scientific Intelligence. portant publications upon this subject are, ‘“‘ Les Graptolites de Bohéme,” par J. Barrande, 1850 ; ‘‘ Synopsis of the Classification of British Rocks, and Descriptions of British Paleozoic Fossils,’ by Rev. A. Sedgwick and Frederick M‘Coy, 1851; “Grauwacken Formation in Sachsen, &e.,” by H. B. Geinitz, 1852. The radix-like appendages, known in some of our American as well as in some European species, have been regarded as evidence that the animal in its living state was fixed ; while Mr J. Barrande, admitting the force of these facts, asserts his belief that other species were free. It does not however appear probable that in a family of fossils so closely allied as are all the proper Graptolitide, any such great diversity in mode of growth would exist. Heretofore we have been compelled to content ourselves, for the most part, with describing fragments of a fossil body, without knowing the original form or condition of the animal when living. Under such cir- cumstances, it is not surprising that various opinions have been enter- tained, depending in a great measure upon the state of preservation of the fossils examined. The diminution in the dimensions, or perhaps we should rather say in the development, of the cellules or serrations of the axis towards the base, has given rise to the opinion advanced by Bar- rande, that the extension of the axis by growth was in that direction, and that these smaller cells were really in a state of increase and de- velopment. In opposition to this argument, we could before have advanced the evidence furnished by G. bicornis, G. ramosus, G. sextans, G. furcatus, G. tenuis, and others, which show that the stripes could not have increased in that direction. It is true that none of the species figured by Barrande indicate insuperable objections to this view ; though in the figures of G. serra (Brong.), as given by Geinitz, the improba- bility of such a mode of growth is clearly shown. It is not a little remarkable that, with such additions to the number of species as have been made by Barrande, M‘Coy, and Geinitz, so few ramose forms have been discovered; and none, so far as the writer is aware, approaching in the perfection of this character to the American species. Maintaining as we do the above view of the subject, which is borne out by well-preserved specimens of several species, we cannot admit the proposed separation of the Graptolites into the genera Monograpsus, Diplograpsus, and Cladograpsus, for the reason that one and the same species, as shown in single individuals, may be monoprionidean or diprionideam, or both ; and we shall see still farther objections to this division, as we progress, in the utter impossibility of distinguishing these characteristics under certain circumstances. We do not yet perceive sufficient reason to separate the branching forms from those supposed to be not branched, for it is not always possible to decide which have or have not been ramose among the fragments found. Moreover, there are such various modes of branching, that such forms as G. ramosus present but little analogy with such as G. gracilis. ae Mr Geinitz introduces among the Graptolitidea the genus Nereo- grapsus, to include Nereites, Myrianites, Nemertites, and Nemapodia. Admitting the first three of these to be organic remains, which the writer has elsewhere expressed his reasons for doubting, they are not —_ ee Geology. 169 related in structure, substance, or mode of occurrence, to the Graptolites, at least 80 far as regards American species; and the Nemapodia is not a fossil body, nor the imprint of one, but simply the recent traces of a slug over the surface of the slates. The genus Rastrites of Barrande has not yet been recognised among American Graptolitidee. These forms are by Geinitz united to his genus Cladograpsus, the propriety of which we are unable to decide. The genus Gladiolites (Retiolites of Barrande, 1850 ; Graptophyllia of Hall, 1849) occurs among American forms of the Graptolitidee in a single species in the Clinton group of New York. A form analogous with the reticulated margins and straight midrib has been obtained from the shales of the Hudson River group in Canada, suggesting an inquiry as to whether the separation of this genus, on account of the reticulated structure alone, can be sustained. In the meantime we may add that the Canada collection sustains the opinion already expressed, that the Dictyonema will form a genus of the family Graptolitidee. The same collection has brought to light other specimens of a character so unlike anything heretofore described, that another very distinct genus will there- by be added to this family. The Canadian specimens show that the Graptolites are far from always being simple or merely branching flat- tened stems. The following diagnosis will express more accurately the character of the genus Graptolithus :— Genus Grartouitavs (Linn.)—Description.—Corallum or bryozoum fixed (free ?), compound or simple, the parts bilaterally arranged, consist- ing of simple stripes or of few or many simple or variously bifureating branches, radiating more or less regularly from a centre, and in the com- pound forms united towards their base in a continuous thin corneous mem- brane or disk formed by an expansion of the substance of the branches, and which in the living state may have been in some degree gelatinous. Branches with a single or double series of cellules or serratures, com- municating with a common longitudinal canal, affixed by a slender radix or pedicle from the centre of the exterior side. The fragments, either simple or variously branched, hitherto described as species of Graptolithus, are for the most part to be regarded as de- tached portions from the entire frond. In the living state we may suppose those with the corneous disks and numerously branched fronds to have been concavo-convex (the upper being the concave side), or to have had the power to assume this form at will. In many specimens there is no evidence of a radix or point of attachment, and they have very much the appearance of bodies which may have floated free in the ocean. Exploration of British North America. Report on Geology by Dr Hecror.—Fort Edmonton, Saskatchewan, January 10, 1859.—I have the honour to make the following report of my geological observations during the past season, in which is embodied only the principal results and general features of the country examined, the details being reserved for a more elaborate study and comparison than can be executed here. On starting from Fort Carlton on 14th of June 1858, we crossed the low track of prairie land which is bounded to the west by that line of high ground which has been traced from longitude 103° W. sweeping to the NEW SERIES.— VOL. XI. No. 1.—Jan. 1860. U 170 Scientific Intelligence. N.W. to meet the south branch of the Saskatchewan at the elbow, known as the “ Coteau des Prairies,” and from that point being con- tinued to the north branch as the Bad Hills and Eagle Hills, while across that river it reappears as the Thickwood and White Lake Hills. The average elevation of these plains above Carlton (which is built upon the first river level, thirty-five feet above the water) is 250 feet, or 2125 feet above the level of the sea, and on it rests isolated portions of the higher level which have survived the general denudation, rising as rounded hills from 300 to 400 feet in height, such as Moose Hill on the south branch, and the two Minetonass Hills (Creefor Hill by i , one of which is opposite to Carlton and the other to Forte 4 la Corne. These plains are plentifully strewn with erratic blocks of all sizes, being frag- ments of the rocks of the Granitic belt, which runs to N. W. from Lake Superior to the Arctic Sea, with others of Magnesian limestone and buff- coloured quartzose rock of Silurian age, which crops out all along the western flank of that range. A very remarkable line of the Magnesian limestone boulders occurs at the distance of twenty miles above Carlton, crossing the country from the Thickwood Hills in a southerly direction, towards the Moose Hills on the south branch, This limestone contains the same indistinct fossiliferous markings as that at the Stoney Hill be- hind Fort Garry. Some of these masses are of immense size, being made up of portions of several beds which only loosely cohere to form the block. They are all sub-angular, without any glacial although some have their sides highly polished and smoothed from the buffalo rubbing against them. One of these blocks was measured, and computed to be 140 tons. The nearest known point where this limestone occurs in situ, from whence these blocks may have been derived, is 170 miles distant to N.E. Disregarding, for the sake of clearness, the order in which the country was examined, I now give at once an account of the whole ‘‘ drift” phenomena observed. As we travelled to the west, the drift was found to preserve the same mineral character of variable pro- portions of sand and clay, having boulders interspersed, but chiefly with the clay predominating. The boulders, however, decrease in size, and those of limestone become very rare as the higher plains are gained. At Fort Edmonton, for instance, I found it difficult last winter to procure fragments with which to make lime for medicinal purposes, although the river bed is strewn with those of other rocks. Its depth also becomes much less, forming only a superficial covering to older strata, when observed in the river sections to the west of the Eagle Hills. As we ap- proached the Rocky Mountains it quite disappears from the table-lands, and is only to be found in depressions of the plain through which streams run ; and even the existence of true drift in these places is rendered doubtful, owing to the prevalence of more recent deposits, which have been formed of its rearranged materials, At the altitude of 4000 feet above the sea, and at the distance of fifty miles from the mountains, there however occurs a very extraordinary group of blocks of granite, resting upon a high plateau, formed of sandstone strata, to be afterwards mentioned, These blocks are of great size, one having been estimated to weigh 250 tons. Although lying miles apart, they seem to consist of the same rock—viz., a mixture of quartz with red felspar, the latter predomi- nating, with only faint traces of mica disseminated in very minute flakes. - / ee ee Geology. 171 No granitic rocks have been met with on this side of the watershed of the mountains, and it is not probable that any such exist, at least between the two branches of the Saskatchewan. These blocks present smooth surfaces, although in general they are rhomboidal in form. Some are cracked into several pieces, which are quite detached, but have evidently at one time formed part of a whole. If these blocks were derived from the granitic belt to the east, as I believe all the other boulders on the plains to have been, then they must have travelled at least from 400 to 450 miles. From the fact, however, that they are almost on the western of the drift deposit, and that the boulders imbedded were found as a rule to diminish in size in that direction, it may be that the presence of these large blocks is due to very different agencies, different at least im the time of their occurrence. Close in, along the base of the moun- . tains, neither on the high plateaus nor in the profound valleys by which these are traversed was there observed any traces of the drift, or its erratics. Within the outer range of the mountains, which are comparatively low, and wooded to their summit, the valleys are occupied by immense deposits of rounded shingle, composed of fragments of the various rocks which have been found to compose the mountains. This shingle, which in some places is loose, and mixed with a large proportion of sand and gravel, in others is cemented by calcareous matter into a solid conglomerate. It fills up the valleys not only along the edge of the mountains, but also right into their interior, forming beautifully marked terrace levels along the streams. This is well exhibited on the north branch of the Saskatchewan, where these deposits skirt its wide valleys for nearly seventy miles of its course through the mountains, expanding where it widens so as to form extensive plains, as at the Kootanie plain, and always affording a margin of level ground along the river, rendering the road very practicable. Towards the upper ends of the valleys the caleareous matter of these deposits so increases as to replace altogether the shingle, when it becomes a fine gritty caleareous mud, of glistening whiteness. ‘This same deposit has a much larger development in the valleys on the west side of the watershed, forming terrace levels in exactly the same manner. [observed no shingle beds with it there, however,— these apparently being replaced by fine sand and gravel. In the valley of Bow River, there is much less of this calcareous matter in the deposit, it having more of a loose sandy nature, and except at the entrance to the valley in the neighbourhood of the Bow Fort, rarely exhibiting the ter- race levels. In the smaller gorges, where streams come down from the mountains, it is replaced by an angular “breccia,” of which patches cling in the most singular positions. This latter deposit is most likely of the nature of glacier moraines, although it is found where no glacier oceurs anywhere in the neighbourhood. I found, however, that the glaciers in the chain had at one time extended a considerable degree _ beyond their present limits, and therefore, at that time they possibly may have existed in portions of the mountains where now there are none, The terrace deposits seem to reach pretty nearly the same altitude in different parts of the mountains—viz., about the height of 1000 feet above the level of the plains at their eastern base. I found that, in erossing the different heights of land, the easiness of the pass corre- sponded with the degree to which these deposits had remained untouched, « ee CE oe < 4 Fe Se ; 172 Publications received. owing to peculiarities in the form of the valleys, In the case of every height of land, whether of those examined by Captain Palliser or by - myself, with the single exception of the Vermilion Pass, the slope is gradual to the east, but to the west the descent is with extreme rapidity. This arises from these deposits having being scooped out close up to the rocky nucleus of the height of land, by currents acting from the western side of the chain, while on the east the erosion has been much more feeble. How much this may depend on the difference between the width of the valleys which pass through the flanking chains on the east side of the height of land from those on the west I am not prepared to say, until the nature of the country to the west has been ascertained. Currents acting on the chain while submerged, would of course be greatly modified in their action by any such differences. Respecting the age of these de- posits I am in doubt. They extend towards the east along the river val- leys—at least shingle deposits of the same nature are found at a consider- able distance from the mountains, in the valleys of the north and south branches, and of the Red Deer River. Its relations to the drift have not been distinctly ascertained, as the boulders which mark its presence are only in that district of country found on rounded knolls away from the rivers.— Papers relative to the American Exploration, 1859. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. L’ Institut for August, September, October, and November, 1859.— From the Editors. Natural History Review for October 1859.—From the Editors, Proceedings of the Manchester Philosophical Institution—(continued). —From the Society. Natural History of the European Seas, by Prof. E. Forbes and R. G. Austen.—From the Publishers. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 2, for 1859.—From the Editor. Canadian Journal of Industry, Science, and Art, for November 1859. —From the Editors. Reply to Sir David Brewster’s Memorial to the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury on the New Series of Dioptric Lights, by D. and T. Stevenson, Civil Engineers.—F rom the Publishers. Martins, Charles, Du Froid Thermométrique et de ses Relations avec le Froid Physiologique dans les Plaines et sur les Montagnes.—From the Author. ee ee ee ee ea re THE EDINBURGH NEW PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. On Gebel Haurdn, its adjacent Districts, and the Eastern Desert of Syria, with Remarks on their Geography and Geology.* By Joun Hoae, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., &. The Rev. J. L. Porter, M.A., F.R.G.S., being for several years a resident missionary in Damascus, took the opportunity in February 1853 of visiting the Lejah and the Hauran ; and _ he gave to the world a very interesting account of the same in his amusing work, entitled, “ Five Years in Damascus ;” which was published two years afterwards. In the spring of 1857, my friend, Mr Cyril Graham of Trinity College, Cambridge, became acquainted with Mr Porter in Syria, and having heard much from him respecting the Haurfn, he resolved to go and explore it. Accordingly, in the summer of that same year, Mr Graham travelled through it. But, since that remarkable ~ region is already kriown by the able descriptions of Porter, Buckingham, Burckhardt, and Seetzen, it will be unnecessary for me to add any particular account of it, except a short notice of its geology. That portion itself chiefly comprised, under the Arabic name of the Hauran, the Auranitis of the Greeks, will, in Mr Graham’s words,—“ Eyer claim the most solemn * This paper was in part read to the Geographical Section of the British Association, at the meeting held in Aberdeen, on September 15, 1859. NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI, NO, 11.—ApPRIL 1860. x 174 Geography and Geology of the interest, being the old Land of Bashan (of which Batanwa of the Romans was a part), the country of that most remarkable people, the ‘ Rephaim,’ who occupied this land long before Abraham crossed the Desert, and among whom, in later times, Og, the king of Bashan, was one of the greatest chiefs.”* Mr Graham states, at the present day, the Druzes, who are of the same stock as those in the Lebanon, “ are the settled inhabi- tants of Bashan. They live in the very cities out of which, more than 3000 years ago, the Rephaim were expelled, through the help of God, by the victorious Israelites.” He much esteems them for their great kindness and hospitality ; and he reckons the entire number of the men only who dwell in the Hauran at 7000. But other portions, lying mostly to the east and north of Ge- bel Hauran, as they were unvisited before the year 1857 by modern European travellers, and were only imperfectly known by the rough descriptions afforded by Arab guides, shall now be briefly noticed. And I may mention that, as Mr Porter had in the year 1854 kindly favoured me with the unpublished Greek inscriptions, which he had copied in his tour through the Hauran, and which I edited in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature in the following year; so Mr Graham very handsomely intrusted me last year with the publication of about forty more Greek inscriptions, which he met with in that country, and which have appeared only a few weeks ago in this year’s Part of the Transactions of the same Society. They are also accompanied with some notes, which I have in- corporated in the present communication. Mr Graham passed from Shuhba, at the south-eastern border of the Lejah (Trachonitis), through Wadi Nimreh (7.e.‘ Valley of the Panthress’) and several ancient towns, the most consider- able of which “was Malkyeh,” near the edge of the Desert. * On the wall,” he says, “ of a public building there, I found a Greek inscription, from which it appears the Greek name was likewise ‘ Malkaia,’” or probably Malcova. The word on the inscription itself, according to Mr Graham’s transcript, * See Mr Graham’s “ Explorations in the Desert of the Haurfn, and in the Ancient Land of Bashan,” p. 228, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xxviii. Lond. 1859. ——— = Eastern Districts of Syria. 175 looks more like MAAKOYHNOY, “of an inhabitant of Mal- cova.” As yet, however, I have not been able to find such a name in any work on ancient geography. Proceeding to the east, Mr Graham came to the southern extremity of the Safah, from which the chain named Tell- e’ Safah* rises. It is an insulated volcanic district, which is elevated above the Desert. Here were found inscriptions in an unknown Shemitic character, accompanied with represen- tations of palm-trees and other figures roughly cut in large blocks of basalt. On the east side of the Safah were some ruins of towns, similar to the ancient cities of Bashan, though remaining in a less perfect condition. The hills rising from the Safah are described as at distances which vary from four to ten miles from the border. Continuing in a south-easterly course, the traveller crossed a tract of country called E] Harrah, which Mr Graham says is probably derived from Harr, “heat.’’ Now, the word Harr, I find, is still more indicative of the actual nature of that dis- trict, inasmuch as it strictly means, ‘‘ heat reflected from the ground.” This entire tract is thought to extend five days’ journey in length, and perhaps a day and a quarter's journey in width. At length he came toa wadi, known as El Warran (The Lizard), where were more ruins and Shemitic inscriptions. Turning westward, he passed close to Tell Ozda, a solitary hill on the east of Tell-e’ Nemareh (The Hill of the Panthers), and then entered a broad wadi. Indeed, at this latter spot, Mr Graham “found the greatest number of inscriptions on the basalt stones that he had met with anywhere.” The characters of these Shemitic inscriptions, he thinks “ most nearly approach to those of the Himyaritic ;” and he states that they are to appear in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society. It was at first supposed, and in fact Mr Porter in his letter to me from Damascus, in January 1858, announcing the discovery of these remarkable inscriptions, mentioned expressly that they resembled the Sinaic inscrip- * See an Explanation for thus writing E’ Safah, in note. p. 194, vol. xlviii. Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, to my former Memoir on the Geography and Geology of the Sinaic districts, een) 176 Geography and Geology of the tions, but I think there is nothing to warrant such conclu- sions. Mr Graham observes, “ The absence of all Greek inserip- tions,” ewcept four found at Nemareh, “ seems to argue that this country (i.e., I suppose the whole of it) never came under the dominion of the Greeks,” or of the Romans; and he adds, “whether this country once was tributary to Phoenicia, or whether we have on these stones inscriptions of a far earlier period—traces perhaps left by the old Rephaim themselves, who first occupied this land,—is at present mere matter for speculation.”* In the centre of this broad wadi, or river-bed, is E’Nemareh, where, on a high mound, are situated some ancient buildings. “ These, again, closely resembled those old houses of Bashan, with the beams of stone, and doors still perfect.” E’Nemareh appears to me to derive its name from a female saint, whose shrine is there, and who is called by the Arabs ‘** Nimreh bint e’ Nimur,” which means, “ panthress, daughter of panthers.” It would be extremely interesting if we could trace this saint, or goddess, who has been for long venerated by the Arabs, to the worship of the ancient Pheenicians ; for it seems not improbable that this “ Panthress” might. bear an allusion to the great Phenician deity, Ashtoreth, who was identical with Astarte, whom the best Grecian authorities ac- counted no other than Diana, the goddess of hunting; and indeed, at an early period, most of the Syrian races, as well as the Arabians, previous to the age of Mahomet, worshipped the famous goddess Ashtoreth. This suggestion may hereafter be more fully investigated, when the unknown oriental in- scriptions which are so numerous near Nemareh shall have been interpreted. From the ruins of E’ Nemareh—Mr Graham being unable to explore the desert any further to the east, which he describes as “a vast plain bounded only by the horizon, and which reaches, it seems, without a single break to the Euphrates”— returned to Shuhba, near the northern base of Gebel Hauran. He then visited the ruins of several towns situated on the east and south of the Gebel Hauran range, being much of it new * Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xxviii. p. 241. Eastern Districts of Syria. 177 country, namely Nimreh, an old town built on a hill just above the Wadi Nimreh ; there he noticed a Roman temple, but not any inscription ; also Bshennef, Bustin, Sali, and Sehwet El Khudr. The first, or Bshennef, “is beautifully situated on the borders of a wild glen which leads into the great plain below.” He thinks that Bshennef must have been a place of much importance, not only judging from the house-doors, which were more than usually ornamented, but also from a beautiful temple which he saw there. The second—whose name Busan has no connection, as one might naturally suppose, with that of Basan or Bashan, but it is thought to be abbreviated from Abu San, or “ Father San” —is a large town, “its streets are very regularly built, its stone houses perfect, and it commands an extensive view of the desert.” The third, Saleh, or Sali, is “another very large town on the mountain,” and possesses many fine springs, to which the Arabs bring their flocks and camels to drink. Sehwet El Khoudr (or St George) was, I believe, first visited by Burckhardt. This portion of Bashan Mr Graham describes as “very beautiful,” and covered with forests of oak. Below the picturesque and conical peak El Kuleib (“the little heart”) lies on the south the ancient city named Kufr— the town gates of which, composed of two large slabs of stone nearly 9 feet high and a foot or more in thickness, are still standing uninjured.” Afineh, Hejmar, and Ari, possessed nothing remarkable. From Bozrah, now called Busrah, Mr Graham went south, and passed through several remains of ancient cities, and was fortunate in reaching the extensive ruins of Um El Jemal, considered most probably the Beth Gamul of Scripture. I will not here describe these places, as they are beyond the proposed bounds of the present communication. Afterwards he came to Orman, which had been identified by Burckhardt, from some Greek inscriptions which he had found there, as “ Philippopolis,” a city founded by the Roman Emperor Philip, who was a native of Busrah in this portion of Syria, which is often styled in ancient authors Arabia. Proceeding thence eastward, he arrived at a still more important place, named 178 Geography and Geology of the Malah, the former name of which he could not determine, and following an ancient road, he made Deir ’ Nasrani, signify- | ing “Convent of the Christians,” the limit of his excursion to the eastern desert. This enterprising traveller “has no doubt that the towns in this country, like those of Bashan, are of the highest anti- quity,” and that these were “ the cities of the giant Rephaim.” This people being naturally of a gigantic size; the word “Rephaim,” which strictly meant the Nation, was used in time to signify any giants; and it has sometimes created, as he observes, a “ confusion in our translation of the Old Testa- ment.” In the third chapter of Deuteronomy, vy. 11, our version has translated that Og was “of the remnant of giants,” and not, as is clearly more correct to read, “of the remnant of the Rephaim,” “ha Rephaim” being the original in the Hebrew text. So the Septuagint translation has in the same verse, riv ‘Papaiv, and the Alexandrine, ra» ‘Pagaéw; but the Latin Vulgate makes the like mistake as the English Bible, in rendering it “gigantum.” At a later period the Romans colonized, enlarged, and beautified most of those strong and “‘ walled cities” which are still remaining in good preservation, although long ago abandoned and uninhabited; they thus prove, in a remarkable manner, the fulfilment of Jeremiah’s prophecy, “The spoiler shall come upon every city, and no city shall escape ;” and “the cities thereof shall be desolate without any to dwell therein.” Next, I will more particularly describe the region to which I am referring, and then add a few notes on the chief geographical and geological features of the portion of Syria or Northern Palestine included in it. The re- gion comprises a district from Busrah about 36° 26 45” to 37° 45’ nearly longitude east from Greenwich, and from Salk- had and E’ Deir south of Busrah, about 32° 30’, to nearly the supposed centre of Bahret Hijaneh, the southernmost of the three lakes in the territory of Damascus, in 33° 20’ north lati- tude. And I may here remark, that the most recent maps of Syria do not agree as to the exact positions of Damascus and Busrah ; for in Mr Porter’s first map, which I had the pleasure of communicating to the Royal Geographical Society in Novem- Eastern Districts of Syria. 179 ber 1855, which is most neatly engraved by Mr Arrowsmith, and published in the 26th volume of their “ Journal,” Damascus is placed in just about 36° 17’ 15” east longitude, and in 33° 31’ 15” nearly north latitude, whilst Busrah is laid down in about 36° 26’ 35” east longitude, and in 32° 32’ 20” north latitude ; and the same positions appear to be given in _ the small map which accompanies Mr C. Graham’s paper in _ volume xxix. of the Journal of the Geographical Society, which is only just published. But in the map by Henry Kiepert, engraved in Mr Porter’s “ Handbook of Syria,” published in 1858, the city of Damascus is laid down in 36° 16’ 40’ east longitude, and in 33° 31’ 40” north latitude; but Busrah is placed in 36° 22’ 30” east longitude, and in north latitude 32° 3l’ 40”; thus giving a difference nearly as to Damascus of 35” of longitude and 25” of latitude ; and about a difference as to Busrah of 4’ 5” of longitude, and of 40” of latitude.* My map I have drawn on a scale eight times larger than that of Mr C. Graham’s map so neatly executed by Mr Arrowsmith. In the left hand, or north-west corner, appears a small part of the territory of Damascus called Wadi El Ajam, or the valley of the Awaj—the ancient river Pharpar which runs into the lake Hijaneh at its north point, and whose waters are there mixed with those of the Liwa in the rainy season, which enters the lake at its southern extremity, descending from its sources near Nimreh at the northern roots of Gebel Haurin. The exact size and borders of this lake are as yet undetermined, but it is thought to be between five and six miles in length, and four or five in breadth. Then succeeds the Lejah, the former Trachonitis of the Romans and the Argob of the Bible; this territory skirts the western side of Gebel Hauran, west of Suweideh to the Wadi Zédy, or a little further south, and at a short distance from * From Van de Velde’s “ Map of the Holy Land,” published at Gotha in 1858, I make Damascus to be placed in just about 36° 15’ 40” east longitude, and 33° 31’ 30” north latitude ; and Busrah, 36° 26’ 35” longitude, and 32° 29’ 0” latitude ;—but in his explanatory book, he writes the positions respectively as—Damascus (Castle) 36° 15’ 30” longitude, and 33° 31’ 20” latitude; and Busrah, according to Porter, 36° 26’ 30” longitude, and 32° 29’ 40” latitude; and according to Arrowsmith, 36° 27’ 15” longitude, and 32° 35’ 30” lati- tude. 180 Geography and Geology of the Busrah the southern corner of the Haurin, the former Auranitis, and a province of the Scriptural Bashan, intervenes. The extensive and chiefly mountainous district from about Salkhad on the south to Tell El Asfar on the north, is the present Bathanyeh, and the Batanea of the Romans, which formed another province of the ancient kingdom of Bashan. Of this, from about Ayfin to near Shuka extends the fine range of lofty hills called Gebel Haurin, and Gebel E’ Druz—the mountain Alsadamus of Ptolemy. On the east and north of this a vast plain stretches out; that portion of it on the east being of vast extent, is called El Harrah, belonging in former times to what was generally named the Great or Arabian Desert, whilst the other portion on the north is broken by the hills E’ Tellul, and the still higher ridges of E’ Safah. The north and far east of the latter are desert regions at present unknown and unvisited by any modern European traveller. The geology of these districts is but little made out; and the remarks which I now briefly present are mostly taken from the accurate accounts of Messrs Burckhardt, Porter, and Graham. ; The south-eastern extremity of Wadi El Ajam, a part of the territory of Damascus, with the Lake or Bahret Hijaneh on the east, is an extensive level, and the river Awaj or Pharpar flows through alluvial and diluvial beds, which inter- vene between the parallel lines of dark hills, Gebel El Aswad and Gebel Mania. The white chalk, or marl, or limestone formation filled with fossils, terminates a little north of them ; for Gebel El Aswad, or the “Black Mount,” affords the quarries from which are taken the black paving stones used in Damascus. Also, Gebel Mania is characterised as “ dark and bare” in aspect, its most lofty point being a truncated, cone-shaped peak. From that spot the volcanic rock and basaltic boulders succeed to the east and south, and prevail over a vastly extended district. In fact, from thence to the northern slopes of the Haurén range, the country presents a fine but somewhat undulating plain, about twenty-five miles long. At the north of the Wadi Liwa commences that re- markable region now known as the Lejah, answering to the Argob of the Bible, and the Trachonitis of the Romans, both Eastern Districts of Syria. 181 of which names denote its physical character, in meaning the rough, stony, or a mass of stones. The southern portion of it runs down in a narrow strip along the entire western base of Gebel Haurin to about Busrah, the former Bosira, to which city, according to Eusebius, it extended. For nearly half this length from the north, the Wadi Liwa runs towards its eastern boundary. Through this valley, which is about forty-five feet in depth, having its banks broken and rocky, @ considerable stream flows in the rainy season, and then makes the Bahret Hijaneh a large lake, which in summer is only a morass covered with reeds. South of the lake a broad plain stretches out to the lofty Tell Khaledyeh, on the sum- mit of which are some ruins. Parts of the plain appear to have been divided into fields by stone fences, the stones having been gathered together ; and more towards the Liwa are many towns, half ruinous and quite deserted ; the walls of the houses having been built of black basalt of vast thickness. The ground thence forms a gradual slope to the heights at Shuka, which constitute the northern slopes of Gebel Hauran. Near Hit the soil is fertile ; the district is inhabited and cultivated ; being bare of trees, and monotonous in aspect, it exhibits the basaltic rock cropping out in places, and large black frag- ments and broken masses lying thinly on the surface. “Ina geological point of view,” says Mr Porter, “ the Lejah is the most wonderful district I have ever seen.” As viewed “from Hit,” it “resembles a lake agitated by a strong wind ; and any one who has seen Loch Lomond while a winter tempest swept over it, and the troubled waters assumed the gloomy hue of the clouded heavens, may form some idea of the appearance of the Lejah as seen from” there. From its eastern border stretches out a broad plain as far as the eye can see. Only a few of those singular conical mounds, or hills, called Tells, are visible within the Lejah; one, Tell Amara, is about 300 feet high ; another, Tell Sumeid, though not so lofty, is nearer to Shuhba, whilst Tell Shuhba itself is an extinct crater. Burckhardt has named the centre of this region ‘the Inner Lejah,” where the black rocks are higher, and the ground itself is more broken. Thence succeeds the Greek province of Auranitis to the NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI. NO, 1.—APRIL 1860, Y ee 182 Geography and Geology of the west of Suweideh, and reaching as far as Bostra, its southern border may be taken nearly in a line parallel with Wadi Zédy. The boundaries of these provinces appear to have varied at different times; and in fact to define them with geographical accuracy is, I think, a very difficult task. The Hauran, so named both in Hebrew and in Arabic, was a portion of the ancient kingdom of Bashan, and in its general appearance is an immense and fertile plain, but broken by many Tells of a cone shape. The ground is con- sidered as the most fertile in Syria, and is covered with culti- vated fields and inhabited villages. Where any water is present, and after the rainy season, much of the plain is green with rich grass. Many ruined cities are also met with. They are built like those in the Lejah, of black basalt; and, as Mr Graham says, since “all the plain of the Hauran is desti- tute of trees, there is nothing to relieve the gloom of these black towns.” And according to Mr Porter, the plain of the Hauran stretches out to the horizon; its soil is deep, black, and loamy, in general free from stones and gravel, though around the base of the little Tel/s lie fragments of porous lava accompanied with rock of a firmer texture. On the east side of the Lejah and the Hauran there ex- tends for a considerable distance nearly N. and S. the ancient province of Batanea—which is only the Romanized form of the word Bashan—and now called by the natives Ard El Bathanyeh—.e., the district of Bathanyeh. It would seem to range from Salkhad on the south, to Tells Khaledyeh and Asfar on the north, its mean breadth being perhaps about twelve or thirteen miles. Here the beautiful range of hills, Gebel Hauran, extends its picturesque form for about thirty miles, the central plateau of which is, according to Russegger, 2500 Paris feet, or 2670 English feet above the sea. The same traveller estimates its highest point at 6400 English feet. Of this range two conical peaks are the most conspi- cuous—Abu Tumeis, or ‘*‘ Father Tumeis,” on the north, near to Shuhba ; and the second, El Kuleib, or ‘ the Little Heart,” above Kufr, raises its graceful and cordiform or cordate summit. They both present very prominent objects in the landscape. The eastern face of this latter cone is stated by Tate han Aa daata mes Lh ee ei

6-40 Ib, Water expelled at the very outset. 29-82 ,, Volatile hydrocarbons expelled, commencing with those ; containing much carbon, and ending with almost , pure hydrogen. 56°90 ,, Fixed carbon or cinder, which has now reached the temperature of ignition, commences to burn; while during the whole period the carbon or cinder previ- ously in the furnace has been burning steadily. cat .. Ash or clinker remains as incombustible. _ 269 ,, Nitrogen and sulphur, the period of evolution of which is immaterial for our present purpose. 99°58 Ib. Coal. Generally the volatile ingredients are expelled in the first- fourth, or first-third of the interval, although not necessarily so. _ With these data before us, we would remark— 1. In ordinary bituminous coal, yielding a gaseous com- ~ bustible, the process of combustion is distinctly divisible into _ two parts, as regards the locality of its occurrence. First, _ The fixed carbon or cinder burns on the hearth more or less uniformly and continuously. Secondly, The volatile part must burn, if burned at all, in the body of the furnace, or space above the fuel, into which space it is projected as evolved. With Newcastle coal let us estimate the air required for these separate processes of combustion— Air. Fixed carbon or cinder 8 revenue hearth t 569 Ib. x 116 Ib. air = Volatile hydrocarbons Hr = ydrogen, 46 Ib. X 34°8 Ib. air=161 venom in the boty 20-0 Ib. consisting oe rare 95°22 Ib. X 11°6 Ib, air =292 453 Ib. Total atmospheric air required. ° ° ‘ 1113 Ib. For complete combustion, therefore, 660 lb. air must be brought into contact with the cinder on the hearth, and 453 lb. into contact with the hydrocarbon gases above the hearth. 2. In the case supposed, perfection, so far as attainable, would evidently be, first, a uniform rate of combustion of the cinder on the hearth, at the rate of 5-69 lb. per minute under the influence of a constant current of 66 Ib. air per minute ; and secondly, a uniform evolution of gaseous combustible in the furnace at the rate of 2°98 lb. per minute, and its com- bustion under the influence of a constant supply of 45:3 Ib. air per minute. And, with regard to the proper points of NEW SERIES.— VOL, XI. NO. 11.—aprit 1860. Sa 198 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and admission of thé two currents of air, several reasons might be given why, the former supply being admitted as usual through the bars, the latter should be admitted by an opening aboye the bars, so placed as that the gas, as evolved, shall be pro- jected into an atmosphere containing air sufficient for its combustion. The most important of these reasons we would express thus :-— ** Combustion of a hydrocarbon may be accomplished either by introducing it into an atmosphere containing common air, or by introducing common air into an atmosphere containing the hydrocarbon ; but in the former case the combustion is» much more complete than in the latter.” Hydrocarbon projected into air.—A gas jet affords a familiar illustration of this. The combustion is almost per- fect—no smoke is produced, but intense light and heat. Outside the flame the hydrogen burns producing an atmo- sphere of 3500° temperature; and through this barrier the carbon must pass before it escape. The heat is so intense, however, that it becomes white hot, and burns into carbonic acid with an accompanying temperature of 4400°. The heat thus kept up continues the process, decomposing the gas into hydrogen and white hot carbon, which again burn in succession. Air projected into an atmosphere of hydrocarbon.—Such a jet will burn if lighted; but the results are very different. Gmelin thus describes the appearance :—‘ The flame appears to be dark within; then a brilliant envelope, hot enough to melt platinum; then toward the outside a dark yellow flame, lengthening above, and containing soot, the greater part of which remains unburnt.” Why this difference? The jet of air is surrounded by an atmosphere of hydrocarbon. The hydrogen first takes fire with a heat of 3500° as the conse- quence. This heat is communicated to the adjacent hydro- carbon, decomposing it into carbon and hydrogen. But the carbon is simply heated, and rising with the ascending cur- rent quickly cools from white hot to yellow, from yellow to red, from red to black. It has now become soot. In short, when we burn a jet of hydrocarbon in air, the carbon has to pass through a barrier of flame ensuring its combustion ; Combustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. 199 _ when we burn hydrocarbon around a jet of air, the hydrogen burns, but the carbon is simply heated, and in time deposits as soot. To apply this to the case before us. By introducing above = the fuel the air required for the gaseous portion, we burn the _ hydrocarbon in an atmosphere of air; while by drawing this air i _ through the fuel, we to a great extent burn the hydrocarbon F a by jets of air. _ Any one may satisfy himself that the latter is the case generally in practice. The flame described by Gmelin— “white, yellow, red, and finally black—is a common phenomenon in most furnaces. And it may be accepted as an axiom that @ flame which exhibits decreasing intensity of light, in- variably ends in smoke. A flame in which the carbon is being converted into carbonic acid, can never exhibit a red appearance ; when that occurs, the temperature has already fallen below the point of ignition. To return ; we thus find that of the air required for New- castle coal, 60 per cent. (660 Ib.) should pass through the bars, and 40 per cent. (453 Ib.) should be introduced above. And it appears to be most in accordance with the principle here involved, that if excess of air above the quantity chemi- eally required be given, it should be above entirely. It is probable that a slight excess of air contributes to the com- bustion of the carbonaceous portion of hydrocarbon gases. Assuming the regulation of draught as practicable, how may we best obtain that regular and uniform combustion of both _ fixed and volatile ingredients which can alone agree with a regular and uniform supply of air above and below the bars ? An automaton feeding apparatus, by which the fuel is con- stantly projected into the furnace in small quantities, seems most suitable. But as such apparatus requires a uniform motive power, and is inapplicable to the greater number of boiler furnaces, we shall confine our remarks to hand-fueling, and enumerate the points which tend to secure regular and uni- form combustion, keeping previous remarks on minimum draught still in view. 1. Frequent fueling or firing. 2. Maintaining a uniform thickness or depth at all times, 200 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and and in all parts of the furnace. The effect of this is to render the resistance to the passage of the air uniform. 3. Maintaining considerable depth of fuel, much greater than is commonly the case. By no other means can we diminish the draught and raise the initial temperature,—consume the gaseous carbon and economise fuel. 4. Another most important end served by having great depth of fuel, and at the same time sufficient area of bar surface, is, that the draught being diminished, fewer passages are required for the hot gaseous products rising from the cinder below. The upper layers of fresh fuel may thus lie close without prejudice to the draught, are subjected to a more gradual heat, and consequently give off the gaseous combustible vapours more slowly and uniformly. Influence of Excessive Draught on the joint Combustion of Carbon and Hydrogen. In applying the principles previously laid down to this part of our inquiry, we must keep in view the nature and succession of the phenomena which accompany the combustion of hydro- carbons. 1. Previous to combustion, they are decomposed, under the influence of heat, into their elements, hydrogen and carbon. Flame is simply carbon precipitated in a visible form, and raised to a high temperature by the surrounding calorie. 2, The hydrogen element burns first. A very low temper- ature is sufficient ; at 600°, considerably under red heat, it com- mences. The carbon is necessarily freed from combination, and deposited at the same moment, and its colour will indicate the temperature present. 3. If the temperature produced by the combustion of the hydrogen is high, or if caloric from any other source is present, the precipitated carbon burns also. This does not occur, how- ever, until the temperature reaches a certain intensity. Ata red heat, 800° to 900°, combustion of carbon slowly commences, but does not go on rapidly, until a much higher temperature, at least a white heat, is attained. If this temperature is not attained, the carbon passes off unconsumed, becoming red, dull red, and black, as it cools. —. 4 ae : _ Combustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. 201 _ It appears-evident, that in any ordinary furnace, the temper- ature may, and does, suffice to decompose the hydrocarbon, and burn the hydrogen; but whether the carbon thus sepa- rated be also burned, depends on the presence of a temperature of considerably greater intensity. And this temperature must be present, not on the hearth, but in the open space above in the body of the furnace, where the decomposition of the hydrocarbons takes place. In other words, the initial temper- ature must be high; and this can be effected only by the regulation of draught, as before indicated, and by presenting the fuel to its influence under proper conditions. _ The colour of the flame or precipitated carbon affords an indication of the temperature at any point of a furnace. For a few data on this point, see Table I, columns Aand B. The occurrence of black or dark red in the flame will thus indicate excessive draught. The truth of this indication may be relied on, as the results were verified by actual calculation of the amount of air passing. The only exception occurs where close proximity of a metallic conducting medium, such as boiler plate, cools the flame prematurely, even with limited draught. Such furnaces are, it is feared, incurably smoky in most cases. We would recommend frequent attention to these appear- ances; and it will be found, with the above exception, that as the draught is reduced, and other arrangements altered to cor- respond, the flame will become reduced in size, and increased in brilliancy. Since combustion of the gaseous carbon, as precipitated, is the same thing as prevention or consumption of smoke, we may recapitulate the principal points involved. First, Proper re- gulation of draught, by maintaining a high temperature in the body of the furnace, renders the combustion of the carbo- naceous particles therein suspended possible. Secondly, It diminishes the rush of hot air through the fuel, and thus tends to produce regular and uniform evolution of the gas. Thirdly, It lengthens the period during which the carbonaceous particles are subjected to the undiminished initial temperature. As a corollary, we may safely add, that every influence tending to diminish initial temperature tends to produce smoke and waste fuel. Damp in the fuel has a very cooling 202 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and effect, as it absorbs both latent and sensible heat at the moment when it can be least spared. But that which exerts the most powerful influence in re- ducing initial temperature is the practice, now so common, of completely enclosing the furnace in the boiler flue. The body of hot gaseous matter which it is desirable to maintain for a time, at a temperature of 2000° and upwards, in order that it may burn the carbonaceous particles suspended in it, is thus surrounded by a rapidly absorbing metallic surface, at a tem- perature of 250° to 300°. The consequence is, a rapid and premature diminution of the initial temperature, while the combustion of the precipitated carbon is suddenly arrested. Other things being equal, such furnaces produce more smoke than others, with every precaution as to fueling, and regula- tion of draught. This method has been highly recommended for this reason, that the furnace being limited by the boiler, its dimensions are not left to the discretion of parties considered incompetent. Buta large furnace is not in itself an evil, as the experience of the Cornish miners for generations proves ; and only becomes so when a system of thin fires, with exces- sive draught, is persisted in. Cornish practice, the most eco- nomical and successful in the world, is ‘‘ thick fires, extensive grate area, and slow draught.” The consequence must be, high initial temperature, gradual and uniform combustion, prevention of smoke, and the utmost economy of heat, both in its production and application. Unless the furnace in which the heat is produced be removed from the boiler or other body to which the heat is to be applied, either entirely, or so far at least as to allow of a high initial temperature, we do not hope to see smoke generally consumed. In modern boiler-making, it seems to be forgot, that the fuel, both in its fixed and volatile constituents, is consumed by caloric while generating it. A style of furnace, which seems’ somewhat in accordance with the views here expressed, is men- tioned in “ Fuel and its Applications,” by Drs Ronalds and Richardson, p. 264. It is there stated to be smoke-consuming. — Supposing a regulated draught, and gradual and uniform combustion of both fixed and gaseous combustibles attained, it may be useful to inquire what appearance the waste products — = Combustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. 203 ; é =A ought to present, as they issue from the chimney-top. As- ___ sume 100 Ib. coal burned in ten minutes=10 lb. per minute ; the product per minute should consist of— 30-1 Ib. carbonic acid, invisible, 102:0 Ib, nitrogen, do. 4°7 lb, vapour of water, visible. - This emission of steam, at the rate of 4 to 5 Ib. per minute, 7 4 will appear as a faint cloud, on contact with the cold atmo- = sphere. The ordinary appearance is very different. For the first two or three minutes after fueling, we see a dense black cloud of soot mingled with vapour of water, which suddenly ceases, leaving nothing but invisible carbonic acid and nitrogen, until another fueling occurs, to be followed by the same results. As these sudden evolutions are always smoky, let us see what takes place in the furnace, supposing the gaseous evolu- _ tion over in the first three minutes out of ten, with 100 Ib. of fuel. The draught remains nearly uniform generally, what- _ ever be the fluctuations in the combustion. 3 Sic 3). 3/8 3 BSESIES|2 Sle 8/5 $/5 $18 Se d)28 Air. BS\SSGSlssmsSalesissieslss Ala) Aes) BS Baa alRS Cinder burning at uniform rate 66| 66| 66| 66] 66| 66| 66| 66] 66| 66| =660 Ib Myeinaten reales {| 151! 151|151] 0] 0) 0] 0} 0] 0] 0] =4531. 66| 6¢| 6¢| 66| 6¢| 6¢| 6¢|=1113 1b. Total requirements each minute, | 217 | 217 | 217 With one dranght, the — ss current would be, : : 111} 111) 111) 110) 111) 111/111} 111) 1} 11 1110 Ib. of the first three minutes, the > | 217 | 217 | 217 | 217 | 217 | 217 | 217 | 217 | 217 | 217 | =2170 Ib. Bat to mect the minute thet constant current must be, This system of fueling thus places us in a dilemma. If the draught is so adjusted as to be equal to one equivalent on the whole quantity of fuel, one-half of the combustibles escape unconsumed during the first three minutes. If air is supplied sufficient for the first period, it is in excess for the remainder, and amounts in all to two equivalents. This causes loss of heat, as before shown. Besides, the probability is, that after all, smoke will be produced, as there is more hydrocarbon 204 On the Application of certain Laws of Heat and present at one moment than when uniform combustion goes on, which involves a lower initial temperature ; and the damp and water of composition has also a stronger influence, being more quickly expelled, along with the hydrocarbon. This explains why the admission of air above the fuel frequently fails in preventing smoke, and generally entails loss of fuel. The only remedy is uniform and constant evolution of gas and combustion of cinder; with uniform draught, and the other conditions already referred to. Where uniform evolution and combustion cannot be attained, probably the next best plan is that proposed by Prideaux,—to admit a variable quantity of air above, to suit the variable evolution of gaseous matter. In closing our remarks, it is evident that we have left un- touched two very important heads of inquiry. First, We have carefully abstained from entering upon those practical details as to construction and size of furnace, &c., which the prin- ciples laid down have suggested. This has been done, from a conviction that much more depends on the regulation of draught, on depth of fuel, and especially on the position of the furnace, relative to the absorbing surface, &c., than on mere points of construction. For, however complete our arrange- ments may otherwise be, fuel will be wasted where draught is excessive, and smoke will be produced, more or less, where the flame, before it becomes converted into invisible gaseous matter, is allowed to touch a boiler-plate or other metallic conductor. In the second place, although we have assumed draught as capable of being calculated, and found it to be so, we have not entered on the subject. But the pneumatic laws which regu- late the motion of gaseous currents are as definite as those which concern the phenomena of combustion, or the perform- ance of the steam-engine. ‘To those who object to the use of thermometers or pyrometers for initial and terminal temper- atures, scales for registering area of damper, and gauges for force of draught, we would say,—look to the boiler, for the working of which the furnace is constructed, and the fuel con- sumed. Probably it is supplied with one or more gauges to indicate pressure, with gauge or float, to indicate depth of water, with safety-valve and fusible plug to prevent explosion, ~ . ee ee eee eee eee Combustion to the Use and Economy of Fuel. 205 with atmospheric valve to prevent collapse. Why all these ! They are required. The same may be said with equal truth of those appliances in connection with the furnace, to which we refer. If the fireman has to watch the pressure of steam, and the depth of water, why not the area of the damper, the force of draught, and the weight of fuel. Towards such a system of operation, the present paper may be, perhaps, re- ceived by those to whom the subject is important, as a slight contribution. Notes on Californian Trees. By ANDREW Murray, F.R.S.E. Part II. (Plates VI., VII., VIII, IX.) WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA. The Mammoth Tree. (Woodcut, and Plates VI. and VII.) The history of this long-lived tree has been so fully de- tailed by the various authors who have noticed it, and more particularly by Dr Seemann, so recently as March last, in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” that I should not have thought of including it as one of the subjects of my notes, were it not for the sake of some photographs of the tree sent NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI, NO, I1.—ApPrit 1860, 2B 206 Notes on Californian Trees. me by my brother, copies of which will, I feel sure, be accept- able to the public. It is so far well that the possession of these photographs should have in a measure constrained me to include a notice of this tree in my list, as most certainly notes on Californian trees, without any notice of the Wellingtonia, would have been as bad as “ Hamlet with the part of Hamlet omitted.” But I have little new to say regarding it, and I only offer, as a pendant to the sketches I have given, a short resumé of what has been already published by others, and most of which has been collected by Dr Seemann, to whom I offer my acknowledgments for the use I have made of his able paper. The tree is said to have been first seen by the unfortunate Douglas in his Californian explorations; but this has now been shown to be a mistake. The route by which he travelled is per- fectly known, and he never came within a hundred and twenty miles of any of the known examples of Wellingtonia. What he saw was Sequoia sempervirens, as may be otherwise inferred from the terms in which he speaks of it. The real Wellingtonia was first discovered by Mr Lobb, and introduced into this coun- try in 1853, and described by Dr Lindley in the “ Gardener’s Chronicle” in that year. An ancient Californian tradition, of nearly ten years’ existence, ascribes its discovery to a Mr J. M. Wooster, as one of the trees in the Mammoth Grove bears on its bark the inscription of “J. M. Wooster, Ju. 1850.” Of course it had been discovered in a literal sense long pre- viously by the Californian aborigines ; but as priority of dis- — covery depends upon priority of publication, they must give way ; and as Mr Wooster’s publication, at the best, can only be looked upon as a manuscript notice, we must, under the rules which regulate priority in such matters, hail Mr Lobb as first discoverer, although admittedly he himself was directed to it by general rumour current among the European settlers. Dr Lindley is still more undeniably the first describer, and the name given by him to the tree (Wellingtonia gigantea) has of course precedence over all others. Notwithstanding this, the Americans made a strong effort to change the name into one bearing reference to Washington. As Dr Seemann tells us, “ they even commenced in their newspapers an agi- tation against the adoption of the name Wellingtonia, quite Notes on Californian Trees. 207 _ ignoring thatthe savans of their country bow to the same code of scientific laws which govern the conduct of their European brethren, and that no amount of popular clamour could cause the right of priority here at stake to be set aside. When, therefore,” says he, “ Dr Winslow exhorted his coun- trymen in grandiloquent language to call the mammoth tree, if it be a Taxodium, T. Washingtonium ; if a new genus, Washingtonia Californica ; he simply proclaimed to all the world that he knew nothing whatever of the laws govern- ing systematic botany.” Perhaps the reader may like to see a specimen of the style under cover of which Dr Winslow pro- posed to effect this act of appropriation. It reads more like a speech concocted by Dickens for Mr Jefferson Brick than a real true bona fide speech. But I beg to assure them the article is genuine. It is as follows :— “* The name that has been applied to this tree by Professor Lindley, an English botanist, is Wellingtonia gigantea. By him it is declared to be so much unlike other coniferz, as not only to be a new species, but to require description as a new genus. Other botanists of eminence think differently. To this, however, he has seen fit to apply the name of an English hero, a step indicating as much personal arrogance or weak- ness as scientific indelicacy ; for it must have been a promi- nent idea in the mind of that person that American natural- ists would regard with surprise and reluctance the application of a British name, however meritoriously honoured, when a name so worthy of immortal honour and renown as that of Washington would strike the mind of the world as far more suitable to the most gigantic and remarkable vegetable won- der indigenous to a country where his name is the most dis- tinguished ornament. As he and his generation declared themselves independent of all English rule and political dic- tation, so American naturalists must in this case express their respectful dissent from all British scientific stamp acts. If the big tree be a Taxodium, let it be called now and for ever Taxodium Washingtonium. If it should be properly ranked as a new genus, then let it be called to the end of time Wash- ingtonia Californica. The generic name indicates unpa- ralleled greatness and grandeur ; its specific name, the only locality in the world where it is found. No names can be 208 Notes on Californian Trees. more appropriate; and if it be in accordance with the views of American botanists, I trust the scientific honour of our country may be vindicated from foreign indelicacy by boldly discarding the name now applied to it, and by affixing to it that of the immortal man whose memory we all love and honour, and teach our children to adore. Under any and all circumstances, however, whether of perpetuity or extinction, the name of Wellington should be discarded, and that of Washington attached to it and transmitted to the schools of future ages.” Does the reader concur with Dr Seemann in thinking that all that this gentleman, who is so sensitively alive to the feel- ings of delicacy, shows in this oration, is ignorance of the laws governing systematic botany? With great deference, it seems to me to show an ignorance of something much more important—viz., ignorance of the first principles of common honesty. The appropriation in this instance would have been a double theft, first of the honour or right to his own appella- tion, which belongs to every sponsor; and next of the happy idea which led Dr Lindley to consecrate this grandest of trees to the grandest of our national heroes. As Messrs Sang and Co., nurserymen, Kirkcaldy, say, in an exceedingly neat and comprehensive account which they have published of the tree and its history, if the Americans want such a memorial for their great man, let them discover and describe their big trees for themselves. This attempt at appropriation, however, has failed. The better class of American botanists have repudiated it, and in a few years the name Washingtonia will have passed from the memories of men, except as a scientific, or rather wnscien- tific, synonym. Doubts, however, have been cast upon the distinctness of Wellingtonia as a genus, which, if well founded, might deprive us of thatname. True, Dr Seemann, who is next in priority, has attempted to save it by condemning the specific name gi- gantea, as already preoccupied, and substituting Sequoia Wel- lingtonia for Wellingtonia gigantea; and his reasons for hold- ing that the specific name gigantea has been already misapplied by Endlicher seem probable enough ; but I trust we shall not require to settle this point. The genus seems perfectly good— as good, indeed, as any genus in this difficult and closely allied Notes on Californian Trees. 209 group of trees. The authors who have maintained that Wel- lingtonia and Sequoia are not generically distinct are Dr Seemann, Dr Torrey, and M. Decaisne. Iam not aware that any other botanists have adhered to their views; but they speak with confidence, and would seem to imply that if Dr Lindley, at the time he proposed the genus, had had the mate- rials which we now possess—(the male catkins are, I believe, what is referred to)—he would not have erected the tree intoa separate genus ; and hence, that we may infer that he now abandons it. They do not say this in so many words, but itis what one would naturally infer from Dr Seemann’s expressions. On such a point as the soundness of the genus, it becomes me, a@ mere amateur in botany, to speak with great diffidence ; but there is nothing whichI have learned with more certainty from my zoological studies than that, in determing what elements are to be considered of generic value, no one set of characters can be wholly relied on. It is a just appreciation and balancing of the whole which leads the naturalist to a right conclusion. If he rests his views entirely upon one class of structure (whether it be the reproductive, the diges- tive, the respiratory, the vascular, the nervous, or the osseous systems) to the exclusion of the others, he will fall into error. And it must be the same with the botanist: if he builds his genera solely upon the reproductive organs, neglecting the respiratory (I mean the foliage), as I think has been done by Dr Seemann and Dr Torrey in this instance, I should antici- pate that he must fall into error. In Wellingtonia gigantea and Sequoia sempervirens the difference in the foliage is most marked. Were there no other character to distinguish them, I should hold this to be sufficient. But with a just dis- trust of my own opinion in such a matter, I have applied to Dr Lindley himself to know whether any change has taken place in his views in consequence of the light thrown upon the subject by the additional materials, and the additional views (whose value I am far from depreciating) thrown out by the gentlemen I have named; and Dr Lindley has had the kind- ness to inform me, and allows me to inform the reader, that he has seen no reason to change his opinion. His letter is as follows :— 210 Notes on Californian Trees. * Acton Green, Turnham Green, London, W., * 5th January 1860. “My pEaR Sir,—Notwithstanding the criticisms of M. Decaisne, Dr Torrey, and Dr Seemann, I adhere to my opinion that Wellingtonia is necessarily distinguished from Sequoia, unless all the modern dismemberments of the old genera, Pinus, Cupressus, and Thuja, are to be cancelled—a measure in which I should not concur. It has not a little surprised me to find gentlemen who have no objection to offer to Abies as distinguished from Pinus, Sequoia itself from Taxodium, Selaginella from Lycopodium, Lastrea from As- pidium, Leskea and Neckera from Hypnum, and so on, never- theless opposing the establishment of Wellingtonia. Surely systematical naturalists must allow, that, as structure becomes simpler and simpler, so must distinctive characters be sought in smaller and smaller differences. To apply the method of classification suitable for Rosacew to such an order as the coniferous seems to me unphilosophical. “J therefore presume to differ from the authorities just mentioned; in doing which I am rejoiced to find that you agree with me.—Very truly yours, -* Joun LINDLEY.” The difference is no doubt not great; chiefly, as above men- tioned, in the character of the foliage. The differences in any of the other characters might, I think, in themselves be viewed as only of specific value: the cones, for instance, in Sequoia are smaller and more rounded ; the male catkins also are more rounded and expanded; but the foliage is the true distinction ; and I think we may be very glad to get such a distinction, to break up the tribe of Cupressus, which is so difficult and puzzling to distinguish and classify. Like a great many of the North-West American trees, the Wellingtonia seems to be confined to isolated patches. In- deed it is a curious fact (as pointed out by Alphonse Decan- dolle) that trees, as distinguished from other plants, generally have confined ranges. The first place where it was found was at a spot called the Calaveros Grove (more recently the Mammoth-Tree Grove), near the head-waters of the Stanislaus and San Antonio a ae Notes on Californian Trees. 211 rivers, in long. 120° 10’ W., lat. 38° N., and about 4590 feet above the sea level. There the number of trees still standing amounts to 92. Two other localities are now known, one in Mariposa, and the other in Fresno county. The Mariposa grove contains about 400 trees, and the Fresno grove about 600; and it is from the former that the photographs which have furnished the accompanying plates have been taken. The tree is also said to have been met with in Carson Creek, a few miles to the north of Mammoth-Tree Grove; and Car- riéres stated that an officer of the French navy brought cones identical with those obtained in California from a latitude about ten degrees north of these localities, but the identity of these cones with those of the Wellingtonia has been doubted. It is said also to have been met with in various other parts of the Sierra Nevada; but if so, it does not there attain the gi- gantic dimensions of those in the groves above mentioned. The tree is undoubtedly the largest and most magnificent known on the face of the earth. Its ally, the Sequoia sem- pervirens, is not far short of it in size, but still stands a little in the background. The average dimensions of both trees when full grown are about 300 feet in height and 90 feet in circumference. We have great difficulty in realising this im- mense height, and to assist us we must have recourse to other objects of comparison. To an Edinburgh man we have a very good one. The Gas Company’s great chimney, although built in a hollow deep below Nelson’s Monument, yet has its top 7 feet higher. Now it is only 329 feet high in all, including its pedestal, which is 65 feet in height ; and as we shall pre- sently see, one of these mammoth trees was actually 450 feet high, or nearly a third higher than that tremendous chimney. And Lord Richard Grosvenor, in a recent number of the “‘Gar- deners’ Chronicle” (7th January 1860), speaks of one he had just seen as 116 feet in circumference, and 450 feet high. It is taller than St Peter’s, and little short of the height of the Pyramids. Another way of bringing home to our sensations an idea of the enormous size of these trees is that used by Messrs Sang. They calculate the quantity of wood in a tree, and its value at a penny per foot of inch deal. The result is L.6250 for a big one. What a nice little provision an acre : . 212 Notes on Californian Trees. of Wellingtonia would make for a younger son or daughter of the proprietor of an entailed estate ! Mr Lapham, the proprietor of the Mammoth Tree Grove, gives an interesting account, in the Kew Miscellany, of the dimensions of these trees. He tells us that most of the speci- — mens now standing attain the average height of 300 feet ; but one of them, known as the ‘* Mother of the Forest,” and stripped of its bark to the height of 116 feet for the purpose of being publicly exhibited, actually measures 327 feet in height and 90 feet in circumference. Enormous as these di- mensions may seem, they are put in the shade by remembering what those of another tree must have been when in full vigour. This ‘Father of the Forest,” as the specimen has been ap- propriately termed, has long since bowed his head in the dust, and now lies at length carelessly diffused. He still measures 112 feet in circumference at the base, and can be traced 300 feet where the trunk was broken by falling against another tree ; it here measures 18 feet in diameter, and according to the average taper of the other trees, this giant must have been about 450 feet high, and was no doubt one of the loftiest vege- table forms of the present creation. A hollow chamber or burnt cavity extends through the trunk for 200 feet, large enough for a person to ride through. I may run shortly over the dimen- sions given by Mr Lapham of some of the other trees. “The Miner’s Cabin” (for they have almost all received names) measures 80 feet in circumference, and is 300 feet in height. The “Three Graces,” growing on one root, are 92 feet in united circumference, and 290 feet in:height. The ‘ Old Bachelor,’ which we are told is a forlorn-looking individual having many rents in the bark, and withal the most shabby-looking tree in the forest, is about 60 feet in circumference and 300 feet high. ‘ Husband and Wife,” leaning affectionately to one another, 60 feet in circumference and 250 feet in height. “Hercules,” 97 feet in circumference and 325 feet high. ‘** Addie and Mary” are each 65 feet in circumference, and 300 feet high. “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” 75 feet in cireumfer- ence and 300 feet high. They seem all to rise also like solid pillars, without a branch for nearly two-thirds of their height, often with furrowed bark, so as to look like fluted columns. The Notes on Californian Trees. 213 trees in Mariposa Grove are perhaps more various in point of age, but many of them do not fall much behind those of the Calaveros Grove in dimensions. One of those which I have figured from the photograph was 94 feet in circumference, and the butt, with the man leaning on it, shown in the woodcut placed at the beginning of this article, must have been still more. The smallest tree that could be found was 24 feet in circumference, and that of the next tree about 42 feet, and I shall tell the reader how I know. My brother, last autumn, desired to obtain some seed of the Wellingtonia to send home. Now, this is not an easy thing. In the first place, the trees are greatly too high to allow of get- ting up them by any contrivance. I suggested flying a kite over them, and by that means getting a rope up the one side and down the other. Let any one fancy such an experiment being made over the Gas Company’s chimney, and let him also fancy that after the rope was across, that he was the person to go up. I rather imagine he will not think it necessary for me to prove the inapplicability of my plan, unless, indeed, on the principle of hiring and sending out Steeple Jack (and he, poor man, I be- lieve is dead, and has left no successors in his business). To cut down atree was not impossible. It had been done already by speculators more than once to get a section for exhibition. Iremember that in 1854 (shortly after the discovery of the tree), my brother was himself applied to to get a slice of it (not less than 30 feet in diameter) for exhibition in the Crystal Palace, and between L.300 and L.400 were placed at his disposal for this purpose. He found, however, that such a slice could not be got for the money—more particularly one of the Wellingtonia, because it was far inland, and the expense of getting it down to the coast would have been tremendous. The Sequoia sempervirens, however, grows in some places down to the water’s edge, and this might have been more easily managed, and indeed was managed by some speculators, who exhibited at Philadelphia a section 124 feet in diameter, taken 25 feet from the ground, which formed the basis of Dr Asa Gray’s calculations as to the age of the Wellingtonia, and misled him regarding it, first from its being the Sequoia sem- pervirens instead of the Wellingtonia ; and, second, from the NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI. No. 11—aprit 1860. 2¢ 214 Notes on Californian Trees. heart of the slice having been burnt out or removed, probably for the purpose of lightening the weight in carrying it about. Another section, or rather semidiameter, truly of Welling- tonia, was examined by Dr Torrey, 11} feet in semidiameter —i.e., 25 feet had the section been complete. Dr Seemann quotes an account of the taking of these sections, which is worth re-quoting, were it for nothing else but the impression which it leaves of the enormous size of the trees :—‘ The ear- liest account of the mammoth tree,” says he, “ which reached Europe were coupled with the sad intelligence that a piece of Vandalism had been perpetrated in Upper California unex- pected in our enlightened days. One of the finest trees of the grove, we were informed, had been felled for the purpose of being publicly exhibited. This individual was 96 feet in circumference at the base, and solid timber. The work of destruction commenced by boring with augers, and sawing the spaces between—a labour engaging 25 men for five days. But when this was done, the tree was found to stand so nearly perpendicular that it would not fall; and it was only by applying a wedge and battering-ram, during a strong breeze, that the trunk was finally upset. In falling it con- vulsed the earth, and by its weight forced the soil from be- neath it, so that it lies in a trench; and mud and stones were hurled near 100 feet high, where they left their mark on the neighbouring trees. A section of 2 feet long taken from the stump, also a portion of the bark, were both exhibited. The success with which the public exhibition of those speci- mens in San Francisco, New York, and Paris had been at- tended, induced, in 1854, another speculator to strip a second magnificent tree, the ‘ Mother of the Forest,’ already men- tioned, up to a height of 116 feet, of its bark, fortunately without affecting by this ruthless process the vitality of the tree. It required the labour of five men 90 days. During this time, a person had a fall of 100 feet from the scaffolding, and, curiously enough, escaped with a broken limb. The bark was removed in sections 8 feet in length, and each piece marked and numbered, so that it could be put up in precisely the same position that it occupied on the tree. It was then, after being carted 80 miles overland, shipped down the river ——— Notes on Californian Trees. 215 to San Francisco, and thence on a clipper vessel round Cape Horn to New York, where, after being exhibited for a season, it was transmitted to London, and was for the first time on view (April 1856) in the Philharmonic Rooms, and afterwards at the Adelaide Gallery. But both of these localities were too low to admit of the whole sections of the stripped bark being put up, nor indeed was there any other available build- ing in the British metropolis which could serve this purpose. Fortunately, the Crystal Palace at Sydenham possessed the ne- cessary height ; and ever since the autumn of 1856 the whole of the bark, to the height of 116 feet, has there been exhibited.” These quotations sufficiently show that, if one chose to be at the requisite labour and expense of cutting down a tree bearing cones, seeds could be thus obtained; but an obstacle to this mode of procuring them exists in the care that is now most properly taken to protect the trees and prevent their being exterminated. One would think that the difficulty of felling them would in itself have been a sufficient protection > but it was not thought so. Dr Seemann says—“It was at one time feared that not many years would elapse before the last vestige of the mammoth trees would be destroyed. It was the ‘New York Herald’ which first pleaded for their protection. In Europe the danger in which the trees were placed was viewed with equal apprehension, inducing a cor- respondent of the ‘ Gardener’s Chronicle’ to suggest that a petition of the scientific men might be sent to the American Government, praying for the protection of this eighth wonder of the world. Fortunately, the authorities were fully alive to their duty, by prohibiting the removal of any tree under any circumstances whatever, and thus, by throwing the sanc- tity of the law around the hallowed grove, preserved to North America an object quite equal in grandeur to the famed Falls of Niagara, the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, or the Natural Bridge of Virginia.” The result of this is, that the only way of procuring seeds is to shoot down the cones with rifle bullets, or, so to speak, to saw off small branches with them ; and my brother succeeded in getting Mr Patrick Black, a young Irish gentleman admir- ably fitted for such work, to undertake the task of procuring 216 Notes on Californian Trees. some seeds forhim. A first-rate shot, a keen sportsman, full of energy, whom nothing delighted more than the exhilarating life of a hunter camping out for weeks in the open air, Mr Black was quite the right man in the right place. Well sup- plied with ammunition, he took his departure for the Mari- posa Grove, which is a long way in the outer world—not that it is without its own inhabitants, its own hotel (kept by an old hunter), nay, even its own authorities, as Mr Black had like to find to his cost. He took up his quarters with the old hunter, who may rather be said to have kept open house than a hotel, as the sky was the only roof he had—a roof, appa- rently, not yet being considered essential to the comforts of a hotel in these parts, although one might have thought that it would, seeing that the forest is 6000 feet above the level of the sea, and there was frost every night while Mr Black was there. He visited the grove, daily, shooting down a cone or two to see that they were ripe before beginning to make his collection. He soon found, however, that it would take a bat- tery of ammunition and an army of sharpshooters to make even a moderate collection of seeds. The seed is exceedingly small and thin, a mere scale, and the cone is also small (not much larger than the cone of an ordinary Scotch fir, and containing still fewer seeds), so that the product of a whole week’s shooting might be held in one’s waistcoat-pocket. Mr Black soon tired of this, and seeing one or two trees of less size than the others, and being apparently a man of a logical turn of mind, came to the conclusion, first, that it would be easier to fill his wallet by cutting down a tree than shooting down the cones; second, that it could be done; and, lastly, that as it could be done, it should be done; and being apparently also a man of a practical as well as of a logical turn of mind, he, boldly putting behind him the fear of the anathemas of the “ New York Courier” and of the ‘‘ Gardeners’ Chronicle,” as well as the nearer terror of the local authorities, at once, with the assistance of his host and two Frenchmen (that the three most civilised nations in the world might all be represented in the perpetration of the sacrilegious deed), proceeded to put his intent into execution. They first selected the smallest tree which they could find in the grove; it was 24 feet in cir- ee SS Notes on Californian Trees. 217 cumference, and took Black and the hunter three days’ hard work to level with the ground, one cutting on each side of the tree. Increase of appetite growing by what it fed on, another and another shared the same fate, until they had actually cut down four of these magnificent trees, the last and largest being 42 feet in circumference, which took a week to cut, and fell be- fore the two Frenchmen; not, however, before the echoes of their axes reached the ears of Judge Lynch, who soon stopped the fun, and in simple but unmistakeable language gave him to under- stand that it would be “dangerous” to try itagain. In plain English, the authorities interfered ; and although they did not lynch Pat (which would not have set the trees up again), they told him that they would, ifhe cut any more. The time occupied in cutting down these trees would seem to indicate that that re- quired to get the section of the tree at the Mammoth Tree Grove was either exaggerated, or unnecessarily long. Being twice the diameter, it might require four times the work; but twenty-five men for five days gives more than eight times the work. It also shows—what we see from the specimens of the wood itself—that the wood is extremely soft, very light, and easily worked, and not unlike the cedar-wood used for pencils ; when freshly cut it is white, but speedily acquires the cedar hue. It is so frush (I am obliged to have recourse to a Scotch word to express my meaning, the English word brittle, which is nearest to it, scarcely conveying the full sense)—it is so frush, that one of the trees in falling snapped in three places before it reached the ground, carrying away whole forests of silver firs and pine before it; and we see from the figures of the trees which we already possess, as well as from the photograph of the group now appended, that a great proportion of them have been broken off near the top, so that if they had continued growing in the same proportion, they must have been nearly a third higher. Butif the wood is frush, the bark is not. Our friends found it a great deal worse to cut through than the wood. It is tough and stringy like coir or the husk of a coco-nut, and is from a foot to a foot and a half in thick- ness. We have here one of those beautiful adaptations of structure to purpose which delight the mind to trace. It is obvious, that if the Wellingtonia, being so fragile, were coated 218 Notes on Californian Trees. with bark of only a common thickness and ordinary consist- ence, it could never live to be a tree ; it would be snapped across by the first wind that blew, so soon as it reached a sufficient height to give the wind a hold upon its branches; but with a coating of bark so thick, so tough, so stringy, so spongy, and so elastic, it is kept in its place, and protected from its own fragility. It is the same principle which is adopted by our- selves in packing and supporting any thing that is fragile; and, as has been pointed out to me by my intelligent friend Mr Bryson, this support is given in the way which modern science has ascertained to furnish the greatest amount of strength with the least waste of substance. The bark is con- structed on a different plan from that of most other trees,—itis on the plan of the corrugated roof, running longitudinally round the tree ; the corrugated layers are composed of harder texture, - and the interstices are packed with an elastic spongy substance. Another adaptation of structure exhibited in this tree is the great gnarled expansion of its trunk at the base, which may be seen in the plate and vignette, thus supporting it against the wind by what may be styled a circle of buttresses. I leave the reader to imagine the mingled feelings of dismay, chagrin, and satisfaction with which my brother greeted his triumphant emissary on his return (the mens conscia recti beaming on his face); and he now knows how I come to be able to give so accurately the dimensions of the smallest trees in the Mariposa Grove; as the lawyers say, “ causa scientie patet.” The quantity of seed obtained, however, was by no means correspondent to the sacrifice made to obtain it. The cones on the trees would appear to have been compara- tively few; and, as I believe is the case with other eypresses, the amount of light seed vastly preponderates. The whole quan- tity, good and bad, only amounted to between six and eight pounds; but as there are 50,000 seeds in a pound, the expedition has probably done more good than harm after all. Another circumstance to be noted is, that the cone itself (that is, the woody part of the cone which envelopes the seeds) seems to be largely charged with a dark garnet or crimson-coloured gum. My brother, in sending me home the seeds, sent them carelessly cleaned, and a good proportion of what appeared to be Notes'on Californian Trees. 219 seed was fragments of the cone itself; but in addition to that, there was no less than one-third part of the whole weight com- posed of this garnet-coloured’substance, which had exuded from and had been rubbed off these fragments. My friend Dr Cle- land has been kind enough to test it for me, and he informs me that it is entirely soluble in water ; gives, with protosulphate of iron, a blue-black precipitate; with sesquimuriate of iron, a gray precipitate; and gives a precipitate with gelatine. It is thus a form of tannine, and may be called a sort of kino. The portion of wood sent home by my brother gives me the opportunity of testing the calculations which have been made as to the age and rate of growth of the tree. It appears to have been taken from the exterior part of the tree, and contains 26 annular rings in an inch, in this respect nearly corresponding with the number recorded by Dr Torrey, as found by him in the outer part of the section he examined, where he found 20 annular rings in aninch. In his section the rings at the heart were found to be nearly twice as broad as they after- wards became. The first rings he found to be 6 in the inch, the last 20 in the inch; but immediately before the last 20, the rate was only 9 in the inch. The result to which Dr Torrey came was, that the tree was about 1200 years old, instead of 3000, as was at first improperly assumed, from reckoning only the outward rings, and taking it for granted that all the rings were of the same breadth. The tree, how- ever, is obviously a fast-growing species, and has been shown by Mr Reed of Peterborough to make its growth between the hours of 6 P.M. and 6 A.M., and more rapidly or more slowly according to the warmth of the night. It is perfectly hardy in Britain, and has already reached the height of 14 feet at Martyr Castle, near Cork, and not much short of this both in England and Scotland, and has borne ripe fruit at Thetford in England. We may therefore reasonably hope that we shall ere long be independent of the sacred giants of the West for a suffi- cient supply of good seed. In the meantime we have the satis- faction of knowing that we can make plants by cuttings with the greatest facility ; and what is most important in the great majority of cases, they grow erect and readily form leaders. Indeed, to any but a nurseryman’s eye, it would often be 220 Notes on Californian Trees. difficult to distinguish between a seedling and a plant from a cutting of the same size. Should any of my readers like to be knowing on the subject, I would recommend them to com- pare the spread of the lower branches in the one with that in the other; it is not the cutting which usually has them broadest; but even this is a fallible test, depending greatly upon the kind of slip out of which the young plant has been made. This willow-like readiness to grow by cuttings is well seen, not only in the familiar fact above mentioned, but in various of the inci- dents which are to be observed in the Mammoth Tree Grove. Turning to one tree, the “ Mother of the Forest,” already mentioned as stripped of its bark to the height of 116 feet, we see it still flourishing, as we are assured by Dr Seemann. But I am inclined to think that the Wellingtonia, notwith- standing all its greatness, has no special exemption from the evil effects of girdling, and that by and by she will suffer from that fatal cause. But beside her lies her murdered lord, the “ Father of the Forest,” who we are told put forth several young shoots after he had been felled for some time; and there are few of her descendants standing around her in which great cavities (one as large as 17 feet across and 40 feet high) have not been burnt (either in consequence of fire raging through the forest, or kindled by Indians), and yet the trees do not seem to have suffered. Dr George Lawson, in a paper which he read before the Edinburgh Botanical Society in March 1854, on the anato- mical structure of conifer and other gymnogens, noticed the microscopical structure of the Wellingtonia gigantea. He stated:that he found it to present a double row of opposite dises, which, as well as their central dot, were elliptical. I have been enabled to verify Dr Lawson’s observation through the kindness of Mr Bryson, who has made sections of the wood now received, and carefully examined them. He says, I find the structure on the transverse section resembles very much the Taxodium distichum (deciduous cypress), although the reticulations are larger. The radial longitudinal section exhibits the coniferous discs perhaps better than any other wood I have examined. The discs lie side by side, and do not alternate as in the Araucarias; they are more oblate than in ee eee a a ee | Notes on Californian Trees. 221 the true pines, and seldom occur in double rows; on ah average .28 rows of discs occur between the walls of each cell. In Tazxodium distichum, 20 rows obtain on an average.” In Se- quoia sempervirens the discs are round and not oblate. SEQUOIA SEMPERVIRENS, Lambert. The incidental remarks which I have made upon this tree in contrasting it with the Wellingtonia gigantea have anticipated most of what I had to say regarding it. It was first discovered by Menzies in 1796, and is found as far south as the Santa Cruz mountains, near Monterey, as well as considerably to the north of San Francisco. The character of the tree is well described by Douglas, in the passage which has been supposed to indicate that he saw the Wellingtonia. “The great beauty of Californian vegetation,” he says, “is a species of Taazodium, which gives the mountains a most peculiar—I was almost going to say awful—appearance, something which plainly tells us.we are not in Europe.” This of course refers to a tree so common as to give a tone to the general scenery of the country, which we know Wellingtonia is not, while the Sequoia sem- pervirens is. As already mentioned, it is nearly as large and tall as the Wellingtonia. One tree, called by the settlers the “Giant of the Forest,” is 270 feet high, and 55 in cir- cumference at 6 feet from the ground. It is known to the settlers as the red-wood—a name which I find appended to the Wellingtonia by Dr Seemann, but this is obviously an error, or a mere extension of the name, for the wood of the Welling- tonia has probably never been used for economic purposes by the settlers, while the other is largely used. It is of a beau- tiful red colour, fine and close grained; but light and brittle, like the Wellingtonia. It is good for purposes where it is exposed to water, as some of our own soft woods are, and is said never to be attacked by insects. Its bark is thick, and even in the young tree is soft and spongy. There is another point regarding it worthy of being noticed —viz., its great probable age; I do not mean the age of the individual trees, although that is by no means con- temptible—a slab of the wood deposited by Dr Fisher in the St Petersburg Museum, measuring 15 feet in diameter, and NEW SERIES.—VOL. XI. NO, 11.—aprit 1860. 2d 222 Notes on Californian Trees. showing ‘1008 annual rings—but I refer to the age of the species. M. Lesquereux, who has paid much attention to the subject, conceives that he has identified this tree among the fossil remains of the tertiary deposits of Vancouver's Island. The idea that it gave a character to the landscape in these bygone ages, long before the eye of man was present to take cognisance of them, cannot fail to excite a feeling of interest even in the least poetic. PINUS INSIGNIS, Dougl., and Pinus RADIATA, Don. A suspicion has been gaining ground among botanists that —like many other pines which in their extreme forms look very distinct, Pinus insignis and Pinus radiata may be found to be synonymous. Hartweg seems to have had this in his mind when he named Pinus radiata, Pinus insignis macro- carpa. Mr Gordon, however, who in his recent valuable work on Conifer (the Pinetum) shows little inclination to spare doubtful species, decides in favour of their both being gopd; and as he does in this instance what he has usually abstained from doing, viz., gives a reason for his judgment, we are en- abled to form an opinion for ourselves as to the correctness of the result to which he has come. He says of P. radiata: “ This beautiful pine resembles P. insignis in some respects, but differs very much in foliage and cones ; the leaves of P. insignis are much longer and stouter than those of P. radiata, while the cones of P. radiata are nearly three times the size of those of insignis and with the scales much more elevated.’ Now, unless the difference in the length and stoutness of the leaves be very marked (which is not the case here), I think we can hardly attach much im- portance to this as a character. So much depends upon the health of the plant, the part of the tree whence the leaves are taken, &c., that the most different degrees of length and stout- ness of leaf may be observed in the same tree. As to the cones, they certainly differ widely, but I have received and presented to the Edinburgh Royal Botanic Garden Museum a branch encircled with a cluster of five cones, three of which are of P. radiata and two of P. insignis, each typical of the extreme form characteristic of the two so-called species—the Notes on Californian Trees. 223 only exception being that they are here both of the same size— about 4 to 44 inches in length, instead of the P. insignis being 3} and the P. radiata 6 inches in length, which are said to be their usual dimensions. Both varieties are found in the same district (the Monterey district, to the south of San Francisco) and their general ap- pearance and the colour of their foliage is the same. This we would perhaps not find out from Mr Gordon’s description, be- cause he calls the one deep grass-green, and the other deep green, a discrepancy in describing the same thing which must have escaped him, for he afterwards refers to Hartweg’s de- scription of the beauty of the “deep grass-green” of the foliage of the one which he had just described as deep green. It is very essential for a describer to take care that he always uses the same term or phrase to designate the same thing. I could point to many who actually go out of their way to find another word to express the same quality, intending thereby to escape the harshness of constant repetition. But people do not ex- pect euphony in scientific descriptions; what they want is clearness, and how can that be obtained when different terms are used to express the same thing? _ The specimen mentioned already as having been presented to the Botanic Garden will, I imagine, satisfy every one that these two names are only synonymes of the same tree, indica- tive of the different states in which it is found, owing proba- bly to difference of soil, climate, position, &c. Regarding, as I have done, P. insignis and P. radiata as one species, I may state that this tree has now been cultivated for a considerable time in Britain, and is greatly admired for its lovely green hue and soft foliage. Gordon says it is per- fectly hardy. In the south of England it is undoubtedly so. It is a great favourite in Devonshire, where trees may be fre- quently seen between 30 and 40 feet high; and I believe there is a specimen in the garden of Messrs Lucombe, Pierce, and Co., nurserymen, Exeter, which is- nearly 50 feet high. It has not yet, however, been satisfactorily established to be hardy in Scotland. By care and protection it has been reared to a considerable height, but some sudden spring frost seems always sooner or later to cut it off at a time when all danger 224 Notes on Californian Trees. has been thought past, and all that remains of the care of years is a pile of rust-coloured leaves in place of the tender green which yesterday delighted the eye. The finest plant with which I am acquainted near Edin- burgh, is one in Mr Samuel Hay’s lawn at Trinity Lodge. It is a beautifully shaped conical tree, nearly 13 feet in height. The next in height, perhaps, is one at Mr George Logan’s of Duddingston, which is about 11 feet. Mr Humphrey Graham, of Belstane, in the Pentland Hills, from whom I have received much valuable information regard- ing pines (although of too practical a nature to be introduced into this Journal), under the disadvantage of an almost sub- alpine climate 800 feet above the level of the sea, promised to be more successful in rearing them than any other person in the middle or northern district of Scotland with whom I am acquainted, but even he had all his plants but two swept off by the frost in 1856. He is not discouraged, however, and he reports to me that he is still satisfied it will succeed in Scot- land, if tolerable care be taken. The timber is not good. I remember my brother telling me when he was last in this country that it was useless. It would appear, however, that a use has now been found for it. In a recent letter he writes, “ the street planking here (San Francisco) used to be done with Oregon lumber, but now it is being superseded by the Monterey lumber (most likely P. in- signis) for the reason that it is very resinous, and stands the wear and tear of such a purpose better.” PInuUs JEFFREYI, Oreg. Com. (Plates VIII. and IX.) This pine was discovered by Mr Jeffrey, who was sent out in 1850 to collect seeds in North West America by an associa- tion of gentlemen which originated in this city, and was prin- cipally composed of Scotchmen, although it also numbered in its body many noble and eminent subscribers from the sister kingdom, chief of whom I should mention, His Royal Highness the Prince Consort. That association still lives in its embers, and I trust that an effort now making to revive it may be suc- cessful, and that it may yet make as many discoveries in Japan as it did through Jeffrey in Oregon and California. Some ‘ ; . . Notes on Californian Trees. 225 _subseribers to the association remembering only that the third and last year of Jeffrey’s engagement terminated unsuccess- fully, and that they had just reason to be dissatisfied with his conduct during that year, sometimes speak of his expedition as a failure. But it is unjust so to term it; and if they would only remember the quantities of novelties which were dis- covered and introduced through his means, they would rather treat it as a great success, which only assumes the aspect of a partial failure from the knowledge that, great as it was, it ought to have been, and might have been, greater still. No one could have worked more conscientiously and more perseveringly than Jeffrey did during the first two years of his employment, and bearing in mind the fact that Menzies and Douglas went to a virgin country, his collections do him no discredit, even as compared with theirs. He dis- covered several new pines, six of which were described by Professor Balfour, along with figures by Dr Greville, in one of the Reports of the Oregon Committee, and two or three more still remain undescribed. The Report of the Oregon ‘Committee having been only issued to its shareholders, can- not, perhaps, be strictly said to be published, at least I un- derstand that some scientific purists so maintain, although I am not sure that they are right, since I see little difference between a printed report to an association sent to its subscri- bers, and a printed book (published by subscription) sent to its subscribers. But be that as it may, Mr Gordon has pub- lished the description of this pine in his work, and its name and identity are thereby secured. He has not, however, given the figure of the cone, which is one of the most perfectly beautiful I have ever seen. As I have received a sketch of the tree itself, taken by Mr Peebles, which I have caused to be lithographed for this paper (Plate VIII.), I have thought it desirable at the same time to reproduce the figure of the cone (Plate IX.) Jeffrey found the tree in Shasta Valley, North California, lat. 41-30°. It has also been found in Scots Valley; and Mr Black, whom I shall have presently to mention, found it near Mariposa. It is a fine tree, 150 feet in height, and 4 feet in diameter. It has not yet been found near enough any * 226 Notes on Californian Trees. of the cities to allow of the economic value of its wood being ascertained. Pinus Murrayana, Oreg. Com. This is another of the species discovered by Jeffrey, and de- scribed by Professor Balfour in the Report of the Oregon Com- mittee. Mr Gordon, however, disallows it, placing it as a syno- nyme of P. muricata, but without stating the grounds on which he has come to that opinion. It appears to me very distinct ; and although I have, as in the case of P. radiata and P. in- signis, the advantage of additional and better material to form a judgment upon than probably was in Mr Gordon’s hands, I can scarcely acquit him of hastiness in coming to the conclusion he has arrived at. He gives a correct account of the locality where the true P. muricata was found, viz., in the mountains of Monterey, mountains not higher than 3000 feet, and situated near the sea, and south of San Francisco; and also states correctly where Jeffrey had found, what the Oregon Commit- tee called P. Murrayana, viz.,on the Syskyon Mountains, far north of San Francisco, at an elevation of 7500 feet above the level of the sea; and the tree is described as being at both of these places about 40 feet high. Now, one of the facts with regard to the distribution of conifers in California, which must have struck any one who has studied the subject, and with which Mr Gordon cannot fail to be familiar, is that, tak- ing San Francisco as a point, the pine vegetation to the north and south of it, making a certain allowance for transitional portions, is essentially distinct. In the latitude of San Fran- cisco, we have the P. Sabiniana,—to the south of it, P. Coulteri, P. insignis, P. muricata, P. bracteata, &e. North of it their place is supplied by Picea nobilis and grandis, Pinus monticola, P. tuberculata, P. Jefreyi, &c.; and the very circumstances of the one being found at an elevation of 7500 feet, so far north as the Syskyon Mountains, and growing near the sea, at an elevation of 3000, so far south as Monterey, ought to have put Mr Gordon on his guard against confounding them. . Without going into minite detail as to the differences be- tween the two, I shall only observe, that the cone of P. muri- Notes on Californian Trees. 227 cata is 3inches in length ; while a pretty extensive series of P. Murrayana enables me to say, that its dimensions are from 14 to 2 inches in length. Again, P. Murrayana has a very peculiar long spine, or rather prickle, from 1 to 2 lines in length, sticking outwards and backwards from the middle of each seale; while P. muricata has only ‘‘a slight ridge running across the scales near the top, terminated by a short, straight broad prickle in the centre.” In the specimens of P. Mur- rayana which were received from Jeffrey, these spines were broken off, and the cone is so figured, and Mr Gordon is not responsible for the error thence arising; but they are well marked in specimens since sent, more than once, by my brother. and now in the Museum of the Botanic Garden, and in that of Messrs Lawson. Mr Gordon says, that it is the Obispo or Bishop’s Pine, and perfectly hardy. This is only half true. The P. muricata _ is the Bishop’s Pine, and the P. Murrayana is perfectly _ hardy. That the P. muricata is hardy, is more doubtful. There is another pine known to horticulturists as P. M‘In- toshiana, which Mr Gordon considers synonymous with P. contorta, Don, but which I think is more likely to prove syno- nymous with P. Murrayana. In the young state they are undistinguishable; but I have not seen the cone of P. M‘In- toshiana. Mr Black, an English engineer who had occasion, in the per- formance of works entrusted to him in California, to make use of various of the country woods, informs my brother, that P. Murrayana is the best wood in the country for railway sleepers, sluice-heads, and purposes where a hard and durable wood is required ; but being of a small growth, and more knotty than some of the others, is not so good for planks, and what is technically known by the term lumber. He also mentions as a@ peculiarity in it, that the rings are more concentrated at the . outside than at the heart, which he says is just the reverse of the others,—only of some of them however,—for we shall find that this is also the case with Wellingtonia gigantea. He suggests that it may indicate a rapid growth when young, and slow afterwards, owing, perhaps, to the scantiness of the soil in the rocky regions where it grows. 228 On the Incorrectness of the Present Mode of Estimating the - Mean Temperature in England. By James STARK, M.D.,, F.R.S.E., &c., &e.* As in other sciences, meteorologists are very apt to be led - by a name; and provided a practice be recommended by some one who, from his position or otherwise, has acquired a name, his recommendation is adopted without examination, even to ‘the damage of the science itself. Such is the case with re- gard to the mode of estimating the mean temperature at present followed in England. Mr Glaisher, who occupies the position of Meteorologist in Greenwich Observatory, and Secretary to the Meteorological Society of England, has recommended, and has for years followed, the practice of estimating the mean tem- perature by taking it as the mean of the united observations made by the self-registering and common thermometers—the exact mean of the observations made by each of these instru- ments being first altered by certain tables which he has con- structed for the purpose of correcting them for what he terms diurnal range. Let us look into this subject.a little, and see the facts on which such corrections are made; and the principle involved in making the altered observations of one instrument made the basis for the correction of another and more trustworthy instrument, whose indications are at all times steady, and free from the liability to error to which the other is subject if not read at the exact hour and minute of time when the observa- tion ought to have been made. At Greenwich, from 1840 to 1845, a series of thermometric observations was made with the common dry-bulb thermometer alongside of the wet-bulb, the readings being taken every second hour of Gittingen mean time. It was inferred, but without any proof that such is the case, that the mean of these twelve readings in the twenty-four hours would give the true mean temperature of the day, although it was known that | these readings would almost invariably miss the period when the greatest heat of the day occurred ; so that from this cir- * Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 16th January 1860. OT ee ae ee ae a I a # On Errors in Estimating Temperature, &e. 229 cumstance, the mean temperature so deduced would always be below the truth. It was also inferred that the readings of the dry bulb would not be at all influenced by the neighbour- hood of the wet bulb, the evaporation from which would also have the effect of causing the dry-bulb readings to be slightly below the truth. It was further inferred, that the rise and fall of temperature was uniform between each two-hourly period at which the readings were taken; so that, when tables were drawn up to suit Greenwich time, the corrections to be applied were calculated on the principle of uniform rise and fall, which we all know is far from being the case. It was also inferred, that a period of five years would suffice to de- duce a satisfactory mean basis on which all the calculations should be founded,—a fallacy which strikes at the root of the whole superstructure. Now, any one reflecting on these circumstances will at once see that serious errors must arise from constructing tables of correction on suchimperfectdata—Firstly, Because a five years’ series of observations is far too short a period to give a satis- factory mean result for either daily, monthly, or annual mean temperature; and, secondly, Because the highest temperature of the day not being noted'at all by these two-hourly readings, we not only obtain a mean result below the truth, but we have no data by which to calculate the period of the day when the highest temperature is attained; and hence the 3 o’clock readings are rendered perfectly useless for the purpose of estimating mean temperature, when ¢hree readings only are taken in the course of the day, of which that at 3 o’clock is always one. First, then, it may be demonstrated that a series of obser- vations for a period of five years only could never elicit a true mean, either for days, months, or years; and yet, as the basis of all tables of correction must be founded on a fixed mean, it is absolutely necessary that that basis be extended over a much longer period of years before any reliance could be placed on its deductions. Let us look for a moment at this point of the subject. Scotland has only had the advantage of having its meteoro- NEW SERIES,—VOL. XI. NO. 11.—aprit 1860, 25 230 . On the Incorrectness of the Present Mode logical data collected and published since 1855. Let us see how the last four years stand with regard to the one element of mean temperature :— ScoTLanp, Mean temperature for 1855, ae ” Pa 1856, A ° 457 ” ” 1857, . ; 480 mA % 1858, . , 46°6 It is seen at once from this table, that during this period of four years there has not been the most distant approach to uniformity of even mean annual temperature in Scotland ; but, on the other hand, there is the striking fact that during that period the mean temperature of one of the years differed from that of another by nearly 4 degrees. Now it would be a most unsafe conclusion to deduce from this table that the mean temperature of Scotland was 461. The period of time is evidently far too short to afford even an approximation to the truth. If we look at the mean temperature of a few of the months during these several years, we shall find a still greater diversity, as is shown in the following table :— ScorTLanD. Years. Feb. |March.| May. | June. | July. | Sept. °o ° 1855, . . | 27-0 | 36:0 | 440 | 55-0 | 60-0 | 52-0 1856, . . |39°6 | 39-4 | 46-7 | 533 | 56-4 | 50-9 1857, . . | 39:3 | 39-2 | 49°8 | 57-4 | 58-0 | 561 1858, . . | 358 | 39°5 | 49-5 | 58-9 | 560 | 545 1859, . . | 396 | 43-0 | 51-9 | 569 | 595 | 52°3 Range,. . |126| 70| 79| 566) 40) 41 By this table it is seen that during a period of five years the range of mean temperature during the months has been so varied in different years as quite to preclude the idea of a five years’ average giving even the most distant approach toa true mean. Thus, in July and September, the range of mean temperature during five years was 4 degrees; in June, 5°6°; _—T ——— - of Estimating the Mean Temperature in England. 231 in March, 7°; in May, 7°°9; while in February it was no less than 12°6. Secondly, It may next be shown that the two-hourly periods of observation could not give the true mean temperature, as they did not include the highest temperature of the day, which was from two to six degrees higher than any of the two-hourly readings, during the warmer periods of the year. In proof of this position is subjoined one of the Greenwich Summary Tables for the year 1844, one of the years on which Mr Glaisher’s Tables of Correction are founded; and this table speaks a language which one would think no one can misin- terpret. This table shows the highest and the lowest degrees of tem- perature at Greenwich during every month of the year 1844, both as noted at the two-hourly readings of the dry-bulb ther- mometer, and also as indicated by the self-registering thermo- meters ; and a comparison of the highest readings of the dry- bulb, with the highest readings of the self-registering thermo- meter, and likewise the comparison of the lowest readings of the dry-bulb with the lowest readings of the self-registering thermometer, fully bear out the position which has been stated. Thus, every meteorologist knows, that while the curve of tem- perature is very great during the day, the curve of temperature during the night is so much less that for several hours of the night the temperature varies but little. This table, then, ex- hibits also this fact; for while it shows that the two-hourly readings approached the lowest temperature during the night within a few tenths of a degree, on the other hand, these same two-hourly readings never, during any month, reached the highest temperature, the very mean of the twelve months show- ing that the highest readings of the dry-bulb thermometer at the two-hourly periods were 2°4 below the actual highest tem- perature which occurred, as indicated by the self-registering thermometer. 232 On the Incorrectness of the Present Mode Dry-Bulb Self-Registering Greenwich. Thermometer. Thermometer, 1844. Highest) Lowest | p., ge. Highest | Lowest Range. reading. reading. reading.|reading. January, . .. 52°8 | 186 | 342 || 537 | 188 | 849 February,. . 483 | 21:2| 27-1 | 50-4 | 20:0] 30-4 Mathes i, 57°6 | 24:3 | 333 || 60°2 | 241 | 36-1 April, . . . . | 746| 340| 406 || 749| 33-4| 415 May, .... | 746] 346| 400|| 77-4| 339] 43% June, . . . . | 833] 436| 39-7 || 876 | 43-4 | 44-2 July, . . . . | 851] 472 | 379] 87-4] 471] 403 August, . . . | 72:5 | 431 | 294] 75-4 | 428] 32:6 September, . . | 731 | 35°2| 37-9 || 780] 34:8] 43-2 October, . - . | 65:9 | 31°5| 34:4 || 67-4 308] 366 November, . . 57°4 | 288] 286 || 581 | 2741 30-7 December, . . 46:0 | 216 | 24°4 493 | 21:1 | 282 Mean,. . 65°9 | 31°9 | 33°9 68°3 | 31:4 | 368 This table, then, at once proves, what was stated at the out- set, that readings at two hourly periods must fail to give the true mean temperature, and must indicate a mean temperature below the truth. But what is true of the months is also true of the days, and this, of course, to a greater extent than the months themselves. Let us take an example from the Green- wich observations of the highest temperatures by each kind of instrument on consecutive days of the same month of 1844, On the 2d of September, the highest of the two-hourly readings of the dry-bulb thermometer was 73°:1, but the actual highest degree of temperature which occurred that day was 78°, as regis- tered by the self-registering thermometer. On the 3d Septem- ber, the highest two-hourly reading was 68°7, but the actual highest degree of temperature that day was 71°°4. On the 4th September, the highest two-hourly reading was 72°-8, but the actual highest was 73°7. On the 5th September, the highest two-hourly reading was 69°1, but the actual highest was 71°3. On the 6th September, the highest two-hourly reading was 72°-2, but the actual highest was 73°8. On the 7th Septem- ber, the highest two-hourly reading was 72°-5, but the actual highest degree of temperature was 74°. These, then, may . of Estimating the Mean Temperature in England. 233 serve as examples of the statement made, and at once account for the mean of the two-hourly readings being below the mean of the self-registering thermometers, and of course below the truth. Had Mr Glaisher, however, confined his corrections to the dry-bulb readings alone, no great harm might have resulted, provided these corrections were applied to their legitimate use —-viz., to enable a person from one reading of his thermometer daily to deduce the probable mean temperature of his locality _foreach month. But Mr Glaisher has gone far beyond this ; for he not only alters by these tables every observation made with the dry-bulb thermometer, so as to let the mean of no series of observations be published as observed, but, from finding that the mean of his two-hourly readings was always below the mean of the observations made with the self-regis- tering thermometers, he alters their means also, by deducting from the mean of each month a quantity which is intended to reduce their mean to the mean value of his two-hourly read- ings. He thus commits two great errors—/irst, in assuming that the two hourly readings of the dry bulb, taken in the faulty circumstances above noticed, give the only true mean temperature; and, secondly, that the mean of the self-regis- ing observations must be erroneous. He hence asserts that the mean temperatures procured by taking the strict mean of the maximum and minimum readings of the self-registering ther- mometers are too high. I shall however prove, I trust to your perfect satisfaction, that the strict mean of the maximum and minimum self-registering thermometers (provided these instruments be of proper construction) is far nearer the true mean when unaltered, than when altered by Mr Glaisher’s tables. : Now, to prove this point, I am prevented from referring to the Greenwich observations, first, because the original obser- vations, from which Mr Glaisher drew his conclusions, were made with that most untrustworthy instrument, Six’s register- ing thermometer, so that I cannot refer to the observations made with it; and, secondly, because when, at Greenwich, instruments of proper construction were procured, Mr Glaisher has published no results which could permit any one to test 234 On the Incorrectness of the Present Mode the accuracy or applicability of his tables. He has not only abstained from publishing the mean results of the dry-bulb observations, but also those of the wet-bulb; and contents himself with publishing certain deductions alone, and an esti- mated mean temperature, a compound result of altered dry bulb and altered self-registering thermometric means—and this result deduced on a principle which every one who exa- mines it must condemn, This practice, in a public observa- tory, whose observations are made and published at the public expense, is strongly to be condemned. Whatever corrected (?) mean results, or deductions from these, are published, the strict means of the whole of each series of original observations, freed merely from instrumental errors, ought to be given in full at the same time, in order that others, who consider the tables used for their correction to be erroneous, or who, though they admit the principle of the correction, may consider a five years’ period of time far too short to give trustworthy means, or who deny that corrections proper for Six’s instrument are at all needed for those constructed on Rutherford’s, or Negretti’s, or Phillip’s principle, or who may wish to verify the accuracy of the corrections applied, may have it in their power to exa- mine the subjects for themselves. Besides, the calculator may have blundered his calculations; he may have added a correction when he ought to have deducted it, and the estimated results, as published, may differ widely from the truth. But it is not only the Greenwich observations which are altered in this manner. Mr Glaisher, from his position as Secretary to the Meteorological Society of England, alters in the same manner the results from all the fifty-five Meteorolo- gical Stations in England; and as he similarly withholds the strict means of the different series of observations made with the dry and wet bulb thermometers, he prevents all inquiry as to the correctness of the alterations which he makes. In order, then, to prove that the mean temperature as deduced by taking the strict mean of the maximum and minimum read- ings of the self-registering thermometers, is far nearer the true mean than when altered by Glaisher’s Tables, reference will be made to the Scottish series of observations, which are C—O of Estimating the Mean Temperature in England. 235 made with trustworthy instruments; and which, from their very number, ensure an accurate mean result, much more truly than if they were the limited observations made at one station. But in Scotland we have, in addition, a series of ob- servations carried on at Makerstoun, by our late venerable and honoured President, Sir Thomas M. Brisbane, with a care and accuracy which nothing can surpass. Reference will there- fore also be made to the Makerstoun observations, for the years 1857 and 1858, to illustrate and prove the same point. _ The following table gives the mean readings of the maxi- mum and minimum self-registering thermometers, and along- side of these, the mean of the morning and evening 9 o’clock readings of the dry-bulb thermometer at Makerstoun, for the several months of the years 1857 and 1858 :-— MAKERSTOUN, 1857. 1858. Mean of Mean of Mean of Mean of Months. Self-regist. | -Dry-bulb | Self-regist.| Dry-bulb Thermoms. | Thermom. | Thermoms. | Thermom. F ° °o °o ° January, . ..- - 365 35°3 38°8 38°5 | February, .. . 39-1 38-2 351 34:8 Mareh, .... 39°4 39°1 40°0 39°4 sre oe 42-7 42°3 4471 44:0 Pea s+. «. « 49°3 45°6 49°2 49°2 STS 6-6 '« » 57°0 57°1 59°4 59°6 ars 56°2 582 56°5 55°7 August, ... - 60°5 60°2 57°5 57-4 September, . . . 54°9 54°9 55°2 53°5 ae 50°6 49°4 460 45°2 November, ... 43°0 430 39°7 380 December, ... 44°9 44°5 39°0 38°2 Se ee 47°8 47 5 46°7 460 By this table it will be seen, that at Makerstoun, in the south of Scotland, the mean temperature, as given by the 9 o’clock morning and evening readings of the dry-bulb thermometer, is so very close on that of the self-registering mean, that the difference might almost result from the mode of taking the readings. The tenths of a degree are all esti- mated by the eye, and according to the level at which the in- 236 On the Incorrectness of the Present Mode strument is presented to the eye, there may-easily be differ- — ences of several tenths of a degree. The slight differences, however, between the means of the two kinds of instruments may have been caused by the Sunday readings having been included in the readings of the self-registering thermometers, whereas no Sunday observations are taken with the dry-bulb thermometer. Let us, however, suppose for a moment, that the Greenwich Table of Corrections,* for the dry-bulb reading at 9 o'clock, applied to Makerstoun. On the mean of the year, they would add six-tenths of a degree to the mean of the dry-bulb readings, and thus bring the mean of the dry-bulb for the year 1857 to 48°1, and that of 1858 to 46°°6. To procure a mean result, however, for these years we may, for the sake of illustration, unite the means, and divide by two, when we get, as the mean result of the two years, the mean temperature of the dry-bulb corrected by the Greenwich Tables, as 47°°3; while the mean of the self-registering thermometers as observed, and without any correction whatever, is within one-tenth of a degree of the very same—viz., 47°2. This fact of itself clearly proves, that the mean temperature which is the strict mean of the self- registering thermometers (when these are of proper construc- tion) is the true mean, and requires no correction whatever. This fact is still better and more satisfactorily demonstrated by the Makerstoun observations for 1844, the last of the Makerstoun Meteorological Reports published by the Royal Society, which contains Summary Tables of the hourly read- ings of the common thermometer. In the annexed table, the Sunday readings of the self-registering thermometer are ex- cluded, in order to render the results of dry-bulb and self- registering thermometers thoroughly comparable,—no readings of the dry-bulb being taken on Sunday. * Two tables for diurnal range have been drawn up in Scotland—viz., for Leith and for Culloden. The data on which these are founded are too imper- fect to render them trustworthy. They however demonstrate, that the horary (miscalled diurnal) range of temperature is very much less in Scotland than at Greenwich. MakKerstoun, 1844. Meanof (MeanofDry- Months. Self-regist. | bulb hourly Therm. Readings. Tran Bee January, . | 8363 | 36:92 its... « | ome | S289 0 | 3860 | 3823 April, ene fe Laut S08) 2), 46°60 Dac wicca | 4869. | 48°46 June, . - + + « | 55°26 54°20 July, . 8607 | 55°56 August, . Se Ais EE Ores.. - 1 --5ase September, . ... . 5302 (| 52:46 a 8 ete. s 4633 (| 45°71 November, 41°88 42°66 December, 31°73 31°63 } | Mean, ) 45°05 | 4493 2 By this table it is seen that the mean annual temperature, as taken by the hourly readings of the dry-bulb thermometer, was 44°93, while by the self-registering thermometer it was 45° Fahr., a correspondence so close that it is scarcely pos- sible to get a nearer approximation. Here, then, we find that hourly readings of the dry-bulb thermometer give an annual ‘mean temperature within one-tenth of a degree of the strict mean of self-registering thermometric observations; and as we all know the care and accuracy with which the Makerstoun observations are made, even if this fact stood alone, it would prove the point contended for—viz., that, in so far as yet ap- pears, the strict mean of the self-registering thermometers, when these ave of proper construction, give the true mean _ temperature. It may be remembered, that all the tables of correction which different meteorologists in this country and on the continent have published, for the purpose of correcting the mean values of the self-registering thermometers, were drawn up from observations made with that untrustworthy instrument, Six’s self-registering thermometer—an instrument so notoriously untrustworthy, that it would not now be received into any observatory in this country. - NEW SERIES.—VOL, XI. NO. 11.—ApriL 1860. 2F 238 These results, then, appear to demonstrate, in the most satisfactory manner, that in Scotland the self-registering thermometers, if of proper construction, give the true mean temperature and require no correction whatever. This con- clusion is rendered still more cértain by taking the mean of all the observations made in Scotland with the two sets of in- struments during the years 1857 and 1858. On the Incorrectness of the Present Mode | Aut ScoTLAND. 1857. 1858. Mean of Mean of Mean of Mean of Months. Self-regist. | Dry-bulb | Self-regist. | Dry-bulb Thermoms. | Thermom. | Thermoms. | Thermom. ° ° ' ° ° January, . 35°7 356 » 393 39°3 February, 39°3 39°2 35°8 35°1 March, 39°2 38°9 39°5 -89°0 April, . 42°7 42°8 43°8 43°6 May, . 49°8 49°7 49°5 49°7 June, . 57°4 57°6 58°9 59:0 July, . 58°0 58°1 56:0 56°1 August, 60°0 59°7 57:9 58-1 September, 56°1 56°0 54°5 54°4 October, . 49°6 49°4 44°9 443 November, 437 43°5 39°4 38'8 December, 44°9 45°0 39°9 89°9 Mean of Year, . 480 47°9 46°6 46°5 This table, then, affords an additional demonstration of the fact that, in Scotland at all events, the mean of the selj- registering thermometers gives the true mean temperature, and requires no correction whatever for any supposed monthly variation. It also shows, what the Leith and Makerstoun observations had previously demonstrated, that the 9 o’clock morning and evening readings of the common thermometer give a very close approximation to that mean; so close, indeed, that for all ordinary purposes their mean results might be used wherever the means of the self-registering thermometers were unattainable. But, as before remarked, Mr Glaisher would allow no result to be published as observed, but would apply to all results some fancied correction. Having, therefore, made his correc- \ of Estimating the Mean Temperature in England. 239 tion on the dry-bulb thermometer, to bring it to what he terms its true mean, he proceeds to do the same to the mean result of the self-registering thermometer. As his faulty observa- tions at Greenwich made it appear that the Six’s self-register- ing thermometer always gave too high a mean temperature, { 9 in order to reduce that mean to strict conformity with his sup- posed true mean, as given by his two-hourly readings of the | y dry-bulb thermometer, he deducted from the self-registering mean a quantity equal to the difference between the mean readings of these two instruments. On the mean of the year that deduction amounts to 1°07; so let us for a moment see what effect Mr Glaisher’s corrections(?) would have on our Scottish observations—whether they would cause them to agree more closely, which if they were really corrections they would do, or whether they render both mean temperatures unquestionably incorrect and quite diverse from one another. The following table, then, exhibits the mean results at Makerstoun and for all Scotland for the years previously quoted, with the corrections to each set of instruments required by Glaisher’s Tables, and the asserted UNIFORMITY sought for by the application of these tables :— MAKERSTOUN. ScoTLanpb. 1844. 1857. 1858. 1857. 1858. @ |e |e lee |e leb |e [ge |e les 8 26 [eu Lf: $a |34 £5 8 # a |3A eke |2e leg [28 ed |2e ed [22 ee a |e a| ce Sea =e Sea es a 3a [Ske =] ss g* G25) §* 222) @* |g25| §* 922) 9° 2 = a = a IA = a = = Mean as i , IEE cxnctacatecaces 45°05 | 44°93 | 4780) 47° | 46°70) 460 | 4800| 479 | 46°60) 4°65 Corrections for each by 1 Glaisher’s —1°07; 000 107 +06 |—107/4+06 —107 406 |—1-07 406 Results,............ 43°98 | 44°93) 46-73/| 48°1 | 45°63| 466 | 4693) 485 | 45°53) 47-1 By this table it is seen that, instead of Glaisher’s corrections causing the observations made by the two kinds of instruments to agree, it causes them to differ most widely from one another. Yet the very object of applying these corrections at all was for the express purpose of making them correspond. This table, therefore, it is hoped, will satisfy even the most prejudiced, that to alter by Glaisher’s Tables the means as ob- served, or, to use scientific language which mystifies while it prevents inquiry, “ to apply a correction for diurnal range,” is only propagating error. This table, above all, shows the error of altering the means of the self-registering thermome- ters, which were all correct before being altered by Glaisher’s Tables, but are just as manifestly rendered incorrect when changed by these tables. Now, seeing this is undoubtedly the case in Seoul: and is proved to be so even with one of its most southern stations, Makerstoun, it is nearly certain that such will also be found to be the case with nearly all, if not all, the stations in Eng- land, including Greenwich itself. We are precluded, however, from demonstrating that such is absolutely the case, by the circumstance that since this mode of altering the mean results has been adopted, Mr Glaisher, both in the Greenwich Observa- tions, and also in the Meteorological Reports.and Tables for all England, has ceased publishing the observed means of all the different series of readings from the dry and wet bulb thermometers, so that he puts it out of the power of any one to test the applicability of his correctness. It ought to be laid down as a principle, that, if the mean temperature is to be estimated at all, it ought to be deduced from the series of observations made with one form of instru- ment alone—and the one least liable to error is the self- registering thermometer, constructed according to Rutherford’s, Phillip’s, or Negretti’s principle ; observations made with Six’s thermometer being utterly worthless. There is thus avoided all source of error from not being certain of the amount of diurnal range which exists at each station, or from neglect to read the instrument at the exact minute of time when it ought to be read—sources of error which always exist when the dry- bulb readings are made use of. This mode of estimating the mean temperature also renders easy and certain the comparison of temperatures at different stations, or different parts of the world ; it also avoids all those errors which arise from blunders on the part of the calculator, who, if he makes use of tables, is apt to add a number when he ought to deduct it, or deduct it when he ought to add it; and who, if he used Glaisher’s 240 On the Incorrectness of the Present Mode of Estimating the Mean Temperature in England. 241 Tables,.as originally published in the ‘ Philosophical Trans- actions,” would be sure unwittingly to commit mistakes, as these tables are themselves not free from serious blunders. What, however, I most especially desire to effect by direct- ing attention to this subject is, that in all the Meteorological Reports which are published, the strict mean of each series of readings by the different thermometers—as observed— should be given without any correction whatever for supposed diurnal or monthly range. All such corrections may be false, as they may be deductions from observations not in them- selves trustworthy, as was the case with those from which Glaisher’s Tables were constructed. But when the original observations themselves are published, every one has it in his power at any subsequent period to correct them, should trust- worthy tables of correction be drawn up; and, in the meantime, he can compare them with observations made with similar in- struments in other situations—a thing put out of his power to do so long as the present practice is followed. It is to be hoped that the facts adduced have sufficed to prove that the mode of estimating the mean temperature em- ployed by Mr Glaisher is quite inapplicable to Scotland, and only leads to erroneous results. These same facts also afford strong ground for concluding that the same will be found to be the case with the English observations. These facts seem further to prove that, in the present state of our knowledge, we cannot go far wrong in holding that to be the true mean temperature which is the strict mean of the self-registering maximum and minimum thermometric observations, when these instruments are of proper construction; and as this mode of estimating the mean temperature is simple, requires no correction whatever for diurnal range, is strictly compar- able with similar observations made in other parts of the world, and is free from all those sources of error to which the dry-bulb thermometric observations are liable, it ought, in the meantime, to be adopted as the true mean temperature, and be quoted as such. 242 Remarks on the recent progress of Sanskrit Literature and Comparative Philology. By Joun Muir, D.C.L. I propose, in this paper, to give some account of the recent progress of Sanskrit literature, and of comparative philology. As, however, these subjects have not yet attracted in this coun- try that degree of attention which their importance demands, it may be advisable to premise some information regarding the earlier stages of their cultivation. The existence of Sanskrit, as the sacred depository of Hindu literature, was known to the early Jesuit missionaries in India; and they had not only studied that language, but also, in one instance at least, made it the vehicle of conveying religious instruction... But the effective and continuous study of this important and venerable tongue may be considered to have commenced with Sir W. Jones, who landed in Calcutta in 1783, and was the translator of the ‘“ Institutes of Manu,” and of the drama of Sakuntala, and - the author of various dissertations on the mythology of the Hindus, and the affinities of that people with other nations. This study was assiduously prosecuted by Mr H. T. Cole- brooke, who (in addition to various other important services) was the first to supply a tolerably complete sketch of the character and contents of the Vedas (1805); and who after- wards expounded, with remarkable accuracy, the principles of the different systems of Hindu philosophy (1823-1827). The next scholar whom we must mention as haying distinguished himself in the same field, is the present Boden Professor of Sanskrit at Oxford, Mr H. H. Wilson, who published in 1819 the first, and in 1832 the second edition of his “ Sans- krit and English Dictionary;” in 1827 his “ Select Spe- cimens of the Theatre of the Hindus;’ in 1837, Mr Cole- brooke’s translation of the “ Sankhya Karika,”’ or “ Memo- rial Verses of the Sankhya Philosophy,” with notes and illus- trations by himself; in 1840, his translation of the “ Vishnu Purana,” a system of Hindu mythology and tradition; and in 1850-1857, three volumes of his translation of the Rigveda. The only other British student of Sanskrit whom it is neces- — sary to mention here is Dr Ballantyne, Principal of the Government College at Benares, who has within the last few years made some important contributions to our knowledge of : owe =e a a ee ge: a ee. 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HOR | Gee | gous | Looe || * * se Preys |e Te it ie be be it or | 0% £98: Boe | OIG | Mt || Slt | EI | SHE) GEF| LIh) OOF] LI! ores | cles ||: * Tady ita I t ot g g <2 I I -_ él 6t 898+ 9-L8 919-2 6 OLF | 13h] $98 | O8F | OTF] HOF] LIF] 19-66 | 8905 ; youu 4 A ee a 2 ee *T | FT OF8- Ore || C&T | OT || ELF | C68 | GFE | HHP | GRE) OLE) EB] THE | 1L65 || * ye! \|8 ia or & T rat 6t 928-0 Gf8 BEET ol Lgh | Ge | O28) BEF Ops | SLE] 0.96 b 4 A. —=| |) —_— —}| —_ | —_*2 : “(000.1 e . ze 4 *}Oao[-vo8 “104, | mye ed ade od eg x io} “heat cane, [ltd WORK | GAO | GeoTe |-uwore | "EZ | EY | 09 poonpas pe ‘whoq | -ekvq || jo BOK || souour || moroq Be popoenen “6081 4 - Sapo] aya | Uy Ua By =) 4 “WV 18 LV ‘SaGNIM “ “UWALANKOUAH UAL RONUTNG “MALANOUVE 4 ee %, | doquinu Some asons AOU, 049 J0 9G AB 06 OPUIISUCT “N AE 344 PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. Compte-Rendu Annuel, par A. T. Kupffer. An. 1857. St Peters- burg, 1858.—Presented by the Russian Administration of Mines. American Journal of Science and Arts, November 1859, and January 1860.—Firom the Editors. L’Institut, December 1859, January and February 1860.—From the Editor. j Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. (Continued).—From the Society. Journal of the Asiatie Society of Bengal, No. 273.—From the Se- cretaries. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for 1859.—From the Academy. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, New Series, vol. iv., part 2—From the Academy. Croft’s London : What to See, and How to See it.—From the Publisher. Archaia; a Sketch of the Cosmogony of the Hebrew Scripture, by Principal Dawson, of M‘Gill University, Montreal—From the London Publisher. | The Action and Sounds of the Heart, by Dr G. B. Halford. —From the Author. ; Des Hermodaetes, au point de Vue Botanique et Pharmaceutique, par J. E. Planchon.— From the Author. Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich Koniglicher Geologischer Reiehsanstalt in Wien, Jan.—June 1859.—From the Society. Ansprache gehalten am Schlusse des Ersten Decenniums der Kaiser- Kénig. Geol. Reichsan. in Wien am 22 Nov. 1859, von W. Haidinger.— From the Author. Bibliotheque Universelle, nouy. periode, tom. vii., No. 25.,—From the Editor. IN DEX. 7 a Dr W. P., Biography of, 316 _ Alternation of Generation, 1 _ Ammonia, its Primary Use in Vegetable Nutrition, by Major John H, Hall, 334 p -Asnetbetic Agents, their Effect on Plants, 333 Arabic-speaking Population of the World, 139 _ Aral, Vegetation of Sea of, 163 Astrapea Wallichiana, its Mucilag2, 335 _ Aurora of 28th August and 2d September 1859, 90 _ Balfour, Professor J. H., on the Plant producing the Calabar Ordeal Bean, 332 ; a Ballantyne’s Christianity contrasted with Hindu Philosophy, Noticed, 103 > Balloon experiment, 114 Birds, Growth of, 260 e. -—— Specific Gravity of, 264 _ Bone Cave near Montrose, 308 ‘Boring for Water, 311 _ Botanical Society of Edinburgh, Proceedings of, 141, 333 _ Bread Making, 125 _ Breaks for Railway Trains, by W. Fairbairn, 310 _ Brewster, Sir D., on a New Species of Double Refraction, 113 on Nineveh Glass, 121 : a "British Association, Proceedings of, 108, 290 Butterflies, British, Distribution of, by H. T. Stainton, 306 _ Caithness, Botany of, by Robert Brown, 335 ___ -Caledonians, Ethnology and Hieroglyphics of, 139 Californian Trees, Notes on, 205 Ceylon, Flora of, 338 _ Chinese Astronomy, 120 _ Chloride of Potassium Crystals on the Banana Stem, 335 _ Claudet, A., on the Focus of Object-Glasses, 114 Coal-Mines of Borneo, by James Motley, 166 a Compass in Iron Ships, 110 - Cone-in-Cone Structure, 132 a _Cretinism and Goitre in the Cordillera, 29 Darwin’s Origin of Species, Noticed, 280 _ Davy, Dr John, on the Tadpole ; on the Albumen of the Newly-laid Egg; on the Growth of Birds, and their specific gravity ; on the Stomach of Fishes, 252 _ Diamond, Graphite, and Charcoal Forms of Carbon, 323 a ri 346 Index. Diaphragm for Double Achromatic Combinations, 115 Dinornis, Egg of, 164 Disguises of Nature, 66 Dynamical Theory of Gases, 122 Egg, Albumen of, 257 . Electrical Frequency, 118 Electric Cable, 112 Electricity, Atmospheric, 108 transmitted through Water, 113 Elephant Remains at Ilford, 136 Ferns, Vegetative Axis of, by Dr Ogilvie, 310 Fish, Stomach of, in relation to Digestion, 266 Flints of Amiens, 130 Flora of Aberdeenshire, by Dr Dickie, 307 Ceylon, 338 Form and Colour in Plants and Animals, 66 Fuel, Use and Economy of, 45, 192 Galago, Supplementary Remarks on, 99 Gebel Haurdn, and Eastern Desert of Syria, described Geographically and Geologically, 173 Geikie, A., on the Chronology of the Trap-Rocks of Scotland, 132 Geology of Aberdeen and North-East of Scotland, 126 Glaciers, Vestiges of Extinct. Part I., by Edward Hull, B.A., 31 Glass found at Nineveh, 121 Gneiss, Red Sandstone, and Quartzite, their Relation, 134 Goitre and Cretinism in the Cordillera, 29 Granite Quarries of Aberdeen, by A. Gibb, 311 Graptolithus, Remarks on, by James Hall, 167 Gymnotus electricus, 307 Hector’s Exploration of British North America, 169 Heliometer, Improvement of, 120 ‘ Hogg, John, on Gebel Haurén and the Eastern Desert of Syria, 173 Hull on Extinct Glaciers, 31 ‘ Hybrids in Plants, 163 Japan, Botany of, by Professor Asa Gray, 159 Notes on, by Laurence Oliphant, 169 Jardine, Sir Wm., on the Progress of Zoology and Botany, 290 Jenkins, F., on Submarine Telegraphic Signalling, 111 Kirk, Dr, on the Country near Lake Shirwa in Africa, 151 Landscape in a specimen of Calcedony, 115 Lee, Principal, Biography of, 312 Lindsay, J. B., on Transmission of Electricity through Water, 113 Livingston, J. S., on the Anesthetic Effects of Chloroform, Ether, and — Amylene, on Sensitive Plants, 333 ' Livingstone’s African Expedition, Noticed, 151 Lyell, Sir C., on the Progress of Geology, 129 Manaring Constituents of Crops, 125 Meteorological Register for 1859, kept at Arbroath by Alexander Brown, 343 Milk, Preservation of, 123 n Milne, Alex. D., on Laws of Heat and Combustion, in Reference to the Use and Economy of Fuel, 45, 192 % , 113 ¢ Stations on, 117 , and M. punctata, 306 , D. C.L., on the Progress of Sanskrit Literature, 242 Disguises of Nature, 66 ‘the Genus Galago, 99 D on the Progress of Botanical Science, 141 satel James, on the Geology of Aberdeen and North-East of Scot- ‘Tand, 126 ect-Gla: Focus of, 114 | , George, M.D., on the Genetic Oyele i in Organic Nature, 1 nie Nature, Genetic Cycle in, 1 1, Professor, on Fossil and Recent Reptilia, 294 and Salts, Symmetrical Arrangement of, 124 Crania, 25 Gleanings, 25 Oriental Origin of, 26 3 of Britain, 309 ph described, 113 of Fluorescent Substances, 125 venenosum, the Calabar Ordeal Bean Plant, 332 yfair, Dr Lyon, on a Symmetrical Arrangement of Oxides and Salts on a Scag type, 124 . | Weight, 325 oe 4 their Structure, 164 f Post-Pliocene Drift, by Rev. W. Symonds, 339 Refraction, Double, New Species of, 113 oy magma and Recent, 294 Remains near Elgin, by Professor Huxley, 134 ve _ Reviews and Notices of Books, 103, 271 Rogers, Professor William B., on the Aurora of 28th August and 2d September — ~—___-:1859, 90 ~ Roots in Drains, 335 Royal Society of Edinburgh, Proceedings of, 312 Rudolph’s Botanical Geography, Noticed, 271 _ Sanskrit Literature, Progress of, 242 Sequoia sempervirens, 221 Silurians of Lesmahagow, by Mr Page, 133 : ‘Skull found at Jerusalem, 164 Societies, Proceedings of, 108, 290 Bi: ‘Sounds under Water in Ceylon, 340 348 Index. Smith, Archibald, M.D., Peruvian Gleanings, 25 Smyth, Professor C, Piazzi, Explanation of Carrington and Hodgson’s recently observed Solar Phenomenon, 330 Species of Plants, Distribution of, by Professor Asa Gray, 157 Stark, Dr, on the Incorrectness of the Present Mode of Estimating Mean Temperature, 228 Tadpole, 252 Telegraph, Submarine, 111 Temperature, Mode of Estimating, 228 Tertiary Fossils of India, by W. H. Baily, 135 Thomson, Wm., on Atmospheric Electricity, 108 on Discharge of a Coiled Electric Cable, 112 Towson, John T., an the Compass in Iron Ships, 110 Trap-Rocks of Scotland, Chronology of, 132 Tropeolum majus, Physiological Peculiarity in, by Christopher Dresser, 337 Voelcker, Professor, on the Essential Manuring Constituents of Cultivated Crops, 125 Volcanic Rocks in Italy, by Dr Daubeny, 133 Wellingtonia gigantea, 205 Willich’s Popular Tables, Noticed, 107 Wilson, Dr Daniel, on a Fragmentary Skull found in an Ancient Quarry ans at Jerusalem, 164 Professor George, Biography of, 321 Winters in Britain, 122 Wren, Sir Christopher, Cypher of, 119 Zoophytes of Caithness, by C. W. Peach, 307 END OF VOLUME ELEVENTH—NEW SERIES. EDINBURGH: PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY. “. New Serves Vol. XI PLI 4IG. 7. — — ROCHES MOUTONNEES. Valley of the Rotha Ambleside. FIG. 2 ’ ~ 4 72 » - yo ™ oe as a - if —_- oe =_~—= - 2 /: a eG. ee oe. og saer es ope —' ~~ If 0 —* 4 xf LY ee Sa, és L” sg Ae estat _ ee MORAINE at tHE weao oF tHe STAKE PASS. mm Shoulder of Bowfell .—. Skiddaw in the distance. —— 4 , { haxwo via MORAINE OF LANGDALE 42 THE STAKE PASS. WE NM fetane Bist New Series Vol: XT. PLM. FIG. +. Per Sy. —& = - 7