nc Waees Sha beak eel He Ss 4 Stas Ale Fi pstoae. erreett tea rae St 2 oe Pe = 4a al 7 an Stix ei a er “ a PN Jad vee ERiSeeNen +B ba 6 all a Sonor ty Pe sats me ee Reames eet a Epos eines tae Se, SS. ats BhayOhs cee tetas is leet Sey ernst teeta i Hh. ja a Paes Sabesy “st ta ‘ ee ee hee ed Rear Sette acne saehs Sere Cars eatery ee ery a es heb a enee 8% ey — | ‘J ia i Wh \ ) vi : ‘ae i i a Lae bie i is ‘) THE EDINBURGH NEW PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL THE EDINBURGH NEW /4) PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL, EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS IN THE SCIENCES AND THE ARTS. EDITORS. THOMAS ANDERSON, M_D., F.R.S.E., Siz WILLIAM JARDINE, Barrt., F.R.S.E. ; JOHN HUTTON BALFOUR, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.LS., PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE AND BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. FOR AMERICA, HENRY DARWIN ROGERS, Hon. F.R.S.E., STATE GEOLOGIST, PENNSYLVANIA; LATE PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY, UNIVERSITY, PENNSYLVANIA. JANUARY ..... APRIL 1856. VOL. III. NEW SERIES. EDINBURGH : ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK. LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMANS, LONDON. MDCCCLVI. EDINBURGH: PRINTED BY NELLL AND COMPANY, OLD FISHMARKET. CONTENTS. 1. Notice of the Species of Meriones and Arvicola found in Or Nova Scotia. By Joun Witt1am Dawson, F.G.S., Professor of Natural History at Montreal. (Plate I.), . Notes on the Natural History of the Province of Canter- bury, in the Middle Island of New Zealand. By Sir Tuomas Tancrep, Bart., . Astronomical Contradictions and Geological Inferences respecting a Plurality of Worlds, . On the Chemical Composition of some Norwegian Mine- rals. By Davm Forsss, F.G.S., A.LC.E., F.CS., Part IT., . Introductory Lecture delivered to” the Students of the Natural History Class, in the University of Edin- burgh, at the opening of the Winter Session 1855. By Professor ALLMAN, . . On the relations of the Silurian and Metamorphic Rocks of the South of Norway. By Davin Forsss, F.G.S., F.C.S., A.L.C.E. (Plates IT. & IIT.), . . Contributions to Ornithology, by Sir Wirtram Jarpine, Bart. No. II., Professor W. Jameson’s Collections from the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador continued.— Expedition from Quito to the Mountain Cayambe, (Plate IV.), PAGE 39 66 79 90 10. ad 12. 13. Le CONTENTS. . On a remarkable pouched condition of the Glandule Peyeriane in the Giraffe. By T. Spencer Copsotp, M.D., Assistant Conservator of the Anatomical Mu- seum, University of Edinburgh. (Plate V.), . Notice of the Leaf-Insect (Phyllium Scythe), lately bred in the Royal Botanic Garden of Edinburgh, with Remarks on its Metamorphoses and Growth. (Plates VI, VIL, & VIII.). By Anprew Murray, W.S., Edinburgh, . - : ; On the Physical Geography of the Old Red Sandstone Sea of the Central District of Scotland. By Henry CiiFTon Sorsy, F.GS., . : Traces of Unity of Form in the Individual Bones of the Skeleton. By G. Dicxiz, M.D., Professor of Natural History, Queen’s College, Belfast, On the Different Branches of Natural History, the Chairs which have been Instituted for their Illustration, and the Manner in which they should be Subordinated. By Joun Fiemine, D.D., Professor of Natural Science, New College, Edinburgh, On the Metalliferous Deposits of Kumaon and Gurhwal in North-Western India. By Witi1am Jory Hen- woop, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., lately Chief Mineral Sur- veyor Hon. E.I.C.S., North-Western Provinces, REVIEWS :— Naturgeschichte der Vulcane und der Damit in Verbin- dung Stehenden Erscheinungen. Von Dr Gerore LANGREBE, PAGE 93 96 112 122 125 135 141 CONTENTS. . Meteorological Essays. By Francors Araco, Member of the Institute; with an Introduction by Baron ALEXANDER Von Humeoxpr. ‘Translated under the superintendence of Cox. Sanine, R.A., Treas. and W.B.E.S., . A History of the British Marine Testaceous Mollusca Distributed in their Natural Order. By Witi1Am CLARK, . What is Technology? An Inaugural Lecture delivered in the University of Edinburgh on November 7, 1855, By Georce Witson, M.D., F.R.S.E., . Report on some of the Products contributed to the Ma- dras Exhibition in 1855, . Researches upon Nemerteans and Planarians. By CuarLes Girarp. I. Embryonic Development of Planocerea elliptica. 1854, . The General Structure of the Animal Kingdom. By T. Rymer Jones, F.R.S., : : CORRESPONDENCE :— . The Vegetable Productions of the Plains of Quito; the Eastern and Western Slopes of Pichincha and the Nevado of Cayambe. From Professor W. Jameson’s Letters to Sir WILLIAM JARDINE, . Letter from J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., London, to Profes- sor Anderson, M.D., F.R.S.E. Nias il PAGE 150 159 162 165 iv CONTENTS, PAGE PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES :— Royal Society of Edinburgh, . : : : 167 Royal Physical Society, ; ; : 168 Botanical Society of Edinburgh, - 169 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE :— ZOOLOGY. 1. Hybridity—Fringilla ccelebs and montifringilla, ‘ 171 GEOLOGY. 2. On the Upper Ludlow Bone Bed near Malvern, 172 BOTANY. 3. Fossil Floras of Scotland, . : : : 173 CHEMISTRY. 4, Occurrence of Vanadium and Titanium in Spheerosiderite from the neighbourhood of Bonn, : : 185 MISCELLANEOUS, 5. On the Injurious Effects of Cedar Wood Drawers. 6. Note on Plate of Malapterurus Beninensis, 185-188 THE EDINBURGH NEW PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. Notice of the Species of Meriones and Arvicola found in Nova Scotia. By Joun Witu1AM Dawson, F.G.S., Pro- fessor of Natural History at Montreal. [Plate I.|* Havine been perplexed by the uncertainties attending the observation of the native Muride of America, the writer was induced to attempt forming a collection of all the species found in the province in which he hasresided. The following notes exhibit the results at which he has arrived, and may be useful at least as a contribution to local zoology. It is proper to state, that in collecting specimens he has been aided by Mr James M‘Kinlay of Pictou, Mr W. G. Winton and Mr A. Downes of Halifax; and that in 1842 he contributed an ac- count of two of the species to the Wernerian Society of Edin- burgh. I. Of the genus Meriones (Illiger) there appear to be two species in Nova Scotia. The smaller and more abundant of these was that with which the writer first became acquainted, and he identified it with the Meriones labradorius of Sir J. Richardson, and noticed it under that name in the paper above mentioned. He has since, however, obtained speci- mens of a larger animal, corresponding more closely with Richardson’s description, and apparently distinct from the * Mr Dawson having kindly presented to us the specimens above described, we have thought it right to give a figure of the proposed Meriones acadiz-;s. The size and proportions have been accurately kept in the drawing. NEW SERIES.—VOL. III. NO, I.—san. 1656, A 2 Professor Dawson on the former. The principal differences between these supposed species are as follow :— 1. Meriones labradorius corresponds with the description in the Fauna Bor. Am., except that the tail is five lines longer, and has about an inch of its extremity clothed with short white hairs, which also form a small pencil at the end. There are also slight differences in the colours of the whiskers and ears, a few hairs of the former being white, and the lat- ter a little lighter coloured and more yellow. A young spe- cimen, less than half grown, resembles the adult in form, but has very short hair, and is lighter in colour on the back. This young individual has, like the adult, the extremity of the tail white. 2. Meriones, nov. spec.? [Plate I.] The smaller species is similar in general form, but the feet are a little longer in pro- portion to the size of the animal. and the fur is coarser and not so close. The colouris much darker, there being a greater num- ber of black hairs both on the back and sides, and the yellow band on the side is less deep in colour. The lower parts are yel- lowish or yellowish-white, shading gradually into the yellow and black of the sides. I regret that, since I became aware of the existence of another species, I have been unable to ob- tain a recent specimen, for a more full description. The fol- lowing are the dimensions of three prepared specimens :— 1, Head and body 3 in. 6 lines, tail 5 in. 01., hind foot lin. 6 1. eae a eee eee es ee er ooo) Sil Seite Siac Pe ee ee net eee eee Se “=: : 9 ie ee These dimensions are sufficient to show the smaller size of the animal, as compared with M. labradorius ; and a glance at the specimen must render it evident that it is not the young of that creature. It cannot be identical with the Dipus ca- nadensis of Davies and Pennant, if that species has ears shorter than the fur; and the Gerbillus canadensis, as de- scribed by different writers, appears to be a creature as large as M. labradorius, if not identical with it. Should this prove to be a new species, I shall claim for it the name of J. acadicus ; but until I have opportunity for farther compari- son and inquiry, I do not insist on its being received as new. Both species of Meriones inhabit grain fields; but my op- Meriones found in Nova Scotia. 3 portunities of observation have been confined principally to the last or smaller species, which is most easily observed in harvest. At that time the animals are sometimes abundant. They do not burrow, but make little furrows in the shelter of stones, sods, &c., to which they return when driven away; and when pursued, they shelter themselves beneath sheaves of grain, or in the crevices of piles of stones. They lie so close that they can scarcely be observed, and remain motionless till on the point of being seized, when they suddenly escape by a few rapid leaps, each about a yard in length, and then lie motion- less as before, or run for shelter to any cover that presents itself. I have not found the nests in which they rear their young or pass the winter, and am not aware that they collect any store of winter provision. They may be seen to feed by day, and in their neatness and agility they resemble the squirrels rather than the other mice. It is often stated that these leaping mice are specially adapted to open plains. It therefore appears singular that two species should be found in a country originally densely and almost continuously wooded. This may be explained by sup- posing that the proper habitat of Meriones, in the wild state of the country, was in those tracts desolated by accidental fires, and overrun with herbaceous plants and small shrubs. In the present state of the country, the peculiar powers of both species admirably fit them for finding food and safety in the grain fields. II. The most common Arvicola in Nova Scotia appears to be the A. pennsylvanica (Ord). It abounds everywhere, both in the woods and cultivated grounds, and is very destruc- tive. The year 1815 is especially remembered by farmers in the eastern part of Nova Scotia as one in which these ani- mals appeared in incalculable numbers, perhaps in conse- quence of a failure of their food in the woods. They excavate burrows under stones and stumps, or in dry ground. These are sometimes a yard in depth, and have two entrances or galleries leading from opposite directions to the neatly-constructed nest of dried grass, which lies in the deep- est and most central part of the burrow. In each gallery A2 4 On the Meriones and Arvicola found in Nova Scotia. there is usually a little antechamber, to enable the animal to turn itself without going so far as the nest. They are active during the greater part of the winter, and form long galleries under the snow, devouring grass, roots, the bark of young trees, and all other edible substances that they meet with in their progress. In spring, when the snow has disappeared, these galleries may be traced by the little ridges of cut grass thrown up along their sides. Even in their journeys at this season they seem to prefer travelling under cover, as I have seen their galleries crossmg roads under a very thin coat of recently deposited snow. In winter they also congregate in barns, stacks, and root-houses. In its habits this species closely resembles, and evidently represents in the economy of nature, the European A. vulgaris, to which it approaches so closely in appearance. In the same situations with the A. pennsylvanica is found another species or variety, somewhat more clumsy in form, darker in colour, with the eyes set closer together, and a tail twice as long, scaly, and tapering. It approaches more nearly to the descriptions of A. novoboracensis than to those of A. pennsylvaniea, and it may be the species described as A. hirsutus in the Report on the Quadrupeds of Massachusetts by Emmons. III. The white-footed mouse, Mus leucopus, is also found in Nova Scotia as a field mouse, and frequents barns and out- houses; but in dwelling-houses it appears to give place to the common domestic mouse. It corresponds with Richardson’s description, and must be the animal named Arvicola Em- monsii in the Massachusetts’ Reports. TV. Both the brown and black rats of Europe have been mtrodueced. The latter is very rare; I have seen only two specimens, both obtained in the city of Halifax. The brown species is abundant throughout the country, inhabiting houses and sewers, and burrowing in the ground in the vicinity of barns and root-cellars. Natural History of Province of Canterbury. 5 Notes on the Natural History of the Province of Canterbury, in the Middle Island of New Zealand. By Sir THOMAS TANCRED, Bart. Having lived for some months in the Middle Island of the Colony of New Zealand, the few observations which the press- ing avocations of a settler with a family enabled the writer to make are confined chiefly to the neighbourhood of Christ- church, in the province of Canterbury, and to the country which would be traversed in a ride of about forty miles to the north-west, and another of about sixty miles to the south-west of that town. The latitude and longitude of Lyttelton Harbour, in Banks’ Peninsula, are 43° 36’ south, and 172° 45’ east. The port town of Lyttelton is situated on an inlet, of a depth of about eleven miles, in the rocky coast of Banks’ Peninsula, the whole of which district is composed of steep volcanic hills (from 1500 to 2500 feet in height), the scenery of which in many parts can hardly be surpassed in romantic beauty. The more sheltered parts are clothed with forests of splendid timber, and possess a cli- mate of quite a different character from that of the more ex- posed plains. At Akeroa, for instance, originally a French set- tlement on another noble harbour in the peninsula, the grape and peach ripen in the greatest perfection; whilst graceful tree- ferns, spreading their delicate fronds beneath the forests, attest the mildness of the temperature. The more exposed parts of the hills of this peninsula are clothed with the greenest grass when within the influence of the sun, whilst fern covers those parts which are more constantly in the shade. Altogether, the beauty of this combination of hills, wood and water, under the sparkling sunshine which generally pre- vails, together with the balsamic odours of the pine woods, and the abundance of fruit, make this district by far the most attractive to the mere tourist; but for more utilitarian pur- poses, it is fortunate that its character is quite distinct from that of the rest of the settlement. Leaving, then, the port and harbour, and proceeding to 6 Tancred on the Natural History of the scale the hills to the north, behind the town of Lyttelton, by the steep bridle-path which hitherto has afforded the only means of exit by land, we are struck on reaching the dividing ridge by the majestic chain of alps— “‘ There soaring snow-clad through their native sky, In the wild pomp of mountain majesty” — by which the wide-extended plain beneath us is bounded, to- wards the N. and N.W., ata distance of from fifty to sixty miles. On examining the intervening space more closely, the mean- derings of two or three rivers are seen here and there, pursuing a tortuous course towards the low flat coast, against which the ocean surf is beating along a great extent, as it sweeps round in a wide curve to the north-east, where it ends at the Kai- koras. On descending the northern face of the peninsula hills, and examining the level country more nearly, it will be found to consist, towards the east or seaward, of a range of sandhills of variable width, within which is a tract of rich alluvial soils, interspersed with swamps, where the native flax (Phormium tenaz), grass, a palm-like shrub, and in the more decided bogs a kind of bulrush (Typha angustifolia), called by the natives raupo, flourish. A tract of this swampy land also runs along the base of the peninsular hills, and seems to have been, there as elsewhere, caused by a stoppage of the natural outfall of the land waters, either by those hills hav- ing risen by volcanic agency, or by the sand banks which in the course of ages have accumulated along the coast of the ocean. Most or all of these swamps, however, can be easily drained, often by no other operation than the digging of the boundary ditches to fence the land, which then proves of greater fertility than that originally dry. This kind of country—viz., swampy intermixed with drier tracts—extends round at the base of the peninsula hills to the west and south as far as Lake Elles- mere, and also parallel with the coast, for about twenty-five miles northward from the peninsula hills, having a width of from eight to ten miles. The same kind of country prevails to the south of the peninsula, nearly to the boundary of the province. There are also 100,000 acres of rich agricul- Province of Canterbury, New Zealand. 7 tural land running up to Talbot forest, about eighty miles south of Christchurch, and a fertile belt, of from one to two miles in breadth, at the foot of the mountains. Over these tracts are scattered some small “ bushes,” or woods, the remnants of much larger tracts of wooded country, but which have been unfortunately destroyed by fires, carelessly kindled by the natives for the purpose of clearing land for their cultivations. The exterior of these woods, therefore, presents a very disappointing sight to one eager to see a pri- meyal forest in a state of nature. You approach them over ground rough with the charred stumps of burnt trees, many of which, dead and scathed with fire, are still standing all round the outskirts of the live trees, giving a desolate and blasted ef- fect to the landscape. These isolated remnants of former forests are generally in the midst of swamps, to which probably they owe their preservation from the devouring fires which have cleared the surrounding country. That these woods were, no great while since, much more extensive than at present, is proved by the stumps and roots of trees still encountered by the plough where nothing of the kind is visible on the surface, and also by the stems of trees found buried in great quanti- ties in old water-courses, which have now become swamps. It is in these swamps that we have seen bones of the Dinor- nis disinterred from a trifling depth, and it seems a tradition amongst the natives that the forests were burnt in order to get rid of the Moa. Considering how little is yet known of the in- terior of the middle island, or even of the large forests of the settled parts, it seems by no means improbable that this gigan- tic bird may yet be seen alive. The rich alluvial tracts of country above described consist of most fertile land, easily worked, not a single stone being usually found in the soil, excepting where rivers may have deposited banks of gravel. It varies from a sandy to a clayey consistency, probably with little if any lime in it, the water of the rivers and creeks which traverse it being exceedingly clear and soft. It is capable of producing excellent crops of all the cereals, as well as of potatoes, carrots, and turnips. It is favour- able to the growth of English grasses, and of clover which is generally excluded from permanent pastures from its lia- 8 Tancred on the Natural History of the bility to overrun and choke the grasses. It may be observed here, that the potato-apple ripens and becomes a highly-scent- ed and agreeable fruit, like a plum, of which a preserve is made. Potatoes have not been affected with any disease, and are generally of very good quality. In good land, well tilled, the second crop of wheat, by accurate measurement, has been known to amount to seventy-six bushels per acre. Oats are a very heavy crop, but cause great trouble to get them out of the land, as the winter does not kill them, and the old roots throw up fresh shoots in spite of ploughing. The barley is generally a very bright and heavy sample. There seems every probability that ale may very soon be brewed here (the hops being procured from Van Diemen’s Land), which will become an article of export to Australia, and even to India. Carrots and Swedish turnips are calculated to produce from 20 to 25 tons per acre. The plants which succeed the worst in new land are papilionaceous plants, such as pease, beans, lucerne, &c. Onions, also, are apt to fail till the land has been thoroughly cleared of the fern root. All the common fruit and timber trees and shrubs of Eng- land will probably flourish, though there has been a difficulty in raising seedling pines, from their being scorched up by the sun and hot winds; but this only requires to be guarded against by providing shade and moisture at the proper sea- son, whilst the plants are young. Quickset, gorse or whin, flourish most luxuriantly. Most of our cultivated annuals, when introduced here become weeds, seeding themselves, and coming up next year, in spite of digging the ground. The rest of the settled parts of the province of Canterbury (lying at a higher elevation than the alluvial tract above de- scribed) consists chiefly of widely-extended plains of light dry land, sometimes actually shingle thinly covered with grass, interspersed here and there, near the beds of rivers and creeks, with tracts of the rich land above described. Over this coun- try you may ride or drive a dray, for miles upon miles, steer- ing a course either by marks on the mountains which bound the horizon, or, if the weather is thick, by the compass, till arrested either by swamps or by wide rivers, which have to be forded. The chief exceptions to this character of country Province of Canterbury, New Zealand. 9 are to the north and north-west, where rounded downs, with steep ravines amongst them, are found.* The plains, as far as we had any opportunity of examining their geological character, are composed of an immense tract of alluvial detritus, the shingle beds, wherever found, appear- ing to consist of quartzose and micaceous sandstone. To- wards the sea, beds of shells are found buried, or even still lying on the surface. The Malvern Hills and the downs, al- ready described, are partly composed of limestone (mountain limestone), and in their vicinity coal appears, as well as iron- stone, and it is said copper ore. These extensive plains are clothed with grass, with ferns in some plages, and groups of the Ti-palm, as it is called by the natives (Cordyline australis), scattered here and there. In some places a curious thorny plant, by the settlers called Wild Irishman (Discaria australis), abounds ; whilst in others more moist, the Wild Spaniard (Aciphylla squarrosa), a sort of spear-grass, raises its formidable chevaux-de-frise. The root, which tastes strongly of parsnip, is much relished by pigs, and by the native rat, which forms numerous burrows, ren- dering the soil unsafe for a horse. I have understood that in some parts near the hills, the country is rendered inaccessible by the abundance and formidable size of these plants. In other parts there are extensive tracts of Manuka scrub, consisting of shrubs, from 6 to 10 feet high of the beautiful plant so called (Leptospermum scoparium), which is aromatic like the sweet gale, and bears a flower from the time when it is a foot high resembling that of the hawthorn. It is said to be the same which in more sheltered situations in forests be- comes a good-sized tree, and produces an excellent wood. In other parts the herbage contains a quantity of an aro- matic plant like anise (Anisotome 7), affording a very grateful pasturage to all sorts of stock, and so abundant where it grows, that when crushed by the horses’ feet, its scent perfumes the air. In other localities great quantities of sow-thistles make a rich food for cattle. * The whole extent of the province, from sea to sea, and from north to south, covers about 12,000,000 acres, of which much is occupied by inacces- sible mountains, 10 Tancred on the Natural History of the In some parts of the plains groves of the Ti-palm, as it is called (Cordyline australis), occur, whilst in others only single plants appear at intervals. They often assume a gro- tesque appearance on the solitary plain; some with dead leaves drooping beneath the crown, might be imagined at a distance to be shepherds in loose coats in various attitudes, others like persons with umbrellas behind them, running before the wind. The heart and the pith of the stem are eaten by the natives. On the extensive range of sand-hills which border the coast, the prevalent vegetation is a sort of stiff bent-grass and the Ti- palm. We found commonly a handsome Senecio, with a large yellow flower, arising from a cluster of roundish-oval leaves of a rich claret colour, and having spines on the upper surface, and downy beneath (Senecio bellidioides); together with another yellow composite flower with filiform leaves (Microseris For- steri). These widely-extended plains, and the downs of a low ele- vation with which they are connected towards the north and west, as well as the volcanic hills of the peninsula, and much of what will ultimately be agricultural land, are oc- cupied either as sheep or cattle runs, according to the dry or more swampy nature of the soil; on the latter, herds of pigs being also kept. The quantity of wool, as also of dairy pro- duce and pork, is annually doubling itself; and the only ma- terial impediment to a very rapid development of pastoral wealth is the scarcity and great dearness of labour. So rapid is the rise of the labouring class to the condition of independ- ent farmers or proprietors, that every member of their fami- lies, within a short time after their arrival, is employed in work- ing for themselves at home, instead of for hire. This state of things is being somewhat alleviated by sending out labourers from this country ; and if a regular stream of labour can be kept constantly flowing in, as the former arrivals become ab- sorbed into the class of farmers, a very prosperous state of things must be the result. Till this regular and sufficient supply can be safely calculated upon, any undertaking which exceeds the means of the proprietor and his family to conduct themselves, with only occasional recourse to hired labour, must be hazardous, and replete with vexation and disappoint- Province of Canterbury, New Zealand. 11 ment. The supply, too, of domestic servants is so very limit- ed, that persons with young families, unless they are accom- panied by unmarried relations, willing and able to undertake all sorts of household work and outdoor labour, will find it almost impossible to remain there. These, we may hope, are but temporary inconveniences, whilst the permanent character of the country and climate is most favourable to the rapid development both of agricultural and pastoral property. The flocks and herds are here exempt from those severe droughts from which stock-owners suffer so frequently in Australia; and that most destructive pestilence the catarrh is unknown in New Zealand. There is no race of wild animals to molest the stock; though a few dogs which have escaped and become wild are met with in unfrequented parts. The scab is the only disease much to be dreaded, and strin- gent laws have been passed to prevent the spread of the infec- tion, which, in an open country like these plains, with few natural boundaries, would without constant attention be liable to spread with great rapidity. A good supply of grass all the year round enables a larger amount of stock per acre to be kept here than in most parts of Australia. The climate is also fa- vourable to the breeding of horses, which will doubtless become an important article of export. Whilst upon the subject of the capabilities of the country, it may be remarked that one of the most serious drawbacks has hitherto been the want of easy access to a port from the productive country which has been described. Some small amount of produce is shipped, and stores received by means of small coasters at one or two points on the coast; but the only harbours where large ships can lie in security are those of Lyttelton and Akerob, in Banks’ Peninsula. It is a pecu- liarity of these, as of most of the harbours in New Zealand, that they are not estuaries formed by rivers, or land-locked bays bounded by low shores, but are mere indentations in the high rocky coast of the peninsula, resembling in character, we should suppose, the Fiords of Norway. * The formation of a road by which heavy goods and agricultural produce could be conveyed across such a ridge of hills is of course a serious undertaking for so young a community. It unfortunately 12 Tancred on the Natural History of the happens, also, that two rivers, the Avon and Heathcote, which unite and form a shallow estuary to the north of the penin- sula, have a bar at the mouth which frequently stops all in- gress or egress for days together. The next river to the north, the Waimakariri, though it also has a bar mouth, is navigable by small coasters for some miles, and on it has lately arisen the town of Kaiapoi. With the exception of the above and the Cust and Halswell, the other rivers of the pro- vince, the Ashley, Selwyn, Hurunui, Rakaia, Ashburton, Wai- tangi, Rangitata, &c., are rapid torrents, forming obstacles, rather than facilities, for transport of goods or communication. No more desolate scene can be easily witnessed than is presented to the solitary horseman who has to ford one of the wider of these streams, such as the Waimakariri or the Ra- kaia. After descending from one or two high terraces by very steep slopes, which appear to have been ancient banks to the river, you come to the present bank, from which you behold a wilderness of shingle and sand of perhaps a mile wide, with separate streams meandering through it. It is necessary to be very cautious in determining whether the river is suffi- ciently low to be crossed, or whether, from the melting of snow in the mountains, it is swollen ; for such is the rapidity of the streams, and such their icy coldness, that if of above a certain depth, the horse would be swept off his feet, and the rider probably be benumbed and perish. They thus become impassable, except at a ferry, for weeks together at certain times of the year. On descending into the shingly bed, often composed of stones of the size of a man’s head, as the horse plods his way slowly over the boulders, or through sand-drifts, and over banks of shingle, the stranger is struck with the utter desolation of the scene, appearing as if left by an infu- riated torrent, which has swept down and half buried the trees, whose bleached and withered arms appear here and there sticking out of the shingle, amidst a mass of reeds or withered grass. The wailing of the sea birds which soar about adds to the impression, as if they were anticipating a feast on the adventurous traveller, and the peculiar cry of the Paradise duck, as he rises from a pool, seems to show how seldom a traveller disturbs the solitude; and sometimes a strong wind *~ Province of Canterbury, New Zealand. 13 rushing down the river bed, carries with it such a constant cloud of sand, that objects are invisible beyond a short dis- tance. Arriving now at the brink of the first stream, into which the river is divided, the experienced eye will determine by the water being clear or discoloured, whether it is m a state to be crossed, or whether the snow-water makes it white and turbid. In the former case, he proceeds to ride slowly up the stream, avoiding the still current, where it is deep, and selecting a place where the water ripples over a shallow bed. Having entered the stream, the swiftness with which it dashes past, roaring over the stony bottom and splashing against the horse, is apt to make the rider giddy ; and, except by keeping the eyes fixed on the opposite bank, it is very difficult at first to know whether the horse is advancing or going backwards, or sideways, so that the sensation is by no means agreeable, and it is a considerable relief to gain the opposite side. Having crossed one stream in this way, another tract of shingle has to be passed, and another stream to be forded, (avoiding quicksands), and so on, sometimes to the number of eight or nine. It may be conceived how tedious an operation the passage of such a river must be, extending, perhaps, to a mile between the banks, whilst the distance actually traversed is much greater, especially with a dray loaded with bales of wool or other produce. Already, ferries have been established at deeper parts of the rivers where they flow in one channel ; but the construction of bridges over streams of such a width and swiftness, and subject to sudden and considerable floods, must be deferred probably for many years. Having thus given a general idea of the nature of the country, we may proceed to note some of the features of its natural history. The most striking fact seems to be the great paucity of animated beings composing the native fauna. Of terrestrial mammalia, a small rat (or vole) is the sole repre- sentative, and this is being exterminated by that formidable invader the Norway rat, which has been imported in ships. The herbage and climate are favourable to the increase of the ruminants, as well as of the horse, the hog, the dog, &c., which have been introduced by Europeans, and would probably prove 14 ” Tancred on the Natural History of the equally so to deer, hares, and rabbits, and many other quadru- peds. It seems a very singular fact, that it should have re- mained for ages untenanted, and ready to support at any moment a vast amount of the useful animals which accom- pany man. The only quadrupeds now wild, which have been introduced, are a few dogs, which have escaped, and in unfre- quented arts pare dangerous to the flocks ;—and pigs, which have become very numerous in the swamps, and afford a con- siderable supply of meat to cattle stations, on which they abound. When Captain Cook discovered this island, he found the natives in possession of dogs, and he introduced swine. Of birds, the supply is more considerable. The water- birds assemble in immense flocks on the lagoons, and parti- cularly on Lake Ellesmere ; but as to the number of species,’ we have no exact information. The ducks are excellent eat- ing ; one of them, called the gray duck, is something like our wild duck, another, a shoveller (Spatula rhynchotis), one like a teal, and a widgeon. There are also numerous shags, or small cormorants—a black, a bronze green, and a gray species (G. punctatus)—and several gulls, terns, and stilts (Himantopus nove zelandice and H. leucocephalus). The _ very handsome bird called the Paradise duck (Casarca va- riegata), but which in fact is a small goose, is of a more do- mesticated nature, frequenting ploughed lands, as does also a ring dottrel, closely resembling the English species (Cha- radrius torquatula or bicinata). One of the terns and an oyster catcher, also a large gull, come some distance inland. It is singular that no species of snipe frequents the nu- merous swamps, which appear so well adapted to their habits. A very handsome bird, called the water-hen, by the natives pukeko (Porphyrio melanotus), is plentiful amongst the bul- rush swamps. A beautiful white crane, as it is called, na- tive name kotuku (Z. flavirostris, Wagler), is occasionally seen soaring at a distance, relieved by the purple of the hills be- hind. It is of the most pure and snowy whiteness. There are also some small birds in the swamps, one of which has a very peculiar note, exactly like the squeaking of the iron wheel of a plough, or of a wheel-barrow which wants grease. Another, frequenting the same locality, has a very distinct, Province of Canterbury, New Zealand. 15 short song, which it constantly reiterates, and seems to stop short in the midst. Some idea may be given of it by saying that it sings the first nine notes of the Agnes Polka; thus, A bittern, native name, matuku (Botaurus melanotus), is occa- sionally seen in the swamps; also a grebe (Podiceps rubipectus). In the open plains, the land birds seem to be confined to the quail (Coturnia nove zelandie), a buzzard hawk, probably Circus assimilis (Jard. and Selb.), and the commonest of all, a sort of ground lark, kotiki (Anthus australis). The quails, which a few years since were very numerous, seem to be ra- pidly diminishing, being destroyed by the wide-spreading fires by which the coarser herbage is burnt off, and also by the shepherds’ dogs. Perhaps when corn fields cover large tracts of country, the quails will return. In the meanwhile, a gentleman at Christchurch has, we trust, introduced the par- tridge, several broods having been reared under hens, and turned out in stubble fields. The pheasant also has been suc- cessfully introduced in some of the forests in Banks’ Penin- sula, where it seems to be naturalized. The hawk or buz- zard above mentioned is abundant; it feeds on rats, and on the carcases of sheep and lambs. The ground-lark resem- bles in its appearance a wagtail. It has a peculiar propen- sity for running along the ground just in front of a person on horseback or on foot, and will sometimes go on for miles, flying a short distance when nearly overtaken, and again alighting and running, turning its head from side to side to look behind. It is a very familiar bird, and replaces in that respect the sparrow or robin at home. Of the gigantic moa (Dinornis), as already observed, numerous bones have been found near the embouchure of the Avon. ‘‘ Moa-bone Point” is named from them. Besides bones, there are found on parts of the plains little heaps of rounded agates and quartz pebbles (far distant from any rocks of that nature), which are popu- larly called “« Moa stones,” and are supposed to be the con- tents of the gizzards of those birds which have died at the places where these heaps are found. 16 Tancred on the Natural History of the On entering the bush, or native forest, the ear, so unaccus- tomed to the “ sweet charm of birds,” is delighted by the lively and melodious notes of the tui or parson-bird (Prosthemadera nove zelandie). The song is not so varied but is more liquid than that of the thrush, which it somewhat resembles. Itis very pretty to seethese birds, when the yellow Clianthus (C. puniceus) is in flower, hanging in graceful attitudes to suck the honey from the blossoms. A beautiful little fan-tailed fly-catcher, which seems to be of the genus Rhipidura (Gould), flits like a large butterfly close round your head, and perches on a neighbour- ing shrub. There is a another beautiful little bird, with black head, yellow breast, and white on the wings and root of tail. The parrot—(of which the native name ka-ka, pronounced kaw- kaw, indicates the sound of its note), (Nestor hypopolius, Gould)—is seen seated on the topmost branches of some lofty pine. There is also a small parrot (Platycercus nove ze- landie). Pigeons are plentiful, fat and very good eating (Car- paphaga nove zelandie). The New Zealand crow, kokako (Caleas or Glaucopis cinerea), with red wattles hanging from each side of his neck, we have found so full of a purple- coloured berry, that the whole intestines were stained with the juice, and the whole bird smelt strongly of it. The ele- gant little cuckoo—pipi-warau-roa (Chrysococcya lucidus) —appears in spring. It is said to have the same intrusive disposition as its larger congener in Europe, and to lay its eggs in the nest of the fan-tailed fly-catcher. There is also a larger cuckoo (Hudynomys fasciatus, Forster). A singular bird called the woodhen, by the natives wika (Ocydromus . australis), is so ill provided with wings that it can only run on the ground. It lays its eggs under a fallen tree or an old stump. Its mode of defence when about to be seized is a most unearthly scream, which, it is said, will terrify the most savage dog when unaccustomed to it, and make him retreat in fear. It has the mischievous disposition of the magpie, entering the tent of a traveller at night, carrying off any small articles, and letting them drop here and there. Two gentlemen were occupying a tent by the side of a bush, and one of them, very early in the morning, heard his companion, in a drowsy voice, saying, “ Get away, get away ;” and looking out, saw that his = PN yess! 2 a oe Province of Canterbury, New Zealand. By friend’s slumbers were broken by a wika pecking the flies off his head as he lay on the ground. This bird is remarkably fat, its skin, which is very thick, being lined with a solid coating of grease, so that only its legs can be eaten, which are said to be excellent. There is also a hawk, karewarua (Falco nove zelandie), and a handsome kingfisher (Halcyon sane- tus). The belibird is also found; and doubtless there are a variety of other birds in the forests with which we are still unacquainted. Reptiles are happily confined to a small harmless lizard. It has often struck us as a matter of congratulation, when trudging through high ferns and shrubs up to the middle, where probably no human foot had trodden before, that one might fearlessly proceed without the risk of dislodging some venomous snake, noxious animal, or even a nest of spiteful insects. The immunity indeed enjoyed in that part of New Zealand from any kind of destructive, and from most kinds of troublesome birds, insects, or animals (the rat being almost the only exception), 1s very remarkable. Thus neither the farmer nor the gardener see their crops destroyed by plundering birds or eaten off by mice; they are undisturbed by the mole, the rabbit, or the hare; their poultry is safe from the polecat, the weasel, and the fox; their beasts—sheep, horses, &¢.— never feel the stings of various flies; their corn fears not the wireworm, nor their turnips the beetle, nor their vegetables and flowers the attacks of slugs and snails; their fruit falls not a prey to wasps. The only exceptions we know to the general absence of these insects, is, that at a certain season a cater- pillar is very destructive; but the remedy for this is to have crops either too forward or not sufficiently advanced at that short season of the year when the insects prevail, to be injured by their attacks. But to return from this digression. The fresh-water fish do not seem very various. It will be perceived, by the de- scription already given of some of the rivers, that neither fish nor the food for them can exist in such furious torrents as the Waimakariri, Raikaia, &c., at least only in the lower part of their course, where they become more tranquil on approach- ing the sea. In the Avon, Heathcote, Halswell, and in what NEW SERIES.—VOL. III. No. I.—san. 1856. B 18 Tancred on the Natural History of the are called creeks—i. ¢., deep, narrow streams of clear water, generally flowing out of swamps—there are abundance of eels, some of which attain a great size, up, it is said, to twenty pounds weight. The natives catch great numbers, and dry them for winter provision. The colonist is generally too much occupied to devote much time to the peaceful pursuits of the angler. We may, there- fore, do injustice to the wealth of the rivers and streams in attempting to give a list of the fresh-water fish; but it must be understood that we only mention those which have come under our personal observation in the Avon and Heathcote. These are the white-bait, which is very transparent when alive, but when boiled becomes opaque. There is also a bull- trout, and shoals of smelts, with the peculiar taste of cucum- ber belonging to that fish. In the Heathcote, and within reach of the tide, are caught flounders and a sort of herring, which are very abundant; and also the smelts. There are also a fresh-water shrimp and large cray-fish. There are abundance of sea-fish of several sorts in the harbour and along the coast, but no one finds it worth their while as yet to make a business of catching or curing them. The sperm whale frequents the coasts, as well as numerous sharks. There are also cuttle-fish ; and the natives have a legend, like one of the old Norwegian tales, of a gigantic cuttle-fish twining its arms round a canoe and drawing it under water. Of the sea shells we regret not to be able to give any account. Mus- sels are very abundant, and some grow to a very large size, and furnish, with the cockles, a great article of food to the natives. Small rock oysters are also abundant, and a large shell, called from its shape the ear-shell, containing a purple- black fish, which the natives eat. They are sought for the sake of the mother-of-pearl with which they are lined, under the name of paua-shells, and large quantities are exported. A large periwinkle, with a green, stony operculum, abounds. Shrimps and crabs are abundant. A polype, with a stem like a pentacrinite, abounds. Laver, with several kinds of hand- some sea-weeds, grow in Lyttelton harbour. As, however, we may get out of our depth here, we will re- turn to dry land, and observe the native vegetable produe- al Pa ———— od Whe hn. nen A i ei, et ei ah bie Mat ae ee ia a lS ee ne ee ee) a eae Province of Canterbury, New Zealand. 19 tions of the plains. The general aspect of the vegetation strikes a strangeras remarkably English—the fern, interspersed with grass, daisies, buttercups, slender-stalked flowers resem- bling campanulas, ragweeds, cranes’-bills, &c., have all an Eng- lish character, though the rustling leaves of the Phormium tenax and a species of Dragon-tree (Cordyline or Drace- na australis), resembling a yucca with a high stem, remind him that he is in a different country. On examining more closely, we find the daisy (Bellis geifolia), a very small and delicate representative of its northern congener; also a very small land-cress, growing thick and close to the ground, with other larger kinds. The English water-cress has spread and thriven luxuriantly, and there is also another kind which grows under water, and is very delicate in taste, but, from its having long petioles and small leaves, is less agreeable to eat. Pursuing our walk along the river bank, we admire the dark- green leaves of the native flax (Phormium tenax), gracefully nodding over the water, and its spike, of deep maroon-red flowers, rising stiffly in the midst. Fine tufts of the large toi- toi grass (Cordyline indivisa ?) wave their heads like ostrich plumes in the breeze, six or seven feet in height, whilst their root-leaves droop in long tresses on all sides, their serrated edges inflicting a deep gash in the hand which should in- cautiously seize them. In the water, where it is shallow, grows a very curious sort of grass-like plant, from two to four feet high, and as thick as a child’s body, with a tuft of grass at the top. The interior of the stem consists of a loosely-compacted bundle of tubular fibres, the outside being black, forming a very singular and grotesque-looking plant, familiarly called negro-heads or maori-heads. Amongst the minor flowers will be observed the pretty white-flowered perennial flax (Linum monogynum), like the yellow garden linum, only white and more shrubby; also two or three sorts of ranunculus and cranes’-bill (Geranium), as well as a very minute-flowered pelargonium (P. clandestinum). Species of willow-herb (Epi- lobium) also are found. A large sort of fern grows in locali- ties by the river sides. A kind of celery also grows in moist places, which Captain Cook used in large quantities. On the hills between Lyttelton and the plains, a very pretty yellow B 2 20 Tancred on the Natural History of the oxalis (0. corniculata) grows in ¢lose tufts on the rocks, and some species of gnaphalium, with woolly glaucous leaves, as well as a minute daisy, before described. Along the cliffs above the port are gay yellow ragworts, with thick succulent leaves, and a pink-flowered mesembryanthemum (M. aus- trale). A species of convolvulus, or Ipomcea—the kumera- hoa—is cultivated by the natives, who eat the root. Being very tender, it appears to be a plant brought by them from a warmer climate. In some parts, especially about abandoned native pas or villages, great quantities of a sort of brassica grow wild, the young shoots of which make, when dressed, a palatable vegetable, and in some soils the root is somewhat tuberous and edible. It seems probable that it may be the Swedish turnip degenerated by sowing itself without cultiva- tion, as Captain Cook is known to have introduced many vegetables into this island. Amongst plants resembling Eng- lish ones may be mentioned a dock and a rough-leaved chick- weed, and the sow-thistle. Mushrooms also abound, exactly like our own. Tronstone, 3 c 3 Shale, Ironstone, ¢ > . Shale, é Ironstone, o 2 23 —— The Drifts. es FOSONHOM |) ODDO CO OOOO OC ONOWOS ANROANS!] OP RWORWWWO Om OMAM 20 ft. 7 in. It will be seen from this section that the principal beds of iron- stone lie near the top, there being one of 3 feet 5 inches, and another of 2 feet 8 inches, separated only by a parting of shale 5 inches in thickness. These three are the principal beds which are at present mined. The work is carried on by drift- ing into the hill-side in various directions. U2 288 . William Crowder on the Chemical A bed of iron pyrites overlies the ironstone, which, I be- lieve, is now being worked and used for the manufacture of oil of vitriol at Newcastle. In some places there are two beds of pyrites overlying each other; in other cases only one is found. This product I have also examined, and the result will be found in the present paper. The stone consists essentially of carbonate of protoxide of iron, mixed with varying proportions of silica, alumina, lime, and magnesia. Sulphuric and phosphoric acid are also pre- sent, with invariably small quantities of iron pyrites. Annexed are the results of analyses of the ironstone beds in regular order of descent, omitting the shales. (See next page.) From these analyses, it appears that the general proportion of silica is about 15 per cent., although it is sometimes as high as 20 per cent., and in one or two cases as low as 7 and 8 per cent. I have calculated the iron as peroxide, although, in reality, a great part exists in the state of pro- toxide. This, however, has been done to facilitate reference, the object of my analysis being rather of a practical than a theoretical character. In the principal drifts the proportion of metallic iron is about 35 per cent.,. whilst in many of the lower beds the quan- tity does not rise higher than 25 per cent. Lime is present in the stone in variable quantities of 3-to 6-per cent., and in a few cases still higher. The magnesia generally ranges at about 3 to 35 per cent. Sulphuric acid (as sulphate of lime) occurs in small quantity in every case. Phosphoric acid is absent entirely, or nearly so, in some specimens, whilst in many others it is present in considerable proportion, more especially in Nos. 6 and 7, which contain respectively 7-78 and 4°10 per cent.. The circumstance of the presence of phosphoric acid in so large a quantity in an iron ore is very unusual, and will, I anticipate, produce some ma- terial modification in the properties of the iron; and Iam at present engaged on a series of analysis which I expect to throw some light on that point. Its general tendency is well known to be that of producing the defect of cold shortness. 289 a Composition of the Cleveland Ironstone Beds. "OLOGSINY) MOU ‘S801 MOT UORNTT Ww spog eUorsu0LT fo soshjouy 78.94 | 08-92 | 99.0% | 664% | F862 | $966 | 0866 | OL9% | 019% | 66-46 | FHHG | 99-36 | PBSE | HOLE | FB-0E | E696 | ° “MOAT OTT[@4 OTL O0T OOT 001 001 00T O00 OOT 001 001 O0T 00T OOT O00T 00T 00T OOT 69.62 | ote | e80e | 0881 | 280% | 6496 | BE1G | GTS | SBS | 19:26 | OGOT | FLFS | 09-86 | FOG | OT-1G | 6.93 | * “voy Aq ssory ‘9100 [990-0 |029-0 [F090 [946-0 |0860 |28Fr-0 |096-:0 |F80-0 (936-0 |6S60 [061-0 |086-0 (0980 |9LT-0 66-0 ; * ngdng 883 | sO | &ha O0BI} | OOVI | OOVM | OOTT] | G60 80-1 OL? BLL 90vty | BIT VP 88:1 08-3 ‘prow optoydsoy 89:0 | 7-0 | 060 | 0 | 160 | &L0 8E0 | 60 | 760 | SLO 8F-0 | 990 | 0&0 | 9L0 O8-T LY-0 ‘prow opmyding [6G | GOT 866 | GST 998 | OLE | 996 HE | Gh | G66 883 | 698 | OL | GE | FOE BPG : ‘RIsoUse IN BLZE | 2F | GG | 996 | OLG | Gas OFG | 689 | GEIL | OB | GOGL | GE | GE | BG | G6E | PPO ‘ ? ‘omy FL | PRBL | SEE | FRSL | GLOL | OLB | 8BG | BOL | BPE | FUIT | 9601 | 99-9 | 920 = P96 99:6 7 ‘guru y 2698 | F1-9¢ | $9.9e | 1296 | 98-86 | 9e-sF | 20-3F | PL8E | PEGG | 1L9e | 26-FE | OO-OF | 16-19 | G6ZI | 16h | G9-BE | “Moar Jo oprxo1og OF:4 | 901% | GOSE | 09-93 | 00-16 | GBBT | 09-06 | OF-BL | CLOT | GEHL | 9SET | OLOT | 966 | GBGI | OL9T | 93-9T : * BOTTIS “Ok ‘QT FI “ST “ol Bn ‘Or 6 ‘8 ‘kL 9 a v € % I! 290 William Crowder on the Chemical The proportion of sulphur as iron pyrites is exceedingly small, especially in those beds which have already been mined. The bed marked in the section “ Pyrites,” contains 30-25 per cent. sulphur, which is equal to 56°71 per cent. bisulphuret of iron, and is about the same quantity as is found in the Wicklow pyrites, used on the Tyne in the manufacture of oil of vitriol. The item “loss by heat’ is the proportion of loss sustained by calcination. It includes water and carbonic acid, and the two bodies have been determined together (by difference), the object being to show the weight of calcined stone produced by a given quantity of the raw ore. It is scarcely necessary to remind the reader that it does not represent the actual quantity of water and carbonic acid, because when carbonate of iron is ignited, the protoxide of iron is converted into peroxide, so that the loss by heat really gives the quantity of these sub- stances minus the oxygen absorbed by the protoxide of iron. This, however, makes no difference in calculating the ana- lysis, because whatever quantity is lost by the carbonic acid and water is gained by the protoxide of iron in its conversion into perowide, in which state the whole of the iron results have been calculated. In the above samples the iron and alumina were determined in the usual manner by precipitation with ammonia, and weigh- ing together, but in the separate estimation of these two bodies, the iron was determined by standard solution of per- manganate of potash, and the alumina by the difference in the two numbers. The following is a similar series of analyses, the principal difference being that the interposing shales have also been examined, and have yielded highly satisfactory results. It has not been thought necessary to determine the proportions of sulphur and phosphorus, as in the preceding case sufficient has been done to indicate the general proportion of those con- stituents. The determination of iron and alumina have in this case been made by precipitation with ammonia, and subsequent se- paration by potash, previously weighing the two substances together. The other constituents were determined in the usual manner. 291 Composition of the Cleveland Ironstone Beds. G9-PE 9193 | BE [COL 99-86 | 69-83 |TSSE | GEE | 00-82 | 40-66 | 9LZE | OS-FS | GF-RG | GG-TE | TL08 | SEE | SE-BE | “| 29-63 | 9g-2 | Most orTTeIOW ——-}-|- Reelin Sas 001; ‘O0T} 001) -OOT} O01! -001! -OOT; -OOT} -O0T} -OOT! -OOT) -OOT] -0OT -OOT 00T eS OLS |GTLT | G0-6T 1066 | OFFS | 0-36 | 09-25 | 29-93 | GF-8E | ZO.9L | OLes |Go-FT | OSS | OL-1s OP-LG | 0683 | 96-66 09-06 | 96:36 |" “Guoy Aq ssor 64 |9F0 |OFF 1080 (003 |OLT |0O9T 083 jOLs [oer lo-rt loe-r |eto |esz OLF |008 |9L1 16 08-6 fo ersoudeyy G69 (OKT [9h 1090 (96-2 |SLh 1989 1094 [009 |8hL loeb |ont |et9 | 09 GOS |OL9 |09-8 3 QS 19608 [en ourtry — |0L6 |069 |G8E /O18 |96-4 /OFE |08S [98-8 |002 |0e¢ |008 |ee6 (09-2 | eet S78 | 09-1 a OLG |980 | “earanyy 09-6P | O8-9E | GO-EF | C0-OL | O8-0F | 06-0F | P-2h | 99-2F | 00-0F | 09-1F |08-9F | 00-68 | 9-0F | OLFF OF-39 |O9-LF |GL 49) & 109-98 lO80T |‘torr Jo oprxosog O9-8T | 09-96 | 98:26. ]08-FL | 98-21 | 09-93 | 0&8E | 00-81 | 09-62 | 69-28 | G0-GT OL-6E | 00:81 | ST-81 SO.TT S01 96:8 O9-GE | 91-66 fo BorTIS “I OU | —|_——_-| ——_____ ‘06 | ‘“6I ‘BL “ZI (2)! “GT PL met GL au ‘OL 6 8 ‘L 9 9 ‘UFO T! “Ul D ‘WI Urge) ‘ur “Urge PUTT 9st] “4asT “uy 9 “urs “urp “ule ‘UPR PULP 9S BU OWS ULES] ULES “ul pf 4% “#105 “OUOPS | “OTUUS | “OU0G | “oUYg | “oUoIg | “o[vYg | ‘eUOZg | ‘ouogg | ‘ogg “OINUS | “Ouoys | *oywyy | ‘oUuoIS | “OlV4y | “oUDZy | oUoZgG | ‘oUoZg ‘ouo}y “Bod a ee ee eee a ee FOLOQSINA) LOU “SSO MOT UONNTT Ww soup Oy? Woufsa~oYys puo souojsuosy fo sashyoup 292 William Crowder on the Chemical It will be seen from the foregoing analysis, that with one or two exceptions, both ironstones and shales have an almost equal value, indeed it is my own impression that the beds may be worked irrespective of the distinctions of ironstone and shale. At present, however, the separation is made with some degree of care, as I found when lately visiting some of the furnaces, that the persons connected with the works were weathering the ironstone, 7.e. exposing it to the action of the air in order to cause the shale to detach itself from the iron- stone. I collected some of this shaly matter which was peel- ing off, and subjected it to analysis, with the following re- sults :— Analysis of Shaly Ironstone. Silica, , F 4 ‘ : 23°75 Peroxide of iron, ‘ ; : 42:00 Alumina, . ; , : ‘ 9-65 Lime, : : ; ‘ ‘ 3°83 Magnesia, . : ; é , 1:26 Loss by heat, . ; : ; 19°51 100-00 Metallic iron, . ; ; ‘ 29°40 From this analysis it will be seen that the shale contains a large proportion of iron, and should not hastily be thrown aside as worthless. The following are analyses of similar stones from the same district :— ilicass ware - - 13-00 15-95 11:90 17:50 31°15 Peroxide of iron, . 60°20 45°70 46°85 42-90 38°55 Alumina, 5 oo 7:05 5°45 6-85 7°45 Lime, - - = 06 2°52 6:16 5-71 3°81 Magnesia, : np ae Bye 1-27 6°56 2°87 1:06 Loss by heat, . . 24:37 28:20 23-08 24°80 20:10 SS aa OT _-C—C( eC -.CUC<—C |---|: S'vowvVmWwvUEU—oOUT Metalliciron, . . 4340 31:99 3279 3003 26:98 The remarkable similarity in the general composition of the beds from different parts of the district is well shown by the following series of stones collected by myself during the summer of 1855, at a place called Scugdale, about twenty miles from Hutton Low Cross. Composition of the Cleveland Ironstone Beds. 293 The stone is not yet worked, in consequence of the absence of railway communication, but there is no doubt that sooner or later this will be supplied, and the beds be profitably worked. The specimens were taken from out of the hill-side, which consisted of a series of beds of stone and layers of nodules, many of them 8 or 9 inches in diameter. Their dis- position was as follows :— At Top, . : . A bed of nodules. No. 1 stone, ; : 2 feet thick, Wa: 2- 4: ‘ : re No. 3 14. No. 4 fies ae No. 5 1 ... (nodules), No. 6 2s POSts No. 7 9 ... (nodules). No. 8 From Scarth Nick. The last sample (No. 8) was obtained at about a quarter of a mile distant from the other specimens, at the foot of the hill. It is doubtful whether this is the outcrop of a bed which couid be drifted profitably, and it has been suggested to me that it may only be a trouble which would be lost sight of after excavating any distance. The question, however, re- mains an open one until the district has been properly sur- veyed. It is, however, exceedingly curious to observe the great similarity in composition of these stones with those I have already given, showing clearly the identity in chemical com- position of many of these beds with those at Hutton Low Cross. Analyses of Ironstone Beds at Scugdale (Swainby). | Thickness of beds. | 2 ft. | 5 ft. |14 ft. kts 1 ft. | 2ft. | 9 ft. No- | | Nod. | Nod. dules. | No. 1.| No.2. No.3. has, 4,| No.5. No. 6. | No. he No. 8. Puli¢a,..-'s" 3 | 20°14 | 19-43| 22:15) 1050) 9:45) 14:94/ 19-50) 17-85 | 13° 98 Peroxide of i iron, 42-72| 59-88 38-84 19:00! 31:59) 17:26 20:10 38:50 | 61:70 Alumina, .. 8:09] 3:01| 7:14) 450| 1:47| 593) 420) 240| 398 [Witten Fa ec 1:55} 1:33} 8-96) 30-08] 23:25) 28-:00| 26-49| 14-61) 1-79 Magnesia, . . 0:30} 0-79) 326) 3-41] 513) 055| 1:97] 2:20) 0:75 Loss by heat, . | 26°47) 16:25) 20°18| 33:59} 30:55 30°56 27-52) 24°84 16:88 99°27 ‘100-69 10:53 101-08 101-44 97-24 | 99°78 |100:40 99:08 _—_————K | Sa Metallic iron, . | 29:90) 41:91} 27:19) 13:30 22-11 | el 14:07 | 26:95 43:19 294 William Crowder on the Chemical In these analyses a curious fact is observable, viz. that the three top and two bottom beds have a similar composition to those at Hutton Low Cross and other places, whilst the middle beds are very poor in iron and rich in lime. In fact, the agri- culturists in the neighbourhood formerly burnt this substance under the impression that it was a true limestone, but the plan was of course abandoned so soon as it was discovered that instead of obtaining quicklime, a semifused slag was produced. No doubt, if the beds Nos. 1 and 2 were smelted together along with a portion of Nos. 3 and 4, a mixture might be made which would not require the use of limestone in the furnace. The same be said of No. 8, if obtainable in any quantity. | The following are analyses of other samples of Cleveland ironstone from Rosedale, a few miles from Gainsborough, where I understand it is found in considerable quantity. Analysis of Ironstone from Rosedale. No. l. No. 2. Silica, 10-30 30°35 Peroxide of iron, 52:60 39-90 Alumina, : 7°40 5-60 Lime, ; 3°78 4:23 Magnesia, - 1:26 1:47 Loss by heat, 24:66 18°45 100-00 100-00 Metallic iron, : 36°82 27:93 The appearance of No. 1 was oolitic, of a light sandstone colour, and quite different in that respect from the Gainsboro’ stone. No. 2 was similar in appearance and colour to that obtained from the Hutton Mines. It will be seen, that al- though the composition of these two stones differ widely from each other, still their counterparts are to be found in other districts. Thus, No. 1 corresponds pretty closely with No. 5 at Hutton Low Cross. No. 2 is very similar to No. 11 of the same series. ‘There is another kind of stone found in Rose- dale, which is different in appearance from No. 1, being of a black colour, the oolitic structure is however still apparent. Composition of the Cleveland Ironstone Beds. 295 This last is exceedingly soft and friable, whereas the former are materially hard and consistent. The analysis was as fol- lows :— Analysis of Black Ironstone from Rosedale. No. 3. No. 4. Silica, : 5-70 — Peroxide of iron, 64:90 79°30 Alumina, ; 9-25 — Lime, : 3°53 — Magnesia, : 0:99 — Loss by heat, 16°15 _- 100-52 i: Metallic iron, : 45°43 55°51 The two samples, it will be seen, are of great value; and I understand it is already successfully worked, but the want of railway communication here as in other places, has hitherto prevented its extensive consumption. The following are two or three samples of Cleveland stone which have been calcined. I shall give here the Rosedale sample No.1, and the same calcined, from which it will be seen that the quantity of in- crease in the proportions of iron, lime, &c., are almost exactly what they should be if we calculate off the quantity of loss by heat from the raw sample. Rosedale No.1, Burnt from Hutton Mines. Burnt. Unburnt. The Small Dust. Masses. Silica, 5 14:90 10-30 — 37°85 Peroxide of iron, 65:00 52°60 53°35 56-10 Alumina, . 11.00 7°40 13-00 — Lime, d 5-29 3°78 a = Magnesia, . 3°81 1:26 — _ Loss by heat, — 24:66 — — 100-00 100-00 — — Metallic iron, 45:50 36°82 37°34 39°27 I add also an analysis of an ironstone collected at Eston 296 Ow the Composition of the Cleveland Ironstone Beds. Nab, near Middlesborough, by Mr Hugh Taylor, and analysed by him.* Analysis of Ironstone from Eston Nab, Silica, A ; ; ; 7°257 Protoxide of iron, . : ‘ ; 47818 Alumina, . 3 : , 6°499 Lime, : ; . ‘ 5-803 Magnesia, ; : 5 : 3°504 Manganese, ° ; . ‘ traces. Sulphuric acid, : ‘ + ; traces. Carbonic acid, : : 24:939 Water of combination and a jittle organic matter, 13°15 Chloride of potassium and a little chloride of sodium, 1-052 100:023 Metallic iron, : ; : 3 86-951 From a consideration of the foregoing analyses, I think the following conclusions may be deduced. 1. That that part of the stone which is already worked is the richest in iron. 2. That the maximum quantity of iron yielded by the prin- cipal part of the stone at present worked, is about 37 or 38 per cent., and the minimum about 29 or 30 per cent., but that the greater portion ranges in quality at about 35 per cent. 3. That there is a large quantity of poor stone containing 25 to 30 per cent., which is not at present worked. 4. That many of the beds of shale contain from 25 to 30 per cent. metallic iron. 5. The existence of great similarity in composition be- tween the beds of stone taken from widely-separated loca- lities. I have to acknowledge the assistance of my pupil, Mr E. C. Northcott, who has rendered me material aid 1 in conducting several of the preceding analyses. Newcastle, March 1856. * Reports of the Northern Institute of Mining Engineers. 297 On an improved Method of preparing Siliceous and other Fossils for Microscopic Investigation, with a Description of a New Pneumatic Chuck. By ALEXANDER BRYSON, F.S.A. Scot., F.R.P.S., &c.* The art of slitting stones and other hard substances by the method of impacting diamond powder into the edge of a thin iron plate, seems, in this country at least, to be an ancient one. I have failed to discover the date of its introduction or invention; but most lapidaries who have expressed their opi- nions on the subject, concur in believing the art to be at least two hundred years old. On the Continent the art seems to have been but lately practised. In a series of fossil woods sent to me from Paris by the celebrated Brongniart, some bear evidence that, in the capital of France, this method was not practised until within a few years ago, as some exhibit unequivocal traces of hay- ing been cut by the slow process of slitting by a copper wire with emery. Sisyphus rolling his stone and a Parisian lapi- dary slitting one by such a slow method seem almost syno- nymous. In India and China the natives slit the hardest gems by a copper wire stretched on a bow, the wire being constantly fed with corundum powder moistened with water. This corun- dum stone, which is the adamant of Scripture, is cheap and plentiful both in India and China. In the Calcutta market, it only commands the low price of 8d. sterling per pound, yet strange to say. although much harder than either the emery of Smyrna, or that harder still found at Naxos, it has been very much slighted by the British lapidaries. The differ- ence of price may, however, be to them the great objection ; but to the amateur, whose consumpt is reckoned only by pounds instead of hundredweights per annum, the corundum is to be preferred. The method of preparing fossil woods and other hard or- ganic substances for examination under the microscope had its origin in this city. But as the claims of two or three emi- * Read before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, December 10, 1855. 298 On an improved method of preparing nent individuals (all deserving praise) are mingled in this im- provement, I refrain from considering them. The usual mode of proceeding in making a section of fossil wood is simple, though tedious. The first process is to flatten the specimen to be operated on by grinding it on a flat Jap made of lead charged with emery or corundum powder. It must now be rendered perfectly flat by hand on a plate of metal or glass, using much finer emery than in the first operation of grind- ing. The next operation is to cement the object to the glass plate. Both the plate of glass and the fossil to be cemented must be heated to a temperature rather inconvenient for the fingers to bear. By this means moisture and adherent air are driven off, especially from the object to be operated on. Ca- nada balsam is now to be equally spread over both plate and object, and exposed again to heat, until the redundant turpen- tine in the balsam has been driven off by evaporation. The two surfaces are now to be connected while hot, and a slow circular motion, with pressure, given either to the plate or object, for the purpose of throwing out the superabundant balsam and globules of included air. The object should be below and the glass plate above, as we then can see when all the air is removed, by the pressure and motion indicated. It is proper to mention that too much balsam is more favourable for the expulsion of the air-bubbles than too little. When cold, the Canada balsam will be found hard and adhering, and the specimen fit for slitting. This process has hitherto been performed by using’ a disc of thin sheet-iron, so much employed by the tinsmith, technically called sfeet-tin. The tin coat- ing ought to be partially removed by heating the plate, and when hot rubbing off much of the extraneous tin by a piece of cloth. The plate has now to be planished on the polished stake of the tinsmith, until quite flat. If the plate is to be used in the lathe, and by the usual method, it ought to be planished so as to possess a slight convexity. This gives a certain amount of rigidity to the edge, which is useful in slit- ting by the hand; while by the method of mechanical slitting, about to be described, this convexity is inadmissible. The tin plate, when mounted on an appropriate chuck in the lathe, must be turned quite true, with its edge slightly rounded and Fossils for Microscopic Examination. 299 made perfectly smooth by a fine-cut file. The edge of the disc is now to be charged with diamond powder. This is done by mingling the diamond powder with oil, and placing it on a piece of the hardest agate, and then turning the disc slowly round; and holding the agate with the diamond powder with a moderate pressure against the edge of the disc, it becomes thoroughly charged with a host of diamond points, becoming, as it were, a saw with invisible teeth. In pounding the diamond, some care is necessary, as also a fitting mortar. The mortar should be made of an old steel die, if accessible ; if not, a mass of steel, slightly conical, the base of which ought to be 2 inches in diameter, and the upper part l}inch. A cylindrical hole is now to be turned out in the centre, of 3ths of an inch diame- ter, and about 1 inch deep. This, when hardened, is the mor- tar; for safety it may be annealed to a straw colour. The pestle is merely a cylinder of steel, fitting the hollow mortar but loosely, and having a ledge or edging of an eighth of an inch projecting round it, but sufficiently raised above the up- per surface of the mortar, so as not to come in contact while pounding the diamond. The point of the pestle ought only to be hardened and annealed to a straw colour, and should be of course convex, fitting the opposing and equal concavity of the mortar. The purpose of the projecting ledge is to prevent the smaller particles of diamond spurting out when the pestle is struck by the hammer. But even with this precautionary ledge, some small pieces of the diamond will try to assert their liberty ; and I have found it economical, when giving the coup de gras to a lump of diamond, to place below the mortar a sheet of unglazed black paper, so that the straying parti- cles may be easily recovered. It is not necessary to give many blows in reducing the diamond to powder; after being merely mealed by the hammer, the pestle should be used in the slightly-rotatory crushing method ordinarily employed by the apothecary. In regard to the mortar in its first use, I must warn the amateur lapidary, that should he put in two carats weight of diamond, and expect to get the same weight out, he will be most grievously disappointed. This is evident when we consider that the diamond being so much harder than the steel, the mortar becomes in its first use, thoroughly 300 On an improved method of preparing charged and impacted with the diamond powder; so that, in his first experiment, he will find he has lost nearly a carat in making his steel mortar—that it becomes, both in fact and name, a diamond one. All this is preliminary labour to be gone through, whether working by the usual method, or by that to be described. Most lapidaries who have availed themselves of water power, have used directing methods, by which the stones to be slit are pressed slightly against the slitting-plate by mere gra- vitation, acting in a determinate plane. The lapidaries of Germany have long practised this method, favoured as they are by so many streams in the midst of the rocks from whence they obtain their pebbles. My first idea of slitting fossils by these means for microscopic observation was obtained by ob- serving the excellent method employed by Mr Gavin Young, where, by the aid of a water-wheel, he has employed a consider- able number of self-acting slitting-plates to perform an amount of cheap and flat work, hitherto a desideratum in Edinburgh. Ihave in my collection a Scotch jasper, slit and polished by Mr Young with this apparatus, measuring 100 square inches— certainly a chef d’wuvre of lapidary work. The method I have contrived, by which the sections now on the table were prepared, is very simple, speedy, and certain in its action. The instrument is placed on the table of a common lathe, which is, of course, the source of motion. (See Woodeut.) It consists of a Watt’s parallel motion, with four joints, attached toa basement fixed to the table of the lathe. This base has a motion (for adjustment only), in a horizontal plane, by which we may be enabled to place the upper joint in a parallel plane with the spindle of the lathe. This may be called the azi- muthal adjustment. The adjustment, which in an astrono- mical instrument is called the plane of right ascension, is given by a pivot in the top of the base, and clamped by a screw below. This motion in right ascension, gives us the power of adjusting the perpendicular planes of motion, so that the ob- ject to, be slit passes down from the circumference of the slit- ting-plate to nearly its centre, in a perfectly parallel plane. When this adjustment is made accurately, and the slitting- plate well primed and flat, a very thin and parallel slice is ob- tained. This jointed frame is counterpoised and supported by Fossils for Microscopic Examination. 301 a lever, the centre of which is moveable in a pillar standing perpendicularly from the lathe table. Attached to the lever is a screw of three threads by which the counterpoise weight is adjusted readily to the varying weight of the object to be slit and the necessary pressure required on the edge of the slitting-plate. The difficulty first apparent in this self-acting slitting, was to obtain an easy method of fixing the object to the machine. Cements of all kinds were objectionable. Any cement requir- ing heat for its adhesion to the glass on which the object was already cemented by the Canada balsam, would, of course, destroy its condition ; and any cold method involved a loss of time in drying, as at once to be discarded. I therefore was determined to try a pneumatic method, by which the pressure of the air against the surface of a chuck might give me a speedy method of adhesion, without risk of injuring the Canada bal- sam. This pneumatic chuck gave me the utmost satisfaction. It consists of an iron tube, which passes through an aperture on the upper joint of the guiding-frame, into which is screwed a round piece of gun-metal, slightly hollowed in the centre, but flat towards the edge. This gun-metal disc is perforated by a small hole communicating with the interior of the iron tube. This aperture permits the air between the glass plate and the chuck to be exhausted by a small air syringe at the other end. The face of this chuck is covered with a thin film of soft India-rubber not vulcanized, also perforated with a small central aperture. When the chuck is properly adjusted, and the India-rubber carefully stretched over the face of the gun-metal, one or two pulls of the syringe-piston is quite suf- ficient to maintain a very large object to the action of the slitting-plate. By this method no time is lost; the adhesion is made instantaneously, and as quickly broken by opening a small screw, to admit air between the glass-plate and the chuck, when the object is immediately released. Care must be taken, in stretching the India-rubber over the face of the chuck, to make it very equal in its distribution, and as thin as consistent with strength. When this material is obtained from the shops, it presents a series of slight grooves, and is rather hard for our purpose. It ought, therefore, to be slightly NEW SERIES.—VOL. III. No. I.—APRIL 1856. x 302 On an improved method of preparing heated, which renders it soft and pliant, and in this state should now be stretched over the chuck, and a piece of soft copper wire tied round it, a slight groove being cut in the pe- riphery of the chuck, to detain the wire in its place. When by use the surface of the India-rubber becomes flat, smooth, and free from the grooves which at first mar its usefulness, a specimen may be slit of many square inches, without resort being had to another exhaustion by the syringe. But when a large, hard, siliceous object has to be slit, it is well for the sake of safety to try the syringe piston, and ob- serve if it returns forcibly to the bottom of the cylinder, which evidences the good condition of the vacuum of the chuck. After the operation of slitting, the plate must be removed from the spindle of the lathe, and the flat lead lap substituted. The pneumatic chuck is now to be reversed, and the specimen placed in contact with the grinder. By giving a slightly tor- tuous motion to the specimen, that is, using the motion of the various joints, the object is ground perfectly flat when the length of both arms of the joints are perfectly equal. Should the leg of the first joint on the right-hand side be the longer, the specimen will be ground hollow; if shorter, it will be ground convex. But if, as before stated, they are of equal length, a perfectly parallel surface will be obtained. In operating on siliceous objects, I have found soap and water quite as speedy and efficacious as oil, which is generally used ; while calcareous fossils must be slit by a solution of common soda in water. This solution of soda, if made too strong, softens the India-rubber on the face of the pneumatic chuck, and renders a new piece necessary; but if care is taken to keep the solution of moderate strength, one piece of India- rubber may last for six months. The thinner and flatter it becomes, the better hold the glass takes, until a puncture oc- curs in the outer portion, and a new piece is rendered neces- sary. Before concluding, I must warn the amateur lapidary against the belief that all hard stones are equally easily slit by dia- mond powder. As a general rule, the hardest stones are easiest slit (this does not, however, include calcareous ones); but some fossils on which I have operated, though not so hard 7 Fossils for Microscopic Examination. 303 as others, have completely resisted the action of the diamond powder. For instance, the Yu stone of China, which is by no means so hard as corundum, is much more difficult to slit, and consumes an amount of diamond powder which renders it the horror of the lapidary. This peculiarity is easily under- stood. If, for instance, we should attempt to saw lead or cop- per with our diamond slitting-plate, we shall find that the dia- mond powder becomes thoroughly impacted into the latter, because the softer metals, when instead of the original plate becoming the operator, it is operated on. In the same way with a soft tenacious fossil, the diamond is taken out of the plate and impacted in the stone, and no work is accomplished. The method of operating on such specimens is to use emery by the usual method, by which much more speed will be ob- tained. The polishing of the section is the last operation. This is performed in various ways, according to the material of which the organism is composed. If siliceous, a lap of tin is to be used, about the same size as the grinding Jap. Having turned the face smooth and flat, a series of very fine notches are to be made all over the surface. This operation is accomplished by holding the edge of an old dinner-knife almost perpendi- cular to the surface of the lap while rotating; this produces a series of criddles, or slight asperities, which detain the po- lishing substance. The polishing substance used on the tin lap is technically called Lapidaries’ Rot-Stone, and is applied by slightly mois- tening the mass, and pressing it firmly against the polisher, care being taken to scrape off the outer surface, which often contains grit. The specimen is then to be pressed with some degree of force against the revolving tin dap or polisher, care- fully changing the plane of action, by moving the specimen in various directions over the surface. To polish calcareous objects, another method must be adopted as follows :— < 304 On preparing Fossils for Microscopic Examination. A lap or disc of willow wood is to be adapted to the spindle of the lathe, three inches in thickness, and about the diameter of the other laps (10 inches), the axis of the wood being pa- rallel to the spindle of the lathe, that is, the acting surface of ” the wood is the end of the fibres, or transverse section. This polisher must be turned quite flat and smoothed by a plane, as the willow, from its softness, is peculiarly diffi- cult toturn. It is also of consequence to remark, that both sides be turned so as that the lap, when dry, is quite pa- rallel. This lap is most conveniently adapted to the common face chuck of a lathe with a conical screw, so that either sur- face may be used. This is made evident, when we state that this polisher is always used moist, and, to keep both surfaces parallel, must be entirely plunged in water before using, as both surfaces must be equally moist, otherwise the dry will be concave, and the moist surface convex. The polishing sub- stance used with this dap is putty powder (oxide of tin), which ought to be well washed, to free it from grit. The calcareous fossils being finely ground, are speedily polished by this me- ‘thod. To polish softer substances, a piece of cloth may be spread over the wooden ldap, and finely-levigated chalk used as a polishing medium. ( 305 ) REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS. A. Manual of Elementary Geology, or the ancient changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants, as illustrated by Geological Monuments. By Sir CHARLES LYELL, M.A., F.R.S. Fifth Edition. Murray, London. 1855. There are two kinds of valuable geological Manuals. In one the writer well versed in his subject merely collects and digests the seat- tered facts and principles, which, in the course of time, have been eli- minated by original investigators; in another the author not only thoroughly appreciates, describes, and applies such established truths, but in addition brings to bear upon them much valuable matter in the shape of original investigations, or, by the depth of his views and the breadth of his combinations, he imparts an original value to his work, interesting to the most matured student, as embodying the deliberate convictions of an author who regards the subject from a high point of view, and whose authority carries with it a weight which may in- fluence the opinions, and direct the labours of the rising generation of geologists. To the latter class eminently belong the Manuals that have at various times been published by De la Beche, Phillips, and Lyell. We have ever looked on De la Beche’s Manual of Geology (long out of print) as, in its day, a model of arrangement and treat- ment of the subject. We may also, in passing, advert to the Manual lately published by Professor Phillips, in all respects a remarkable work, clearly and beautifully written, and so full of matter admirably arranged, that it may be safely recommended as a text-book to every student of geology. In the work before us by Sir Charles Lyell, we have new proofs, not only of personal investigations in the field, but of that ever-wakeful industry which allows no valuable novelty to escape, and which, from a high and philosophical point of view, com- bines the whole so as to bring vividly before the reader most of the known essential points that bear on the study of rocks, their distur- bances, metamorphisms, and chronological clagsification. Throughout this book, as well as in Lyell’s yet greater work, the “« Principles of Geology,” we mark the workings of the mind of one of the profoundest thinkers that the geological world has yet pro- duced. In spite of the warning voice of the great Hutton, it was, and still is, with some authors, the fashion to build up systems of creation and invent processes of action as if our knowledge of fact and circumstance were alike complete. Such writers are ever apt to as- sume, down to the latest epochs, the existence of special forces of a kind and intensity more suited to the contracted notions of time still prevalent with the many, than to those sober and sublime ideas 306 Reviews and Notices of Books. which we believe are taught by a more modest interpretation of the still imperfectly understood facts that a study of the earth’s crust has revealed tous. The evidence is perfect in past times of the long duration and slow extinction of species, genera, and whole classes of animals; of the slow accumulation of all the ancient strata in the sea, in lakes, and at river mouths, in the same manner that similar beds are found at present ; and of the sinking of old sea bottoms, and the submergence and emergence of lands as slowly as the subsidence in these later times of the coral islands of the Pacific. All this can be demonstrated, and much more besides ; whereas the advocates of spasmodic theories are often less happy in their demonstrations, since (to take one instance) no amount of contortion and inversion of strata proves that this was the result of one act of violence. You may bend a bow so slowly that it is only at intervals the eye can de- tect the increasing curve. The author of this manual, and those who, like him, most insist on the average uniformity of existing forces in old geological epochs, are, however, often spoken of as theorists par excellence, while in reality, as it appears to us, they form the least theoretically inclined portion of the geological community. They do not invent theoretical Titanic powers to explain all those wonder- ful phenomena of disturbance of rocks, and extermination of races which mark the varied strata, but simply accept what they see and know, that the whole existing economy of nature is ever changing by slow and sure degrees; and he is a bold theorist who asserts that, in the long lapse of geological time, repetitions of seemingly small forces may not produce accumulated results, equal in magnitude to those assumed revolutionary powers which, if they existed, marred the face of nature, and spread ruin and devastation over a world for long periods of time. Avoiding such imaginations, Sir Charles Lyell in his writings constantly insists on the fragmentary state of our know- ledge of the history of the earth. He is content to wait and watch till chance or diligent research may reveal to us other lost leaves and chapters of the great book which it is the business of the geologist to decipher. This “is only the last of a great series of pre-existing creations, of which we cannot estimate the number and limit.”’* The first six chapters of the Manual deal with the aqueous and ig- neous characters of rocks, the composition of the rocks, their various forms and peculiarities of stratification, their consolidation, the ar- rangement and petrifaction of fossils, the elevation and disturbance of strata, and the various effects and results produced by denudation. The 7th explains the mode of the formation of alluvium, and the 8th and 9th the principles of the chronological classification of rocks. From the 10th chapter to the 27th, the author describes the position and structure of the formations from the higher Tertiary to the Cambrian rocks in descending order, copiously elucidating the subject by de- scription and by pictorial illustration of the varied organic forms that * P, 640. Reviews and Notices of Books. 307 characterized the successive stages of the world’s history. From the 28th to the 33d chapter the author treats of volcanic rocks, their structure and composition, their different ages, and the effects they produced by melted contact with stratified deposits. In the 33d and 34th chapters, he explains the nature of granite and other allied plutonic masses, with their various ages and relations to volcanic rocks, and in the 35th, 36th, and 37th chapters, he proceeds to develop the theories of cleavage, foliation, and other points connected with metamorphism, and to show that these remarkable phenomena are common to rocks of all geological epochs. The last chapter is de- devoted to the subject of mineral veins. The whole work is alike profound and explicit, and written ina style so interesting, that, apart from its scientific value, it is a plea- sure to read the book, and no tyro in geology can rise from its in- telligent perusal without at least having his eyes opened to the gene- ral scope of the subject. At the same time, we think it would have been better if in the account of the formations, the descriptions had followed the ascending instead of the descending scale. As it stands the order of nature is so far reversed that the history begins in times that geologically immediately preceded our own epoch, and traces events backward to the earlier ages of the world, thus sometimes ne- cessitating allusion to facts with which the reader is yet supposed to be unacquainted, rendering it more difficult for the author to point out, and for the inexperienced reader to understand, the relation of cause and effect in the chronological history of events. For instance, the paleeozoic rocks were in places heaved up into lands and mountain ranges, before the deposition of later strata which were formed from their waste; but unless the reader prematurely refer forward to suc- ceeding chapters, he knows nothing of these details. Again, the Pur- beck and Wealden strata, and the Eocene rocks of France and Eng- land were in great part formed at the mouths of rivers, and the ter- ritories through which they flowed consisted, in the first case, of land formed of oolitic and other secondary plains, and also of more ancient hilly paleeozoic strata ; and, in the second instance, the tertiary waters wasted the chalk, and the Hocene rivers Howed through more ancient rocks of many ages, of which as yet the student is supposed to know nothing. We are well aware, that in proving the aqueous origin of strata and the nature of their fossils, it is essential to follow the example long since set by Steno,* who, reasoning from the known to the unknown—from the strata of to-day to those of ancient epochs —thus proved their general identity of structure, and the analo- gies in the manner of occurrence of their organic contents. But this being done in the opening chapter of a manual, just as in the ob- scure history of ancient empires we endeavour to follow events. in their order of succession, so, in the history of the earth, it is most instructive and intelligible to trace the order of ‘events as they oc- * Prodromus to a Dissertation concerning Solids within Solids, 1671. 308 Reviews and Notices of Books. curred, showing the successive upheavals and depressions of con- tinents and islands, the newer strata that were formed from their denudation, the disappearance of old forms of life and the approxi- mate entrance on the world’s stage of new genera and species during different epochs. While thus describing the rocks in ascend- ing order, the occurrence of lost passages in the history are, it seems to us, not only more readily comprehended, but also it is easier to im- press on the mind of the student the nature of those grand opera- tions on the earth’s surface that most probably conduced to the exist- ence of local blanks. Tho arrangement adopted doubtless arises from the circumstance, that the present volume is an extension of previous editions, the first of which originated in an amplification of the fourth book of the first five editions of the Principles of Geology, a work specially intended to demonstrate the relation of the world as it is, to the world as it has been in ancient geological epochs. With this special end in view, it was undoubtedly natural to adopt the arrangement employed in the “‘ Manual of Elementary Geology,” as long as it formed a portion of the “ Principles;” but when it was found expedient to divide that work, it might, for the reasons we have stated, have been better to have followed the natural order of succession in describing the strata. Let no one suppose, however, that the arrangement adopted materially interferes with the utility of the book. In its own manner the or- der is so clear, and the descriptions so lucid, that beginners who have all to learn, and experienced geologists who wish to consult it on special topics, will here find a succinct summary of most of the lead- ing points exhibited by the rocky masses ranging downwards from the comparatively recent times of the glacial drift, through Crag and Mioceng sediments, Eocene, Cretaceous, Oolitic, Triassic, Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian, and Silurian systems, till he reach the un- fathomed depths of the venerable Cambrian slates and grits which in all the British isles nowhere authentically exhibit their base re- posing on any older set of rocks, whether igneous or aqueous. To criticise the subjects treated of in detail, would occupy a space as large as the volume itself, and we shall therefore only offer a few remarks on two or three of the themes brought before us. In the third chapter, the fresh-water and marine origin of upheaved strata is shown to depend on the generic character of imbedded fossils. At the present day it requires no very profound knowledge of forms to distinguish between the few genera of fresh-water shells and their marine contemporaries ; and as we recede in time through the ter- tiary and secondary periods, the generic forms of the fresh-water mol- luscs, and a vast number of those found in marine beds, are so closely related to those that still exist, that there is no difficulty in referring some strata to a fresh-water, and others to a marine origin. If a man find oysters, cockles, nautili, and volutes, grouped together, he knows at once the stratum to be marine; and if he find in another Reviews and Notices of Books. 309 cyclas, planorbis, paludina, and lymnea, he is sure of its fresh-water origin. When, however, we come to the palzeozoic rocks, the number of extinct genera is so great that in many rich fossiliferous formations, a collector might work for a week without disentombing one existing generic form. Even then, however, we are not without sure guides, for prolonged search has shown that these are sometimes mixed with marine shells that, like the nautilus and lingula, have inhabited the seas of the world through the larger portion of known time, or again the extinct shells are associated with corals and sea-lilies, which only exist in sea water. Apart from this special knowledge, were some of these ancient paleozoic forms placed in the hands of the palzontolgist for the first time, he might be puzzled (as he still is in the case of some fishes) to give a reason why he should consider them as necessarily marine. Even, however, were there no guiding associations of genera and families, judging from present analogies, the immense areas over which most of the formations occur would of itself solve the question; for, formations that, like the Silurian, Devonian, and carboniferous limestone, stretch across whole conti- nents, cannot have been formed in fresh water. This point being clear, it is a curious subject of inquiry what has become of the fresh- water deposits, which, we presume, were in parts of the world through all time, formed contemporaneously with marine beds. If, indeed, as Mr Henry Rogers supposes, the absence of rock salt from the primary rocks is to be attributed to excess of rain-fall during primary times, then indeed we ought in these earlier periods to have had larger rivers than even the mighty Amazons or the Mississippi, more laden with sediment, and forming deltas of correspondingly ampler magnitude. But not throughout all the ageregate eight miles of thickness of the Cambrian, Silurian, and Devonian strata in the Bri- tish isles, nor yet in any other region, do we find evidence of a delta, except in a doubtful case in a small part of the Old red sandstone of Ireland. It is not till we come to the Carboniferous rocks that we can with decision speak of fresh-water beds at all; and there are living geologists of unusual timidity or boldness, who even consider these asdoubtful. What, then, has become of the fresh-water rocks of the palzeozoic age—older than the Carboniferous—and why, in the secondary and tertiary epochs, are they of more frequent occur- rence ? From the lowest Cambrian to the recent rocks inclusive, there are twelve great groups, including thirty-five well-marked European formations. In the (1.) Recent, (2.) Post-Pliocene, (3.) Pleistocene, and, (4.) Older Pliocene epochs, we have respectively of fresh-water beds named in the Manual, Ist, The lake deposits and deltas now forming ; 2d, The Loess of the valley of the Rhine, the bluffs of the Mis- sissippi (probably also of the Amazons and many other rivers) ; 3d, The fluvio-marine beds of the Norwich Crag; and, 4th, The NEW SERIES.—YVOL. III. NO. U.—APRIL 1856. Y 310 Reviews and Notices of Books. Aralo-Caspian beds (which are, however, like the bottom of the modern Caspian, of brackish-water origin), together with the indi- cations of rivers afforded by the presence of fresh-water shells in the marine deposits of blue marl, that make part of the sub-Apennine formations near Parma. The Miocene rocks contain fresh-water beds in part of the Molasse of the Alps, and it is doubtful whether or not the lacustrine mammalian beds of the Sewalik hills in India may not be classed as of the same age. Wide tracts of the Eocene strata in the London, Hampshire, and Paris basins, in Belgium, Hanover, on the Rhine, and in other parts of Europe, are in great part composed of fresh-water fluvio-marine and marine inter- stratifications, and some of these marine strata in one place are doubtless contemporaneous with the fresh-water beds of another. The base of the Cretaceous series is distinguished by the presence of the Wealden fluviatile rocks, and these are directly linked with or merge into the Purbeck limestones and clays which form the topmost part of the Golites. All the other six great British divisions of the Oolites are undistinguished by fresh-water strata, excepting certain beds that occur in the great Oolite of Yorkshire, marked by the presence of Equisetums, Unios, and Cyprides. In some spots at the base of the Lias, there also occur trifling estuarine deposits. The red Keu- per marls and the New red sandstone are, by all geologists, consi- dered to be true marine formations. The whole of the vast paleeozoic masses, with the exception of part of the Carboniferous, and per- haps a small part of the top of the Old red sandstone in Ireland, are altogether marine. The above enumeration gives a tolerably respectable list of fresh- water strata of very different ages, but, at the same time, it must be recollected that throughout the whole range of old geological time, there are only known three great estuary deposits, 1st, The Carboni- ferous; 2d, the Purbeck and Wealden; and, 3d, part of the Eocene formations. The true history of the first of these is still in many respects a - mystery. As a general rule, it is certain that nearly all coal beds lie on the under-clay soil, where the plants grew and decayed probably in swamps and marshy territories. In Shropshire, for instance, we find beds of marine shale, with ironstone, containing Productas and Limuli, alternating with strata full of fresh-water Unios and under-clay (the soil), on which rest beds of coal.* In Scotland there are beds of marine limestone, charged with Pro- ductas and Spirifers supporting similar soils, on which rest beds of thin coal, formed of plants, the roots of which still indent the un- der clay, and every where in this coal field, under various modi- fications, there are indications of alternations of sea, fresh-water, and land, pointing apparently to a deltoid origin. But there were probably special conditions then in action, of which we have now no actual example in progress. Consider the 12,000 or 14,000 * Prestwich Geological Transactions, vol. ii., pp. 5, 413. Reviews and Notices of Books. 311 feet of coal measures at the South Joggins in Nova Scotia,* and in South Wales, and it would be difficult to show that we know any- thing of any other rocks formed or forming under precisely similar circumstances. Consider also the vast extent of these deposits. In the British isles the coal fields are but fragments, for once they probably spread over the whole of the limestone district of Ireland ; and in England many now isolated were once united, the exist- ing fragments having been saved from the great planing process of denudation, only by the accident of these portions having been curved downwards into great and small basins, during the contortion of the strata. Consider, again, the prodigious areas occupied by the coal fields of North America, larger than some entire kingdoms of the Old World, and which, in the cpinion of the best American geologists, were once united. But though we may allow their deltoid origin, it is not therefore to be supposed, that, (for example) the American coal fields were in any time, however long, formed at the mouth of one great shifting river, though we can easily fancy a state of things by which the structure we now wit- ness in the Coal measures might, by the agency of rivers, have been partly brought about. Suppose a flat continental territory, partly bounded by the sea, and through which many great rivers wandered, similar to those that now traverse the plains of Siberia ; then if these, instead of emptying themselves into an icy ocean, formed their deltas in a “ moist and equable climate,” and if, as the land slowly sank and oscillated, they often shifted their chan- nels, and enlarged their deltas in width, length, and thickness, we can understand how great accumulations of alternate sea, fresh- water, and terrestrial strata might be formed over areas of unusual size. With a vigorous and rapid growth and decay of plants fitted for the purpose, thick accumulations of decayed vegetable matter would be formed, sometimes over large continuous areas, sometimes separated by broad unproductive spaces, or again in little patches repeatedly interrupted. On the whole, all the evidence leads to the conclusion that rivers and marshes had, at all events, much to do with the origin of coal. That the Purbeck and Wealden strata were deltoid and not lacus- trine there can be little doubt, for beds containing plants, insects, and fresh-water shells, alternate with marine bands, showing occa- sional eruptions of the sea, due either to sudden depressions of the land, or the sweeping away of river bars. With the exception of the lacustrine strata of central France, the same estuarine character belongs to the Eocene beds of England, France, and Germany. If we might imagine the Loess of the Rhine and the bluffs of the Mis- sissippi thrown far back in time and fossilized, they would probably be classed but as lower subdivisions of deltas, the modern deposits formed by these rivers constituting higher members, each subdivision being of no more value than the beds of lower, middle, and upper * Dawson and Logan, Geological Journal, vol. x., p. 39. 312 Reviews and Notices of Books. Purbeck, in that formation. Eliminating therefore these late ter- tiary deltas, as we have already stated, we have as yet only discovered three great deltas throughout all the vast abyss of past geological time, and yet at the present day there are about twenty-five first- class deltas on the shores of the four continents, besides a multitude of smaller ones, many of them of considerable importance. Suppose that the eleven great groups that lie between Pliocene and Cambrian rocks had each an equal average number of deltas, then had they been by happy accidents preserved, we might expect to find a large proportion of 275 great deltas, were they all accessible to research, in addition to the multitude of smaller ones which we may be pretty certain contemporaneously existed, if, as we believe, the general economy of land, rain, rivers, lakes, and seas, resembled, in old times, the arrangements of to-day. But (supposing this rough kind of hypo- thesis to be admissible) we underestimate the argument if we only calculate the probabilities for 11 great geological periods, for no man who knows anything of geology will believe that this mere point in time that we call recent, is comparable, for instance, to any one of the great periods indicated by the Silurian, Oolitic, or Cretaceous for- mations. The Oolitic period is divisible into three distinct groups of formations, or four, if, with some geologists, we include the Lias, and even in the subdivisions of any one of these groups, ( as for in- stance between the lower and upper Lias, or the inferior and Bath Oolite, or the Bath Oolite, and the Cornbrash,) there are differ- ences in fossil contents far greater than those which mark the mol- luscous faunas of the glacial and recent epochs. One main cause of the difference between the marine fauna of the drift epoch, and that of the present day, is easily traced to change of climate and other physical conditions. During the glacial epoch we are certain that the greater proportions of the continents of Europe, Asia, and America, —sometimes one part and sometimes another,—were submerged and again upheaved into dry land, and in this fact we discern but one pass- age of many phases of physical geography that elapsed between glacial and recent times. But were the drift and recent formations grouped together, and thrown far back in geological time, they would be con- sidered but as minor subdivisions of one formation, and nevertheless during the existence of the lower subdivision alone, submergences and emergences of continents slowly progressed, sufficient to alter, obli- terate, and, with important changes, perhaps reconstruct many of the great river systems of the world. Roughly considering each of the Oolitic formations as of equal value in point of time, we find them di- vided into ten or twelve subdivisions, each zoologically having differ- ences as important or indeed of more value than the distinctions be- tween the molluscs of the glacial and recent epochs. When there are marked differences in the mollusca of two formations, one of which ap- pears immediately to succeed the other in time, if we adopt the hypo- thesis that in a given area the disappearance and appearance of new species (apart from special creations) are due to ordinary physical Reviews and Notices of Books. 513 causes, then it is impossible to deny that the Oolitic subdivisions may not have witnessed modifications of climate, and revolutions of con- tinental areas, equal to that recorded of the glacial epoch, with cor- responding variations of continental drainage. Taking all these things into consideration, it appears that with the number of formations the probability of the ancient existence of a number of large deltas (now lost) increases in a remarkable ratio, and the structure of the rocks themselves helps us to this conclusion. Neither Silurian nor Cambrian rocks show any traces of the begin- ning of geological time. They are old, and have suffered all those repeated contortions and metamorphisms that old age in rocks fre- quently implies, but the deepest strata of Cambria are conglome- rates formed of pebbles, that might, from their appearance, have been derived from Wales, as it now stands, though, except in the water- worn fragments, all trace of the old lands that yielded them is gone.* We know nothing of the geography of the land whence these fragments were derived, and it is therefore in our opinion an as- sumption alike rash and unwarrantable, to hold, with some, that in the earlier geological periods the world was a world of islets. The greater proportion of the enormous masses of broad-spreading Silurian strata are the measure of an equal amount of more ancient land de- stroyed, wherewith to form them, and the original muddy character of much of these (the lower Silurian strata of Wales, for instance and the upper Silurian mudstones of Murchison), confutes the idea that they were principally formed by the coast waste of scattered islands. It seems more natural to attribute, in part, the origin of the mud to the action of great rivers carrying it out to sea, where it gra- dually accumulated, for, with rivers like the Ganges, the Mississippi, the Amazons, and the Nile, a large portion of the sediment is car- ried by ocean currents far beyond the limits of their deltas. The same kind of reasoning that applies to the Silurian mudstones might be applied to the Old red and Keuper marls and the clays of the Lias and Oolites, and most geologists, without difficulty, grant that great part of the carboniferous rocks were directly derived from river sediments. We are sure of the fluviatile origin of most of the Eocene clays. Let it not be supposed that we wish to under- value coast waste; on the contrary we believe it to be one of the mightiest agents that are for ever “* Sowing the dust of continents to be.” We only claim, for rivers past (though lost) as well as for rivers present, their true value. True, it is easy to surmise that in old times great muddy formations might have accumulated with a rapidity unknown in modern days; how, through warmth and moisture, incessant rains, and excess of carbonic acid in the air the decomposition of the fel- spars of primeval granitic islands took place with unexampled faci- lity; but this and such like notions we look upon as belonging to * Ramsay Geological Journal, vol. ix., p. 168. 314 Reviews and Notices of Books. the wide category of inventions, unsupported and insupportable by true inductive philosophy, and little more deserving of attention than such exploded ideas as that the wavy layers of gneiss were de- posited in a boiling sea. But if numerous deltas, both great and small, existed in olden times, how does it happen that in all the long list of geological for- mations, only three great ones and a few small traces of others have been discovered ? This is due to a variety of causes. First, it must be recollected, that at the present day there are vast ocean tracts like the Pacific, where no large deltas exist, though chalk-like cal- careous deposits from Java to the low Archipelago are everywhere forming. 2dly, There are many long continental coasts absolutely destitute of great deltas, like the west coast of America, the north coast of Africa west of the Nile, and the major part of the south and east coasts of that great continent, where there are no rivers of first-class importance. In some cases certain marine deposits in old periods may have accumulated under conditions like those above cited, but it is in the highest degree unlikely that they should apply to all. 3dly, If during older periods the lands were fre- quently subject to oscillations of level, equal to that which marked the epochs between the beginning of the drift and recent times, (a safe conclusion), then we might expect that many deltas being made of most perishable stuff (loose sand and mud), would at such times be especially liable to destruction, before a happy set of cir- cumstances occasionally admitted of a delta being preserved; and, 4thly, even if consolidated, many (especially the smaller ones) must have been destroyed, for it most frequently happens with disturbed marine formations, that their present margins have been formed by denudation, and are removed to unknown distances from the original coasts where contemporary rivers debouched, and under these cir- cumstances, in consequence of repeated disturbances of rocks along the same great lines, accompanied by constant denudations, the greater the age of a formation the less chance is there of its contem- porary deltas being preserved. When the geology of other parts of the world is as accurately analyzed as that of England, and some other parts of Europe and North America, more deltoid formations will doubtless be discovered, but for the reasons above stated, they will never bear the same proportion to the marine formations of any period that existing deltas do to the marine deposits of the recent epoch. In accordance with these views we might expect a more frequent occurrence of fresh-water strata in the later than in the earlier epochs of the world’s history. An approximate result of an analy- sis of this subject is given in the following table, in which the letter F signifies that fresh-water strata are found im some part of the formation or group that it is placed opposite, the evidence of the occurrence of these fluviatile beds being always of a decided kind. Reviews and Notices of Books. 315 Table showing the Geological Epochs, Groups of Formations, and Single Formations, in which Fresh-water Strata occur. Periods. Epochs. Groups. Formations. Post-tertiary F § Recent F F | Post-pliocene . F F Glacial Drift, &e. 0 Upper x ertiary F Norwich Crag F Red and Coraline Cr ag 0 Miocene F F | Miocene F Post-tertiary, : ( Upper Eocene F tae Beds (Isle of W Wight F Tertiary, or Bembridge Beds FE Cainozoic. - Headon Beds . F ee j Middle Eocene {| F 4 Headonhill Sand and Barton Clay F Pp Ty Bagshot and Bracklesham Beds 0 ; | London Clay 0 Lower Eocene F } Plastic Clay, &e. F Thanet Sands 0 4F inall. 6 F in all. In all 14 9 F, or 9-14ths. Chalk 0 Upper Cretaceous 0 { Cor. bbe Greensand 0 Cretaceous F Se ca 5 0 aoe reensan - 0 Lower Cretaceous F | Weald clay and Hastings sand F Purbeck beds Be tS Upper Oolite F Portland Oolite . : ae te Kimmeridge clay - 0 < : Coral rag 0 Middle Oolite 0 { Oxford Clay Secondary, Oolitic F Great Oolite F or Mezozoic. Lower Oolite F } Fullers’ earth 0 Inferior Oolite 0 Upper Lias 0 Lias F { Marston 0 Lower Lias F Triassic or Upper Trias O New red marl 0 New Red Series Middle Trias O Muschelkalk 0 0 Lower Trias QO New red sandstone 0 3 in all— 9 in all— In all 19 2 F, or 2-3ds. 4 F, or 4-9ths. 4 F, or 4-19ths. Magnesian Limestone . Permian 0 Permian 0 {! Sandstone, marl, and conglomerate 0 (Rothlingendes) i Upper Carboni- een ferous F } Coal measures F Lower Carboni- \ Carboniferous limestone and shale A F ferous F (with Coal, &c., in places) Deyonian or - _ | Upper Devonian F Upper Devonian #F | is a8 A ree) tT Lower Devonian 0 Lower Devonian - 0 | Eumary, or f Tilestone a er ae, 7 a0 Palzozoic. | Upper Silurian 0 zu ee : ; ; Silurian 0 4 Caradoc sandstone 0 Llandeilo flags 0 | tower Silurian 0 { Lingula flags 0 Cambrian 0 Cambrian Q Cambrian 0 5 in all— 8 in all— In all 13 2 F, or 2-5ths. 3 F, or 3-8ths. 3 F, or 3-13ths. “4 some the fresh-water beds at the top of the Old red are considered as of Carboniferous age. This seal strengthen the view adopted in this notice. 316 Reviews and Notices of Books. The result of the foregoing table may be stated as follows, if, in the column of groups of strata we consider Post-tertiary, Upper Tertiary, and Miocene respectively, to be of no greater paleeontolo- gical value than any one of the three divisions of the Eocene strata. Proportion of Proportion of SINGLE forma- | GROuPs of for- Froporkaa zy aa : - |EPOCHS contain- tions containing mations contain- sno frash ube | | fresh-water | ing fresh-water | ‘78 siomke strata. strata. F } Post-tertiary and ae Se Wes cies A Tertiary } 7,ths=0°6428 |All = 6-0000 lee: = 40000 Mesozoic or Secondary vs5ths—0°2105 |4ths — 0°4444 gds = 0°6666 Paleozoic or Primary +3 ths=0°2307 |gths = 0°3750|2ths = 0°4000 From this it will be seen that in regard to the proportional num- ber of rocks containing fresh-water strata, if we consider the SINGLE ForMATIoONsS, the primary rocks have a slight advantage over the se- condary (0°0202), and the tertiary have a great advantage over both. In the Groups of formations, the secondary rocks have a slightly greater advantage over the primary (0°0694), than the primary have over the secondary in the previous column, and all the siz groups of the tertiary rocks contain fresh-water strata. In the column for Epocus, the secondary rocks have a decided advantage over those of primary age (0°2666) , and of course all the four tertiary epochs exhibit fresh-water strata. Notwithstanding our very imperfect knowledge of the detailed structure of the greater proportion of the globe, from such data at these, some might argue that in the earlier stages of the world’s history there was perhaps less rain than at present, and others, that though there was as much or more rain, there were no large con- tinents to give birth to delta-forming rivers; while others, like ourselves, might think it most probable that the later the epoch, group, or formation in time, the greater is the chance of its more local or fresh-water deposits being preserved. Two of the most interesting chapters in the Manual are the 11th and 12th, in which are described the phenomena of the icy-drift and boulder-clay formations, and the evidences of the ancient exist- ence of glaciers in the mountain regions of the British isles. These subjects have attracted much attention among able observers, but long after Playfair had indicated the ice-borne character of the Alpine boulders that rest on the Jura, there was a powerful reaction among geologists, the true doctrine fell into discredit, and most writers adhered to the dogma that the heterogeneous mixtures that cover great part of the surface of the northern continents, were the result of mighty sea waves which rushed from the north across Europe, Asia, and America, scattering rocky fragments as they went, which polished and grooved the rocks over which they passed. A Reviews and Notices of Books. 317 few able workers, in England and America, yet adhere to this hypothesis ; while on the continent of Europe it is still a universal favourite. In England, however, for some years it has been stea- dily losing ground, and we believe it will ere long altogether pass into the limbo of exploded theories, and be regarded as scarcely less chimerical than some of the strange old fantasies of Moro, Woodward, and the imaginative Burnet. We recollect well the un- belief and ridicule that greeted the announcements of Agassiz and Buckland in 1840-41, that glaciers once occupied the greater val- leys of the Highlands of Scotland and of Wales, and how sceptics and shallow wits, whose geology perhaps rarely extended beyond the precincts of turnpike roads, attributed the grooving and striation of the rocks to cart-wheels and hobnailed boots; and the ice-polished surfaces, to the sliding of the caudal corduroys of Welshmen on the rocks, to slickensides and sea-waves, and to every cause indeed but the true one. Saner views, however, at length prevailed, and there are now few geologists who have studied the effects of ice in the Alps, or are familiar with its action in rivers, or who have carefully per- used the writings of Arctic voyagers, but will readily recognize the familiar indications of ice, and more especially those of glacier ac- tion in the Highlands of Sac in Cumberland, Wales, the south- west of Ireland, and the mountains of the Vosges. Without criticising the details adduced by Sir Charles in his sum- mary of this interesting question, it is now perhaps universally al- lowed that all the more important general contours of hill and val- ley in the continents of the old and new worlds were the same as now previous to the glacial epoch. The land was then slowly depressed beneath the waves, and as it sank its minor features were somewhat modified, for terraces were formed on old shores, and icebergs drifting from the north, and pack ice on the coasts, as they grounded and grated along the shores and sea bottoms, smoothed and striated the rocky surfaces over which they passed, and deposited, in the course of many ages, clay, gravel, and scat- tered boulders over wide marine areas that had once been land. The grooves and striations on the ice-smoothed rocks (except where locally deflected) still bear witness to the general south- ward course of the winds and ocean-currents that bore the ice from its birthplace into milder climates.* Evidence of this is abun- dantly found both in North America+ and Europe, and in south- ern latitudes the same agency of icebergs has transported boul- ders far northwards over the low lands of South America.t In many parts of our own islands it is sufficiently obvious, as for in- stance on the shores of the Clyde, and the Firth of Forth at Granton, North Berwick, Tyningham, Skateraw, &c., where, in quarries * Manual, p. 127. t Lyell, Journal of the Royal Institution. 1855. { Darwin’s Naturalist’s Voyage, 1852, 247. NEW SERIES,— VOL. III. NO. 11.—APRIL 1856. Z 318 Reviews and Notices of Books. 1ewly cleared of till, the smooth surfaces and the ice-ploughed fur- rows are often as fresh as they might be were a part of Baffin’s Bay heaved up to sight and stripped of its overlying mass of modern voulder-clay. These localities are only mentioned as examples of what is common over much of Scotland, both in the plains and iigh on the summit of Salisbury Crags, the flanks of Arthur Seat, the Pentlands, and many a hill “in the great central valley be- tween the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde.”* The same phenomena are visible throughout the length and breadth of Ire- land, in the north of England, and over many parts of Wales, from Anglesea to Pembrokeshire. In Anglesea, which is a low country, the whole of the contours of its undulations speak of the moulding effects of ice, and, when freshly denuded of their cover- ing of turf, heath, clay, or gravel, the rocks, like those in Scotland, are often beautifully smoothed, the striations running on an average from 20° to 25° E. of N., transverse to the courses pursued by the great glaciers that contemporaneously descended to the N.W. from one side of the Snowdonian chain.t On the coast also of that island frequent cliffs occur of stiff roughly stratified boulder-clay, with its complement of travelled blocks and well-scratched stones. In Pembrokeshire, though the phenomena are less marked, the experienced eye has no difficulty in detecting the effects of ice in the peculiar rounded contours of the hills between St David’s Head and Fishguard. True, the tooth of time is surely effecting their ruin, but this only renders the origin of their peculiar forms more ap- parent, in the marked contrast their mammillated forms occasionally present to the broken outlines produced by subsequent ordinary atmo- spheric disintegration. That the winter climate of the time was in- tensely cold, is witnessed by the fact, that between the south coast of Cardigan Bay and St Bride’s Bay, the low country is covered with great boulders, derived from the higher greenstone hill-tops that rise bare above the drift between Carn-Llidi and Strumble Head.t They are neither foreign to the district, nor were they transported on far- travelled icebergs, but resting on, or being mixed with the native drift that forms the smooth slopes of the low lands, they must cer- tainly have been floated and scattered by coast ice that in winter gathered round the low islets, seeing that isolated hills of a few hundred feet high never could have given birth to anything deserv- ing the name of glaciers and large icebergs. This is but one ex- ample of what is common in Wales, where it is stated such drift- deposits rise on the mountains in the north to the height of more than 2000 feet.§ * Maclaren, Edin. New Phil. Journal, 1849, p. 161. t Ramsay, Geological Journal, vol. viii., p. 374. t See De la Beche’s Map of Pembrokeshire. Geological Transactions, Ser. 2, vol. ii., p. 1. § Ramsay, Geological Journal, vol. viii., p. 374. — eae ta Reviews and Notices of Books. 319 The same kind of evidence is conspicuous on and around the hills of Charnwood Forest in Leicestershire, from whence long trains of greenstone granite and syenite have been borne southwards, dot- ting the drift-covered country as far south as Rugby. The highest hill in the Forest is about 800 feet. The whole of Shropshire, Cho- shire, and Staffordshire, are speckled with boulders of granite and greenstone, some of them transported, it is said, from the moun. tains of Cumberland ; and on the Derbyshire hills the drift rises to the height of 1500 feet, while further south, in the valley of the Trent, and on the Lias clay and tabulated Marlstone hills near Mar- ket Harborough (and many other places), we find polished and striated fragments of Derbyshire Mountain limestone and Millston grit mingled with chalk flints, and fragments of Lias and Oolitic limestones. The same indications of travelled drift are familiar to the geologist in Northumberland and Cumberland, in the Silurian valleys and hill-sides in the south of Scotland, in the broad spread- ing boulder clays and sandy gravels of Ayrshire, Argyllshire, Dum- bartonshire, and on the lower flanks of the mountains of Arran, where the smoother swells that in places rise well up on the mountains, mark with a clear outline the average limits of the glacial dri‘t. Near Glasgow, it risegin places to the very summits of the Campsic hills; and in the Lothians, it lies on the slopes of the Lammer- muirs, and the Pentland hills ;* and in many other parts in Scot- land, from north to south, too numerous to name. Indeed, ove: the larger part of the British isles, its presence, or indications tha‘ it has been present, form the rule, its absence is exceptional, and even such debateable land as that which lies between the Cotswold hills and the Severn is not without some hint of ice. The intensity and the wide-spreading effects of cold, in what are now temperate climates, is one of the greatest marvels of geo- logy. It has been suggested, that if the Isthmus of Panama were submerged, the current that crosses the Atlantic from the Cape to the Caribbean Sea would find its way into the Pacific, and there would be no gulf stream abnormally to raise the temperature of the west 0! Europe. But even this would not cause cold sufficient to originate glaciers in the Highlands and in Wales ; and besides it is known that the mollusca on the opposite shores of the Isthmus of Panama are generally distinct, which would not be the case if a communi- cation had been open so late as the glacial epoch, the shells of which are almost all of existing species.t In the present state of ou knowledge, therefore, the suggestion made by Sir Charles Lyell at p. 147 is perhaps the best that has yet been offered, viz. that “if in both of the Polar regions a considerable area of elevated dry land * Maclaren. + There is some kind of evidence that this Isthmus was open during Miocen: times ; for, according to Mr John Carrick Moore, there are Miocene shells found fossil in St Domingo, some of which still live in the Inuian Ocean.— Geologica! Journal, vol. vi., p. 39. 320 Reviews and Notices of Books. existed, such a recurrence of refrigerating conditions in both hemi- spheres might have created for a time an intensity of cold never ex- perienced since; and such probably was the state of things during that period of submergence to which I have alluded.” It must, however, be remembered that this is but a suggestion, and though there can be no doubt of the long duration of an intense state of cold, still, before the whole mystery is cleared up, much remains to be done; for it must not be forgotten, that from the Gulf of Fin- land to the White Sea, and on the flanks of the Scandinavian chain, there are traces of the glacial sea, and yet further north in the icy regions lately traversed by arctic voyagers, deposits with marine shells have been observed at heights, which, at some tertiary period, would indicate considerable depression of the northern regions, thetgh, whether that depression was contemporaneous with or sub- sequent to our glacial epoch, no precise evidence has yet been af- forded. Sir Charles only devotes a short paragraph (p. 137) to the sub- ject of ancient British glaciers ; but were the scattered information that is afloat on the subject, respecting this and other quarters of the world, collected, condensed, and printed, it might well claim an ex- tended notice in Manuals from all who apprec®te the full importance of glacial geology. It might be well to enumerate and give special instances of the perfect nature of the proofs that indicate the past existence of glaciers in regions where now the snow in mild winters scarcely falls, and in the severest never lies for half the year. Such proofs are to be found in the polishing, scratching, grooving, and‘deep furrowing of the rocks over which the glaciers flowed, magnificent examples of which occur in many a Highland valley, in Cumberland, Wales, the south-west of Ireland, and the mountains of the Vosges. The bottom of a glacier is covered with fine sand, and dotted with imprisoned stones and blocks, which polish, scratch, and groove the rocky floor over which its weighty mass pro- gresses ; and wherever a tributary stream of ice flows into the greater glacial river of the main valley, there the grooves will at first slightly diverge from those made by the sweep of the main current, and as we recede from the point of union of the two streams, the furrows will at length curve fairly round and accommodate themselves to the trend of the tributary valley. In fact, wherever tributary glaciers flow into a main valley, a series of lines will be formed, branching from the general direction of the grooves that mark the bottom and sides of the main valley. This is what takes place at pre- sent in all glaciers; and if in Wales any man will ascend the pass of Nant Francon in Caernarvonshire, and examine its tributary valleys, he will find that in the main valley the striz follow its course (about 20° to 25° west of north), and in the tributary valleys the strie run east and north-easterly according to their curves, while in entering Cwm Idwal from Nant Francon they curve gradu- Reviews and Notices of Books. 321 ally round from E.8.E. to N.N.E.* The same is equally striking in the neighbourhood of Snowdon, where, in the Pass of Llanberis, the grooves and striz first strike from 30° to 35° south of east, and gradually curve round to the south, asa portion of them pass into the high tributary valley of Cwm Glas ; or again, in Nant Gwynant, where in the main valley they strike to the south-west and branch off first to the north-west, and gradually curve round to the north in the higher part of Cwm-y-llan, and in another instance generally to the west in the vast rocky amphitheatre of Glaslyn and Llyn Llydaw. “Tn the higher parts of such minor tributary valleys, the grooves converge towards the hollows, at acute angles to the main direction of the valley, in the manner that might be expected from ice press- ing or flowing downwards to feed the main icy streams.” + Again, if a great valley be filled with ice nearly to the brim, and if there are short tributary valleys at its sides, bounded by lower spurs that branch inwards from the crested ridges that flank the main valley, the great stream of ice that fills the whole will in its flow over-ride the whole depression, forming its striations on the rocky floor, often transversely to the minor valleys, or in accordance to the course of the average direction of the slope of the whole mass. But if by amelioration of climate the glacier gradually decrease in size, then we shall find roches moutonnées and striations (as in Switzerland now), at far higher levels than the surface of the existing glacier. The lower spurs that branch into the valley from the bounding crests will then stand out denuded of ice, the high hollows between them will contain tributary glaciers, and form new striations transverse to those that were formed, wlfen from ridge to ridge the whole great valley was full of ice. Such transverse striations actually crossing each other, are observable in parts of Nant Francon and the Pass of Llanberis; and in other cases close to the mouths of the tributary valleys the grooves on the steep hill sides of the main valleys are often at much greater elevations than many of the striations that, transversely to these, follow the course of the tributary valleys almost to the point where their brooks unite with the principal stream. There is indeed proof in the longitudinal grooves and stria- tions on the hill sides, that in the Passes of Nant Francon and Llanberis the ice once attained the enormous thickness of about 1300 feet ; unless indeed, as has been supposed by Dr Hooker, many valleys have been to a considerable extent deepened by glaciers them- selves. In this case the present bottoms of the Welsh passes would be lower than the original floors over which the glaciers flowed when they formed the longitudinal striations that are now 1300 feet above the river in Nant Francon and the stream that feeds Llyn Peris, in the Pass of Llanberis. However this may be, by degrees they * See Darwin, Phil. Mag., ser, iii., vol. xxi., p. 180; and Ramsay, Geologic: l Journal, vol. viii., p. 371. + Reports of the British Association, 1854, p. 95. 322 Reviews and Notices of Books. decreased in size, and there is still beautiful evidence of their gra- dual decline in the retreating moraines concentrically arranged one within another, as, for instance, in the long mounds on the west side of Cwm Idwal, and also in Cwm Glas and the upper part of Cwm Brwynog on the sides of Snowdon, till at length we find only the last relics of the ice in the remains of tiny moraines far up amid the innermost recesses of the mountains.* In many of the Vosges, Highland, and Welsh valleys, the moraines are as perfect as those of the Glaciers du Bois and of the Rhone at the present day. In proof of this we would cite the beautiful illustra- tions of glacial phenomena in the Vosges published by MM. Henri Hogard and Dolfuss ; or, to come nearer home, the moraines in Glen Falloch, above Loch Lomond, and those of the Cuchullin Hills, men- tioned by Professor J. D. Forbes; or of Ben More, Coigach, and Glen Messan, noticed by Mr Robert Chambers and Mr Maclaren, or that of Llyn Idwal described by Mr Darwin, or of Cwm Graia- nogt in Nant Francon, or of Llyn Llydaw, together with others at the upper end, of Cwm-y-llan, Cwm-y-Clogwyn, Llyn-du-’r-Arddu, and Cwm Glas, on the flanks of Snowdon, and of Cwm Orthin, near Ffestiniog, where there is a small but well defined moraine less than quarter of a mile below the lake. From the peak of Snowdon the educated eye at once perceives the moraine-shaped form of the semicircular mound, that below one of the lakes stretches partly across Cwm-y-Clogwyn ; and he who wishes to see a perfect British terminal moraine may ascend Cwm Glas from the Pass of Llanberis, till he get beyond the great roche moutonnée that lies half a mile south of Blaen-y-Pennant. There a long curved ridge of earth and large stones crosses the valley, almost as regular in form as the huge mounds of chalk that form the boundary dykes of any one side of the deep trenches of Old Sarum. Another proof of glaciers is, that in Wales terminal moraines frequently constitute the confining barriers of mountain lakes and tarns. There are numerous cases of this kind in Switzerland and the Himalayah,§ and the same causes have been at work in the mountains of the Vosges, || In Caernarvonshire, Llyn Idwal forms a striking example of this phenomenon, as also does Llyn Llydaw on the flank of Snowdon. In some cases, as in Cwm-Llafar below Carnedd Llewelyn, the ice has first ploughed a long nar- row channel through the terraced drift from end to end of the valley, then, the decreasing glacier formed a moraine near its upper end, which, when the ice melted, confined a lake, till the * Ramsay, Report of the British Association, 1854, p. 94. Tt Edin. New Phil. Journal, Mr Maclaren, vol. xl., xlii., xlvii.; Mr R, Cham- bers, vol. liv. { Ramsay, Geological Journal, vol. viii., p. 375. § Hooker, Himalayan Journal, vol. ii., p. 119. || Coup @’cil sur le Terrain erratique des Vosges, par Henri Hogard, 1848, accompagnée d’un Atlas de 32 planches publiée par Dolfuss-Ausset, 1861. Reviews and Notices of Books. 323 stream that flowed from it cutting a passage to the base of the moraine, the tarn was thoroughly drained. There are other cases of a like nature. Other moraines dam up lakes in a more peculiar manner. The mouth ofa valley is surrounded by a high mound, or a series of united mounds curving outwards, formed of earth, angular, subangular, smoothed, and scratched stones and blocks (some of them as large as a small cottage), so arranged that their origin, and the places whence they came, are unmistakeable. A deep clear lake lies inside, and the drift of the glacial sea (also full of boulders), with a long smooth outline, slopes right up to the outside base of the moraine, showing that the glacier descended to the sea-level, and, pushing for a certain distance out to sea, formed a marine terminal moraine, while the ordinary drift detritus of small sediment and boulder stones (partly scattered by floating ice) was accumulating beyond. In the meanwhile the space on and below the sea-level occupied by the glacier was kept clear of debris, and when the land arose, and the climate ameliorated, the hollow within the terminal moraine became replenished with the water-drainage of the surround- ing hills, just as in earlier times it was filled with a drainage of snow. Such in Carnaervonshire are the lakes of Llyn Dulyn, Melynllyn, Ffynnon Llugwy, Marchlynmawr, and Marchlyn-bach ; and in Scot- land it might not be difficult to give parallel cases.* Judging by the present average elevation of these Welsh lakes, when the moraines that confine them were formed, the highest parts of the mountains of Caernarvonshire (the snow drainage of which gave birth to the glaciers), could not have been more than from 1400 to 2000 feet above the sea. The average great intensity of cold may be inferred from this circumstance, for the sea then flowed through some of the greater valleys between the Menai Straits and Cardigan Bay, across the present watersheds. The principal of these are the vale of Conwy, the valley between Bangor and Capel Curig, the Pass of Llanberis, opening into Cwm Gwynant (about 1300 feet high at the watershed), and the valley of Afon Gain, between Caernarvon and Beddgelert. The country was thus broken up into a group of islands, each one of which in great part had its permanent covering of snow and ice. Another sign of the past occupation of these valleys by glaciers occurs in the roches moutonnées (already mentioned), in which they abound. These are not merely “rounded bosses, or small flattened domes of polished rock ;”t for, though often small, sometimes they are of such dimensions, that they rather deserve the names of po- lished hills than of bosses, rivalling as they do in magnitude some of those immense isolated mammillated surfaces which rise in the middle of the valleys of the Aar, of the Rhone, and of Chamouni, marking the former great extension of the Alpine glaciers. In all the British regions where glaciers once existed, they may be * Phil. Journal, vol. liy., p. 231. Chambers. t+ Manual, p. 137. 324 Reviews and Notices of Books. found ot the most various dimensions. In the south-west of Ire- land they are almost everywhere amid the mountains. The sides of the Gairloch, Loch Long, and other sea lochs described by Mr Maclaren (often far above the sea-level) are marked by their pre- sence. Some of the rocks of Loch Lomond, that only show them- selves when the lake is low, are rounded, polished, and striated ; and the scattered isles that gem its surface present on a larger scale all the smoothly curving outlines of ice-worn roches moutonnées, al- though many may find it difficult to believe that the icy stream that once flowed down Glen Falloch ever expanded into the broader space that lies between Ben Lomond and the Luss and Tarbet shore. Si- milar forms have been described by Mr Chambers and Mr Bryce in Cumberland; and in Wales they may be counted by the hundred ; in Merionethshire on the flanks of Aran Mowddwy, in the estuary of the Mawddach between Dolgelli and Barmouth, by the lake in Cwm Orthin,and in Cwm Croesor and Nant-y-mor between Ffestiniog and Beddgelert, and also in Traeth-mawr and Traeth-bach. In Caernarvonshire they are common in almost all the greater valleys of the Snowdonian chain—in Cwm Eigiau, and on the banks of Avon Llugwy and its tributary valleys, on the N.W. slope of Moel Siabod, and also in Cwm Gaseg, Cwm Llafar, and especially in Nant Francon. Magnificent examples occur in this valley above the famous Penrhyn slate quarries, another small one lies opposite Ty gwyn, others described by Mr Darwin at Llyn Ogwen and in the slopes between Llyn Idwal and the waterfall by the bridge, where the whole side of the hill has been mammillated by the grinding ice that descended from Cwm Idwal to Nant Francon. Others not less striking, at the base of Snowdon skirt the shores of Llyn Pa- darn and Llyn Peris ; and further up the Pass, some of large dimen- sions, plentifully sprinkled with great blocks of stone (roches perchés), amaze the passing tourist, who cannot understand how masses rolled from the neighbouring mountains have so frequently been arrested on precarious points from whence they should naturally have made a final bound into the lower depths of the valley, while the well-pleased eye of the experienced glacialist at once divines that they were gently de- posited where they lie by the final thawing of the glacier that slowly bore them from the higher recesses of the mountains. Cases scarcely less beautiful occur by Llyn Llydau, and in Cwm Dyli, Cwm-y-Llan, at Llyn-y-Gader, and Beddgelert, where the curious visitor may see in the hall of the hotel framed record of an imper- fectly polished and grooved locality in the vicinity, in the writ- ing of the illustrious Buckland. In some of the valleys roches moutonnées peep here and there from underneath a covering of drift, as for instance in Nant Gwryd, and between Llyn Ogwen and Capel Curig. These may have possi- bly been formed by floating ice when the country was deeply sub- merged; but from the form of the valleys, it seems to us equally s ~~ ’ Reviews and Notices of Books. 325 likely that they sometimes indicate a set of glaciers that existed before the deposition of the drift, which, (the cold still continuing) was afterwards deposited in the valleys during their submergence. If this were the case when the land subsequently emerged, the cold did not cease, and glaciers, ploughing through the narrower valleys which drained large and lofty areas of snow, cleared them of drift in the manner first suggested by Mr Darwin, in his Description of the gla- ciers of Cwm Idwal and Nant Francon. We must add a few words about the appearance of the polish on rocks and the weathering of glaciated surtaces. In the Alps, when the glacier ice is freshly removed, the rock underneath, whether of limestone, gneiss, granite, or even quartz, though striated, often possesses the polish of a sheet of glass. In our own country, when the impervious covering of till has been taken away, the surfaces of limestones (as at North Berwick), though grooved and striated, are often beautifully smooth. In a country so low, this may have been due to the grating of icebergs. In other cases, as in some parts of Wales, when the turfand glacier debris is lifted, the under- lying surfaces of slate still retain a perfect glassy polish, marked sometimes by flutings, and sometimes by numerous scratches as fine as if they had been made by the point of adiamond. After long exposure these finer markings disappear, and though the gen- eral rounded form perfectly remains, the surface becomes rough- ened, and the planes of the highly-inclined cleavage present on their edges a slightly serrated aspect. The deeper flutings, how- ever, often for a long time remain, but even these at length disap- pear, though it is not for long after this has been effected that the general rounded form of the roches moutonnées is entirely obliter- ated. Phenomena of the same general nature are observable in the igneous uncleaved rocks over which a glacier may have passed. The original polished surface, on exposure, becomes roughened by atmo- spheric disintegration ; but the general form remains to attest its gla- cial origin, and in no case is there any danger of the experienced eye confounding this with those forms produced by spherical decomposition about which so much used to be said by Von Buch, and latterly by the Messieurs Schlagintweit. Finally, in the long lapse of time, the air, water, and repeated frosts tell their tale, the rock splits at its joints, it crumbles, masses fall off, and it assumes an irregular and craggy outline altogether distinct from the glaciated surface pro- duced by the long-continued passage of ice; and thus it happens, that on the very summit of some tower-like crag, the sides of which have been rent by the frosts of untold winters, the student of glacial phenomena sometimes finds yet intact the writing of the glacier, while below on its sides all trace of the ice-flood has long since dis- appeared. These things may seem almost incredible to those who are unaccustomed to read the records of many terrestrial revolutions in the rocks; but, nevertheless, of these extinct glaciers it is true, NEW SERIES.—VOL. Ill. NO. IJ.—aAPRIL 1856. DEIN 326 Reviews and Notices of Books. that just as a skilful antiquary, from the mere wrecks of some castle or abbey of the middle ages, can, in his mind’s eye, conjure up the true semblance of what it was when entire, so the geologist, from the fragmentary signs before him, can truthfully restore the whole systems of glaciers that once filled the valleys of the Vosges, the Highlands, or of Wales. It would be something could we form any idea of the years that have elapsed since, in these latter days of geological time, the glacial mark- ings were made on the rocks. But of this we can have no approxi- mate guess; and the only hint may be inferred from Sir Charles Lyell’s remark that it probably took 30,000 years to excavate the deep ravine that lies below the Falls of Niagara, and that this was done since the deposition of certain fresh-water marls that lie above the cliffs, and which are of later date than the American drift.* There being nodoubt that this drift was in general terms contemporaneous with our glacial period, and if Sir C. Lyell’s calculation be correct, then the seemingly slight glacial markings on our rocks have endured for a like period — who can tell how much longer?—for no data exist by which we can estimate how long the marls were formed before the excavation of the ravine began, or, farther, how long a period elapsed between the close of the accumulation of the drift, and the commencement and de- position of the fresh-water strata. We may be sure that these pas- sages consumed no mere minute fragment of time, for whole races of mammals were created, lived their appointed time on earth, and dis- appeared between the close of the drift and the commencement of the human epoch. One interesting point still remains of this fascinating subject. Though the veteran Von Buch, in conversation, to the last denied that the glaciers of the Alps had ever been materially larger than at present, it is now almost universally admitted that many of them once extended down the valleys 20, 30, or evena greater number of miles beyond their present limits, and that they then were of much greater thickness. The same holds true of the glaciers of the Pyrenees and the Scandinavian chain, and, according to Dr J. D. Hooker, of the glaciers of the Himalaya, which in places once descended to levels of only 9000 feet above the level of the sea, or 5000 feet below their present limits.t Was it during the presence of glaciers in the British isles and in the Vosges, or, in other words, during part of the Newer Pliocene epoch, that these glaciers attained their greatest magnitude? We believe it is susceptible of proof that this was the case. Another important point to ascertain is the true nature of many of the superficial deposits that lie on the flanks of the Alps, and in some of the wider valleys and watersheds,—a good example of which occurs * Manual, p. 145. + Professor James D. Forbes’s Travels in Norway. t Himalayan Journal. ae Reviews and Notices of Books. 327 on the route between Meyringen and the Grindelwald by the Schei- dega Pass. There, near the base of the Wetterhorn, at heights be- tween 4000 and 5000 feet above the sea, stretching to the south- west, is a broad, smooth slope, covered with comparatively small de- tritus, not dissimilar to the shell-bearing clays and stony beds which occur in some of the Welsh slopes, on the seaward flanks of the Snow- donian chain, at heights of from 1000 to 2000 feet above the sea. On the Alpine surface are scattered large limestone blocks from the Wet- terhorn, arranged in rude lines. At lower levels, the upper and lower glaciers of the Grindelwald invade this territory ; and in older times the glaciers have cleared the valley below of the drift-like detritus, just as in the Passes of Nant Francon and Llanberis the ancient glaciers swept out the drift, and left untouched the marine deposits that lie on the high grounds between Aber and the lower part of Nant Francon, from thence to Llyn Padarn, and on the slopes between Llyn Pa- darn and the river Ceunant. Are the deposits above the Grindel- wald, and similar beds in other parts of the Alps, of marine origin, and were the blocks of limestone that lie on them arranged on or near an old sea margin by drift or pack ice? If so, perhaps they were deposited at the same time that the granite and gneiss blocks on the Jura, according to Playfair, were transported from the region of Mont Blane, and that other boulders between the glacier of the Rhone and Martigny were borne westward and left on the mountain sides, when the Rhone above the Lake of Geneva was an arm of the sea, and gla- ciers descended to its level, according to the hypothesis of Sir Roderick Murchison.* Numerous blocks of granite and gneiss that lie on the Italian side of the Alps, scattered around the Lakes of Como and Lecco, were doubtless carried southward at the same period.t| However this may be, it is much to be desired that geologists would search the drifts (if such they be) above the Grindelwald, and similar suspi- cious deposits for shells; and thatif these were found, investigations were entered into to show the probable amount of depression that the Alps sustained during the glacial epoch.t We have already exceeded the limits we proposed to ourselves when this notice was commenced, otherwise we would fain make some remarks on the probable physical geography of the country through which flowed the river that deposited the Wealden and Purbeck strata; and also on the much vexed question of the denu- dation of the Weald itself, taken in connexion with other denudations of the Chalk and Oolites, of a like character but far larger in amount. Something more, too, might be profitably said of the Bunter and Per- mian rocks of Britain (subjects not yet clearly understood), and also on various more purely theoretical points, such as the anatomy (so to * Geological Journal, vol. vi., p. 65. + De La Beche’s Manual, 1833, p. 195. { Since the above was written, we have been informed thai Mr Daniel Sharpe has produced a paper on this subject. 328 Reviews and Notices of Books. speak) of paleeozoic volcanoes, the geological history of special areas of metamorphism, and the manner in which deep fissures or lodes have been filled with metalliferous and other more ordinary minerals, but for the present we must take leave of these subjects and of the book the perusal of which suggested them. The Manual itself requires no commendation of ours. The rapid editions that Sir Charles Lyell’s Elements and Principles pass through are the best tests of their popularity, a popularity of the solid kind that makes his works essential to every student of geology, wherever the name of science is known. Analytical View of Sir Isaac Newtons Principia. By Henry Lorp BroucuHaw, F.R.S., Member of the National Institute of France and of the Royal Academy of Naples ; and E. J. Routu, B.A., Fellow of St Peter’s College, Cambridge. We have have not forgot the fright we experienced two or three years ago, in turning up, on a friend’s table, a little treatise on the Ellipse, for the Use of Schools, by His Grace the Duke of Somerset. Farewell to our occupation, thought we: who shall enter into the lists against such noble blood? Is it not enough that a prime minister has taken on himself the drudgery of correcting the press, for the life of a writer whose claim to national gratitude rests on nothing higher than the power of elevating sentimental verse almost into poetry, but that the House of Peers shall furnish treatises for the use of our little children ? The shock soon subsided, the alarm wore off, and we have since learnt to view with complacency the compe- tition which has thus arisen, believing that it has tended to exalt rather than to supplant the labours of our humblest compilers. Ac- cordingly, when we took up the Analytical View, we experienced no pangs of jealousy ; so far from it, that had Lord Brougham announced on the title-page his intention of giving lessons on the Principia at a reasonable fee, we verily believe we should have locked up our ferule for a couple of months, and taken a ride to the south, to get indoctrinated with deeper views of this, the noblest effort of the mind of man. Indeed, we have not given up the hope that we may yet do so; for we infer that, at any rate, one of the editors has had an experimental class of an unacademical kind, for the purpose of ascertaining how the work will answer as the basis of teaching. We are informed in the Introduction, that ‘*‘ two classes of readers may benefit by this Analytical View; those who only desire to be- come acquainted with the discoveries of Newton, and the history of the science, but without examining the reasoning ; and those who ee Reviews and Notices of Books. 329 would follow the reasoning to a certain extent, and so far as a knowledge of the most elementary parts of geometrical and analytical science may enable them to go. It has been found upon trial, that readers of both descriptions have been able to peruse the work with advantage ; even readers of the second description. These have easily followed, not only the commentary upon the gradual progress of discovery, and the state of the science before Newton; but, passing over the exposition of the differential calculus, have pursued the demonstration of the fundamental law of gravitation, and even ap- prehended the proof of its universal action, according to the inverse proportion of the squares of the distances.”” And to the same effect at page xxvi. The work is, therefore, we presume, a treatise adapted for teach- ing; not a simple comment or exposition, such as may be found in the writings of Pemberton, M‘Laurin, Emerson, and others of former days; nor merely the results of the Principia brought out by the processes of Laplace and Lagrange, as in the writings of Whewell, Pratt, and others of our own times ; but the Principia itself translated into the language of analysis, and illustrated by or compared with the conclusions of succeeding philosophers. We turn to the work, and find its object stated to be twofold: “* First, to assist those who are desirous of understanding the truths unfolded in the Principia, and of knowing upon what foundation rests the claim of that work to be regarded as the greatest monument of human genius; secondly, to explain the connection of its various parts with each other, and the subsequent progress of the science.” This is as it should be, and we enter hopefully on the inquiry how it has been effected, proposing however to confine ourselves princi- pally to the first object. We begin with an examination of the Method of Demonstration. Every one knows, that after having given two very valuable pre- liminary chapters under the respective heads of definitions and axioms, wherein the laws which govern the motion of bodies are, for the first time, distinctly enunciated, the illustrious author of the Principia commences to lay the foundation of his reasoning, by means of eleven introductory propositions, with the somewhat inex- pressive title of Lemmas. Whether in this term Newton referred to the logical form of major propositions, or whether he understood the word lemma simply to imply something which may be received as the basis of reasoning, it is unimportant to inquire. It is certain that these lemmas are a masterpiece of skill, and form an appro- priate foundation, not for the Principia alone, but for all geometric demonstrations in which continuous change is an element; and in- deed some of these lemmas are the best foundation of an analytical system too. Reflecting on this, we turned with almost breathless anxiety to-see how one great mind would be the interpreter of another. Judge of our mortification at discovering that Lord Brougham has 330 Reviews and Notices of Books. altogether ignored the existence of this work of genius, and has sup- plied its place by some (we can hardly help calling them) garbled selec- tions from Newton’s other writings, in which the methods of infinitesi- mals, indivisibles, fluxions, and prime and ultimate ratios are mingled together in glorious confusion. We hope we may be excused if, for the benefit of our own readers, as well as those of Newton, we en- deavour to set the matter of this first section in its right light. Whenever we are dealing with magnitudes or motions, which are subject to continual change, it is very evident that we are compelled, by the nature of the case, to reason on forms which exist only in de- finition, and to apply our conclusions, by some process or other, to things as they are. Thus, for instanee, when a stone falls from the hand to the ground, its velocity is continually increasing, so that we cannot strictly say that at any instant it moves with any particular velocity ; for every instant of its motion sees a change of its rate of speed. Under these circumstances, we are compelled to have recourse to the artifice of defining velocity by reference to a state of things different from that which actually exists; viz., by imagining the gravity of the earth for an instant to cease acting. The hypothe- tical state, however, approaches nearer and nearer to the real, as the time during which the hypothesis holds is smaller and smaller ; so that if the velocity, when uniform, be the quotient of the space by the time, the velocity in the case we have supposed will differ from that quotient less and less, as the time becomes smaller and smaller. This velocity, which is not the real ratio of the space by the time, is under these circumstances called by Newton its prime or ultimate ratio. The words “ prime’’ and “ ultimate’ have reference to this approach of the hypothetical to the real; but they are at the best indifferent interpreters of the idea—and have given rise to numerous misconceptions, and an infinity of quibbles. The word evanescent, too, which Newton used, formed a tangible handle to the real or pretended objector. Bishop Berkeley avails himself of it in his Analyst, when he says (§ 85), ‘“‘ And what are these same eva- nescent increments ? They are neither finite quantities, nor quantities infinitely small, nor yet nothing; may we not call them the ghosts of departed quantities ?” | Newton is not altogether guiltless of having done his part towards the creation of this confusion of ideas. His very 1st lemma, which is the definition of ultimate equality, or, if you please, the statement of the conditions under which it may be pre- dicated to exist, is marred by a sort of demonstration, although we believe it was intended only as an aid to the better understanding of the meaning of the phrase employed. Besides this, Newton has put down something either wrong or unintelligible in a corollary or two, thereby causing nightly fermentation in the brains of some of his less-gifted followers. For example, in the first corollary to the 3d lemma, speaking of a polygon inscribed in a curvilinear figure, he says, that the two will ultimately coincide omni ex parte, Reviews and Notices of Books. 331 which phrase Motte, in his Translation, renders “ in all parts,” but which Newton probably understood to mean “part by part.” However that may be, we cannot comprehend how his own univer- sity can tolerate such inconsistencies as his followers fasten on him. In an edition of the first three sections, of the date 1837, there occurs a beautiful piece of reasoning in a circle, complete in all its parts. The editor supposes Newton to assert in the 3d (4th) co- rollary to Lemma 3, that the perimeters of the two figures are equal in length, and therefore of necessity equal part by part. From this he proves the 5th Lemma (a mere definition or statement of fact in Newton), and thence the 7th, the very equality with which he started! We forbear to say how many editions this has gone through. Happily the recent publication of a few sections by Mr Frost expunges the libel on Newton’s memory, we hope for ever To return. This system of ultimate equality is the broad founda- tion on which the Principia rests; and, however much modern writers have extended and simplified its application, they have not, and we believe never will cause it to be superseded. The 7th Lemma, for instance, to which we have just referred, and without which no system, geometrical or analytical, is possible, has never yet been satisfactorily proved otherwise than by Newton’s process. That process, which is a model of elegance and ingenuity, consists in magnifying the figure in such a way that the magnified representa- tion of one of the lines whose ultimate equality it is required to prove, shall always continue the same. Thus, as the are and its chord and tangent become smaller, their magnified likenesses continue finite, and prove the existence of their ultimate equality, as tested by the conditions of Lemma l. The demonstration is irresistibly convincing. It is a remarkable fact that this proposition, which is the key-stone of the bridge that connects the simple geometry of Euclid with the more complex curvilinear geometry of the moderns, should be found only in a Treatise on Mechanics. A distinguished writer, Lagrange, attempted, not unsuccessfully, to soften the road to the higher ana- lysis, by excluding as much as possible the idea of indefinitely small quantities. In 1797 he published his treatise, entitled Théorie des fonctions analytiques, in which, with admirable skill, he sought to reduce every demonstration to the domain of simple algebra. The proposition of the ultimate equality of the chord, arc, and tan- gent (Lemma 7) was supposed to be steered clear of by means of a new demonstration of another proposition. Subsequently he pub- lished his Caleul des fonctions, which he regarded as a commentary on and supplement to his former work, The edition of 1806 is before us; the author has abandoned his former demonstration, and has adopted a mode of evading Newton’s lemma, which is singularly ingenious. We give his own words (p. 42), “ I] est demontré ri- goureusement par les théorémes d Archiméde, que le sinus est 332 Reviews and Notices of Books. toujours moindre que Varc, et que la tangente est plus grande que Pare, du moins dans le premier quart de cercle.” Now, if we are to translate the word ‘‘ par’’ as usual by the English word “ by,” we are thrown on the curious logical difficulty of proving a thing to exist by the open assumption of the fact of its existence ; for these are Archimedes’ theorems, neither more nor less. This is as bad as making a man jump down his own throat. But if we give the benefit of the doubt, and admit that the French idiom allows us to translate “ par’? by “in,” we shall find ourselves referred back to Archimedes himself for the demonstration of his theorem. Now, Lagrange ought to have known that, although Archimedes is not alive to plead his own cause, he has left behind him an immortal work, bis treatise De sphera et cylindro. Amongst the axioms prefixed to that treatise, but without one word of demonstration, are the theorems in question. Some unfortunate individual had been meddling with these theorems a century or two before. Barrow says, in connection with them, Vide Rivaltum et stupe. We have not taken the trouble of looking up this gentleman’s works, having already experienced the gratification promised in the word stupe, from Lagrange and Barrow. We have stated that Lord Brougham omits the first section alto- gether, and presents his readers, in place of it, with some illustra- tions rather than expositions of other methods of demonstration. We have an opinion as to the sufficiency of these illustrations for the use of persons not previously conversant with analysis : we are inclined to fear that few will attempt to travel by this royal (or we should say noble) road. THappily, his Lordship does not quite desert the old paths; and we rejoiced to recognise the familiar and simple demonstrations of Newton in the earlier propositions. Of his success in the work of simplification, we are not disposed to speak at any length, but we are safe in asserting that he is more at home in the matter of history. As might be expected, the ex- hibition of the controversy which arose out of individual problems, when presented along with the discussion of the problems themselves, forms an interesting element in the work. We trust we shall not be thought captious if we enter a caution to the reader even here, The author’s anxiety (laudable enough in itself) to do justice to, or at least to deal with, every writer who has contributed his share to the progress of knowledge, sometimes causes him to do great injustice to Newton himself. For.example, when speaking of the demonstra- tion of Kepler’s third law, at p. 60, he states that, to the useful propositions before given from the Principia, ‘* Demoivre added a theorem of great beauty and simplicity, respecting motion in an ellipse ;” which theorem is in reality a demonstration of Kepler’ S third law, based on the assumption of the first. Now, an unin- formed reader might be led from this to infer that Newton either had left that law’ undemonstrated, or had given an imperfect or Reviews and Notices of Books. 333 faulty demonstration of it ; neither of which inferences would be in any degree correct, For beauty, simplicity, and completeness, Newton’s demonstration in Props. E4 and 15, based on the law of force according to the inverse square of the distance, is unrivalled. We take great exception, then, to the conclusion of the paragraph which com- mences with the name of Demoivre (p. 61),—*‘so that all Kepler’s three laws have now been demonstrated @ priori as mathematical truths; first, the areas proportional to the times, if the force is cen- tripetal ; second, the elliptical orbit; and third, the sesquiplicate ratio of the times and distances, if the force is inversely as the squares of the distances, or, in other words, if the force is gra- vity.’ If there be any thing demonstrated clearly, simply, and completely in the Principia, it is these three laws, subject, of course, to limitations, which did not form elements for consideration in the earlier sections. The treatment of the ninth section, on the motion of the apsides, is as satisfactory as any portion of the work before us; and to the eleventh section, we are not disposed to take great exception. The attempt has been made to engraft on Newton’s brief expositions, reasonings a little more conclusive, drawn from the results of the Mécanique Céléste. With what success this has been done, those who make their first acquaintance with the subject from those pages will best determine. For our own part, greatly as we admire the Corollaries to the 66th Proposition, we confess that we do not think it possible to get at a thorough knowledge of the lunar inequalities or planetary perturbations except through the complete analytical investigation. To combat such giants as secular variations, with nothing but the smooth pebble from the brook, requires the cunning arm of a David. The astronomer-royal, Airy, has attempted it in his “‘ Gravitation ;” but whether he has slain the giant or been slain by him, we pretend not to determine. The exceeding speciousness of fallacy in popular arguments may be judged of from a foot-note in Herschel’s large Treatise on Astronomy, edition 1851. He is discussing what is called the great inequality of Jupiter and Saturn. Their distances from the Sun are such that five periods of Jupiter and two of Saturn differ only by the comparatively small amount of 146 days, or about ;3,th part of the whole. As a consequence of this approach to a simple proportion, the analytical investigation at once exhibits the existence of a considerable mutual disturbance of the one planet by the other. The period of this disturbance, during which it goes through all its phases, is 917 years, the one planet ex- periencing a gain, whilst the other sustains a loss. Sir John Herschel remarks at p.472, “ That an acceleration in the one planet must ne- cessarily be accompanied by a retardation in the other, might appear at first sight self-evident, if we consider that, action and reaction being equal and in contrary directions, whatever momentum Jupiter com- municates to Saturn in the direction PM, the same momentum NEW SERIES.—VOL. III. NO. II.—APRIL 1856. 2B 334 Reviews and Notices of Books. must Saturn communicate to Jupiter in the direction MP. The one, therefore, it might seem to be plausibly argued, will be dragged forward whenever the other is pulled back in its orbit,’ &e. He adds in a note: ‘ Weare here reading a sort of recantation. In the edition of 1833, the remarkable result in question is sought to be established by this vicious reasoning. The mistake is a very natural one, and is so apt to haunt the ideas of beginners in this department of physics, that it is worth while expressly to warn them against it.” We were, therefore, not sorry to find an expectation held out that the discussion of the problem of three bodies would be conducted on a platform inaccessible in the days of Newton, when the methods of which he was the inyentor had not attained any thing like perfec- tion. The right mode of treatment we conceive to be analytical de- monstration, accompanied by full illustrative popular exposition. The author of the Analytical View has taken the opposite course, as regards this portion of the Principia, giving popular demonstrations, illustrated and filled up by the forms and conclusions of the Méeca- nique Céléste. Perhaps he had no alternative ; whether or not, his task was a difficult one, and it would be unreasonable to expect too much from its accomplishment. We cannot, however, help feeling, as we read on, that the subject is too extensive for the Treatise. We see Lord Brougham, like another great and ambitious man, “ bold In slender book his vast design unfold,” and we are “held awhile misdoubting his’? success. In refer- ence to this ‘* great inequality” of which we have been speaking, the story of the problem, which the author appears to have ga- thered from the Systéme du monde, has, for the sake of brevity, been mixed up with that of another remarkable investigation relative to Jupiter’s first three satellites, whereby no little con- fusion has been created. It would seem as if the writer had felt himself overwhelmed with an excess of materials. And how- ever adroitly he may throw off the burden, the reader is in dan- ger of being left in a state of considerable bewilderment. Relative to the problem of which we have been speaking, the impression likely to be received is (p. 120), that the motion of Saturn is always retarded, and of Jupiter always accelerated; whereas, the planets changed hands in 1790, and will pursue the opposite course of action for four centuries and a half from that date. We cannot refrain from quoting here another sentence from honest Andrew Marvell :— “ T liked his project, the success did fear, Through that wide field how he his way should steer ; Lest he perplexed the things he would explain, And what was easy he should render vain.” We regret that our limits compel us to break off at this point ; the more so, because we have an inward consciousness that our re- marks may appear too disparaging; but as they are made in sin- ee Reviews and Notices of Books. 335 cerity, and from no captious spirit, and as Lord Brougham needs no eulogy from us, we have thought it our duty to caution those who shall do us the honour to seek our guidance in this matter, lest they, coming to this Analytical View, as to a book of “ Reading made easy,”’ shall founder in their studies, and for ever lose the gratifi- cation of mastering the reasoning upon which the law of attraction, whereby the worlds are held together in a bond, has been established. We heartily applaud the devotion of our noble author to the cause of truth; we cordially admire the untiring energy of a man, who, instead of sitting down in his retirement at Cannes, to rest from the labours of three quarters of a century, employs his leisure hours in torturing the sunbeams of the south to bring back the image of his early love, in the shape of diffracted fringes. It falls to the lot of few men to give to the world new experiments in confirmation of others published fifty-seven years before; and whatever posterity may say of Lord Brougham as a politician, there will be many me- mentos of his unchanging Jove of science, and of his patronage of its humble supporters, which will stand out in sharp and beautiful relief as the best and the last phases of his varied career, when time shall have worn down the more prominent but less enduring features of his character. Historia Fisica y Politica de Chile, sequn Documentos ad- quiridos en esta Republica, durante Doce Anos de Resi- dencia en ella y Publicada bajo los auspicios del Supre- mo Gobierno. Por Cuaupio Gay. Zoologia. Paris & Santiago, 1847. 8vo & 4to. We cannot better describe the work of Claudio Gay than by trans- lating some of his observations in the short introduction to the first number of the Vertebrata. The book is published in Divisions, any one of which can be subscribed for and procured separately. That devoted to the Vertebrata generally bears out what is promised. The plates are partly engraved and partly lithographed; are well executed, and some of them are devoted to osteological and other anatomical details. These are of a 4to size; but the letter-press, as has lately been practised in some of the foreign illustrated works, is printed in 8vo, which is certainly an improvement, and is more ¢on- venient than the latge folio or quarto, otherwise often very desirable for the illustrations. A short Latin character is given with each species; next the detailed descriptions and measurements ; and in a lesser type, as notes, the author’s observations relating to the habits of each. These latter, as indeed the entire work, except the specific characters, are written in Spanish. When completed, this will bea fine addition to the natural history of those rich divisions of the New 282 336 Reviews and Notices of Books. World. The Invertebrata are also in progress, and some advance has been made in the Botanical department of the undertaking. ‘©The part of our work which we now publish, with the title of Chilian Zoology or Fauna, is the most complete catalogue we can give of the animals which inhabit this great republican state, classified according to the natural system ; to which are added descriptions and specific characters sufficient to distinguish them,some notices regarding their manners and habits, as well as the relations they bear to other species. A work of this class is very useful to science, pointing out to naturalists the geographic zoology of a district ; and also to the inhabitants of the country, to whom it greatly facilitates the study of this fine branch of natural history, no less interesting than botany, for the infinite wonders which every species offers to the in- quiring observer. To arrive at this result, it is necessary that the naturalist should examine minutely the greater part of the country which he wishes to make known ; that he should pass more or less time in each province, and study carefully under their comparative, and especially their geographical relations, whatéver objects he may obtain. Only thus can the fauna of a country be well ascertained. But unfortunately travellers, always desirous to augment their col- lections, or to describe the greatest possible number of objects, only remain a very short time in each kingdom, continually moving to other regions in search of new forms, to satisfy their desire and ambi- tion. Perhaps it is owing to this decided inclination to amass large col- lections, that science possesses so few fauna of extra-European coun- tries ; considering America alone, there are only some provinces of the United States which afford sueh examples. Since 1815 all the other republics were diligently visited by collectors and able naturalists, who on their return made known the result of their discoveries, Thus New Granada was studied by Boussingault, Goudot, &c. ; Guiana by Scheenbrun, Leprieur, &c.; Brazil by Prince Max. Von Neuwied, Aug. St Hilaire, Spix and Martius, Claussen, Lund, and an infinity of naturalists no less accomplished ; Paraguay by Renger and De- longchamp ; La Plata and Bolivia by D’Orbigny, Darwin, Ausene, &c. ; Peru by Tschudi, and many other scientific travellers, content- ing themselves with describing the objects encountered, without giv- ing to their works a character of unity such as might enable them to be compared with the great results of physical geography. Chili has also attracted the attention of naturalists; it is some time since historians, such as P. Ovalle and Figueroa, and the travellers Anson, Frezier, and Feuillée, had given some information regarding a small number of animals; and even the Abbé Vidaurre published a trea- tise upon some of its productions, in which he speaks of their qua- lities, and the uses which the inhabitants or natives make of them ; but no one has examined this subject with so much attention and information as the Abbé Molina, in his Compendium of the Geo- graphical, Natural, and Civil History of the Kingdom of Chili— a work which modern naturalists do not sufficiently appreciate, and Reviews and Notices of Books. 337 against which such acrimony has been manifested, that at times it has almost degenerated into injustice. *‘ Notwithstanding, Molina’s work is deserving of general gratitude among naturalists, since it gives an extensive idea of some sections of Chilian zoology, principally of the first two classes, Mammalia and Birds. No doubt very frequently the genera are equivocal, and the descriptions almost always incomplete ; but, considering the time and | the circumstances in which he published, it will be perceived that this author, endowed with a penetrating genius, is worthy of the greatest indulgence. Molina was scarcely twenty-two years of age when he left his own country in 1768; his knowledge of natural history was great for the time, and he prosecuted his labours with infinite care, hoping one day to bequeath to his country all his discoveries and ob- servations; unfortunately he was expelled as a Jesuit, and sought refuge in Italy, where he employed the hours of recreation in the study of the fine arts, to which in Chili he had dedicated himself with- out masters, and almost without books; his rapid progress enabled him to avail himself advantageously of a manuscript upon the pro- ductions of his country, which chance presented to him, and assisted by an active correspondence which he maintained with some of his countrymen, he undertook the printing of his work, in which are found a large number of species quite new to science, and de- scribed for the most part so as to be easily distinguished; we trust we shall receive favourable consideration when, for the sake of jus- tice, we have sometimes preserved the names given by this learned and diligent Chilian, always provided they are conformable to the rigorous rules which science exacts. “ In 1810 the second edition of his Natural History was publish- ed, using in it, with the greatest care, the labours of Cavanilles, and of Ruiz and Pavon. Novelties were confined to the Botanical part only, so that the Zoology remained nearly the same as in 1788. South America had been until then under the influence of a petty po- licy which forbade foreigners to penetrate into these coveted regions. The many naturalists sent from Spain occupied themselves with the plants only, leaving aside the animals, which remained almost un- known. But as soon as independence called foreigners to search dis- tant regions, which the general peace made accessible, then was manifested the greatest enthusiasm for such travels, which soon ex- tended itself to all European nations, exciting a portion of their savans to expatriate themselves in search of whatever might contri- bute to the advancement of the sciences. Chili at this time began to be explored, first along the coasts by the naturalists who were employed in yoyages of circumnavigation, such as Lesson, Gaudi- chaud, Soleyer, and particularly Darwin, who has contributed so greatly to the knowledge of Chilian Mammalia ; afterwards by diligent indi- viduals, who spared no effort, however troublesome and expensive, in order to make large collections; among these last, we will cite Mr 338 Reviews and Notices of Books. Cuming, so well known for his zeal and ardour in search of what- ever might relate to the natural history of this beautiful region.* * Whilst, by dint of labour and immense expense, these travellers were forming the numerous collections which are now the most pre- cious ornaments of the principal European museums, those savans whom circumstances obliged to remain in their respective countries were occupied in studying, classifying and describing all the objects collected, enriching our libraries with a prodigious multitude of de- scriptions well digested indeed, but wanting in that interest which the unity of a formal work affords. It is, then, with such a scarcity of faunas that we venture to undertake that of Chili. Fortunately the materials which we possess for so arduous an undertaking are suffi- ciently numerous and important, and are all the fruit of more or less time spent in each province, and of the continual wandering jour- neys which we made, always seconded by zealous hunters, who so ably assist investigations. ‘To carry out so long and minute a labour, we have obtained the co-operation of various distinguished zoologists, who have kindly assisted us, charging themselves with those divisions of the subjects which each has more particularly studied. “« The Birds were confided to M. Desmurs, an advocate in the Royal Court of Paris, and the continuator of the work of MM. Laugier and Temminck, which is that of the illustrious Buffon. ** M. Guichenot, a member of the Scientific Expedition to Algiers, and assistant naturalist of the Museum of Natural History in Paris, has undertaken the Reptiles and Fishes. “ The Arachnide and Crustacea have been undertaken by M. Nico- let, who has made an especial study of these animals, and is the author of an interesting work upon the great family of the Poduree. M. Gervais, Professor in the Academy of Montpellier, will assist in the arrange- ment of the Myriapodes and ef the greater part of the Apterous In- sects. “‘ The Coleoptera are confided to M. Solier, a captain of engineers, so well known for his vast entomological knowledge, and for the ex- actitude of his descriptions. ‘“‘'The Hemiptera and Hymenoptera will be described by M. the Marquis Spinola of Genoa, one of the principal entomologists of our age, and the one who has best studied those great orders of insects. * The Mollusca by M. Huppé, a naturalist of the Museum, and exclusively charged with the collection and classification of these shells. ** Lastly, the remaining orders will be treated of by different savans, and more especially by M. Blanchard, author of a Treatise on Ento- mology, and of many academic memoirs, much esteemed in the scien- tific world.” * “Tn the geological, botanical, and zoological view which will be given of Chili, and which will serve as an introduction to the natural history of this work, we will include a historical resumé, with notices of those who have tra- velled over the territory of the republic, and of the respective merits of their labours and discoveries.” Proceedings of Societies. 339 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, Royal Society of Edinburgh, Monday, 7th January 1856. Dr Curistison, V.P., in the Chair. Professor Christison delivered the Keith Medal to Dr Anderson of Glasgow. The following Communications were then read :—~ 1. Geometry, a Science purely experimental. By Epwarp Sane. After remarking that the perfect strictness of the demonstrations in Geometry is generally admitted, the author of the paper cited the almost universal belief in the soundness of Euclid’s reasoning as a notable ex- ample of wide-spread credulity. He then enunciated and illustrated the proposition that our knowledge of the truths of geometry is altogether derived from experience. 2. Notice respecting recent Discoveries on the Adjustment of the Eye to Distinct Viston. By Professor Goopstr. The question as to the arrangement by means of which the eye is adapted for distinct vision at different distances has for two centuries strongly attracted the attention of physiologists. The numerous hypo- theses, and untenable theories which have been advanced on this subject are all, however, more-or less unsatisfactory. They are severally based on—1l. The mere strneture or form of the refractive humours of the eye ; 2. A presumed process connected with change in the direction of the axis of vision; 3. The movements of the iris; 4. Change in the position of the retina; 5. Change in the position of the lens; 6. Change of form of the cornea; 7. Change of form of the lens. This important question has now been definitively determined by the researches of Dr Cramer of Groningen, detailed in a prize treatise sub- mitted to the Dutch Association for the Advancement of Medical Science in 1851 ; but, which, except in the form of a short abstract at the time, was only published at a later period. In 1853, Helmholtz also announced to the Berlin Academy the same discovery, reached independently, and by a method more complex than that employed by Cramer. The entire question had been previously simplified by the conclusion to which Volkmann had come, that the eye, when in a passive condition, is adapted for the vision of distant objects, the foci of convergent pencils being then situated in the retina; that when it requires to be adjusted for a near object, an active process of accommodation is set up, which brings the foci forward to the nervous membrane ; and that the return to the passive condition, which again adapts the eye to distant objects, is a passive process, following on the previous effort. Cramer had therefore only to determine the nature of the active change, by means of which the foci, for a near object, are brought forward to the retina. Now, as Helmholtz had shown that the adaptation of the eye to distance must depend upon a change of some kind in the refractive condi- tion of the humours of the organ; and as Senff had previously proved that no change takes place in the curvature of the cornea; and as the in- genious theories of Ludwig and Stellwag had in no way removed the difii- _eulties involved in explaining how the lens can be moved forward ; there remained only, as a basis for investigation, the hypothesis of a change of form of the lens. This hypothesis, as Volkmann had stated, could only 340 Proceedings of Societies. be objected to as insufficient ; but not as involving any contradiction of fact ; and might be verified by more careful and extended observation. The question, therefore, which Cramer had to determine, was this— Is the form of the lens changed in the adaptation of the eye to near objects ? Cramer was indebted to Donders for the fundamental idea on which he proceeded in the solution of this question. Donders had previously entered on the investigation, but had failed in his observations. He is entitled, however, to the credit of having suggested the employment of the experiment of Purkinje in this inquiry ; and of having subsequently elucidated its successful results. Cramer has discovered that in the adjustment of the eye for a near ob- ject, there takes place a change in the form of the lens, consisting of an increase in the curvature of its anterior surface, produced by the iris and ciliary muscle, but withont alteration in the position of the lens itself; while the return to its original form for the vision of a distant object is the effect of its own elasticity, which in proportion to the pressure applied, had co-operated in producing the increase of its anterior convexity. He ascertained the occurrence of this alteration of form by watching, through an arrangement of his own contrivance, magnifying from 10 to 20 dia- meters, the change which takes place in the image of the flame ofa candle reflected from the anterior surface of the lens during the adjustment of _ the eye to a near object. The eye having been adjusted to a distant object, and the erect image from the surface of the cornea having been brought nearly to the margin of the iris in the pupil, the erect image from the front of the lens will be observed deeper and less distinct, a little be- yond the centre of the pupil, and the small distinct inverted image from the back of the lens will be close to the opposite margin of the iris. The eye being now adjusted to a near object, the deep erect image advances, diminishes, becomes more distinct, and moves across the centre of the pupil to the immediate neighbourhood of the corneal image. This change in the relative position of the three images was correctly considered by Cramer as a distinct evidence of an increase in the curvature of the anterior surface of the lens. It would appear, however, that he was not entitled to conclude, as he did, from the immobility of the inverted image, that no change oceurs in the posterior curvature of the lens. Donders, in reference to this has asserted, that the immobility of the inverted image affords satisfactory evidence that a change does actually occur in the curvature of the posterior surface of the lens; and Stell- wag has demonstrated that a change of this kind must necessarily take place. That there is a contemporaneous i increase in the curvature of both surfaces of the lens must be admitted, from the consideration that if such a change did not occur in the posterior surface, the increased cur- vature of the anterior would necessarily produce a change in the posi- tion of the inverted images; which is not the case. The optical effect of the increase of anterior curvature marks the slight movement of the in- verted image. The alteration in the curvature of the posterior surface is, however, so slight, that we may safely assume that the essential alteration takes place in the anterior surface. Helmholtz has proved that the anterior curvature of the lens is in- creased during adjustment of the eye to near objects, by measuring accurately the distance between the images of the flames of two candles reflected from that surface, in the active and passive conditions of ac- commodation. According to his calculations the radius of curvature of the anterior surface is, for distant vision, from 10 to 11 millimetres ; for near vision about 5 millimetres. Proceedings of Societies. B41 _ A change in the form of the lens having thus been ascertained to be the mode of adjustment of the eye to distances; the next point to be determined is the mechanism by which the change of form is effected. It may be stated generally, that although the structures which act upon the lens have been ascertained, the details and arrangements of the process itself still require elucidation. Cramer removed the eye of a seal immediately after the death of the animal, and exposed a portion of the surface of the vitreous body at the back of the organ. He then introduced the electrodes of an electro- magnetic rotation apparatus into the opposite attached margin of the iris. The flame of a candle at the distance of 35 centimetres from the cornea was distinctly observed on the vitreous surface, with a microscope mag- nifying 80 diameters. At each passage of the electrical current through the organ, the pupil contracted, the image of the flame became broader, less distinct, and less definitely outlined. This effect was visible to the naked eye, and indicated the probability of the form of the lens being altered by the contraction of the muscular structures in the interior of the eye. Cramer ascertained that the iris is at least the principal agent in producing the change; for when a cataract needle was introduced so as to divide the iris, and produce a complete coloboma, the focus was no longer affected by the electrical current. Cramer also removed the cornea, annular ligament, and iris, after which the electrical current produced no change in the adjustment ; although the ciliary processes were observed to be put upon the stretch. The lens was also shown by numerous experiments to be incapable of changing its own form. It is not muscular; for when the recent lens was removed from the eye, and the flame of a candle brought to a focus through it, on a piece of oiled paper, the electrical current produced no change in the ad- justment. Cramer concludes, in this department of his subject, that the iris and ciliary muscle alter the form of the lens. The ciliary muscle contracting pulls the ciliary processes forward, and so prevents the lens from reced- ing under the pressure of the iris. The latter produces the change in the anterior curvature, by a primary contraction of its circular fibres; fol- lowed up by contraction of its radiating fibres, which, from being curved forwards, become straight, and thus pressing on the marginal portion of the anterior surface of the lens, force the central portion forwards. Cra- mer’s explanation of the action of the iris on the lens is based on Stell- wag’s recent assertion, that the posterior chamber has no existence, but that the iris rests immediately on the front of the lens, the ciliary pro- cesses, and the zonule of Zinn, so that it projects like a dome into the an- terior chamber. The pressure.is thus communicated by the iris to the lens through the medium of the ciliary processes, zonule of Zinn, and con- tents of the canal of Petit, the lens being supported and kept forward by contemporaneous contraction of the ciliary muscle. Donders is inclined to believe that a very thin layer of fluid is interposed between the iris and the structures behind it; but practically Cramer’s opinion appears to be correct. Hueck, in attempting to explain ocular adjustment by the movement of the lens by the iris, had stated that when viewed in profile, the iris is seen to project into the anterior chamber during vision of a near object. Volkmann denied this ; but the fact is undoubted; and Helmholtz has ascertained that the protrusion is about one-third of a millimetre. Ruete has objected to Cramer’s conclusion as to the agency of the iris in altering the form of the lens, on the ground that in cases of congenital deficiency of the iris the power of adjustment is not deficient. In such instances some compensating arrangement must exist. 342 Proceedings of Societies. Senile Presbyopia mainly depends, according to Cramer, on the di- minished muscular contractility of the iris and ciliary muscle ; myopia, again, on diminution of the elasticity of the capsule of the lens, which dis- ables the lens from regaining its normal form after each act of adjust- ment. He denies that the curvature ef the cornea is increased in myopia, and states that the apparent increase is due to the continued increased protrusion of the iris into the anterior chamber. Monday, 21st January 1856. Colonel Mappen, Councillor, in the Chair, The following Communications were read :— 1. Memoir of Rear-Admiral Sir John Franklin. By Sir Joun Ricuarpson, C.B. Communicated by Professor Batrour. 2. On the Geological Relations of the Secondary and Primary Rocks of the Chain of Mont Blanc. By Professor Forses., (This paper appears in the present Number of this Journal.) Monday, 4th February 1856. Right Rev. Bishop Terror, V.P., in the Chair. The following Communications were read :— 1. On the Turkish Weights and Measures. By Epwarp Sana, Esq. In this paper a short account was given of the comparison of the oka with the imperial grain weight, and of the arsheen with the inch. The oka was stated to be 19,807 grains, so that 18 cantar of 44 oka each make one ton one pound. The length of the arsheen was determined by com- parison with the ebony standard of Sultan Selim. The extreme length, as obtained by contact, was 29°890 inches, but the ends had evidently been tampered with ; on that account the divisions of the rod were referred to ; these gave results varying from 29°944 to 29-949, and therefore the mean, 29°946 inches, may be taken as the true length of the Turkish arsheen, 2. Observations on Polyommatus Artaxerxes, the Scotch Argus. By Dr W. H. Lowe. Polyommatus Artawxerwes, or the Scotch Argus, is an insect not only of great local interest, but has attracted, and continues to attract, the no- tice of entomologists all over the world. Among the English, and still more among the foreign students, who annually throng our University, there are always a considerable number who arrive in Edinburgh anxious to see ‘the rare butterfly from Arthur’s Seat,’’ or who are commissioned by entomological friends to obtain it. Besides, there are the still more destructive emissaries from the London and provincial dealers in insects, who infest the hill during the season in which it is found. But although the situation in which this insect is principally taken is extremely cireum- scribed, I am not aware that its numbers are materially diminished by this continuous drain upon them. The new road now in contemplation beneath ‘‘ Samson’s Ribs,” and through the village of Duddingston, will, I fear, go far to exterminate it, as it will pass, I believe, through the exact spot upon which it is found, and to which it is in a singular degree limited. The first published account we have of this insect is by Fabricius, in his Systema Entomologia, 1793, under the name “ Lycena Artaxerxes,” in which he states its habitat to be “‘ Anglia,” but without any special re- ference to Scotland. He does this on the authority of Mr Jones of Chel- sea, in whose cabinet a specimen then existed ; but it would appear that Fabricius himself never saw the insect, as it was at that time a frequent custom to insert in entomological cabinets a painted piece of card, to sup- ply the place of an insect then believed to be too rare to afford much pro- Proceedings of Societies. 343 bability of its being obtained. I may here mention, that naturally feeling some interest to know who this Mr Jones of Chelsea (so often quoted by authors) was, I applied to Mr James Wilson of Woodville, who most obligingly wrote to Mr Adam White, of the British Museum, and through whom we find that Mr Jones had an excellent collection of native insects, and also a number of illustrations, coloured by himself, which are still in existence ; but from the higher degree of excellence now attained in such delineations, of course greatly diminished in pecuniary value, however in- teresting they may have been at the time alluded to. It was no doubt one of these illustrations which Fabricius availed himself of in his Syste- ma Entomologie. We find this insect next mentioned as Papilio Ar- taxerves by Lewin (1795), a fellow of the Linnean Society, who, like Fabricius, refers to Mr Jones’ specimen, but adds, that it was taken in Scot- land. Inthe Natural History of Insects, by Donovan, in 1813, we have the first full account of this insect; and his description is so animated and enthusiastic, that the naturalists of the Society, if not the other fel- lows, will excuse my making one quotation from him :—* To the great astonishment of our English collectors of natural history,” he says, ‘“ Pa- pilio Artaxerxes, an insect heretofore of the highest possible rarity, has been lately found in no very inconsiderable plenty in Britain. For this interesting discovery we are indebted to the fortunate researches of our young and very worthy friend, W. E. Leach, Esq., who met with it com- mon on Arthur’s Seat, near Edinburgh, and also on the Pentland Hills.” It will not be uninteresting to the fellows of this Society to know that Mr Wilson was with Dr Leach on this occasion, and joined him in his ento- mological researches at that time. As I have entered so far into the his- tory of this insect, 1 must now in fairness state, that the same authority (Donovan) mentions the existence of a specimen in the “ extensive and valuable” cabinet of Mr Macleay, taken in Scotland, previous to Dr Leach’s discovery. It is the same Mr Macleay whose name is associated with another interesting, but much more widely-distributed insect, the - Erebia Blandina, or Arran Argus. Donovan concludes with the re- mark—‘‘ As these insects fly in the day-time, there can be little doubt they may be sought for by the collectors with success on the hilly spot called Arthur’s Seat, near Edinburgh.” Polyommatus Artaxerxes, thus established as a well-known British in- sect appears successively in the works of Mr Stephens, 1828; Rennie (Conspectus), 1831 ; Duncan, 1837 ; Wood (illustrated catalogue), 1839 ; Westwood, 1841; and Captain Brown, 1843; but I do not think there is in these works any important addition to the information I have thus thrown together. Having endeavoured to trace rapidly, and in a manner as little tedious as possible, the history of P. Artaxerxes, I may remark, that great as is the interest this insect has excited among naturalists, its habits, and especially its transformations, were until recently entirely unknown. MrR. Logan, who resides almost on the spot on which it abounds, endeavoured some years ago, | believe, to obtain its larve by inclosing a number of the perfect but- terflies beneath a glass frame in his garden, in the hope that the eggs might be deposited; but as at that time it was generally believed to feed on the Ulex ewropeus, amidst which it may be seen to flit, the eggs, if deposited at all, naturally perished for want of their proper nidus; and this laudable ex- periment of course failed. The same accurate and patient observer, how- ever, subsequently arrived at the belief that the insect preferred the He- lianthemum vulgare, which grows luxuriantly on the south side of the hill, remarking, that while the Ulex ewropeus abounded all over the hill, the butterfly did not, but was confined to the south, and only where the Helianthemum grew, frequently indeed in conjunction with the Ulea-. 344 Proceedings of Societies. This inference has since proved correct. So lately as 1851, Mr Logan, in an article in the Naturalist for March in that year, after describing the P. Artaxerses, as they may be seen gaily flitting over the banks of Arthur's Seat in the sunshine, or resting on the tall culms of grass and other plants while quiescent, remarks: ‘‘ Strange to tell, no one knows anything of their history; where they lay their eggs, or what the larva feeds on, and where the inactive chrysalid passes the long, cold months of winter, are all in mystery ;” and adds, “ the discovery of the caterpillar and chrysalis is a point much to be desired.” Struck with these remarks, published, too, just before the insect might be expected to make its ac- customed annual appearance, I determined to go to Arthur’s Seat for the express object of finding this long-looked-for chrysalis. I spent several hours diligently examining the stems of different plants, particularly the Ulex curopeus and the Helianthemum vulgare; the latter of which, I frequently tore up bodily, and examined piecemeal. I did this in the be- lief that all the Polyommati attached their chrysalids to the stems of plants, as is indeed the usual habit of this genus, and was ignorant that any of them burrowed in the ground. My time and patience being nearly exhausted, I now began to dig in the loose earth which lies beneath the bushes of furze, the shade of which precludes anything from growing beneath them. Here I was also unsuccessful, but seeing some tufts of Helianthemum overhanging some barren patches of earth, I continued my examination there also, and almost immediately found several chrysalids, the appear- ance of which left me no doubt that they were those of P. Artawerwes. The day was now declining, and I was anxious to show my acquisitions to Mr Logan, to whose house I immediately repaired. That gentleman showed the greatest interest in the discovery, and, like myself, expressed his surprise that one of the genus Polyommatus should bury its chrysalis in the ground instead of attaching it to the stem of a plant. He further requested me to place the chrysalids in his keepiug, that he might figure them for a work upon which he has long been engaged, and to which this Society has become a subscriber. A few days after, I received the said chrysalids from Mr Logan, and he at the same mentioned that, acting on the information I had given him, he had pursued the search for the chry- salids, and had found them in considerable numbers. Those I had in my own possession emerged from the chrysalis, either that day or the follow- ing; and since that time it has, of course, become easy to note the habits of P. Artaverwes, and a beautiful delineation of it in all its stages of de- velopment will appear in Mr Logan’s book, whenever its appearance shall realize the expectations of his numerous subscribers. To go further into the descriptions of its transformations at this point, would be to trespass on the subsequent but as yet unpublished observa- tions of Mr Logan, and I shall therefore leave it now, to say a few words in conclusion on Polyommatus Agestis and P. Salmacis, two insects so nearly allied to the one before us that they have been at different times considered to be one species. On looking at the drawings of these three closely-allied insects, for which very faithful and beautiful illustrations I am indebted to my friend Mr Dallas, we perceive that P. Artaxerwes is readily enough distinguished by the conspicuous white spot in the angle of the upper wing, while P. Agestis has a black one in nearly the same position. These markings, though affording in themselves but slight grounds for specific distinction, are nevertheless permanent in their cha- racter, and even before we were acquainted with the caterpillars of the respective insects, gave great probability to the opinion that the two were distinct, especially when taken in conjunction with the fact that P. Artaz- erwes is confined to Scotland and the north of England, and P. Agestis as exclusively to the southern counties of England. Still this was matter of ad Proceedings of Societies. 345 opinion, and it is only now that we are enabled by our own observations in Scotland upon P. Artawerxes, and almost at the same time by simi- lar observations by Mr Harding and Mr Stainton in London upon P. Agestis, to determine, as I think, finally the specific difference of the two insects. The gentlemen I] have just named have bred P. Agestis from the caterpillar, and find that it feeds upon Erodium cicutarium, a plant in natural affinity and every other respect widely removed from Helian- themum vulgare. When, therefore, to the slight but permanent differ- ences of its external markings and habitat is added the fact that the cater- pillar of the one feeds upon a plant so different from the food upon which the other is found, that probably the food of the one would poison the other, it appears to me that the specific distinctions between the two in- sects may be regarded as established. We have, however, P. Salmacis still remaining undetermined, its ca- terpillar and chrysalis not having as yet been found. The chief distinction to be remarked in its external character is the slight but peculiar areola of white scales which surround the black spot, occupying an exactly similar position in the upper wing as in Agestis. Although Mr Doubleday re- gards this insect as a variety of P. Artawerxes I have always felt and still believe it to be much more closly allied to P. Agestis. During last year (1855) I visited Castle-Eden-Dene, the habitat of P. Salmacis, and bear- ing in mind my observations on Arthur Seat, felt sure I should, by digging in similar places under the tufts of Helianthemum, find the chrysalids. In this I was unsuccessful, although the Helianthemum was most abun- dant. The spot on which P. Salmacis is found faees the sea (the German Ocean), and the ground is a stiff wet clay, with dense, coarse herbage, both ill suited for burying its chrysalid, if that be its habit; nor is the Helianthemum the prevailing plant there. Mr Wailes observes, that he has never found it more inland than a quarter of a mile from the sea; and although the Helianthemum is most abundant in the upper part of the Dene, Mr Tristram, the clergyman of the district, and other residents, assured me it was never seen except on the spot I have named, by a high cliff of clay overhanging the sea. This certainly suggests the idea of its being dependent on some littoral plant growing only within a certain range of the salt water. Iobserved theAnthrocera filipendula and Pro- cris statices flying in great numbers together with P. Salmacis, and their chrysalids attached to the stems of plants were abundant. I did not at the time know of Mr Harding’s observations, and that P. Agestis fed upon Erodium cicutariwm, and, consequently, did not particularly note whether that plant grew there ; but having been accustomed to bo- tanical observations all my life, I think I should certainly have noticed it if it had been the prevailing plant,—a thing moreover, which the stiff clay soil renders improbable. What I did notice was the Geranium san- guimeum in great quantity (the flowers filled with Ceutorhynchus geranii), a plant not far removed in natural affinity from the one I have just named. Altogether, I feel inclined to predict that P. Salmacis may be found to feed on Geranium sanguineum, and to attach its chrysalids to the stems ; but this is mere surmise, and until its transformations have been observed, it must still remain, as it now is, an undetermined species. 3. On Solar Light, with a Description of a Simple Photometer. By Mungo Ponton, Esq. Communicated by Mr Swan, The first part of this communication was occupied with a detail of some observations, made in the course of last summer, on the quantity and in- tensity of Solar light, as compared with familiar sources of artificial flame. The instrument employed for these observations was a simple monochro- matic photometer, whose construction was minutely described. 346 Proceedings of Societies. The results obtained were stated to be, that a small surface, illuminated by mean solar light, is 444 times brighter than when it is illuminated by a moderator lamp, and 1560 times brighter than when it is illuminated by a wax candle (short six in the lb.),—the artificial light being in both instances placed at two inches’ distance from the illuminated surface. It was then pointed out, that as the electric light may be easily obtained of a brilliancy equal to 520 wax candles, three such electric lights, placed at two inches from a given small surface, would render it as bright as when it is illuminated by mean sunshine. It was thence inferred, that a stratum occupying the entire surface of the sphere of which the earth’s distance from the sun is the radius, and consisting of three layers of flame, each y75,th of an inch in thickness, each possessing a brightness equal to that of such an electric light, and all three embraced within a thickness of ;,th of an inch, would give an amount of illumination equal in quantity and intensity to that of the sur at the distance of 95 millions of miles from his centre. It was then shown, that were such a stratum transferred to the surface of the sun, where it would occupy 46,275 times less area, its thickness would be increased to 94 feet, and it would embrace 138,825 layers of flame, equal in brightness to the electric light ; but that the same effect might be produced by a stratum about nine miles in thickness, embracing 72 millions of layers, each having only a brightness equal to that of a wax candle. The various possible causes of the light proceeding from the luminous envelope of the sun were then considered ; and an attempt was made to show, that the shining particles in that envelope may possibly be minute luminiferous organisms, floating in an elastie atmosphere, each emitting only a small amount of phosphorescence, the enormous flood of splendour emanating from the surface of the medium being due to the combined ac- tion of these individually feeble agents. Monday, 18th Feb. 1856. Right Rev. Bishop Terror in the Chair. The following Communications were read :-— I. On certain cases of Binocular Vision. By Professor Witttam B. Rogers. Communicated by Professor Ketnanp. (This Paper ap- pears in the present Number of this Journal.) 2. Theory of the Free Vibration of a Linear Series of Elastic Bodies. Part I. By Epwarp Sane, Esq. Monday, 3d March 1856. Dr Curisrison, Vice-President, in the Chair. The following Communieations were read :— 1. Observations on the Diatomaceous Sand of Glenshira. Part II. Containing an Account of a number of additional undeseribed Species. By Wiiuram Grecory, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. The author, after referring to his former paper on this subject, stated that he had continued the investigation, and that the number of unde- scribed forms besides those formerly figured had proved so large, that the present paper does not conclude the subject, but that a good many forms remain for a future communication. He added, that even now, after he had explored 600 slides of it, new forms were occasionally found. He then gave a list of about thirty additional known species, which had been noticed since the former paper was read, many of them having” been last year described by himself as new fresh-water species, and others Proceedings of Societies. 347 not having been yet described, but to be described and figured in vol. ii. of Smith’s Synopsis. These are :— Amphora membranacea. Navicula Westii. » hyalina. = Hennedii. » Salina. oS Pandura, Bréb. Cymbella sinuata. 5 rostrata. Amphiprora paludosa Pinhularia megaloptera. Campylodiscus Ralfsii. x biceps. Actinocyclus radiatus. i3 linearis. Actinocyclus (sp.?) This is a species to - subcapitata. be figured in Vol. II. of the Synopsis, on gracillima. but I do not know how it is named. Pleurosigma distortum. Actinoptychus duodenarius (new to 5s intermedium. Britain ?) Gomphonema subtile. Nitzschia bilobata. | Diatomella Balfouriana. Eupodiseus tenellus, Bréb. (new to | Orthosira spinosa Britain ?) cs mirabilis. He stated that he had actually found and sketched the last two forms in this deposit three years ago, but had not been able to study them fully, till after they had been found and named, the former by Drs Greville and Balfour, and Professor Smith, the latter by Mr Okeden. He had also found both these forms in soils from South America, and gave his reasons for suspecting O. mirabilis to be an abnormal state of O. spinosa. He then proceeded to describe the following new species, of which very exact drawings by Dr Greville were exhibited :— 1. Navicula rhombica, n. sp. | 2. Navicula maxima, n. sp. Both of these had been figured in the former paper, but were now bet- ter understood. NV. rhombica occurs in packs, like packs of cards. 3. Navicula formosa, n. sp. 9. Navicula Hennedii, Sm., of which the 4, », pulchra, n. sp. deposit yields very fine specimens. 5. » macula, n. sp. 10. Navicula angulosa, n. sp. 6. » latissima, n. sp. 11. e Pandura, Bréb. ? is » Quadrata, n. sp. 12: » nitida, Sm. ? 8. », solaris, n. sp: 13. - splendida, n. sp. li. 3 incuryata, n. sp. Nos. 11, 12, 13, and 14, form a very remarkable panduriform group, the first two having entire coste, like Pinnularia alpina, the last two moniliform strie. The author, on this account, tiames the first, No. 11, Navicula, after De Briberson, and the second doubtfully, as no deserip- tion of N. nitida, Sm., has yet appeared. The two others are quite new. The author here stated that he had found in this deposit, N. didyma with cost, so that he considers it possible that all these forms may be- long to only one species, but the point requires investigation. 15. Navicula clavata, n. sp; 24. Cocconeis radiata, n. sp. 16. Pinnularia longa; n. sp. 25. lamprosticta, n. sp. 17. a fortis, n. sp. 26. Amphora elegans, n. sp. 18. 9 Ergadensis, n. sp. 27. = rectangularis, n. sp. 19. > inflexa, n. sp. 28. - obtusa, n. sp. e acutiuscula, n. sp. 29. ss lineata, n. sp. 21. Stauroneis amphioxys, 0. sp. 30. pS plicata, n. sp. 22. Cocconeis distans, n. sp., inaccurately | 31. ef biseriata, n. sp. figured in Part I. 32. 5 crassa; 0. sp. 23. Cocconeis costata, n. sp., a more cha- | 33, Greyilliana, n. sp. racteristic specimen than that figured in Part I. The last three form a very remarkable group, either a subgenus or a new genus. To this group belongs also Amphora Arcus, of which a part is figured in Part I. 34, Campylodiscus simulans, n. sp. The author showed that this form so much resembles, in its markings, 6 348 Proceedings of Societies. Surirella fastuosa, as figured in Part I., that these two genera probably form but one. 35. Campylodiscus bieruciatus, m. sp. 38. Nitzschia socialis, n. sp. 36. Nitzschia distans, n. sp. 39. Amphiprora minor, n. sp. 37. A insignis, n. sp. 40. < recta, D. sp. The remaining forms will be described on a future occasion. 2. Theory of the Free Vibration of a Linear Series of Elastic Bodies. Part II. By Epwarp Sane, Esq. Royal Physical Society. Wednesday, December 26. Rosert Kaye Grevitte, Esq., LL.D., in the Chair. The following Communications were read :— 1. Notices of the Saury Pike (Scomberesox Sauris, Penn.), taken in the Firth of Forth. (Specimens were exhibited.) Mr R. F. Logan referred to the immense influx of the Saury Pike, Scomberesow Sauris, which visited the Firth of Forth in the beginning of November. With regard to its food, he had not been able to find any direct statement in our Ichthyological authors, but suspected it must con- sist of delicate marine Anwelides, possibly of the genus Nereis and its allies, which the fish snaps across the body with its long beak, and swal- lows at its leisure. The earliest notice of its occurrence in Scotland seemed fo be that of Pennant, who mentions that great numbers of these fish were thrown ashore at Leith after a storm in November 1768 ; and the Rev. Mr Low, in his “ Natural History of Orkney,” says, that in 1774, such a glut of them set into Kerston Bay that they could be taken by pailfuls, and heaps were flung ashore. Dr J. A. Smith read an extract from the Alloa Advertiser, showing the extraordinary abundance of these fish :—‘‘ On the afternoon of Monday (29th October), but especially on Tuesday, and partially on Wednesday (31st,) vast shoals of fish, of the genus Scomberesow, technically known by the name of Saury Pike, ascended the river Forth, and were gladly welcomed by the citizens of Alloa, more especially by the humbler classes of the community. The river Forth, betwixt Kincardine and Alloa, during the days above mentioned (particularly Tuesday), was literally swarming with these fish, and millions of them have from first to last been captured. Hundreds of people lined both banks of the river on successive days, and came away with bags, baskets, and boxes, laden with the herrings ; hun- dreds of young people, while wading along the margins of the river, picked up armsful of the fish; parties cruizing about on the river ga- thered up the herrings as rapidly as they chose with their hands, from the sides of their small boats; parties in Alloa, Kincardine, Kennet, Alva, Tillicoultry, and Stirling, obtained cart-loads of them, and sold them to ready purchasers; and numbers of the fish were destroyed by the paddles of the Stirling steamers.” He believed they had been found generally along the coasts of the Firth; the great body of fish, however, appeared at the upper part, which was narrow, and perhaps, from confining the shoals, brought them more distinctly under the no- tice and reach of the people. A. Whyte, Esq., Queensferry, sent him several specimens, and in a note, dated the 14th November, refers to them io SY . j ees —- Proceedings of Societies. 349 having entirely and suddenly disappeared a short time before. One old fisherman had known them for upwards of fifty years, but only once (about forty-five years ago) had he seen them in such quantities as this year. A few specimens were next taken about the 19th of November, and on the 22d a considerable number were caught in the herring-nets off Queens- ferry. The east or north-east wind was very prevalent before and during the first appearance of these fish; it then veered to the westward, and the fish disappeared ; and, on its again changing to the east, we had their re- currence at the latter part of November, to which he had just alluded ; after which they finally disappeared. Dr Parnell, apparently, had never met ia them. Vide “ Essay on the Fishes of the Forth,’ published in 1838. 2. On the Galactite of Hardinger ; with Analysis of Scottish Natrolites. By M. Forster Heppte, M.D. After submitting six analyses of Galactite (from the following localities —two from Glenfarg, red and white; from Campsie; two from Bishop- town, white and pink; and from Glenarbuck), Dr Heddle showed that this substance was merely Natrolite ; lime, in proportions from *16 up to 4312, replacing a portion of the soda, giving to the mineral its charac- teristic whiteness and opacity, and doubtless preventing its assuming the definite form, which the pure mineral, under favourable circumstances, adopts. Dr Heddle next submitted an analysis of a green mineral from Bow- ling Quarry, Cochney, and Bishoptown, which has been sold under the name of ‘‘ Stellite,’’ and which Professor R. D. Thomson considered Pec- tolite ; this was shown to be also Natrolite; lime was here present, as also magnesia and oxide of iron as impurities. The analysis of a specimen from Dumbarton Moor also showed 3°76 per cent. of lime, so that out of six localities, no specimen was free of this base. _ The Bin above Burntisland and North Berwick were also mentioned as localities of this mineral; no analysis of specimens from these places were however submitted. At Glenfarg alone in Scotland does this mineral occur distinctly erys- tallized, the form being o m of Brooke and Miller. 3. Notice of a variety of Cod, termed the “Lord Fish.” By T. Spencer Coppoip, M.D. This variety consisted in a remarkable shortening of the body, arising from the coalescence of a great number of the vertebre immediately suc- ceeding the bones of the head. In the present example, twenty-one were united together, and the shortening thus produced had given to the animal a curiously grotesque appearance. The middle dorsal fin was shortened, and the lateral longitudinal line arched very suddenly over the pectoral fins. Length, about 20 inches; depth, 8 inches. It corresponded very closely with the figure and description of this variety given in the-second edition of Yarrell’s ‘‘ British Fishes,” vol. ii., p. 229. The notice was accompanied with a preparation of the spine, and a coloured wax cast re- presenting the external characters. ; Mr George Logan exhibited a drawing of a smaller specimen of the same variety, which he had obtained several years ago from the Firth of Forth, near North Berwick. 4. Notice of a Curious Habit of the Common Seal. By Mr Witu1am M‘Intosn. Communicated by T. Spencer Corzoup, M.D. This communication, from an eye-witness, minutely described the man- NEW SERIES.—VOL. Ill. NO. I1.—APRIL 1856. 26 390 Proceedings of Societies. ner in which the common seal caught and devoured its prey,—in this instance, a ballan wrasse, which the seal held in its fore-paws, and care- fully denuded of its skin before devouring. 5. Notice of the Ferruginous Duck, or White-Eyed Duck (Nyroca leu- copthalmos, Flem.,) recently shot near Musselburgh. By Joun Atex. Smita, M.D.—(The specimen was exhibited). The bird, an adult male, measured 162 inches from the point of the bill to the tip of tail; and 273 inches in breadth from point to point of its extended wings. Its weight was 17 ounces. The trachea, showing its peculiar expansion in the middle part, was exhibited; the stomach, a strong and muscular gizzard, was filled with seeds of the oat, mixed with small pieces of quartz and gravel. ‘The bird is an occasional winter visi- tant of England, but appears to have been very rarely seen in Scotland. 6. Dr J. A. Smith mentioned that, during the months of November and December, several flocks of the Mealy Redpoll, Linota canescens, Yar., had been observed in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and num- bers had been taken by the bird-catchers. These birds were larger in size than the Lesser Redpoll, Linota linaria, Yar., none of which had been taken along with them. Specimens were exhibited, varying in brightness of colour: in some, the cheeks, breast, and the white or greyish rump, were tinged with rose-red; some had the plumage much edged with white. They had not been found in such abundance in this neighbourhood for many years. A collector informed Dr Smith he had tried in vain to get specimens from all the bird-catchers for the last two or three years. Dr Smith also exhibited a Crested Grebe, Podiceps cristatus, recently killed in the estuary of the Tay. Wednesday, January 23. Wit1ram H. Lowe, M.D., President, in the Chair. 1. Note on the Late Stay of Swallows in 1855. By Rozert F. Locan, Esq. The late stay of the swallow tribe in this country during the past autumn had, Mr Logan stated, considering the earliness and severity of the winter, been somewhat remarkable. It was well known that the ordi- nary period of the departure of the red-fronted or chimney swallow (Hir- undo rustica), was the end of September or beginning of October, and that of the house martin (Hirundo urbica) about the same time, or a few days later ; but last autumn numbers remained during October, and towards the end of the month a small flock of martins were to be seen every morn- ing, briskly hawking for insects, over the village of Duddingston. He saw some of them so late as the 10th of November, flying high in the air, and circling about with as much apparent ease as in the middle of sum- mer. In previous years, both species had occurred in England quite as late, and in some instances later, than the cases now cited; but it was rarely they were seen so late in Scotland. Mr Logan quoted instances on record of these birds having been seen in England during each of the winter months, and considered that it became a curious and difficult ques- tion to decide whether or not any of these might have been instances of reanimated hybernation. At all events, the facts went very far to prove that swallows could occasionally remain in this country through the winter. 2. Notice of the Arctic Skua (Lestris Parasitica, Tem.), shot in Skye in the Summer of 1855. By Prtrer A. Dassauvinte, Esq. The specimen on the table was procured in Skye by John Richardson, Esq., Pencaitland. It appeared to be in the adult summer plumage. The two centre tail feathers gradually tapered to a point, and exceeded Proceedings of Societies. ool the others by eight inches. The season at which this specimen was taken was not a little remarkable, as it was not known to breed even on our most northern stations, and in the sparing notices of its occurrence it had ap- peared in the autumn or winter. 3. On Mesolite ; Faréelite (Mesole) ; and Antrimolite. By M. Forster Heppie, M.D. By a series of analyses of these minerals, Dr Heddle showed that Me- solite and Mesole were not only distinet from Scolezite and Natrolite, but also from each other ; the Antrimolite of Thomson he referred to Mesolite, under which mineral also he considered that the Harringtonite of Thomson would fall. The nomenclature of these zeolites seemed to be in a sad state of confu- sion. We had Mesotype, Mesolite, Mesole. Dr Heddle proposed that the unmeaning Mesotype be dropped for the expressive Natrolite; that Mesolite, as being in reality the intermediate mineral, be retained, and that Mesole give place to F'aréelite, from the locality whence we obtained the choicest specimens of this substance. From their composition, these minerals rank as follows :— Natrolite, Na O, SiO, + Al, O,, SiO, + 2 HO. Faréelite, (Na O, Ca O?) SiO,° + 3 Al, O,, 2Si0, + 8 HO. Mesolite, (Na O, Ca O?) SiO,° + 3 (AL, O,, Si0,) + 8 HO. Scolezite, Ca O, Si O; + Al, 03, SiO, + 3 HO. 4. Mr David Page exhibited specimens of the Woodocrinus Macro- dactylus, a new genus of Encrinite recently figured and described by M, de Koninck. This rare and beautiful crinoid had as yet been found only in the upper beds of the carboniferous limestone in Yorkshire, and had been named by M. de Koninck after its discoverer, Edward Wood, Esq., Richmond, one of the most zealous and indefatigable of English collectors. The distinguishing features of the new encrinite were—its perfect sym- metry of arrangements, the body and arms, when extended, presenting a remarkable resemblance to the free-floating star-fishes. Its base consisted of five pieces, which, branching into ten sub-basals, again subdivided into twenty tapering fingers elegantly fringed with minute plumules. The stem was also peculiar in its jointings, the pieces being of equal size in the young stage, alternately large and small in the growing stage, and in the mature form presenting a double alternation of larger with smaller jointings. In few genera of the family were the parts so elegantly and symmetrically disposed ; and from the peculiar construction of the cap and fingers, ther> was little difficulty in distinguishing the Woodo- crinite from other species. As yet it had been found only on the upper verge of the limestone, and immediately under the millstone-grit of York- shire; but he (Mr Page) had little doubt that the Scottish mountain limestone (which had yielded all the English forms) would also be found to contain the Woodocrinus. At all events, the Petalodus, which ap- peared to be a regular accompanying fossil in Yorkshire, had been found both at Carluke, at Bathgate, and in Fifeshire. ‘ 5. Mr Page next exhibited some new Crustacean Forms from the For- far flagstones, or base of the Old Red Sandstone in Scotland. The first of these forms presented a remarkable union of phyllopod and isopod cha- racters; was a small creature found in shoals among the fragments of fucoid or aquatic plants ; and, from its curious caterpillar-like aspect, he proposed to name it provisionally Kampecaris Forfarensis. The second was a larger and still more remarkable form, presenting phyllopod, pe- cilipod, and xiphosarus characters. To the head of a eurypterus was united the body of a lobster, and to this lobster-like body was attached 2c2 352 Proceedings of Societies. the sword-like tail of a king-erab. Its organs of motion were a pair, on each side, of long-jointed arms; and from fragments found on the slabs, it appeared to be furnished with minutely serrated jaw-feet, like the king- erab and fossil Pterygotus. This fossil appeared to be quite new to Pala- ontology ; and Mr Page proposed to name it provisionally Stylonarus Powriensis, in allusion to its style-shaped tail, and after its discoverer, Mr Powrie of Reswallie. A third form which Mr Page exhibited was from the shaly mudstones of Upper Lanark, a series of strata apparently on a somewhat different horizon, but containing, like the Forfarshire beds, pterygotus, eurypterus, and other undescribed crustacea. This form Mr Page proposed to erect into a new family (Slimonia, after the discoverer of these Lanark crustacea) ; but as he intended to bring the subject be- fore the next meeting of the Society, in conjunction with what was now being done in London by Messrs Salter and Huxley, he would not dwell longer on these new discoveries than merely remark—/jirst, that they opened up altogether new views of crustacean affinities and arrangements ; and, second, that their discovery established in Britain a great zone of crustacean life, either on the upper verge of Siluria or on the lower verge of Devonia, hitherto unknown to geology. 6. On recent Discoveries in Helminthology. By James Warpror, Esq. Mr Wardrop gave a resumé of all. that was known on this interesting and difficult subject. Botanical Society of Edinburgh. Thursday, 10th January 1856. Col. Mapvpen, President, in the Chair. The following Papers were read :— 1. On some species of Epilobium. By Carzes C. Basrneton, M.A., F.R.S., &e. The author directed attention chiefly to the plants included under the names of Epilobium tetragonum and E. alpinwm. Under these have been embraced several species which require to be separated. The cha- racters to be considered in the arrangement of Epilobia are founded on the stigmas, whether divided or undivided, and the mode of extension of the plants from year to year. The following is the arrangement of Bri- tish Epilobia, as proposed by the author :— I, Turionate ; that is producing radical suckers. 1. Epilobium hirsutum. II. Stoles autumnal, rosulate. Stem erect. a. Stem mostly round. Stigma 4-cleft. 2. E. parviflorum. 3. E.montanum. 4. E. lanceolatum. b. Stem with raised lines. Stigma entire. 5. E. roseum. 6. E. tetragonwin. III. Stoles zstival, long-jointed throughout, with small leaves. Pri- mary stem erect. Stigma usually entire. 7. E. obscurum. 1V. Stoles xstival, long-jointed, with small leaves, ending im autumnal bulbs, which beceme detached. Base of stem cord-like.- 8. E. palustre. ¥. Stoles xstival, leafy, not rosulate.. 9. BE. alpinum. Proceedings of Societies. 399 VI. Stoles estival, leafy, not rosulate. 10. EL. anagallidifolium. VII. Stoles estival, scale-bearing, not rosulate. ll. E. alsinifolium. The author then enters upon full details of the characters, and de- scribes the following species :—EZ. tetragonum, L., E. obscurum, Schreb., E. virgatum, Grenier and Godron, E. alpinum, L., E. anagallidifolium, Lamarck, and E. alsinifolium, Vill. Finally, he calls attention to the occurrence of the Epilobiwm rosmari- nifolium of Hencke in Perthshire, the station for it, as given by Mr John Robertson, being ‘‘ inaccessible rocks that overhang the Tarf, a mountain stream in Glen Tilt.” 2. Observations on the Pollen Tube, its growth, histology, and physiology. By P. Martin Duncan, M.B., Lond., F.G.S., &e., Colchester. 3. Notes on the Chaulmoogra seeds of India. By Cartes Murcntson M.D.,.M.R.C.P.L, These seeds are furnished by the Chaulmoogra odorata, Rox., or Gy- nocardia odorata. The plant is referred by Lindley to the Natural Or- der Pangiacez, which, by some, is considered a section of Papayacex. The seeds are sold in the bazaars in India, at about 13s. 4d. per ewt. The tree is poisonous, but the seeds yield, by expression, a bland fixed oil having a peculiar smell and taste. The seeds are used by the natives of India in various cutaneous diseases, For this purpose, they are beaten up with ghee or clarified butter, and applied to the diseased cutaneous sur- face. The expressed oil is prized in the treatment of leprosy in India. The surfaces of the ulcers are dressed with the oil, while a six-grain pill of the seed is given three times a day. The dose of the latter is gradually increased to twice the original quantity. The expressed oil is sometimes given internally in doses of 5 or 6 minims. Too large doses are apt to ee nausea and vomiting. The Chaulmoogra is also prized by the Jhinese. 4. On the Gutta Percha Plant of India. By Dr Ciecuorn. Professor Balfour read the following extracts from a letter from Dr Cleghorn at Madras, dated 27th November 1855 :—‘‘ In the accompany- ing Madras Atheneum of 22d November, you will find further particu- lars regarding Peninsular Gutta Percha. Besides the specimens forwarded from Travancore by General Cullen, and from the Neilgherries by Col. Cotton, I have received samples from two coffee planters in Malabar, showing that the tree extends from Trevandrum to Tellicherry, and with 200 trees growing in one locality, it may reasonably be supposed that the Isonandra is found along the whole line of Ghauts.” The following is an extract from the Jurors’ report on the Madras Ex- hibition :— “From different parts of the presidency valuable specimens have been received possessing the useful properties of Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha, in a greater or less degree. The exhibition of the inspissated gum elastic juice of a number of trees, from different localities, and prepared in differ- ent ways, renders it probable that there are a number of similar ve- getable productions, which may be advantageously introduced into com- merce. ‘* General Cullen has forwarded a drawing and description of a large forest tree, abounding at the foot of the Ghauts, N.E. of Trevandrum. The plant delineated is evidently one of the Sapotacee, and the Malayan 854 Proceedings of Societies. name is ‘ pauchonthee.’ The product, of which a good sample is for- warded, on examination bears a strong resemblance to Gutta Percha, both in external appearance and mechanical properties. It appears to the Jury, that this gum elastic is possessed of valuable properties.” The editor of the Madras Atheneum remarks :-— ‘* We have seen the product which General Cullen has sent to Madras Museum, and it resembles the best of the crude gum imported from the Straits. Its outer surface is brownish-red, and mottled, but this deep tinge may probably have been given to it by the plantain leaf which it was wrapped in; a fresh fracture has a cream-yellow colour, slightly tinged with red. The fracture is smooth but conchoidal, and it is plastic under the heat of the hand. It has been ascertained to be a perfect non- conductor, and, possessing this quality, could be applied to all the uses for which the true Gutta Percha is adapted for isolating the wires of the electric telegraph,” &c. 5. Notice of the Flowering of an American Aloe (Agave americana). By Josrrn Lister, F.R.C.S.E. Communicated by Prof. Batrour. A large American aloe, which there is good reason for believing to be at least fifty years old, growing at Upton in Essex, this year (1855) sent up a flowering stem about 20 feet in height, the flowers of which attained their full perfection in the latter part of September, about three months after the first appearance of the stem. Up to the present season the growth of the plant had consisted in the annual unfolding of a few leaves from the central bud, while at the same time a small offshoot was ocea- sionally sent out from the portion of the stem below the surface of the ground ; these offshoots resembling their parent in their mode of growth when transplanted into separate pots. This year, however, the aloe flowered, as aforesaid, with a mighty effort, which appeared to exhaust all its energies, so that the huge fleshy leaves, which before stood firm and erect, gradually shrunk, shrivelled, and drooped as the process of in- florescence advanced, and the plant became a mere ghost of its former self, except as regarded the addition of the magnificent flower-stem. Some weeks ago a small offshoot appeared above the earth in the pot, and, on examining this when in England a few days since, I observed, to my great surprise, that instead of being, like its predecessors, a small leafy repetition of its parent, it bore no leaves, but two flowers like those produced a few months previously by the central stem. As it was evident that the effort of flowering had so completely exhausted the aloe that it would not live another season, it was determined to destroy it; and, the flower-stem having been sawn off, the plant was turned out of the pot, so as to afford me an opportunity of tracing the flowering offshoot to the part from which it sprung. Below the surface this offshoot consisted of a succulent under-ground stem, about 10 inches long, con- nected with the under-ground part of the main plant. It now further ap- peared that there were about a dozen or more other offshoots struggling upwards through the earth towards the surface, which they had not yet reached, terminated by pale green buds, which I found to contain, in the case of two which I dissected, rudimentary flowers within the scales of the buds. Thus, the whole constitution of the aloe appears to have been re- markably affected with a tendency to flowering; and just as the part above ground, instead of producing, as usual, a few leaves, shot forth this year a stem with a multitude of flower-buds, so the under-ground portion of the plant, instead of sending out, as usual, a few (one or two) sprouts, terminating in leaf-buds, this year produced many (a dozen or more) off- shoots ending in flower-buds, and destitute of leaves. Proceedings of Societies. 355 Professor Balfour remarked that several specimens of American aloe had bloomed in England last year. The first Agave americana which grew and blossomed in the open air in Britain was in the garden of the late James Yates at Salcombe, Devonshire, about the year 1814. In 1855 four plants of the Agave are stated to have bloomed in different localities at Salcombe. 6. On the Flowering of Plants, dc., in the Isle of Wight. By Dr T. Bei Sauter. 7. List of Plants in Flower in the open air in the neighbourhood of Ryde, Isle of Wight, in November 1855. By Dr T. Bett Satter. 8. On the Flora of Sleaford and the neighbourhood. By Joun Lowe, Esq. 9. Notice of the occurrence of Silene dichotoma, Ehrhart, in the neighbourhood of Gainsborough. By Joun Lowe, Esq. The plant was gathered by Mr Lowe on the Trent Bank at Morton, near Gainsborough, in 1853, and was then referred by him to a variety of S. nutans, but it has since been ascertained to be S. dichotoma, and Mr Bab- ington confirms this view. It has probably been introduced with foreign corn or linseed, and may be placed in the same category with such plants as Echinospermum Lappula, Amaranthus Blitum, &c. Thursday, 14th February 1856. Colonel Mappen in the Chair. Professor Balfour exhibited specimens of a spherical lichen sent by Sir Walter Trevelyan, and read the following letter from that gentleman on the subject :— **T send you specimens of a remarkable form of Parmelia saxatilis, which I met with on the exposed chalk downs of Dorsetshire, where I had found it many years ago; and my attention was again drawn to it on see- ing in the Paris Exhibition specimens of Lecanora esculenta, to which it struck me that what I had before found in Dorset bore much resemblance. I therefore took the opportunity, soon after my return to England, of going again to the spot to search for specimens, and on the 14th of last December I collected a considerable number on Melbury Hill, near Shaftesbury. I have not had an opportunity of comparing them with specimens of Lecanora esculenta and afinis of Lindley’s Vegetable Kingdom, and Berkeley in the Gardeners’ Chronicle, but I have little doubt that those and similar plants mentioned by other authors as occur- ring on the elevated plains of Tartary, America, Siberia, &c., are to be accounted for in the same way, viz., that a small piece of lichen (in this case of P. sawatilis) carried by the wind from a tree or rock at a distance, is lodged amongst the short grass of the doune or elevated plain (steppe), and there continues to vegetate, and, being liable to be rolled about by the wind, forms a nucleus, round which the plant increases on all sides, and thus forms the globular masses. Their appearance in great quanti- ties, as described by some writers, and esteemed sometimes by the natives of the countries where they are used as food as miraculous, is to be explained by their being carried together by a high wind prevailing for many hours or days in one direction. The day on which I collected them was very stormy, and I observed many instances of their being rolled along the grass by the wind. I have sent specimens of them to Dr Lindley, Mr Berkeley, and Sir W. Hooker. Idonot know what conclusions the two former have come to, 9 506 Proceedings of Societies. but I am satisfied that Sir W. Hooker is correct in considering it a form of P. saxatilis. I at first thought they were formed round the droppings of sheep, but on more careful examination this does not appear to be the case, there being no foreign substance in the interior, as was, I think, also ob- served to be the case by Eversmann in Tartarian plants, as quoted in last edition of Lindley’s Vegetable Kingdom, which, however, I have not here to refer to.”’ Professor Balfour stated that a paper on this subject had since been pub- lished in the Gardener’s Chronicle, in which the Rey. Mr Berkeley refers the lichen to a very curious form of Parmelia cesia, of which he can find no trace in any work to which he has access. The following Communications were read, viz. :— 1. On Spores. By Cuartes Jenner, Esq. (This paper appears in the present Number of this Journal). f 2. On the Effects of the Frost in the Winter of 1855 on the Furze and Broom. By Dr Grucurist, Royal Lunatic Asylum, Montrose. In early spring, the author observed that in the eastern part of Forfar- shire, lying between the sea and the Grampians, the common furze was so completely withered, that in a journey of 12 miles scarcely a green twig was seen, even where acres of ground were covered with the plant. Where the furze was protected by hedgerows and plantations, the destruc- tion was equally complete. In the same district, the broom did not suffer at all from the effects of the frost. On Montrose Links (close to the sea), the furze escaped with- out injury, which may be accounted for by the fact that the thermometer there did not fall so low in winter by 10° or 15°, as in the more inland district above referred to. 3. Note on the Connection between the Chemical and Morphological Characters of Plants. By J. Warprop, Esq. Plants are arranged by the systematist into a variety of groups, the principle of division being their morphological characters. But their sensible properties and medicinal virtues afford other principles of divi- sion by which they may be, and have in some sense been, classed into groups, which, generally speaking, coincide with those formed on the morphological principle. This result indicates a correspondence of chemi- eal composition and morphological structure in the economy of the vege- table kingdom ; for the different sensible properties of plants and their varying influence on the physiological action of animal tissues are to be held due to distinctions in their constituent matter. May we then expect, in addition, to find that the distinctions deter- mined by the unscientific but crucial tests of sense and medicine are satisfied by the rigorous results of analysis, reducible to scientific ex- pression ?- Can we establish a consilience of chemical and morphological constitution by formulating the distinctive chemical composition of groups, and presenting the formule as chemical characters coinciding and co- ordinate with the morphological? This is a question of the perfectibility of chemical science, but already the attempt to obtain a general and dis- tinctive chemical expression for a morphologically distinct group, and to show that a definite form is associated with a definite composition, has been initiated with a success, which, if small, is at least promising. The possibility of obtaining a generic or ordinal chemical character depends on one of two conditions. 1. On the presence of some one iden- tical constituent in every individual of the group, in which case the em- — Proceedings of Societies. 307 pirical formule of the common constituent would present itself in the common chemical character of the group producing it. This may be ex- pected to occur the more frequently the less extensive is the group, é.e. the fewer kinds of plants it contains, and may hence be the rule in genera. Veratrine in the Colchicacee, Myrosine in the Crucifere, and Ericoline in the Ericacez, are examples in the naturalorders. 2. It depends on the ability of chemical theory to detect, where it exists, the same rational constitution in different constituents, and thus to generalize their differ- ent empirical formule into a common rational formula. The general theoretical formula would be the chemical character of the group as a whole, the individual formule, the respective characters of its subordinate members. This condition may be expected to be the more frequently necessary, the more extensive is the group, and hence it may be the rule in the natural orders. The series of chemical principles whose constitu- tion is thus generalized into an ordinal character would have a repre- sentative substance in each species or genus of the order, though in each it may be one different from all the others. Were the bases of the So- lanacee, for instance, ultimately found to have the same compound radi- cal, to be homologous with each other, to be typologous with each other, or convertible into each other by substitution, or, by some other theory, to be reducible to a common expression, while each genus would possess a distinctive chemical character in the particular base found in it, all the bases together would concur in one general formula to furnish a combin- ing and distinctive character of the order. Similarly with the Labiate oils. In neither of these cases indeed is this result as yet realized, because the constitution of neither the bases nor the oils is as yet known. But that it may be realized, we are warranted by analogy to expect, for in what analysis has already effected in other groups, there are indications that the artificial productions of the laboratory, allied by homology, &c. into series, actually find a parallel in related natural constituents distri- buted through a group of allied plants. The successive genera of an order do sometimes, in their analyses, present a series of constituents, not iden- tical, but analogous in properties, which, when rationalized, form a che- mical series not empirically, but theoretically the same in constitution. The general formula expressing what is common to the whole series of constituents stands in the character of the order throughout which they are found ; while the particular formula expressive of an individual mem- ber of the series is the character of the corresponding genus by which it is secreted. The Tannines of the Rubiacee, according to Rochleder’s analysis, have the same carbo-hydrogen radical, with quantities of oxygen varying with the different genera. Those of the Ericacee repeat the same phenomenon, their radical having two equivalents less of hydrogen. The establishment of the coincidence of a particular chemical composi- tion with a particular morphological structure would have important re- sults :-— (1.) It would afford the strongest evidence of the ‘‘ naturalness” of genera and of the falsity of development hypotheses. (2.) It would aid the systematist in proportion to the discrimination and certainty of the chemical processes and results. (3.) The study of chemical constituents, on which so many changes are rung by nature, through a series of allied plants, would be calculated to reveal their rational constitution in at least not a less degree than their artificial metallic and other compounds, now so much and so deservedly investigated. (4.) When the correspondence of form and composition has been finally established as an empirical law, and its details worked out, it will then be more seasonable than it is now for the venturous speculator to inquire, 558 Proceedings of Socicties. if there be not thereby supplied some grounds on which he may speculate a physical theory of the second causes of organic forms. 4, Continuation of Notice of some of the contents of the Museum at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. By Professor Batrour. Thursday, 13th March 1856. Professor Batrour, V.P., in the Chair. The following Communications were read :— 1. Notes on the Flora of Perth. By Dr W. Lauper Linpsay. 2. On the Occurrence of Cladophora repens (J. Agardh) in Malahide, near Dublin. By A. C. Marneay, Esq. “The plant to which I have to direct attention is one of great interest, not only from the very small number of specimens hitherto obtained on the British Coasts, but also from the connection in character between these specimens and the Mediterranean form of the plant, described by Agardh in his Algw Mediterranee, and quoted by Dr Harvey as being doubtfully identical with the British form. Harvey first described the plant as British, from a specimen in the Herbarium of Trinity College, Dublin, one of four plants obtained by Miss Turner on the shores of Jer- sey in 1846, adding to his description the remark, that since that time the plant had not been noticed, and that to Miss Turner was due the credit of having added the plant to the British Flora. It appears, however, from the specimen now exhibited, that Mr M‘Calla collected the plant in Ire- land in 1841, and that to him, therefore, is due the credit of its discovery in this country. When he gathered it, he considered it as Conferva Brownii, and communicated specimens to Professor Balfour under that name. ‘The specimens are now in the Herbarium of the University of Edinburgh. “ Harvey, in his Phycologia Britannica, speaking of the Mediterranean form of the plant, says,— Possibly the reference to the Mediterranean Conferva simplex of J. Agardh may be incorrect, and yet I have little hesitation in uniting our plant with that species. They agree in every respect, except the length of the joints, which, in the Mediterranean plant, are shorter than in ours, and the slight discrepancy seems scarcely sufficient to separate plants so closely allied in so many remarkable fea- tures. This slight doubt as to the British form of Cladophora repens being the same species as that described by J. Agardh, is entirely dis- pelled by the specimens now shown from Ireland, in which the arti- culations, although variable, are in general shorter than in the Jersey specimens, and intermediate in size between Agardh’s plant and that de- scribed by Harvey. ‘« T have to thank Dr Greville for his kindness in communicating to me the result of his examination of the plant, which confirmed the opinion I had previously formed concerning it.” 3. On the British species of Arctium. By Cuaries C. Basineton, M.A., F.R.S., &e. The author thinks that we possess five well-marked species of Arctium in this country, namely, A. tomentosum, A. majus, A. intermedium, A. minus, and A. pubens. In describing these species, the points to be chiefly attended to are, the arrangement of the capitula, particularly on the central stem of the plant, the form of the heads and their size, the shape and direction of the phyllaries in the inner and outer rows, the proportion between the upper and lower part of the tubular florets, and the relative length of the phyllaries and florets. (1.) Arctium tomentosum, Pers, Heads subcorymbose, long-stalked, Proceedings of Societies. 359 spherical, and closed in fruit, much webbed (purplish), phyllaries falling short of the florets, subulate, inner row longest, and broad, inflated upper i part of florets a little shorter than the lower part. A. Bardana, Engl. Bot., t. 2478; A. Lappa, 6 Linn. Fl. Suec.; A. Lappa, Fl. Dan., t. 642. _ (2.) A. majus, Schkuhr. Heads subcorymbose, long-stalked, hemi- spherical, and open in fruit, glabrous (green), phyllaries equalling or exceeding the florets, subulate, inner row shorter than the others, subcy- lindrical upper part of florets more than half as long as the lower part. Lappa officinalis, Reich. Icon. Fl. Germ., xv. 54, t. 812. (3.) A. intermedium, Lange. Heads racemose, subsessile, ovate, closed in fruit, slightly webbed, phyllaries equalling or exceeding the florets, subulate, inner row lanceolate, shorter than the others, subcylindrical upper part of the florets equalling the lower part. Reich. fil, Icon. Fl. Germ., xv. 54, t. 812. (4.) A. minus, Schkuhr. Heads racemose, shortly-stalked, spherical, slightly contracted at the mouth in fruit, slightly webbed (greenish), phyllaries falling short of the florets, subulate, inner row equalling the others, subcylindrical upper part of the florets about equalling the lower part. A. Lappa, Engl. Bot., t. 1228; Reich. Icon. Fl. Germ., xv. 53, t. 811. (5.) A. pubens, Bab. Heads subracemose, stalked, hemispherical, and open in fruit, much webbed (green), phyllaries equalling the florets subu- late, inner row equalling the others and gradually subulate, subeylin- drical upper part of the florets equalling the lower part. 4. Suggestions for Observations on the Influence of the Poison of Epi- demic Cholera on Vegetation. By Dr W. Lauper Linpsay. 5.—Register of the Flowering of certain Plants in the Royal Botanic Garden, from 14th February to 13th March 1856, as compared with the jive preceding Years. By Mr M‘Nas. | 1856. 1855. 1854, 1853. | 1852. 1851. Jan. 24 | Jan. 24 | Jan. 28 | Jan. 17 | ESOP 15 VES Galanthus nivalis, . .j|Feb.14 Mar. 2 Eranthis hyemalis, . .| ... J4] ... 2} ... 26)Feb. 1 Corylus Avellana,. . .| ... 15 £°21)'} Marsl0: |. Mar.'94) > 5.5284) 6 Erica herbacea, .. .| ... 15! 5 | Feb. 20} Jan.28 | ... 24| ...16 Hepatica-triloba, ... .| ...16| ... 7 |Jan. 20 | Feb. 2 | | Rhododendron atrovirens,| ... 16 Apr. 6 |Feb.18) ... 1 Jan.14! ...2 | Garrya elliptica, . . .| .. 18 | Crocus Susianus, . . .j| ... 18 |Mar. 5 | Feb. 14 | Mar. 8 | Feb. 3 | Jan. 26 Daphne Mezereum, . .| ... 19 | Apr. 6| ....18 | Feb. 1 |Jan.21] ... 28} Arabis albida, . . . .| ... 24} ... 8| ... 15 | Mar.15 | Feb.18 | Feb. 7 | Tussilago alba,. . . .| «... 24 | Mar.1o | LA ste oe ... 2f | Jan. 26 | Crocus vernus, vars., . . eye) ene Onl ance, 2 |. 1a fe eons oS a ae oo ee en 2 me Cg Meee 9 erie er Symplocarpus fetidus, . |... 26 .20|Mar. 3| ...16| ... 20| Feb. 4 Leucojum vernum, . .|Mar. 1| ... 3/|Feb.15/ ... 21 | ... 21 | Jan. 20 Aubretia grandiflora, . eo Apr. S soo 1? | eeb.; Li Mar 18 || Mar ot Nordmannia cordifolia,.| ... 8 | ... 9 | Mar. 1 Mar.24 10 | Feb. 20 Dondia Epipactas,. . .| ...10) ..: 9| ... 1] 12.25]... 8 |Jan. 4 Anemone Pulsatilla, . sue 10} 4) 2214 | Apr... 3d |Feb. 21-| Apr.35 Pulmonaria angustifolia, 11 | ... 20) ... 19 |Mar.20 }Mar. 1 Symphytum caucasicum,| ...12|) ...10) ... 11 | ... 26 Feb. 2 | Mar.23 Tussilago Farfara, . .| ... 12 | ase Pi ae bee L Apres | ... 21 | Feb. 19 6. Continuation of Account of some of the contents of the Musewm at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. By Prof. Batrour. 560 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. ZOOLOGY. “ Distribution of British Land-Shells.—The French have ever been re- markable for their attention to natural history, even under the most dis- advantageous circumstances. Examples of this are recorded in the his- tory of the great expedition to Egypt under Napoleon I., and of the more recent French expedition to Algeria, We have now, in the Revue et Magazin de Zoologie, for December 1855, a contribution to Crimean zoo- logy by Dr L. Raymond, known by his researches made during the Alge- rian expedition. These are published by M. Bourguignat in his ‘*‘ Amen- ités Malacologiques,” and consist of a list of the land-shells of the genera Helix and Bulimus, observed during the last winter in the East, among which some new species are described. The following British species occur in the localities given below :— . H. carthusiana. Very common at Gallipoli, Constantinople, Balkan, arna. H. pisana. Constantinople, in the cemeteries, Silivri, on the shores of the Sea of Marmora. Hl. virgata. Gallipoli, Constantinople, Bosphorus generally. (H. ma- ritima, Drapardn. with the preceding very common). H. ericetorwm. Around Constantinople, Adrianople, &c., Varna. Bulimus acutus. On all the coasts of the Sea of Marmora and Black Sea. B. obscurus. Near Constantinople. Habits of the Walrus.—While encamped during one of the boat ex- peditions, and waiting the return of Commander Richards, Sir Edward Belcher shot four Walruses, and thus notices the conduct of these warm- blooded animals on being wounded :—‘‘ The father, mother, and cubs were of the party. On the death of the mother, or rather on her receiy- ing her wound in the neck, it was painfully interesting to notice the ac- tion of her young. One literally clasped her round the neck, and was apparently endeavouring to aid in staunching the blood with its mouth or flipper, when, at a sudden convulsive pang, she struck at her infant with her tusks, and, repeating this several times with some severity, prevented its farther repetition. ‘The male, with a very white beard (strong horny bristles), came up repeatedly in a most threatening attitude and snorting aloud his vengeance ; and well satisfied was I that the floe was my safe- guard ; doubtless he would have wreaked his vengeance on the Hamilton, and we should have met our punishment. Another, finding that she could not swim, deliberately hauled herself up on tke floe to die. Now, with all due deference to anatomists, who may afford us full proofs of the capability of these animals to walk like flies on our ceilings, I must pro- test, from frequent observation, against the use of the flipper of the Wal- rus for this purpose. It does not appear to be of greater aid than that of the seal is to that animal; and, strangely, its nails are placed on the upper side of the flipper, some inches within its margin. That the power of exerting the vacuum exists I doubt not. But here, within a few feet, de- liberately did I watch the progress of the animal in effecting its purpose. In the first place, the tail and fins, exerting their full power in the water, gave such an impetus that it projected about one-third of the body of the animal on to the floe. It then dug its tusks with such terrific force into the ice that I feared for its brain, and, leech-like, hauled itself forward by the enormous muscular power of the neck, repeating the operation until it was secure. The force with which the tusks were struck into the ice appeared not only sufficient to break them, but the concussion was so heavy that I was surprised that any brain could bear it.”—Captain Str E. Belcher, C.B. Zoology. 361 Cheiramys Madgascariensis, Cuvier—A living specimen of the singular animal, the Aye-Aye, a native of the west coast of Madagascar, has lately been brought to Paris, and an account of its habits has been read before the Académie des Sciences de Paris, by Dr Vinson. Some of the more remarkable peculiarities are as follows :— The fore-feet of the Aye-Aye are very slender, and the long fingers are terminated by hooked nails; the longest of these is the ring or third, next the middle finger. This last, black, slender, resembling the foot of a large spider, is distinguished from the others, not by its form alone, but also by the purposes to which it is applied. The animal climbs trees, hangs upon them by its ordinary fingers, but with the slender one it takes its food, carries it to its mouth, searches for larve in the bark of trees, and with this filiform finger it drinks, which it never does with its lips directly. When drinking, it dips the long finger into the liquid, and passes it rapidly through the mouth, in; a manner licking it with its tongue; the form of its lips, flattened horizontally, being wonderfully adapted for this operation, which the animal repeats with great rapidity. The most remarkable attitude of the Aye-Aye is that of repose. Squat- ting upon its hinder legs, it places the head between the fore-feet, and brings over it the thick and bushy tail, of which all the hair is then ex- panded, and by degrees it covers itself entirely up as with a cloak. It was at first wild and fierce, endeavouring to hide itself from the pre- sence of any one, but in the space of two months it became tame, remain-~ ing at liberty, and not attempting to escape. It was extremely fond of ‘‘eafé au lait’ and “ eau sueré,” drinking by means of its long finger, which it passed and repassed from the vessel to its mouth with incredible agility. Soon after its arrival it one day escaped, and was with difficulty re- covered. It exhibited the activity of a monkey on the trees, leaping from branch to branch, and crossing wide spaces with an ease and agility equal to that of the “ Lemur catta.”—Rev. et Mag. de Zool. Artificial Breeding of Fish.—M. Coste brought before the Académie des Sciences de Paris, a curious physiological fact, as well as one of some importance in an economie point of view. A lake trout, Salmo lemanus Cuy., reared from ova artificially impregnated, and hatched in his ponds in the College of France, has spawned naturally on the 12th November, upon a bed of gravel, previously prepared, at a particular part of the reservoir, where it was wished to make it deposit its ova. This trout, reared in the narrow fish-ponds devoted to the experiments of M. Coste, was two years and a half old, 35 centimetres in length, weighed 750 grammes, and produced 1065 ova. These have now been impregnated by the male of a common trout (Sulmo furio) of the ageonly of nineteen months.—Rev. et Mag. de Zool. M. Charpentier. Helix pomatia and arbustorum.—Conchology has lost an active and venerable member by the death of M. Charpentier, on 12th September last, at Dévens, near Bex, Canton de Vaud. Jean de Charpentier was born at Freyburg in Saxony. His public life was spent in the management or directorship of mines. His leisure was devoted to Natural History, and especially to Geology and Miner- alogy, Conchology and Botany, and he published various works and me- moirs, both separately and in the scientific periodicals. He has bequeathed to the Museum of Lausanne his herbarium of 30,000 species, indigenous and foreign, as well as his collection of land and fresh water mollusca, containing nearly 6000 species, made out and arranged. His favourite branch appeared to be Conchology ; and he has lefta MS. catalogue of the collection above mentioned ready for the press, of which it is to be hoped his friends will not long delay the publication. In the “‘ Journal de Conchy- liologie” he has published (1852) an ‘‘ Essai d’une classification natu- relle des Clausilic>,’ a very elaborate monograph ; and previously (1837), 362 Scientific Intelligence. separately, in 4to, the ‘‘ Catalogue des Mollusques terrestres et fluviatiles de la Suisse.” It is in this last that the remarks upon the two species indicated in our title occur. Helia pomatia is found from the plains to an elevation of 5000 feet above the level of the sea, and in an inverse scale to the other species it increases in size according to the elevation attained. He mentions a specimen found near Jorogne, at about 4000 feet elevation, which measured 50 millimetres in diameter by 58 in height. A variety of Helix arbustorwm (H. alpicola) reaches a higher elevation than any vther. He has found it at 7000 feet.—Drouet, Rev. et Mag. de Zool., 1855, GEOLOGY. Syenite of the Malvern Hills altered by the Heat of the Malvern Bonejire, compared with Syenite in contact with Trap-Dykes—*< The president of the Malvern Naturalists’ Field-Club, in his annual ad- dress to the members, 18th February, called their attention to an interesting specimen of vitrified ‘ Rowley rag,’ sent by the Rev. J. H. Thompson to their secretary. The Rowley ragstone was an ancient basalt, and, when melted in a powerful furnace and quiekly cooled, be- came a beautiful black vitreous mineral, which could be run into moulds, and thus made to form exquisite mantel-pieces, and other works of art ; but, when slowly cooled after melting, it assumed its original basaltic eharacter. This led him to a curious cireumstanee in conneetion with ‘the great Malvern bonfire,’ for though ‘ an ill wind’ had prevented the rising column of flame that had been generally anticipated, yet it had thrown out an unexpected ‘ geologieal light,’ that illustrated the old well-approved proverb. Sir William Jardine had written to him to examine if the rocks on the summit were vitrified by the fire, as was the case in some parts of Scotland where ancient fire-beacons had been kindled. Although the Malvern summit was not vitrified, yet he found that the heat from the fire had been so concentrated upon the foundation rocks by the powerful wind bearing down the flame, that they were much roasted and altered. Now, a quarry at the back of News Wood, at the western base of the Herefordshire Beacon, which he had recently visited with M. de la Harpe, a distinguished Swiss geologist, displayed a re- markable section of trap or greenstone dykes intersecting syenite, and the syenite in contact with the greenstone was not to be distinguished from that roasted by the Malvern bonefire, thus showing the heated state of the greenstone when intruded among the syenite.’’— Worcester Journal, February 23, 1856. 7 CHEMISTRY. On Acrylic Alcohol and its Compounds. By MM. Canours, Horrman, Bertnerot, De Luca, and Zrn1n. The discovery of a simple process for the preparation of the iodo-pro- pylene by Berthelot and De Luca, has directed the attention of chemists to the possibility of obtaining, by means of this substanee, a elass of com- pounds analogous to the ethers. Zinin commenced the inquiry by the discovery of the aeetate and benzoate of the radical, which he called pro- pylenyl, and by digesting these eompounds with potash he obtained a pungent fluid, which was in all probability the corresponding alcohol, although he did not substantiate this point by analysis. MM. Cahours and Hoffman have investigated the whole subject, and have given to the aleohol the name of aerylic alcohol, for the purpose of connecting it with aeroleine and acrylic aeid, which obviously bear to it the same relations that alde- hyde and acetic acid do to common alcohol. By treating the iodide of propylene with oxalate of silver, the oxalate of acryl C, H;O0 CO, is ob- tained as a colourless fluid, heavier than water, having an aromatic odour, and boiling at 404° F. When treated with dry ammonia, it is transformed into oxamide and acrylic alevhol C, H,O,, which is a colour- Chemisiry. 363 less mobile liguid, with a pungent odour resembling that of mustard, and boiling at 217°. It burns with a luminous flame, and is miscible in all proportions with water. It forms with potassium a compound corre- sponding to ethylate of potash, and this, when treated with iodide of aeryle (iodo-propylene), gives iodide of potassium, and produces the acry- lic ether C,, H,,O,- By similar treatment with iodide of ethyl, a mixed ether containing both these radicals can be obtained. The chloride, _ iodide, and bromide of acryl are easily produced by distilling the alcohol with the chloride, iodide, and bromide of phosphorus. Acrylic aleohol dissolves in oil of vitriol, and forms a coupled acid, which gives a soluble baryta salt, BaO SO,C;H;0,SO0,. By distillation with anhydrous phosphoric acid it gives a gas, which burns with a luminous flame, and is no doubt C, H,. Treated with oxidizing agents, it gives acroleine and acrylic acid. All the compounds corresponding to the common ethers can be obtained ; and the authors have examined a large number of them. Oxamate of acryl is obtained by adding ammonia cautiously to the oxa- late ; it forms magnificent crystals soluble in alcohol. The carbonate of ‘aeryl is prepared by the action of sodium upon the oxalate. The ben- zoate, C, H,O C,,H, O,, is obtained by Cahours and Hoffman by the ac- ‘tion of chloride of benzoil upon the alcohol. Zinin prepares it by distil- ling iodide of acryl (iodo-propylene) with benzoate of silver. It is heavier than water, boils at 428°, and has an aromatic odour like that of benzoic ether. The acetate, C, H,O C,H, O,, is obtained by the action of acetate of silver on iodide of acryl. It is alimpid fluid, boiling at 217°, and hay- ing a smell similar to that of acetic ether. Cyanate of silver is rapidly acted upon by iodide of acryl, the heat pro- duced being sufficiently great to distil over the greater part of the pro- duet, which is the cyanate of acryl, C; H,OC, NO. It is a colourless, limpid fluid, boiling at 179°, has an extremely penetrating odour, which produces a copious flow of tears. Treated with ammonia, it rapidly dis- appears, and on evaporation the fluid gives magnificent crystals of acrylic urea, C, (H, C; H,) N,O,, which only differs from thiosinnamine by con- taining oxygen in place of sulphur. When heated with water, cyanate of acry! solidifies into a mass, which has all the properties of sinapoline, —that is, of diacrylic urea, C,[H,(C,; H,),] N,O,. MM. Berthelot and De Luca have prepared the tartrate, butyrate, and sulpho-cyanide of acryl —or allyl, as they designate it—for the purpose of recalling its relations to the oil of garlic, and they have also obtained the radical itself—acryl or allyl. It is got by acting with sodinm upon the iodide, and is a highly volatile liquid, with a pungent odour like that of horse-radish. It boils at 138°. Its specific gravity is 0°684, tae density of its vapour 2°92, and its formula is C;H,—2 vols. It is acted upon by bromine and iodine, and forms crystalline compounds with the formule C,; H, Br, and C, H, I,. —Zinin, Bulletin de ? Academie de St Petersburg, vol. xiii., p. 360; Cahours and Hoffman, Comptes Rendus, vol. xlii., p. 217; Berthelot et de Luca, Comptes Rendus, vol. xlii., p. 233. Action of Phosphate of Soda upon Fluor-Spar at a Red Heat. By A. Brrecres. By fusing together tribasic phosphate of soda (8 Na O PO.), or a mix- ture of pyrophosphate and carbonate of soda with three equivalents of fluor-spar, a highly crystalline mass is obtained. The crystals are inso- luble in water, and are apatite, various modifications of the crystalline form of that mineral being visible under the microscope. When the fused mass was boiled in water, a small part of it slowly dissolved, and the finid gave a strong reaction of hydrofluric acid, and when evaporated fluoride of sodium was deposited in crystalline crusts with all its ordinary charac- ters. By various modifications in the proportion of the ingredients, at- tempts were made to attain complete conversion into fluoride of sodium, 364 Scientific Intelligence. but without success. When the fused mass is not boiled, but digested on the water bath for some hours, the fluid filtered, concentrated, and allowed to stand, fine transparent and colourless regular octahedra are deposited. These crystals are hard, difficultly soluble in water, and havea disagree- able alkaline taste ; when heated they melt in their water of crystallization, and their solution when boiled for a long time, and then evaporated, de- osits fluoride of sodium. They were found to have the formula 3 NaO PO,+NaF+24 HO. The specific gravity of the crystals is 2°2165, and they require for solution 8°3 parts of water at 77° Fahr., and 1°74 at 158°. This salt may also be obtained by digesting pounded eryolite with a mixture of phosphate of soda and caustic soda for some days, and eya- porating the filtered fluid. No corresponding potash salt exists. When arseniate of soda and fluor-spar are found together, a double arseniate and fluoride is obtained in octahedral crystals soluble in 9°55 times their weight of water at 77°, and 1:99 at 167°. Their formula is 3 NaO AsO; + NaF +24 HO.—Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, vol. xevii. p. 95. BOTANY. On the Varieties of ‘‘ Chiretta” used in India.- By Huen Cure- norn, M.D., Madras Medical Service.—I have frequently been struck with the evident dissimilarity between bundles of “ Chiretta,” as received through the commissariat, at different stations in the Madras Presidency ; and although the stalk, when chewed, possessed the characteristic quality of pure bitterness, and exhibited the many-seeded capsule, the tetragonal stem, and opposite, sessile, exstipulate leaves by which the Gentian-family is recognised, I could not help thinking that the supplies furnished on indent contained séveral distinct plants. The collection of native drugs brought together at the time of the Madras Exhibition furnished me with an opportunity of testing the accuracy of my previous opinion, and it oc- curs to me that a short notice of two distinct plants used in Southern India may not be unacceptable. I will premise by stating that the properties of the Indian species of Gentianacee, with the exception of two or three of the Himalayan ones, do not seem to have been at all investigated. After a diligent search in the medical literature of India, I can find not a single notice of their the- rapeutic action, although the remarkable property of bitterness exists in the four genera Evacum, Ophelia, Halenia, and Adenema, as well as in all the indigenous species which I have met with. 1. Exacum bicolor (Roxb.) Wight, Ie. Pl. Ind. Or. t. 1821. Stem 4- angled ; leaves sessile, ovate, sub-acute, 3—5-nerved, with smooth mar- gins; calyx deeply 4-cleft, segments subulate, with ovato-lanceolate wings ; corolla white, tipped with blue, lobes elliptic, oblong, éuspidate, three times longer than the tube, which is a little shorter than the calyx. Corolla large, nearly two inches in diameter, cymes terminal sub-con- tracted; middle internodes usually shorter than the leaves.—Griseb. in Decandolle Prod., ix., p. 45. Neilgherries, below Kotagherry, rare ; in pastures about a mile below Nedawuttim abundant; flowering during the autumnal months. This plant is well figured in Wight’s Spicilegium Neilgherrense, t. 163. Cuttack, Roxburgh; Neilgherries, Baron Hugel; Malabar Chauts, Cleghorn. A bundle of the dried stalks of this plant was forwarded to the Madras Exhibition from Mangalore, marked ‘ Country Creyat,’’ price 1 anna 6 pie per Ib. The name shows that it is used as a substitute for Creyat (Andrographis paniculata). In this species, which enamels the sward of the Western Ghauts with its beautiful blossoms, the same bitter sto- machic qualitities occur for which the Gentiana lutea is so much em- ployed, and I believe that it may be used with advantage for medicinal purposes. oe een ieee hearin iets pein er i ce il el Botany. 365 2. Ophelia elegans, Wight, Ie. Pl. Ind. Or., t. 1331. Erect, ramous above, obsoletely 4-sided ; leaves sessile. narrow, ovate, lanceolate, taper- ing to a slender point, 3-nerved; lateral nerves close to the margin ; branches ascending, slender, bearing at each joint lateral few-flowered eymes, forming together a large many-flowered leafy panicle ; calyx lobes narrow, lanceolate, acute, about two-thirds the length of the corolla; lobes of the corolla obovate cuspidate ; fovee bound with longish coarse hairs ; flowers pale blue. Pulney Hills, flowering August and September. A very handsome species when in full flower, forming, as it does, a rich panicle of light blue flowers, streaked with deeper coloured veins. It seems very distinct from all the other species. (Wight). This plant grows plentifully in the Jeypoor Zemindary of Vizagapatam, and is largely exported as “ Silaras” or “ Selajit,” the amount being valued at about 2500 rupees a-year. It is preferred by the hukeems to the genuine Himalayan Chiretta, and is considered febrifuge. (Honour- able W. Elliott zn literis). The samples of the drug which I have seen as exported are about 16 inches long, and 4 inches deep, and are always tied up with the tough bark and large leaves of Bauhinia Vahlii (W. and A.), which abounds in the northern Circars. Equal quantities of the two plants above mentioned, and of the Chi- retta of the medical stores (which on examination was found to con- tain some stalks of the Ophelia elegans), having been infused in the usual manner (3 ij. toa pint), four competent parties were requested to give their opinion on the respective qualities of the infusions. The result was the unanimous opinion that the cold infusion of Exacum bicolor, although a pure bitter, was much milder than that of Ophelia ele- gans, which possesses a powerful bitterness, remaining for several minutes in the mouth. Frequent trials confirm the belief that it exercises a tonic influence on the digestive organs, thereby improving the general health, while it appears also to have a febrifuge property. Adenema hyssopifolia, Chota Chirayita, Hind., common in various parts of South India, as at the mouth of Adyar, is likewise very bitter, and is much used by the natives as a stomachic, being also somewhat laxative—Indian Annals of Medical Science, No. V. Ceylon Botanic Garden.—Mr G. H. K. Thwaites, the able superin- tendent, in his Annual Report for September 1854 to August 1855, inclu- sive, writes: That the cultivation of the West India ginger in Ceylon has been successful, and that it is likely to prove ere long an important article of commerce ; that the vanilla succeeds in the gardens, and has produced abundance of fruit ; that the cochineal insects did not thrive. The Ma- nilla hemp, the China grass cloth plant, and the Durian trees, were grow- ing well. There are several oils which might be exported from the island. Among these he notices—Keena ozl, obtained from the seeds of dif- ferent species of Calophyllum ; Meeriya oil, yielded by the seeds of seve- ral species of Isonandra ; and Madol oil, from the seeds of a species of Garcinia. The resin called Doon-Doommalle is also likely to be a valu- able article of commerce. Attention is being directed on the island to the preparation of fibres from species of Musa. Extracts from Jurors’ Reports of the Madras Exhibition, 1855.— Woods grown at Madras.—Cedrela Toona, the Toon tree, Toon ma- rum, Tam.; Toona, Hind.; Tundw, Can.—A valuable tree of large size, wood reddish coloured, used all over India in cabinet-making, scarcely inferior to mahogany, but lighter and not so close in the grain, often NEW SERIES.—VOL. II. NO. 11.—aprit. 1856. 2D 366 Scientific Intelligence. sold here under the general name of ‘‘ Chittagongwood.” It is the most valuable of the woods known by that commercial name. It is said to be abundant in Travancore. Chloroxylon Swietenia, Satin-wood tree, Kodawah porsh, Tam.; Billu kurra, Tel. This tree grows abundantly in the mountainous districts of the Presidency, but seldom attains a large size ; occasionally, planks from 10 to 15 inches in breadth may be pro- cured. The wood is very close-grained, hard, and durable, of a light orange colour, takes a fine polish, and is suited for all kinds of orna- mental purposes, but is somewhat apt to split. For picture frames, it is nearly equal to American maple. The timber bears submersion well; in some instances it is beautifully feathered. There is this peculiarity, satin- wood loses its beauty by age, unless protected by a coat of fine varnish. —Dalbergia Sissoo, Sissu, Tel. Introduced from Bengal at the recom- mendation of Dr Wallich ; grows to a large size; has been planted on the banks of the Toomboodra, and is thriving wonderfully ; it is growing extensively in the cantonment of Masulipatam as an avenue tree, and has been planted in some places on the banks of the Kistnah Annicut. There are few trees which so much deserve attention, considering its ra- pid growth, its beauty, and its usefulness. Wood hard, strong, tenacious, and compact, whilst its great durability combines to render it one of the most valuable timbers known. The tree grows rapidly, is propagated and reared with facility, and it early attains a good working condition of tim- ber. It is used in Bengal for gun carriages.—Tectona grandis, Teak, Eng.; Taek marum, Tam.; Teck Chettoo, Tel. A native of the moun- tainous parts of Malabar and the country bordering the Godavery, the Moulmein, and Rangoon forests. This well-known and far-famed tree grows straight and lofty, with cross armed panicles of showy-white flowers. It seems to require eighty years to attain perfection. The wood is very hard, but easily worked; it is soon seasoned, and being oily, does not injure iron, and shrinks little. It is probably the most durable timber known, hence its value in ship-building. The Malabar teak is con- sidered the best, and is alvays most valued in our Government dock-yards. A yaluable report by Dr Falconer, on the teak forests of the Tenasserim Coast, was published lately among the selection of records of the Bengal government. The price of teak wood at present is three rupees per cubic foot, double the ordinary rate. It is matter of regret, considering the vast importance of teak timber to England as a maritime nation, that the preservation of the teak forests was so long disregarded. Orchids in Brazil.—Pinel states that in soils in Brazil cleared of original forests, the following epiphytic orchids appear :—Comparettia coccinea, Oncidium flecuosum, O. pumilum, O. odoratissimum ; also the follow- ing terrestrial species :—Neottia orchioides, Gqmenia Gardneri, Onci- dium Pinelianum, and various species of Phaiws. In Brazil orchids are epiphytes on dicotyledons; it is very rare to meet with them on mono- cotyledons. Out of 200 species, Pinel only met with Zygopetalum rostratum on the great tree-fern, and on that alone it existed. Lelia epidendroides lived only on Vellozia. Psidium is favourable for the growth of certain orchids, as Ionopsis paniculata, Burlingtonia ve- nusta, candida, and picta.—Gardener’s Chronicle. Ailanthus glandulosus.—This tree yields an excellent wood for furni- ture. In some respects it resembles satin-wood. The tree thrives in Britain. ; Fossil Fruits—Dr Joseph Hooker has noticed the occurrence of Car- polithes ovulum, a minute seed-vessel, in the Eocene beds of Lewisham. It is probably allied to the sporangium of a fern. He has also observed Folliculites minutulus, a small seed-vessel in Bovey Tracey coal (ter- tiary). It seems also to bea filicoid sporangium. : Mineralogy. 367 Scirpus lacustris—In South America Scirpus lacustris (Bullrush) is used for making balsas or boats. This rush serves to form both the hull and the sails. ‘The boats can only sail with a fair wind. Vegetation in Brazil after burning the Forests.—When a forest in Brazil is burnt down there succeeds a different kind of vegetation from that previously on the soil. First come up ferns and herbaceous plants, Sonchus oleraceus, some Solanacew, grasses, Lobeliacew, and several Campanulacee. In the second, third, and fourth years the vegeta- tion attains its final growth and dies. Then appear undershrubs. Abutilon esculentum, species of Cassia, and other Leguminosae, Strych- nos pseudo-quina, &c. After these, some of which die out in ten years, succeed tall fruit trees of the genera Anona, Cerasus, &«.—(Pinel, Gar- dener’s Chronicle.) Plants of Victoria,.—Mueller mentions an Umbellifer in Victoria having five petaloid sepals. It belongs to the genus Dichopetalum. He also notices a peculiar Malvaceous genus, having a closed calyx, which bursts only when the fruit becomes ripe. The little corolla never expands, and sees consequently no daylight until long after fecundation. Ouvirandra fenestralis, Water-Yam.—The cells of the parenchyma of this curious plant are very delicate, full of fluid and granules of green chlorophyll. There is a central rib of a few long green tubular cells, sur- rounding several very slender spiral vessels in the main ribs, but a single one in the secondary veins. There are no air-cells in the substance of the leaf, nor on the apex of the petiole. The apex of the scape bears a small lid which falls off, and seems to be composed of two gamophyllous bracts.—Hooker, in Botanical Magazine. Listera ovata.—The rostellum of Listera ovata is divided by parallel septa into a series of longitudinal elongated loculi, which taper from the base upwards, and end in two opake cellular spots, one on each side of the apex of the rostellum. The loculi become distended with a viscid grumous fluid full of chlorophyll granules. At the period of impregna- tion the slightest irritation of the rostellum causes the sudden and forcible discharge of the contents of these loculi (through the rupture of the cellu- lar tissue at the apex of the rostellum) and its protrusion in the form of two viseid glands which coalesce into one, after which the rostellum ra- pidly collapses and contracts. The pollen masses fall naturally upon the rostellum ; they are retained there by their viscid gland-like contents, and breaking up, the pollen grains become (by the contraction of the rostellum) applied to the subjacent stigmatic surfaces.—J. D. Hooker. MINERALOGY, Fall of Meteorites in the Bremervérde, Hanover.—On the 13th of May last, about 5 p.m., a fall of meteoric stones occurred, accompanied by a sound like the firing of cannon, followed by a rattling and rushing sound. The noise appears to have been so loud as to have greatly terrified the peasants by whom it was heard. The sky at the time was cloudy, which probably accounts for the fact that no meteor was seen. The largest mass which fell weighed about 6 lbs., has an elongated form, and is covered with the usual black crust. In its interior it has much the appearance of the meteoric stones of Mezé-Madaras, and contains metallic iron, and sul- phuret of iron. Several other stones are said to have fallen at the same time, and two others have been found, one of which weighs 3 lbs. The largest stone has been deposited by Professor Wohler in the Museum of Gottingen Academy, the two others are in the collection of the Mining School at Clausthal.—Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. xevi., p. 626. Analysis of a Meteoric stone which fell in Nerway.—This meteoric 368 Scientific Intelligence. was sent by the finder to the University of Christiania, with the state- ment that, on the 27th December 1848, in the evening, and when the sky was clear, a loud noise like the firing of many shots was heard, and a very bright light was seen. Two days afterwards the stone was found lying on the iee, in which it had sunk to the depth of about half an inch, the hollow having evidently been produeed by the ice having been melted. In a direction south-east of the spot on whieh the stone was found, two depressions were observed in the ice, into one of which an angle of the stone fitted, so that it must have rebounded more than once before com- ing to rest. The stone is nearly as large as a child’s head, and weighed 850 grammes. Externally its eolour is brownish-blaek. The interior has a greyish-white colour and granular texture. Its speeific gravity is 3°539. The stone was composed of several different mimerals which could be separated partly by the magnet, and partly by the action of different re- agents. The composition of the different substances was : 5 - Silicate decomposable Undecomposable pao eee by Hydecihioris Acca. Portion. Fe 84:20 Si O, 37°80 Si O, 57°10 Ni 14:42 MgO 3168 MgO = 19°46 FeS 0°49 Ca O 3°08 Ca O 1:47 FeO 27°44 M, O; 5°62 Fe,O,; 14°72 100-00 Chrome iron, eee Tin stone. \ a The decomposable silicate may be expressed by the formula 3 RO Si O, and is therefore olivine. The undeeomposable silicate may be most nearly represented by the formula 2 R, O,,7 RO, 8SiO,. The eomposition of the entire stone is given below, along with that of the stone which fell at Blansko in 1833, and whieh approaches it very closely in eomposition. Blansko. Nickel iron, x : : 8°22 171s Sulphuret of iron, F ; 4:32 — Olivine, - : ‘ 49-00 42°67 Undecomposable silicates, . 38°20 39°43 Chrome iron and tin stone, 0°26 O75 100-00 100-00 —Poggendorf’s Annalen, vol. xevi., p. 341. METEOROLOGY. A remarkable meteor was observed in the Isle of Wight on the 7th January 1856. The following are the remarks of Dr Robert James Mann in regard to it :— ** The accounts given of the appearance of the meteor of the 7th mst. at Sevenoaks and Blackheath, suggests to me the propriety of placing one or two facts regarding its aspeet at Ventnor on reeord in your eolumns. At the instant of its dashing through the terrestrial atmosphere I chanced to be passing along an open space, with my side towards the sea. The sky was perfeetly cloudless, excepting for a low fog bank resting on the horizon, and the twilight was so strong that it was searcely a departure from daylight. Nevertheless, the light of the meteor was so intense that it startled me as a vivid flash ef lightning would have done. My first impression was that it wasa very brilliant rocket ; and it was only when I had had time to make the reffection that it was going the wrong way, that my attention was sufficiently fixed to enable me to notice carefully what was oceurring. This, however, gave me abundant opportunity to observe that the descend- ing luminary was of a bluish-white tint, and had a very large apparent diameter, certainly not less than from seven to eight minutes of angular Meteorology. 369 measure. It fell exactly as is mentioned in Mr Rogers’ description. For an instant it left behind it a vividly incandescent line, very much re- sembling the track of a Roman candle, but much more finely and strongly defined against the sky. My attention was very closely given to this part of the phenomenon. _ Gradually I perceived the fine line of incande- scence was acquiring breadth. In three minutes I could distinctly see that it was a broad column of refleetive vapour illuminated by the rays of the sun, then below the horizon. But there was an interval before this, when I could not satisfy myself, by the most exact inspection, whether the line was emitting or reflecting light, whether it was a fire streak or a streak of illuminated vapour. It is my impression that it very gradually passed from the one condition into the other. ‘¢ The burst of blaze was so sudden and instantaneous that it attracted my observation on the instant, and quite involuntarily. I fancied that I was sensible of a distinct hissing sound, but, being at the moment deeply engaged on a far different train of thought, I could not command the trust- worthy evidence of my senses for two or three seconds. Upon reflection afterwards, I was very doubtful whether it was not simply the first in- voluntary idea of a sky-rocket having been fired, that carried with it by association the notion of the sound always accompanying such an incident. If I had been asked previously to this reflection whether I had done so, I should unhesitatingly have said I did hear arush. Now, I am simply in doubt whether I did or did not. ‘* The apparent dimensions of the vapour column, however, grew gradu- ally less as it suffered dispersion. Before it faded entirely it was diminished in apparent length by more than one-half. It evidently drifted rapidly upwards and outwards as it faded. The form of the vapour column was exactly that which Mr Kimber describes—wand-like with taper extre- mities; then its ends began to drift opposite ways, and its general out- line to become more and more sinuous. It was visible here for twenty minutes after the first burst of the meteor. The column continued to grow broader for several minutes before it began to contract its dimen- sions ; then it afforded obvious indications of the “ approach of dissolu- tion.” I think, however, that the rapid descent of the sun beneath the horizon had as much to do with its final disappearance as the dispersion of the vapour.” Dr Mann further states that the meteor was first seen at Ventnor, as a very minute star within 15 degrees of the zenith. The path was in a plane nearly parallel with the earth’s polar axis. It began to throw out a luminous tail at an altitude of about 52 degrees above the horizon, and it was lost to sight in a low cloud bank, 7 degrees above the horizon. The path of the meteor was slightly inclined towards the east, and very slightly curved. The general bearing of its tail from Ventnor was about 5 or 4 degrees east of the true meridian. No doubt, the form of the path from Havre or Cornwall (seen in profile) would have been a parallel curve. From Sevenoaks the top of the tail had an altitude of about 17 degrees, and the general azimuthal bearing was about 21 degrees west. From Havre it was seen over Cape de la Héve, a little north of west. From Liskeard, Cornwall, its bearing waseast. The aérolite pro- bably struck the earth somewhere near the meridian of Isigny or Bayeux, and about 10 miles within the Norman coast. This assumes that the parabola of the fall had very nearly approached the perpendicular when within an altitude of 30degrees. The difference of the latitudes of Vent- nor and Sevenoaks is 48 miles, estimated by the map, and the difference of the longitudes is 60°8 miles. 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LAWOWUTHL UA LAWOUV *[LoJ [kVy 40 Aous YoOryA uo skvp osoyy sopuyour .skreq Aureyy,, JO 4oquuinu IF, *q00J & OFNLH-UreY OY} JO pur Yoos TT Spunoay oy} MOAJ AOJOUIOUIAOILT, O19 JO JY Slory {400 0g ‘wog Ol} OAOG” AOZOWLOIeG oO} JO WYSIOFT *O[LUL B JO SYFH “VOg o[} UXO) OOUNASIC. “AA GE 0G ‘OPUUSUOT “N FE 099 OPNIIET ‘uopuory “d0g PeoIFopoOAOOVOPY YS OY} 10J Aoarosqy pus {saoapuy yg “oog [worydosopyg puw Kaw19qVT oy} Jo Joqmoyy "WoFT ‘NMOUG "xXATY 4q YVoIqry yw doy ‘CCQT WOT WAISTOUNY TVOTOOTOYOULAW WHT AO LOVULSAV io) a | \~— PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. Chappelsmith,—Account of the Tornado near New Harmony, in April 1852. Lapham,—On the Antiquities of Wisconsin. Leidy,—On the extinct Sloth Tribe of North America. Leidy,—On Bathygnethus borealis, an extinct Saurian of the New Red Sandstone. Catalogue of the Library of the Smithsonian Institution. Eighth and Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for 1853 and 1854. Report on Catalogues of Libraries. Marsh,—Lecture on the Camel. Baird,—Report on the Fishes of the New Jersey Coast. 1855. Catalogue of Portraits of North American Indians. By Stanley.— From the Smithsonian Institution. Bibliothéque Universelle de Genéve. June, July, and August, 1855. Schacht on the Microscope. Edited by F. Currey. Second Edition. Lendon, 1855. Wilson, A. S., on the Unity of Matter. London, 1855. Neilson on Mesmerism in its relation to Health and Disease. T. Rymer Jones on the General Structure of the Animal Kingdom. Second Edition. Martins sur le Froid Exceptionnel qui a regné 4 Montpellier dans le courant de Janvier 1855. L’Institut, from March 1855 to February 1856. Aristotle on the Vital Principle. Translated, with Notes, by Dr Collier. Cambridge, 1855. Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia. Vol. IX., Nos. 1-3, January, February, March, 1855. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Nos. 72-76. 1855. The Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society. July and October 1855, and Jan. 1856. Natural History Review, No.7. July 1855. Landgrebe, Naturgeschichte der Vulcanes. Gotha, 1855. Symonds, Old Stones, or Notes of Lectures on the Plutonic, Silurian, and Devonian Rocks of Malvern. 1855. Arago’s Meteorological Essays. Translated under the superintendence of Col. Sabine. Youman’s Chemical Atlas. New York, 1855. Dawson’s Acadian Geology. 1855. a She Publications Received. Analytical View of Sir Isaac Newton’s Principia. By Lord Brougham. Proceedings of the California Academy of Natural Sciences, pages 7-34. Wilson’s Introductory Lecture on Technology. Microscopical Journal for April, May, July, and October, 1855. Extracts from Jurors’ Report on some of the Vegetable Products of the Madras Exhibition of 1855. Holdsworth, Jos., Battle with the Basalts. Dickinson, Supplement to Flora of Liverpool. Proceedings of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society. 1854-55. Wilcock’s Essay on the Tides. The Micrographic Dictionary. By Griffith and Henfrey. Baker on the Geognostic Relation of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Great Britain. The Book and its Missions, Past and Present. Part I. Edited by iy, Noe. The Sewage Problem Solved. By James Fulton. J. Van der Hoeven, over het Geslacht Icticyon. Amsterdam, 1855. Trees and their Nature; or the Bud and its Attributes. By Alex. Harvey, A.M., M.D. 1856. Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Geologischen Reichanstalt. Nos. 3and 4. July—December 1854. Das Christiania-Silurbecken Chemisch-Geognostisch Untersucht. Von Theodor Kjerulf, Adjunct an der Universitat Christiania. (Mrom the University of Norway). The Chemist for January 1856. Silliman’s American Journal. November 1855 and January 1856. Ook een Woordje over den Dodo (Didus ineptus) en Zijne Verwanten, door H. Schlegel. 1855. 8vo. ( 373 ) INDEX. Acrylic Alcohol and its compounds, 362 Africa, Ornithology of, 238 Agave americana noticed, 354 i Allman, Professor, Introductory Lecture by, 66 Andes, Vegetation of, 162 Arago, Francois, Meteorological Essays, review of, 150 Arvicolz, species of, in Nova Scotia, 1 Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi of Britain, 169. On British species of Epilobium, 352. On British species of Arctium, 358 Ben Lawers, Lichens of, 257 Ben Lawers, Plants of, 170 Binocular Vision, 210 Bedekir, Professor, on Sphzrosiderite, 185 Botanical Intelligence, 173, 364 Botanical Society, Proceedings of, 169, 352 Breeding of Fish, 361 Bryson, Alexander, on a Method of preparing Fossils for the Microscope, 297. On a new Pneumatic Chuck, 304 Cedar-wood, injurious effects of, in Cabinets, 185 Cheiramys Madgascariensis, 361 Chemical Intelligence, 185, 362 Chiretta of India, 564 Clark on British Marine Testacean Mollusca, review of, 154 Cleghorn on Chiretta, 364 Cleveland Ironstone Beds, Report on their Chemical Composition, 286 Cobbold, T. S., on the Glandule Peyerianz of the Giraffe, 93 Crowder, William, on the Chemical Composition of the Cleveland Ironstone Beds, 286 Dawson, John William, on Species of Meriones and Arvicola, 1 Diatomacez of Glenshira, 346 Dickie, Professor, on Traces of Unity of Form in the Individual Bones of the Skeleton, 122 Edmonds, on an Earthquake-Shock in 1855, 280 Eye, its adjustment to distinct vision, 339 NEW SERIES,—VOL. III. NO. I].—APRIL 1856. QE 374 Index. Fleming, Professor, on the Study of Natural History, 128. On Cedar-wood Cabinets, 185 Floral Register, 359 Fluorescence, Remarks on, 165 Fluorspar acted on by Phosphate of Soda, 363 Forbes, David, on the Chemical Composition of some Norwegian Minerals, 59. On the relation of the Silurian and Metamorphic Rocks of Norway, 79 Forbes, James, on the Rocks of Mont Blanc, 189 Fossil Floras of Scotland, 173 Gay’s Chilian Zoology reviewed, 335 Geological Intelligence, 172, 362 Giraffe, Glandule Peyeriane of, 93 Girard, Charles, on Nemerteans and Planarians, reviewed, 159 Gladstone, Dr J. H., on Fluorescence, 163 Goodsir, John, on the adjustment of the Eye to distinct vision, 359 Gregory, Dr, on the Diatomacez of Glenshira, 346 Gutta Percha Plant noticed, 353 Hayes, A. A., on Native Iron from Liberia, 204 Heddle on Galactite and Natrolites, 349. On Mesolite, Fardelite, and Antri- molite, 351 Helix pomatia and arbustorum, 361 Henwood, William Jory, on the Metalliferous Deposits of Kumaon and Gurh- wal, 135 Hybridity in Birds, 171 Indian Metalliferous Deposits, 135 Iron, from Liberia, in Africa, 204 Jardine, Sir William, Contributions to Ornithology, 90, 238 Jenner on the Germinating Spores of Cryptogamic Plants, 269 Jones, T. Rymer, on the General Structure of the Animal Kingdom, review of, 160 ; Keith Prizes, 188 Land-Shells, their Distribution, 360 Langrebe, Dr George, on the Natural History of Volcanoes, review of, 141 Lawson, G., on Victoria Regia, 170 Leaf-insect, Notice of, 96 Listera ovata, 367 Lowe, W. H., on Polyommatus Artaxerxes, 342 Lyell’s Manual of Elementary Geology reviewed, 305 Macmillan, Hugh, on the rare Lichens of Ben Lawers, 257 Madras Exhibition, 158 Maingay, A. C., on Cladophora repens, 358 Index. 37 Malapterurus Beninensis, Note on, 188 Malvern Bone Bed, 172 Man, recent origin of, on the Earth, 247 Meriones, Species of, in Nova Scotia, 1 Meteoric Lead, remarks on, 169 Meteorites, 367 Meteorological Register, 370 Meteorology, 368 Microscopic Fossil Specimens, preparation of, 297 Miller, Hugh, on the Fossil Floras of Scotland, 173 Mineralogical Intelligence, 367 Minerals, Norwegian, Chemical Composition of, 59 Mollusca of Britain, 154 Mont Blanc, relation of its Rocks, 189 Murray, Andrew, on the Leaf Insect, 96 Natural History, on the Study of, 66, 125 Newton’s Principia, by Brougham and Routh, reviewed, 328 New Zealand, Natural History of, 5 Norwegian Rocks, Relation of, 79 Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, the Physical Geography of, 112 Orchids in Brazil, 366 Ornithology of Eastern Africa, Contributions to, by Sir William Jardine, 238 Ornithology of South America, Contributions to, by Sir William Jardine, 90 Ouvirandra fenestralis, 367 Photometer noticed, 345 Phyllium Scythe, Notice of, 96 Plurality of Worlds, Inferences respecting, 39, 218 Pneumatic Chuck described, 304 Polyommatus Artaxerxes, Remarks on, 342 Ponton, Mungo, on Solar Light, 345 Powell’s Views in regard to the recent Origin of Man on the Earth, 247 Quito, Vegetable Productions of, 162 Ranunculi of Britain, 169 Rogers, Professor W. B., on the Binocular Resultant of a Straight line and a Circular Arc, 210. On the Binocular Resultant of two Circular Arcs, 213 Royal Physical Society, Proceedings of, 168, 348 Royal Society of Edinburgh, Proceedings of, 167, 339 Sabine’s Translation of Arago’s Essays reviewed, 150 Saury Pike noticed, 348 Scientific Intelligence, 171, 360 Skeleton found at Mickleton Tunnel, 253- - 376 Index. Sorby, Henry Clifton, on the Physical Geography of the Oid Red Sandstone . Sea of the Central District of Scotland, 112 Spherosiderite, containing Vanadium and Titanium, 185 Spores, Remarks on, 269 Symonds, Rev. W. S., on the Upper Ludlow Bone Bed, near Malvern, 172 Tancred, Sir Thomas, on the Natural History of Canterbury, New Zealand, 5 Technology, Inaugural Lecture on, reviewed, 156 Thomson, Alexander, on the Recent Origin of Man on the Earth, 247. Trevelyan, Sir W. C., on a Form of Parmelia saxatilis, 355 Unity of Form in the Bones of the Skeleton, 122 Victoria Regia, Structure of, 170 Walrus, Habits of, 360 Wardrop, J., on the connection between the Chemical and Morphological Cha- racter of Plants, 356 Wilson, Professor George, on Technology, 156 Woods of Madras, 365 Zoological Intelligence, 171, 360 END OF YOLUME THIRD—NEW SERIES, Neiiyt & Co., Priuters, Edinburgh. he Jung wv the Loththal M Huge. SS UM. L(ZARS L/7H, EDINE FIG. 1 M WECKER 1628 Ay / \, i)\ | If Wh AVAL HY vt | ).¥ A\\ : Mont _ 4\\ an verte B k b Chamounz | a Ka FIG. 4 J.D. FORBES, 1842 \ \ WN § FIG. 7.4 0. SHARPE 1655 nreven® to Prk K z W j ' h athe c vi «ft ae M y. NS 7: = WH SZ —y > PLATE IX F/G 2. J.D FORBES 1842 : Col du Grant 3 Or ct} A | » N \) y (( | i| WIP, Hone Pety i Ponteg ne de la Save ny Ny \\ \V Wy >| x\ \ A S lahanice Wy rn & \ ce Lerrestore J Stpbipao “\ ~ Bepesiare \ FIO.S.M FAVRE, 1848 Ww Sohusy | oristatle FIG.8 The Sungs7ad the Hoththal M Huge gees 17 komt J. Stindburyh Ver F/6.3./ BD. FORBES 1842 Dlourmaycur Laut FIG.6.M. STUDER 16S! Wont Blane Granite athsohiater che efor ternal Fok LH La Same (nthraottsohveler Breoova Villard 0 Aretne uphine be e Beaumont mOretire teehee Sma Uv JUNG ig7 The Edinburech new vhiloso=- phical journal Physical & Applied Sa. Serials PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY OS. Ge aes nits ih i oF cal 2 2 ME ete! a fois an : ee ae 4 te ba i : if A, + ate Pi gn foe OPA Cree) Tes eter Agar See Sean , Soria) eitteaees 7 ay Sy aS EG se5 3k cee erireetrocg ethas te ees na Sea * ae -, See a ty Se. cae sese H , ale *