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TIMEHRI :
THE JOURNAL

OF

te Ronn Aovicttara V9 fommerca
Society

OF

BRITISH GUIANA.

Edited by ... ee .... JAMES Ropway, F.L.S.

VOL, VIII. (New Series) 1894.

Demerara: J. THOMSON, 1894.
London Agent: E. STANFORD 26 & 27 Cockspur Street,

London.

giv

(Contents of Volume VIli—(New Series.)

——

PaPERS.

The Guiana Orchids, James Ropway, F.L.S. ... EAE

Construction and Maintenance of Roads and Bridges
in British Guiana, Tuos. N. Kine...

A few popular faés about Diffusion, LLEweLLyn Jones

Margarita: A health resort, Dr. J. F. CuirTenpEN

Reflections on the increase of Town Populations, C. E.
MaAcNAMARA ...

Late Rainfalls: some of their effects i aun

Steam Husbandry with Open Drainage in Demerara,
Hon. E. C: Luarp ... ; A

Some Enemies of our Gupeeaciis S$; R. eee

Cost of Sugar Produ¢tion in British Guiana, R. G, Dun-
can, F.R. ; ‘ Aas

Payment by Results in British Gunes Paanen DE Way ER

The Life-history of an Indian, James Ropway, F.L.S.

Jubilee Celebration

Changes on Sugar Estates ain 1865-4 to B03, B. C.
‘THORPE

What the Banana sea pas dane for! Janse na
H. B. Forp .... ies

Diffusion versus Double Chasing. EI. von nee ARN ge

The Negro in the West Indies, Rev. J. G. Pearson ..

In the Bush with a Camera, James Ropway, F.L,.S.

Our Provision Supply, W. T. Binnie

Richard Schomburgk’s account of Roraima, Translated
by Mrs. H. von ZieGEzar ...

Four old Letters from Demerara

The Crown Lands of British Guiana, Joun D. ee
SON ss. sa <a: vas tn

PAGE.
Ny 5 {9,

a3
30
57

vi.

The Future Prosperity of the Colony, H. I. Perkins,
PRG S aa os ae a os Re
OccastonaL NotEs.—

Bites and Stings ... ; se seat ae
Text-books for Botanical Students eet ms ee
Ward’s Trench ... 3 “= 2h ae
A Method of getting oui the Ravide # ES

The Chief Justices of British Guiana ... I 370
On the Summit of Mt. Roraima... “te oh , Sen
Reports OF MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY.—

Addresses of President ... Jeo WE coe 154, 425
Agricultural Committee, Reports +159, 406, 420
Awards at Columbian Exposition 384, 391, 399, 407
Book Committee, Report aa oe a 162
Columbian Exposition 165, 171, 192, 387, 407
Commercial Committee, Report... seis oni Gee
Committee of Correspondence, Reports 171, 185, 390,

S97,
Caramel premium .. 176, 181, 184, 190, 456
Donations 169, 177, 183, 187, 191, 397, 404, 417
Eggs, Preservation of... Seb) ee

Elections of Members 154, ye ran a: 187, 192,

384, 390; 397
Elettion of Office-Bearers ..- 161; 180, 184, 436

Government Communications ... cae 184, 185
Horticultural Show se “As ea 390, 397
Imperial Institute BS ase aie cot er
Jubilee of Society ae ine = 170, 180
Members in arrear aie aes ote. ag

Motions ... ee 164, o 181, 182, 187, 399,
407, 423, 432

Office-Bearers for 1895 ... Bee ae ge
Papers read at Meetings 177, 183, 185, 186, 188,
193, 194, 388, 390, 396, 397, 402, 404

Vil.

Quelch, J. J. Letters from =. aa 165, 171
Quelch, J. J. Ele&ted Honorary Member 170, 180
* » Address of es 3 2 176
Smoking in gallery, Motion... an 176, 182
Steam-ploughing .. a ae «+0395, 400, 408
Texas, Letters ea is 28 401, 417
Treasurer’s Financial Statemont a 1893 eM ay iss
Winter, F. A. R., Ele&ted Honorary Member 180,
184, 187

The Guiana Orchids.

By the Editor.

I.—HISTORY.

<P AKEN altogether the family of Orchidacez is

mt Sera §=oundoubtedly the most wonderful in the vege-
table kingdom, and although the species found
_in British Guiana are not popular, yet from the point of
view of the botanist none are more interesting. There is
a fascination about these plants, which carries us away in
the same manner as do colleétions of pi€tures, coins and
postage stamps. Even the English field naturalist gloats
over a find of the bee or fly orchis and glories when he
gets an opportunity of roaming over the chalk downs in
search of the species peculiar to such distri€ts. Beyond
all other plants they have a personality as it were—
they are hardly ever common, and even when plentiful
in certain places, these localities are generally hard
to find. Again, they are nature’s own darlings, blooming
“far from the madding crowd,” amidst scenes of the
wildest beauty. An English colleétion recalls visions of
the expanse of Salisbury Plain with its Roman camps,
white horses, sparkling brooks issuing from the chalk
A

2 TIMEHRI.

and flowing through bottoms of reeds and cotton-grass,
as well as the pleasant odour of the pine woods,
and the delicate colour of cowslip meadows where certain
species contrast with the otherwise uniform scattering of
these floral gems. Colleétions of epiphytal species are
also rich in memories, especially where they have been
gathered personally. This plant was brought from the
slopes of Roraima, that from the neighbourhood of the
Essequebo falls, here, a dozen species recall the windings
of acreek in the Demerara river, and there, others bring to
mind the glare of sunlight on the Mourie. Unlike most
other plants the interest is particular rather than general,
It was not a parcel of seed that was brought, but the
plant itself. It is quite possible that there may be still
plants in the English orchid houses which were colleéted
by the SCHOMBURGKS or other well-known people, and,
as nothing is so generally interesting as traces of personal
conneétion, orchidophiles will no doubt record these at
some future time. Already something has been done in
regard to the extreme rarities and hybrids—these are
pedigreed like particular breeds of horses and dogs.

As a small contribution to the conneétion of the
Guiana Orchids with the first colle€tors and cultivators,
we have thought it well, in commencing a series of
papers on the Guiana Orchids, to say something about
their first introducers into England. When such names
as Cattleya, Huntleya and Schomburgkia are mentioned,
and we learn that they were given in honour of certain
persons, we generally like to know who these persons
were. But, while admitting the personal interest of
such names we cannot agree with the principle on which
they are given. Descriptive names are decidedly better,

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 3

even when they are so genera! as Epidendron (upon a
tree, a tree percher) or Dendrobium (a liver in trees).
More specific names such as Odontoglossum (tooth
tongue) ; Coryanthes, (helmet flower); Catasetum, (hang-
ing bristle) and Cycnoches, (swan neck), although per-
haps not altogether pretty, are very suggestive to the
botanist. Another class of names are not descriptive in
any way but are nevertheless better on the whole than
those which commemorate the discoverer or first culti-
vator. Some of these are very pretty indeed and have
been used as christian names for girls, all orchid names
being of course feminine; Vanda, (the Hindoo name of
the type species), Lzlia, (a vestal virgin) and Phajus
(shining) are examples of this class) Some commemo-
rative names, as Bletia, Brassavola and Stanhopea, are
also pretty, but as so many others are difficult to pro-
nounce or have to be altered considerably in latinising,
they should be avoided as much as possible. However,
we must not go too far in condemning what we are now
about to make the subject of our paper.

The first epiphytal orchids were imported into England
a little over a century ago, from the West Indies, mostly
from Jamaica. They were much admired, but rarely lived
more than a few months, only flowering sometimes in a
last dying effort. In 1791 Epidendron fragrans was
figured in the Botanical Magazine, which stated that
instances of “ parasites” flowering in England were very
rare. Commodore GARDNER, in 1789 presented to the
Apothecaries’ Company some plants he had brought
from Jamaica, and this one had lately flowered. It was
planted in a pot of rotten wood and decayed leaves, and
plunged in a tan pit, treatment which probably killed it

A2

4 TIMEHRI.

after flowering. The next species to be figured was
Epidendron ciliare, which flowered in February 1799, at
Mr. WHITLEY’S, Old Brompton, where it was grown in
loam and peat, and also plunged in the tan-pit, with the
natural consequence that, as stated in the Magazine, it
never assumed a fine healthy appearance. In 1802 the
same periodical, speaking of another Jamaica orchid,
said that since MILLER’s time many species had been
brought to flower in great perfeétion ; they had figured
five, and had drawings of several others.

Thus a commencement was made with plants common
to Jamaica and Guiana, and from that time increased
interest was taken in their cultivation, although the
proper mode of treating epiphytes yet remained to be
discovered. Until about the year 1830, nothing certain
could be formulated, and even then opinions differed.
Dr. LINDLEY, writing in that year, said that 22 or 23
species were brought to Kew in the last decade of the
previous century and about 14 added up to the year 1813,
after which new plants were continually being introduced
until the number had then reachedabout twohundred. Mr-
WILLIAM CATTLEY of Barnet, an amateur, whose name is
commemorated in the genus Cattleya, was one of the
first to take an interest in orchids, and Messrs. LODDIGES
of Hackney cultivated them for sale.

About this time (1830) a gentleman named JOHN
HENRY LANCE, then living in Surinam, took a great in-
terest in orchids, and sent a number to Messrs. LODDIGES.
Among the first of these was the swan orchid (Cycnoches
Loddigesii) which was described as a beautiful and extra-
ordinary plant. This, as may be seen, was named after
the nurserymen, but the colle€tor’s own name was given

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 5

to the Brassia Lanceana, imported in 1833. The name
Brassia had already been given to a species from
Jamaica, to commemorate a Mr. BRASS, who colleéted
‘plants in Africa for Kew Gardens. Mr. LANCE returned
to England in 1834, bringing with him a large colle€tion
of orchids, and among them one of which the growers
spoke very highly. This wasthe Oncidium Lanceanum,
the plant so well-known in Georgetown, and appears to
have been stuck up in trees about Paramaribo as it is
here. It first flowered at Loddiges’, afterwards at the
Horticultural Society’s Gardens, and was called a charm-
ing epiphyte. About the same time that Mr. LANCE
was colleéting in Surinam, Mr. BATEMAN, of Knypersly,
an enthusiastic lover of orchids, sent Mr. COLLEY to
Demerara in search of new species, with the result that
several additions were made to the English colle€tions.
Their names are coupled together in Batemannia Colleyi,
but this rather dull-coloured and insignificant plant was
only one of the finds of the expedition, Burlingtonia
candida (named after the Countess of BURLINGTON)
flowered in 1835 with Mr. BATEMAN, and it was stated that
no flower could be more perfeétly lovely—nothing sullied
the snow-white transparency unless it was the faint dash
of straw colour on the lip. Trigonidium obtusum was
introduced by Mr. COLLEY and Zygopetalon rostra-
tum, Coryanthes maculata, described as a splendid species,
Maxillaria Batemanii, as well as several Catasetums
appear also to have been carried from Demerara by
the same colleétor.

Mr. C.S. PARKER, of Annesley near Liverpool, seems to
have colleéted plants in the colony about the same time ;
his name is commemorated in Maxillaria Parkeri and he

6 TIMEHRI.

appears to have been the first importer of Gongora. Mr.
Moss, of Liverpool, was another colle€tor and it was with
him that Scuticaria Steelii first flowered. Thespecificname
commemorates Mr. MATTHEW STEELE, father of Mr. G. B.
STEELE, who sent it from Demerara. A third Liverpool
gentleman whose name is also familiar (Mr. BOOKER) was
the first to flower Catasetum (Myanthus) deltoideus which
had been found by Mr. JOSEPH HUBBARD near the Great
Falls of the Demerara river. Besides these Mr. JOHN
ALLCARD of Stratford Green, imported orchids from
here and it was in his colleétion that Peristeria pendula
and Epidendron chloroleucum first flowered.

The colle€tors of those days had few Odontoglossums,
Cattleyas, Dendrobiums and Vandas to raise their enthu-
siasm, and were therefore all the more ready to appre-
ciate the orchids from Demerara. In 1338 three
forms of flowers were discovered on a plant of Cata-
setum cristatum, which Dr. LINDLEY said was so very
extraordinary that he would not have believed it, if he
had not seen it himself. Speaking of Coryanthes
macrantha, the same botanist said, “ accustomed as we
are now become to strange forms among orchidaceous
plants, I doubt whether any species has yet been seen
more remarkable for its unusual charaéters.”

In 1839, SCHOMBURGK’S name first appears in con-
ne&tion with Epidendron Schomburkii, and two or three
years after, his ‘‘ finds” were continually being recorded.
Catasetum longifolium was mentioned in 1841 as a
plant of great beauty, and peculiar among the Catase-
tums, while the following year Huntleya violacea was
figured and stated to have been found only near the
cataracts of the Essequebo. This latter was named after

THE GUIANA: ORCHIDS. q

the Revd. Mr. HUNTLEY “a zealous cultivator of orchids,”
Sobralia sessilis (after F. M. SOBRAL, a Spanish botanist)
Brassia Lawrenciana (after Mrs. LAWRENCE of Ealing
Park) and Galeandra Devoniana (after the Duke of
Devonshire) were also sent by him and named in 1842.
It is unnecessary to give a list of the species found by
the SCHOMBURGK brothers, and we will therefore only
mention the genus Schomburgkia as having been named
in their honour. It may be as well however to mention
the mistakes they made in recording the species of
Cattleya found at Roraima. C. pumila and C. Mossize
are both recorded, yet no one has discovered either of
these in the ne!ghbourhood, the Cattleya growing there
being a species distinét from Mossiz, hardly deserving to
be called pumila, (dwarf) lately named C. Lawrenciana
from Sir TREVOR LAWRENCE, an enthusiastic orchido-
phile.

Before leaving the early period we may mention a few
other commemorative names. Cyrtopodium Andersonii
was introduced into England as early as 1804, and named
after Mr. ALEXANDER ANDERSON, Superintendent of
the Botanic Gardens at St. Vincent, who visited Guiana
in 1791 and colleéted plants. Rodriguezia was named
in honour of EMANUEL RODRIGUEZ a Spanish physician
and botanist, Brassavola from ANTONIO MUSA BRASAVOLA,
an Italian botanist born at Ferrara in 1500, Stanhopea,
from PHILIP HENRY, 4th Earl of Stanhope, Lockhartia
(Fernandesia) from DAvip LOCKHART, Superintendent
of the Botanic Gardens, Trinidad, from 1818 to 1846,
Cyrtopera Woodfordii from Sir RALPH WvuopForp,
Governor of Trinidad, Maxillaria Henchemanni from
HENCHEMANN a plant collector, Selenipedium Lindley-

8 TIMEHRI,

anum from LINDLEY, the great botanist, Galeandra Baueri
from BAUER, the coadjutor of HOOKER, and QUEKETTIA
from a well-known microscopist.

It will be seen from these examples what a wealth of
interest there must be in names that sometimes puzzle
the ladies. We are continually being asked for common
names of orchids as well as other plants, and cannot help
remarking that as a rule botanical names are as easy to
pronounce as those of the people they commemorate.
After SCHOMBURGK’S time few additions were made
to the list of Guiana orchids, until SANDER of St. Alban’s
sent colleétors. Certain species, such as Cattleya superba
and Oncidium Lanceanum, were exported in consider-
able numbers, but no novelties turned up until Mr.
BURKE went to Roraima, and brought Zygopetalon
Burkei. It appears that he also found a Cattleya which he
was unsuccessful in taking alive to England; and this
induced Mr. SANDER to send out another colleétor named
SEIDEL in 1884, who brought back what was afterwards
named Cattleya Lawrenciana. Other expeditions fol-
lowed, by which several novelties were introduced, and
these, with the additions made by Mr. IM THURN, have
again brought British Guiana to the notice of colle€tors.
Unfortunately, during the last few years, absurd restric-
tions have hampered colle€tors in such a way, that the
last who went to Roraima thought his employers would
probably never send out here again, but rather let their
colteétors go by way of Venezuela. This is certainly
undesirable—instead of putting obstacles in the way the
Government should rather offer every facility. As for
denuding the forest of rare orchids this is virtually im-
possible, as long as the trees remain. Nature’s, own

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 9

barriers will prevent their extin€tion until the Guiana

timbers are appreciated, and then the poor orchids will be

ruthlessly destroyed without giving pleasure to any one.
2.—CULTIVATION IN GEORGETOWN.

As but little has been written about the cultivation of
orchids in tropical climates the result of some twenty
years’ experience may perhaps be useful. When we
arrived in Demerara, the conditions necessary for their
proper culture were entirely unknown to us, and, although
we had seen many colle@tions under glass in England, it
took some time, and entailed many losses before any-
thing like a system could be formulated. At that time
as at present there were some beautiful specimens of
Oncidium Lanceanum, Oncidium altissimum and Cattleya
superba, growing on trees beside the streets, but these
represented, as we discovered later, a meagre “ survival
of the fittest’’ Thousands of orchids were brought to
Georgetown, only to linger for a month or two and then
die. They were placed under almost every condition
but the right one, with the sad result that few or none
survived the long dry season. When not placed on trees
they were often put into wire baskets with rotten wood,
and hung in galleries or other unsuitable places, exposed
to the sun and wind. When they were seen to suffer
from such treatment, the opposite course of putting them
under the dense shade of trees and creepers, was pursued
with equally disastrous results. It has naturally followed
that these interesting and beautiful plants have been
almost left alone, no one caring to take a lot of trouble
and then see their pets die.

_ But, after all, the difficulty is more apparent than real.
When it is considered that epiphytes live almost entirely
B

10 TIMEHRI,

on moisture gathered from the air, and thrive only where
there are no winds to dessicate them, the most suitable
conditions can at once be formulated. These are, pro-
teétion from the sea breezes, and damp surroundings.
Given a good screen to windward, light prote€tion over-
head and continual moist exhalations from beneath, we
have all that is necessary. No matter whether the plants
are fastened to living trees, mounted on logs or shingles,
or planted in baskets with burnt earth, charcoal,
crocks—even with no filling material whatever—they can
always be grown when the surroundings are favourable.

However, although this general statement is applicable
to every species, there are great differences between them.
The conditions under which, for example, Huntleya
violacea and Zygopetalon rostratum flourish, beside the
creeks or falls, are impossible to imitate without some
special arrangement, and therefore they can never be
grown in the open garden. A fair colle€tion can never-
theless be made by any one having a high hedge to
windward and a few suitable trees inside this screen,
Although this tree has not hitherto been used for such a
purpose we believe the very best for epiphytes is the
Saman. Planted in the middle of a garden and allowed
to grow naturally, its lower branches hang nearly to the
ground, so that they be easily utilised. Then, the foliage
is not too dense, as may be seen from the faét that it
does not prevent grass and other plants growing under-
neath. This reminds us that such a charaéter is a very
good indication of the conditions necessary for growing
orchids successfully on trees. Whenever the shade
entirely prevents undergrowth it is too dense for orchids,
as may be seen in the forest where the banks of the

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. tI

creeks, the Mourie and the mountain slope, are their
favourite haunts. After the Saman come the Flamboyant,
calabash, custard-apple and its allies, with all others that
allow sufficient light to penetrate. As a rule such trees
as the mango, tamarind and star-apple, are unsuitable,
although when kept well trimmed they may be utilised
for some species. It is always of advantage to have the
plants rather low, as they can be observed so much easier,
and in such a position they are better proteéted against
the wind.

On trees, the most suitable orchids are undoubtedly the
two species of Oncidium (Lanceanum and altissimum)
and Cattleya superba. These flourish under conditions
most unfavourable to other species and will even endure
a fair sea breeze, although they undoubtedly succeed
better without it. After them come others, in something
like the following order, the most difficult to grow being
nearest the end of the list :—

Brassia Lanceana Rodriguezia secunda
»» Lawrenciana Burlingtonia candida
99 verrucosa Stanhopea eburnea
Epidendron ciliare Catasetum tridentatum
Gongora atropurpurea _Brassavola angustata
Scuticaria Steelti Ionopsis utricularioides

These give no trouble whatever once they are placed on
a suitable tree, but go on flowering year after year, and
every season become better established. It will be
well however that they get an occasional spraying
with the hose or syringe, especially on the under sides of
the leaves, as they are subjeét to the attacks of several
inse€ts which can be often removed by such treatment.
It is also desirable to water the soil underneath in dry
B2

12 TIMEHRI.

weather so that a moist atmosphere may be produced by
evaporation. The great advantage also of growing
plants underneath can easily be understood when it is
considered that every leaf is continually at work distilling
vapour which rises to help feed the orchids.

If such a colleétion is interesting, how much more so
is that of the orchid house. We have seen already that
some species cannot be grown at all without such protec-
tion, while others thrive much better if brought inside.
However careful we may be to keep off the wind there
will be always alternations of deluge and almost arid
dryness. These extremes are always undesirable even
when not fatal, and various methods have been adopted
to prevent their effeéts. The simplest is the latticed
arbour covered with climbing plants, inside which the
orchids, haying been mounted on boards or placed in
baskets, are hung. This has one very great disadvan-
tage; it is almost impossibie to keep the covering at all
uniform. The creepers become more and more dense
and require continual and skilful trimming to prevent
their shutting out the light. Then, they harbour ceck-
roaches and other vermin which often play sad havoc
with the tender aerial roots. Some climbers again have
their foliage too broad; others grow so fast as to require
continual attention, while the slow growers take a long
time before they afford sufficient prote€tion. Taken
altogether therefore the arbour is heset with difficulties,
and we must choose another sort of house.

A very simple and cheap struéture is the shed covered
with cocoanut leaves. This is an improvement on the
first, and if boarded up at the sides answers fairly well,
although it is also open to the objeétion of harbouring

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 13

vermin, and is somewhat unsightly. A better house
again is that which is boarded at the sides, covered on the
top with wire netting on which scrim canvass is laid,
Here every Guiana orchid can be grown, and witha little
attention to syringing the air will be kept always damp
and in the best condition for the health of the plants.
After all however, there is nothing equal to the glass
house. True, we do not require boilers and hot water
pipes, but the greenhouse is as useful in the tropics as in
the old country. It is only in such a struéture that pro-
teétion is secured against the myriads of inseét pests
which are continually on the look out for tender aerial
roots and flower buds, Then again it is in such a struc-
ture that the light can be properly regulated and uniform
dampness secured at all times, entirely regardless of
what the weather may be outside. Further, many plants
which could not possibly be grown under other condi-
tions in Georgetown, here flourishto perfeétion. Fernsand
selaginellas overrun the stages ifleftalone, and fibrous peat
and sphagnum moss may be used for the orchids as they are
in England. We have had in the glass house beautiful
curtains of pitcher plants (Nepenthes) stretching along
three sides and such maidenhair ferns as are never seen
otherwise. Then, such delicate orchids as Vanda cerulea,
Phalenopsis, Zygopetalon and Aganisia pulchella flower
freely and never get burnt at the edges of their petals.

Such a greenhouse can be built of any shape or size,
and: may be as simple or ornate as the pocket will allow.
The only difference between its management and that of
such an ereé€tion in cold climates (besides the heating
apparatus) is the shading. We have tried a light film of
white paint gn.the, glass, but this is not so useful as a

14 TIMEHRI.

shading of scrim canvass on wire netting. By stretching
this about two feet above the glass, free circulation of
the heated air is always obtained, and if the ventilation
of the house is effe€ted by leaving slits immediately
underneath the glass roof the temperature inside is never
excessive.

In the forest, the air is kept damp by continual exhala-
tions from the foliage, and this condition may be imitated
in the orchid house by having stages covered with ferns
beneath the hanging baskets. Nothing in the way of
watering with the syringe, hose or garden engine, can pro-
duce such an effe€&t as the constant distillation carried on
by such banks of plants. Then, the condition of the
ferns and mosses is always a good indicator of the
sufficiency or otherwise of the amount of moisture, as the
least sign of curling at the tips shows the want of water.
It is of the greatest importance to many species that they
should never become dry, and although some are better
for a rest after flowering, even these can hardly endure
the arid conditions of the height of the dry season in
Georgetown.

In regard to mounting and receptacles, these are of
little consequence as compared with the surroundings.
Boards, logs and baskets of greenheart, are equally admis-
sible, as well as pots and even wire baskets. Attention
must be paid to drainage where pots are used, as orchids
‘cannot endure stagnant water about their aerial roots.
The best filling material is burnt earth; this retains
moisture for a longer period than anything else and is
always congenial to the plants. Avoid everything that
savours of decay, whether the dry rot of wood or the
sourness of cocoanut husks. Only in a close house,

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 15

where the moisture is always uniform, is fibrous peat
admissible, as alternate wetting and drying produce
conditions that are very unfavourable. The aerial roots
turn away from anything they dislike; the plant will
rather loose its hold and fall to the ground than remain
attached to wood which has begun to decay. Even
where we can see no signs of this the behaviour of the
plant is a sure indicator of its commencement.

Anyone who travels in the forest may see that the
process of decomposition which goes on there is quite
distinét from that on the coast. Great trees crumble
down into a rich brown humus, with but little sourness
or fungus growth, True, the white threads of what
appears to be one kind of mould are common enough,
but those yellow, grey and black fungi so common about
our palings and other out-door woodwork are wanting.
It follows therefore, that although orchids may thrive
amid the decaying leaves that lodge in the tree-forks of
the forest, they cannot endure the dry rot of the coast.
Alternate wet and dry as compared with almost uniform
moisture seems to be the cause of these great differ-
ences, which are well exemplified by the dark coffee-
coloured water of the pegass savannahs when contrasted
with that of the stagnant pool, which is yellow or green
and lies on a bed of stinking black mud.

3-—WHAT ORCHIDS ARE,

Before enumerating the Guiana species it would be
well to define what is an orchid. At an exhibition in
Georgetown some years ago, a common species of
bromelia was exhibited under the name of a “ parrersite”
and the person who showed it was quite indignant that
no prize was given for his “orchid.” This is an illustra-

16 TIMEHRI. ©

tion of thc vulgar notions of these plants; ‘ an orchid is
a parasite, ergo all parasites are orchids.” The distinc-
tion between a plant which fattens on the juices of its
host and one that simply sits upon a tree, is not recog-
nised, and then, few know that the orchid family contains
terrestrial as well as epiphytal species, but that none are
truly parasitical. Epiphytes, as their name, denotes, are
tree perchers, but not vegetable leeches like those
monsters, the bird-vines (Loranthacez).

Epiphytes are by no means peculiar to the orchid
family, nor are all orchids epiphytes ; we must therefore
look out for some other definition. They can hardly
be described as shrubs or trees, although some of the
Sopralias grow into thickets and have almost woody stems.
They are not stri€tly herbaceous plants, as the vanilla
is a tall climber, nor can they be classed as bulbous
although many terrestrial species have tubers; we are
therefore unable to lay down anything definite from
their habit or general charaéter. Even when we come
to some of the peculiarities of certain families these are
by no means general. The pair of tubers from which the
name orchis is derived belong only to a few species, and
the pseudo-bulb of the epiphyte is by no means universal.
Some are leafless; they vary in size from almost micro-
scopic dwarfs to great giants twelve feet or more high ;
some resemble small palms and bamboos; they have
leaves thin as tissue paper or thick as sole leather,
broad as the hand or cylindrical like whip-cord; and
altogether perhaps vary as much in habit as in every-
thing else. On their particular line they are undoubtedly
the highest development; nature has run riot with them.
They have got to the top of the tree, metaphorically as

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 17

well as a€tually, and are extremely well fitted for their
position. If we were asked what quality fits a man best
for the struggle which is continually going on in the
world we should mention endurance. This is highly
developed in the orchid family, and one of the most
general characters of the plant is its storehouse against,
not a rainy day, but a drought. Endurance is often the
result of thrift ; without its store of honey the bee could
not live during the winter, and even hibernating animals
live on the fat they accumulate beforehand. The great
nations of Europe have been mainly developed by
the practice of thrift ; they were able to endure because
they stored corn against the winter. If they had simply
lived from hand to mouth as the tropical savage has been
doing for ages, no doubt a great deal of their capacity
would be wanting. Orchids have their times of trouble as
we have, and have learnt to provide against them in the
best possible way. But even here their versatility is
most conspicuous ; the same end is produced by different
means. On the chalk down and mountain a store of
food is laid up in the tubers or thick fleshy roots ; on the
sand-reef monster green pseudo-bulbs, sometimes a yard
long, make ample provision; and on rocks or trees
various forms and sizes of pseudo-bulbs and thick leaves
answer the same purpose. Where the pseudo-bulbs are
large the leaves are thin, and zce versa, while with the
thickest leaves these are entirely wanting. The vanilla
has thick leaves and fleshy stems and when pseudo-bulb or
stem are both wanting, the store-houses are the thick aérial
roots. Only a few species, living in places that are
always damp, make no special provision against drought,
and these are but exceptions that prove the rule.
Cc

18 TIMEHRI.

When we come to the flowers we begin to get an
inkling of the definition of the orchid. The labellum or
lip is peculiar and generally most conspicuous, but this is
not universally the case, a few genera having it of small
size and hidden within the other divisions. However, it
is always present in one shape or another and is gene-
rally more or less united with the column. Linnzeus put
the Orchidacez in his class Gynandria, on account of the
union of the male and female organs into one body, and
this column, as it is now called, is the essential and
peculiar charaéter of the orchid. The more advanced
botanists place the Orchidacez at the head of the natural
orders of Endogens and the Compositz above the rest
of the Exogens. Both are examples of fusion of certain
parts—the Composite have their florets aggregated and
anthers united, and the Orchidacez their stamens and
pistils incorporated the one with the other. The orchids
are therefore to this respe€t not only above all their
allies, such as the lilies, but farther advanced than any
order of Exogens. That they really are so, every student
must admit, as in variety of form, colour, habit and con-
trivance they certainly excel all others.

The place that these wonderful plants have taken
during the last few years is therefore only due to their
merits. In them we have epitomised all the powers and
capacities of plants. They are the kings of the floral
world—the most delicate, the most sensitive, the most
curious and the most varied. Like men they are indi-
viduals—every plant is so different {rom every other that
an orchidophile may recognise each one. Some species
have scores of named varieties, but this is nothing ;
every single plant is a variety. It follows therefore that

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 19

the interest of a collection never ceases, its owner soon
begins to look on each individual as a friend and watches
for the blooming of a stranger with enthusiasm. As if
ordinary variations were not enough the genus Catase-
tum has taken upon itself to change the shape and size
of its flowers in a way that is most bewildering. Of the
three forms it seems to have the power of choice, so that
it may produce one now, another at its next flowering
season, and later again the third. On this account the
species are somewhat confused, and there is work for a
close observer to examine into the differences, and ob-
serve the conditions under which these appear.

There are peculiarities in the seeds of orchids that
make them also well worth studying, but as these papers
are not intended to deal with anything beyond the most
obvious points, we shall leave these things to the student.
Our objeét is to call attention to the beauty and variety
of the orchids found in British Guiana, and to give a list
of species so that they can be recognised by others than
botanists. As we shall use very few technical terms a
glossary will not be needed. Anyone who has seena
few plants will easily recognise the pseudo-bulb; the
labellum or lip can be seen in every flower, and the
aerial roots are also distinguishable without difficulty.
We shall use the term pseudo-bulb for the swollen stems
of Cattleya and Epidendron, although these differ some-
what from the storehouses of lateral flowering genera,
aud may mention that some botanists call all these aérial
tubers. The transition from pseudo-bulbs to fleshy stems
is so very gradual that it will be sometimes a little difficult
to draw the line, but practically this will cause little
trouble, Certain genera contain epiphytal as well as ter-

C2

20 TIMEHRI.

restrial species and these will be properly distinguished.
4.—WHERE THEY ARE FOUND.

Nearly three hundred species are found in British
Guiana, and they are distributed everywhere throughout
the forest region except in the densest portion. All
along the banks of the rivers and creeks, on the sand-
reefs, and especially on the mountain slopes, they flourish
on the trees, the sand, the rocks and even on the ground.
Generally speaking, particular species are peculiar to
certain localities, but they have the power of accom-
modation to a certain extent. Thus, those of the moun-
tains will flourish on low gnarled trees or on the ground,
quite indifferently, and those of the Mourie on low bushes
or fallen trunks and branches above the sand. In the
genus Catasetum we have one species growing below
the crown of the eta palm, others on branches just above
the ground or water of the creek, while one kind is very
common growing in the sand itself. Even a single
species will sometimes accommodate itself to different
circumstances, and become much altered in size and
general habit by the change. One of the best examples
of this is the Epidendron no€turnum, which is so widely
diffused as to be found in West Africa as well as Tropical
America. Some of the varieties are weedy in appear-
ance and have a marvellous power of endurance, while
others have quite handsome foliage of a ruddy brown
colour and grow to four times the size. When it is
perched high up on the tree and in full sunlight its leaves
are narrow and its stem four to six inches high, but on
the Mourie we have seen it rise above the sand to an
altitude of fully a yard. A stranger to the colony
will perhaps think that because we say orchids are plenti-

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 21

ful, therefore they can be easily colleéted, This how-
ever isa mistake; as a rule an ordinary traveller hardly
sees more than two or three species, and these only
when they are pointed out to him. All along the great
rivers, banks of foliage slope down into the water and
prevent the branches being seen, of course hiding what-
ever is perched upon them. When stopping at some
house, a few Rodriguezias and other small species
may be seen on the calabash trees, or perhaps an
orchid which has been placed on one of them by
the owner; otherwise the visitor sees nothing and
concludes that these plants are very rare indeed.
Let him paddle up an open creek with an intelli-
gent native however, and the case is different. When
he understands what is wanted, the Indian sees the
plants from a distance where the stranger cannot dis-
cern them even when close to his eyes, while the
skilled colle€tor can load his bateau with certain species
in an hour or two, where others find nothing.

The foliage is so dense, and the assemblage of epiphytes
of various kinds so crowded, that the orchids are often
obscured by great arums and bromelias when they are
perched on leaning tree-trunks and great branches. Here
is a great mass of Oncidium altissimum lodged in the
midst of a tangle of bush-ropes. Except when flowering
it is hardly visible and might be passed a hundred times
without notice. Farther on, a tree hangs its branches
almost down into the water like a veil and effeétually
hides its orchid-laden branches. Then, some species are
hidden far up in the tree-tops where they can only be
seen from particular standpoints and by the trained eyes
As the sportsman sees a bird where it is praétically in-

22 TIMEHRI.

visible to others, so the orchid hunter deteéts a clump
of Oncidium Lanceanum far overhead. We have heard
persons—even those well acquainted with the bush—say
there are no orchids in their neighbourhood. They
know the haunts of the birds, monkeys and rodents, and
are able to find them, but not those of the orchids. They
may pass through the eta swamp fishing or shooting but
never notice the streamer-like leaves of Catasetum longi-
folium, although almost every palm has several plants
flourishing just below its canopy. They can see the indi-
cations of a shoal of fish or a flock of birds, but the swamp
is only to them a green expanse dotted with palms.
Again, the forest strikes them as monotonous; there is
nothing but dense banks of foliage along the rivers and
dull arcades of tree-trunks beyond. Even the botanist has
to getaccustomed tothe bewildering variety of trees, bushes
and epiphytes, before he can distinguish one from another,
and find out the most likely places for particular plants.
There is a fascination about a creek journey which
far exceeds the more quiet rowing along small rivers in
other climes. To the stranger everything is so novel—
the dark water, dense shadows, grandeur of the foliage,
height of the trees and the obvious struggle of every-
thing for its share of sunlight, all combine to produce an
impression which is never lost. If the traveller is an
orchid hunter he will be able to recall a particular bend
of a creek where on a leaning trunk he first came upon
the beautiful Stanhopea eburnea. Stretching across,
just above his head, the stem was only clear of epiphytes
immediately underneath, while the upper edge was
clothed with a dense assemblage of bromelias, arums
and ferns, apparently trying to push each other into the

ee a

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 23

creek. The orchids had apparently retreated, and there
on the edge were Stanhopeas, Gongoras and Brassias,
all more or less hanging over, their flowers depending so
as to be free from the smothering crowd above. Farther
up the same creek, where hardly a ray of direét sunlight
could penetrate, he was rewarded with the sight of Zygo-
petalon rostratum in full bloom, and in a more open
place went into ecstacies at seeing Coryanthes macrantha
hanging from a tangle of bush ropes.

Passing up the great rivers, where nothing is visible
but sloping walls of foliage, the orchid hunter will never
see a single species unless he pushes his bateau behind
the veil. Perhaps the dome of a low tree slopes right
into the water, and the intricate branches are almost im-
penetrable. However, a few slashes of the cutlass makes
an opening, through which his craft enters, with a result
that amply rewards him for his trouble. Every branch
and almost every twig is covered with most delicate and
tiny ferns, Peperomias and orchids, some of which are
particularly interesting although so inconspicuous, They
are mostly species of Pleurothallis and allied genera,
plants unknown to the ordinary colle¢étor and somewhat
difficult to grow.

Beside the creek where it winds through the swamp,
the low gnarled trees and bushes are often loaded with
commoner orchids such as Brassavola angustata and
Epidendron noéturnum, many of them exposed to direét
sunlight, which they are able to endure because there is
nearly always a wide stretch of water below. -Catase-
tums are also plentiful in such places, their fat pseudo-
bulbs and great capsules showing that the conditions are
particularly favourable. In faét, many orchids delight in

24 TIMEHRI.

the open when the surrounding atmosphere is damp, and
virtually do without shading altogether, especially those
that store food against a drought in great pseudo-bulbs.
On the sand-reef we have the perfe€tion of food storage
in the Cyrtopodiums, which have pseudo-bulbs over a
yard in height. No matter that the sand is burning hot
underfoot during the day, it cools very quickly after
sunset, and is then overhung by a mist from which the
orchids can easily gather moisture. Even in the swamp
the beautiful Cleistes rosea, almost as large and quite as
beautiful as some of the Cattleyas, grows to perfeétion,
with several Habenarias and other less showy species.

However, as we said before, orchids are not easily
found, nor when seen, procurable without difficulty. Not
to mention the impossibility of climbing one of the forest
giants to procure Oncidium Lanceanum, or a tall Eta for
Catasetum longifolium, there are difficulties in colle&ting
those within reach. Many provide shelter for garrisons
of ferocious ants which come out in myriads as the plant
is touched. Sometimes they are so interlaced with bush-
ropes that they can only be procured by chopping above
and beneath while enduring the attacks of their gallant
defenders. We cannot but admire the way these little
creatures run along the blade of our cutlass and up our
sleeves, although their painful bites are anything but
agreeable. Sometimes scorpions, centipedes and taran-
tulas are hidden in their masses of aérial roots, and these
are of course more disagreeable, although, unlike the ants,
they never advance to attack their disturbers. Even
snakes (generally harmless species) will startle the col-
le€tor by dropping into his bateau.

To be continued. -

PLAN OF BRIDGE SHEWING CONCRETE WALLS AND

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26 TIMEHRI.

coarser and has more lime in it, but this shell is difficult
to obtain owing to the very heavy sea that generally
prevails in that quarter. During the present year I
have tried the experiment of making up a small piece of
road under my charge with Barbados marl or lime-stone,
over a layer of broken granite, and there is no doubt
that it is an improvement on the burnt earth and shell,
although more costly. There are several pieces of
road that of late years have been covered with shell
only, and in dry weather they are very pleasant to travel
over, but with the heavy rains they will not stand
the traffic of heavily laden carts, and get cut up
very soon. The average cost of maintaining the
roads of the colony now under Government control
has been $1.31 per rood during the last year, but it is
only by constant supervision and unremitting care on the
part of the officers in charge of the different distriéts that
this has been accomplished. Twenty years ago the roads
of the colony were a by-word, they could not be called
roads, but more rightly quagmires. However, during the
regime of the late Chief Commissary, Mr. W. S. TURNER,
things were changed and I have no hesitation in saying
that the Government-maintained roads will compare
favourably with any roads in the West Indies. I have
before mentioned the cost of the upkeep per rood of
road for the past year, but that of course is the result of
the system of using burnt-earth, with shell as a top
covering. There are some roads however on which
there is a very heavy traffic, viz: “ The Best,” the East
Coast up to Buxton, and the New Amsterdam, from the
town to Pln. Port Mourant; these roads as a rule cost
more than any others, those of New Amsterdam princi-

CONSTRUCTION & MAINTENANCE OF ROADS, &c. 27

pally from the want of drainage. It must be patent to
any one, that with roads such as ours,—unless they are
well drained,—where the rainfall is not allowed to cover
the parapets, there is very little difficulty in keeping them
in order, except on those where the water is allowed to rise
on the parapets in some places to within 6 or 8 inches of
the crown of the road, and remain there for weeks, as is
notably the case on the East Coast Berbice. In such
cases it is absolutely necessary to be constantly working
on them, as the water percolates through the clay, and
consequently the hard substance as fast as it is put on sinks
out of sight, making it necessary during the dry weather to
secure a good crust on these roads by a free application
of burnt-earth and shell so as to enable them to bear the
strain of the traffic during the rainy season. The cost of
preparing burnt-earth for our roads varies considerably ;
in some parts of the colony, where wood is conveniently
near and there is no cultivation to interfere with the burn-
ing near the road, the earth can be prepared at from 4oc.
to 6oc. per cubic yard, but in other places where the wood
has tobe transported long distances it costs $1.20,
$1.50, and sometimes as much as $2.00 per cubic yard ;
the average cost all over the colony for last year was 84c.
per cubic yard. Shell also varies in price ; that procured
on the coast at ‘Bel Air, “ Buxton,” and other places
costing about 56c., but that purchased from the Waini
River and Berbice Coast from 8oc. to goc. per cubic yard.
The experiment alluded to before of using Barbados marl
over a granite foundation, is rather costly, the marl being
$2.00 and the flint or granite $1.68 per ton. I calculatethat
with this material the cost of covering arood of road is as
near as possible $3.00, but I have no doubt that with better
D2

28 TIMEHRI.

facilities for landing this marl it would be reduced
to $2.00 per rood, and there is little doubt but that it
will out-last two coverings of burnt-earth and shell.
There is great difficulty experienced in some distri&ts of
the colony in preparing burnt-earth; the clay is not
always suitable, possibly has too much sand, and when
burnt and put on the roads becomes powdered to dust in
a few days. There is also a great difference in the
quantity of burnt-earth obtained from a cord of wood in
the different distriéts, in some you with difficulty obtain
2 or 24 cubic yards, in others, where the wood and earth
are good and the weather favourable, as much as 5 or
even 7 cubic yards are obtained. [ once in an exceptional
instance on the Corentyne obtained between 84 and g
cubic yards to the cord of wood, but this was with
specially sele&ted wood, with suitable earth, and a very
favorable season. Could this quantity always be obtained
the cost of the up-keep of the roads would be very much
reduced. I average the quantity of burnt-earth to be
obtained from a cord of ordinary wood at 3 cubic yards.

The bridges in this colony also require mention while
on the subjeét of roads, as the one is part and parcel of
the other, They are construéted mostly of wood, piles
being driven at either end, caps placed on these, their
beams laid on the caps, and the flooring on the beams,
with the addition of handrails as a means of proteétion
to vehicular and other traffic; this old style of bridge
was a very primitive struéture and is fast going out of
use, being replaced by those now ereéted on con-
crete walls in place of piles and in a good many places
with iron superstru€tures. The late Mr. TURNER im-
ported 7 of the latter, four are ereéted in Essequibo,

CONSTRUCTION & MAINTENANCE OF ROADS, &e. 29

viz: at “ Queenstown,” Maria’s Lodge, “ Adventure,”
and “Hibernia,” and in Berbice one has been ereéted
at “Belladrum” and another at ‘‘ Whim.” One re-
mains still in hand and is intended for the Gibraltar side-
line, to complete the drainage scheme of the Fyrish block,
as it is called. These bridges cost landed here £49.10.0,
or $237.60 each, and the ereétion $680, including trans-
portation from Georgetown to the spot on which
it is placed, The cost of a wooden bridge of the old
style is from $300 to $350 and in some parts of
the colony $500 or more, and the cost of the iron
on concrete basements are, on an average, $950.
The latter will last a life time, with no other expense than
a coat.of paint occasionally, the former requires re-
newing every 4 or 5 years, with repairs at intervals.
The iron bridges in Essequibo are I have no doubt well-
known to the president of this Society, and I am inclined
to believe, that if questioned, he will admit that they
have been ere€ted in a workmanlike manner, have every
appearance of lasting for many years to come, and area
credit to the colony. I beg to lay over with this paper a
rough sketch of our iron bridges on concrete walls as
ereéted by the Commissary’s Department.

A Few Popular Facts about Ciffusion.*

By Llewellyn $ones, Engineer, Plantation Nonpareil.

HAVE undertaken to place before you “ A
few popular faéts about Diffusion ; with special

reference to its present position in Demerara.”

Mr. DUNCAN, in his interesting and suggestive in-
augural address, called your attention to the Society’s
records of the past, reminding you that many valuable
and instru€tive papers are stored for reference, relating
to a large variety of subjeéts conneéted with the pro-
gress and prosperity of this colony; and thisreminds me
that this is not the first time that the subjeét of * Diffu-
sion” has been brought before your notice as a Society.

In 1885, a paper advocating this process was read by
Mr. MATTHEY ; and in July, 1887, Mr. HoGG delivered
a le€ture on the same subject, with special reference to
Aska. In January of the same year Mr. NEVILE
LUBBOCK gave a forecast of the possibilities of Diffusion,
and in 1890, he also contributed an interesting article
to Timehri, embodying a comparison between double-
crushing and Diffusion.

Nevertheless, gentlemen, I think there is yet room for
further contributions towards the consideration of this im-
portant process, and I feel that I ought to be able to read”
my paper to you this afternoon without danger of in-
curring the charges of plagiarism or redundancy.

My predecessors have had chiefly to content them-
selves with a recital of results obtained in foreign coun-

* Read before the March meeting of the Society.

A FEW POPULAR FACTS ABOUT DIFFUSION. 31

tries; with forecasts as to what would probably even-
tuate in this colony; or with hypothetical comparisons
of the various methods of sugar extraétion in vogue in
British Guiana.

Now, Mr. LUBBOCK, in treading on such uncertain
ground, has himself cautioned you as to the usually
deceptive charaéter of paper calculations, and from this
point of view alone, I hope to find room for my remarks
to-day; for whereas others have prophesied, I trust to
be able to show in what manner their prophesies have
been fulfilled ; where they have only been in a position to
indulge in theory, I purpose to deal with aétual praétice
and its accompanying results.

It should add to the interest attached to the present
paper if I remind you that our experiences had for the
most part to be encountered, and our difficulties over-
come, by our own unaided efforts. There was no tread-
ing in the footsteps of other experimenters. By virtue
of circumstances we were in a great measure necessarily
left to our own resources, and perhaps it is best so to
be left. Whilst there is safety in a multitude of
councillors, it has also to be remembered that “ too many
cooks spoil the broth.” As in the fable, so in everyday
business matters, if you listen too much to outsiders you
will never get over the bridge, You will be unduly
swayed this way by reports from Louisiana; you will
be drawn aside that way by accounts from the Sandwich
Islands ; and you will find yourself dumbfoundered by
“ faéts” from Java.

Now gentlemen, I do not wish for a moment to detraét
from the full value of operations in foreign countries,
Far from it. I only earnestly wish we could, to our own

TIMEHRE
32

local advantage, add those enjoyed by Java, plus those:
specially chara€teristic of the Sandwich Islands, and so
on; and then I have no doubt we should be able to
score results that would make a record.

All suggestions and general information that can be
gleaned from external sources should of course receive
the fullest and most careful consideration, and herein
will lie the safety and wisdom to be derived from a
multitude of councillors; but the decision as to how far
these suggestions should be adopted, and in what manner
they ought to be carried out, lies undoubtedly with our-
selves, lest a plethora of cooks should spoil the feast.
In the long run such a course will be found to be the
sound path to be followed. What is one Estate’s meat,
is another Estate’s poison. A policy that would bring
forth good results on Plantation Hampton Court in the
extreme West, might cause disappointment if pursued on
Plantation Skeldon in the extreme East of the colony ;
for even within the limits of Demerara we find widely
varying conditions. For instance, our coal consumption
at Nonpareil was felt to be excessive when compared
with results obtained in Java and the Sandwich Islands;
and we felt greatly discredited. But when one of our
principal critics on this score had visited Demerara and
made himself acquainted with details of the conditions
under which we had to work at Nonpareil itself, he un-
reservedly withdrew any stigma he had unintentionally
cast upon us. Another gentleman from the same quarter
expressed surprise when, to use his own words, he found »
that in various methods we had originated we could give
the Islanders ‘ points.’ A third visitor, who had tra-
velled in Java and Australia, and who keeps himself in »

A Few POPULAR FACTS ABOUT DIFFUSION. 33

constant touch with all sugar-growing countries, said
that from what he had seen and heard of other colonies,
and taking into consideration the conditions under which
we laboured at Nonpareil, we were at least quite equal
to, if not in advance of most Diffusion Fa€tories. What
I wish the members of this Society to realize this after-
noon is the faét that this new process of Diffusion is
systematically working in their midst, crop after crop;
and that standing as a process, by itself, it is a commer-
cial success.

Let us now turn our attention for a few moments to
the earlier expetations that were entertained by the
various writers conne€ted with this Colony, who from
time to time referred at intervals to the possibilities of

- diffusion.

istly. It was supposed that the capital already invested in Cane Mills
would be absolutely wasted; while at the same time further capital
must necessarily be sunk in the purchase of the new diffusion machinery
proper.

andly. That the time-honoured and convenient custom of unloading
canes out of punts on to cane-carriers must be abandoned, and much
extra handling of the canes incurred.

grdly. That great annoyance, inconvenience, and loss of time would
probably be experienced in readily maintaining the efficiency of the
Cane Slicing Machinery, especially with reference to the sharpening
and changing of the Cutter Knives.

.4thly. That the ordinary supply of Estates’ trench-water as obtained
from the Conservancies would not suffice either as to quality or possibly
as to quantity, for use at the Diffusion Battery.

sthly. That after the canes had been sliced and treated in the Diffu-
sion Battery, the exhausted slices would be altogether lost as useful
fuel.

6thly. That these useless slices, so far from proving good fuel, like
megass, would present themselves as a serious and ever-increasing
accumulation of objectionable rubbish, which would have to be got rid
of in some way or other, at considerable cost.
E

34 TIMEHRI.

qthly. That possibly, as a partial mitigation of the above nuisance,
they might be found just about capable, with trifling assistance, of
ridding themselves out of the way by a sort of self-destruction process
in a modified Rubbish Destruétor.

Sthly. That probably a further alleviation might be sought by
the manufacture of these waste-slices either into paper or “ paper-
stuff.”

I mention these points as standing somewhat together
on the one hand in a class by themselves. They were
the problematical points that praétical experience and
effort alone could solve. Around them much intelligent
and earnest speculation and investigation necessarily
centred, and a large majority of the questions involved
could not fail to excite, and most certainly did attraé&
the interest and close attention of all conneéted with the
staple industry of the Colony, and I shall presently en-
deavour to give you some brief explanation of the ulti-
mate solution of some of these problems, so far as they
have been dealt with up to date.

On the other hand there was another group of objec-
tions to diffusion which had obviously to be reckoned
with in the adoption of the new process; they were
tangible fa€tors in the pros and cons of the profit and
loss account due to a larger extra€tion of sugar from the
canes,

istly. There is a large increase in evaporation to be dealt with, due
to the new method of extracting the increased amount of sugar from
the canes, involving a greater consumption of fuel.

Qndly. There is an increase of labour in the work of the fa€tory to be
provided for.

grdly. There must be an increased provision of packages for the
larger quantity of sugar to be sent to market, coupled with the increased
cost of transit both in and out of the colony,

4thly. There is increased interest and depreciation to be allowed for,
due to the increased capital laid out,

A Few Poputar FAcTS ABOUT DIFFUSION. 35.

Now these two batches of “points,” as I may term
them, do not exhaust the questions associated with the
successful working of the diffusion process. There is
a third class of problems not yet fully solved, and the
final solution of which should add much in the near
future to the advantages to be gained by the adoption of
diffusion. They may be briefly stated as follows :—

istly. The best style of slicing machinery to be adopted ; combining
the best form of slice suitable for the purposes of diffusion pure and
simple, together with the most convenient method of handling the
canes.

andly. The best method of preparing the exhausted cane slices for
fuel; whether by double or single crushing; whether by two or three

roller mills..
gtdly. The most important and altogether unsettled question con-

cerning the proper and complete clarification of diffusion juice.

I think, gentlemen, I may now say that I have enume-
rated all the “ burning’’ topics conne€ted with diffusion,
and that the minor questions not touched upon are such
as are related to extraction by the aid of mills equally
with diffusion, and therefore call for no notice in the
paper I am reading to you to-day.

I have so far taken it for granted that you are all
more or less acquainted with the main principles of
diffusion, but perhaps I ought at once to imitate some of
my predecessors, and apologize to you for once more
endeavouring briefly to define and explain the new pro-
cess, which, by the way, I notice Mr. MATTHEY eulogizes
as “ this rational and scientific system.”

Diffusion has been known for very many years as
occupying an aétive position in nature and various
persons have made frequent efforts to apply this
natural principle, as illustrated in Laboratory experi-

E2

36 TIMEHRI.

ments, to the process of extra€ting sugar from the
cane; for the simple reason that by its adoption
a purer juice in larger quantities, ought to be obtained
through its agency. Most processes for extraéting the
juice from the cane have depended for success upon the
more or less complete rupture of the cells containing
the juice, as is the case when mills are used; and the
diffusion process differs from them essentially in dis-
pensing with sheer force and in endeavouring to substi-
tute the xatural law of Osmosis,

Allow me very briefly to explain the a€tion of “ Diffu-
sion,” * Osmosis,” or “ Dialysis.”

If a porcelain cylinder, open at both ends, be taken,
and parchment covers be firmly tied over these ends, and
the cylinder thus prepared be completety immersed in a
basin of circulating water, so that there can be no com-
munication between the water surrounding the cylinder
and the interior of the latter, save through the porous
parchment membranes; and if into this jar with its
parchment covers, you have previously placed a dissolved
mixture of gum-arabic and sugar, it will be found in
due time that all the sugar will have diffused through the
parchment into the water surrounding the cylinder, the
gum at the same time being almost altogether left in the
jar. Thus, as with this experimental jar, so also with
the cane-slices in a Diffusion Faétory, we ought to be
able to procure from the canes a juice composed chiefly
of water and sugar, the more obje€tionable matters being
left behind in the exhausted slices.

The constituents of sugar-cane-juice, and their propor-
tions, are well-known, aad may be classed under two
distinét groups :—/(a) “ Crystalloids,” including the sugar

A Few Poputar FAcTs ABOUT DIFFUSION. 37

itself and the other salts which are capable of assuming
a crystalline form:—() “ Colloids,” embracing the
gummy or mucilaginous matters which are not capable
of crystallization.

In cane-juice, these two classes of bodies exist in most
intimate association in the cells of the cane-plant, and
they are distinguished by a remarkable physical fa&,
which forms the basis of all modifications of the diffusion
process. This faét is the difference which they manifest
with regard to the power of passing through moist water-
tight membranes. The crystalloids, when dissolved in
water, will readily pass through vegetable and animal
membranes, when there is water in circulation on the
outside; the colloids are not possessed of that property
to nearly the same extent; and thus, as I have already
said, by the immersion of the cane-slices in circulating
water, as in the diffusion process, we ought to be able
to procure a juice much purer than that obtained by the
aid of mills; for the dead cell-walls of the cane-slices
form an excellent dialyser, and the sugar should pass on
to manufa@ture, while the gummy matters remain within
the cells, A greater extraétion of sugar from the cane
is likewise obtainable through the application of this
natural law, than by brute force.

The pra€tice of the diffusion-process may be des-
cribed as follows:—The cane-slices are brought into
conta& with the ordinary estate’s trench-water: Then,
by theory, if the cells in the cane-slices contain 12 0/o of
sucrose, transfusion will go on till an equal weight of
water contains 6 0/o of sugar, while by the passage of
water into the cell, the juice therein is reduced to the
same density as that of the exterior solution. Taking

38 TIMEHRI.

this 6 o/o solution, and with it treating fresh slices con-
taining again 12 0/o sucrose, a g 0o/o solution will be
attained, which on being brought a third time in contaé&
with fresh slices would be raised to a density of 10°5 o/o,
and so on.

In working the process, ranges of from 14 to 16 cells,
called the Diffusion Batteries, are in use at Nonpareil ;
10 or 14 cells being in operatiou, while the others are
being emptied, cleaned and re-filled, These cells are
termed Diffusors, and consist of large, close, upright
cylinders, capable of holding each about 36 to 40 cwts.
of sliced canes. They are provided with inlets and out-
lets, and pipes for inter-communication, so that the fluid
contents of any one cell can be forced by pressure into
any other. The cells measure twelve-and-a-half feet in
total depth of contents, by four feet aud three inches
diameter. And, I may here mention that much larger
cells than these are now in use in Cuba and the Sandwich
Islands, which are capable of holding two-and-a-half to
three tons of cane-slices.

The added water of Diffusion is run from an elevated
tank into No. 1 Diffusor, which contains the slices almost
exhausted of their soluble saccharine contents. It perco-
lates the entire mass, and by pressure passes onwards
into No. 2 Diffusor, where it again aéts on slices some-
what richer in juice. So it goes through the series of
cells, acquiring a greater density in its progress, and
meeting in each successive cylinder, slices increasingly
rich in juice; and under the combined influence of heat
and pressure, the juice within the last diffusor, containing
fresh cane-slices, becomes richly charged with sugar. A
draught of about 400 gallons of diffusion-juice is now

A Few POPULAR FACTS ABOUT DIFFUSION. 39

withdrawn from this cell, and passes on to the clarifiers
to be dealt with in the usual course, and to be manufac-
tured into sugar. No. 1 cylinder, or diffusor, when ex-
hausted, is disconne€ted ; No. 2 then becoming No. 1,
and a newly charged diffusor is joined on at the other
extremity of the range of cells; and so the operation
goes on continuously day and night.

The above cells are arranged in acircle in each battery
and are situated upstairs in a lofty building. They are
readily filled with cane-slices by a travelling shoot, which
pivots on the centre column of the battery. There is
therefore neither delay, confusion, nor excess of labour
in this respect; and three elevators of admirable con-
struction, bring up the chips from the slicing machines
below to the travelling shoots, which fill the diftusors.
We can now go downstairs to the large concrete
tank, whence these elevators start, and within which
the cane-slicing machinery is situated. This tank
is formed of some 300 tons of concrete, and has
a displacement of about 150 tons. It stands like an
island, surrounded by the water of the mill-dock, and is
conneéted to the main buildings bya bridge. Four cane-
slicing machines, with horizontal cutting discs, fitted
with twelve adjustable and easily-removed knives, fed by
six angled hoppers, providing a multiple feed for feeding
in the canes are placed at regular distances apart within
the tank; and as the canes are sliced, the slices fall into the
elevators already mentioned, and go up to the batteries.

Modern and efficient slicing-machines can now be
obtained which dispense with many complications, and
they can be fed with a cane-carrier, precisely as with
mills, and without extra labour or supervision.

40 TIMEHRI.

When the cane-slices have become exhausted of their
saccharine contents they are composed of woody matter,
water, and slight traces of sugar and other substances, in
the proportion of g0°3 o/o water, associated with 8°7 o/o
woody matter; and they are discharged from the bottom
outlet-doors of the diffusors on to a horizontal circular
turn-table, placed a little above the ground-line of the
battery. Like the shoot upstairs, this turn-table also
revolves around the centre-column of the battery, and
automatically transfers the exhausted slices from any point
of the battery circle to a chip-carrier, which in turn trans-
ports them dire& to the old cane-mill, where they are
squeezed as dry as possible, for the purpose of turning
them into good furnace-fuel.

Now, gentlemen, I think I have described to you as
fully as is possible in such a paper as this, the theory
and aétual praétice of diffusion, and you will notice that
the old cane-crushing mill is not laid aside as useless,
but is utilized as a chip-squeezer and dryer, and I must
here mention the undoubted faét that by this means the
exhausted slices are turned into excellent furnace fuel.
It is extremely fortunate that, contrary to general expec-
tation, the exhausted slices have really proved such
valuable fuel. I doubt very much if they could ever have
been profitably utilized in any other manner, and I feel
I cannot too strongly emphasize the great success that
has attended our efforts in this direction. When I hear
or read of people calmly discrediting their value in this
respect I cannot help feeling extremely sorry that so
much incredulity should exist with reference to this
matter.

We have six coal boilers at Nonpareil. Their

A Few POPULAR FACTS ABOUT DIFFUSION. 41

average total heating surface is about 820 square feet per
boiler. For every pound of coal we burn, we evapo-
rate 8°53 lbs. water from and at 212 deg. Fahr. to mean
gauge pressure, and the average horse power of each of
these coal boilers is 54 h.p. on the basis of one cubic
foot of water evaporated per hour.

We use generally the same number of chip boilers
(viz: six) everyday. Their average total heating surface
is about 1,083 square feet per boiler, and the average
horse power of each chip boiler is 75.7 h.p. on the basis
of one cubic foot of water evaporated per hour.

From the above figures (even if we only get chips
enough for five chip boilers, which is sometimes the case)
you can readily see that while our coal used does only
47 O/o of the work, our chips do 53 0/o of the total work
of the Diffusion Faétory. These figures are very signifi-
cant, and can be left te speak for themselves.

If you attempt to make paper-stuff out of exhausted
slices, or megass, in order to make such manufa€ture pay,
you must produce a good quality of ‘‘ stuff,” such as will
fetch good market prices ; and the latter at the very out-
set demand a length of Sbre of at least half an inch in
length. This requirement appears altogether incom-
patible with a good diffusion-slice barely one-sixteenth
of an inch thick, and at once shuts the door on this ex-
pected outlet, independently of several other serious
obje€tions, which for want of time cannot even be touched
upon in this paper. In dealing with this special question
I am speaking from considerable experience, having been
in charge of experiments made in this colony with a view
to making paper out of double-crushed megass,

In the case of the old process you have, we will say,

F

42 . TIMEHRI.

irrespective of size, a single cane mill, giving an extrac-
tion of 63 o/o juice on the weight of canes, The canes
themselves pass through the mill; the juice going tothe
clarifiers on the one hand, and the megass straight to the
furnaces, on the other. You adopt diffusion in this
Fa€tory. Then you will add to your existing mill, the
slicing machinery and a battery capable of dealing with
the same quantity of canes per 24 hours as formerly,
and you will then obtain an extraétion of say at the very
least 83 per cent juice on the weight of the canes. You
will of course, at the same time, also have to increase
the capabilities of your evaporating plant and add to
your steam-boiler power. In the case of mills you will
probably have worked from 16 to 17 hours per day; with
diffusion you will run continuously night and day, and
an electric lighting plant or its equivalent will be indis-
pensable in the latter case. From the increased extrac-
tion, apparently fully 31 per cent more than formerly,
you will obtain fully 27 per cent more sugar from a
given weight of canes than you used to get through the
agency of mills. This difference between the extraétion
of juice and the sugar aétually produced will no doubt
greatly diminish when proper clarification has been
secured in conneétion with diffusion juice. But it is
the increase of sugar obtained that must be taken into
the fullest consideration, for this is the figure that
determines the aé€tual profit that will accrue from the
adoption of diffusion. At the same time I must remind
you that with careful work it is quite possible to obtain
an extra€tion of 85 per cent juice on the weight of canes
with the new process. By the time the diffusion juice is
in the clarifiers, and the exhausted slices ready for firing on

A FEw POPULAR FACTS ABOUT DIFFUSION. 43

the furnace platform, you will, on equal weights of canes,.
have expended as nearly as possible about the same
engine power as would have been required up to this
stage of manufacture with mills and their lesser extrac-
tion, the still greater expected saving in engine-power,
originally anticipated with diffusion, not having been
altogether realized ; partly because canes are much
tougher articles to deal with than beet-roots; and partly
because the use of the old cane mill is continued in the
new process for the preparation of the exhausted slices
as useful fuel, an expenditure of power that is more than
fully compensated for. If the hydraulic attachment is
used in conneétion with this mill, it should be applied to
the megass roller in preference to the top roller, as the
former application will not only give squeezed chips 7
per cent to 8 per cent dryer than would otherwise be
the case, but will avoid other obje€tionable risks that
cannot be dealt with in the present paper. Of course
the application of hydraulic pressure to the top roller of
a two-roller mill is the correét thing, and is much more
convenient than any other arrangement. But personally
I am totally opposed to the application of any such
pressure to the top roller of a three-roller mill; and un-
less it is weighted so as to remain absolutely quiescent,
save under the occurrence of strains dangerous to the
safety of the machinery, | firmly believe such application
to be one of the greatest blunders ever perpetrated in
this colony.

On every hundred tons canes, you will in the case of
diffusion obtain about 30 tons chip-fuel, against 37 tons
megass with the single mill; but owing to improved fur-
naces, and the special conditions under which the chips

F2

44 TIMEHRI.

are obtained as fuel, you will find that pound for pound
these diffusion chips are quite as good, if not better fuel
than the single crushed megass used tobe. These chips
are associated with about 56 per cent. to 58 per cent
moisture when they enter the furnaces, and often have a
temperature of 107 degrees Fahr., but their average
temperature appears to be about g6 degrees Fahr.,
whilst the temperature of the heated air admitted to the
furnace grates, for the purposes of combustion, may be
set down as fully 170 degrees Fahr. These figures partly
account for the great value of the chips as fuel, their
average efficiency being 1°76 lbs. water evaporated per
pound chip fuel from and at 212 degrees Fahr. to mean
gauge pressure, and there have been several very care-
fully conduéted Boiler Tests where this efficiency has
been as high 1°g lbs. water per pound of chip fuel. These
figures seem high; but the recent adoption of a Beck’s
Water Meter. which works and measures the water con-
tinuously day and night, as it is a€tually used in the
daily work of the Fa€tory, has contirmed the accuracy of
some twenty special boiler tests that have been conduéted
at Nonpareil. We will say, however, that pra€tically,
you will in effeét, with diffusion, get about 20 per cent
less chip fuel for your megass boilers, on equal weights
of canes, than would have been the case when using the
single mill as a juice extractor, In addition to this loss
in original fuel, you will, with diffusion, have to cope
with the increased evaporation due to the greater ex-
traction of juice, and the added water of diffusion, which
has caused dilution of the original cane-juice, and through
the agency of which you have obtained the increased ex-
traction of sugar from the canes. Let us for a moment

A Few PopuLarR FACTS ABOUT DIFFUSION. 45

enquire what this dilution means. If to 100 tons original
cane-juice, as obtained from the canes by the use of mills,
you add 30 tons water, you will have effe€ted a dilution
of 30 o/o. In other words this is what is meant by the ex-
pression “ 30 0/o dilution.” This dilution is an ample
allowance for all the requirements of the new process,
and on the average, should never be exceeded over the
entire work of acrop. Praé€tical sugar makers will find
that such a dilution has virtually lowered the censity of
the original cane juice 2 deg. Beaumé. Whereas with
mills, they would have found juice standing at 10 deg.
Beaumé in the clarifiers, it will, with diffusion, only stand
at 8 deg, Beaumé. Although only 30 o/o water has been
added to the original juice, it means that about 37 0/o
more water has to be got rid of by evaporation in the
course of manufa€turing the diffusion-juice into sugar,
than would have been the case with egua/ guantities of
mill juice, and were you only working 16 or 17 hours per
day, as formerly, your evaporating plant would, on the
score of dilution alone (in the case of equal quantities of |
juice) have to be made capable of doing 37 0o/o more
work than formerly. As you are supposed to be dealing
with eyual quantities of canes, there is the increased
extraction of original juice, as well as its accompanying
dilution, to be reckoned with, and were it not for the
faét that you work continuously night and day with
diffusion, the increase in the power of the evaporating
plant would, to be really economically efficient, have to
be about 80 0/o. Fortunately, the continuous work of
diffusion comes here to our aid, and the above complica-
tions may be summed up by saying that if your dilution
is 30 o/o and you increase the efficiency of your evapo-

46 TIMEHRI.

rating plant by about the same percentage, it will be
theoretically sufficient, on the average, to meet the
requirements of the particular case now under consider-
ation; but owing to the variation in the amount of
the dilution, during an entire crop, and the undoubted
advantage of having an evaporation rather in excess
of the average work, it would be prudent, and I believe
would pay, to make this increase of power up to. 50 o/o
more than it used to be.

Though the continuous work of diffusion throughout
the 24 hours, helps us in the matter of evaporation and
in reducing the number of additional coal boilers re-
quired, it unfortunately does not favourably affect the
fuel account—multiple effe€t evaporators alone can
assist us in this respeét; and this increased fuel question
can be best pra€tically stated as follows—I speak from
a€tual Demerara records :

In a well-arranged and well-balanced modern sugar
fa€tory, where single crushing is the order of the day,
and where no rum is manufaétured, you should be well
able comfortably to make sugar without the use of any
coal or wood whatever, save to start and close the
grinding. With diffusion at work in the same faé€tory,
after the required modifications and additions have been
made, you should not require more than 1o cwts. of coal
per ton of rst sugars made. At Nonpareil, over a crop
of nearly 4,000 tons of ist sugars, our coal account was
13°8 cwts. coal per ton of 1st sugars made, and 128
cwts. coal per ton ist and 2nd sugars taken together,
all coal having been carefully weighed before use,
throughout the crop. As we are handicapped on this
estate by heterogenous amalgamations, and various.

A Few PopuLaR FACTS ABOUT DIFFUSION. 47

drawbacks which would not exist in a well-arranged and
newly laid-out modern fa€tory, I consider that the fore-
going allowance of 10 cwts. coal per ton of Ist sugars to
be excessive, rather than the reverse, and should with
good work and management be considerably reduced
below that figure; and careful theoretical calculations,
based on the data and details of aétual work, go to show
that in Demerara the coal account, under favourable
circumstances, should not, with diffusion, exceed 8 cwts.
coal per ton Ist sugars made. This coal would be
expended, in conjunétion with the chip fuel, about as
follows, viz., 40 per cent. would be used up in estab-
lishing and maintaining the juice throughout the entire
fa€tory at a temperature of 212 deg. Fahr. ; 38 per cent.
would be used in concentration from juice at 212 deg.
Fahr. to sugar ; 5 per cent. would be debited against the
manufacture of molasses sugar, and the remainder, 17
per cent., would be absorbed by the various engines
throughout the fa€tory.

The Diffusion Labour account,’so far as the Faétory
alone is concerned, would be increased from about $2°50
with mills, to about $4 per ton 1st sugars made-—but in
reference to this labour question it must be distin@ly
borne in mind, that though the aétual Fa€tory expenses
stand in the above ratio, still if the cost of manufa&ture,
transportation, and cane-cutting be taken together, the
scale turns decidedly in favour of Diffusion. The field
and other expenses, whether calculated on the sugar or
cane, are of course all in favour of diffusion. A certain
sum has to be spent on the cultivation, cane-cutting,
transportation and establishment expenses, whatever
process of extra€tion may be in use at the Fa€tory ; and

48. TIMEHRI.

the larger the quantity of sugar obtained from a
given weight of canes, by so much the cheaper will
be the constant expenditure per ton sugar manufac-
tured.

Before diffusion was fairly established much appre-
hension was entertained in reference to the water-
supply question. But these fears have vanished along
with a good many others conneéted with the new
process, now that experience has shown that an abundant
supply can always be obtained from the condensers of
the various evaporating apparatus. Neither does it
appear to matter much whether the water is pure, dirty,
or sour, or even somewhat contaminated with lees. In
December, 1888, the water supply on the various Deme-
rara estates was ahout as short as it ever has been;
Nonpareil, was no exception to the general rule, and the
new process was very severely tested with reference to
every possible drawback to which it could possibly be
subjeéted by such a state of affairs, but the results ob-
tained were nevertheless excellent, and none of the
provisions that had been made for the purification of the
water were ever brought into use. They were not
wanted even with absolutely stinking water. In sucha
drought as is now referred to, when the Water Conser-
vancy scheme was of no avail, and the estates’ trenches
were rapidly drying up, it was not possible to throw
away a drop of the affeéted water, either from the con-
densers, or from the exhausted slices after squeezing.
This was all therefore returned to the navigation trenches,
and used over and over again for some weeks, without
any perceptible injury to the results obtained by the
process of diffusion. When the water smelt very badly,

A Few PopuLaR FACTS ABOUT DIFFUSION. 49

or was sour, or the canes were rotten, a little
milk of lime was used ‘on the battery with excellent
effect.

In conne€tion with this water question I should men-
tion that just previous to the letting out of the exhausted
slices from the battery, on to the turn-table, they are
finally cleared as much as possible of all sweet water, by
the application of compressed air, which lessens the dilu-
tion and avoids the waste of both fresh and sweet water ;
and drives all sweet water that can be driven, from the
cell about to be emptied, into the working portion of
the battery, instead of throwing it on to the ground.
Loss of time, water, and saccharine, is thus reduced to
a minimum, and this air is supplied at a pressure of
from 20 to 30 lbs. per square inch, from a compressed
air receiver, which is kept well-filled, ready for use at a
moment’s notice, through the agency of a patent air-
compressor, which also occupies a position in Europe as
one of the standard vacuum pumps of Germany. Asa
rule, on the Continent, water is used instead of air, but
the latter is now being rapidly adopted. The Nonpareil
batteries are also fitted with ele€trical control apparatus,
which automatically record the twenty-four-hours’ pro-
ceedings on a bulletin, and the diffusors have also
each got an automatic air and steam-release appa-
ratus, which ensures the complete immersion of the
cane slices in liquor. The batteries are supplied with
Thermometers, Water Pressure Gauges, and various
steam, air, water and juice and outlet-valves, involving
something like 3,000 manipulations in 24 hours. But,
notwithstanding apparent complexities, the work is soon
understood, and performed with every facility, by the

G

50 TIMEHRI.

same class of work-people who were formerly employed
with mill-work.

The Nonpareil Diffusion Machinery proper may be
briefly summed up as follows :—

4 Cane Slicing Machines, with shafting, gearing, knives, and knife-
boxes complete.

3 Stotz’s Elevators.

1 Double Steam Engine.

2 Large Circular Diffusion Batteries, comprising jo cells, 3o juice
heaters, with valves and piping complete, supported on columns and
girders, together with hoppers and travelling shoots for filling the cells
with chips; and other special fittings.

2 Automatic Turn-Table Schnitzel Removers with drag-carrier from
battery to mill.

1 High Level Force Pump, with High Level Tank for water supply
to the batteries.

2 Air-Compressors, with receiver.

With regard to the expectation that annoyance, in-
convenience and loss of time would probably be experi-
enced in sharpening the Slicing Knives, I have to say
that it is simply a question of a little extra labour, apart
altogether from the running of the Slicing Machines, and
an entire set of knives can be replaced in aboxt two or
three minutes.

Now, gentlemen, | must not weary you, nor exceed
the reasonable limits of a purely popular and non-
scientific paper such as this is intended to be. At the
same time I must remind yon that the conclusions I have
placed before you are practical, and so far as I know
thoroughly reliable—and I trust they may be useful to
anyone endeavouring to establish a comparison for him-
self between Single, Double, or Triple Crushing and
Diffusion,

In the light of my own experiences, were I an

A Few Poputar Facts ABouT DIFFUSION. 5

estate’s proprietor ereéting a new fa€tory I should most
certainly establish diffusion in preference to either Single
or Double Crushing. In the latter case even if the
extra€tion with mills be steadily maintained at 74 o/o
throughout the crop, which is most unlikely, diffusion,
with less effort, can give you fully 14 o/o better extrac-
tion. Average double crushing, in this colony, over a
large crop, tends to an average extraction much nearer
68 o/o than 74 o/o—and a further benefit gained with
diffusion lies in the faét that with dry, sweet canes, it
tells to greatest advantage.

In 1890, we made a triple range of experiments, as
follows :—On the 25th and 26th April, canes were sliced,
and the chips so obtained, ground by double crushing,
without the intervention of diffusion, so as to see whether
the slicing of the canes previous to crushing would pro-
mote a greater extraction of juice with mills. On the
28th, 2gth, and 3oth of April, and rst, 2nd, and 3rd
May, a run of diffusion, pure and simple, was made
without a hitch; and on the 5th and 6th May, a trial
was made of the old-time system of double-crushing with
two powerful cane-mills.

The extraétion from 100 parts canes was :—

Milling Chips. Diffusion. Double Crushing.
59°4 0/o 84°96 o/o 74 o/o

The extraétion from too parts juice, at 12 o/o fibre

was :—

67°5 o/o 96°54 o/o 88'10 o/o
The loss in the megass or chips, z.e., loss of sugar
was ;—
23'54 o/o 3°45 0/0 17°40 o/o

Although the above trial gave with double crushing
the high extraétion of 74 per cent. juice on the weight
G2

52 TIMEHRI.

of the canes: in ordinary work, over a crop of say some
4,000 tons Ist sugars, the same mills gave an average
extraction of only 68*5 per cent. juice on the weight of
canes, and I am of opinion that it is much easier to
keep the extraétion up to the mark with diffusion, than
with any number of mills. The quality of diffusion work
is always open to immediate examination, and a falling-
off in good results can be stopped at once, and good
work promptly re-established without checking the work
of the faétory. With mills this is not the case.

I feel sure I should also adopt diffusion in preference
to Triple Crushing ; but I trust Mr. President, that before
your term of office has expired, you may be able to
arrange for a paper to be read in reference to Triple
Extra€tion, by one of our Colonial experts in this method,
so that the comparative merits of such a system may be
better understood.

Now, gentlemen, in conclusion I have, as briefly as
possible, to touch upon another question, and in doing
so am treading on dangerous ground, and am laying
myself open to the charge of trying to deal with details
somewhat out of the range of my professional experiences.
But this matter should not be passed over in silence, and
I regret there is no time to deal with it more fully than
can be the case to-day.

Is it a faét, that, in accordance with theory, we are now
getting, in a€tual pra€tice, as pure a juice by Diffusion
as we possibly imagine we are securing? Is it juice,
which though it may be purer, is at the same time similar
to or totally different from mill juice? Are our present
methods of clarification correét ? or ought we to seek to
substitute a more suitable agent than lime, and cease to

A Few Poputar Facts ABouT DIFFUSION. 53

follow in the old-time rut of the customary clarifi-
cation of mill-juice? I am inclined to think, from
all I see and hear, that in Demerara we are scarcely
on the borderland, even, of any scientific investiga-
tion of these questions; and 1 have very grave doubts
whether many if any of us know what we are talk-
ing about, when we speak of “ Diffusion Juice.” The
Jatter almost always /ooks better than mill juice. It is
Clearer. It is almost absolutely free from mechanical
impurities held in suspension, and no blanket is formed
on the top of the juice as it stands in the clarifiers.

But as in the moral and social, so also in the sugar-
making world, we all need to be cautioned not to judge
altogether by appearances. I fear that in a€tual praétice
there is but little doubt that the perfe&t theory of diffu-
sion does not have complete effet. To secure the latter,
the chips, if possible, ought to be retained in the diffu-
sors, between two parchment diaphragms, or their
equivalent ; and Dr. HARCOURT, of Oxford, holds this
opinion. I am inclined to think “ Maceration” would
be quite as correét a term for the new process as “ Diffu-
sion” for as a matter of fa&, it is a combination of these
two methods. A very considerable proportion of the
Cane Cells are cut into, and bruised during the operation
of slicing, and therefore liberate their juices mechani-
cally, together with an excess of their impurities, which
would not be the case with diffusion pure and simple.
In other words, as a matter of praétice, and a€tual faét,
a very large and unknown percentage of the intrinsic
advantages of theoretical Diffusion are most probably
lost to us by the extensive cutting open of the cells by
the cane slicing knives.

54 TIMEHRI.

Again the maintenance of high temperatures through-
out the battery, so desirable for rapidity and thorough-.
ness of extraétion, for the preservation of the juice in.
the battery, and for the advantageous use of the exhausted.
slices as fuel, tends still further to complicate matters.

I do not wish to praise diffusion one moment, and find
fault with it the next. Far from it. I simply wish to be
explicit, and to place things, if possible, in their true
light. Moreover, diffusion, as now praétised in Deme-
rara, is an excellent process, and I only wish to see
it placed in a still better position than it has ever occu-
pied, by ridding it of some of its present drawbacks,
Many people, not acquainted with the ins and outs of
our practical difficulties, might be tempted to think that
undue prominence is being given to this question. But
I don’t think so, for I have a strong impression that this
is one of our chief troubles, and should not be ignored ;
and I firmly believe it is at the bottom of many praétical
inconsistencies in the working of the process, which
cause great loss and annoyance and can only be got rid
of by a thorough analysis and final settlement of this
question, and I trust, Mr. Chairman, | am not overstep-
ping the mark in suggesting that your influence as -
President of this Society might obtain for us a paper
from Dr. STUBBS and his professional associates in Louisi-
ana, on this subjeét, to be read either by yourself or the
Secretary at a future meeting, before the close of the
year.

The case may be very briefly stated as follows:
The organic solids, not sugars, in mill and diffusion juice
comprise two main classes; (a) nitrogenous bodies,
that have usually been accepted altogether as albumi-

A Few PopuLAR FACTS ABOUT DIFFUSION. 55

noids; and (4) non-nitrogenous bodies, usually termed
“ sums.”

The nitrogenous bodies found in mill juice form 1°3 o/o
of the total solids, not sugar, in the juice. Of these nitro-
genous bodies 35 0/o are albuminoids and 65 per cent.
non-albuminoids. In the case of diffusion juice, obtained
from a battery worked with cold water the nitrogenous
bodies are 1°4 0/o of the total solids, not sugar, in the juice,
only 24°5 o/o of which are albuminoids and 75°5 o/o non-
albuminoids.

In the case of Diffusion juice, again, when the battery is
worked merely at the very moderate temperature of 150
degrees Fahr., the nitrogenous bodies extraéted increase
to 2'09 o/o of the total solids, not sugar, in the juice.
That is 33 0/o more than are extracted with cold water,
and 38 o/o more than are found in the mill juice. And
of these nitrogenous bodies only 10°g o/o are albuminoids
and 89'1 0/o non-albuminoids. In this last case it seems
that the hot water coagulates the albuminoids and causes
them to be left behind in the exhausted slices.

These figures are very striking and significant.
With immature canes, and increased battery tempera-
tures, they are said to become still more striking and
significant, and the usual working temperature of a
Demerara Diffusion Battery is 212 degrees Fahr. One
thing seems to be certain, diffusion and mill juices
do not behave alike in regard to fermentation, and
whereas in the case of mill juice, changes are quickly
dete€ted, in diffusion juice they may be concealed,
and yet be proceeding. The subjeét is too important to
admit of rash and partially matured remedies, and the
first step obviously is to find out the nature of the whole

56 TIMEHRI.

of these impurities which may be troubling us, and thus
there is a wide field open for future investigation. It
would seem that Phospho-Tungstic Acid is to be the
coming praétical clarifier in conneétion with the afore-
mentioned evils, and as it can be produced cheaply, it is
to be hoped it will soon come to our assistance, either in
conjunétion with lime, or as a substitute for that hitherto
indispensable clarifying agent.

Finally, gentlemen, I believe we unduly prejudice
diffusion by our inaccurate methods of comparison. We
take a Laboratory press or mill and obtain a partial
sample of the original juice in the cane, say 75 o/o of
the total juice in the cane, whereas to be accurate, this
extraction should be absolutely complete. We then
polarize this partial sample, and from the result of this
polarization proceed to estimate the total sugar in the
cane, at 12 0/o fibre. This method isin error and makes
the losses in manufaéture appear greater than they
really are ; the total sugar in the cane sometimes figuring
out 3 to 3°5 o/o in excess of the amount aétually con-
tained in the cane. With Triple Crushing, reliable
samples of juice, in exaét accordance with the actual
extraction in vogue can be obtained, and their compari-
sons are thus fairly correct, and their work throughout
the Factory appears in its true light, and has the advan-
tage of diffusion in this respect—assuming a comparative
superiority to which it is not entitled.

Margarita.

A HEALTH RESORT,

By Dr. F. F. Chittenden, C.M.Z.S., Trinidad,

OOL, dry, salubrious, piéturesque, a land over-
flowing with all the material requirements of

trea 4«ohuman existence, its population industrious,
prosperous and most hospitable. Such is the description
we commonly get in Trinidad of this most interesting
island. On the other hand many will tell you that it isa
land of poor fisher folk, with drought, famine and desola-
tion continually staring them in the face, most inac-
cessible, unfit for human habitation except on the hardest
conditions ; where the fowls taste of fish, the sheep and
goats are but skin and bone, and the only creatures fit to
exist are lizards and tumble bugs. Having recently visited
the island it occurred to me that a plain and unvarnished
description might be useful and possibly interesting to
valetudinarians and others in such humid and feverish
climates as Trinidad and Demerara, so without further
preamble I will ask the reader to go back to the 12th
Oétober, 1893, and accompany me from the jetty at
Port-of-Spain.

I had a choice of vessels, French and Dutch Packets,
and English Cargo Steamers (Tramps). I seleéted
one of the latter (KNOTT’S line) because it possessed
the great recommendation that the passage cost half
the money and was twice as comfortable as on the
great ocean “swells.” We weighed anchor at 6 p.m. and
H

58 TIMEHRI,

the sensation of the cool sea breeze on passing the Bocas
made one feel a profound compassion for those left
behind in the reeking atmosphere of Port-of-Spain, the
captain remarking “ Ah doctor, this breeze will soon
chase away your malaria and aching pains.” Although
the accommodation below was all that could be desired
it was rather close, and so the steward kindly made a
bed on deck; this gave me a chance of watching the
coast line, which is a continuous chain of high mountains
and a sure guide to mariners, very different from the East
Coast of Trinidad with its sunken rocks and absence of
lighthouse, and also from Demerara where the lead-line
has to be kept going all night and nothing of the shore can
be seen but the tops of palm trees or sugar factory chim-
neys.

At 5 a.m. we ran into the anchorage of Carupano
in company with the French Packet. The first impression
of the town was certainly not favourable, although it
improves on acquaintance. There is a good embarca-
dere (covered) and plenty of business in shipping cacao
and importing dried fish, etc., (principally from Marga-
rita). The fish seem to be the staple food of the
agricultural labourers in Venezuela and pack animals
are loading up with it all day long for the interior. There
is a large Custom House and staff of very polite officers,
a shabby looking Resguardo or Guard-house with about
20 or 30 young fellows (soldiers) seated on long benches
in front, each with a mauser rifle in his hance, a uniform
cap, shirt and trousers, and barefooted. An officer a
little in advance is seated on a cane-bottomed chair, with
a sword in a much battered scabbard and a red sash
twisted around it in his hand, also with a uniform cap

MARGARITA. 59

but plain clothes. These poor boys who serve as police
or in the execution of any public or even private work at
2oc. a day, are pounced upon on the estates by akind of
press gang when wanted, and are guzte innocent of the
elements of drill or the use of the rifle, which by the
way they carry as if it were a hoe, pitch fork or other
agricultural implement, frequently shooting themselves
or their friends from ignorance; two such casualties
happened the day before I arrived (of course there are
very differently equipped regiments in Caracas). A
line of poor shops, restaurants, etc., was all else
that could be seen of Carupano from the sea, but a small
_tram-car with a little mule was waiting outside the
Custom House to convey passengers into the heart of
the town, which consists of one long street going inland.
At the end of it (one mile and a half) was the place
of business of the steamer’s agents—a wealthy Cor-
sican House—the seniors residing in Paris. All the
trade of the place seems to be in the hands of these
keen men of business and wonderfully clannish they are.
They have so systematically favoured the French Line
that the Royal Mail Steamers decline to stop there any
more. At this establishment I observed the very latest
and most improved machinery for the preparation of
coffee and cocoa. Both merchants’ stores and private
dwellings present sorry frontages to the street, the latter
being provided with iron gratings and heavy shutters
instead of windows (taken from the Moors,) but
at the back cool corridors extend on each side, en-
closing a court yard or Patzo, as it is called, with flowers
and ornamental palms. I noticed several exotics which
hailed from the Trinidad Botanic Gardens; and taken
H2

60 TIMEHRI.

altogether they were cool and pleasant retreats after the
hot thoroughfares, Carupano is scarcely worthy of any
further notice except that it is as bad as Port-of Spain in
respe€t to street-lighting (with pitch oil), somewhat in
advance in sanitary arrangements (dry earth) and worse
with regard to water, the precious element having to be
carried 3 miles by pack mules. A large sum of money was
voted for an aqueduét but it disappeared under the head
of “ miscellaneous”— not far behind us there.

The next point then for me was to find a vessel bound for
Margarita—several small craft lay at anchor, but none
seemed likely to leave before Monday. In the meantime,
as there was no hotel in the place I was very glad to
accept a room from a gentleman to whom I had been
introduced. The apartment had the usual heavy doors and
iron gratings, dark and something between a cellar anda
prison cell in appearance, but after a few articles of
furniture had been put in and a hammock slung up, it
proved cooler and more comfortable than I anticipated.
Breakfast and dinner were obtained at a kind of
boarding house opposite; many and varied dishes
covered the table, but so extraordinary was the cooking
that I thought it could only have been inspired by the
demons of nightmares and dyspepsia.*

On Saturday the 14thI was startled by the unexpeéted
hoisting of the main-sail of a little sloop. Someone said
it was ‘‘ E/ Correo’ or the post boat, bound for Pampotar
in Margarita, distant but 5 miles from my destination, so
with the frantic hope of quitting these indigestible shores
two days earlier than I expeéted, I rushed down the hill,

* It is fair to my host to say that I was suffering from dyspepsia
already.

MARGARITA. 61

and jumped into a little dug-out. Twosmart Spanish boys
pulled rapidly for the sloop which was dancing on the
water with the fresh breeze and shewing plenty of her
copper sheathing. She was all but under weigh, the cap-
tain gave me a hand on board and after a little persuasion
agreed to wait a quarter of an hour, so the boys pulled
me ashore again and we soon returned with my baggage
and departed with the sanguine expectation of reaching
our destination early in the evening.

Dinner was served on the hatchway and it deserves
a passing word, Something worse than nightmare
or dyspepsia was threatened here, colic, tormina or
convulsions must surely be the upshot of this! Red
beans stewed with papellon, cloves and garlic, con-
creted slabs of rice and maize flour boiled together, and
cold corned fish with chopped raw onions were on the
table, but it is fair to say that it was followed by excellent
correétives in the shape of fine black coffee and old rum.
The shades of evening set in, the breeze died away, the
lights of Carupano being stillin full view, alas! Sothere
was nothing for it but to make a night of it, with the
compass box for a pillow and our legs hanging over the
bulwarks. I tried to make the best of it, gazing at the
stars and listening to the groaning and creaking of the
mast and cordage, and the flapping of the main sail,
until the rain came down, and then it was a case of
sitting it out with waterproofs etc.

At dawn Margarita was fairly in sight ; the mountains,
casting off their shadows, were gradually illumined by the
rising sun, exquisitely gilded and tinted in every variety of
colour. Surely unless it is the old story “ that distance
lends enchantment to the view” this must be a brighter

62 TIMEHRI.

place than the money-grubbing town we left behind us?
At last there came a faint breeze and we slowly headed
towards our destination, sighting Pampotar at mid-
day ; in the meantime we all amused ourselves fishing
and shooting pelicans. The bay of Pampotar is beauti-
ful, the sea emerald green, and the sands white as snow.
A few shabby huts and the Resguardo front the sea, with a
large white two-storied house, formerly occupied by Dr.
FREELAND—who lost money in exploiting phosphates,
but eventually cleared out with a large fortune acquired in
the exercise of his profession—within which is a.colleétion
of red tiled daub and wattle stru€tures and an old Spanish
Fort. The only shade perceptible is a cocoanut tree
divested of leaves and a thorn tree onthe beach! The
soil generally is more like a bed of lava than arable
land; everything is scorched up! It is necessary to ob-
serve however that this melancholy spot is not to be
taken into account as a seaport, it has given place to
other towns more favourably situated.

On landing (Sunday) I was marched off to the Guard
House, bag and baggage, as a suspicious charaéter, but on
showing the very polite official the cover of a letter to
General ORTEGA he forthwith produced a bottle of fine old
rum and cigarettes and slung me upahammock. Whilst
awaiting animals to convey me to Porlamar I saw a
number of poor children suffering rather severely from
measles, and one woman with cancer of the breast which
was being treated by blistering, as the unfortunate woman
said, to dry it up or disperse it! The ride (of about 5
miles) from Pampotar to Porlamar the chief sea port,
was interesting. After passing some sand dunes and
rocky hills, we crossed the Llanos or Plains (savannas).

MARGARITA. 63

One is here strongly reminded of South Africa ; the same
stunted bushes with scanty grass between, and pools
of water here and there, fat cattle everywhere, sheep
goats and pigs grazing together and making up with the
young shoots of the bushes for any shortcomings in
respeét to the grass. The bushes were mostly thorny
with a great deal of divi-divi and other Czsalpinias. It
is rather puzzling to make out how it pays to pick divi-
divi pods, weighing so light as they do, and selling only
at about £5 aton, Itis done here by the children ; how
would the interesting little ones at our village schools take
to this industry? When in Carupano | noticed a barque
lying there which had been chartered to take 100 tons of
divi-divi and 200 tons lignum vita, from Pampotar.
The most interesting feature in my ride was certainly
the marvellous colleێtion of birds, of every variety and of
the gayest plumage—I never saw so many together out
of an aviary. Tropials, humming birds and some in full
song—the “ rossignol” pointed out to me, is probably a
troglodyte, but appeared larger than the “‘ ozseau de bon
dieu” of Trinidad, the song is most melodious and com-
prises many different notes, but not equal of course to
that of the nightingale of Europe:

All along the road we met men and women, probably
returning from church, the men well-favoured enough,
but the women with a look of inexpressible sadness and
premature old age, and wearing ugly cotton handker-
chiefs tied under their chins, which added to their mean
appearance. If however but little can be said of their
personal attraétions, their industry is beyond all praise.
They may be seen going to market driving heavy-laden
donkeys before them, with loads upon theirown heads, and

64 TIMEHRL

utilising their hands at the same time forknitting. They
are about } white and } Indian and possibly such a life
of toil combined with their maternal cares is the cause of
their early break down. Both men and women are as
solemn as Dutchmen but very polite and respeétful,
none passing without an “ A Dios!” or “ Salud Senor.”
A few bright eyed young faces with long raven tresses
are seen now and then peeping out of the doorways, and
one regrets that their charms have but such an ephemeral
existence. Late in the afternoon we reached Porlamar.
Here is an ugly looking church, a large plaza, or square,
with an ornamental fountain in the centre and stunted
trees,—* Llaque,’”’ a hardwood used for boat building—
fairly broad streets, at right angles, very little verdure
anywhere, and the same white buildings with red tiled
roofs, iron gratings for windows, and an excess of heavy
blank walls, but comfortable courtyards with flowers and
fountains zmside. The faétis the Spaniards (and Venezue-
lans) build their houses on different principles to West
Indians; with us the design is to catch all the breeze
possible, disregarding the sun and glare—e.g. iron roofs
and jalousie doors and windows—the Venezuelans exclude
both. The construétion of their roofs is worthy of our
attention, a layer of cana brava (our white roseau) on
the rafters, (which may be plastered and whitewashed or
not) then 8 or 10 inches of ¢afza or mortar, and finally
the red tiles.

Porlamar is probably twice the size of St. Joseph,
comprising more business houses, and there is plenty
of bustle with the country people coming and going.
Two well equipped Pharmacies are conspicuous, and
one notes the absence of hams, jams, pickles and

MARGARITA. 65

ev

—

quack medicines, which do not add to the profes-
sional chara€ter of our leading chemists shops in
Port of Spain. The market is held more or less on the
beach, under the shade of some thorn trees; carcases
hang on the branches, from which the butcher hacks at
random (joints are unknown) gorgeous king fish and
pague (red fish) none less than 8 or ro Ibs, lie in heaps
and are sold for 15 or 20 cents each. The sea is
magnificent ; as at Pampotar, the anchorage is alive with
small coasting craft trading to Barcelona, Cumana, Caru-
pano, Trinidad, etc. In Porlamar. good old-time hospi-
tality still reigns, and therefore there are no hotels,
although it boasts of a restaurant, billiard room, and soda
fa€tory (without ice). I was comfortably installed in the
house of Herr ROTTE a German, who like many of
his countrymen, has become a Venezuelan in speech and
manners, but is nevertheless betrayed by his honest
Saxon face and stalwart frame. Thanks to the generosity
of my host I started for Asuncion, the ancient capital
of the island, the next morning (Monday 16th) witha
good mount and the escort of hisson. Riding out of the
town we passed a long line of buildings, shed built,
covered with the usual red tiles, one long roof sloping
from the street, mostly open at the back, thieves being’
supposed only tocome in at the front ; my escort informed
me the houses nearer the town were occupied by a
colony of fishermen, those more distant by agriculturists,
The country in the dire€&tion we were now taking was
again quite South African ; plains interse€ted with ridges
of mountains, some 4,000 feet in height, the general
aspeét like Cariacou, but bright green here and there in
the valleys and on the cool mountain slopes. A remark.
i

66 TIMEHRI.

able oasis of this kind is £/ Valle from whence the
water supply of the town is derived, it is a very bright
place indeed, with canes, and every description of fruit
trees and plenty of water, about 3 miles from Porlamar,
but in spite of the generally arid charaéter of the country
there comparatively is very little land out of cultivation
and you pass felds of plantains carefully fenced in,
carefully weeded and planted in lines, as well as Yucca or
Mantoc canes everywhere. Distilleries and potteries are
all busy, as the earth is of the best quality for pottery. The
road was excellent but scarcely wide enough at places
for two to ride abreast (there is no wheel traffic in the
island) ; like in other parts of Venezuela you have a line
of trees (thorn bushes) which affords shelter from the sun
and serves also for a fence. After a leisurely ride of
about 3 hours, including stoppages at many houses along
the road, where my lively companion was always warmly
received, he declaring that the Muchachas were her-
mosisima, and muy sympatica, we entered Asuncion,
once honoured by the arrogant H7zda/gos and the flower
of the Spanish Army, but now the retreat of a few quaint
old-fashioned people and poor tillers of the soil. Zempora
mutantur! What was KINGSLEY thinking of with
his “ At last ’and the many yachtsmen who hunt out inter-
esting places, not to come here ? for surely it is worthy
the pencil of both poet and artist. The town is
proteéted, or was so formerly before the days of modern
artillery, by a castle on a low hill overlooking the town,
and which, although unoccupied appears inta&t. There
are also the remains of no less than 7 churches, one is
the present church of the Asuncion a very quaint
old-world building with funny porticos, alcoves, turrets

MARGARITA, 67

——

and steps leading up from outside to the belfry. Inside
it is symmetrical and substantial, with many altars,
the most famous of which is of course that of the
miraculous virgin, to whose shrine great pilgrimages are
made; her dress is simply covered with the richest of
pearls. That reminds one that if Margarita is not the
Pearl of the Antilles it is the Antille of Pearls (many
persons may not be aware that this island is counted as
one of the Antilles) and although time and perhaps the
elements have depreciated the value of the pearl beds,
it is likely that they helped to keep up the Spanish
magnificence 200 years ago. Besides the Saints proper
there is a sort of miscellaneous colle€tion ; it occurred to
me that they must have taken shelter here from the
abandoned churches, but an intelligent little boy who
accompanied me said it was not so, some even were
home made; “ they made a great show at processic ns” he
said, otherwise they remained, hidden each locked up in
his own little cupboard. There was al:oa very funny
organ, I did not think it was intended to play but I found
it rolled out good old Gregorian music the next morning at
Mass. I regretted much that time did not permit a
fuller examination of the many antique brasses and fres-
coes of this rare old church. Another of the old churches
is utilised as a College and the others are most pi€turesque
ruins. Besides the churches there are the ruins of the
old Spanish Theatre, Governor’s Palace, etc. The streets
are narrow and paved, the squares full of fruit trees and
in fair order. Bordering the town is a deep ravine
with a fine stone bridge ard a pretty stream at the
bottom, on each side of the stream a fine cultivation of
cocoanuts, fruits, bananas etc., with water trickling every
12

68 TIMEHRI,

where; from many points the*most exquisite sketches
might be obtained. The stillness of this strange city and
the appearance of ruins everywhere suggests the idea of
the living chained to the dead “ the prostrate form of
old Spain with a degenerate facing of modern life.”
The place should be earthed over and left alone; it is
demoralising! My companion ‘ GULIELMO” told me
that it would not do to pass the Sierras at night,
and then the dreaded Laguna Salada, so we must
fain put up with the hospitality of a Posada or
tavern. Ifthe town reminded me of old Spain, the land
of DON QUIXOTE, surely the Posada quickened the
idea—a huge apartment, dim hanging lamps, a group
of women cooking at one end and groups of men seated or
standing at the other, with the back open to the Court-yard.
Our host, a pleasant kindly fellow, soon set before us
some excellent home-made sausages, wheaten bread,
fresh butter. cheese, sardines, &c., and excellent coffee.
After dinner every one played dominoes, chatted and
told conundrums, but I observed no one called for liquor-
a strange inn truly—At ro or 11, hammocks were
slung up and we turned in, but to be in the hammocks
was one thing, to sleep quite another. When the moon
rose it was quite impossible not to piéture to oneself the
dear old figure of DON QUIXOTE, who had taken the inn
for a castle and the Inn-keeper for a Castellan waiting
to be dubbed a knight, passing up and down watching
his arms lying on the water but (in place of an altar)
with lance and shield in hand (following the text.)

“ At this time, it happened that one of the carriers wanted to give his

mules some water; for which purpose it was necessary to remove Don
Quixore’s armour from the cistern ; who seeing him advance, exclaimed

MARGARITA. 69

with a loud voice,‘O thou, whoscever thou art, rash knight! who
approachest the armour of the most valiant adventurer that ever girded
sword, beware of what thou dost, and touch it not, unless thou wouldst
yield thy life as the forfeit cf thy temerity. The carrier heeded not
this admonition (though better would it have been for him if he had),
but, seizing hold of the straps, he threw the armour some distance from
him ; which Don QuixoTe perceiving, he raised his eyes to heaven, and
addressing his thoughts, apparently, to his lady Dutcinga, said:
‘ Assist me, O lady, to avenge this first insult offered to your vassal’s
breast ; nor let your favour and proteétion fail me in this first perilous
encounter.’ Having uttered these and similar ejaculations, he let slip
his target, and raising his lance with both hands, he gave the carrier
such a stroke upon the head that he fell to the grouud in so grievous a
plight that, had the stroke been repeated, there would have been no
need of a surgeon. This done, he replaced his armour, and continued
his parade with the same tranquility as before.”
At daylight these idle fancies were unceremoniously
dispelled by the appearance of coffee and the necessity
of taking to the road betimes. In the early morning
(Tuesday the 16th) we rode out of Asuncion en route
for Juan Griego and soon reached the Szerras, our
animals having gingerly to climb a zigzag path paved with
huge solid boulders, dating from the Spanish time.
Here new visions of DON QUIXOTE quite overcame one—
why should not these Szerras be the veritable Sierra
Morena? They were dry enough, and wild and brown
enough ; one had but to fancy the gaunt, half naked, but
chivalrous form of the old knight with his rosary made
from the galls of Cork trees doing penance to the fair
DULCINEA DEL TOBOSO.
“ Ye lofty trees, with spreading arms

The pride and shelter of the plain;

Ye humbler shrubs and flowr'y charms,

Which here in springing glory reign !

If my complaints your pity move,

Hear the sad story of my love}

40 Timenrt.
Se
While with me here you pass your hours,

Should you grow faded with my cares,
I'll bride you with refreshing showers ;
You shall be watered with my tears,
Distant, though present in idea,

I mourn my absent Dulcinea del Toboso.”

Reaching the summit of the Sierra there was an end to
poetic reveries, as the fresh breeze from the Atlantic
braced up one’s nerves, and the beautiful view of the
northern part of the island opened out. Plains, ranchos,
cattle, canes, cocoanuts and fruit trees, and generally
more verdure than on the southern part of the country.
On through a considerable village called Tacarigua, the
houses all of the same size and shape, tapia and red tiled,
each family owning their little cultivation in the moun-
tains—poor perhaps, but independent and mostly with
something put byinastocking. Two or three distilleries
were also here but no rum shops or evidence of drinking as
in every agricultural village in the West Indies. Land
grabbers don’t seem to thrive in this country, although
money is worth g4oor 50 percent! The Venezuelan laws
don’t favour such gentry. In this rather monoto-
nous and socialistic village there is an excellent school
(Escuela Federal No. 46). There are no priestly bicker-
ings about assisted schools etc., as the Government
wisely manages everything on one uniform plan. Edu-
cation is free and compulsory, nor does it seem
to make young Venezuela less religious, but then, of
course, they are all of one faith. It is curious to pass
through towns and villages, everywhere in this country,
and not to see loafers and beggars, so common in [rini-
dad—perhaps the revolutions clear away this scum of the
earth? If so, oh for a few revolutions at home, On we

MARGARITA. ay

went through Tacarigua where everyone not at work in
the frelds was busily employing in-weaving hammocks or
plaiting the little cheap straw hats familiar with us. After
a few miles of the same mixed cultivation, tobacco, black-
eye peas, canes, etc., we reached ‘‘ E/ Worte’’ built
on a terrace some height above the sea level, it ranks
only as a pueblo or village but has a fine old church
in the centre, and good substantial houses, a fine
aquadut, gardens, and fine fruit trees. It is a cool quiet
place well suited for persons with shattered nerves and
broken health, I was rather surprised at a custom my com-
panion told me was quite chzef, which was riding into
houses and remaining in the saddle talking to the ladies,
without dismounting, in what might correspond to the
saloon or drawing room with us, but it must be taken
into account that the apartments are vast and paved with
tiles. 1 was introduced to the Abbé, who started to
address me in French with great volubility, but even-
tually broke down and resorted to his native tongue,
Spanish alone is understood in this country by gentry
and peasants alike and it is impossible to get on without
understanding it. Continuing our route the roadside
was very freely dotted with little wooden crosses; they
stand for patriots shot there in the fights of old; every
one uncovers in passing. Another feature in this land of
the faithful is a well-kept, trim little chapel inviting way-
arers to enter and worship a fragment of the Holy Cross
presented therein. And now we pass the famous or
‘Tather infamous Laguna Salada, surely a disgrace
to the Island, as a paved causeway might so easily be
made; ag it is you sink every now and then into mud
as black 2s imk. It was not very bad when we passed.

72 TIMEHRI.

The country now became pastoral and studded with
thorn bushes with wonderfully knotted and gnarled
stems; as they are all hard wood they would be
valuable to fancy furniture and garden seat manufac-
turers. We met a party of Generals in mufti but wear-
ing purple military caps, also a local do€tor, he said he
knew me “ very much long.” Next a gentleman—called a
Curioso/ a Quack Doétor or local Kickapoo. Approach-
ing Juan Griego we enter a long, interminably long
street termed Calle Arismend: (after a patriot)—round
the corner, and a cheerful, bustling and truly pi€turesque
little town is before us. A creek called La Salina,
like a river, runs through it, crossed by solid stone or
concrete bridges (Spanish masons I observed were em-
ployed) the streets are narrow and delightfully irregular,
the stores and dwellings of the usual Spanish type. An
opportunity was afforded me of, judging at one glance
of the produce by a kind of impromptu market held in
the open street. Our old friend moko or jumbi fig was
present and also plantains, bananas, sive, tanias, lemons,
limes and oranges, avocado, balangene, sugar apples, etc.
also capital cakes and white bread, but mainly aripa or
johnny cakes made from white maize flour. This little
town presents a handsome front to the sea and has quite
an “ Esplanade,” with a handsome water fountain,
light house and ornamental trees. The sea view is too
lovely to describe—a rugged coast line, rocky islets,
sandy white beaches and mountains on mountains. This
wild scenery and the distant Testigos (the witnesses)
remind one of the early history of the Island, full of
romance, the haunts of the Buccaneers—amongst the
most renowned being Captain TEAGHE of Testigos, the

)

MARGARITA. 73

Blue Beard of the Antilles. Where did he recruit his
wives. Testigos lies N. E. of Margarita and is now un-
inhabited except by parties of fishermen who visit it from
time to time. The anchorage at Juan Griego is alive
with shipping ; faluchos, sloops, schooners, and fine fishing
boats, all owned in the country. There are no absentee
proprietors here. The people love their island and are
proud of it. The business houses do not differ much
from thriving country stores in Trinidad except that their
trade is on arather more extensive scale. 1 observed piles
of cases of Lafitte, Pontet, Cane-Clicquot, etc. ; who drinks
these I don’t know, as in every house I entered water
drinking was striétly the order of theday. As the 30 0/o
ad valorem duty is remitted here perhaps they sell it on
the main land? Cement I observed was sold at $5 a
barrel retail, print dresses 12c. and 15c. a yard, white
pine boards at roc. a foot, English potatoes 12c. a pound,
lager beer 28c. a bottle, meat, either beef, mutton, goat,
or pork roc, a pound, fine fowls 25c. or 30c. each, fish
only to be described in the superlative degree, as at
Porlamar, at almost nominal value. It is remarkable
that no small fish are seen here and perhaps this accounts
for the high and superabundant quality of the fisheries.
There is no need of a close season as seines and fillettes
as used in the Gulf of Paria are unknown. In a few
years more if the present system is carried out in Trini-
dad, Port-of-Spain will have to dispense with fresh fish
altogether as an article of diet. Native rum is of course
dirt cheap, one cent purchases a glass é discretion, but
the natives rarely indulge in it except on Feast-days ; the
canny people seil it down the opposite coast, a rum
licence costing $1 20 a month. The thriving little town
K

74 TIMEHRI.

of Juan Griego, not probably comprising more than 5,000
inhabitants, is a great reproach to our tumble-down,
dusty, thirsty San Fernando. Whilst the great sugar
Metropolis can only run a few paltry hydrants for six
months in the year, with a scanty supply of water neither
fit for cooking nor washing purposes, Juan Griego pays
no water rates whatever, and has the finest spring water,
conveyed from a distance of 7 miles to the town, the
force as pointed out to me in a private yard from a two
inch pipe exceeding any that I have seen in ordinary
domestic use. At the time of my visit there was evi-
dently a good deal of nervous excitement about the
ele€tions ; | observed pretty closely the different views
expressed; and although many belonged to a different
party to the one now in power, yet such has been the
distress brought about by the late civil war that for the
sake of peace, every one wishes that General CRESPO
may continue in power. Even by those who deny his
administrative ability, it is admitted that his patriotism
and high qualities as a soldier guarantee that so long as
he holds the reins of Government the intrigues of mal-
contents will be of no avail, and industry will resume its
steady course, the country being rich enough to pay for
any ¢aches on the part of his administrative staff, and
after all is said and done what do they amount to? Do
the peculations of a few officials in the Republic amount
to anything like the waste and extravagance of British
Crown Colonies? If so where is the Medical Establish.
ment in this or any other Spanish Republic that costs
$200,000? With a population of 2,000,000, against
200,000 in Trinidad would you find 10,000 people living
at the Government expense in hospitals and other insti-

MARGARITA. 75

tutions* (5 per cent of the population) the streets full of
loiterers, loafers, and unemployed beggars? The day I
returned to Trinidad I found 100 begyars in front of a
merchant’s store (a€tually counted). Venezuela is a
badly governed country some say but they know better
than to allow cranks and dipsomaniacs to disgrace their
Courts of Justice, and if they find a pronuncitamento a
quicker remedy to dispose of traitors and incapables
than Royal Commissions I don’t blamethem. I found the
law administered in Carupano by a Judge of the Court of
first instance with a salary of $60 a month, and a clerk
of the peace at $20. So much to their credit then. It
shews that apart from political disturbances they prefer
attending to their business instead of spending their
lives in endless litigation as in Trinidad. If the patient
reader has followed me thus far, with my moralising, I
will simply add that having breakfasted at the house of
a wealthy and hospitable merchant in the town, | reluc-
tantly mounted my animal and returned to Porlamar,
where it was necessary to arrive the same evening in
order to catch the steamer Paparo crossing over to
Carupano. Nothing need be said of the rather fatiguing
route homewards except perhaps to notice two jolly fel-
lows, arminarm,in Asuncion. “ Borachones,” exclaimed
my companion—certainly they were the first and last that
I saw in Venezuela.

We reached Porlamar at 8 p.m. and after a hurried
leave-taking and packing up found ourselves on board
the little river steamer, the Paparo, a mere temporary
makeshift and in no way fitted for aroughsea. It was at

* Trinidad actually provides accommodation for something like the

above number.
KZ

76 TIMEHRI.

any rate better than running one’s chance ina sailing
vessel, which takes in times of calm and adverse currents
as much as 7 or 8 days; a catastrophe to be avoided by
all valetudinarians. We reached Carupano at 5 a.m,
O€tober the 2oth, and on Friday the 22nd I took passage
in the Dutch Mail Packet for Port-of-Spain. The accom-
modation and the fare is homely and in some respeéts
preferable to the larger boats.

My conclusions, after rather a hurried visit, from a
sanitary point of view are:

1. That Margarita is highly suited for chest com-
plaints, and the sequelz of malarial fever.

2. The mean temperature is higher than Trinidad, but
owing to its even chara€ter and the absence of humidity
lighter clothes can be worn and therefore the heat is
not felt.

3. The absence of hotels or houses to rent is a bar at
present to any one in ill health; the difficulty of access
and the hardship on the route via Carupano should also
make the trip to any one not in robust health prohibitory.

4. The bathing is perfeét, and there is also splendid
fishing and rabbit and wild goat shooting.

5. Food is varied in quality cheap and excellent;
the fish being magnificent; oysters are abundant and
of fine quality (there is also the chance of finding a
pearl).

6. It is said that a line of steamers is to run from
La Guayra, to Port-of-Spain, touching at Margarita. This
should induce Demerarians and Trinidadians to make a
move in the direétion of obtaining suitable houses or
hotels. The climate is u¢terly unlike and infinitely
superior to Barbados.

MARGARITA. 79

7. The area of Margarita is very considerable. The
population was 40,000 at the last census; it is as dry as
you could wish, but for those who don’t like too much of
a good thing there are many cool bright places with
running streams and verdure everywhere, such as El Valle,
El Norte, and San Juan.

From a commercial point of view I am of the opinion
that one of our regular line of steamers should call there ;
it is not out of their route, and no doubt much of the
present export trade which now goes to ports on the
Spanish Main would come here, and the exports from
Trinidad, already considerable, would increase ; the possi-
bility of a large passenger traffic in the future should
also be taken into account.

Reflections on the Increase of Town Populations.

By C. E. Macnamara, Diplomate in State Medicine, &c., &c.

O those who can carry their minds back some
forty or fifty years, it seems almost a new
phase in education that many of the minor

sciences have become so general. Classes of persons
now discuss statistics and other dry topics, with a free-
dom which was quite unknown to the same class of
persons half a century ago. Thus we find the question
of population, the increase of its numbers, its prospects,
resources and even destiny, are all familiar topics for
enlarging upon by ordinary journals and such literature
as seeks general popularity amongst the class which
makes up the majority of the people ; whilst the people no
longer look upon the statist as a scientific creature,
whose mania consists of the compilation of figures, with
their percentages and ratios, and the deduétion there-
from of theories tending to the consternation if not con-
fusion of the uninitiated. No, all this amongst many
other things has changed and now we find that the
comprehension of population as regards its number and
increase has during the present generation converted
itself from being a subjeét of more or less scientific
study, as it once was, to being, as it now is, a matter
upon which the general community keeps itself informed,
and the information and knowledge obtained probably
can be utilized far more to its own ultimate advan-
tage than the same might be in the hands of the statist
for scientific purposes alone, and so it comes about that

THE INCREASE OF TOWN POPULATIONS. 79

probably there are few—even school children—at the
present day who do not know that out of every thousand
persons living at the present epoch only about half asmany
die annually as did from a similar number say 50 years
ago. This, coupled with the natural increase of the
community, forms annually a very appreciative addition
to the population, and so far such information is most
satisfaێtory. There are however various ways in which
such a faét may be considered, and for the present it may
be sufficient to allude to one circumstance which is
making itself very measurably felt by the present aug-
mented population, and that is the increasing compe-
tition for almost standing-room and for the means of
an honest and independent existence. The fa€t of such
a struggle if it but leads to the desired goal is in the
absolute but a question of sentiment and probably un-
worthy of a community’s consideration—but the effe&
it has on the majority of those who fall short of the
mark is a different matter, and in so far as it injuriously
recoils upon the masses becomes worthy of every con-
sideration in our power.

A contributor to a back number of the Contemporary
Review points out that “ one-fourth of the people who
attain the age of 65 are compelled to resort to the Reliev-
ing Officer for that bare subsistence upon which they
linger out their lives.” This largely arises from the faé&
that the younger population is quite unable to assist in
supporting the eider, no matter how closely they may be
related. The outbidding each other which is going on
on all sides leaves a man hardly able to do more than
support himself ; and should he be married, as too many of
these poor men men are, he finds his difficulties in making

80 TIMEHRI.

ends meet probably much increased and perhaps resorts
to such measures as infant insurance, through which his
proper affections for his offspring may become strained.
Individuals who are in daily intercourse with the poorer
classes of the people see hardships increasing instead of
growing less, and though the population is not decimated -
by infe€tious diseases to the same extent as formerly,
still has not this keen struggle its own injurious effeé&
upon the people? and in the increase both in size and
number of Hospitals, Work-houses, Lunatic Asylums
and Jails there is anything but evidence to be found of
the diminution of the effects of such competition. One
would like to see the want for these institutions move in
an inverse rate to the increase of the people. I have
frequently heard it said that the present population,
taken as a whole, is not proportionately a more effective
and robust one than that which was made up of its ances-
tors of say 50 years ago, and I believe it may be put for-
ward as something more than a hypothesis, that ina
given community at the present day there are more
“ ailing” than was the case in a similar community for-
merly. Is it true that the hale, robust and sound aged
persons are no more numerous now in proportion than
the same were, say 50 years ago? And again is it true
that the ancemic and fragile folks, in fa€t the constitu-
tionally and nervously weak, have increased in propor-
tion? I make no assertion that it is so, such may be all
wrong—lI hope it is—but undoubtedly there are some cir-
cumstances which support the contention of its being a
fact. It would take statistics compiled on the physical
condition of the living at two remote periods to prove
this one way or the other, and such proof is impossible to

THE INCREASE OF TOWN POPULATIONS. 81

demonstrate by such comparison for no such statistics are
to be found comprehensive enough to make the result of
such enquiry valuable. There is however not the same
difficulty in informing oneself as to the reason why these
ailments should be more noticeable now than formerly,
the reason is that it was this class of fragile folks
that made up the higher mortality of former years.
Such a class did not live so long then as now, it had
hardly time therefore to shew its pale face before it was
handed over to the majority ; such a class could not sur-
vive the struggle for existence plus the effeét of unsanitary
influences. But now we have it with us, and we may
justly hope that as such a class it will not long remain
but that with improved surroundings and beneficient
social changes it may outlive its present inherent debility.*

It may seem in the face of such bright prospeéts of
the community being of an all round healthy one, some-
what pessimistic on the part of any one to view the
question as having any possibly doubtful good effeét
upon the community itself. But it may be asked, even
with a present non-effe&tive element composed of those
fragile folks whether in the struggle for a living a penny is
as easily gotten to-day as it was some 50 years ago? Is
the competition for it less keen? And, when we have
earned that same penny does it go further towards life’s
necessities than it did formerly? It is to be feared that
the answer to all this is “a thundering No!” It is quite
true that for the fortunate individual who gains employ-

* From a biological point of view there can be no hereditary im-
provement of such an unfit class, the progressive improvement of the
community eliminates such a class; but as the present paper is not a
biological one, I have taken the liberty of expressing myself as above.

L

82 TIMEHRI.

ment wages may be, and undoubtedly are, higher, but in
the tace of corresponding increases in general prices save
perhaps clothing, tea and sugar, such higher wages are
but a relative increase; such a fortunate individual may
live better now than he would have done formerly, but
the struggle to get into the position and to keep in it
when there is greater than it was. This side of the
question belongs perhaps more to the economist than to
the workers in public health, yet it has an effe€tive aspeét
which may justly interest such workers, and it is this.
With an increase in the effe€tive population there is also
as we have seen an increase in the competition to
procure the necessities of life, that is, for the major por-
tion which has to seek such thorough work. It is no
compensation to consider that for the minor portion
which neither toils nor spins such a struggle makes many
luxuries easier to procure and the labour of others
cheaper to obtain; and in the face of such competition it
may be considered what these circumstances will bring
about, and on that point there is not much doubt, forthe
result is to be seen already in the rapidly augmenting com-
munities of our towns, which are the usual resort of the
surplus rural population. They cause, and keep up an in-
crease in the exhausted nervous systems of those who have
to compete with brain work, whilst the manual workers
find themselves pressed more closely on all sides with a
result that both classes have their physical condition run
down below par and in this way, through their physio-
logical misery, are most susceptible to the very diseases
which we find the Public Health Army most a€tively
fighting against. Again, as such competition and con-
ditions of life go on and indeed daily increase, will

Tuk INCREASE oF Town PopPuLATIONS. 83

———

nourishing food be easier to procure? Will the tempta-
tion to drink become less? Such perhaps are questions
more for the legislator than the public health worker still
there can be no line of demarcation between these social
reformers over the drink question. It is however much
to be regretted, as regards these two workers for the
public good, that they are not keeping pace together.
Sanitary reform is certainly going faster than social
reform ; the former is galloping whilst the latter crawls !
And whilst this continues it is impossible but that pre-
ventive medicine in the great good it attempts must be
thwarted very much by its limping brother. The immense
good the former does and the vast blessings it confers
on all classes are to a certain extent negatived by a force
of circumstances over which it has no control. The
onus of the sorrow and sin occasioned by such competi-
tion as we have referred to cannot properly be laid at its
_ door. In referring to infant life assurance a recent number
of the Contemporary Review (July 1890) had the following
from one of its contributors, when relating the moral
degradation of some of the poor parents of these poorer
children, “ they have no patience with the slow ways of
death; they know the poor mother’s friends, syrups and
rat powder and biscuits. In all death-ways they are
clever.’ A temperate and just critic of that assertion
might ask, have they not been made so? What other
door is being held so wide open for them? But this
is not the point, and it becomes more praétical for us to
consider whether these evils will become less as the
people become more? A galioping increase in | popu-
lation and a hesitating limping condition of social
reform! The State must realize the fact that there
L2°

$4 TIMEHRI.

is a grave responsibility in permitting social reform to
stand almost still whilst it urges on the sanitary improve-
ment of the people. To be beneficial the two measures
must be synergetic. It is quite right that the people
should have pure air, pure water and pure food, but for
those who cannot get the money to procure the latter,
what does it all mean but that they should not beget in-
fe€tious diseases to the possible and probable injury of
the affluent! Starvation is not contagious, perhaps it
would be better for all if it were so, there would be
pleasant legislation to obviate it then, instead of measures
that make many almost rather die than avail themselves
of their cold charity, Yet hunger is as keen in the pure
as in the foul air and it becomes of little use to the star-
velings to know that their healthy though wasted corpses
eventually shall be washed in pure water! To the impa-
tient socialist it may seem in the face of such things that
our legislators see the force of urging on the sanitary
horse, it brings benefits to them but the social reform one
may graze by the wayside! In justice to them we know
that they cannot help themselves, but the ignorant and
impartial are seldom just. Still, the faét remains that
an augmented and healthy hungry population must work
cheaply. The sanitary reformers are doing their work,
it is not for them to pause, but the effeét of all their efforts
when unaided by a commensurate system of social reform
becomes as we have shewn a somewhat self-defeating
work. In an earlier part of this paper reference in pas-
sing was made to the drink evil, which is regarded by
almost every one, even the votaries at its shrine in their
sane intervals, as the fous et origo of most of the social
misery of our working class, but if we lift up the edge of

THE INCREASE OF TOWN POPULATIONS. 85

the curtain which shuts out our view of their domestic life
it may too often be seen that improvident marriages are
the cause of fully one-half of the drinking that goes on.
A man tired and worn out with toil, living with his family
in say one or two rooms, can in many instances look upon
his home only as a den seething with children, perchance
sick or ailing, a poor wife crushed in her comparative
youth through child-bearing ; health, spirits, temper, all
gone, her life hardly less than a burden to her. The
man’s home becomes in time little else than a burden to
him. Is it to be wondered at if eventually they both be-
take themselves to bask in the garish light of the nearest
public house—the devil’s palace—and there seek the
solace of oblivion in drink? Amongst the great if not the
greatest questions of social reform this one of marriage
should rank first, and the clergy should help us here. In-
stead of encouraging early marriages in the light of the
married living a life of sanctity, they might bear in mind
that like all hypothetical ventures there are at least two
issues to this, one of which is the future condition of any
parties whom they have the power to influence as
regards marriage. And it would not be too much to
expect the State to interfere in the following ways:
_ 1st. A man should before marrying, be expeéted to
give some proof that he is in a position socially to sup-
port a probable family.

2nd. The State through its Public Health Officers
should organise a system of sele€tion as regards the health
and general constitution, and even family history, of
those persons who desire to commit matrimony,

3rd. The State might take in hand some measure of
insuring the lives of married men in a general Nationa]

86 TIMEHRI.

Widows and Orphans Fund, so as to prevent as muchas
possible destitution in the event of the man’s early death.

There is another measure, but one for which the age is
not yet ripe and that is the curtailment of families as
regards their component numbers, such, in consideration
of the mother’s health, should be a legitimate and proper
matter of instru€tion to the woman whose fecundity
kills herself.

Late Rainfalls ; some of their Effects.*

By Fames Gillespie, Manager, Plantation Houston.

SHEN our worthy President did me the honour
$§ 6in January last, of asking for a paper to
4 be read before a general meeting of this
Speicty, I think it was not surprising when casting about
for a subje€t my mind should revert to what was then,
from a Planter’s point of view, the most burning, or
rather the most cool question of the day. I refer to the
very heavy rainfalls we have been experiencing during
the last 5 years, and if you will kindly bear with me for

a short time, | shall endeavour to point out some of the
difficulties and ill-effeéts caused thereby, especially on
stiff clay soils, to which my remarks will principally
apply.

If you will turn to the rainfall table in that valuable
book of reference, the British Guiana Direftory, you
will find that the average fall for 25 years previous to
1889 was 79°25 ‘‘ and that the mean for the last 5 years was
109°38,” a difference in excess for the latter period of
30°13 inches or 38 o/o above the ordinary rainfall.

The largest crop ever made in the colony was in the
year 1887 with a fall of 88°63, and somewhere near this
figure we may take to be, when evenly distributed, the
most suitable rainfall for our sugar crops, I do not
think any accurate information as to the yearly crops of
sugar is to be obtained; the Blue Books give us the
numbers of acres cultivated each year and from the same

* Read before the April Meeting of the Society,

88 TIMEHRI.

source we can get the quantity of sugar exported, but as
very few estates cut off their entire acreage in any year
and as on the other hand the hhds. or tons exported
do not give sufficiently correct data on which to base
statistics seeing much more sugar may remain unshipped
at the end of one year than another, it follows that there is
no reliable information from this source, and I know of
no other that can be laid before you showing how much
these 5 years under notice have come short of the average
yield. The following figures however, though not to be
absolutely relied on, are still of some value, vizt., in 1887,
mentioned above as Demerara’s best year, with a rainfall
of 88°63, the sugar exported shewed an average of 1.95
hhds. per acre cultivated, as against 1879 with 107°91 and
1°39 hhds. per acre; 1890 with 118°45 and 1°47 hhds;
the years 1892-93, when the colony’s financial year was
changed, appear to show an export of 1°66 hhds. per
acre cultivated ; these fgures shew the decided tendency
of the yield per acre for decreasing when the rainfall is
much above the normal.

It is well-known that the evil effe€ts of continuous
heavy rains are far more apparent in stiff clay soils than
on rich porous land, such as is to be seen at the back
of East Coast estates and elsewhere in the colony,
and it is in proportion as individual estates have more or
less of the former in cultivation that they do compara-
tively ill or well in such times as we have had lately.
In former years we used to expeét two dry and two wet
seasons inside every 12 months, the former being from the
middle of February to the beginning of May and the latter
from the middle of August to middle of November ; the wet
seasons occupying the remaining months. Now-a-days,

LATE RAINFALLS; SOME OF THEIR EFFECTS, 89

although the dry weather at the end of the year has never
been known to fail, the same can by no means be said about
the other or spring dry season, in faét its entice absence
has been quite common lately and in its stead we have
had simply a continuation of the heavy rains which began
at the end of November and often did not stop until the
later dry season began, and no doubt this want of
a dry season was the most hurtful feature in these five
years: It seems to be absolutely necessary that we
should have alternating wet and dry seasons, and the
want of either of these appears to be about equally dis-
astrous so far as stiff clay land is concerned.

From a careful analysis of figures within my reach I
find the loss in yield in heavy years such as these last
five have been, is as nearly as possible} of a ton ofsugar per
acre. This is over the whole year’s crop, and includes the
yield from good fields as well as poor ones ; of course indi-
vidually some of the fields did very much worse, one ton
per acre not being uncommon, and in some very bad
cases half a ton being all that was reaped, even with
manure and every care and attention. This large de-
crease in the yield, quite 15 o/o, is by no means the
only misfortune that follows such weather as we have
had lately, The cost of cultivation is higher in all its
items per acre, and when the poor yield is taken into
account, the cost per ton made in some items is enor-
mously increased; for instance weeding, I find has just
been doubled. During average weather we can gene-
rally lay our plans for the various field operations, such
as planting, supplying, weeding, forking etc., and may
reasonably expect to get them executed, but of late all
this has been changed, we can supply certainly, as long

M

go TIMEHRI.

as we have stumps and tops to do it with, and we
must weed, but forking is out of the question, and we all
know what it means to weed and not be able to fork
within a couple of weeks afterwards, the fields get dirty
again in no time, and now that the pinch for labourers is
felt, the resident gangs are quite unable to keep estates
clear and Managers have to offer high rates in order to
try and induce outside people or task gangs to weed
their fields. All this continual trampling of workers on
the sodden land has the effeét of entirely closing up the
drainage pores, and the fields soon have praétically no
drainage except onthe surface. In this state they remain
until dry weather comes again and the sun causes the
land to crack and open. When we have eight months
of continual wet weather, it is not easy to decide on
what is best to do, to help the starvyed-looking,
chilled canes. Drilling is held by many Planters to be
the correét thing, but some have long been of opinion it
is not the infallible remedy it is said to be, and indeed the
results of this work during two late crops on the estate I
have charge of point to its not being helpful at all; these
two years shew respectively 5 o/o and 16 o/o increased
yield in favour of undrilled fields—of course plants were
excluded. I may say the soils in both cases were very
similar, aud the drills were from 1 to 3 years old. It
seems to me drilling has the following objeétions :—
1st, It is expensive work ; 2nd, it does not help drain-
age materially ; 3rd, it is heavy work, and as it is gene-
rally done in wet weather a great deal of puddling of
the soil by the shovelmen is inevitable, and so probahly
does a deal more harm than good ; and 4th, it materially
diminishes the land available for food to the cane-roots

LATE RAINFALLS; SOME OF THEIR EFFECTS. ot

when the weather modifies and the roots spread. The
best way is to let the fields alone as far as shovel or fork
work is concerned, simply supply lightly, weed and wait
until weather moderates, If it is felt to be imperative
to try and help the drainage, then shovel moulding may
be found of great use, it assists surface drainage greatly
and enables us to give a good moulding to the canes at
times when hoe-moulding is impraé€ticable. Burying
trash is also a splendid help to drainage and may be per-
formed by the shovel when it is too wet to fork, it is
also of some value as a manure and this brings me to a
very important subje€t—manuring. I fear much that in
such times as are under discussion, even manure, which
in average seasons is one of the Planter’s best friends, is
often of little good; nay more, if you think of soil in such
a state as I have endeavoured to describe, with no drain-
age to support a cane crop, though the fields are
quite clean when the manure is applied, if you cannot
get people to keep them clean and forking may not be
done, then it stands to reason, and is a faét, that the
cane-roots being unhealtby are unable to utilise all the
manure, the weed roots in the soil being in a more
natural condition will unfortunately greedily absorb the
plant-food and the result is an increased growth of grass
to add greatly to our troubles.

There are other changes that may be seen, and per-
haps not the least strange is the alteration that takes
place in the grasses on heavy soil land. Fields that you
knew grew nut grass (Cyperus rotundus) or para grass
(Panicum molle) so \uxuriantly in former times, are now
found instead to be infeéted by sour grass (Paspalum con-
jugatum), a sort of wire grass (Scirpus capillaris) that

M2

92 TIMEHRI.

at other times grew at the bottom of the drains, and a
grass called locally busy-busy (Cyperus laxus). The
reason for these substitutions must be that the land is
now so sodden and altered that it can no longer support
the former weeds, and so the latter, which are more
hardy and require less depth of soil have taken their
place.

When you now abandon fields to rest them or change
their crops, you will not find them covered hy black sage
in say 6 months as formerly, but if let alone there will
shortly be a heavy growth of sour grass.

Provision growing is an entirely separate industry
from cane-cultivation, it is under a quite different set of
people, and it too has suffered quite as much if not more
than the latter. The following faéts I am enabled to lay
before you. At Houston, which is conveniently situated
to the Georgetown Markets, there has always been a
considerable acreage so cultivated; in 1889 there were
3054 acres being worked; 1890, 152 acres; 1891, 693
acres; 1892, 67 acres and last year only 47% acres.
This falling off is entirely due to unfavourable seasons
and it is within my personal knowledge that many of
these Farmers, principally Portuguese, lost very large
sums of money. I saw them persevering in weeding and
supplying, but the rains kept on and they threw up the
sponge and left, leaving in many cases fields on which
$50 per acre had been expended, with absolutely no
return, rather than continue against what they considered
such fearful odds.

There are many more ill-effeéts I might mention, such
as the wretched spring we get from fields cut in heavy
weather, entailing a highly increased expenditure in sup-

LATE RAINFALLS; SOME OF THEIR EFFECTS. 93

plying ; and also the great damage done lately by borers
and caterpillars, a natural sequence to weakly, unhealthy,
young canes; as well as the presence of late years of a
regular plague of red stinging ants in the cane-pieces,
adding much to our difficulties in getting people to work
the fields, and so on, but I have already said enough to
show how very adverse the effeéts of late rain-falls have
been and I shall now conclude by saying that a further
reference to the B. G. Direétory will show that to the end
of last year, the names of some g sugar estates, other than
those amalgamated, have disappeared since 188g, and
though it would perhaps be too much to say that adverse
seasons were entirely responsible for this, still there is no
doubt they materially helped in their downfall.

A high if not the highest authority in the colony on
climatic changes says these generally occur in cycles of
5 or 7years. We have had 5 years already, appearances
this year point to a very favourable change in the
weather, so let us hope we are done with bad seasons
and that we shall have a return of our former good
times, to put those of us who have come through so many
disappointments lately, into good heart, to renew with
energy the all important fa€tor in the colony’s welfare—
the careful cultivation of the soil.

Steam Husbandry with Open Drainage in
. Demerara.

By the Hon. E. C, Luard.*

\GREEABLY with a promise which a short time
back I gave our President Mr. R. G. DUNCAN,
3 [| will now, with your permission, read a short
paper on Open Drainage and Steam Husbandry in

Demerara.

It is with great diffidence that I approach the subjeét,
and it is only because I could not hit upon any other
agricultural subjeét of interest, to which I could do
justice, that I chose this one.

I must premise that there is nothing original in what
follows, which in the main will prove simply a plain
statement of an experiment, the account of which in its
initial stage may possibly interest fellow-planters and
others.

You are all aware that horse husbandry was introduced
into the colony a great many years ago—as far as I can
gather, immediately after Emancipation.

On the 12th July 1875, the following resolution was
passed by the Court of Policy :—

“That the resolution of the Combined Court, authorising the
Governor to offer premiums, not exceeding in the whole $100,000, to
any person or persons who shall introduce into the colony machinery
capable of tilling the soil, and performing other work connetted
with the manufaéture of sngar at a moderate expense, be communicated

to the Planter's Committee; and that the Committee be invited to draw
up for publication a statement of the agricultural operations in the

—

* Read before the April Meeting of the Society.

at Ee ee ee ae ee ae

.

qe at Fier es

Cw I es pO

a et al
Ss

A

STEAM HUSBANDRY WITH OPEN DRAINAGE. = 95

field, which, in their opinion, can be effe&ted by machinery specially
designed for the purpose, and of the difficulties which the face of the
country presents by reason of the open drains and canals which inter-
sect the canefields; aad also a statement of any other operations, such
as the carriage of canes from the field to the punts, in which machinery
might supersede manual labour. And that the Planter’s Committee be
further requested to express their opinion as to the amount of premium
which should be offered for each description of machinery.”

The resolution of the Combined Court referred to in
the foregoing resolution of the Court of Policy is as

follows :—

“ That looking at the fact that almost the whole of the Agricultural
work in this colony is done by manual labour, and at a very great cost,
this Court is of opinion that encouragement ought to be given with a
view to the introduction of labour saving machinery for the cultivation
of the soil and other purposes connected with the manufacture of our
staple—resolved therefore that His Excellency the Governor be autho.
rised, and he is hereby authorised, to offer premiums not exceeding
$100,0c0, to any person or persons who shall introduce into the colony,
machinery capable of tilling the soil and other purposes connected
with the manufaéture of our staple of this colony, which can be worked
at a moderate expense compared with the expense at present attending
the cultivation of the soil, and that such premiums be offered on terms
and conditions to be fixed by His Excellency the Governor and the
Court of Policy.”

From this it will be seen what great interest was taken
in the matter, and in conneétion with the above resolution,
the late Mr. WM. RUSSELL, the “ Sugar King,” as he was
justly called, wrote a very valuable pamphlet entitled
** Report on the Agricultural Wants of British Guiana,”
(printed by WATERLOW & Sons) and presented it to
the Court of Policy through the Planter’s Committee of
British Guiana.

In this pamphlet Mr. RUSSELL gave a most interesting
account of the attempts—(and failures)—to make horse

husbandry a success on our sugar estates, and according

96 TIMEHRI,

to Mr. RUSSELL the first attempt was made at Pln.
Canefield, Berbice, followed by another at Pln. Friends,
and by yet another (coupled this time with tile drainage,)
at Pln. La Penitence.

While these trials of horse husbandry were going on
in the colony, considerable attention was being direéted
at home to steam ploughing, and the legislature of this
colony voted $5,000, to be offered as a prize to any
person who introduced steam tillage into the colony.

The late Mr. RUSSELL states that the first trial of
steam tillage was made on Pln. Houston, and subse-
quently further trials were made at Leonora, for which
Mr. RUSSELL claimed * partial success.’ and which, the
“ Sugar King” in his pamphlet alrezdy referred to, re-
marks, attra€ted the attention of Mr. CRUM EWING, with
the result that this gentleman decided to send out to
Demerara a practical agriculturist to report upon the
feasibility of carrying out on his estates, a system of
modern tillage, with tile drainage, &c.

In a letter which Mr. ALEXANDER CRUM EWING wrote
to me last year, and which was subsequently published
in Zhe Louistana Planter, the opening paragraph ran as

follows :—

“There is probably no part of the world except the Straits Settle-
ments where so thorough a cultivation is given to the land by hand
labour alone as in Demerara; or where so many people are required to
the acre. And, it is a question which must strike everyone interested in
cultivation there, what would be the effect if anything were to happen to
curtail imported labour, or, if there were an exodus of the coolies>
either returning home or emigrating elsewhere ?

* At the time it was decided to introduce implemental cultivation on
our estates, there had been some cause for apprehension. We had 605
indentured coolies and a good many (240) Chinese. The whole
cost of introducing the latter was undertaken by a few proprietors of

ee

— il

STEAM HUSBANDRY WITH OPEN DRAINAGE. 97

that day. The outlay of establishing a resident population had been
very great. These were the principal but not the only reasons which
determined us to think of implemental cultivation. Steam tillage is
the most perfeét cultivation that can be applied to clay lands.
It is under control in such a way as no labour gangs can ever
be, and will stir the land effectually 12 inches deep without the
fear of scamping.”

A preliminary report seems to have been furnished to
Mr. EWING by Mr. Wo. Gray (late of Goedverwagting)
and this report was sufficient to induce Mr. EWING to
go on, “and Mr. MCGIBBON,” to use Mr. EWING’S own
words “ was engaged to carry out the operations ona
more extended scale,” and the letter further states that
“ No new undertaking ina colony could have been better
carried out.” The full account, well worthy of perusal,
will be found as said before in the Louzszana Planter,
No. 1 of Vol. xii, January 6th, 1894 ; for present purposes
it will be sufficient to say that tiles, after considerable
trouble and great perseverance, were successfully laid at
Plns. Better Hope and Montrose, and at first “ except
where there were was caddy, worked even better than
was expected.” Later on, the ploughs were got to
work, first balance ploughs, and then balance cultivators,
and Mr. CRUM EWING stated in his letter * No men at
home could work the engines and implements, better
than the estate’s peopie.”

The letter closes as follows (and as what I am about
to read has been but recently published in the Louzstana
Planter, | am at liberty to repeat it) :—

“ At this distance I cannot form a decided opinion as to the causes
that have led to the rapid deterioration of the cultivation of our estates
within the last few years, but from what I saw I consider that sufficient
attention was not always paid to the main drainage of the estate. I
am also satisfied from what I saw, and from comparing in the journals

N

98 TIMEHRI.

the work done with the weather, that much field work was gone through
at unsuitable times. It got behind and Aad to be done, with a result
that has produced disastrous consequences.”

This brings me to the chief part of my paper. The
meaning of the above quoted paragraph may be briefly
stated to be this. The tile drained and steam tilled
fields of the Messrs. EWING, which for a considerable
time had given satisfaétory results, and profits commen-
surate with the magnitude of the undertaking, namely
the introduétion of steam tillage and tile drainage, no
longer continued to do so, and at last, after two abnor-
mally heavy seasons, I was asked in a friendly way by
Mr. Crum Ewinc to take a ride round his East Coast
property and say what I thought of the cultivation.
This I did—and found that existing conditions were
capable of improvement. I subsequently took charge
of this East Coast property, and I propose now
very briefly to tell you in what manner it is proposed
gradually to try and combine steam husbandry with
open drains, tiles not having come up to expeétations,
or rather not continued to do so in all the fields of the
estate. For the enlightenment of those who are unac-
quainted with the appearance of a tile drained field on
Messrs. EWING’S estates, I may say that they are per-
fe€tly flat or nearly so, with, as far as the eye can see no
drainage at all, at least no ofen drainage. The tiles
were laid originally in the old drains, and then covered
in with earth from the surface of the half of the bed on
each side of the drain.

Last year, in fields where it was quite evident the tiles
were either choked, or the earth over them too close to
admit percolation, open drains 1 to 2 feet deep were dug

STEAM HUSBANDRY WITH OPEN DRAINAGE. 99
over the old tile drains, and in some fields in between them,
and in certain cases a centre tracker was opened from
middle-walk to side-line and then surface water was
drained into this by shallow drills leading into, and dug
at right angles to this tracker. Temporary relief was
thus obtained but the grave question had then to be
considered, whether by degrees to open the drains a/to-
gether and by so doing praétically condemn not only the
tiles which had been laid with so much care, and at such
an outlay, but also steam tillage, or, whether this should
only be done here and there in individual fields. No
hard and fast rules could be laid down, and the advan-
tages of steam tillage being so enormous, other expe-
dients had to be carefully thought over, and if decided on,
put into execution with great caution, guided by weather
conditions and other circumstances as they existed.

It will be understood that the temporary “ deteriora-
tion of the cultivation” referred to by Mr. CRUM EWING,
a deterioration which I am happy to say no longer exists,
was partly due to insufficient drainage caused by the tiles
silting up, and in some fields to surface water in very heavy
weather, being unable to drain through the land quickly
enough, and deep enough toreachthetiles. This lack of
drainage was worse in some fields than in others, and the
conclusions arrived at, were, that in a heavy season and in
stiff soil, the tiles would never prove as efficient as open
drains, and it therefore became necessary to set about
considering how a system of open drainage could be
established, without at the same time abandoning the
use of the plough, which carefully superintended does
such excellent work and at such a low cost. The

only course I could think of, and in this I was greatly
N2

100 TIMEHRI.

helped by others, was to turn all new fields, that is all
fields in grass, when these were about to be planted, into
Dutch fields as far as drainage went, but English in re-
spect to the position of the cane rows. Now at
Pins. Better Hope and Montrose there is abundance of
splendid land, tile-drained and in grass, and it was decided
to make a commencement with three fields on Montrose
and one on Better Hope. The latter has not yet been
actually planted, but the three former were planted last
December, and have now a healthy vigorous stand of
canes and look very handsome. Recently four more
fields have been added. The method pursued in these
will be easily followed by reference to the plan on the
table. First we turned over the whole surface with the
balance plough, then we lined out the drains, a tracker
down the centre from middle-walk to side-line, and the
usual drains at right angles to it, and then the cane holes
were lined (as will be seen in the diagram) parallel with
the drains. Four new fields have just been laid out
somewhat differently. Instead of one centre 4 feet
tracker two 2 feet trackers have been dug, dividing each
field into three equal portions. Since this was originally
written over 100 more acres have been similarly treated.

The plough as you are aware is worked across a field
from punt-trench to punt-trench. Supposing two cuts
are desired the plough travels up one side of the opening
and then back down the other, and at each end it is
lifted by a crane in the punt and swung round and
dropped on to the next opening. Now the difficulty we
had to contend with was getting the piough over the
tracker in the middle of the field. Three methods were at
first suggested, as follows:

STEAM HUSBANDRY WITH OPEN DRAINAGE. toi

1, To run the plough on to a skeleton platform (to
allow room for the tines) on 4 broad wheels, which could
be moved up and down the tracker.

2. To run the plough across the tracker, cleaning it
out afterwards.

3. To turn the plough by manual labour when it
reached the tracker.

The last plan has been temporarily adopted in four
fields. This turning requires about 6 to 8 hands. In
the event of the platform on wheels being subsequently
tried, which however is not likely, it is proposed to
parapet the tracker on each side, so that the tines of the
plough will work free of the soil, before the plough
mounts the platform. In the case of the fields
prepared with two trackers instead of one, it is
proposed to run the plough right across them, cleaning
them out afterwards at a cost of 72 cents each per fifty
roods. The latter plan at present is considered the best.
The above expedients may seem somewhat troublesome,
but when it is remembered what labour and expense the
piough saves, it will be readily understood that we are
prepared to go to any trouble, to make one of these
systems, or any better one, a complete success.

Now there is a rather important matter which has not
yet been touched upon, and which I| am sure has not
escaped the attention of Planter friends present.

The following paragraph, which | quote from Mr. Rus-
SELL’S report, will give an idea of what this matter is.
That gentleman writing of Pln. Enmore, said, “ Mr,
STOKES has now laid out several fields on the Louisiana
system of planting, that is with the cane rows running
parallel to the small drains, so as to overcome the difficulty

{02 TIMEHRI.

of crossing these when cultivating between the cane rows.
This system may answer on porous soil, but on stiff clay
lands it fails signally, each cane row holding water like
a basin.”

Such a possibility was not overlooked at Vryheid’s
Lust. Asa matter of faét however no inconvenience on
this score has been experienced so far in the three fields
at MWontrose, which are situated near the front in stiff
soil, and it is believed that no trouble from cane rows
holding water in the manner described by Mr. RUSSELL,
will be experienced if only because of the existing tile
drains running at right angles to the open drains and
into them. It will be understood that the new open
drains, running at right angles to the tiles, render access
to the latter very easy, and the tiles being open at every
three rods, cleaning them out is a very simple matter.
These anticipations have since so far been fully justified.

This is praétically the length to which we have at
present gone.

In eonclusion I may say that I shall be very happy to
show any Planters present, round the cultivation of
Vryheid’s Lust and Montrose, and let them see what
has been done, and I cannot conclude this reading,
(your very kind attention to which | beg leave gratefully
to acknowledge), without referring to the great interest
which the Manager of Vryheid’s Lust, Mr. JUNOR, has
taken, and the great assistance he has rendered, in the
work referred to in this paper.

““Some Enemies of our Cane-fields.”*

By S. R. Cochran, Manager, Plan. Versailles.

AHEN asked early in the year, by our esteemed
$3 President, to prepare a paper on an Agricul-
cultural Subje@, to be read before the Society.
I accepted with some diffidence, thinking that anything
I could put before you, would be wanting in interest.
If however, the few notes I have put together, mostly
from personal observation, are of any interest, I shall be
amply rewarded.

The subjeét I have chosen, ‘‘ Some enemies of our
Cane-fields,” is a somewhat wide one and for convenience
may be divided into several heads, viz.: beasts, inseéts,
weeds, grasses and sedges, unfavourable seasons, and
scarcity of labour. Of the animal plagues of the cane
the rat (Mus decumanus) may well take the first place,
as it gnaws through the young shoots close to the ground
and totally destroys them. Ripe canes are also attacked
and eaten almost through, causing them either to rot
and die, or by allowing the air to get into the juice, spoil
it for manufaéture. I have seen considerable damage
done in this way in Berbice, where in the dry seasons
the rats left the savannahs for the fields and did serious
injury, entailing great expense to keep them in check.

Of other wild animals the water-haas (Hydrocherus
Capybara) is perhaps the most destru€tive, though
luckily not so plentiful; these go in small herds and
will do a great deal of damage in even one night.

* Read before the May Meeting of the Society,

104 TIMEHRI.

SS 60 8888 8.SSSsssssSSS5c5cQ cc i —_

The grey fox (Canzs rudis), and | think also the crab
dog, (Procyon Cancrivorus), chew the joints for their
sweet juice, and kill the individual cane. I have
known the fox to pull up freshly planted tops and destroy
them, either for the juice, or the grub of the large gru-
gru worm. How far foxes, ocelots, hawks, yellow-tail
and other snakes, and salempentas, contribute towards
keeping down rats by destroying them for food is not
easily determined. That the last named is an excellent
ratter, I know from aétual observation.

The ordinary means of destroying rats, is by men
with dogs, but I fear these so-called ratcatchers often
kill other animals, which are really rat-destroyers. Some
proprietors have introduced the mongoose, (Herpestes
griseus) in some numbers to kill the rats, but I fear
these will not increase in a country with so little cover
to protect them from natural enemies. In Jamaica,
where the mongoose was introduced years ago by I
believe the late Mr. BANCROFT ESPEUT, the cane-piece
rat has been almost exterminated, and the few that are
left have taken to the tree-tops, where some years ago
they were doing considerable damage to the young nuts.

The rats being no longer available in sufficient quanti-
ties to supply the mongoose, which increases rapidly,
where as in Jamaica it has perfeét cover in the crevices of
the rocks, heaps of stones, &c., they have taken to
killing poultry ; and five years ago it was impossible to
rear feathered stock of any kind, except in well fenced
yards. The inseétivorous birds. of the island have been
destroyed by them to such an extent, that the ticks,
(lxodes, sp.) which the birds used to keep in check,
have increased enormously and are now a serious incon-

‘© SOME ENEMIES OF OUR CANE-FIELDS.” 105

ee ——————

venience in some distri€ts both to stock and human
beings.

Of domestic animals, cattle of all kinds eat the tops
and leaves of the cane readily. In the islands and other
sugar growing countries where oxen are used on the
estates for draught purposes, they are largely fed on the
tops and leaves, and the ruin created by a herd of a few
hundred breaking out of their pen at night and taking a
walk in the canepiece, is never forgotten, if once seen.

Goats are very destru€tive on an estate, but sheep as
a rule ignore canes when they get into a field and con-
fine their attentions to the weeds and grasses on the
banks.

Of the inseé&t pests peculiar to the cane in this and
other countries, borers, a term generally applied to the
caterpillars or grubs of a group of moths, beetles and
other inseéts, are most destructive. Two of the com-
monest of these are Sphenaphorus Sacchari and the
gru-gru or tacuma, a large species of which (Rhyn-
cophorus palmarum), also attacks cabbage trees. Others
are Strategus ateus, a very large grub which produces
an enormous beetle, these I am told did considerable
damage to the cane stools at Port Morant lately.

A small variety resembling a hardback in shape but
of a bright brown colour and not quite 4 of an inch in
length has been plentiful in Barbados of late years.
This has been called the shot-borer (Xyleborus perfo-
vans) and was occupying the attention of the authorities
in Barbados some three years ago. I am told they have
been found in the seedling canes at the Botanical Gar-
dens. The damage is done by the grub, which, lodging
in the stool of the newly cut and springing cane, eats

O

106 TIMEHRI.

to = SS ee

into the heart of the young shoots and quickly kills them.
They also attack canes of mature age, easily. piercing the
silicious outer rind of the cane with their powerful
mandibles and the sharp lance-like cutting instruments
with which their mouths are armed. The soft pulpy
mass of the inside is pierced and eaten in all dire€tions,
the cane gets red in the heart and the juice becomes ex-
posed to the air, ferments. and is rendered useless for
sugar making. A great deal of damage has been done
on the West Bank and the West Coast this Spring ;
borers occupying the young stools and killing the shoots
almost as they appear. When the work of the grub is
over and before the formation of the chrysalis, they spin
themselves into a cocoon made of the fibres of the cane,
and these may easily be found when borers have been
prevalent in a rotten cane, or top, or heap of trash on the
banks. The larger beetles of the Rhyncophorus species
very often make their presence unpleasantly known by
flying against one’s face, which they strike with no small
force.

Of rust, fungus and other diseases all more or less
produced by inseét life, and of which complaints come
from time to time from different countries, we are
happily free.

The means advocated for checking the ravages of
these inse&t pests have been many and varied. When
they have been plentiful on an estate, the trash is gene-
rally burnt off as soon as canes are removed. If the
tops are required for planting they may be first soaked
in lime water or some antiseptic. I have seen the
teaches used for this in Barbados. Other means are the
encouragement and cultivation of their enemies, such as

a

‘© SOME ENEMIES OF OUR CANE-FIELDS.” 107

ants, the Ichneumon fly, inseét-eating birds, &c., &c.
As however disaster has so often followed man’s attempts
to interfere with the distribution of nature, such means
have to be advocated with caution. Caterpillars of
two or three varieties I have known to appear annually
about May for the last 15 years. These are the larve
of Diatrea saccharalis, which feeds when possible on
the young cane leaves, Duphax sacehart, common on
saman and clammy cherry trees, and no doubt some
others. These almost invariably deposit their eggs first
on the grasses of the dams, or on grassy dam-beds, or
drains in the fields. When the caterpillars appear the
grass is soon eaten off, and they attack the canes, (young
ones by preference). In Berbice however I remember
several acres of canes quite nine months old being
entirely denuded of leaves.

Up to last May I had never seen any consider-
able damage done by caterpillars, but then they appeared
in thousands, first on the dams, and later in the fields.
They began operations in some six or eight fields in the
centre of the estate and rapidly spread north and south,
crossing the sidelines on any grass there was or on the
bodies of those who attempted the crossing first. Every-
thing possible was done to confine them to the fields
they started in, but in spite of all efforts some go acres
of canes were completely eaten off. Many of the young
centre shoots were eaten so close off, that they withered
and died either from that cause or on account of the
roots alone not being able to sustain life in the plant,
through the heavy weather which followed. In no case
was the yield from the fields over half a ton per acre,
and in many much less.

02

108 . TIMEHRI.

Up to January we expected these fields to spring, and
some looked fairly well, but the stools seemed too weak
to exist and the few fields which did not abandon them- —
selves, had to be heavily stumped, and even now, show
the spots ; the land looking stiff and barren, as if aétually
poisoned by the caterpillars. So thick were the resulting
moths in the grass of the dams, that any quantity of
specimens could be secured by hand. The only remedy
seems to be picking them off at their first appearance ;
or beating them down and trampling them into the
ground. Quick-lime might keep them from crossing if
no rain fell. Burning off trash, and applying lime is
advocated, but that can only of course be done to destroy
eggs after canes are cut.

Ants of different kinds pay attention at times to
the cane. In heavy seasons, the common red ant is
driven above ground by wet and often forms its nest
round a cane-stool to the discomfiture of the labourer,
who is afraid to disturb them with his hoe, or clean out
the cane-roots.

Wood-ants too are sometimes troublesome in light
soils where they build their nests on the canes, using no
doubt part of the cane for food as well as the fibres for
their nest. In Berbice years ago, I have seen them
carried out of the fields and burnt in large heaps on the
dams.

The nests make wonderfully good fuel for workers
cooking aback. On the West Bank except on our light
back soils they are comparatively scarce, .

Weeds, grasses and sedges, are in heavy seasons such
as we have had of late years most formidable enemies of
the sugar cane,

‘© SOME ENEMIES OF OUR CANE-FIELDS.” 109

The cane cultivated here, itself a grass, (Seccharum
oficinarum), is of the variety Bourbon, so called from
the place from whence it was introduced. It is said to
have improved in size and richness of juice in the West
Indies. Hitherto this cane has held its own in this
country, and has seemed in every way the most suitable.
* Experiments in planting canes from seeds, show how-
ever that not only heavier weights of cane but corres-
pondingly richer juice, can be got from other varieties
obtained in this way. At the Botanical Gardens, very
interesting and valuable experiments are being con-
duéted by Mr. JENMAN and Prof. HARRISON, and it is
only a matter of time to ascertain whether these new
canes will retain their character when propagated from
the tops of the parent plant.

When the canes are reaped from the land, weeds and
grasses quickly appear, and unless chopped out before
they get a good hold, they bear seed and spread rapidly,
their growth covering the ground, their roots binding
the soil, and absorbing a large portion of the manure
intended for the canes.

This entails frequent weedings at a time when labour
is scarce from competition. In light soils aback in nor-
mal seasons the principal weeds and grasses to be met
with are a milky thistle (Emzlia sonchifolia) the silver
fern (Gymnogramma Calomelanos), another common
fern which is always found in light soils, Blechnum
serrulatum, several light grasses suchas Panicum laxum,
Leptochioa vi9 gata, Digitaria setigera, Leersia hexandra
and sometimes on sand reefs, Anatherium bicorne.
Bitter tally, (4A7¢kania Amara), from which the creoles
concoéct a remedy for pains, runs over the canes and can

110 TIMEHRI,

only be killed by pulling it up. Cana grass (Comme-
lyna Cayennensis) one or more Convolvulacee (/pomza
fastigiata), &c.), and weeds such as Erigeron and other
Compositz, help to swell the list. Mucca-Mucca (Mon-
trichardia arborescens) and several caladiums also
occur. The grasses to be found, usually, on front stiff
clay lands, would principally consist of Bahama grass,
(Cynodon dactylom), Nut grass, (Cyperus rotundus),
Sour grass, (Paspalum conjugatum), Para grass, (Pani-
cum molle), and Cana grass and Silver fern in drills and
drains. Mucca-mucca, several caladiums, including a bronze
one, and in some cases, a pretty grass called Pennisetum
setosum, besides Eleusitne Indica and other weeds.

In the late heavy seasons there was a great change in
the vegetation of the cane piece. In front lands the
canes did not cover the land as they should, and many
grasses that in ordinary seasons would have been killed
by the absence of air and light have been found to sur-
vive throughout the year’s growth of the cane. Bahama
grass, which used to get spindly and thin, and even
eventually disappear, at from six to eight months with a
good cover, as also the Nut grass, though in this case
only to re-appear with air and light as fresh as ever, has
in many cases been able to exist throughout the season.
Mucca Mucca and Silver fern find a home on the slopes
of the drains, and though more and more spindly as the
shade increases are often to be found when canes are cut.
Vines run up the canes, and if not pulled off in weeding
and trashing, live throughout the whole season as
they grow high enough to get air, but in an ordinary
season, except these, no weeds should be able to main-
tain the struggle against the cane, and the fields when

a re

“ SOME ENEMIES OF OUR CANE-FIELDS.” 111

cut, should, except for an occasional hog plum, Spondias
lutea, sown by some coolie carrying the fruit into the
fields, or a Trumpet tree (Cecrofza) missed in trashing,
be perfectly clean. The late seasons have however pre-
sented a more marked difference. Formerly, canes
covered the ground as the soil became changed in its
chara€ter from incessant wet, and an entirely different
class of grasses sprung up, properly sedges, of a
more or less aquatic nature. These made the work of
weeding much harder and more expensive, some of them
growing so close, as to make a perfeét sward over the
ground. These the labourers called hair grass, Scirpus
. captilaris ; like the other species most of which we com-
monly term busy-busy not grasses, but really Cyperacee
or sedges. Dry weather and tillage causes an entire
change in this vegetation and the last few months has
been sufficient to relegate most of them to their former
positions, the bottoms of the small drains. Sour grass,
formerly almost unknown in the cane piece, has been
largely found there of late, and fields abandoned in late
months present the appearance of a ring of sour grass
round the dam-beds, lighter grasses on the tops of the
beds, and Cyperacez along the drills and drains. From
figures before me of the 22 years’ rainfall of a Berbice
estate up to the year 1887, I find the average rainfall for
the year was 75°65 inches or about one-half the
rainfall of late years. About 75 inches of rain di-
vided into two wet and two dry seasons would appear
to give the best results, though doubtless some estates
could take more with advantage. Good drainage, im-
perative always, is a necessity in heavy seasons, though
even with good drains, trenches, and outlets, heavy clay

oo

112 TIMEHRI.

soils cannot be drained quickly enough to keep the canes
from getting chilled, during almost incessant rains of
nearly an inch a day.

Tillage of banks, drilling, &c., helps the land to dry,
but neither can be well done until weather moderates,
Steam cultivation is undoubtedly the best form of tillage,
but although good work can be done, and by dropping
the back tine, with a large shoe on it, a mole drain
formed. Steam ploughing must depend on tile drainage
for its success, I fear this form of cultivation can
never become general here, as although much has been
done to make tile-drainage a success it has never yet
succeeded in Demerara in keeping the land free from:
water in heavy seasons. Tiles were first tried here in
1845, and though the first year gave splendid results, the
second went back below the average of open drained
fields.

The only other form of drainage possible, is that of
open drains and surface drainage, which, though wrong
in theory, is almost universally adopted here. Land is
drained not only to let the water out of the soil, but to
let in air, and allow the fertilizing rains to filter through
and leave in it some part of the nitrogen contained in
the rainfall.

When the land gets water-logged all air is excluded
and the aétivity of the land asa plant producer ceases.
Under draining deepens the soil by lowering the line of
water beyond injury tothe roots, and it must have struck
us all in late years how the cane roots have run across
the banks without going down so deep as in other seasons
when the soil from better drainage was good for some
distance down.

‘SOME ENEMIES OF OUR CANE-FIELDS.” 113

ee — —— a ——_—__——_——-

Dry weather, as well _as wet, must at all times enter
into the calculations of the planter, and though nothing
can equal a dry season of not too long duration for pre-
paring a soil well tilled for rapid growth of plant life,
few calamities can be greater than a prolonged drought
in Demerara, as even with our grand Water Services
but very partial irrigation can be obtained. The
effects of flooding up the drains, although no doubt
beneficial to the canes, has a bad effect on the land.
Irrigation to be correét must be applied from the
highest point and allowed to flow into the ground and
thence into the drains. Jamaicahas a magnificent Irri-
gation System by which the part of the country along
the Rio Cobre is supplied with water high enough to
irrigate any part of the fields.

Of late seasons the scarcity of reliable labour for field
work has been general throughout the Colony, and field
operations have been delayed, in consequence, until
almost too late to promote growth. This scarcity is
mainly due to operations in the interior of the Colony,
where the search for gold employs thousands of labourers
at high rates of wages besides rations.

The only possible remedy is increased immigration
from India and elsewhere, and it must be the sincere
wish and hope of everyone who has the interest of the
Colony at heart, that, in the near future, good seasons
and prices may reward the perseverance of the Estates’
proprietors, who have had for many years past an uphill
fight against heavy odds.

Cost of Sugar Production in British Guiana.*

By. R. G. Duncan, F.R.

HE cost of producing sugar is naturally a

question of vital importance to those con
“a cerned in the welfare of this colony, and more
especially to every one conneéted with the sugar in-
dustry. It is desirable for me to state at the outset,
that in the following paper a ton of sugar, when not
otherwise specified, means a ton of Ist grey crystals

polarising 96 deg. ‘This explanation is necessary, as
on some estates only one quality of sugar is made,
whilst on others two and even three qualities are manu-
fa€tured. It must also be understood that the figures
hereinafter given, as to cost of growing and manufaéturing
a ton of sugar, are not supposed to be applicable to all
estates, on account of the varying conditions that exist,
such as difference in quality of soils, supply of labour,
methods of drainage, distance from shipping port, &c.
The figures stated are intended to represent a fair
average cost, and to meet individual cases, various addi-
tions would have to be made to, or deduétions made
from the special items of expenditure which local and
other conditions render either below or above the aver-
age. In estimating the cost of manufaéture, I have based
my calculations on the assumption that a first grade of
sugar polarising 96 deg. is made, 1st molasses re-boiled
to give a 2nd grade of sugar, and 2nd molasses used for
making rum, as this is the system of manufaéture in

"* Read before the June Meeting of the Society.

Cost OF SUGAR PRODUCTION IN B. GUIANA. 118

—_——..

vogue on most estates in this colony. Where Ist sugar
only is made and Ist molasses are sold, or where 1st and
2nd sugars are made, and 2nd molasses are sold, some
difference would necessarily exist in the cost of such
items as fuel, packages, labour, &c., but any variation
in expenditure arising in this way can easily be calcu-
lated for the purpose of comparison if desired. Before
entering into details as to cost of growing and manufac-
turing sugar, it is desirable that reference should be
made to some points that are of importance in con-
sidering the subjeét. During the past 20 years the
average value of our staple produét has varied from
$140 to $60 per ton. Although the flu€tuations have
been considerable the tendency for many years has
always been eventually towards a lower range of prices,
and planters have had to make never ceasing efforts to
meet an ever falling sugar market. During recent years,
after periods when unduly high or low prices have ruled,
the market has usually settled with sugar polarising
g6 deg. quoted at 3c. per lb. in Georgetown. A ton of
sugar at this price would realise $67 20, and if to this is
_ added the value of the 2nd sugar and rum pertaining to
a ton of tst sugar, viz., 330 lbs. 2nd sugar at 2{c.
per lb. = $7 42, and 30 gallons 40 o.p. coloured rum
at 25c, per gallon = $7 50, the total value of a ton of
Ist sugar would be $82 12. Forsome time past the price
in Georgetown of crystals polarising 96 deg. has been
from 2} to 2c. per lb.,a figure at which not many estates
in the colony, except during favourable seasons, can make
both ends meet.

In conneétion with some of the figures given in this
paper it is important that the average yield of sugar per

P2

116 TIMEHRI

acre should be referred to. With ordinary seasons and
land carefully tilled and manured, the average yield of Ist
sugar per acre may be safely stated at 1°65 tons. This
yield is often considerably exceeded, and on estates with
fertile soil an average yield of over 2 tons sugar per acre
is got, but on the other hand, during unfavourable seasons,
the average yield on many estates falls below 14 tons
sugar per acre. I assume that during ordinary seasons,
and in view of the provisions made for tillage, manure,
&c., in the estimate I am about to submit, the average
yield of sugar that might reasonably be expeéted would
be 1°65 tons per acre. If the average yield obtained is
below 1°65 tons sugar per acre, the cost of produétion
will be higher than that estimated, but on the other hand
if the yield is in excess of 1°65 tons per acre the cost of
produétion should be less.

In view of a probable lower average range of values
for sugar in the future than 3 cents per Ib., it becomes a
serious question to consider how the cost of produétion
can be further reduced. The produétion of sugar in the
whole world is increasing more rapidly than the con-
sumption, and aided by bounties and prote¢tive duties
the sugar growers in various countries can produce sugar
at 24 cents per |b. with a fair margin of profit, I donot
wish to be accused of taking a pessimistic view of this
subjeét, but it is well that everyone should realise
exaétly how our staple industry stands. It is evident that
the Planter who cannot make sugar for 3 cents per lb. or
less will not be able to carry on a sugar estate and make
it a paying concern. The following are suggested as
some of the means which might be adopted to attain
further reduction in the cost of produétion :—

Cost of SuGAR PRODUCTION IN B. GUIANA. 119

1. The sele€tion of a more produétive cane than the
“Bourbon.” Messrs. HARRISON and JENMAN are studying
this question, and may soon be able to recommend one of
the promising seedling canes growing at the Botanic Gar-
dens, as superior to the cane now generally cultivated in
the Colony. So far the Bourbon has proved superior to
the older varieties of canes experimented with, but a few
‘of the seedling canes give indications of being better
than the Bourbon.

2. The adoption of methods to further increase the ex-
traétion of juice from the canes and of sugar from
the juice. Double crushing is now extensively in use,
the average result obtained being an extra€tion of
juice representing 72 o/o of the weight of canes without
maceration, It is quite possible, considering results
already obtained by means of difiusion, that this method
of extra€tion will eventually prove the best.

3. The further reduétion of fuel used in fa€tories. A
great deal has been done in this direétion during recent
years, but there is no reason why the megass a!one should
not represent all the fuel required, and this would meana
saving of about $2 per ton sugar on most triple effet
estates.

4. The reduétion of expenditure on labour by the
adoption of labour saving appliances in field and faétory.

5. Increased immigration, by means of which the em-
ployer will be able to get work done at reasonable rates of
wages, and have tillage attended to at the proper time; a
most important matter. As a measure of relief to the sugar
industry, and to promote the general welfare and prosperity
of the Colony, the time has arrived when the general
revenues should bear the whole burden of immigration,

118 TimenRti.

6. The improved and more scientific treatment of
the soil as regards drainage, tillage and manure.

There are other ways in which the cost of sugar pro-
duétion may be cheapened, but the foregoing appear
to me some of the most important, demanding immediate
consideration.

Having thus far referred to some necessary preliminary
matters, I will now proceed to deal with figures bearing
on the cost of growing and manufacturing a ton of sugar
in this Colony. I have divided the cost of produétion
into two main heads, viz :—First, Labour expenditure,
sub divided into labour under cultivation and labour under
manufaé€ture, and Second, Expenditure other than labour.

Labour Expenditure. The first and most important
item for consideration under this head is that of 77//age.
A sum of $26 per acre per annum should cover the cost of
tillage proper, and this would represent $18 per ton sugar,
on the assumption that the yield is 1.65 tons and that
12 o/o of area under cultivation is not reaped each year
put turned over. During the past few years, on account
of the unfavourable nature of the seasons and the
great demand that has existed for labour, the average
cost of tillage has been considerably more than $26 per
acre, in some cases the cost has been as high as $35 per
acre, but with moderate seasons and a fair supply of
labour $26 should be sufficient. Tillage proper includes
the following heads, under which expenditure is incurred,
viz., relieving, weeding and moulding and trashing, mix-
ing and applying manure, lime, &c., supplying, forking
banks, burying trash, cleaning and digging drains,
drilling, half-banking and re-planting, grass banking,
lining, superintendence and various sundries. The cost

Cost OF SUGAR PRODUCTION IN B, GUIANA. 119

of tillage in Berbice is rather less than in Demerara,
and this is mainly owing to the faét that canes are
burned before cutting, thus getting rid of most of the
trash, saving relieving and burying of trash later on. If
trash can be buried in dry weather, immediately after the
canes are cut, it is of great benefit to the soil, but it
cannot be of much value if buried after lying exposed for
months. No ill effe€ts appear to result from the system
of burning adopted in Berbice, and at times it mustdo good
by destroying inseéts, &c. This year I have seen exten-
sive damage done to young canes by the borer in Deme-
rara, but little if any has been noticed in Berbice. Canes
in fields liable to be over-run with Bahama grass should
not be burned, as this grass grows very rapidly where the
ground is clear. Sufficient advantage is not generally
taken on most estates of the opportunity that exists for
resting land. On nearly every estate there is enough
land lying fallow to allow of the whole of the older culti-
vated land being rested in rotation, and May and June
plants should be established whenever possible on new
or rested land, If this were donea better average yield of
sugar would be obtained and the cost of weeding would
probably be less. On many estates land that is known
to be rarely remunerative is kept in cultivation. It
requires a heavy outlay on tillage and gives generally a
poor yield. In such cases if other and better land is not
available, it is well to reduce the area under cultivation by
abandoning poorland. A small highly cultivated acreage,
within certain limits, will always give better paying
crops than a large acreage not thoroughly tilled or
attended to. If steam husbandry could be adopted in
conneétion with our system of open drainage it would

130 TIMEHRI.

—_—_—-- -——- - - — — — ~~ a

be an enormous boon to the colony. It would reduce to
a great extent the number of labourers required on each
estate, and the tillage of fields could be attended to
immediately after cutting. At present fields are often
left for months after canes are reaped before labour is
available to till and open up the soil. There should be
no insuperable difficulty in tilling the land by means of
steam ploughs and cultivators, even if it meant the par-
tial filling up of open drains, and expense of clearing
them out again, The next item of labour expenditure
to be considered is that of sundries belonging to but
outside of tillage proper, and under this head is included
the cost of digging and cleaning drainage trenches, para-
petting, weeding and repairing dams, attending and
repairing kokers and locks, burning earth and repairing
roads and bridges, watchmen and rangers, forcing drain-
age channel and working draining engine, sea defences,
sundries, and two-thirds cost of messengers, staff atten-
dants, weeding and cleaning yards, hospital staff, repairing
dwellings, etc. A sum of $3 50 per ton sugar is sufficient
to cover the average outlay under this head, but where
sea defences are troublesome a very much larger sum
may at times be found necessary. The Government have
arranged to pay $1 per rood per annum for the upkeep of
public roads passing through sugar estates, and this will
mean a slight saving under the above head. The arrange-
ment made is in every way a Satisfa€tory one, as the
Government could not possibly have maintained the roads
and bridges at this figure, and it was fortunate that the
proprietors of sugar estates were willing to relieve them
of the responsibility. The next item | have to deal with
is the cost of cutting, loading and transporting canes, in-

Cost OF SUGAR PRODUCTION IN B. GUIANA. 121

cluding superintendence, picking water canes and bal-
ing punts. During the past few years the cost of cane-
cutting has been high; many of the best cane-cutters
were absent in the gold bush during crop time, and
labour generally was in great demand. .The average
expenditure, if fair rates of wages are paid, should not
exceed. $4 50 per ton sugar.

Labour expenditure for manufa€ture has now to be
considered, and the first item is that of labour for
manufacture proper. This includes the expenditure
necessary in the faétory, from the time the.punts of canes
are delivered in the mill dock until the produce is
manufaétured ready for shipment. Ina well conduéted
-fa&tory, with modern appliances, a sum of $3 per ton
sugar will cover cost of labour for manufa€ture proper.
Transport.—Under this head provision has to be made
for the cost of stock-keepers, grass-cutters, cartmen, &c.,
cleaning and digging. navigation trenches and water
supply trenches, repairing punts and transporting pro-
duce, coals and stores. A sum of $1 75 per ton
sugar should meet average expenditure. /aintenance.
—Expenditure necessary on the following has to
be provided for under maintenance, viz., engineers
and blacksmiths, masons, carpenters, painters, cleaning
machinery, &c., and one-third cost of repairing dwellings.
A sum of $1 50 should cover average expenditure per
ton sugar. Sundries and Hospital.—Provision has to
b= made under sundries and hospital for one-third cost
of watchmen, messengers, staff attendants, weeding and
cleaning yards and hospital staff, &c., and 60 cents per
ton sugar should meet the average outlay.

2. I have now dealt with items of labour expenditure,

Q

122 TIMEHRI.

and expenditure other than labour has to be considered.
Chemicals, engine supplies and lighting.—A sum of $1 50
will cover the cost of requirements under this head in
making refining sugar, and much can be done by care and
attention on the part of those responsible, to prevent un-
due expenditure and waste on these items. Matntenance.
—This includes the cost of materials required for repairs
to cottages, buildings, cane punts, bridges; painters’
and masons’ materials and sundries. A sum of $1 75
per ton sugar is about the average amount neces-
sary under this head, a lesser expenditure often in-
dicating that the stitch in time policy is not being
adopted. Stock—The average expenditure on keep-
ing up and feeding stock of mules, providing har-
ness &c., should not exceed $1 per ton sugar. Packages.
—Cost of packages should be about $4 per ton sugar,
made up as follows: 10 bags for rst sugar at 16c.—$1 60,
14 bags for 2nd sugar at 16c.—24c., 30 gallons rum at
$6 75 for puncheon containing 105 gallons—$1 g2.
Twine, hoops, sundries and damaged packages, 24c.
Fuel,—On triple effet estates with modern appliances
fuel should not exceed 4 cwt. coals per ton sugar, in-
cluding rum, and the cost of this landed on estates would
average $1 60. The average cost of fuel per ton sugar
is not however less than $2, as on many estates the con-
sumption is still equal to 6 cwt. coals; Steady work in
the faétory, well designed and well hung boilers, properly
construéted megass furnaces, and careand attention onthe
parts of engineer and manager, will enable manufacture
to be carried on with little fuel in addition to megass.
Where fuel has to be provided for draining engines, the
cost will be higher per ton sugar than average stated

COST OF SUGAR PRODUCTION IN B. GUIANA. 123

ahove, but on coast estates, where drainage by machinery
has to be resorted to, there is no doubt the more effeétual
drainage obtained, by increasing the yield of sugar, more
than repays cost of fuel, wear and tear of machinery &c.
Hospital.——The expenditure uncer this head varies ac-
cording to the situation of estates, number of immigrants
under indenture, &c., but a fair average cost may be
stated at $1 75 per ton sugar. The cost of maintaining
hospitals is a heavy tax on sugar estates, and the plan-
ter has to bear the whole outlay necessary to acclimatise
new immigrants and make them useful colonists. Sa/a-
rtes.—The expenditure on salaries, including attorney,
manager, engineer, chemist, overseers, boarding and
travelling expenses and contributions to churches and
schools, should average about $6 50 per ton sugar.
Manures.—The ordinary application of manure costs
$10 per acre, or say about $6 per ton sugar. It is very
desirable that in purchasing manure, the planter should
satisfy himself that he is getting full value for his money,
as there is much deception practised in the manufacture of
many manures. The very valuable manurial experiments
now being carried out by Messrs. JENMAN and HARRI-
SON at the Botanic Gardens will be of great benefit to
the Colony, and these gentlemen deserve the best thanks
of the planting community for the deep interest they
have taken in the matter. /mmigration and Acreage
Tax.—As it is necessary to keep up large gangs of
indentured immigrants, the average expenditure under
this head should not be less than $4 25 per ton sugar.
The estate with the largest indentured gang in propor-
tion to the acreage in cultivation, stands the best chance
of doing well, notwithstanding the larger outlay necessary
Q2

124 TIMEHRI.

on hospital and immigration, because work can be under-
taken more promptly, and done in a more efficient
manner, and rates of wages can to some extent be con-
trolled. Unfortunately, steady work cannot be relied on
from most of our creole labourers, and they are fond of
idling for days and even weeks, to try and force the
employer to offer exorbitant rates of wages. If immi-
grants were introduced at the expense of the general
revenue, it would help the sugar industry in this colony
to hold its own in the competition which is growing
keener every year. So far the labourer has not suffered ©
from the low prices ruling in the sugar market, on the con-
trary rates of wages have increased; the loss arising from
unfavourable seasons and low prices has fallen entirely
upon the proprietors of estates, but eventually when the
latter are unable to stand further loss, the labourer and
every member of the community must suffer. It is
therefore for the ultimate good of every individual in the
colony that the sugar industry should be encouraged, so
as to enable it to continue, in spite of the fa& that
owing chiefly to the industry being aided by bounties
and proteétive duties in other countries, the selling price
is now almost lower than the cost of produétion. Drogher-
age.—The distance from shipping port and means of
conveying produce &c., that have to be adopted, governs
the cost of this item, but a fair average would be about $2
per ton sugar. Machinery.—Under this head spares
and parts for renewal of machinery have to be provided
for, also foundry accounts and engineers’ materials of all
descriptions. A fair average cost would be about $3 per
ton sugar. Other Expenditure and Sundries.—This
includes various minor items of expenditure not- pro-

Cost OF SUGAR PRODUCTION IN B, GUIANA. 125
vided for under any of the foregoing heads, and 50 cents
per acre paid as a special contribution to the Govern-
ment by the planters to meet part of the loss of revenue
caused by the giving up of certain import duties to meet
the requirements of the McKinley Tariff A@. It is pro-
bable that the McKinley Tariff A& will be abolished in a
few weeks, and the tax of 50 cents per acre will, according
to the understanding come to when it was imposed, no
longer be levied. Other expenditure and sundries cost
about $1 per ton sugar. /xsurance.—Cost of insurance
should not exceed 25 cents per ton sugar. There is now
very little risk of fire in sugar fa€tories and adjoining
buildings, compared to the days when logies existed, and
many: modern fa€tories are so constru€ted as to be
praétically free from any risk of fre. Water supply and
Stone &c., for Sea Defences.—All estates have not to
_ provide for expenditure under this head. The average
cost may be stated at 50 cents per ton sugar, but in many
cases the outlay will be double thissum. The re-payment
with interest of money borrowed from the Government
to provide a satisfa€tory supply of fresh water, is a very
heavy tax on some estates, especially in the East Coast
distri&t.

In the foregoing statement no provision has been
made for extensions and improvements that are outside
the ordinary working of an estate, and interest on capi-
tal is also unprovided for.

126 TIMEHRI.

RECAPITULATION ;

Cost of Produétion per ton Sugar polarising 96°.

Labour Expenditure—
Tillage ... a
Sundries under Tillage
Cutting, loading, and transporting Gines

Manufacture os ose
Transport ee we
Maintenance soe
Sundries and Hospital a ees

Expenditure other than Labour—
Chemicals, Engine Supplies and Lighting

Maintenance

Stock i

Packages... we eee

Fuel Ee owe

Hospital ...

Salaries ... ome onc —
Manures .. -
ADRS and Pee Tax eve
Drogherage see eee
Machinery “: nae “ee
Sundries .. =e os oa
REE: oss

Water Supply, &e.

oa «$18 Oo
aae ee NSA
vee pet ae
awe $500)

as BS

aie oe Be SO
&a.20. 00

SS Se
avote7s

1 00

- 400

2 oo

175

ae SO

.« 600

4 25

as,” 200

3 00

1 00

aan O 25
ae} O50

$68 35

Payment by Results in British Guiana,

By Peter de Wever, Assistant Secretary, B G. Teachers’ Association,

investigation into everything that pertains to

human happiness and comfort, it has become a
recognised axiom of Political Economy and Sociology
that the prevention of an evil is far to be preferred to
its cure. Education as a preventative agency is gene-
rally considered the most efficacious in dealing with the
innumerable social woes by which countries as well as
communities are unhappily affli€ted. It is therefore
well and beneficial to consider our educational ma-
chinery, and see whether it is fitted to fulfil the pur-
poses for which it was created, after we have first searched
the records of the past and discovered for ourselves
whether we have benefited by the experience of by-gore
days.

In 1862, Governor HINCKS, on his arrival in the
colony, found, as all Governors after him have subse-
quently found, that education in British Guiana was in a
very backward condition. To reétify the evils then
prevalent, as well as to provide means for the adequate
instruction of the masses, the Court of Policy of his day
passed an Education Ordinance. This made provision
for the formation of a Board of Education, whose duty
it was to frame regulations for the dire€tion and control
of elementary instruétion in schools receiving aid from
the colony. This was, stri€tly speaking, the first “ Board
of Education.” Under the regulations which were soon

128 TIMEHRI.

afterwards promulgated, before a school received the
yearly “ grant.in aid of teachers’ salaries,” it was neces-
sary that it should be examined in the Inspeétor’s pres-
ence, and to his satisfaétion. The grant was made
according to the average attendance, based on a scale
laid down in the Rules. Every teacher was expeéted
to be certified, but a special licence was granted to any
applicant who, in the opinion of the Inspeétor, was
qualified to take charge of a school. ‘The patron (or
patrons) ‘gave religious instruétion at certain times
specified on the time-table ; hut parents had the option
of detaining their children at home during these hours.
There were no provisions made against schools being
surrounded by insanitary influences, and the standards of
efficiency and subjects to be taught were left entirely to
the patron or schoolmaster, Of course, the Board of
Education became dissatisfied at the slow progress made
by the scholars, and the evident rottenness of an educa-
tion system which consisted merely in the elaborate
preparation of a few answers for the annual show-days,
answers, in the majority of cases, little understood by the
scholars. Hence in the year 1869 the Court of Policy
was again asked to pass a new code which had for its
objeét the fixing of the grants to schools, not merely on
a teacher’s certificate qualifications and an examination
conduéted by himself, but on the proficiency of the
children according to a progressive standard. All schools
were expected to pass 60 0/o of the children in average
attendance in the three R’s to secure a grant, and of this
60 o/o of passes, 8 o/o in the First Class (VI Standard
and upwards) placed a school in Class A, 10 0/o from the
V Standard upwards in B, etc. But before the whole of

PAYMENT BY RESULTS IN BRITISH GUIANA. 129

the grant was paid the patron was to certify that the fees
received from scholars were equal to at least one-third of
the previous year’s grant. Under certain conditions, how-
ever, supplementary grants in aid of teachers’ sala-
ries, in aid of repairs, and for the supplying of station-
ery were made, apart from the ordinary grant. Un-
trained and uneducated individuals could be employed
as teachers, provided they won the patronising smiles of
managers. A heavy penalty was imposed on the con-
scientious teacher should he refuse to falsify his register
to make good the school fees due by careless or dis-
honest parents, whilst the unscrupulous schoolmaster
who flagrantly “cooked” his returns to bring them into
conformity with an unjust and unrighteous regulation,
was lauded and praised, held up as an example worthy
to be imitated, and received at the hand of a judicious
and conscientious Government a considerable augmenta-
tion of pay! This system was introduced in January
1870, to continue until the year 1876, when amid the
hearty rejoicings of teachers, and to the satisfa€tion of
managers, its death knell was sounded by the Commis-
sion on Education appointed by Governor LONGDEN,
and, after lingering a few months, it was at last consigned
to the grave of well-merited forgetfulness.

To re&tify the evils laid bare by the witnesses exam-
ined before the Commission of Enquiry, among other
things it was recommended that Education should be
compulsory ; that the whole salary of teachers should
not depend on the results of examination nor flu€tuate
with average attendance, but have a solid basis in the
shape of a portion of the salary remaining stationary ;
that teachers should not be entirely dependant on the

R

130 TIMEHRI.

caprice of managers; and that it was desirable to
secure a superannuation allowance and hold out the
hope of promotion to the energetic and faithful who
displayed ability in the discharge of their duties. In
conformity with these recommendations, the Court of
Policy passed the Compulsory Education Ordinance of
1876 (nominally still in force), and the Board of Educa-
tion, under its provisions, framed a Code of Regulations
which embraced nearly all the changes recommended
by the Commission except the last-mentioned. These
regulations, with very few alterations, remained in force
until 1882, raising the standard of education and morality
among the people, attraéting ability and intelligence to
the teaching profession, and spreading light and know-
ledge. But Sir HENRY TURNER IRVING came, and with
him the good prospeéts of Education were blighted.
Being alarmed at the amount of the Education Vote
at a time when the Colony was threatened with bank-
ruptcy, Sir HENRY precipitately passed through the Court
a new Code of Regulations, sweeping away at once the
Training College for Teachers, certificate qualifications,
individual passes of children, and special grants in aid of
rents, repairs and the building of new schools, thus put-
ting the Colony more than twenty years backwards in its
slow and laborious educational progress. The 1882
Regulations failed most lamentably. They failed in the
principal objeét of their creation,---that of keeping down
the education vote. As the grant was paid on the aver-
age attendance solely, teachers found it to their interest
to have as many children as would give the largest
averages possible ; hence some poor country pedagogue
was often driven to the necessity of using extraneous

PAYMENT BY RESULTS IN BRITISH GUIANA. 131

means, such as furnishing the children of indigent or
careless parents with articles of apparel, and hunting
out his children from yard to yard and driving them to
school; otherwise, how would he secure their atten-
dances? The result was an abnormal development of
the daily attendance and the average, and, to the regret
and chagrin of Sir HENRY TURNER IRVING, the educa-
tional grant increased by leaps and bounds.

But to say that this system failed altogether would be
to say what was not stri€tly correét. It attained some
measure of success. It succeeded in raking up and
heaping together in one mass all the evils of past systems,
and the colony had the gratification of knowing that it
had at last sunk to the lowest possible depth of educa-
tional depravity. This system lived out its seven years
of miserable existence, in due time was buried, and in
1890 the present “ BRUCE-AUSTIN system” was intro-
duced in its stead. This code makes no provision for
the training of teachers. It provides for the employ-
ment of pupil teachers from 14 or 15 years to 18 or 19,
after which it sends them adrift to seek other employ-
ment, as after 3 years’ service they cannot be retained
as pupil teachers nor can they take full charge of a
school, being under 21 years of age, The grant-in-aid
is based on the individual passes of children, the teacher’s
certificate and the average attendance. The charge of
precipitancy could not for an instant be successfully
brought against the authors of this scheme, for it was
advertised, talked about, discussed and petitioned against
for a period of fully eighteen months before it became
law, but only with the result of further confirming the

Government in their determination to retain the ob-
R2

132 | TIMEHRI.

noxious clauses. Scarcely, however, had twelve months
passed after they became law before it was found neces-
sary to mend and patch them, and in 1892 the “ Addi-
tional Regulations” were passed, repealing and amending
some of the most absurd as well as unjust clauses which
had been previously condemned, and with which these
regulations were hampered and disfigured.

Taking a cursory glance at the Educational Schemes
formulated since 1862, one cannot but be struck with
the peculiarities of their composition. None of the
subsequent regulations are absolutely free from clauses
found in previous ones. Had these clauses, however,
been only those which gave entire satisfaction, which
were based on the experiences of the past, and which
were adapted to the peculiar requirements of the colouy,
praise rather than blame would have been justly ac-
corded to our legislators. But what do we find? In
every new code are to be seen clauses which had been
condemned and execrated ; clauses which were declared
prejudicial to the true interests of the colony, and on
account of which a change of system was found neces-
sary ; whilst those which were looked upon as being
beneficial and from which the greatest good was deemed
to flow, were ruthlessly swept away and ceased to exist
as Educational Rules. It is well-known that education
is a science as well as an art, and as a science it has its
repertory from which plans could be produced and used
as stepping-stones to further advancement. But our
legislators did not avail themselves of the recorded
experiences of their predecessors to aid them in framing
new regulations. It is well-known that the members of
the Court of Policy have ever been among the most

PAYMENT BY RESULTS IN BRITISH GUIANA. 133

opulent, most intelligent and most thoughtful of the in-
habitants of the colony; therefore the charge of sordid
considerations or want of foresight could not be suc-
cessfully brought against them. Nor was it indifference
or lack of interest in the well-being of the colony, for
judging by their public utterances and conduét, the
determined stand they now and then make on behalf of
education, and the energy they display in bringing
abuses to the notice of the Government, one cannot but
come to the conclusion that the education of the masses
occupies a very prominent position in their thoughts.
What circumstances, then, were responsible for the in-
consistencies to be found in every code promulgated
since 1862? As the legislators were wise, intelligent,
opulent, above petty influences or ignoble considerations,
thoughtful as well as fully alive to the interests of the
colony, they were clearly not responsible for this re-
grettable state of things which existed and still exists.
Further, they were, and are still evidently powerless to
prevent or amend them, Apparently, Educational
Regulations, good and bad, successful and unsuc-
cessful, ancient and modern, are all written on slips
of paper, and together with several blanks, thrown
into a bag. When it is desirable to have a New Educa-
tional System, the bag is taken from its peg, shaken,
and a hand thrust in at a venture to draw out the re-
quired number of regulations. This process is repeated
until the number of clauses is obtained. Sometimes
blanks are drawn, as the clause in the ‘‘ Additional
Regulations of 1892” which provides for the punishment
of parents (or teachers?) for the non-payment of school
fees; sometimes those which were highly beneficial to

134 TIMEHRI.

Education, as those in the Regulations of 1876 making
provisions for the training and education of teachers ;
at other times those are left which would be advan-
tageous, such as giving teachers a higher aim than
pecuniary benefits for which to work, although the bag
is repeatedly appealed to.

In 1876, before the ‘Commission of Enquiry,” it was
shown that the system of counting a ‘“‘ pass” to mean
‘‘ passing in the three R’s” was unfair and unjust; yet
in 1882 the identical method of calculating the grant
was re-enacted. It was distin€tly asserted before the
above-mentioned Commission, by managers, by teachers,
by members of the legal profession, by scholars, by
intelligent and successful tradesmen, by some of the
most experienced and disinterested in the Colony, that
it was absolutely necessary that Teachers should be
trained for their responsible vocation, and that evils
which then existed were to a large extent due to the
prevailing custom of choosing for the responsible posi-
tion of Teachers the young and inexperienced, men not
qualified either in mental attainments, moral habit, or
social status, yet in 1882 the Training College for
Schoolmasters was closed, the students turned adrift,
and the managers of schools driven to the necessity of
drafting their teachers from such professional gentlemen
as tailors, shoemakers, butlers, grooms and boat-hands.
In 1853, the Court of Policy granted exhibitions to the
principal denominations of the colony for the training of
young men as schoolmasters, but after nearly a quarter
of a century’s trial it was found so prejudicial to
the best interests of the colony, that in 1876 provi-
sions were made for the establishing of one unde-

PAYMENT BY RESULTS IN BRITISH GUIANA. 135

nominational training school, in which students of every
shade of religious opinion could be trained and edu-
cated; yet in 1892 a desperate effort was made by
the Government, backed by the religious scrupies and
ponderous influence of the Governor, as well as the
sophistry aud debating ability of the Government Secre-
tary and the wide experience and technical knowledge
of the Inspeétor of Schools, to foist on the colony a
system identical with that of 1853,—a scheme by which
half-a-dozen petty denominational schools were to be
established, direétly under the influence of the churches ;
but, to the credit of the ele€tive members of the Com-
bined Court the thing was unhesitatingly rejected.
Looking at the regulations again from another point
of view, they are found to be not only very defe€tive,
but more or less positively dangerous. Perhaps it may
be expe€ting too much to require that physical training,
such as drill, should receive encouragement at the hands
of our legislators. It may, on the other hand, be taken
for granted that the moral as well as religious training
of the children is cared for by the different religious
communities; but surely a system of education which
is intended to benefit the children of the poor should
make provisions for the acquirement of what the
poor would need most to enable them to be indepen-
dent, self-reliant, law-abiding as well as useful citizens ;—
that it should require the children to be trained
in such a manner as would enable them to perform their
allotted part in the drama of life with benefit to them-
selves and credit to the colony! This is an agricul-
tural country; presumably, therefore, the majority of
its inhabitants should more or less be agriculturists ;

136 TIMEHRI,

hence every system of education ought to make provi-
sions for teaching the principles of agriculture. Which
is more beneficial to our lads—especially those of the
country distri€ts—to be able to enumerate without a
mistake the Kings of England with the dates of their
accession, or to determine the best crops which could be
raised on the soil around their homesteads? Which is
preferable? That our grown-up girls be capable of
solving with ease and rapidity difficult problems in
Profit and Loss, or to know the best method of scalding
an egg or keeping meat fresh? Yet in none of the
regulations for the government of Primary Schools are
provisions made for instruétion in the A B C of agri-
culture or instilling into the minds of our girls the
principles of Domestic Economy or Cookery? The
result is that year by year the schools turn out lads
who, for want of knowing better, look with contempt
mingled with scorn and disgust on the shovel and the
hoe, and spend weeks and even months in bombarding
the counting-houses of merchants, or gazing with envious
and regretful eye on sallow and consumptive-looking
clerks behind the counter of some dry goods store. And
the young girls,;—the groans of the housekeepers of
British Guiana yearly ascend on account of the serious
loss and positive suffering endured at the hands of care-
less and ignorant domestics. But even the direétion in
which attempts have been made to educate the children,
nothing but complete and lamentable failure is experi-
enced in the majority of cases. How can the mind be
properly trained and developed by seedy and impecu-
nious teachers who feel their position insecure, who are
summarily dismissed should they speak sharply to care-

PAYMENT BY RESULTS IN BRITISH GUIANA. 137

——

less and indolent assistants, have a difference of opinion
with their managers over church matters, or who should
in an evil moment dare to offend some favourite stable-
boy or cook? The insecurity of the teacher’s posi-
tion has been the prime cause of the complete failure of
the past systems, and while it is not the only reason
why the present is failing, yet it is the chief. Indeed,
the “ Longden System,” the best ever formulated in this
colony, provided against the summary dismissal of
teachers by making the Board of Education then in exis-
tence the only dismissing body ; but it was charged with
prodigality, and instead of re@tifying the evils complained
of, the whole sytem was ruthlessly swept away to make
room for one which was infinitely worse, The regula-
tions of 1862 made no provision for the proper control of
the Education Vote by the Government, whilst those ot
1869, 1882 and 1890 levied heavy fines on the grant-in-aid
earned by the passing of the children, for the non-
payment of fees by parents and guardians, at the same
time ignoring the advantages to be gained by having a
body of properly trained and educated teachers. Is it
any wonder, then, that all these regulations failed to
give satisfa€tion? And is it not more wonderful that
we are not infinitely worse off in matters relating to
Elementary Education ?

The Life-history of an Indian.

Ree

By the Editor. eta

aS father and mother were Acawois Indians who
# A olived over a hundred miles up the Demerara
river. Their little village stood on a sandy
elevation near the source of one of the small creeks
which go to make up the best-known but not the largest
river of British Guiana. Like most Indian settlements
it contained but few houses, three benabs or oblong
sheds with open sides serving to shelter the whole com-
munity. It went by the name of “ROBERT’S place”
among the few negroes and half-breeds who lived on the
banks of the river, but the Indians themselves had never
cared to distinguish it in any way. ROBERT was the
oldest man in the community—the patriarch—but he had
no particular authority nor did it appear that he was
ever favoured in any way beyond the others, His real
name was Ousaree (the deer), but this was sacred, and
not known to any but his immediate relations.

On either side and aback of the settlement stretched
that interminable forest which almost covers the northern
part of South America, and from its dense shades the
little warawah (boy) was brought by his mother early
one morning. She had retired from the benaba few
hours before, leaving her husband asleep in his hammock,
and gone a short distance down the creek. Here, the
lump of clay-coloured humanity, destined to be a skilful
hunter and fisherman, was born. What were the feel-
ings of the mother, whether sad in her loneliness or

THE LIFE-HISTORY OF AN INDIAN. 139

joyful that she had given birth to a boy, it is impossible
to say. Probably it was a matter of course to her—a
part of her duty as a woman, in doing which she neither
required assistance nor would have accepted it if offered.

On her return to the benab she lay down with the
baby in her arms for a few hours, but her household
duties soon drew her forth. Her husband could no more
attend to these than she could hunt or shoot. With her
babe slung at her breast in its little hammock, she turned
over the meat on the barbecue and baked the cassava
bread, no one seeming to care for her in the least. Not
so however her husband. He must not hunt, shoot, or
fell trees for some time, because the child’s spirit was
still invisibly attached to him and might be shot, chopped,
or injured by a fallen tree. Round his hammock, where
he sat with a self-satisfied expression on his face, the
other members of the community gathered, and he was
deluged with advice from the older men, He must be
very careful of himself and not go to any great dis-
tance, as the little spirit that necessarily followed him
would become tired. If obliged to cross acreek ona
fallen tree the spirit must have its own little bridge first
laid across, and if the father waded through the water
too deep for his companion he must make a leaf canoe
for it.

The father was perfe€tly content to carry out his instruc-
tions and remained quietly at home for a few days. His
wife looked upon it as matter of course that he should
do so, even if they suffered from want of meat. It was
his duty to see that no harm came to the tender little
one, and it was hers to look after the household. She
could not help him, nor could he relieve her of any part

S2

140 TIMEHRI.

of her work. They both knew this and consequently
there were never any disputes, squabbles or complaints
from one or the other. In this respeé&t the Indian man
and wife agree better than the European, the only draw-
back being perhaps the want of sympathy.

In a day or two the mother was able to work in the
cassava field, 2 mile away from the settlement, to which
she carried her babe, who remained quietly staring, or
steeping on his mother’s breast, while she did the rough
work of chopping weeds with a cutlass. He hardly ever
cried, but like his parents took everything quietly. Even
when sick, that cross and fretful disposition so common
in the children of more civilised races was not appa-
rent. On one occasion the Peaiman was calledin. The
parents thought their little one was going to die—that
an enemy was at work to injure them, or that perhaps
the father had not been sufficiently careful in his pre-
cautions against injury to the attached spirit. The
medicine man came, and by his dire€tion the father
made several gashes on his breast, allowed the blood to
flow into a gourd and, after mixing with water, gave it as
a medicine to the child. Then this wonderful doétor
and magician set to work with a will, shaking his rattle
and giving a ventriloquial imitation of a wordy contest
between himself and the evil one. After determined
oppesition on the part of the latter, who became weaker
and weaker and his voice more distant, the Peaiman,
declared that the bad spirit had departed and that his
little patient would recover. This fortunately happened
in a few days, and the treatment received full credit for
the cure.

His babyhood soon came to an end. As soon as

THe LIFE-HISTORY OF AN INDIAN, 141

he could throw his limbs about his mother let him
sprawl on the sandy floor, where he soon learned to
creep. Like all the Indian houses this was infested with
jiggers—those fleas which burrow under the skin and
give rise to most unsightly ulcers and often dangerous
sores. Poor little fellow, he looked miserable enough as
he lay naked on the bare sand and learnt that his finger-
nails were made to scratch himself when the jiggers were
particularly irritating. Occasionally his mother would
make a raid upon the pests, picking them out one by one
with a palm needle, or a brass pin when she could get
one. But even then sand and dirt often got into the
punctures, causing sores which lasted for months, and
sometimes becoming alive with fly larvz.

Morning and evening he was taken down to the creek
and encouraged to throw his arms and legs about. Before
he could do more than crawl he was able to swim, and
soon became quite at home in the water. To teach him
to stand up and walk, some hucu ants were procured,
and, taking one between his forefinger and thumb, his
father wonld let it bite the crawling little one and make
him strive with all his might to get away. This soon
taught him to use his legs and run when he saw one of
the ants. Cords were now wound round his legs to
give a right shape to the calves and his father made him
a necklace of peccaries’ teeth. Otherwise he was quite
naked and remained so until approaching manhood, when
a lap was provided.

A little later he was here, there and everywhere, now
stealing the cassava bread or picking bits of meat from
the barbecue, and anon swimming in the creek or run-
ning about the clearing. He was never beaten by his

142 TIMEHRI.

parents, but left to nature and the force of circumstances.
To a European he looked gaunt ard wretched, his skin
covered with jigger marks and open sores. Yet he was
happy in his own quiet way. He saw all that went on
around him and tried to imitate the men in everything.
From the time he could reason however he drew the
Jine at woman’s work and would have nothing to do with
it. Of course his mother helped him in this—she knew
what a man had to do and would have thought it wrong
in him to help her. His father made him a little
woodskin canoe and a paddle, and when only four
years old he made long excursions down the creek
alone or accompanying the men on their hunting and
fishing trips. Seeing the men shoot with bows he asked
his father to give him one and soon became proficient
enough to make it dangerous for birds to perch in the
clearing.

Now and then he shot at some of the half-domesticated
animals which lived about the settlement. No one cared
if he treated them cruelly—he was in training for a
huntsman. Dogs, monkeys, bush fowl, macaws and
parrots, were equally marks for his shafts. These how-
ever were always on the look-out and generally ran into
the bush when they saw him praétising. Not being con-
fined in any way they were able to do this and return when
the boy had got tired of shooting. He would tease the dogs
and sometimes seriously injure them, but no one interfered
although these animals were so necessary to the huntsmen.

As a rule fewchildren areseen in the Indian settlements,
and the one in which our boy lived was no exception.
The Indians are not prolific, and the death rate among
the little ones is very great. The girls were women in

THE LIFE-HISTORY OF AN INDIAN. 143

everything but age and size, following their mothers
in attending to every household duty and not mixing
with the boys in any way. Our little fellow had only
three playmates and their games were nearly all more or
less serious, The ‘only one that could be considered
otherwise was a kind of shuttlecock. Corn cobs were
stripped, and three feathers stuck in atone end. These
were thrown up in the air as high as possible, and the
one which gyrated longest was declared the winner.
Other games represented the more or less common
events of every-day life, such as hunting the labba. One
boy represented this animal, a second the dog and the
third and fourth twohuntsmen. The first huntsman took
up his position in a canoe, while the other gave “law”
to the labba and followed it with the dog. The labba
ran into the forest, twisting and turning here and there,
the dog following on his trail and barking, while his
companion egged him on. Presently they made for the
creek and the labba took to the water, followed closely
by the others, while the one in the canoe was gvided by
the barking and tried to intercept the supposed animal.
The play was rather rough, especially when they were all
swimming in the creek, but the boys heartily enjoyed it
and were for the time transformed into something differ-
ent from their usual quiet and taciturn natures.

The education of our Indian boy was gleaned almost
entirely by himself. Whatever semblance of teaching
he received was from his father, who showed him how
to handle a gun, bow and blow-pipe. All the rest he
learnt by imitation and praétice. The only attempt he
ever made at writing was to scratch figures on the sand
like those on his mother’s queyu (bead apron), or out-

144 TIMEHRI,

lines of conventionalised animals such as were to be seen
on the two or three small benches on which his friends
crouched to raise themselves a little above the sand and
its army of jiggers.

As he grew older he learnt the names of all the game
beasts, birds and fishes, and could shoot many of them
with his little bow or blow-pipe. The most useful trees
became also familiar to him—from this his bark canoe
had been peeled, that made the best dug-out, one was
suitable for bows or clubs, another best for paddles. He
learnt how to find his way through the forest by breaking
a twig here and there, and afterwards, by observing the
lay of the land, the watershed of the creek, and certain
prominent trees. Then his father showed him the old
logs in which the agouti and labba liked to hide, and the
fruit trees where parrots and monkeys congregated at
certain seasons. In the evening he went out with others
to set spring hooks all along the banks of the creek,
learnt where the largest fish could be generally caught,
and hunted by himself for the fat larva which infested
the palms. These caterpillars, as well as some chrysalids
found in the cassava fields, he ate as he picked them,
cracking the latter as an English boy would hazel nuts.

Hitherto he had been always called “ boy” by his friends
but now they gave him the name Yacari (alligator).
What use this name could be to him was never con-
sidered by his parents—it was customary and the thing
was done, Only himself and a few others knew it, and as
they never used it, but still called him boy or friend it
was apparently needless. If an enemy learnt it he might
do him some, harm, on the same principle that a witch
was supposed to work injury by possessing a few hairs

THE LIFE-HISTORY OF AN INDIAN. 145

or other belongings of her vi€tim. Asked for his name
on one occasion by a traveller, the boy smiled in a half-
sly, half-silly manner, and pretended not to understand,
so the stranger called him PETER SIMPLE, or otherwise
PETER, which he adopted and always afterwards gave to
outsiders as his proper name. This visitor was the first
white man he had seen, but the boy, although a little shy,
shewed no fear of him and but little wonder at his
belongings.

Very little gossip went on in the settlement. Hardly
anything was said beyond the few sentences ne-
cessary to describe their wants and hunting experi-
ences. Now and again one of the community went
to Georgetown and brought back such luxuries as
pins and needles, axes, knives, and perhaps a gun. He
would describe his adventures and show his acquisitions
to the little crowd, who examined everything quietly and
listened to his story, now and again giving a few grunts
of satisfaétion. They were no doubt interested, but toa
stranger appeared almost indifferent. That the boys
were impressed by these rare events is shown by the
faét that they sometimes played at returning from town,
imitating the arrival in a canoe, and enumerating the
various articles brought. They were however, so effec-
tually moulded by their inherited chara&ters and sur-
roundings that outside impressions had very little in-
fluence beyond those of the moment,

Life was a serious thing to the boy. His highest
ambition never went beyond the present, for the
procuring of food was of such great importance as
to dominate everything else. Around him he saw his
father and other men skilful hunters and fishers, and he

T

146 TIMEHRI.

wanted to be like them. He was told to wait—he was
not yet a man nor could he become one until he had
gone through the proper ordeal. Of course he wanted
to do this as soon as possible, and was proud to show
his father how he endured the stinging of ants without
shrinking. Once, he took a knife and made several
gashes on his breast, on which the men looked approv-
ingly as a proof of courage. The father had missed
shooting a deer, and according to custom, thinking that
his skill wanted renewing, cut himself over the breast and
arms, and rubbed the root of a particular beena or
charm into the wounds.

These beenas are the roots of Caladiums and other
tuberous plants, a particular species or variety serving as
a charm against each animal. They are generally culti-
vated at every Indian settlement, and are the only
ornamental plants cared for by these people. In showing
a traveller his colleétion, an old Indian who knew alittle
English, said, pointing to one after another; “this
abouyah (bush hog) beena, suppose want ’em, a shilling,
this deer beena, a shilling, this labba beena, a shilling, and,
speaking more emphatically, ‘‘ This tiger beena—me no
sell 'em!” The varieties of Caladium bicolor are the —
principal plants used, that with the suffused crimson
leaf heing the tiger beena. The bulb of the Belladonna
lily (Hippeastrum equestre) is specially used for the
Maipuri (tapir) and is often found at deserted set-
tlements, looking as if grown for its handsome flowers.

When about twelve years old PETER was considered
far enough advanced to undergo the necessary ordeal
and become aman. His father prepared a nose beena—a
twisted thong of eta fibre the size and length of a coach

THE LIFE-HISTORY OF AN INDIAN. 147

whip without the handle. This was well greased by
rubbing it over with some fat palm caterpillars and the
thin end pushed up one of the boy’s nostrils, through
the air passage, and drawn out from the back of the
mouth. Notwithstanding that the operation was both
irritating and painful, the hoy never flinched, but prided
himself on his stoicism. He was then presented with a
knife with which he slashed himself all over the body
and limbs, and rubbed in the several beenas which were
to make him always successful in hunting. Tocomplete
his initiation manouri ants were secured at the end of
cleft sticks, which he held in such a way that they could
bite him on several places. The pain was intense but
the boy never contraéted a muscle, so the father at last
declared himself satisfied.

Now began an orgie for which the women had been
preparing for some days past. Several hundred pounds
of cassava bread had been baked, and hollowed logs, a
spare canoe, and great earthen jars, sufficient to hold
a large quantity of piwarrie, were made ready. Round
the different vessels crouched all the women and children,
chewing the cassava bread, and spitting the pulp
into each until the bottom was well covered. Then
water was poured on, the mixture stirred and left to
ferment for two or three days, and now the thick
brownish liquid was considered fit for drinking. The
men reclined in their hammocks and were kept supplied
by the women with gourds of piwarrie. A man would
drink several gallons in large draughts, continually
vomiting and calling for more, while the women and
children all took draughts which would appear enormous
to civilized people. All were more or less drunk, but

T2

148 TIMEHRI.

there was no quarrelling, although every one was in-
clined to talk and boast more than usual.

During the three days that this coming-of-age festival
occupied, the young initiate felt very sore, although he
strutted about encumbered with a necklace of peccaries’
teeth, a feather crown on his head and a belt of rattling
seeds round his waist. He had shown his manhood by
enduring pain and then by drinking like his elders, but
at last was obliged to lay down in‘his hammock like a log.
Through it all however he looked unconcerned and
assumed an air of braggadocio, notwithstanding that his
wounds were very painful and his internal organs upside
down as it were.

After his recovery he took pride in his manhood, but
to complete his felicity he must havea wife. Other
men had wives and he was bound to get ‘at least one.
In the next benab a girl was living, whom he had seen
on several occasions, who was foremost in presenting
him with piwarrie at the feast, and had drank after him.
Now that he felt a wife to be necessary he spoke to her.
No long courtship was needed—she was willing, her
parents did not obje&t, and the same evening her ham-
mock was slung near that of the bridegroom. A cere-
mony was unnecessary, promises on either side would
be quite useless, she brought another strong pair of
arms to his father’s benab, and therefore was welcome.
Her father had enough women in the house so he didnot
miss her; had it been otherwise the young fellow might
have had to pay for her or take up his quarters in her
home.

Now he was indeed a man and took his right place as
hunter and fisherman. With his father’s gun, he was a

THE LIFE-HISTORY OF AN INDIAN, 149

fairly good shot, but as he had no 4Srearm of his own,
he ‘was most handy with the bow and blow-pipe. Every-
thing in the benab was to a certain extent common, but
as it necessarily followed that only one man could carry
the same weapon, he wanted a gun of his own.

A few miles down the river was a wood-cutting estab-
lishment, where the Acawoios sometimes worked for a
few days or weeks, when they wanted an axe, knife,
gun, or what was of more importance to some of them,
sufficient rum for a drinking bout. There the young
fellow went, and by a few weeks’ hard labour at
felling trees, procured what he wanted, and had _ his
first: taste of the white man’s fire water. There also he
met with a number of negroes, who, finding him like all
his tribe before they come into contaét with so-called
civilization, free and open with everything he possessed,
took advantage of this simplicity for their own benefit.
They would. beg anything and everything, and at first he
gave what they asked for as a matter of course. But,
finding that they by no means reciprocated this gene-
rosity he soon grew to dislike them, and hold himself
aloof from their company.

Returning to the Indian village he settled down to
every-day life. To-day was the same as yesterday and the
morrow brought a similar round of duties. He went out
hunting or fishing, cut down trees for a new cassava field,
repaired the thatch of the benab, or put in new posts
when the old became rotten. Now and again a new dug-
out canoe, and a bow or blow-pipe were required, the
making of the first being a most tedious operation lasting
two or three months. On his return from hunting he
threw down the game and lounged in his hammock until

150 TIMEHRI.

his wife brought him something to eat. He had done
his share and she did her’s. Sometimes he was inclined
to be lazy and left the house without meat for several
days, but no complaints were made. If any one in the
settlement had meat there was generally a little to spare
for those who had none. There were times however
when game was hardly procurable, and sometimes from
caterpillars or a heavy wet season the cassava failed.
Then the whole community looked thin and half-starved,
and the women had to grate mora and greenheart seeds
to make a sort of bitter cake. The men would go out
hunting and fishing day after day and come home almost
empty-handed. This was perhaps followed by a time of
great plenty, when the ripe fruits would attraét large
flocks of birds, and great numbers of monkeys and
agouties. Then the thin and pinched looks of the
children gave place to an almost bloated appearance
in the lower part of their bodies, and they suffered much
from indigestion,

PETER enjoyed very good health asarule. Unlike
either white or black man, he suffered little from mala-
rial fevers. But irregularities in eating and drinking—
feast, and famine and drunkenness—necessarily pro-
duced disorders of the stomach. Then the Peaiman was
called in. This half-priest, half-doctor, would tell him
that his sickness was the work of a Kenaima—a mortal
enemy with a touch of the supernatural. A Kenaima
proper is the avenger of blood—one who has taken an
oath not to rest until he destroys his enemy or one of
the family. He paints himself—perhaps in imitation of
a jaguar—and lies in wait outside a settlement, or follows
his man through the forest and on the river for hundreds

THE LIFE-HISTORY OF AN INDIAN. 151

of miles until he can strike him down with his club.
Other Kenaimas are supposed to work by charms and
produce every ailment from which the Indian suffers.
The first objeét of the Peaiman was to try counter-
charms and drive the imaginary enemy from the neigh-
bourhood. This he was supposed to accomplish by
burning certain plants under the patient’s hammock to
make a kind of vapour bath, rattling his shak-shak and
abusing the enemy in the way already described.

PETER recovered and went on as usual. Among his
other occupations a favourite one was training his young
hunting dogs. They were poor creatures, hardly any-
thing but skin and bone, but very aétive and intelligent.
To teach a puppy PETER would carry it in his arms
when hunting, and let him smell the trail of different
animals as well as their bodies when caught. If the
animal was not quick enough it was fed on the entrails
of the game well mixed with peppers (capsicums), and if
it failed altogether it was put in a hole and covered with
branches and forced to rub its nose in a lot of bruised
peppers placed near its head. The burning effects of
these were supposed to increase the senses of smell and
sight, even PETER himself sometimes applying them to
his eyes for the latter purpose.

Powder and shot were obtained by working for a few
days now and again at the timber grant. On one
occasion PETER went with a party to town, but he felt
very uneasy the whole time. They brought down a
number of monkeys and parrots, which the Portuguese
hucksters tried to get from them fora mere nothing. The
leader however, who knew something of their wiles,
stuck out for his prices and took care not to have any

152 TIMEHRI.

drinks before he had finished his business. Then came
the buying of tools, a gun, and some beads for the
women’s aprons, and after that some bottles of rum,
with which the whole party retired to the shed where
their hammocks were slung, and got drunk. PETER saw
a great many novelties, ships and steamers on the river,
a railway train, steam sawmills, and a number of large
buildings, but he felt little interest in them. They were
nothing to him except jarring nuisances, from which he
was glad to get away as soon as possible.

As yeats passed on PETER became an old man. He
was still however strong and wiry and his hair black and
thick, as it had ever been. Like all the Indians he did
not expect death as a matter of course. He had ene-
mies of course, both natural and supernatural, and they
might injure him at any time. After a very severe
famine, when day after day passed and nothing but a
few bitter greenheart seeds could be procured, a season of
plenty followed, and the whole community feasted to their
hearts’ content. Among the rest PETER gorged himself
as he had often done before, but this time he became
very sick The Peaiman came and tried his best, but the
enemy was too strong, and notwithstanding every effort
the poor fellow died. His wife mourned his loss and the
other women joined with her in extolling his virtues,
He had been a mighty hunter and skilful fisherman ;
there had been always plenty of meat for the barbecue
and pepper pot, but now these would be bare and empty.
A grave was dug in the floor of his house, and in it was
placed the remains of poor PETER, with a number of his
belongings, including a bow ard arrows and a blow-pipe.
He would still hunt and shoot in the spirit world, and

THE LIFE-HISTORY OF AN INDIAN. 153

that he should lack nothing his best dog was tied and
buried alive with him. Then, as several deaths had
taken place, the settlement was deserted, and the com-
munity left their benabs to rot and fall to pieces.

Only a few years have passed since ROBERT'S place
was abandoned, but already every trace of the benabs
has disappeared. The observant traveller will however
notice among the scrubby vegetation a few pine-apples
and a belladonna lily, as well as two or three other plants
which indicate that an Indian settlement once existed
on the spot.

Report of Meetings of the Society.

Meeting held Fan. 11, 1894.—Mr. R. G. Duncan,
F.R., President, in the chair.

Members present 20.

Ele€tions.—MWembers: Messrs. Thos. Geo. Sweet,

James Fred. Green, (Rev.) E. G. H. Caswell, Geo.
W. Lane and F. Griffin.

Associates: Messrs. Jas. Fettes and Geo.
M. Steele.

The President said it was customary for the new
head of the Society to deliver what was called an in-
augural address at the first meeting of the year. He felt
like the Scottish Bailie that he was not good at making
set speeches, but he did not mind making a few cursory
remarks. The worthy and learned gentleman who had
just vacated the chair said in both his inaugural and
valedi€tory addresses that he regretted that the Society
had departed from the striét lines on which it had first
started, and become less purely agricultural and com-
mercial. There was no doubt that it had somewhat
enlarged its borders, and while still able to discuss agri-
cultural and commercial questions, it might be said to
have become a literary and scientific institution with a
valuable library, a well-arranged and interesting museum,
an excellent reading room and a well-conduéted journal.
It seemed to him that its present position was the result
of circumstances, and he feared that if any determined
effort had been made to keep it otherwise, it would have
been defunét long ago. It was therefore rather a matter
for congratulation, that while the usefulness of the

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 155

Society had been extended, it had also been kept alive
and vigorous as they saw it to-day. He would refer
briefly, first, to the earlier work of the Society, then to
its position with regard to agriculture, and finally to the
programme for the present year.

This would be a notable year in the Society’s history,
as it was established in 1844 and was therefore entering
upon the jubilee of its existence. Any one who would
glance through its proceedings for these fifty years could
not fail to be struck by the immense amount of valuable
and useful work which had been done. The first Presi-
dent was that well-known and esteemed colonist, Sir
Michael McTurk, and in the list of his successors would
be found the names of gentlemen who took the deepest in-
terest in the welfare of the colony, and who also had done
their share in forming its history and shaping its destiny.
The Society had the title of ‘‘ Royal” given to it by
sanétion of the Queen in 1845. During its first two
years it showed great vitality—papers were read and
discussions held on many agricultural and allied subjeéts,
such as the cultivation of land by steam power and by
manual labour, thorough drainage by covered drains,
analyses of the soil, extraction of cane-juice by macera-
tion, the development of suitable fodder grasses, cane
and plantain diseases, new and improved machinery for
sugar manufaéture, and a great many other interesting
subjects. Some of these papers were so useful as to be
well worth re-publication at the present time. In 1844
the Society decided to hold an exhibition and applied to
the Government for $3,000 to be offered as premiums
for the best exhibits of stock, agricultural produce, &c.,
but unfortunately this amount was not granted, yet it

U2

156 TIMEHRI.

—

showed that the Society from the very commencement
was fully alive to the value of such shows. In 1846 an
anniversary dinner was held, at which the list of
toasts:extended to fourteen. In the following year
the Society was instrumental in getting the appoint-
ment of Dr. John Shier as Agricultural Chemist.
The work done by that gentleman in experiment-
ing and reporting upon agriculture, drainage, soils,
manures, methods of manufaéture, &c., was of im-
mense benefit to the sugar industry, and his reports
were replete with information as valuable to-day as it
was then. It was difficult to judge the fifty years’ work
of the Society—the colony in general and the sugar
industry in particular were deeply indebted to its in-
vestigations and discussions.

He would now proceed to deal with the present
position of the Society in regard to Agriculture.
Unfortunately there was little to be said of any-
thing beyond the sugar industry. He said unfor-
tunately because, although the sugar industry had
been the mainstay of the colony in the past and he
hoped would be so also in the future, yet there was still
a wide field for other agricultural industries. ‘The sugar
estates were managed by trained agriculturists with
praétical experience, assisted by chemists, so that it
might be said the planters did not require information
from the Society. This however was not the view he
took of the matter. There was no doubt that if they
met together and read papers and discussed questions of
importance they would derive great benefit from the
interchange of ideas. Unfortunately they were not easily
brought together, each appearing to prefer working in

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 157

his own way. But, outside the sugar industry there
was still a wide field for the Society. The climate and
soil of the colony were well known to suit cocoa, coffee,
cotton, rice, tobacco, provisions and fruits, and he need
not say that there was abundance of land for all such
cultivations. There appeared however to be a great
want of confidence in these things and they might well
ask to what this was due. On consideration it appeared
to be want of capital, want of labour and want of know-
ledge. There was no doubt that want of capital was an
important reason, but was there after all such a dearth
of capital in the colony? Recently there had been no
difficulty in disposing of the shares in a number of gold-
mining Companies, but let them advertise shares in a

sugar plantation or in a cocoa, rice, cotton or tobacco

estate and he feared no one would be willing to invest,
It was not therefore altogether the want of capital which
stood in the way. The second reason, want of labour,
seemed a more important one. ‘The population of the
whole colony averaged about three to the mile and even
if only the area in cultivation was taken into account it
was still very small, Barbados was densely populated
and could well spare a good number of her people. If
agriculturists could really depend upon getting labour
at reasonable rates so as to perform their work at the
proper time, no doubt much greater confidence would be
felt. Now, their Society was specially charged to do all
in its power to promote agriculture and it appeared to
him that one way of doing this was to develop immigra-
tion. Personally he was quite satisfied that a perfectly
suitable lot of labourers might be obtained from the
West Indies, but they must bring whole families and not

158 TIMEHRI.

as recently, only young men. They must be encouraged
to settle down. In regard to want of knowledge, he did
not believe altogether in the old adage that “a little
learning is a dangerous thing.” On the contrary it was
often very valuable, but outside the cultivation of sugar
he was afraid their peasantry knew nothing of agricul-
ture. Their Society was charged with the disseminating
of knowledge in regard to both agriculture and com-
merce. Therefore it was their. duty to spread such
knowledge as he believed was wanting. In what way
could this be done? Last year an Agricultural College
was proposed but after consideration the projeét was not
thought feasible, but he could see no other way unless
the Society undertook to carry on an experimental farm
where plants suitable to the soil and climate could be
grown and knowledge given to all enquirers. These, he
considered were the reasons why agriculture was at a
discount in the colony, and of the three, the most impor-
tant was undoubtedly the labour question.

He would now briefly refer to the programme for the
year. The first item was the Quelch reception dinner.
Every person who took an interest in the colony must have
been pleased with the way Mr. Quelch had represented
it in Chicago and he hoped the dinner would be one
worthy of the occasion and that there would be a large
gathering of the members to give “honour to whom
honour is due.” The next matter would be the Society’s
Jubilee Celebration which he thought might take the
form of a Conversazione. The Popular Le€tures would
be continued and he hoped gentlemen would willingly
come forward and give their time and talent to this
interesting feature of their work. Then, an exhibition

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. I
59

would be held in the course of the year, to assist in pro-
viding prizes for which the Government had been already
applied to by the Society. He hoped that the journal
would be conduéted as well this year as in the past and
also hoped that papers on agricultural and commercial
subjects would be read and discussions held during the
year. The important question of immigration and all
such other matters that came within the province of the
Society would have every consideration extended to
them, and they would be prepared to promote and
develop them as far as possible.

Such, he said, was an outline of what would be aimed
at during the year. They might be able to doa great
deal more or might perhaps do less. He did not like to
make large promises and he submitted the programme
remembering humbly that

‘© There's a divinity that shapes our end,
Rough-hew them as we will.”

The Hon. B. Howell Jones then reported on the work
of the Agricultural Committee for the previous year, of
which he was Chairman. He said the year had been
remarkable for its heavy rainfall—the heaviest known in
the colony for a long period. On this account it had
been exceedingly difficult to carry on cultivation of any
kind, The early part was all that could be desired by
the planter, but from May to July the wet weather dis-
pelled all hope of a heavy crop for the year. In April
a large portion of the colony was overrun by cater-
pillars which destroyed the leaves of the canes. It was
remarkable that these pests did not attack the young
plants so much as the alder ones and the result was that
the canes were stunted, the growth stopped, and ulti-

i60 TIMEHRI.

mately a very poor crop was reaped. From August to
O€tober matters improved but in the end the returns
were very unsatisfaétory. The rainfall of the year might
be put down at an average throughout the eolony of 136
inches, but on some estates on the Demerara River it
reached 154. The prices realised were fairly satisfa€tory
although towards the end of the year there was a falling
off in the American market, and now this was entirely
closed to the sugars of this colony. At the various
meetings of the Committee they had carried on several
interesting discussions but he was sorry to say that they
had taken place before very few members. This paucity
of attendance he found by the records of the Society was
no new thing, as it had always been uphill work to bring
members to the Agricultural Committee Meetings. They
had two outdoor meetings at the Botanic Gardens during
the year, and under the guidance of Mr. Jenman and
Professor Harrison, visited the experimental ground and
inspected the seedling canes and manuring plots. The
experiments carried out in the latter showed that phos-
phates and superphosphates were of little use, the best
results being obtained from nitrate of soda and lime.
The report of Professor Harrison had not yet been pub-
lished but when it came out it would certainly, prove
interesting to those who studied manuring. Among the
matters discussed at their meetings were the granting of
premiums for improvements in agriculture, the cattle
disease on the East Coast, the loss of rum in transit,
want of labour, and improvements in the manufacture of
sugar. They had also been successful through repre-
sentations made to the government, in getting assistance

to Professor Harrison, They had recommended the |

ReEporT OF SociETY’S MEETINGS. 161

Society to contribute towards the memoria! to Sir John
Lawes which was done. The Committee had also
applied to the Government, with consent of Professor
Harrison, to allow the Government Chemist to analyse
articles of general interest free of charge. He was
sorry to say that up to the present they had received no
reply, which was regrettable as the matter was one of
great importance. It was not their intention to deal
with foodstuffs, which came under the adulteration a&,
but other matters, of which he would name one—the
value of different qualities of megass as fuel. Of course
there were other things of importance which could be taken
up and prove of benefit to the community generally. This
had been the work of the Committee. He trusted that
during the present year more interest would be taken in
the meetings, and that the members would awaken to the
importance of discussing and exchanging ideas on sub-
jects which interested a large portion of the Society and
the community as well. He would only say further that
as he had been re-eleéted Chairman he would do his best
to promote the agricultural interests of the Society, and
hoped that the meetings would be better attended in
future and that the results would be worthy of the agri-
culturists of the colony.

The Secretary reported the following eleétions of
Office-Bearers for 1894, by the respective Committees.

Agricultural Committee—Chairman: Hon. B. Howell
Jones; Vice-Chairman: Prof,J. B. Harrison; Secretary :
Mr. S. R. Cochran.

Commercial Committee---Chairman: Hon. W. H.
Sherlock ; Vice-Chairman: Mr. T. H. Glennie ;. Secre-
tary: Mr. J. Y. Baldwin.

Xx

162 TIMEHRI.

Committee of Correspondence—Chairman: Revd. W.
B. Ritchie; Vice-Chairman: Prof. J.B. Harrison ; Secre-
tary: Mr. J. J. Quelch; Treasurer: Mr. F. A. Conyers.

The following report from the Commercial Committee
was read :—

Georgetown, December 24th, 1893.
To the President and Members
of the R. A. & and C. Society.

Gentlemen,—On behalf of the Commercial Committee, I have the
honour to report that at a meeting of the Committee held yesterday to
consider the matter of a premium being awarded to Messrs. Da Silva
Bros., of Pomeroon—such premium having been offered in the year
1889 and not claimed—it was agreed after consideration,

That, as the Committee thought the preservation of corn by kiln-
drying likely to be of great benefit to the Colony, and as they also
thought that Messrs. Da Silva Bros. should be encouraged in their
undertaking, the Society be recommended to award them the premium
of Fifty Dollars as the introducers of a new industry.

I have &c.,
WILLIAM CUNNINGHAM,
Honorary Secretary.

It was moved by Mr. Jacob Conrad and seconded by
the Hon. B. H. Jones, that the report be adopted. This
motion having been carried unanimously, the Treasurer
was empowered to pay the premium to Messrs. Da Silva
Bros,

The following report of the Book Committee for 1893
was read: —

Georgetown, Jan. roth, 1894.
To the President and Members of the
Royal Agricultural & Commercial Society.

Gentlemen,—By direction of the Book Committee I have the honour
to hand in the following report of their work during the year 1893:—

In accordance with a resolution of the Committee, meetings have been

held on the second Tuesday of every month, and in no case has a
meeting fallen through for want of a quorum, or for any other reason,

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 163

The Committee believe that the books selected at these meetings have
given general satisfaétion, and ihat this is not without foundation may
be judged by the rush for the new books when they arrive.

By the courtesy of the Honorary Treasurer they are able to state that
the amount spent on new books during the year was $871 84. For this
sum 567 volumes have been procured, these varying in price from 12
cents to 43 dollars, the average cost being $1 54 per volume. Of this
number 350 belong to the class of Fi€tion, and 207 to the other classes,
While, however, the heavier works are outnumbered by the light
literature, in the matter of prices the case is reversed, the former cost-
ing $476 41, or about $2 30 per volume, and the latter $395 43 0r$1 14.
Among the more expensive works added to the library may be men-
tioned the Century Diétionary, Nordenskiold’s Facsimile Atlas, and a
file of ‘‘ The Times” for 1892; which last it is intended to continue an-
nually. A new set of Dickens’ Works has also been received and used
to replace the worn-out volumes which appear to have done good
service. It may be interesting to note that this is the third set which has
been bought since 1865, when the present collection was begun, and
while they do not consider two sets of these popular books worn out in
28 years, anything very excessive, they cannot but remark that many of
the books in the library show signs of very rough handling, Wear and
tear must be expected to show their effects on books as on everything
else, and they are quite willing to make allowances in the cases of
flimsily bound cheap novels. At the same time they must say that
tearing out fly leaves for pipe-lights, the disfiguring of books by scrib-
bling, attempts at caricature, and neglect to return loose leaves when
they happen to have come out while in the possession of the borrower,
show great carelessness at least on the part of some of the members.

From statistics prepared for the Committee in May last, by the
Librarian, it appears that there has been a great increase in the circula-
tion of books and periodicals during the last four years, This has
amounted to about forty per cent. in the case of bound books, fifty per
cent, in magazines, 180 per cent. in newspapers, and 150 per cent. in
periodicals for the evening. Fiction is here as elsewhere ahead of the
other classes of books in circulation, forming 88 per cent. cf the whole ;
of the other classes Geography and Travel come first, followed by
History, Biography and Natural Science, This great demand for fic-
tion they have been unable to overlook as may be seen from the
number of additions in that class, While however, endeayouring as

X2

164 TIMEHRI.

far as possible not to disappoint the readers of light literature, they
have always tried to get a selection of the best works of the day in all
classes,

They have to note that a copy of Bryant’s Account of the Insurrec-
tion on the East Coast in 1823 has been secured. The copy kindly
presented by Mr. Justice Atkinson unfortunately wanted the set of
interesting plates which contain the first views of Georgetown, The
copy now referred to, however, is complete except that the plan of the
East Coast is missing, and as it is rare and almost unique in being the
only illustrated work produced entirely in the colony they consider it a
very important acquisition. By the kindness of the late Revd. Joseph
Ketley several interesting local pamphlets have been added to the
collection, and by the donations of other gentlemen the Local Literature
class has been enlarged. I have &c,,

I. RODWAY,
Assistant Secretary.
Mr. Conrad remarked that he thought the books should
be carefully examined when they were returned, and if
found disfigured the delinquents be made to pay for them.

This report was also adopted.

The Treasurer laid over his annual statement, which
in accordance with the bye-laws was referred to the
Dire€tors to be audited and brought up for adoption at
the next meeting.

The Hon. N. Darneli Davis then brought forward his
motion, of which due notice had been given, for an addi-
tion to the bye-laws to provide for a Chairman and
Vice-Chairman for the Book Committee, such provision
having apparently been hitherto overlooked. He also
asked the meeting to allow the addition after the words
“ at its first meeting,” of “ or as soon afterwards as may
be practicable,” which he explained as being desirable to
permit its coming into force during the present year,
This being agreed to, the Hon. Mr. Jones seconded the
motion and it was carried unanimously.

Report OF SocietTy’s MEETINGS. 165

The following communication from Mr. J. J. Quelch
was taken as read :—
Chicago, November 25th, 1893.

L. M. Hill, Esq., Hon. Sec.,
R. A. and C. Society.

Dear Sir,—I stated in my last letter to you that I hoped to write at
the end of Oétober, and to send you a list of awards made to British
Guiana, which was expected to be completed at that time for publica-
tion. Up to the present time the list is not yet ready, though the
Bureau of Awards has been holding out promises from day to
day. As you may be wondering in the Colony what has become of me,
I think I had better not wait any longer for the list. I send you how-
ever a temporary statement, the listed part of which, to the number of
46 awards, has been taken from the books of the Committee on
Awards. The parts marked “ not listed,” from 47-53, are also definite
awards which have been notified in the daily newspapers, though the
Bureau of Awards does not hold itself responsible for their correctness.
Besides these fifty three, there are 12 others which have been given
separately by the Judges in the Department of Ethnology and Natural
History, but as the only exhibitors were either the Exhibition Com-
mittee or the B. G. Museum, there is a desire on the part of the Bureau
on awards to run these together as one to each of these two exhibitors,
I have of course protested against such action, since it would cause 12
separate awards to appear as 2. These awards were given separately,
for pottery, boats, hammocks, feather crowns, basket work, birds
mammals, fishes, Arrawack Indian, etc., and I pointed out that it would
be as sensible and fair to run these togetherin one term as a colleétion
of Ethnology, as it would be to place together for one award, under
the term colleétion of Agriculture, whatever might have been granted
to one exhibitor for cacao, coffee, starch, sugar, rum, etc.

I can’t of course say what the result will be, but the whole matter of
awards has been such a bundle of injustice and wrangling between
parties and nations, that I doubt whether anything satisfactory will:
result. I don’t know a single nation that last May objected to the
system that does not now wish it had kept out of it altogether without
compromise; while it is said that three or four of the chief nations
are so dissatisfied, on account of their treatment by the Bureau, that
they intend to refuse to accept any of the awards made to their Exhibi-

166 TIMEHRI.

tors. We have suffered also, since we ought, on the lines on which
awards have been given, to have obtained several more for sugars,
rums, timbers, bitters, oils, etc,, but though I protested and appealed in
each case, it has made no difference.

The medals and diplomas will not be ready nor delivered for months,
if indeed within the next year, and all of us foreign Commissicners, are
trying to get under the Seal of the Exhibition a statement of the awards
made to our countries. This, the authorities promise to give. It is said
that even the design of the medal is not yet settled on; and more than
50,000 diplomas have to be hand-written as to the Judgments passed on
the individual exhibits. At present in several groups of different De-
partments, we do not yet know what awards have been made, More
than this, it is impossible even now to find out whether an exhibitor
who gets several awards in one department, will get a medal and
diploma for the whole! Apparently it rests with the Government at
Washington, and it is said that only one medal will be given to an
exhibitor in each department though the diploma will show how many
awards were made to him separately. To increase the number of
medals obtainable under this system, you will notice that where possible
I have entered things bought by the Exhibition Committee, under the
names of the makers who made them for the exhibition, as in the case
of Booker Bros. Cooperage, the Coolie jewelry, Mrs. Clegg’s fish-scale
photograph frame, etc. It was the best thing to do, since the Exhibi-
tion Committee in each case had one or more awards in the same de-
partment. But this, and other such matters that may seem curious, I
must leave over to be explained in person, if necessary. I send you a
few clippings from some of the newspapers which give some idea of the
chief funétions etc., which have taken place recently. One from the
“Interocean” on our display of Natural History is pleasing, though it
should have been much more accurate. Another from the “* Tribune”
bears a curious appendix giving me credit for being solely re-
sponsible for our display, and for having collected all the exhibits.
This I suppose was inferred from my being the only Commissioner—
though I trust you will at least not need to be told that I am not re-
sponsible for the peculiar gifts of the American reporter. Another
paper which I sent to the Colony quite lately bears the astonishing
news that I have presented the entire Agricultural Exhibit of British
Guiana tothe New Columbian Museum. This I assure you was as much
news to me when I read it as it will be to you when you read it, The

af,

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 167

best of our things that are suitable, as you know, 1 am sending off to
the Imperial Institute. Some other things, chiefly the Natural History
and Ethnology specimens, are being returned to the Museum. Some
specimens, chiefly woods, shingles, gums, birds, clays, fibres, bush-
ropes and cassava I am selling to the North-western University,
the Pennsylvania University, and the Milwaukie Museum; and the
Columbia Museum kas been offered a fairly good set which they pro-
mise to buy. The large logs of timber have been a load on my hands.
They are so large, heavy and unwieldy that very few people are able to
handle them, and the only decent offer for them has been one of $300
from a large billiard-cue and table maker. I have got them to go as
high as $350 but that is the most I can get. I was afraid I should have
to abandon them or present them to some of the institutions. Still the
$350 will not be so bad, the more, especially that the firm will report
on the quality and fitness of the Woods. One thing about them that
has greatly decreased their value is the great splitting that has taken
place in so many of thelogs. In this sort of exhibit as in many others,
the Fair has taught one a great deal which will be of much use to the
Colony for any such undertaking in the future, and I mean to make a
detailed report when I return which will help all such of our shows in
the future.

The sugars will fetch much less than their invoiced value, since there
seems to be no demand for the dark sugars, of which the bags chiefly
consist. The jellies and preserves also will fetch very little, sugar
being so cheap here and fruit so plentiful. The walking sticks also,
except the letter-wood ones, and a few of the others, meet with no sale,
the demand being for highly ornamental and well dressed kinds. The
rums and bitters I have had to send back. I could only distribute or
sell them by paying the duty, which came to considerably more than I
could get tor them. The bottles alone are worth the sending back, so
I would not abandon the spirit to the Government as I might have done.
The gold nuggets of Mr. Carreiro got an award as you will see by the
list, but I could only get them sold by having them refined down, and
getting the value of the gold, and as this might have fallen a good
way below the value put on them, | thought it better to send them
back, and Mr. Carreiro can do as he likes with them. Seven sample
nuggets were taken out for testing and for examination, but as they
contained a good deal of quartz, I imagine they will make very little
difference in the weight. The box has been sent, sealed, to the Geo.

168 TIMEHRI.

Christal Firm at New York for shipment to Georgetown, and it is
addressed to Mr. Rodway. There is so much robbery and burglary
about Chicago, and on the Eastern route, that I felt it safer to send
them off than keep them by me and bring them myself. The Portu-
guese needlework I am sending to the Imperial Institute. The duty on
them amounted to 60 per cent., and though many of them had been
promised, I thought it best, under the circumstances to cancel the
bargains,

Of our miscellaneous odds and ends, we shall sell but little. While
the Fair was on, I did not part with things by paying the duties on
them because it would have spoiled the appearance and arrangement of
our exhibit, and since the Fair has been over there has been nobody to
buy. On the 1st day of November, the Show was totally dead, and
altogether deserted except by those who had work there. The change
was absolute and sudden, and since then it has only been changed by
the breaking up, packing and transportation. The weather lately
has been awful, 34 degrees of frost, a condition unknown for 21 years,
and apparently brought about to strike terror into the hearts of the
tropic folks, The big buildings are like giant refrigerators and work
is terribly delayed, for in a little while one is chilled through, and there
are no means of warming oneself, At present I get on pretty well, but
it makes me horribly drowsy.

Just now I can say but little as to when I may beable to finish up here
and get away. I am afraid it will not be till the middle of December or
after. It took more than three weeks to get them through the offices of
the Appzaisers, the Examiners, the Liquidators and the Main Offices,
Separate lists in triplicate had to be furnished of all articles to be ex-
ported, of those for the different Universities and Museums and of
those for consumption according as they were free or dutiable; and as
nothing could be done with the things in the meantime, you may form
some idea of the conditions of our work. Foreign representatives wrote
and stormed, it made no difference, it was the law !aid down for all
articles imported into the United States, and now that the Fair was
over, it was of no value that we were here by invitation. For the first
time I have regretted I ever came up here as Commissioner. It has
been a matter of constant delay and annoyance. The Custom house
was swamped with work of course, since all wanted to get through at
once. The offices are all short of hands for the press of work, and
many of the men don't understand the regulations they have to carry

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 169

out. More than this, nothing can be packed except in the presence of
a Customs’ inspector, and the staff is so small, one often has to wait
nearly a day for one. It is useless having many men working for they
would be idle the greater part of the time. When this bother with the
packing is over, which I have only just indicated since there is infinite
red tape about the special cases in which things came and the serial
number under which they were entered—I shall have a further bother
while waiting for the passage of the invoices of the different cases
through the Customs, and in entering the cases for transportation.
By then I imagine it will be near Christmas.—Some don’t expe& to get |
away till January. Meantime one has to wade through snow and slush,
and to work in a bitingly cold atmosphere, Soon J will write again to

say how things are going; but at present it is horribly unsatisfactory
and takes away all the previous pleasure,

Very truly yours,
J. J. QUELCH.

The thanks of the Society was accorded for the fol-
lowing donations :—

To the Library,—from Hon. Dr. Carrington, a portrait
of the late Bishop Austin; from Hon. N. D. Davis,
“ The Constitution of Grenada,” by Wm. Darnell Davis ;
from Mr. F, A. Conyers, The British Almanac for 1832,
and Georgetown Postal Guide, 1863.

To the Museum,—from Mr. G. H. Hawtayne, “ A
Ballad,” printed for the use of the blind; from B, V.
Abraham, a fine specimen of Locust Gum, two pieces of
gold-bearing quartz from the Cuyuni, and a curious log
of lignum vite.

The meeting then terminated.

aan ae tevenrs

Meeting held February 8th.—Mr. R. G. Duncan,
F.R., President in the chair.

Members present 14.

Eleétions.—Meméers: Messrs. G. F. Powel, H. von

Ziegesar.

¥

170 TIMEHRI.

Associates: Messrs. S. E. Barnes, John
McG. Marshall, Robt Dinzey, James Mclnroy,
C. A. Huntingford and C. D. King.

The proposition of the Board of Direétors, that Mr.
J. J. Quelch be ele€ted an honorary member, was laid
over according to rule.

On behalf of the Direétors, the Chairman informed
the meeting that it had been decided to celebrate the
Jubilee of the Society in some suitable manner. ‘On the
16th of March ensuing it would complete the fiftieth
year of its existence, but as that date fell on a Sunday,
they proposed to hold a Conversazione on some later
day. The Book Committee were deputed to prepare
an exhibition of rare books and other relics of the past,
and it was for the meeting to suggest a Committee
to arrange other matters conneéted with the celebra-
tion.

Mr. Jacob Conrad moved and Capt. A, Duncan
seconded—

** That the Directors appoint a Committee to arrange for the Jubilee
Celebration.”

As an amendment it was moved by Mr. Hargreaves
and seconded by Mr. Mackay, *‘ that a Committee for
the purpose be now eleéted.’ On being put to the
vote the amendment was lost and the motion carried.

The Honorary Treasurer laid over his Financial State-
ment (annexed) for 1863, which was adopted.

He then moved in accordance with the rule, “ that the
surplus funds, amounting to $739 52, be placed in the
hands of the Direétors to be used in any way they think
best for the benefit of the Society.” This was seconded
by Mr. Gillespie and carried unanimously.

REPORT OF SociETY’s MEETINGS. ryt

The following report from the Committee of Corres-
pondence was read and taken for notification : —
To the President and Members

of the R. A. & C. Society.

Gentlemen,—By direétion of the Committee of Correspondence, |!
have the honour to report as follows :—

1. That, at a meeting of the Committee, held yesterday it was decided
to hold the next Horticultural Show on Thursday June 2tst, and as the
weather would be uncertain at that time to have it in the Town Hall or
some other building. It was also agreed that a circular be issued asking
the Chairmen of the village councils and the clergymen in the country
distriéts to assist by forming sub-committees in the villages, and to hold
shows one or two days before that of the Society, for the purpose of
bringing together the best exhibits.

2, At the same meeting it was also agreed to’recommend that the
Society purchase a Marquee for use at the Annual Horticultural Shows.
This they believed would be less expensive than building sheds on
every occasion, and they also thought it could be hired out so as to
further reduce the cost.

I am, &c.,
J. RODWAY,
Aétg. Secretary.

The following letter from Mr. Quelch was taken as
read and given over for publication :—

Chicago, December 10, 1893.
L. M. HILt, Esq., Hon. Sec.
R. A. & C. Society.

Dear Sir,—I wrote to you at the latter part of last month, but as I
can give you more exaét ideas now as to my movements and doings
before I get back to Demerara, I send off this for report. In my last I
explained at length the reason of our delay in packing, and the vexa-
tious requirements of the Custom House in the matter of papers before
we could pack anything, Since we got through, we have been packing
up as quickly as circumstances will allow, though as everything has to
be packed in the presence of an Inspector, and it is not by any means
easy to get one to be present, there has been a considerable amount of
unnecessary delay in the matter. Besides this I: have been a good
deal occupied in picking out miscellaneous sets-of things for Museums,

Y2

72 TIMEHRI:

University Institutions and Schools, each sample requiring detailed
labelling, and thus taking up a good deal of time. Add to this the
delay from the intensely cold and horrible weather we have been
having lately, which has made it quite impossible to work for any
length of time in the great cold buildings, which are in reality huge
refrigerators, and you will have some idea of the conditions for work,
and I think you will recognise that it has to be but slow at the best
The weather has been awful lately—for days the temperature being at
zero, with very heavy snowfall, and going to 38 deg. below freezing
point. Since then there have been alterations of thawing and freezing;
and the streets, and especially the Fair grounds, have become quite
tiresome and even dangerous for walking, owing to the slippery pave-
ments and glassy masses of ice. Owing to the huge piles of
snow on the acres of roofs of the big buildings, work in them
is becoming in many parts quite a dangerous matter, for the roof is
giving way continually in different parts. In such enormous buildings
the sheets of glass are naturally very large and heavy, and it would be
certain death to get a blow from even small portions as they fall from
the great height. In the Agriculture and Manufaétures buildings,
great areas of more than, in some cases, 200 feet in length, collapse at
once. No effort is made now the Fair is over to relieve them of the weight
of snow, and as the upper portions slide, and congregate lower down, the
glass has to give way. These are the amenities of the end of the Great
Fair. In February and March, when I came up, the conditions were
somewhat similar, but then they did attempt to clear off the snow and to
preserve the shelter ; the Fair was yet to be then ; now it is over, and it
would cost too much !

I hope to be finished with all packing by the end of this week ; but
then there will be further delay in getting the packed lists through the
Customs and waiting for permits for transportation, and for a car to
take the things through to St. John's. It seems to me to be the con-
summation of red tape that when we have already made out and passed
through the Customs, triplicate lists of our things, shewing what was
to be done with each individual item, however small, in the exhibit
before we could pack,—we yet, after packing, have to submit new lists,
of the contents of each individual case, and wait for permits to move
even though each thing was packed in the presence of an inspector,
Such is the course, and all have to go through it who send away
things, In our case, where some of the things go to one place and some

a

—o

Report oF Soctety’s MEETINGS. 173

to another of course, it is worse. The crush of work in the Custom
house is immense, and the delay is of necessity great, where so many
forms have to be gone through. More than this I have to move all our
ethnological things, for export, over to the Agricultural Building, before
I can pack them; and this is the simplest way under the circum-
stances !

A good many of the representatives of foreign countries will be here
till February and March before they will’be able to close up their work,
Most of the Chief Commissioners have already gone away, leaving the
packing and such like arrangements to be carried out by their Secretary
or Assistant Commissioner. The Jamaica section has just lately been
finished, but then they had exhibits only in one building, in Manufac-
tures, and they had little packing to do, since the greater part cf their
exhibits was either sold for what it would fetch or given away. Mr.
Vincent of Trinidad has not yet gone away—he has had to wait a very
long time for transportation papers but is now free and likely to get
away soon, though even then he has to leave the few packages that
have to be sent away, in charge of some agent here. There is so great a
difficulty in getting cars to take away the packed goods that I may
have to do the same thing, for if I stay here till our things are actually
sent off, it might not be perhaps till a long way into January. However
for the present I wait and see how matters go.

As regards selling our things that were not to go back to Demerara
or to England, we have done better than I expected. As will be seen
from the statement | submit to Mr. Conyers, as Treasurer, I have in
hand $902 29 from sales, besides the money sent by the Imperial Insti-
tute Committee, the greater part of which will also represent things
sold. As the original funds are exhausted, current expenses are being
defrayed from the money from sales. From this same sum, the rail-
way freights on the stuffed animals, books, etc., will be paid, the other
things such as came by St. John’s being returnable free to that port by
arrangement made by the shippers, as they have lately notified me. I
hope to have another $300 for sales of ethnological objects to the
Columbian Museum—but it is not yet settled. Besides, there will be
$35 from the Exposition Company as rebate on the sum charged by
them for storage of packing cases. Before we could get any packing
cases delivered we had to pay a storage charge of more than $67, but
as this was in excess of the original rate agreed upon, we claimed re-
bate, and we shall get back about $35,

to TIMEHRI.

Besides my own personal expenses and those for the Indian, there
are the charges for Carpentering, etc., and also what are called “ Ter-
minal Charges.” A rate of 6 cents per 100 Ibs, has to be paid to the
Fair for the handling of our exhibits, transporting them from the cars
to the Exhibition space allotted to us, and now for the taking away and
packing in the cars ot whatever things have to be exported. Consider-
ing they had to handle our very heavy timbers in the beginning, I am
afraid the Terminal Charges will be a pretty big bill.

Of the things that are going to the Imperial Institute, I am forwarding
to Mr. Ohlson, a very detailed invoice, and a copy of this I shall
submit to the Committee when I return. When they will get to St.
John’s I don’t know. I send them back that way because so far they
are entitled to free return, and the “ Furness” line of steamers takes
them thence to England at the rate of 12 cents per cubic ft. The trans-
portation facilities are most unsatisfa€tory: there are dozens and
dozens of carloads of stuff, that are waiting here that have been
packed up for weeks, and cars can’t be got for them.

As regards the Awards business, my last letter gave as much detail as
you will want in the matter of entry and final results—except as to
manufa&tures, These lists have since come out and we have additional
awards as follows :—

Max & Co.—Essence of Tonka.

Coolie Colonist—Jewelry.

Portuguese Lady Colonists—Art Needlework.

» —Embroidery and Laces.
Exhibition Committee—Artificial flowers, from scales, shells, ete.
- —Walking sticks,

Park & Cunningham—Letterwood canes.

Booker Bros. & Co. Cooperage—tubs and vats:

Mrs. and Miss Waby—Art work in Job’s tears.

Mrs. Clegg—Fish scale work in Photo. frame.
Before the Awards were announced, the Bureau on Awards moved to
Washington, against the protests of all the Foreign Commissioners,
and in spite of all the pledges and promises previously given for time
for appeals and such like matters. We cannot get certified lists of
Awards, and up to the present there has been no official publication of’
the Awards given, No medals nor diplomas will be ready for a year or
so, and the whole matter is one tangle of confusion. France is the
only country that can laugh in the matter, for she never consented to

REPORT OF SOCIETY'S MEETINGS. 175

—

enter any of her exhibits for Awards, in spite of the modifications that
were made to suit the foreign Commissioners when they protested last
May as abody. The statement is made in 'the papers to day that certi-
fied lists of Awards for each ccuntry have been prepared and -will be
delivered to each foreign Commissioner, but up to the present we have
no official notification in the matter. It is said the lists have been
much reduced, several awards which had been given by the inter-
national board of Judges having been struck off; but as a body, we are
at .aloss to understand this, since nobody but the Judges can give or
take away awards, and the Judges have been disbanded. It seems use-
less ‘to write to the authorities on the matter, we get no redress; and
we had to move a formal protest against such treatment, in our last
meeting, and to have it entered on our minutes that we might be able
to show our Governments the peculiarity of the situation. To this end
also, ‘we had the minutes of our meetings printed to show how through
the whole Fair, we were always struggling against unjust or stupid
officialism, This will cost us each $10 for the smaller Commissions,
the larger of course more.

You might please notify the Book Committee that I have not for-
gotten the volumes they wanted. The World's Columbian Exposition
Illustrated, is only completed in the December number, and it was no
good to get it before. By the bye the last number has a whole page
illustration, a very good one too, of the exhibit of animals of British
Guiana. Of course we paid nothing for it. They asked me to group
the animals from different parts of the Court, one day, and the whole
composite group comes out very nicely. The reports of the World's
Congress Auxiliary will not be completed for some months, many of
the parts not being yet sent to press. What I can bring with me,
I will, together with a number of catalogues, etc., from the various sec-
tions and countries at the Fair.

I have bought up a few lantern slides of some of the buildings, parts
of the grounds, and other views of the exhibition, in case they might
come in for illustration of any talk on the subject: but the slides pre-
pared are by no means complete, though they would help to givea
very fair picture of the Fair.

You will have had telegrams and notices of the revision of the tariff
and the changes made, particularly in the sugar duties, I believe that
the West Indian and Guiana exhibits have had a good deal to do with
this, Jamaica, Trinidad and Demerara all had good exhibits, thougk

176 TIMEHRI.

certainly ours was considerably more complete than either of the others,
whether as regards the higher or the lower grades ; and we spared no
opportunity of pointing out the effeét of the bounty and of proteétive
duties. In summarising the praétical results of our exhibit for the
‘** Tribune” at the close of the Fair, this was one of the chief things that
I mentioned as being the probable result, and since then, it has taken
place. In very many other ways I believe the Colony will eventually
feel the praétical benefit of the participation in the Exhibition.

As to my departure from Chicago, I cannot definitely state a time,
but I do not anticipate being able to get away until about the 25th or
26th. As soon as I properly can of course I shall do so—the weather is
not such that I should care to be here longer than I can possibly help.
Trusting that all matters are satisfactory.

I am, very faithfully yours,
J. J. QUELCH.
The Honourable N. Darnell Davis gave notice of
motion as foliows :—

“That the sum of $200 be paid from the funds of the Royal Agricul-
tural and Commercial Society of British Guiana, on the award of its
Agricultural Committee, to such person or persons as shall, by the goth
of September next, inform the Society of the most advantageous way
of colouring rum for market, so as to produce at the same time the
least degree of obscuration.”

Mr. Hargreaves gave notice of motion as follows :—
“That Rule 8, Schedule B., be altered, by expunging the words ‘ or

in the gallery’.

Mr. Quelch then addressed the meeting in reference
to the Chicago exhibits. The diplomas and medals
awarded to exhibitors could hardly be expected to arrive
within the next year. Those exhibits that were to be
returned had been despatched before he left Chicago.
but on account of the congested state of the traffic could
hardly be expeéted for a month or two. Many of the
things might have been disposed of had it not been for
the high duties demanded, which were enforced even if
the articles were thrown away. He was glad to say that

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 177

after paying all expenses there would be a balance,
which he expected would amount to six or seven hundred
dollars.

Mr. Daniel (the Indian who went to Chicago with Mr.
Quelch) by permission, thanked the Society for the
benefit he had derived from the sight of the World’s
Fair. He intended to record his experiences in pamphlet
form, and would present a copy to the Society when it
was ready.

The thanks of the Society were accorded to Mr. W.
H. Hinds for a copy of the “ Echo” Almanack for 1894.

The President gave notice that Papers on agricultural
subjects would be read at three ensuing meetings of the
Society as follows :—

March—Messrs. Llewellyn Jones and T. N. King.

April—Messrs. E. C. Luard and Jas. Gillespie.

May—Messrs. R. G. Duncan and S. R. Cochran.

178 TIMEHRI.

The Royal Agricultural & Commercial Society of British

»

RECEIPTS.
To Society’s Funds, 31 eae
1892 coe
Subscriptions—
Lady Members _... wud 7O 00
Ordinary Members Be PO oy,
Country Members ine 398 00
Associates ee seh LOORZS
Arrear Subscriptions ees 17 50
Rents
Catalogues ... f- see
Interest on Hand in-Hand
Scrip to joth June,1893_ ... 42 00
Profit from Hand-in-Hand on
Insurance do. oo 382 77

Balance in Hand for Columbian
Exposition 31st Dec., 1892...

Received from the Government
(balance of vote) ...

Sale of Hand-books & Refund
of Insurance

Govt. Vote-in-aid of Museum,
in hand 31st Dec., 1892

Amount in hand for Museum
purposes 31st Dec., 1892

Government Vote for the year.

Govt. Vote for Imperial Insti-
tute see eee
From Columbian Exposition
Funds ‘

Govt. Vote for Horticultural
Exhibition

Gate money $332 88, Conces-
sien of Bar $21, Sale of Shed
$50

Cost of Exhibition to "Society...

$ 3,398 42

2,543 00
21 84

424 77

$ 5,585 50
10,000 00

505 86

65 65

10 89
4,500 00

1,cOO OO

40 00
250 00

403 88
85 88

$ 660 o2

$ 6,388 03
$ 7,048 05

16,091 36
4.576 54

1,040 00

739 76

$ 20,495 71
ee

“a

Guiana.—Receipts and Expenditure for the Zoar 1893.

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS.

179

-—

EXPENDITURE.
By Salaries... — $ 2,610 00
» Periodicals and Magazines $ 579 56
By Less Sales of Papers 21 00 558 56
», New Books added to Library .. 871 84
» Subscriptions to English Socie-
ties Sele ne6 oo 46 92
» Binding ie! 145 68
» Advertising, Stationery, and
Subscription to Local Papers... 336 o1
5, Cost cf Timehri aoe 8 546 II
” Less Sales by Publisher in
the Colony $228 10, Less
Sale by Stanford, London,
and in Colony $39 20 33e 267 30 278 81
», Repairs to Buildings & Painting 193 79
», Cost of New Furniture, Repairs,
and Hire of Chairs ... 89 12
» Imsurance with Hand-in- -Hand
$50,000 at 1} per cent. 875 00
» Postages, Petty, Reading and
Exchange Rooms Expenses
$222 24, Less Fines $ 5 62.. 216 62
», Cost to the Society of the Hor=
ticultural Exhibition ao 85 88
§ 6.308 23
Society’s Funds per Balance
oiteet, |... ae ate 739 82
$ 7,c48 05
Paid out from Columbian Ex-
position Funds per es
Statement $ 15,574 39
Amount at Credit the Alct. per
Balance Sheet 516 97 16,091 36
Paid for Maintenance of the Mu-
seum per separate Statement 3,302 76
Amount at Credit th: A/ct 1 er
Balance Sheet 1,273 78 4,570 54
Paid to Mr Quelch to Bithiags
Exhibits for Imperial Institute 800 00
Paid to Mr. L. Ohlson to-
wards Cost of ere Ex:
hibits a 240 00 1,040 00
Paid A/cts. for Piet al
Exhibition per separate State-
ment son one tes 739 76
$ 29,495 71

Z2

180 TIMEHRI.

Meeting held March Sth.—Mr. R. G. Duncan, F.R.,
President, in the chair.
Members present 1g.
Eleétions.— Honorary Member: Mr. J. J. Quelch.
Ordinary Member: Captain A. W. Baker.
_ Associates: Alfredo V. Gonsalves, John
Adie, Antonio Gomes, Arthur M. Cleveland, R. G.
Allder, G. T. O. Hughes and Hugh Francis Sproston,

The President stated, on behalf of the Dire@tors, that
they proposed to submit Mr. F. A. R. Winter, for elec-
tion as an honorary member. Mr. Winter joined the
Society at its inauguration in 1844 and was the only
original member now living. He spoke of resigaing the
other day, and the Direétors thought they would propose
him as an honorary member so that the conneétion
should not be broken,

The President read a letter from the Hon. Dr, Car-
rington, informing the Society that as he was leaving the
colony for some time he tendered his resignation of the
office of Vice-President. To fill the vacancy thus caused
the Dire€tors proposed to nominate the Hon. A. Weber
at the next meeting.

The President also informed the meeting that the
Book Committee had eleéted Prof. J. B. Harrison and
Mr. G. B. Steele as President and Vice-President for
the current year.

Further, the President stated that the Jubilee Cele-
bration would take place on Tuesday the 27th inst.,
when an Exhibition and Conversazione would be held.
Any members having relics bearing on the history of the
Colony might be good enough to send them in, and the
Committee promised that the greatest care should be

REPORT OF SociETY’s MEETINGS. 181

taken of them. They already hada number of promises,
and he had no doubt the exhibition would be a great
success.

The Hon, N. D. Davis brought forward his motion, of
which due notice had been given, that the Society offer
a premium of $200 for improvements in rum colouring.
The necessity for something better than the present
system, he said, was shown by the aétion of certain pur-
chasers in refusing to buy rum by aétual strength but by
what it appeared after the addition of colouring. “This
colouring reduced the apparent strength to the extent of
one or two degrees which meant a reduétion of profit in
large quantities, and he thought if something were done
to put the matter on a safe basis it would be a benefit of
the colony at large.

The Hon. B. Howell Jones said he would be willing to
second the motion if it were somewhat altered. Rum
could only he coloured by caramel or burnt sugar, and
any attempt to substitute other matters would be re-
sisted. He thought the premium should be offered for
improvements in the preparation of caramel. The
objection to the present method of colouring was that
it was very crude.

The motion was then altered by permission to read
as follows :—

“ That the sum of $200 be paid from the funds of the Society, on the
award of its Agricultural Committee, to such person or persons as shall,
by the goth of September next, inform the Society of some improved
way of producing caramel, (combined with its economical manufaéture)

for colouring rum for market and producing the least degree of obscu-
ration ”

This having been approved and seconded by the Hon,
Mr. Jones:

182 TIMEHRI.

The President said that the question of burning sugar
for rum colouring had engaged the attention of chemists,
both in tbe colony and at home. He did not think they
could get caramel made any cheaper than at present.
Planters here had not been idle in this matter, nor had
they spared any expense, but if $200 would induce any
one to go into the matter and find a better process
he saw no objeétion to the motion. He doubted very
much however whether anything more could be done,
as the great interests at stake had already induced the
large proprietors to take advice and go to great expense
to find better means of colouring all samples alike.

The mover remarked that it was not on every estate
that they had the services of an Analytical Chemist, and
it had come to his knowledge that while some made rum
that was comparatively uniform in obscuration others
did not.

The motion was carried unanimously.

Mr. T. S. Hargreaves then brought forward his motion
to admit smoking in the galleries of the Reading Room.
He thought that if it were allowed, at least in the lee-
ward gallery, it would not be annoying to anyone, and
be much appreciated. He could not see that there
were any valid objections to this; as for the danger of
fire, people smoked in club rooms, hotels and private
houses, but he had never heard that Insurance Companies
considered smoking as an extra risk.

Mr. Bell seconded the motion,

Mr. Conyers opposed it, because he thought that if
once it were admitted in one part it would become
general over the whole. He was a smoker himself but
he did not care to sit in an atmosphere of smoke.

REPORT OF SOCIETY'S MEETINGS. 183

Mr. Bellairs opposed on the ground of risk of fire. In
the Museum were many valuable specimens which could
not be replaced.

Mr. Daly said they had gone on a long time without
smoking and should continue on the same line. There
was not only the risk of fire and annoyance to ladies,
but also the nuisance of tobacco ashes.

Mr. Hargreaves replied to some of the objeétions, and
on the motion being put it was lost by a large majority.

On behalf of the Committee of Correspondence, Mr.
Quelch reported that preparations were being made for
the Horticultural show in June, but up to the present
no definite a€tion had been taken; he hoped to be able
to give full information at the next meeting.

Mr. T. N. King read the annexed paper on the “‘ Con-
struction and Maintenance of Roads and Bridges in
British Guiana.”*

The President moved and the Hon. Mr. Jones seconded
a vote of thanks to Mr. King for his interesting paper,
which was carried unanimously, discussion being left over
until the next meeting.

Mr. Llewellyn Jones read the following paper: ‘‘ A few
popular facts about diffusion, with special reference to
its present position in Demerara.”’+ A vote of thanks was
also accorded for this paper and discussion postponed.

The thanks of the Society were accorded for the fol-
lowing donations :—

To the Library,—from Rev. W. B. Ritchie, ‘‘ From
Religion to Revelation’; from Mr. G. H. Hawtayne,
C.M.G., 6 nos. Pharmaceutical Journal.

ft See page 30.

184 TIMEHRI.

Miss Hawtayne sent a bottle containing fresh nutmegs
preserved with leaves &c. to be shewn at the meeting,

The meeting then terminated.

paste n ie

Meeting held April 1gth.—Mr. R. G. Duncan, F.R.,
President, in the chair.

Members present 17.

The Secretary laid over copies of a circular referring
to the premium for improvements in rum colouring,
which he stated had been distributed in all tropical
countries throughout the world.

The President proposed and Mr. Daly seconded, that
the Hon. A. Weber be eleéted Vice-President in room of
the Hon. Dr. Carrington.

The Hon. Mr. Weber was ele€ted unanimously, after
which he thanked the meeting and promised to do all he
could to further the interests of the Society.

Elections.—Mr. F. A R. Winter was eleéted an
Honorary Member.

Members: Messrs. D. McKenzie, H. L.
Humphries, Llewellyn Jones and F. V. McConnell
and Revd. A. A. Ost.

Associates: Messrs. F. Viera, C, B. Carto,
L. Kerr, J. W. Karnar, F. Harcourt, J. Cunningham,
J. Mearns, J. L. Jack, A. Hill, and W. M. Hales.

The President informed the meeting that the Govern-
ment had forwarded a copy of a Handbook for emigrants
to the West Indies, with the request that the Society
would suggest any desirable alterations and amendments.
It had been referred to the Agricultural Committee by
the Dire€tors with the result that a few alterations were
proposed as per their report.

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 185

The following letter from the Committee of Corres-
pondence was read ;—

The Museum, April roth, 1894.
R. T. A, Daly, Esq.,

Hon. Secty. R. A. and C. Society.

Sir,—i have the honour to report that ative steps are being taken
by the Committee of Correspondence for the furtherance of the inter-
ests of the Horticultural Show, which will be held on the 16th August
next in the Promenade Gardens, by the kind permission of the Mayor
and Town Council. Large Posters with the prize list are being printed
for circulation throughout the Colony, together with hand lists of the
same, which are to be distributed as widely as possible for the benefit of
intending exhibitors, and others who may be interested in the Show.
Besides the items enumerated on the Prize List of the last Show, many
others, such as Roses, Lilies, Orchids, Palms, Maidenhair ferns, Mis-
cellaneous ferns, Crotons, Begonias, Pepper trees in fruit, Coffee, Cocoa?
Rice, Plantain meal, Cassava meal, Corn meal, Tobacco and Bamboo
furniture, have been added to the Prize List for this year’s Show, and
it is hoped that in this way much praétical good will result,

I have, &c.,
J.*}. QUELCH,
Hon. Secty, Committee of Correspondence,

A communication from the Government Secretary was
also read, informing the Society that the sum of five
hundred dollars had been voted by the Combined Court
in aid of the Horticultural Show which the Society pro-
posed to hold.

The President having stated that Mr. King’s paper on
Roads and Bridges was open for discussion :

Mr. A.G Bell said, he agreed with Mr. King that the
foundations of the roads here were very soft. It had
formerly been held that a soft foundation was best, but
the general opinion now was the contrary. He would
like to point out that Mr. King had not mentioned drain-«
age in conneétion with the roads, and he (Mr. Bell) took

AA

186 TIMEHRI.

exception to his remarks on wooden bridges. Mr, King
referred to them as primitive and held that iron bridges
were much better, but the speaker thought wood most
suitable for the shorter spans. In a country like this,
with such soft foundatious, he doubted whether Mr. King’s
suggested stru€tures could be ereéted at the price esti-
mated. The cost of a greenheart bridge was about $600,
and if the timber was well-seasoned it would last for
fifteen or twenty years. He did not however speak
disparagingly of iron as a superstructure for bridges,
but rather wished to advocate the use of greenheart
piles.

The President said he agreed with Mr. Bell that
well-seasoned greenheart lasted for a long time when
used in the smaller bridges, and he was rather surprised
at Mr. King’s estimate of their span of life, which was
much less than he judged from his experience. No doubt
concrete and iron made excellent bridges, but when
those of greenheart could be built so much cheaper
the advantages were not altogether in favour of the
former.

Their being no response to the call for discussion on
Mr. Llewellyn Jones’s paper on Diffusion, the President
said it was an excellent paper and that he had read it
carefully, but had not time to study it minutely with a
view to criticism. He was glad to see that it was so well
appreciated that no one had anything to say against it.

The Hon. E. C. Luard read a paper on ‘‘ Open Drain-
age and Steam Husbandry in Demerara,” * for which a
cordial vote of thanks was given.

- Mr. Jas. Gillespie read a paper on ‘Some effeéts of
Ts: Gep page off yee: ran

Report OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 187

the late rainfalls,” * for which the author also received a
vote of thanks.

The thanks of the Society were accorded for the
following donations :—

To the Library,—from the Government, Ordinances,
1893; from Mr. Llewellyn Jones, Diffusion in Deme-
rara, 1886-90; from Mr. Luke M. Hill, Sugar in British
India, 1822, Examiner Newspaper, 1816-19.

The President stated that at future monthly meetings
papers on agricultural subjeéts would be read by Messrs.
S. R. Cochran, F, C. Thorpe and W. T. Binnie. There
were one or two others in view and he hoped to have one
at every meeting.

Mr. Quelch exhibited several interesting pieces of pot-
tery and other Carib (?) relics found aback of Pln. 4/ox
Repos.

The meeting then terminated.

Bg gs
Meeting held May 17th—Mr, R. G. Duncan, F.R.,
President in the chair.
Members present 12.
Eleétions.x— Member ; Rev. R. B. Lander.
Associates: Messrs. H. Blackmore and
Stanley Sproston.

The Treasurer laid over a list of the members struck
off for nonpayment of their subscriptions, in accordance
with the Bye-laws, which was direéted to be posted in
the Reading Room as customary.

The Secretary laid over a letter from Mr. F. A, R.
Winter, thanking the Society for ele€ting him an Honor-
ary Member,

* See page 87,
AA 2

188 TIMEHRI.

In stating that the Hon. E. C. Luard’s paper on Open
Drainage and Steam Husbandry was open for discussion,
the President said he was sorry there were not more
planters present, as it was a matter in which they were
greatly interested.

The Hon. A. R Gilzean said he had just come from
Berbice, where a steam plough was at work on Pin.
Canefield. \t was the first time he had seen steam cul-
tivation successfully at work in the colony. Many years
ago he had made experiments with his uncle but found
a great difficulty with the open drains, although he suc-
ceeded in jumping them by putting three wheels to his
plough. Then the drains got filled, and ultimately he
had to give it up because the engines were not power-
ful enough, His uncle thought deep cultivation desirable,
and went so far on Leonora, that canes would not grow
for some years afterwards. In some things he agreed
with Mr. Luard, but he was certain that it would never
do to have cane rows running parallel to the drains, as
the water would certainly lodge in the middle of the beds.
There was no doubt that steam ploughing was the thing
if it could be adapted to local circumstances. At Cane-
field he saw the plough crossing comparatively large
drains, two and a half feet wide by two deep, and it did
so admirably, but the drains required cleaning by manual
labour afterwards at a cost of $2 50peracre. At Cane-
field there were tile drains, but these were not depended
upon altogether, being supplemented by open ditches
on the top of the beds, He did not think that after the
experience of Messrs, EWING at Canefield and on the
East Coast of Demerara, they could ever be successful
with tile drainage. It would be a great benefit if some

Report oF Society’s MEETINGS. 189

proper system of steam ploughing could be brought into
use and he regretted that more planters had not attended
to take part in the discussion.

The President said it was also unfortunate that Mr.
Luard had not been able to attend. It was commonly
said that the reports of these meetings could be read in
the newspapers, but this was not all, as people must be
present before they could have adiscussion. The subjeét
was not a new one for in the Society’s records they
would find many references to it. He had been lately
reading the late Mr. W. Russell’s pamphlet, and found it
interesting. In the earlier days the ploughs were much
heavier and clumsier than at present, but even now a
great deal was wanting. He was of opinion that plan-
ters and engineers should lay their heads together and
devise some means of steam cultivation with open
drainage. It would be a great saving if this were done,
as at present one adult labourer was required to every
acre, and he did not think any other cultivation required
so much manual labour.

Mr. Gilzean thought the Government might be asked
to assist the experiments by a bonus or grant, and the
President promised to bring a motion before the Society
to that end.

The Hon. N. D. Davis thought that information might
be obtained from Holland, the fen distri€ts of England,
and Louisiana, where similar conditions to those in this
colony existed. The Secretary was direéted to obtain
such information.

Mr. Gillespie said that the soils of other countries
were generally more porous and had more worms
in them than those of British Guiana. He did not

i90 TimeEHri.

think steam ploughing could consist with open drain-
age.

Mr. Gillespie’s paper on “ Some effeéts of the late rain-
falls” having also been declared open to discussion :

Mr. Gilzean said the paper was very interesting, but
hardly admitted of argument. ‘The faéts were there and
very unfortunate faéts they were, and they had to thank
Mr. Gillespie for putting them so clearly before the
Society.

The President agreed with Mr. Gillespie generally
but did not approve of his obje€tions to drilling in heavy
wet weather. His (Mr. Duncan’s) experience was that
at such times this was the only work they could do, and
he did not think the soil was likely to be injured if it
were carefully and properly done. He had always been
a firm believer in burying trash in dry weather or when
he expected it to be dry, but had seen it unsuccessful in
wet seasons. Burying it with the shovel was alsosome-
times succesful. Otherwise he agreed with Mr. Gillespie
and thought the Society ought to be much obliged to him
for his paper.

Mr. Gillespie affirmed that what he had stated about
drilling was the result of a€tual experience. He knew
those fields which were drilled and those which were not
and had given the results. He thought the land became
poached by drilling in heavy weather. The men could
not stand when drilling without doing this. To relieve
the land from surface water shovel moulding was, he
thought, more effeétual than drilling, as well as cheaper,
and could be managed when hoe moulding was impos-
sible,

In reference to the Premium offered by the Society for

REPORT OF SOCIETy’S MEETINGS, 1ot
9

improvements in the Manufaéture of Caramel, two letters
from the Melline Co. calling attention to their speciality
for colouring spirits, were laid over,

The President stated that the price was prohibitory,
the colouring would cost as much as the rum itself.

Mr. Gilzean thought the sample, when it arrived,
should be examined by Mr. Von Ziegesar or some other
sugar chemist.

The Secretary stated that it was intended to send it to
Prof. Harrison, but if there should be enough Mr. Von
Ziegesar might also have a sample.

In the unavoidable absence of Mr.S.R. Cochran, the As«
sistant Secretary read his paper on * Some enemies of our
Cane-fields’*, for which a vote of thanks was accorded,
discussion being left over until the following meeting.

The President informed the meeting that if no other
paper was forthcoming at the next meeting he would
himself read one on the cost of sugar produ€tion.

The thanks of the Society were accorded for the fol-
lowing donations :—

From Mr. J. J. Quelch, Commissioner to World’s
Columbian Exposition—A collection of over fifty books
and pamphlets.

From Mr. Thomas Watt—Framed portraits of Gover-
nors D’Urban and Barkly.

The meeting then terminated,

CES Yaizie

Meeting held Fune 14th—Mr. R. G. Duncan, F.R.,
President, in the chair.

Members present 17.

* See page 103.

192 | TIMEHRI.

Ele&tions.—Members: Mr. John Bridges Laing and
H. B. Leggatt.
Associates: Messrs. Philip S. Birch, F.
Mason, T. E. Plant, Junr. and Carl Wolter,
The Secretary read the following report of the Colum-

bian Exposition Committee :—
Georgetown, June 4th, 1894.
Thomas Daly, Esq., Hon. Secretary,
R. A. & C. Society.

Sir,—By dire€tion of the Columbian Exposition Committee, I have
the honour to report as follows :—

As the exhibits have now been returned and disposed of, as they
believe to the satisfaétion of all concerned, and as the final statement of
accounts of which I lay over copies, has been forwarded to the Govern-
ment, they consider that their work is concluded and that the Com-
mittee may now be dissolved.

They cannot however, separate without remarking that the Colony’s
exhibit of the Columbian Exposition was a very satista€tory one, and
that the representation is likely to do good, in faé, that British Guiana
has been made known to thousands of persons who had scarcely heard
of it before. At no former exhibition, they believe, were the expenses
kept within the amount of the Government grant, and they think that
a great deal of credit is due to the Commissioner that this satisfac-
tory result has been attained. The reports of newspapers and private
parties all go to show that their Commissioner did all he could to
bring the Colony into notice, and they have therefore much pleasure in
forwarding the following copy of a resolution unanimously passed at
their meeting of June 2nd :—

“ Whereas, on the recommendation of this Committee, the late Gover-
nor of the Colony was pleased to nominate John Joseph Quelch,
Esquire, to be sole Commissioner for British Guiana, at the World's
Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, and

“ Whereas Mr. Quelch has satisfactorily carried out his mission, and
by his energy, taét, and enterprise, not only won for the Colonial
Exhibits the favourable commendations ot the Worlds Fair officials
and judges, resulting in our having secured a number of medals and
diplomas, but made our representation attractive and interesting to
people of all nations visiting the fair, so that there is good ground for

REPORT OF SOCIETY'S MEETINGS. 193

believing that much advantage will accrue to the Colony hereafter from
the Commissioner’s a&tion—

“ Be it resolved that the Committee, having before it Mr. Quelch’s
report, desire to commend his services to the best consideration of the
Colonial Government, and respectfully suggest that His Excellency,
Sir Charles Cameron Lees, should bring such services specially to the
notice of Her Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for the Colonies.”

In conclusion I have only to state that I lay over the Minute Book,
and Papers of the Committee.

I have, &c.,
J. RODWAY, Secretary,
Columbian Exposition Committee.

The President moved the adoption of the Report and
that the recommendation contained therein be forwarded
to the Government.

The Hon. B. Howell Jones in seconding this, and speak-
ing as Chairman of the Committee, said he would like
to thank the members of the Committee and also the
Secretary for their assistance. He thought they would
all agree that the representation of British Guiana had
been a success and that this was mainly due to Mr.
Quelch, who had done his best to advance the welfare of
the colony. It had given him (Mr. Jones) much pleasure
to serve on the Committee and to know that it had ter-
minated successfully. On behalf of the Committee and
himself he wished to express their thanks for the services
rendered by the Secretary.

The report was unanimously adopted, and the Honor-
ary Secretary direéted to forward the recommendation
therein contained to the Government.

Mr. Cochran’s paper on “Some enemies of our Cane-
fields,” read at the previous meeting, having been de-
clared open for discussion,—

Mr. Quelch said they were all much indebted to Mr.

BB

194 TIMEHRI.

Cochran for his paper. Many of them knew that weeds
and grasses were pests to cultivation, but be thought the
worst enemy of all was the moth-borer.

The Hon. Mr. Jones also spoke of the same pest saying
that in the last two or three years they had sustained
more damage from this than any other plague,

The President agreed that the moth-borer did a great
deal of damage to young canes. He knew of fields
thriving well in December, and by February or March
entirely gone. It seemed to attack particular localities
and particular estates; on some the damage was trifling
while on others it was very serious.

Prof. Harrison spoke of the shot-borer, which ke had
seen at the Botanic Gardens. In regard to the fungus
of which so much had been heard from Barbados, it was
not new as he had known it there for ten years, but he
never saw it attack canes that were quite healthy.

Mr. Cochran thanked the members for the kind manner
they had dealt with his paper. .

Mr. Vyle wished to bring forward a motion to have a
reading desk for newspapers placed in the Reading
Room to prevent these being monopolised by one person,
The President said this would be better as a recommen-
dation to the Direétors and requested Mr, Vyle to make
his suggestion in a letter to the Hon. Secretary.

The President then read his paper on “The cost of
sugar produétion in British Guiana.’’*

The Hon. E. C. Luard said he was sure they were all
obliged to Mr. Duncan for his valuable paper, and he
believed that the whole planting community would thank
him when they saw it in print. To have the cost of

* See page 114.

Report OF Society’s MEETINGS. i195

different operations set forth in a clear and concise
manner was a very important thing and he might say
without hesitation that a great many planters in Deme-
rara were not thoroughly posted in this.

The meeting ther terminated,

BB 2

Jubilee Celebration.

}HE fiftieth year of the Society’s existence having
expired on the. 18th of March, 1894, it was
@ commemorated by an Historical Exhibition
and Conversazione on the 27th of thesame month. The
objeét of the Exhibition was, first, to give some idea of
the work of the Society by bringing together in chrono-
logical order everything of importance in which it had
been concerned, and second, to show a colleétion of old-
time relics, bearing on the general history of the colony.
On the whole the exhibition was a success, but great
difficulty was experienced in obtaining the loan of
valuable articles, for fear of loss by fire or theft. This
can be easily understood, and no one would think of
blaming the owners if they hesitated to run the risk of
losing what was impossible to replace, However, not-
withstanding this, the personal application of the Assis-
tant Secretary and several members of the Book Com-
mittee brought together a very interesting colleétion.

In the first class the most conspicuous feature was a
colleétion of portraits of Members of the Society, the
place of honour being given to one of Her Majesty the
Queen, who has been Patroness since a few months
after the institution of the Society, and who is with the
exception of Mr. F. A, R. Winter, an Original Member,
the only living representative of the first membership.
This was one of a set of Royal portraits presented to the
Society on the occasion of the Marriage of the Princess
Royal, and with several autograph presentation volumes
(Speeches of the Prince Consort, &c,) shewed Her

jusitee CELEBRATION. 107

Majesty’s personal conne¢ction with the Society. Follow-
ing this came portraits of the Vice-Patrons (Governors
of the Colony), Presidents and most prominent Members,
among them being two of Sir Robert Schomburgk the
traveller, who took a warm interest in the establishment
of the Society. The Committee had to thank the
Georgetown Club, the Town Council, and several mem-
bers for the loan of many of these. Near the portraits
were arranged a number of interesting documents, in-
cluding plans of the Society’s lot, views of the building,
diplomas from different exhibitions, photographs of the
exhibits, &c. On the Cabinets were arranged a com-
plete set of the records of the Society together with
quite a large colleétion of pamphlets and volumes pub-
lished under its auspices. These included catalogues
of books, exhibition catalogues, essays and papers,
addresses and memorials, circulars, a set of Timehri,’’
&c. Altogether, this colle€tion made a very respe€table
show—almost surprising to a few who had been inclined
to think lightly of the Society’s work.

Among the relics of early members, special promi-
nence was given to a copy of De Candolle’s “ Prodro-
mus” with the following inscription on the fly-leaf :—

Presented by
Several Members of the Botanical Society,
to
William Hunter Campbell, Esquire
as
a special acknowledgement for the admirable manner in which
he has performed the duties of Secretary to the Society since its
formation in
1836.
Signed on behalf of the Subscribers
(whose names are prefixed,)

by .
Edinburgh, r4th July, 1841. ROBT. GRAHAM,

i98 TIMEHRI.

Besides that of Professor Graham, other well-known
names, such as those of Professor Christison and Balfour
and Drs. Greville and Maclagan were included in the
list of Subscribers. '

Pasted in the cover is the following account of the
presentation, and as the Society cannot do less than
honour the man who virtually was the author of its
existence we give it in full :—

BOTANICAL SOCIETY.

DINNER TO W. H, CAMPBELL, ESQ,, AND DR. J. H. BALFOUR.

These gentlemen being about to leave Edinburgh, the one for a far
distant country, and the other to fulfil his professional duties in Glas-
gow, a dinner was given to them by the Royal Botanical Society, on
Wednesday last (14th July, 1841), in the Café Royal, as a token of the
esteem in which they are held by their fellow-members, and of the good
wishes which will accompany them to their sphere of aéticn.

About forty gentlemen, chiefly members of the society, sat down to
dinner. Professor Graham in the chair, and Dr, Greville croupier.
Besides the members of the society, we observed Professor Sir G.
Ballingall, and other distinguished scientific friends of the honoured
guests present on the occasion.

After the usual loyal toasts, Professor Graham, in a very feeling and
eloquent address, which was most cordially applauded, proposed the
health of Mr, Campbell. He said that the Botanical Society had much
reason to feel grateful to Mr. Campbell for the great zeal and ability
he had displayed as their Secretary. To his exertions indeed, and those
of Dr. Balfour, the Society might be said mainly to owe its existence.
But it was not only in this capacity that his loss would be felt, for as a
private friend his amiable qualities and sterling worth had endeared
him to every one who had the pleasure of knowing him. He would
carry with him to Demerara the heartfelt wishes of all for his success
in the pursuit he was there to enter upon. He trusted, however, that
while devoting himself, as he knew he would, zealously to his profes-
sional duties, he might still find time to cultivate in so luxuriant a field,
as that country presented, his favourite science of botany, and enrich
the Botanical Society with some of the treasures of that fertile region.
The Professor concluded by again expressing the deep regret they all felt

JUBILEE CELEBRATION. 199

for the loss of so valuable a member, and so respeéted a friend, but trusted
that he would in due time return to his native city full of wealth and hon-
our. Mr. Campbell's health was then drunk with the greatest enthusiasm.

Mr. Campbell, who was much affected, in brief and feeling terms ex-
pressed his deep sense of the great honour which had been paid him by
so distinguished a meeting, whose favourable opinion he should always
consider as his highest reward. He sincerely thanked them for their
good wishes, and the recolleétion of that day would stimulate him to do
everything in his power to merit their esteem,

Professor Graham again rose and said, it was his pleasing duty to
present Mr. Campbell with a slight token of the respect and esteem in
which he was held by the Society. The present was a sincere though
by no means an adequate expression of their gratitude to him. The
chairman then handed Mr. Campbell a copy of Decandolle’s Prodromus,
bearing the following inscription :—

“ Presented by several members of the Botanical Society, to William
Hunter Campbell, Esq., on his leaving Edinburgh, as a special acknow-
ledgment for the admirable manner in which he has performed the
duties of Secretary to the Society, since its formation in 1836.”

Dr. Greville then proposed the health of Dr. J. H. Balfour, and, after
alluding to the important services which he, in common with Mr.
Campbell, had rendered to the Society, congratulated him on his eleva:
vation to the Chair of Botany, in the University of Glasgow, an ap-
pointment to which he was sure his excellent and talented friend will
do ample justice. The toast was drunk with great applause.

Dr, Balfour replied in appropriate terms, and after a variety of other
toasts the company broke up. The dinner and wines reflected the
highest credit on Mr. Dewar, and the coffee, with which the entertain
ment concluded, was excellent, and a refreshing novelty.

The same zeal and energy displayed in organising the
Botanical Society of Edinburgh was brought to bear
upon the people of Demerara, with the result that the
Society remains to-day a monument to Mr. Campbell,
far more conspicuous than the marble bust which stands
in its Reading Room.

Another relic of the early members was a copy of
Sprengel’s ‘' Systema Vegatabilium” with the autographs

200 TIMEHRI.

of Robert H. Schomburgk and George R. Bonyun, and
the following statement in the handwriting of the latter:—

“These volumes of Sprengel were used by the traveller Schomburgk
during his expeditions in the interior of Guiana, and were given to me
on his departure for England, May 2oth, 1844.”

The minutes of the Society also contained many
interesting autograph letters and documents, the whole
forming a set of records which will become more and
more valuable to the historical student as the events
pass from the memories of the living. Fifty years is not
a long time in the history of a country, yet during this
period a social revolution has taken place in British
Guiana, and nowhere perhaps is this more conspicuous
than in the proceedings of the Society. The stri&
prohibition of political discussion was not a mere for-
mality in 1844; at that time the strained relations of the
Government and colonists were patent. It followed
therefore that when the Editor of the Gurana Times
called the Society a ‘‘ hotbed of politics” nothing less
than the expulsion of the offending member (Mr. Emery)
was possible,

The general historical co]leétion was of course larger
than that of the Society. A fine colle€tion of maps and
charts partly lent by the Government, the Hon. N, D.
Davis, and J. Rodway, shewed in chronological sequence
the progress of exploration and settlement. The earliest,
(without date, about 1630?) illustrating Raleigh’s
voyages, showed the great Lake Parima and City of
Manoa, and a chart of the Atlantic Ocean and neigh-
bouring shores (about 1660) might have been used by
one of the Skippers of the Dutch West India Company.
A fair number of portraits of early Governors and other
celebrities and views of places in Georgetown were

JUBILEE CELEBRATION. 201

-— — vic;

shown. Among the former was a set of miniatures of
the Backer family, (Albertus Backer aéting Governor,
1790) which were particularly interesting. We must
also mention Captain Montague Jones’s paintings of the
“Fight between the Peacock and the Hornet,” “ Ruins
of Fort Island,” &c.

The Society’s colleétion of local literature was sup-
plemented by loans, which made quite an interesting
show. ‘‘Raleana’’ was of course prominent, the Dis-
covery of Guiana being represented in a number of
editions, beginning with Hakluyt and coming down to
that of Cassell’s National Library. Then came a collec-
tion of Biographies of Raleigh, his ‘‘ History of the
World,” Essays, and King James’s apology for his execu-
tion. Among the old accounts of Guiana were several
rarities dating from the middle of the seventeenth
century, including two in German written to prove that
hot climates were more suitable than cold for European
settlements, the comparison being made between the
New Netherlands (now New York) and Guiana. There
were also other works of later date, mostly in Dutch,
some with quaint illustraticns of two-fingered men,
mermaids, and “‘ men whose heads do grow beneath their
shoulders,’ The old plantation system was exemplified
by a number of books and pamphlets, including ‘‘ The
groans of the plantations,’ 1689, and several on the
management of negro slaves. The works of late tra-
vellers in Guiana included an almost complete set of
Schomburgk’s publications, and a number of editions of
Waterton’s Wanderings, Essays on Natural History and
his life by Hobson. Several scurrilous pamphlets of half
a century ago were also shown, one of them being the

CC

202 TIMEHRI.

original document laid over ‘‘ with consent” at a trial for
libel. Two or three local novels and about as many
books of poems, with pamphlets on a number of local
questions close the list of books. The old-time relics
included a very large colleétion of pieces of plate, in-
teresting for their association with worthies such as
Governor Bentinck, Peter Rose and John Croal, A
goblet “from H. Cooper, Purser of His Majesty’s ship
Amelia, to his much esteemed friend, Mrs. Hester Hus-
bands, as a token of gratitude for her maternal care in
recovering him from yellow fever in O€tober 1804,” was
also particularly interesting. A colleétion of Dutch silver
toys, two centuries old, attraéted much attention, as it
included almost all the fittings of a doll’s house, and of
course miniature reproduétions of household utensils,
some of which are now obsolete. Then came some fine
pieces of old Dresden and Staffordshire china, all more
or less conneéted with colonial families, including Gover-
nor Gravesande, Col. Goodman, Governor Bunbury and
many others. A sampler worked by the daughter of
Governor Meertens, anda landscape in fine needle-work,
shewed how our great-grandmothers employed their time.

Church plate once belonging to the ‘‘ Kerk van Deme-
rary” was shown by the authorities of the Presbyterian
Church, and Dutch Bibles dated 1788, when service was
held in the Court of Policy Hall, carry us back to the
time when no Church building existed in Demerara. A
Chalice from the Roman Catholic Church, New Amster-
dam, dated 1475, together with several beautiful pieces
of Church plate lent by Bishop Butler, were interesting
both for their antiquity as well as their artistic value.

A relic of slavery days was a writing desk, said

JUBILEE CELEBRATION. 203

aa

to have belonged to Mr. John Grant of Bachelor’s
Adventure. When the East Coast Insurrection broke
out, in 1823, one of his slaves named Harriet took the
desk with its valuable contents and buried it until
the rebels dispersed. Among the documents was a power
of attorney from the Gladstones (including the ex-Pre-
mier), to James Stuart, and another power of attorney,
authorising the holder to receive compensation for slaves.
There were also several old passports, licences, and a
permit to remain in the colony. A Catalogue of the
exhibits was printed and the readers of Zimehri may
have copies on application.

A continual stream of visitors inspected the exhibits

during two days and the Conversazione in the evening
of the 18th was crowded.

ERRATUM.
On page 46, line 6 from top, for evaporation, read evaporator.

CC 2

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‘Changes on Sugar Estates in British Guiana
| from 1865 to 1894,’’*

By F, C. Thorpe.

RaAVING promised Mr, DUNCAN, our Chairman,
to read a paper conneéted with our Sugar
: ¥ Industry, I felt I was in honour bound to do
SO ; but my long severance from the Society made me
feel diffident as to how it would be received, and doubtful
as to what subjeét I could write on that would interest
you. My long residence in the colony, my conneétion

as overseer and manager with men who long ago have
passed away, leaving, in the words of LONGFELLOwW, their
“ footprints on the sands of time,” has left me and others
such records that, even with the present low prices of
sugar and a run of bad seasons for years, we have heart
to continue the strife; I therefore chose for my subject,
“© Changes on Sugar Estates in British Guiana from 1865
(the year I came to the colony) to the present time.”
The word ‘changes’ gives one such a large scope to
dwell upon, that I am afraid it is almost exhaustless, and
will require great curtailing, For,if one only compares
our magnificent city of the present day, with the George-
town I landed in in 1865, he must be struck with the
grand changes and improvements that have occurred
since then. The great fire of 1864 had made a wreck of
a large part of it. Water Street before the fire was
narrow, the widest portion of it being opposite KLIEN’S
and the Colonial Company ; to-day that is the narrowest.

* Read at the July Meeting of the Society.
DD

206 TIMEHRI,

There were few hotels or restaurants. HAMILTON’S,
afterwards BECKWITH’S, now the Caledonian, JuDY BAs-
COM’s, and Mrs. BAYNE'S, were about the only places
where one could get a bed. ‘Then there was the old Ice
House, a perfe& shanty, to which | often think I see the
two old familiar figures, IMLACH and INGLIS, wending
their way from the Public Buildings ; CHARLIE CAHUAC’S,
now the Demerara Club; and for West Coasters, MARY
LYNCH’S in the Market, with her pepper-punch and
brandy. Great indeed are the changes of to-day in
that respeét,—we have the Tower Hotel and others that
any city might be proud of; wonderful have the strides
been since then. Our new Markets, Law Courts, Police
Magistrate’s Office, Town Hall, new Colonial Bank,
Hand-in-Hand Office, the B. G. Bank, the B. G. Mutual
Office, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the English Cathe-
dral, Tram-Cars running through the city and suburbs,
where fine residences have been ereéted, the Botanic
Gardens, and I may say above all the splendid sanitary
improvements of the whole town, show such a wonderful
change compared with 1865, that we are forced to con-
clude that in these strides sugar has led the way, and
that these changes have been but the outcome direétly, or
indireétly, of the sugar industry.

But, Mr. Chairman, I must now proceed with my sub-
jet: “ The Changes in our Sugar Industry,” and shall
commence with the improvements and changes in the
manufa€turing department as compared with 1865. The
amalgamation of sugar estates, which has certainly
changed the aspeét of the colony in general, rendered a
larger plant of machinery necessary; the bounty subsi-
dised beet, which up to 1883 used a large quantity of

ad

“ CHANGES ON SUGAR ESTATES.” 207

cane sugar in its manufactory, was then not the formi-
dable rival it afterwards became; it was the improved
machinery and economy used in the produétion of beet
sugar that compelled us to keep up with these changes ;
ard I shall briefly show a few of the improvements in
consequence.

In 1865 vacuum pan estates were in the minority, as
compared with muscovado. Haar/em at that time bore the
palm, both as to quantity and quality of output. The late
Mr. J. R. BASCOM was then manager, and my estemed
friend and old boss, Mr. JOHN T. THORNE, now Magis-
trate on the East Coast, head overseer; and I know Mr.
BASCOM drew in five years commissions on £50,000,—
something different from to-day, This estate was one of
the first amalgamated estates ; it was joined to Windsor
Forest, which then made muscovado sugar, and of sucha
quality that I, then fresh from Barbados, felt how far be-
hind Demerara was to that place in its manufaéture of that
quality of sugar. How changed my opinion is to-day ;
and if the departed BASCOMS, who either owned or
managed the estates that now comprise this fine property,
were to see it now, they would also have to exclaim : What
a change! Leonora was then a muscovado estate, 4ana
Catherina a vacuum pan estate, and indeed one of
the first in the colony. Changes again. Leonora is the
vacuum pan estate with all its fine appliances, and Anna
Catherina only a part of it, no longer existing as a sugar
estate ; and so it is throughout the colony. Wakenaam,
then so prosperous, is now reduced to two sugar estates,
and nothing but improved machinery could have kept
them alive; and so far has amalgamation gone that Anna
Regina, one of the landmarks of the colony, is now

DD2

208 TIMEHRI.

annexed to Reliance. In 1865, Anna Regina was the
leading vacuum pan estate in Essequebo. Reliance was
only a muscovado estate, but capital and machinery have
placed it in the front, and so the head has become but a
part of the whole. Many estates that when I came here
were flourishing, are but as names of the past, and all
from want of capital or pluck on the part of the owners
to put the latest and best appliances of machinery in
their buildings; whilst others that were muscovado
estates, are to-day, from the faét of their having the best
machinery ereéted on them, the leading ones of the
colony, for instance Windsor Forest, Leonora, Lusignan,
Providence, Nonparetl, Mon Repos, Taymouth Manor,
Reltance, Golden Fleece, Uitvlugt and others. In 1865
Haarlem made 12 tons of first sugar per day, and no
second sugar, this latter quality being only made on a few
estates ; the molasses were sold for exportation, anda cer-
tain quantity converted into rum. All the sugar made that
year was white, of the best quality, cured for the English
market, and fetched 52s. a cwt.; the duty was tos. 6d.,
which left a margin of 41s. 6d., or say £2 a cwt., £40
a ton; what a change as compared with to-day! The
hours counted as a day’s work on that estate were any
or every one of the 24, as long as the day’s work was done.
There was no proper regulation, as there is now on
estates, that there should be a sufficiency of mules, punts
and water in the canals to supply the engine with canes
(and here let me offer a tribute to the memory of the
late WILLIAM RUSSELL, whose name or memory will
never die, when we remember that to him we princi-
pally owe our present water supply). The open battery
and pan were not equal to evaporating the supply of

“ CHANGES ON SUGAR ESTATES.” 209

juice from the mill, and so work dragged on; the coal
consumption was enormous, 25 cwt. of coal being con-
sidered a fair average to the ton of sugar. Now, take
Windsor Forest, with its present fine plant of machinery ;
they can make in the same working hours over three
times as much sugar, and at such a reduced cost in pro-
du@tion that if sugar were selling at the same price as in
1865, the clearances would be princely.

I have taken these two estates for my comparison of
the workings of 1865 and 1894, simply because | began
my career at Haarlem, and was at Windsor Forest later
on; and their circumstances will apply to the colony
generally.

Haarlem, as | have already said, was a vacuum pan
estate, making the then best known quality of sugar, and
Windsor Forest was a muscovado. Their output was,
at Haarlem, 1,000 hhds. of white sugar, Windsor Forest
1,200 hhds. of an inferior quality of muscovado. Let us
reverse it and say Windsor Forest had the vacuum pan,
and where do the great improvements come in? Well,
let us take the supply of canes for the mill and the crushing
power at that date. The mill had only 16 punts and 3
mules to supply it with canes, and it was capable of
crushing canes to give 1,600 gallons of juice per hour,
extra€ting about 60 per cent. of the juice from the canes,
but it too often had to hold on for canes, or wait for
room in the clarifier loft. To-day the mills, 2 in number,
doing double crushing, can crush to give 3,500 gallons
per hour, and not a hitch as regards the supply of canes.
In 1865 the pan had to work night and day to get the
day’s grinding converted into sugar: to-day things are
'-so evenly balanced, that with the triples and pan the

210 TIMEHRI.

juice is converted into sugar with such rapidity, that in-
version, the cause of so much worry in sugar-making, is
prevented, and the enormous coal consumption that
existed in 1865 is now represented by a mere fraétion ;
this, with the large amount of labour saved, gives the
planters a corresponding benefit for field work. The
old planters would say: What a change!

I shall try, as far as my memory will allow me, to
particularise the various improvements that have gradu-
ally taken place. I will take the chemical part first.
Sulphuric acid was introduced to give the sugar a better
colour, and was used in the pan, taken in when the pan
was full. This was improved upon in 1871 by the intro-
duétion by Col. STEWART and Col. TRUE, of the sulphur
box for bleaching the liquor, before or after tem-
pering. Again, Colonel TRUE improved the colouring of
the crystals by introducing the use of bloomer, which has
kept up the quality of our sugar to the present day.
Since then, phosphoric acid has been largely used. This
enables the sugar maker to use a large quantity of lime,
which destroys the impurities of the juice, and by using
the phosphoric acid, the evil effeéts of over-tempering
are destroyed. One of our first improvements in ma-
chinery was the juice-heater. This was, I think, intro-
duced by Mr. SMITH at Og/e in 1864, but it was not in
general use until some years later on. It was a decided
improvement on the old clarifiers with trunnions, both
with regard to the saving of steam and the better clarifi-
cation of juice. The WESTON centrifugals were now
being introduced in lieu of the old MANLOVE and
ALLIOTT, and have proved a great success; this, with
the pug mill, curing sugar more rapidly, and giving a

=

* CHANGES ON SUGAR ESTATES.” 211

more uniform sample, the old centrifugals being utilised
for curing second sugars, for which they are well adapted.

The conversion of condensing engines into high-
pressure, gave the planter the benefit of the back pres-
sure steam, which has been utilised in the working of the
juice-heaters, evaporators, triple effets, yaryans, and
vacuum pans, which are now on most estates in the
colony; and here it is time to show where the great
economy in steam and labour comes in. But before
doing so, I must mention a great improvement that was
introduced in, I think, about 1875,—the filter presses,
which certainly give at least 5 per cent. more sugar on a
ton, besides the great improvement in the distillery in
cleanliness, and a better return of rum. The improve-
ments and economy in steam and labour have been
effe€ted principally by the improved boilers now in
use—* multitubular furnace boilers’ —under which the
green megass is burned direét from the mills, instead of
the old lumbering waggon boilers, succeeded by the
compound and Lancashire. The old waggon boiler has
entirely disappeared, and the two latter are now only
used as auxiliary boilers. With these new boilers, and
by being able to use ail the back pressure steam, came
the introdu€tion of triple and other effets, thus doing
away with the old copper wall or open batteries and
saving the large expense of keeping up logies, megass
carriers, boilermen on copper wall, and boxtop men, all of
which represented at least £2 a ton in the manufa@tory.
So far for the old boiling house as compared with the
triple and pan room of to-day; and before going on to
the curing room, as it was called in 1865, I will touch
slightly on the improved crushing power. In 1878 Mr.

212 TIMEHRI.

RUSSELL began his maceration scheme at La Bonne
Intention, and this was improved on by him at Provz-
dence, and | think next at Anna Regina ; this double-
crushing with maceration has since been greatly improved
on most large estates, and with such powerful mills as
now exist as compared to those of 1865, regulated by
the hydraulic gear, I think I am within bounds in saying
we extract at least 15 per cent. more juice from the ton
of canes than was done then, besides, as I have already
shown, burning the green megass dire€tly from the mill.

Going back, then, to the curing house. In lieu of a
dirty molasses stanchion, with the old unwieldy sugar
hhds., we find the place dotted with Sne machinery—pan
engines, centrifugal engines, and various pumps—all
doing the work that originally was done by hand, We
have small boxes or buckets running on truck lines, into
which the pan strikes, and which cool the mascuite more
quickly, giving at least 2 per cent. more dry sugar from
it, going dire€tly up to a hydraulic lift which empties it
into the pug mill, from which it is fed into the centri-
fugals, from thence conveyed by a spiral carrier into the
sugar bunk, where it is easily filled into bags by a shoot,
instead of the old package the sugar hhd., the bags being
easily handled. and as for economy, costing $1 50 as
against $5 a hhd.,—-the cost in 1865; this added to the
saving in manual labour, allows the planter to cure, fill
and ship his sugar at nearly £1 a ton cheaper than in
1865. A great many other improvements have been
made, too numerous to mention, and combined with fine
buildings, airy and lofty, concreted instead of the old
broken brick floors which could never be kept clean, we
may say a very great change has taken place since 1865,

“ CHANGES ON SUGAR ESTATES.” 213

and I think the few figures I give will be convincing as to
the economy.

Firstly.—Crushing, 15 per cent. more being obtained.

Secondly.—Triples as saving inversion, 5 per cent.

Thirdly.—Subsiders, juice obtained, 5 per cent. on
day’s work.

Fourthly.—Curing at least 5 per cent. ; this I consider
a very low figure.

Giving us at least 30 per cent. more sugar on a ton of
canes, |

In labour, fuel and packages, I have shown a saving of
£3 per ton of sugar. The making of second sugars has
also done much for advancement in manufaéturing ;
and as to the greatly improved distilleries with the
excellent return of rum now obtained, with thorough
cleanliness, any one can see what a change there has
been without even the aid of the ele@tric light. This is
not on every estate, but on a good many; nor do I
mention diffusion, as this is only on two estates in the
colony, but shall proceed to touch lightly on changes
and improvements outside of the buildings. A very
marked change occurred in about 1873, when the Ameri-
can market was opened to us, for instead of making
yellow crystals, a dark sugar without any chemicals in it
was made, polarizing 96 per cent. of sugar; these were
called dark crystals, or non-chemical, This was a great
opening to the planter, who obtained a good ready
market for his sugar, most of which he could sell on the
spot. I shall here also mention that in 1865 it cost the
planter from £25 to £30, to produce a ton of sugar; to-
day, on properly regulated estates, £15 is what it costs,

First and foremost were the great improvements made

EE

214 TIMEHRI.

in the hospitals and labourers’ cottages. In 1865, when
I came to the colony, a very bad state ot things existed
in this respe€t everywhere. At Haarlem there was a
wretched barn called the hospital ; for nurse there was a
coloured woman called SUSANNAH, who could neitherread
nor write, and an overseer had to go round after the doc.
tor’s visit and read the prescriptions, which were written
in English. The supply of medicines consisted mainly
of calomel, salts, quinine and castor oil; of course there
were a few others. Asa rule on estates, a jar of black
draught was mixed and placed at the head of the steps
leading into the hospital, and whoever wanted it helped
themselves. For Quashie this was sufficient, but the
coolies required gentler treatment. To Dr. SHIER, I
think, the first credit is due for the improved buildings,
and for a better staff and better treatment in them. In
1873, the Government took over the medical staff, which
up to then, had been in the Planter’s hands ; and I think
to-day the estates’ hospitals are a credit to the colony.
So with the ranges ; the well ventilated cottages of the
day as compared with 1865, are simply a wonderful
change.

Following up the sanitary improvements in hospitals
and ranges comes our good water supply. In 1865 the
estates depended on the rainfall for water for navigable
and drinking purposes, and how many of us can remem-
ber the want too often felt of a drink of water! It was
a common sight during a drought to see the people
straining the muddy fluid through a cloth, and drinking
it; I have had to do the same myself, Estates had
to send punts up the rivers with puncheons to get water
for the people to drink, and everyone was on allowance.

“ CHANGES ON SUGAR ESTATES.” 215 -

—_

The villagers suffered very much, and I have known it
easier to get a glass of beer in a manager’s or overseers’
house than a glass of water. Estates often could not
grind unless they tapped the admiral, that is, took in salt
water in their navigable trenches, and I very much doubt
if those estates that had to do it ever recovered from the
evil effe€&ts caused by it. How changed this is now!
The letters in the newspapers from the late Mr. RUSSELL,
and Mr. ROBERT SMITH of the Og/e, may well be re-
membered, leading to such results as they did, and the
Sugar King, with his chara@teristic pluck, started on his
own hook to give the estates in his charge on the West
Coast a water supply. This was taken up by others in
charge of the other estates on the Coast, inclusive of
Versailles, and it seems as if a good Providence be-
friended them, for in 1885 we had such a drought that
estates’ authorities were only too glad to get work for
their people to do; and the West Coast Water Supply
became an accomplished faét. I shall never forget the
morning that the stop-off at the mouth of the Service
Canal was cut. Hague was one of the first estates that
got a proper run, and we let it down to the very front
of the estate, to allow the villagers to get water to
drink; our punts up to then were engaged in bringing
water from up the river, for the people on the estate to
cook with and to drink. Mr. PITMAN, who was riding
with me, and whose usual liberality had assisted as far
as practicable in giving the villagers some of this water,
was equally amused with me at a scene that occurred.
As the water ran down the trenches, thousands of the
villagers flocked to get it, and many were the blessings
we received. A mule was on the dam, and as we passed,
EE 2

216 TIMEHRI.

it brayed,—a Barbadian sung out to the others, “ Deed
fait souly, why de very mules is a blessing of the
manager,’ Since then I am glad to say we have, with
judicious care, enjoyed a good supply for both drinking
and navigable purposes. J know the East Coast Water
Scheme was started in 1875 or 1876, but it was entirely
on different lines to that of the West Coast, and as I have
not seen it since 1878, when I left Chzteau Margot, | can-
not say when it was finished, but I think, now that the
West Bank and Canal empolder scheme is finished, the
entire colony is well supplied for every purpose.

Our changes in Agriculture have not beenmany. The
only radical change, or almost the only one, I see is in -
the use of artificial manure. The first manure used at
Haarlem was in 1865, when Messrs. CAVAN and LuB-
BOCK, who represented property now belonging to the
Colonial Company, sent some different samples to be tried
on the then Rotterdam fields. I do not think many
estates used it; to-day it is applied throughout the
colony. As regards improvements in field work, I cer-
tainly think in 1865 we did a better description than we
do to-day. Firstly, the Planter had a better control
over his people, the Coolies, Chinese, and Africans being
indentured, and compelled to work every week-day ;
still I think the abolition of the re-indenture system at
the time was a wise step. Secondly, he had not to con-
tend with the Planters’ curse, .bahama and para grass.
The land was more virgin and more easily worked.

The last change I shall mention is the great one on
our sea shores, and this must include not only the great
wash that has occurred, but the immense improvement in
the drainage and easier facilities for shipping. In 1865

“© CHANGES ON SUGAR ESTATES.” 217

the courida bush was miles out in front of our sea-dams ;
to-day what a sad change, and at what an enormous
cost have we had to proteét our dams! I think it was
in 1866 that the wash set in at Enterprise and Nonpa-
veil. Since then it has come down both the East and
West Coasts. Some have had to chuck up the sponge,
whilst others have spent more money fighting the sea
than their estates would fetch if put up for sale.

Against this we must place the great improvement in
drainage, and the easier facilities for shipping on some
estates. Locks have been put in, allowing the punts to
float to the very doors of the buildings, thus saving a
large amount of money on porterage, and also the risk
of damaged sugar.

And now, in bringing this paper to a close, I think you
will agree with me in wishing for a speedy change for the
better in the Cane Sugar Market.

What the Banana Trade has done for Jamaica.*

By Dr. H. B. Ford.

way LE subjeét I propose introducing for your con-
sideration to-day, is one of such deep interest
#7 and vital importance to this colony in the
present languishing condition of its export trade, that I
fear it is utterly impossible, in a short paper of this
description, to do adequate justice to the subjeét, but I
trust that its many omissions and vagueness will of itself
inspire sufficient interest in the subje&t to induce, not
only the members of this Society, but the community at
large to go more fully into its details, and give it their

most careful consideration.

The Banana Industry in Jamaica, which has assumed
such vast proportions, owes its existence more to chance
than to any well conceived and carefully prepared plans,
Incredible as it may seem, somewhere in the early sixties
a stray Cape Cod fishing Schooner, The Mary Steel,
owned and sailed by Captain BusH, visited the Island
during the winter for general trade and carried back
amongst her cargo a few bunches of bananas, more for
private disposal than in the interest of trade. The
somewhat novelty of the fruit in America, induced
fancy prices to be offered and accepted ; with the mutual
agreement for the supply and disposal of a few extra
bunches on the returntrip, The mystic word “ Banana”
soon got passed around and the Schooner’s general
cargo of tropical produce gradually yielded ever in-

* Read at the August Meeting of the Society.

THE BANANA TRADE. 219

creasing space to the new craze until it merged entirely
into a “ Cargo of Bananas.” Bananas now became the
order of the day, and the trade as an “Industry” had its
conception and birth in the Co-partnership of BUSH,
MOODIE and SOUTHERLAND of Port Antonio, Jamaica,
to grow, purchase and ship Bananas for the American
Market, and undoubtedly to these three gentlemen,
therefore, does Jamaica owe most of its present pros-
perity and trade. This firm however was not allowed to
enjoy very long a monopoly of the trade they had thus
created, for Captain BAKER soon entered upon the
field, and finding a ready market in Boston, easily in-
duced some Fruiterers there to finance a separate and in-
dependent venture of which L. D. BAKER & Co, was
the outcome, with Headquarters at Port Antonio and
Boston: while Messrs. JOHN E. KERR & CoO.,, of Mon-
tego Bay, boldly entered the field with steam, com-
pelling BUSH and BAKER each to follow, which they did
with auxiliary steam schooners and later by steam
entirely ; and thus from the lowly cradle of a few stray
schooners of the Cape Cod fishing Fleet, calling at un-
certain periods, did the trade demands increase by leaps
and bounds until these early pioneers were soon left be-
hind in the race of competition, and 133 steamers of
various nationalities now represent more eloquently than
words can express the extraordinary growth and vastness
of this steadily increasing industry.

In the early days of the trade none but small settlers
planted bananas, which they carried to the sea-beach,
where the Captain of the schooner or his representative
sat and paid in cash for each bunch; the prices ranging
from 6d, for small to 4/ for large, according to the state

220 TIMEHRI,

of supply and demand, and when, as often happened
during the winter months, four or five and even more
schooners happened to be in port together, the demand
exceeded considerably the supply and prices would rise to
6/ and even 8/a bunch. During such periods the crowds
of country people streaming down to the seaports
throughout the day and night, chatting, laughing, or
quarrelling, turned the hitherto dreamy langour of
these almost dead seaport towns into bustling excite-
ment and busy aétivity, and money thus easily got
freely went, until the large landed proprietors and semi-
abandoned sugar estate owners began to think that
the planting of bananas, if beneath their dignity,
from its large return justified the condescension, and
a paying banana walk was secretly if not openly
preferred to a bankrupt sugar estate. At any rate
a few fields of bananas if planted along with the cane,
“merely as an experiment of course” could not be
regarded as a change of allegiance from King Sugar, and
the ready cash sales and large profits of banana planting
have in every instance proved so alluring and power-
ful that one by one every sugar estate, even in the
fertile and seasonable parish of St. Thomas, from Morant
to St. Ann’s Bay, along nearly three-fourths of the coast
line of the Island, has passed entirely into banana culti-
vation, making their proprietors the envy of the less
fortunate amongst the community, whilst the unfortu-
nate proprietors of sugar estates in other districts re-
ceive 4 corresponding sympathy.

The present condition of the industry is much like
most other agricultural undertakings pursued on a large
scale under varying conditions of climate, soil and

THE BANANA TRADE. 221
Oe i TM
locality. Jamaica has not much land that can really be
said to be suitable for banana cultivation, for although
this may seem somewhat paradoxical in face of the
apparent vastness and success of the industry, neverthe-
less it is easily demonstrable and only proves what a
grand field is open for trade, where land, climate and
shipping facilities are really suited to this business.

Jamaica lies nearly east and west, with a range of
mountains running through the length of the Island,
varying in height from over 7,000 feet in the east
end to 2,000 in the west. The prevailing trade-
wind from the south-east drives therefore obliquely
across the Island, carrying the rain clouds, which break
on the highest peaks in the east, these inducing a
certain amount of the rain to fall on the weather side;
amounting to some 7o to go inches a year in the
parish of St. Thomas-in-the-East, gradually decreasing
to 30 or 40 inches at Kingston, behind which the moun-
tains only attain a height of 1,500 feet. Immediately
behind St. Thomas is the parish of Portland, which
receives the bulk of the rainfall, amounting on an average
to about 200 inches a year, (while during last No-
vember 80 inches were recorded) and following in the
same oblique line, the rainfall drops to 40 or 50 inches in
St. Ann’s, while the next parish Trelawny is invariably
parched with drought.

The centre of the banana business is in Portland,
which is entirely a mountainous distri€t with hardly any
flat land, and with the exception of a few miles of cart-
road, nothing but mule tracks, zigzagging up the hills and
across innumerable streams and rivers which are often
impassable, form the means of communication between

FF

222 TIMEHRI.

the coast andtheinterior. The soil of this distri€t, which
scarcely boasts of over 200 acres of flat valley land,
is chiefly of clay and river stone, upon which the
bananas seem to thrive as long as the almost incessant
rains continue, but two weeks of dry weather is sufficient
to parch and wither them; added to which the furious
gusts of wind that frequently rush through these moun-
tain gorges carry wholesale destruétion before them ;
these are some of thc difficulties the industry has had
to contend with. In St Thomas,’ where soil, roads and
seasons unite to give the desired requirements, the in-
cessant gales and strength of the daily sea-breeze to
which this locality is exposed, lashes and destroys the
banana leaves, thereby injuring the plant and often laying
whole fields of bearing trees flat on the ground.

St. Mary’s is more or less exempt from either
mountain gusts and sea-breeze and is perhaps the most
favourable locality, being of a hot humid climate, but here
also serious drawbacks have to be encountered ; a poor
marly soil which burns readily in dry weather, and in
heavy seasons makes every road an impassable quag-
mire.

The other parishes produce only in a few favoured
spots an ever varying quantity hardly worthy of con-
sideration, with perhaps the exception of St. Thomas-in-
the-Vale.

It may therefore be asked how in the face of these
natural disadvantages the industry from its infancy to
manhood has exhibited such extraordinary development,
and to what can the secret of such unprecedented success
be attributed? Well, perhaps many circumstances co-
incide to produce this end, but undoubtedly the talisman

THE BANANA TRADE. 223

of this success, is almost an unknown quantity in the
West Indies. ‘‘ Ready Money”’ is the key to the situa-
tion, and whether the profits be large or small ‘‘ Ready
Money” means quick returns, and quick returns means
trade. Thus vast sums of money are kept constantly
in circulation and a man’s capital is turned over and
over during each year, and although at every turn the
a€tual profit may be small, his annual income may be
comparatively large; at any rate the late impecu-
nious sugar planters and peasantry of the districts
named, if not now all millionaires, are living in com-
fortable and independent circumstances. The innu-
merable neat little cottages and new houses dotted
all over the hills, surrounded by small and large tracts
of land in bananas, the many wharves and storehouses,
new villages and enlarged and busy centres of trade
conneéted by a network of telephone and telegraph
wires, even in the remotest parts of the hills, present a
more impressive piéture of prosperity than either words
or statistics can convey. It is not many years ago, even
as late as 1880, that little or nothing was known of the
interior of the Island, and the few mule-tracks that did
duty as roads across the country were seldom used by
white people except on an occasional journey. The
negroes lived in a semi-wild state, often going aboutina
naked condition and running and hiding at the approach
of a white man. Butall this is changed now, for with the
continued increase of the area under bananas, many
new roads and extensive repairs to old ones were de-
manded and insisted upon ; and the local authorities
being unable to cope with the urgent needs of the new
industry petitioned the Government, which in 1891,
FF 2

224 TIMEHRI.

assumed the management of over goo miles of these
parochial roads, and at once set about the simultaneous
reconstru€tion of them in each distri&t at a cost varying
from £100 to £400 per mile. Good roads without
bridges being of little service, the Government had to
face an outlay of £150,000 for this purpose, which has
been chiefly spent in the parishes of Portland and St.
Thomas-in-the-East, in the construétion of some fine
iron and concrete stru¢tures varying in length from
80 to 480 feet over the Rio Grande River. At the
same time urgent demands were made throughout the
Island for railway extension and £1,200,000 was voted
for the purpose of increasing the line one hundred
miles, the greater portion of which has been brought
into operation. Several narrow gauge Tramways have
also been projected to tap the rich valleys and aét as
feeders to the main line. In a few instances such
lines are a€tually in operation, whilst Mr. CLARKE’S
Overhead Wire Railroad traversing the Mandeville
mountains from Porus to his banana property is worthy
of mention, This line was ere€ted by him at a cost
of some $40,000, solely for the transportation of his own
fruit direét from the fields into the railway shed at Porus
and thus avoid handling and jolting in cartage.

The Fruit Companies on their part have not been
backward, and beyond the use of private telephones con-
ne€ting their properties, wharves and buying stations,
and the construétion of Tramways, have built, and are
building fast steamships, specially designed and fitted with
warming and ventilating apparatus for the safe convey-
ance of the fruit in all seasons, while Captain BAKER, of
the Boston Fruit Company, which owns some 35,000:

THE BANANA TRADE. 225

acres of land in Jamaica alone, is constructing a dry
Dock at Port Antonio, where he already has extensive
shops for boat building and ship repairing. He has
further been successful in raising some £300,000 in
London to further develop his gigantic Banana Industry
in all its various branches, while the Jamaica Syndicate
with a capital of £50,000 in ten shares of £5,000 each,
was proposed, formed and £30,000 of its capital sub-
scribed inside of 48 hours, and cabled to London to Messrs.
HAWTHORNE and SHEDDON to acquire certain sugar
properties then in the market. Among the gentlemen
forming this enterprising Syndicate, was His Excellency
Sir HENRY BLAKE, who took one share.

Among the individual proprietors of large banana
walks, may be mentioned Dr. PRINGLE, who some four
years ago refused £125,000 for his properties, which as
sugar estates in cultivation, together with live and dead
stock he had acquired for £30,000. Within the last
four years he has almost doubled the area under bananas
and now loads his own steamers weekly. The extent of
the export of bananas from Jamaica at present is on an
average between 70,000 and 80,000 bunches a week, and
it is not uncommon for 10, 12 and even 14 steamers to
clear at a single port in a week during the height of the
season between March and June, so that the annual out-
put may be roughly taken at 4,000,000 bunches.

It may not be uninteresting here to mention that early
in 1864, the sugar planters in the old House of Assembly
began to turn their attention to the possibilities of
banana cultivation on a large scale as a profitahle under-
taking, in place of their fast decaying industry, and a
Special Committee was appointed by the House to con-

226 TIMEHRI,

sider the feasibility and advisability of planting bananas
to make flour, but the rebellion of 1865 occurring just at
the time the Committee were about to present their
report, the matter was dropped and forgotten until some
8 years after, when the Chairman of the Committee,
the Hon’ble. James M. GiBs sought the samples which
had been prepared by order of the Committee and had
them examined, with the result that the flour was found
in a perfect state of preservation, and although on the
matter becoming known in England, it was proposed
to use banana flour for provisioning fortresses, on
account of its antiseptic and keeping qualities, the
general lethargy and langour that pervaded all things’
West Indian, effeétually prevented any further steps being
taken.

There is little doubt that there would be a large field
open for this industry and the matter is already receiving
serious attention in the neighbouring colony of Surinam,
as will be seen by the following interesting account
which appeared in the Sugar Fournal of April 15th,
1894, and which was taken from the Tropical Agricultu-
ralist :—

A Mr. Harrtoc, who went in the beginning of last year to Surinam
(West Indies), is in possession of a method of preparing fine dry
meal from bananas and plantains. The chemical analysis of both
sorts of meals have proved that the chemical composition of differ-
ent bananas and plantain kinds is almost identical. The principal
stuff the meal contains consists of 80 to 85 degs. of starch This
composition induced him to seek the adoption of the meal for pur-
poses where other stuffs containing starch are employed, and he
chose, in the first place, the fabrication of alcohol: and glucose
(grape sugar). As he did not dispose of very large quantities, he

was forced to apply to laboratorium experiments that were made
at the Government Institute of Alcohols in Switzerland, fixed at

THE BANANA TRADE. 227

,Berne. The gentlemen there made alcohol of meal, and wrote as

follows :—

“Tl resulte de ce qui précede qu’il vaut tout a fait la peine @utiliser
ces farines pour la fabrication d’alcool. La qualite de l’alcool de farine
de bananes peut aussi etre envisagee comme bonne.” In the conver-
sation about the objet with those gentlemen, they gave their opinion
that the value of the meal would at least be that of maize, the starch
quantity of the meal being greater, the same opinion was given by some
manufacturers of alcohol in Switzerland and in Holland. As proof of
how many stuffs can be employed for alcohol manufa€turing, it may be
said that one not very large manufaétory in Holland employs on
an average 25,000 tons of maizea year. The same gentlemen, in Berne,
made experiments with glucose making, and said :—“ I] est evident
que la farine de bananes traitee de cette maniere pourrait etre encore
utilisee pour la fabrication de glucose,’ The value of the meal for
glucose would be more than one and a-half times that of maize, for
maize is not employed tor that fabrication, but only dearer sorts of
stuffs,as potato and sago meal. A certitude for the employment of the
meal for glucose manufacturing can only be given by employing at
least a ton of the stuff, but there is very great probability it will also do
for that purpose. In the following calculations he estimates the value
of meal on the basis of maize, that is at this time being delivered by
ship in Europe at £5 to £5 10s. For manufaéturing 1,000 tons per
year of meal there would be needed an installation that would cost,
delivered and fixed on the estate, £2,000 to £2,500. For a second
1,000 tons a similar installation would be needed, for it would be
difficult to make larger installations. For this reason it would also be
profitable to make the manufactory on the estate itself, for using the
bananas and plantains. The fabrication of 1,coo tons will be taken as
a basis. Cost of reaping the fruit, preparing it and making the meal,
delivered on ship if there is water in the neighbourhood, can be put at
18s. to 20s. per ton; for freight to Europe, 18s. to 25s. per ton. Thus
the average cost of the meal delivered in Europe would be £2 per ton.
He said the value would be at least that of maize, or £5 to £5 Ios., so
that there would rest per ton of meal £3 to £3 10s. So that for 1,000
tons an installation of £2,000 to £2,500 is wanted, and a quantity of
bananas or plantains of about the double or the triple of the meal in
average 1,500 tons, whilst the revenue would be £3,000 to £3,500. In
the above given cyphers all exaggerations are avoided, So it is pro-

228 TIMEHRL

bable that the quantity of 1,000 tons can be surpassed, and the most of
manufaéturing can bereduced, whilst the prices of the meal would in-

crease if it will do for glucose manufacturing,
L. E, Asser, C.E.

- Diffusion versus Double Crushing.*

By H. von Ziegesar.

a

MHEN Mr. DUNCAN asked me some time ago to
4 read a paper before the Society about Diffu-
alNixy sion, | readily assented as this is a subje&
which I feel deeply interested in, but I forgot at the
time, or did not realize, that instead of addressing you in
my smoothly flowing mother tongue, I would have to
do so in a language which somehow has always refused
to fit in with my native speaking apparatus, I must
therefore apologize, gentlemen, if the idiom in which I
am about to deliver my views does not always come up
to what you would call “ choice English.”

Gentlemen! Inthe following remarks I shall endeavour
to show what diffusion has done for the sugar manufac-
ture in this colony up to now, and what it might have
done or might do for Demerara.

“Necessity is the mother of progress,” we say in
German and I find that Englishmen too acknowledge
the truth of this old proverb by the similar saying,
* necessity teaches many things.’’ Of necessity or rather
of distress there is at present plenty in all sugar growing
countries, and especially in Demerara, as we all of us
know only too well, owing to the depression of sugar
prices, a sinking which in all probability will continue
for some time and will render the present state of dis-
tress even worse. It is to be hoped therefore, that the
intelligence of the sugar manufaéturers will effeé&t a

* Read at the August Meeting of the Society,
GG

230 TIMEHRI.

solution of the problem, how to reduce the cost of
making sugar in proportion as the prices go down, before
the sugar industry of this country has gone to ruin.

The necessity for progress in this cire€tion is perhaps
even greater than many of those who suffer from the
present distress realize, some mistaking the low state of
the sugar market for a temporary calamity.

Gentlemen, there has been one enormous step already
made to meet the increased necessity of cheapening the
methods of sugar making—this is diffusion.

To enable you to recognise diffusion as an improve-
ment I shall try in the course of this paper, to give you
a standard by which to judge for yourselves whether
diffusion is a progress or not.

The standard by which diffusion should be measured
differs from the one customary in this colony. Here the
returns of an estate are measured in the first place by the
number of tons of first sugar per acre, which figure com-
prises the results of the field and the building mixed up
in such a manner as to make it impossible to recognize
whether they are due to a good or bad field crop; or
whether to quality and quantity of the cane or to more or
less rational work in the buildings. The next item by
which the estate’s yield is judged, consists in the recovery
of first sugar derived from the indicated sugar in the clari-
fier juice, which figure rests on the sugar already obtained
by the clarifier juice, and therefore such judgments lose
sight of the most important recovery in the buildings which
is the recovery of juice from roo tons cane.

You finally go by the number of gallons of clarifier
juice required for one ton of sugar, Gentlemen, this
standard, though not wrong in itself, is altogether in-

DIFFUSION VERSUS DOUBLE CRUSHING. _— 231

sufficient for measuring any improvement in the recovery
of juice from cane, and therefore becomes fatal if it is
applied for such a purpose.

I have twice in my life experienced a change of stan-
dard measures in public life, and therefore know the
difficulty which almost everybody has to encounter in
getting accustomed to a new standard. Indeed there
were people who would stick to their old modes of
measuring until the end of their lives in spite of the
laws and Police Ordinances which do not allow of being
joked at within the fatherland, ‘This was on the occasion
of the introdu€tion of the metric system and the new
coinage in 1873.

Nor need this surprise us. We all very likely have a
precise idea in our minds about, say, the area of 100
acres, or about the size of a building, the length or width
of which are expressed to us in feet, but I doubt whether
there are not a few among us who would be puzzled if the
same dimensions were given them in square metres and
millimetres. Still it would be easy enough for them
to transfer the given measure into their own mode of
reckoning.

This is not the same with the appreciation of diffusion.
It is not merely a matter of turning one standard into
the other, but the old standard has to be abandoned
completely, and an entirely new one has to be adopted.

According to the usual manner of reckoning in this
colony the differences of crushing would be

with single crushing, 62 tons juice, losing 26 tons juice by megasse:
with double crushing, 72 tons juice, losing 16 tons juice by megasse :
with diffusion, 85 tons juice, losing 3 tons juice by megasse,
You can therefore see that by diffusion you gain 13 tons
Original juice on every 100 tons of cane worked up.
GG2

232

TIMEHRI.

In judging the recovery on juice, sugar, massecuite,
and Ist sugar, I introduced the following table recording
the results in the buildings under my control.

A complete record of a Mill Faétory and a Diffusion
Faétory will run as follows :—

By Mill (Double Crushing.)

Sugar in the cane o/o =
13.13 = :
in juice obtained
TO 4 ica

Sugar

Sugar in Massecuite obt.

9:90 = ves abe

Sugar in 1st Sugar obtained
763 =

Loss Account.

Sugar in Megasse 2°39 =

Sugar till Massecuite 3 23 =

Sugar from Clarifier till

Massecuite 0°84

From roo tons cane we re-

ceived 72 tons juice
or 15,000 gallons
juice (1'075 sp. gr).

Tons Massecuite ...
(Pol. 77°2).
Tons 1st Sugar ...
(Pol. 96’0).
Gallons Clarifier juice per
ton of ist Sugar=
Tons cane per acre 28

Tons 1st Sugar per acre
Tons cane per ton Ist Sugar
1st Sugar obtained on the

indicated sugar in
clarifier juice ni

- 10000

81°81
75°40
5811

1819
24°60

6°41

12°82

795
1886°6
2°22

12°57

758

By Diffusion.
Sugar in the cane o/o =

TSG) awe oni
Sugar in juice obtained
12°69 =

Sugar in Massecuwite ob-
tained 11°95 =
Sugar in 1st Sugar ob-

tained 9°23 = see
Loss Account.
Sugar in Megasse 0°44 =
Sugar till Mas’cte. 1118 =
Sugar from Clarifier till
Massecuite 0°74
From 100 tons cane we re-
ceived 85 tons juice or
17,726 gallons origi-
naljuice(1°073sp gr.)
Tons Massecuite ...
(Pol. 77°0).
Tons ist Sugar
(Pol = 960).
Gallons Clarifier juice per

100°00
90°64
gol
70°29

3°36
8°99

5°63

15°52

g'62

ton of 1st Sugar = 1842°6

Tons cane per acre seo

22—28

Tons 1st Sugar per acre 2°11—2°60

Tonscane per ton Ist Sugar
1st Sugar obtained on the
indicated Sugar in
clarifier juice

10°39

756

Amongst all my statistic material of mill and diffusion
work, | choose such figures as show the recovery from

DIFFUSION VERSUS DOUBLE CRUSHING. 233

———EE_ —______. Ee

equal qualities of cane worked up by both processes in
this case with 13°13 0/o sugar. That my plan for show-
ing comparisons between both methods holds.good also
if the cane is of different qualities is obvious; besides I
am in possession of figures which show this praétically.
The yield of 13:13 o/o of sugar in the cane has been
accidentally almost identical with the average yield of
sugar in the cane during the last five years.

By a glance at the above schedule you will see that
from 100 tons cane we obtained 1°67 tons or 21 o/o
more rst sugar by diffusion than we obtained by double
crushing = 72 o/o on the weight of the cane.

This surplus of 21 o/o ist sugar is by no meansa
mere theoretical possibility, but a praétically attainable
figure. It has been reached in the buildings of this
colony which work by diffusion. That this increased
recovery has not been of iong duration, and especially that
it did not become visible to the outside world by a con-
siderable clearance of money, is exclusively a matter
connected with local and intimate conditions on the
estates in question, which need not prevent anybody from
availing himself of the blessings of a thoroughly good,
solid and promising process, independent and unhindered
by another’s individual drawbacks.

In order to compare diffusion with double crushing, we
require to know in the first place, the recovery of ‘parts
sugar inthe juice. Double crushing gave 81°81, diffu-
sion gave 96°64, that is to say, 18.12 o/o more sugar has
been obtained of the sugar in the cane.

Secondly, the recovery of parts sugar in the massecuite
from 1oo parts sugar in the canes; with double crushing
we received 75°4 o/o with diffusion gt'o1 o/o, that means

234 TIMEHRI.

to say an increase equal to 20°7 o/o; in the third place
the surplus on massecuite in tons which is 12°82
against 15°52, being for every 100 tons cane worked up
a surplus of 2*7 tons massecuite equal to 21°06 o/o; m
the fourth place the surplus on rst sugar, which amounts —
to 7°95 against 9°62 being for every 100 tons cane worked
up, a surplus of 1°67 tons 1st sugar equal to 21 o/o; in
the 5th place, the recovery of chemically clean sugar in
the 1st sugar from 100 parts sugar in the cane which
increases from 58*11 to 70'2g, equal to 20.96 o/o; in the
sixth place the number of tons cane required for 1 ton of
ist sugar being 12°57 by double crushing and only 10°39
by diffusion; in the seventh place we see that the re-
covery of 1st sugar on the indicated sugar in the clarifier
juice remains untouched, being 75°8 and 75°6, therefore,
useless for showing an improvement by any method of
obtaining juice from the cane; in the eighth place we
find that in the mill faétory, one acre had a return of
2.22 tons of 1st sugar, whilst the diffusion fa€tory had
only 2°11 tons per acre, due to a bad field crop.

This shows plainly that we must know the field crops
as well as the work in the buildings. We see from the
record that the diffusion estate only reaped 22 tons cane
per acre, if it had reaped 28 tons the tons first sugar per
acre would have turned out to the amount of 2°69, which is
equal to asurplus of 21 percent. Knowing, therefore, the
average number of tons cane which an estate with double
crushing reaps from its fields, one has only to multiply
this figure with [$5 in order to know how many tons 1st
sugar we can expeét per acre with diffusion properly
carried out. Or, we may multiply the amount of 1st
sugar obtained by double crushing with the figure 1’211,

DIFFUSION VERSUS DOUBLE CRUSHING. 235

and we shall obtain the amount of ist sugar which we can
expect from one acre if we work up the canes by diffu-
sion. Should a lucky planter answer to this, excuse me,
I get 2°57 by double crushing, I can only tell him you
must either reap 32°3 toms cane per acre, or your cane
has 15'2 per cent sugar, and in either case you would
have by diffusion a return of 3.11 tons rst sugar per acre.

Gentleman, whoever does not move onwards goes back-
wards! There is no such thing as keeping on the same
level. Diffusion is a step forward—a progress—therefore,
it is well worth while to get somewhat closer acquainted
with it, and to examine under what conditions it
can and must be applied to advantage. One thing
which I consider very essential if diffusion it to be intro-
duced successfully and lastingly to the sugar buildings of
this colony, is a radical change in the training of building
officials, as there is no doubt that the diffusion process
makes considerably wider claims upon the exactitude
of the working people as well as more especially
upon the officials. These latter or more exaétly the
building overseers, must be able to train their working
people to most scrupulous cleanliness, to punctual and
conscientious work, and keep them to it. This can be
done only if the building overseer himself is absolutely
familiar with the whole of the building work, if he un-
derstands and recognizes the importance of every part
of the process of sugar manufacture, as it is carried on
in the buildings under his charge, and if he knows the
close relations to each other of all stages of the manu-
faéture, from the recovery of the juice up to the centri-
fugals, as well as the relationship between the steam
production and steam consumption, Only a gentleman

236 TIMEHRI.

possessed of a thorough knowledge of the work which is
going on about him can effeétually prevent all sorts of
stoppages in the grinding, and inferior working of the
various machines, which will render his personal services
of the utmost value and importance to his employer, and
highly satisfa€tory to himself. He certainly will not
have to complain any more about tediousness, and want
of interest in his position as so many young building over-
seers have doneto me. Amore general proof of this is to
be found in the faét that all countries which have adopted
diffusion, as France, Germany, Holland, &c., have found
it necessary to open schools for young men who wished
to become sugar manufacturers ; these schools provide
them with praétical instruétion for testing the raw mate-
rial, and the various produéts throughout the buildings,
for calculating the recovery of sugar, to teach them
what is understood by clarification, and what means are
at our disposal to effeét it, as well as what conditions
must be fulfilled to attain the highest possible recovery
of 1st Sugar.

The handling of a diffusion battery requires the utmost
-care. The size of the chips, the filling of each cell with
these, the presence of more or less trash, the temperature
of the juice heater between the cells, and finally the
drawing of juice at the juice measure, are all according
to prevailing circumstances of great and manifold im-
portance to each other, making the final aim of obtaining
a satisfa€tory and complete exhaustion of the chips,
along with a minimum dilution, a by no means easy and
simple matter.

The next thing is that diffusion requires continuous
grinding, and in so far puts increased responsibility and ~

DIFFUSION VERSUS DOUBLE CRUSHING. 237

care upon the manager, which makes it all the more
urgent that he should be supported by absolutely capable,
reliable and conscientious officials, who go about their
work with as much intelligent understanding as consci-
entious zeal.

Considering that with diffusion we obtain an increased
yield of rst Sugar of 20 per cent., the working expenses
of this process compared against those of mill work are
lessened on all those stages of the estate which remain
the same, such as of the growing of the cane, its transport
and cutting. The building wages in general become also
lessened,

The weightiest change which diffusion brought about,
and which almost threatened to preclude the usefulness
of the process altogether was, the depreciation of the
exhausted chips as fuel, as compared with megasse, which
made it necessary to fall back upon coal, which managers
of mill fa€tories had been fortunate enough to do away
with. Well, in the first place, the chips have once more
gained in value after having passed through the mill,
if they are used in suitable furnaces. Secondly, in
order to recover 21 per cent. more ist sugar with a.
dilution of 20 per cent. or less, it will surely pay to
burn a few cwt. of coals. Inthe third place the coal con-
sumption diminishes very considerably with continuous
grinding, for with a frequently interrupted grinding the
weekly coal consumed remains the same as a rule, whereas
the sugar returns diminish greatly, making the coal
per ton of ist sugar, of course rise very fast. We
again see here how immensely important it is to
have adequately trained building officials, who have a
thorough command over their working men, able to

HH

238 TIMEHRI.

meet any difficulty arising in the grinding with prompt
redress.

I may mention here that a hardly less formidable
enemy to diffusion had to be overcome by the beet sugar
industry in the shape of the fodder question. Before
the introdu€tion of diffusion, 1865, the press refuse
sufficed in a building of the size of Nonpzrez/ to fatten
two to three hundred oxen, which previously had done
good service in the field and building yard, while the
chips represented a poor and unwholesome fodder, which
could only be used with the addition of artificial strong
food; only a few years ago they succeeded in making
the exhausted chips once more a valuable food, long
after diffusion had triumphed all over Europe, as it has
done since 1875.

Among the different modes of arranging the diffusion
cells, the circular one is undoubtedly preferable to the
one with single or double rows, as with the former mode
a better way of removing the exhausted slices has been
found in the turn table invented by Mr, L.JONES. From
the turn table the exhausted chips should reach the mill
by the shortest way possible, as it is difficult with the
wet chips to make any kind of carrier answer,

With regard to the number of cells in the diffusion
battery, I consider 14 most suitable, each of them holding
about 20 cwt. or one ton, and the diameter being 1 to 3 to
the height. Changing the cells as quickly as possible is
conducive to the obtaining of a juice witha high quotient
of purity and consequently to obtain a purer massecuite
which leads to a higher curing. The maximum duration
of one hour from the moment a cell is put under pressure
until the time it is emptied of the exhausted chips should

DIFFUSION VERSUS DOUBLE CRUSHING. 239

not be exceeded. The diameter of the cells should be
limited as it would otherwise increase the difficulty
of packing tight the bottom plate, and make it bend.
To employ air pressure instead of water pressure for
the last cells has solely the obje€t of saving water.
Wherever there is a sufficiency of water, air pressure
should be entirely omitted as it increases the working ex-
penses and retards the process of exhaustion. Without
air pressure smaller draughts of juice will be required
whilst dilution and exhaustion remain the same. A
special arrangement of pipes on the battery which allows
of skipping any of the cells increases the safety and the
uninterrupted course of the work to such a degree that
it is well worth while making it.

The carrying of the cane from the punts to the hoppers
or slicing machines is still done in a very slow and
expensive way, the cane being unloaded at the platform
by manual labour, the canes being put again by hand
into hoppers, but various projeéts for the direét trans-
mission of the cane to the hoppers through mechanical
means have been already suggested and are sure to find
a satisfaétory solution as soon as diffusion is more
largely adopted in this colony.

With regard to dilution, the percentage of water used
for extraGting the juice I mentioned already that it is
quite praéticable to keep it within the maximum limit of
20 o/o. +H the grinding is to proceed regularly and with-
out interruption an adequate evaporating station must
be conneéted with the diffusion battery, as well as with
one, or better with two vacuum pans, construécted in pro-
portion to the evaporating station. The choice of an
evaporating system depends largely on the price of the

HH 2

240 TIMEHRI,

fuel. With cheap fuel a simple system will do, but with
expensive fuel a triple or quadruple will pay, quadruple
means a saving of steam against triple of 13 o/o and an
enlargement of the heating surface of 33 o/o. As it is
of immense importance to have throughout the building
all the various stations in a perfeét proportion to each
other in regard to their efficiency it is advisable for a pro-
prietor who wants to go in for diffusion to ereét an
entirely new building based on his field crop,

The vacuum pan should be placed in such a position
as to make it possible that the massecuite without being
touched by hand is emptied out, saving in this way a
considerable number of hands and besides massecuite.
I may at this place take in consideration under what
conditions Schiitzenbach’s boxes become superfluous.
Massecuite, freshly emptied from the vacuum, undergoes
doubtlessly an improvement in its contents of sugar
crystals if it is put to rest and to cool in Schiitzenbach’s
boxes. We have to distinguish between the quick crys-
tallisation of 1st sugar and the slow one of 2nd and 3rd
sugar. The former is promoted by evaporation and com-
pleted by short rest. The second is indifferent to evapora-
tion, but is furthered by a rest of several weeks. To obtain
therefore a completely crystallised rst Massecuite there
is but one way which is by continuing the evaporation
in the vacuum with low temperature to the utmost, with
application of the so-called pug mill vacuum pan into
which the 1st Massecuite with a water percentage of 6 or
7 is emptied. The vacuum pug-mill is a closed vessel
with stirring apparatus and double plated bottom, which
makes it possible by means of double heating and vacuum
to keep the Massecuite in such a condition that an evenly

DIFFUSION VERSUS DOUBLE CRUSHING. 241

accelerated evaporation takes place without the necessity
of making it boil. The rising steam bubbles easily
work themselves up in consequence of slow mixing to
the surface, until the water percentage of 4 is reached.
The boiling is consequently finished in the vacuum pug-
mill where a coarse and even grain is obtained. By
mixing now with molasses this Massecuite is got ready
for curing. The vacuum is tnen shut and by means of
air pressure the movable mass is driven to the centri-
fugals.

Another important item which tends to cheapen sugar-
making by means of diffusion is the reduced acre-
age which has to be taken into cultivation to reach
the same amount of Ist sugar. Having ascertained that
with diffusion we require on an average 10°39 tons of
cane for making one ton of Ist sugar, a yearly estimate
for making 4,000 tons of Ist requires 41,560 tons of cane.
To obtain the average yield of an acre with normal seasons
and normal labour, taken as 28 tons of cane, we should
therefore have to take in cultivation 1,494 acres.

Considering the exceptional absence of technical
training with the generality of the planters, one cannot
help being struck by the fa€t that even without it and
with machinery and working methods which are con-
sidered antiquated in almost all other sugar growing
countries, Demerara has been able to keep the posi-
tion which it has held up to now as a sugar pro-
ducing country. Apart from natural conditions, which
are doubtless favourable in this country this is certainly
very creditable to the pra€tical common sense and natural
intelligence of the Demerara sugar planters; it has
enabled them to carry to its utmost perfeétion all that

242 TIMEHRI.

could he done with their imperfeét contrivances. Practi-
cal common sense has however reached its limit in the
sugar buildings of Demerara and the results of syste-
matic and professional study, in the shape of modern
inventions have to be taken in account if the former
position of this Colony in the sugar market is to be kept
up.

In conclusion I cannot help regretting, that as yet my
arguments are not supported by very brilliant results
obtained with diffusion in this Colony, Were I in the
lucky position to ere&t, and to direét a model diffusion
building in Demerara I would not stop to argue, but I
would invite you one and all to come and look for your-
selves. Unfortunately it has been hitherto my fate to
play the part of the fault finder without being allowed to
become the fault mender.

Gentlemen, the working up of the cane juice is some-
what simpler than that of beet juice, as nature has
rendered in most cases cane juice much purer. Add
to the improvements made during the last 20 years,
diffusion, and with this mighty weapon of progress, in-
telligence and industry, you will not have to fear the
competition of beet sugar. Then, the day when Deme-
rara will have sunk down to a cattle farm, as some
nervous souls are prophesying already, will once more
sink back into the distant future.

The Negro in the West Indies.

By the Revd. F. G. Pearson.

|HE twang of ‘ Ulysses’ Bow’ has startled a good
many slumberers, and frantic efforts to prove
tere «=6tthat Mr. FROUDE has missed the mark in the
case of the Negro in the West Indies may not be un-
expected. Indeed we are beginning to hear of good
people shocked and of others giving expression to grave
doubts as to the worth of his remarks on the descendants
of our former slaves; and yet were the majority of his
critics doomed to live a few years in the West Indies,
the last thing to occur to them would be to differ from |
him in his main assertion that the black is relapsing into |
his natural state.

Negrophiles, and those who accept their opinions,
too often suffer kindness to stifle reason, and debar
themselves the pleasure of being just because it would
seem to be unkind. Nevertheless unkind justice is a
greater boon, even for the negro, than unjust kindness.
“© The negro is a man and a brother” is the text we hear,
ad nauseam, from every philanthropist’s platform, and
we believe the preachers are quite earnest because they
are so refreshingly irrational, The blacks exported from
Africa to till the sugar plantations were barbarians.
Nothing but the wildest flight of poetical imagination
could represent their Afric homes as peaceful or happy.

No well built towns, or national monuments of science,
art, or religion, ever excited pride in their race. Dire&
personal affe€tions alone bound them to the land of

244 TIMEHRI.

their birth. History and tradition they had none; their
folk-lore was rudimentary in the extreme, while patri-
otism, as we understand the term, the very conditions of
their life precluded. Religion, such as they had, lacked
almost everything that ennobles its possessor; grovel-
ling fatuity varied with inhuman cruelty were the
extremes of its gamut, and only as he rose and lived
above it did the African prove himself a man.

Such were the blacks introduced to the West Indies,
and from such were developed our slaves.

I do not sympathise with slavery even in its mildest
“ domestic form’’ any more than the tenderest hearted
abolitionist, and yet I contend that the condition of the
average slave in the West Indies was far above that of
the average negro at home. Neither do I wish to waste
time defending or condoning the “ horrid traffic;” I
merely desire to point out to the reasoning men and
women of England the futility of speaking of, legislating
for, and treating the blacks as upon all-fours with our-
selves. Privation, suffering and enjoyment are relative
terms, and before the woes or joys of a people can be
estimated their capacity to suffer or enjoy must be
ascertained, One of the frightful blots upon the slavery
system, and of which crying horrors were lavished upon
English ears in bygone days, was the power masters had of
separating husbands from their wives, and children from
their parents. Yet if side by side with these heart-rending
atrocities could have been placed our experience of con-
nubial fidelity and parental affe€tion in the race, two-
thirds of its horrors would have disappeared at once.
Had the slave been badly housed—though that charge as
far as I remember used not to be brought against the

THE NEGRO IN THE WEST INDIES. 245

* inhuman monsters,” the slave holders—it would have
told with splendid effeét, but now the world is before
him, and nature pouring her treasure at his feet, the
average black is yearly growing more indifferent to the
shelter that a substantial roof-tree affords. The simple |
truth that lies at the bottom of the mistakes made about
the negro is in the estimate of his capacities for enjoy-
ment and suffering,—progress and civilization. The ques-
tion may occur to the reader, however, how is it you talk
of a retrograde movement in their ranks, if, in spite of\
slavery and all its attendant evils, the slave became /
something or was something from which retrogression |
was possible? The answer is found where it is least |
likely to be sought for. The new conditions of life—his
being a mere item in the “ estate’s live-stock”’ notwith-
standing —a@tually raised him. Contaét with the white
man, a being of an order as much above him as the’ |
classic heroes were above the “vulgar multitude,” was
an element in his new environment which counter-
balanced much of the evil he had to suffer. Slavery |
brought him into contact with new and to him as yet
unknown phases of life, as order, law, safety, labour, and
the refleétion of, if not the a€tual exemplification of, a
ure religion—a religion which ultimately broke his
- shackles. All this was to him as the regimen of school

to the boy. The crowning lesson he learnt was to pac 2
and be proud of his work. In every negro there is
possibly an organ of industry, or whatever equivalent
phrenologists locate in the brain for it, though one is
sorely tempted to doubt it sometimes ; but the artificial
position in which we have now placed him relieves him
of the necessity of cultivating that virtue. It has been,

i]

246 TIMEHRI.

and may still be, objected that the slave on the eve of
his liberation was a mere machine, and there is much
truth in that assertion, but he was such a machine as
conduced to the well-being of the state, his neighbours,
family, and himself. Now, inasmuch as he has ceased to
remain a working machine, he is an element of weakness,
if not danger, to the state, of discomfort to his neigh-
bours and the cause of a€tual misery to his feeble depen-
dents. In precisely the degree he is relieved of the
restraints of his former environment, he sinks into apa-
thetic indifference to the claims of manhood and has only
to be left alone long enough to reduce him to the condition
of his naked, red-rag fetish-worshipping ancestor.

I have studied him carefully for the last four lustres
and I deplore my .present conviétions. It seems as
though nature’s youngest child in the genus homo can
never rise to a worthy state of civilization without some
aétive incentive to progress outside himself, Far be it
from me to say that he lacks anything necessary to make
good his claim to man and brotherhood : all I say is that
these virtues are in a very primary elementary stage;
they are in fact only latent, and Nature does not seem to
have endowed the son of her old age with the power
which can transform potentiality into reality.

“’ No conditions of life could afford a field for a fair trial

of the negro’s power to raise himself to a higher plane

, | of civilization, or to maintain that to which the slave-

§ 4 driver’s lash had urged him, better than the lowlands of
\ Guiana. Here, when he became his own master, the

| country was before him. For a comparatively nominal,

' sum he could procure land unsurpassed for its prolific
oe The climate was exaétly that to which by nature

THE NEGRO IN THE WEST INDIES. 247

~

: me
he was best suited. ‘ A paternal Government’ interfered \

to proteét his rights on the slightest occasion. Within
easy reach were sugar plantations where his services as
a free labourer were welcomed and repaid at a highly
remunerative rate. In faét, on whichever side he looked,
an open field was before him; and I confess he gave
great promise of justifying the prophesies of his cham-
pions. He bought land and laboured upon it : he cared for
his live-stock and it increased; he obeyed the teachings
of Christian pastors and spent his money liberally upon
humane institutions such as schools, churches, etc. His
own house, if not a home as we understand the term,
was a substantial and decent dwelling place. His friends
were jubilant. Victory was shouted on every side and
‘we were heartily glad to have come out of the affair so

satisfactorily. 3

But it wasalla mistake. His civilization wasa dream;
his progress a myth; the Ethiopian had not “changed
his skin.’ The vitory credited to the moral elevation of
the ex-slave was due to the power of the ‘ dead hand’ of
slavery. Fifty years have passed since the news of
* freedom’ crossed the Atlantic, and the condition of the
black is lower, infinitely lower, to-day than it was then.
A half a century affords time to overcome or lose a habit,
and the negro has availed himself of it to free himself
from the habits of industry and obedience that slavery so
bitterly, but beneficently, taught him. In proportion as
he has been left to himself he has sunk to his old plane
of semi-barbarism. Squalid surroundings, negleéted
holdings, fallen and falling homesteads, trouble him not.
This very morning I had occasion to walk across a once
beautiful estate owned by some fifty negro families,

112

248 ‘TIMEHRI.

Upon it stands what was once a fine commodious chapel,
a minister’s house, and a large schoolroom. No fairer
piece of God’s bright earth could have fallen to the lot of
any little batch of peasant proprietors. Four hours
labour, per diem, of each able bodied person, would
suffice to make this charming estate a flourishing and
paying concern. Every family might have a home in
which plenty should reign. A high sand reef offers
a lovely locality for houses, barns, sheds for cattle, etc.
Wide pasture lands stretch out to windward, offering
fattening grazing for live-stock; and rich fertile soil lies
to leeward, ready to smile abundant harvests twice a
year for the minimum of care and attention. Is it
possible to imagine conditions of life more tempting to
virtue and industry? Yet the state of that place is one
of absolute decay and ruin. Houses once strong and
substantial have fallen and rotted, as and where they
fell. Roads once high and dry are quagmires. The
mud and water reached half-way to my knee as I waded
through. Drains and dykes once deep are filled and
useless. Dams which once kept the sea at bay are
broken through, and salt water covers the very fields
where their food should be growing. Loitering about
could be seen people of all ages. The village is no
better than an encampment of squatters. On Sunday
morning last I passed through the same village to sea-
ward and though the sea water was lapping the brink
of the dam raised to proteét their homes, one solitary
old man was the only individual who cared sufficiently
to turn out and try to save the village. This is not an
isolated case nor anything abnormal. From all parts of
the West Indies, we hear the same sad tale.

THE NEGRO IN THE WEST INDIEs. 249

But should we be surprised at it? Are nations made
in a day? Can the undercurrent, of heredity be cut off by
an aét of parliament? I trow not; and justice seems to
me to demand that we who brought.the negro here for
our own purposes should drop our /azssez fatre policy
and step in now to save him from suicide as a race and
from relapsing into the predatory squatter his ancestor
was ere we brought him across the Atlantic. se

And what, the reader asks, has been the result of your
work as teachers of Christianity ? Has it failed ?

In reply I assume the Hibernian attitude and answer
by the counter question, how long did it take to Chris-
tianize Great Britain, and were there not many secondary
causes facilitating that work and making for an end in
the same dire€tion? And I would further ask, what per-
centage of white men are even now anything more than
nominal Christians ?

All Africans in these parts are ostensibly Christians,
many really so, and but for the restraining influence the
partially understood and accepted tenets of “ our faith”
have exerted, the negro would have reached his retrograde
goal long since. Christianity has not proved a failure
here any more than among our own English, Scotch and
Irish peasantry, who after centuries of its possession are
still in some localities steeped to the lips in superstition.
In every case where its truths have been honestly ac-
cepted and aéted upon, it has done just the same for the
African as for the European or New Zealander. As to
its indire€&t influence upon the masses, we are bold to
claim for it a power which has prevented the low moral
tone which obtains from sinking to still greater depths,
and supplied those unwritten codes which find their

V

—

250 TIMEHRI.

equivalent among the ‘ classes’ under the appellation
* good form.”

Christianity can do all the negro needs, if he will
accept it and be guided by it, but there exists no authority
for forcing it upon him by fire and sword. Its very
nature is opposed to force of any sort beyond that of
persuasion. It forbids any unlawful sanétion behind it
such as that upon which other systems have relied for
success. But, with civilization, citizenship, and all the
duties and benefits the individual secures who dwells in
a community other than barbarous, it is different. Wil-
ling or unwilling the unit must be kept up to a certain
level. It is necessary not only, or so much, for his own
sake, but for the sake of others among whom he dwells;
and itis because I see the Black sinking below this level
and becoming a scourge to his own and other people that
I claim on his behalf, not indeed a resurreétion of the
‘dead hand’ of slavery, but such a modification of its
wholesome methods as will secure for the ex-slave’s des-
cendents such a measure of justice as will secure his babe
from the present risk of passive infanticide, and the aged
from a lingering and painful descent to an unmourned
dissolution.

>
ee
“

In the Bush with a Camera.

By the Editor.

“ OWHERE in the world perhaps is the forest
scenery more beautiful than in British Guiana,
Along the banks of the creeks, where the

sun can find an opening, vegetation is so rampant and
diverse, that every bend opens up a new picture. How
few even of the inhabitants of the colony have had
opportunities of observing these, and even when such
occur, how many are prevented by the discomforts of a

journey in a small craft in which they are cramped for
room and exposed perhaps to drenching rains. To us
however the very odour of the forest brings up memories
of some of the pleasantest hours of our life. True, we
have suffered from a great many inconveniences, but
after all what were they? Rain, ants, jiggers, and
sand-flies constituted the most important and they were
nothing to grumble at. As forcentipedes and scorpions,
jaguars and poisonous snakes, these are rare or difficult
to find and only frighten the ignorant. We have often
thought it a pity that some of these beautiful pi€tures
cannot be perpetuated by the Camera. When we look
at most of the book illustrations of tropical scenery, we
see that they have simply been evolved from the imagi-
nation of the artist. Why not take some photographs,
and have them reproduced in place of these? Why
indeed! We are unfortunately hardly worthy of the
name of amateur photographers, and although we have
some idea of the laws of optics and the theory of the

252 TIMEHRI,

process, we hardly conceived that there could be many
real difficulties. With the advent of dry plates, we
thought these had all disappeared. All one had to do
was to put in a plate, fix up the Camera, and, hey
presto! it was done. This was our opinion up to a few
months ago, when we made a trip to the bush to bring
back some of the scenes which we had in mind and
which had been impressed upon us for a long time as
desirable to perpetuate. Our memory of a certain creek
on the Demerara river, where first we were ushered into
the mysteries of forest life some twenty-three years ago,
made this the goal of our journey. Accordingly, one
afternoon found us in a small bateau pulling against the
dark stream, which wound in and out, disclosing and
again shutting off one picture after another. We had
our Camera with six plates in its slides, and were, as we
thought, ready. That was all very well. Here was a
scene ; a beautiful clump of Manicole palms as a central
objeét and a confused jumble of great trees, bush ropes
and tree-ferns, at either side and behind. “ Let us take
that,” we said, but our assistant looking round enquired
laconically “ where from?” ‘Oh! we said,” anywhere ;
from the bateau if we can’t get a stand on either bank.
He looked at us and smiled; he was accustomed to focus
people in his gallery, where the Camera could be fixed
up anywhere, without difficulty. Here we were in the
midst of a strong current, the boatmen holding on toa
bush-rope to prevent our craft from floating down stream
while we were considering the situation. We looked
first to this side and then to that. The creek had banks
of course, but they were hidden by a jungle of creepers
great arums and marantas, which would take an hour to

IN THE BUSH WITH A CAMERA. 253

clear away. “ Here is the best place for the Camera,’
said my companion, pointing to a particularly inaccessible
jungle. ‘ What do you say PRINCE; could you clear
that space with the cutlass ?”

Looking down at his bare feet and then shaking his
head, the negro replied, “ No boss! too much pimpler
(thorns).” ‘ Wellthen,” said I, “ we must try it from the
bateau.”

This was easier said than done, The hard curved
sides gave no hold to the legs of the instrument and it
was almost impossible to get it to stand. Then the frail
craft was rocking in the current, and with the move-
ments of the photographer, so that when one leg was
fixed the others slipped down. Once, the Camera was
nearly overboard; then its lens cap fell into the water
and floated down stream where we had to follow and
pick it up. We were however soon back again, with
two men holding the bush-ropes, and making another
trial.

“It’s no use,” said my companion, “ we shall never
obtain a good pi&ture. I can’t get the Camera to remain
steady, and as for focussing, it is impossible.”

“Well,” said I, “ expose it any way, we have lots of
plates,’ and he did so with the result as we afterward
found that it was almost worthless.

On we go again, our ardour somewhat damped by the
difficulties of this first plate. Scene after scene passed
before us and was left behind on account of similar diffi-
culties. Now we came upon an opening on the bank
made by some woodcutters, and although the scene in
front of this was not up to our expe¢tations we resolved
to take it. Before us was a tree with its roots over-

KK

254 TIMEHRI,

hanging the water, on which grew a number of orchids,
including Stanhopea eburnea. Even here however the
cutlass had to be freely used and in the end the pi€ture
was disfigured by a leaning trunk in the foreground
quite out of focus. We had our doubts of these piétures
as may be supposed, and, rather disappointed, resolved
to delay no longer but push on to our camping ground.

By the time we reached it sunset was near, and as the
erection of the tent and hanging of the hammocks took
a little time, the Camera was set aside until morning.

Our camp was in a little clearing on a sand-reef,
a place probably occupied centuries ago as an Indian
village. We remembered it years before as the site ofa
benab occupied by a boviander, who had an Indian wife ;
now it was quite deserted. The old shed was hardly
weather-proof, but we put our canvas over it and although
not without misgivings of jiggers (confirmed afterwards
by finding two of these troublesome pests in our toes),
we settled down for the night after a good meal and cup
of coffee.

We are always restless the first night in a strange
bed, and more so in a hammock in the midst of the
forest. The surroundings are so strange and the differ-
ence between the flexibility of the net as compared with
a hard hair mattress all tend to prevent sleep. Fortu-
nately we had candles and one of them fastened to a
stick thrust into the sand enabled us to read until our
usual bedtime.

How long this first night seemed! In town we can
move about in the evening and we hardly feel that night
has properly come until about eleven or twelve o’clock,
when the streets become deserted. Here in the forest

IN THE BUSH WITH A CAMERA, 255

however, night falls at sunset and it will be twelve hours
before the day again appears. Meanwhile, we cannot
move from the immediate surroundings of our camp, for
although the danger of wild animals is of little or no
importance, the difficulty of walking even where there is
a path amounts to a virtual impossibility. Even in the
day forest travelling is difficult and it is needless to say
that at night it is not even attempted.

Neither of the party having a watch we could not
count the hours, but they were none the shorter for that.
As we lay trying to sleep and only succeeding in musing
over a thousand fancies, it seemed as !f it would never
be morning. By and bye our camp-fire sunk down,
and as we could not sleep, we got up and replenished it.
Then PRINCE got up and stretched his limbs and we asked
him whether it was nearly morning, He looked up at
the star-lit sky and said no, he thought it about three
o'clock. We however fancied there was a little glow in
the east and prepared coffee so as to be ready at sunrise.
We discussed our coffee but it still got no lighter. The
frogs continued their weird calls, but the birds, the har-
bingers of dawn, remained silent. We lay down again
in our hammock, took up our book and went on reading,
every now and again going outside and looking towards
the east. Now, a chilly feeling crept over us and we
were glad to stand in front of the fire. The dew was
falling heavily and the dampness produced almost the
effeét of cold.

However, morning was bound to come at last, and
was indicated by the awakening of the birds and the
gradual blotting out of the stars.

Now our photographic work was resumed. Through

KK 2

256 TIMEHRI.

an old Indian path that may have been in existence for
centuries, as it conneéts the head waters of two creeks,
we passed to the sand reef, where a walk at this time
was cool and pleasant. Later, the glare would be
terrific—the white sand hot to the feet—but now we
could wander for miles without any other inconvenience
than the fear of being lost in such a maze. However
we exposed two plates, and in returning through the
forest used the remainder.

Now came a most difficult operation :—without the con-
venience of a dark room to change those which had been
exposed for others. We had provided ourselves with a
black bag into which a ruby glass window was inserted,
and within this hot and stuffy receptacle our photographer
had to creep. Although the work only took up a minute
or two he came out flushed and in a bath of perspiration.
However, it was done and we were ready for further
operations. Leaving our impedimenta in camp we
proceeded up the creek, intending to get a view of the
open savannah with its fringe of eta palms, but here the
difficulty of focussing was too great for success. There
was nowhere except on the curved sides of the bateau
for the legs of the Camera; if they had been put over-
board they would simply have sunk down into the mud
and water. Then the sedges were very tall and too
much in the foreground, so that although the picture was
taken it turned out very poor. Somewhat disappointed,
we again went back tothe jungleand madeseveral attempts
to get standing room forcreek scenes. This portion of the
forest was inundated—the buttressed trees rising from
irregular pools and mazes of winding channels, choked
by a dense thicket of prickly palms, saplings, creepers

IN THE BUSH WITH A CAMERA. 257

and magnificent herbaceous plants. Here was indeed a
jungle of a most interesting kind and we began to look
for standing room. One beautiful scene after another
had to be abandoned on account of the utter impossi-
bility of fixing up the Camera and we almost despaired
of getting a picture, However, after a great deal of
trouble we found the bole of a tree sufficiently large for
our purpose, and after free use of the cutlass and getting
sundry pricks from the spiny palm stems, at last suc-
ceeded. The view was however by no means perfea,
bush ropes and leaning trunks coming in the way, but it
might be considered as middling rather than bad. Back
again toour campanda hearty breakfast, after which we
tried to take a picture of the clearing. It wasa very inter-
esting place. Several cocorite palms decorated the bor-
ders, behind which came second growth forest. Looking
round, the red man’s footprints were visible in the plants
growing up from the otherwise bare sand. First came the
pine-apple in great clumps everywhere, diversified by one
or two thickets of krattee, the fibre plant so useful tothe
Indian. Then came the beenas, the charms to bring
success in hunting, the most plentiful being the Bella-
donna lily (Hippeastrum equestre) which gave the effe&
of a wild garden to the whole clearing. Looking farther,
a few Caladiums rewarded our search, together with
toya (Dianthera peétoralis) and some other plants grown
as beenas or for medicinal purposes. We tried to get a
good view with some lilies in the foreground, but it
turned out very badly, possibly on account of a few
drops of rain falling just at the critical moment.

After the shower was over we walked down to the
creek and took a picture of the path leading up the hill,

258 TIMEHRI.

which turned out very good, Near the landing we
gathered a little colleétion of filmy ferns (Trichomanes)
on the chance of bringing them back alive, in which we
were fortunate enough to succeed.

Having now exposed the second half dozen dry plates
our photographer had again to enter the bag and change
them, after which we packed up our traps and proceeded
down the creek. Scene after scene was passed without
the remotest chance of procuring a pi€ture except with
unlimited time and free use of the cutlass, and we had to
pass on. It was with pain and regret that we did so as
the results of our work hitherto were, to say the least,
doubtful. By and bye we came to a wood-cutter’s place
standing on a sand-hill, up which we climbed to see
what could be done from its summit. Below stretched
the creek bordered by dense forest, the tree-tops nearly
a hundred feet above the ground. Towering above, as
high again, came a giant mora, which after great diffi-
culty we succeeded in focussing, not however to our
satisfa€tion on account of a hut and clusters of bushes in
the foreground. Another clump of great timber trees
also turned out quite as unsatisfa€tory.

Near the mouth of the creek stood a great silk-cotton
tree covered with epiphytes—a land-mark to everyone
going up or down the river. Fortunately for us this
was fronted by a clearing and we found no difficulty in
getting a picture, after which we proceeded back to
Georgetown.

Of course we did not kaow what would be the result
of our two days’ work—this could only be learnt when
the plates were developed. However, we hoped for the
best and consoled ourselves by the faét that we had

IN THE BUSH WITH A CAMERA. 250

made several new mental pictures of forest life and
colleéted a number of orchids and ferns. While up
the creek we had.gathered a very fine plant of Cory-
anthes speciosa, and the amouut of discomfort that plant
gave us can scarcely be conceived. It is hardly neces-
sary to mention that this is one of the plants pro-
te€ted by carnivorous ants, for which its roots provide
shelter. After chopping it down and removing the
cluster of twigs which formed a bush round it the
whole was piunged into the creek below our bateau
and pushed under witha paddle. By this soaking myriads
of the inseéts were dislodged, but as we found later by
no means all. At last however it was taken in and
put down near the bowman. Our craft was small and
what might be generally considered “ cranky,” so when
presently Mr. Bowman began to squirm and shake him-
self we called out rather peevishly, ‘‘ What is the matter
now?” It did not take long to explain as the little
pests could be seen crawling over his neck and face.
Then our other companions began to scratch and pinch
their clothes as the ants gave them now a nip here and
another there until all were more or less uncomfortable.
They had a nasty way of getting into the hair and beard
which we found particularly aggravating, and what made
the matter so much worse was the faét that we hardly
dared to move for fear of upsetting our bateau. Then
our craft was loaded with a heap of plants which stood
in the way of stretching out our legs and kept us con-
tinually in fear that the boatmen would crush some of
them. However, we got back to town at last, very tired
and quite ready to appreciate home comforts, which were
all the more agreeable for even such a short deprivation.

260 TIMEHRI.

The Coryanthes which gave us so much trouble has
flowered since and we hope will remain as a souvenir of
this particular trip for many years to come. We cannot
often go to the bush and must be contented with a few
specimens in our garden, but even here they bring to
mind the surroundings from which they were taken.

Our Provision Supply.*

By W. T. Binnie.

|HE supply of food, affecting as it does every
branch of industry in all colonies and coun- ©

#7 tries, forms an imposing subjeét, and perhaps
this paper would have been more effeétive every way if
it had proceeded from the pen of a modern agriculturist.
As however the markets in Georgetown, where are sold
the overplus provisions and fruit produced in the Colony
after the estates employés and farmers’ wantsare supplied,
may be considered a constant gauge, by quantity and
price, of the extent of provision cultivation in the Colony,
the Clerk of the Markets has the honour of preparing
and reading before this Society, a paper on ‘ Our
provision supply.” There is no necessity to rehearse
first principles as bearing on a cheap and plentiful
supply of food and a profitable employment of capital in
the production of staple exports, yet I must emphasize
the term overplus provisions, supplied to our city mar-
kets, because with the exception of the bank of the
river Pomeroon, the rivers of the North West Distriét,
the Camoonie Creek, and the Demerara River, farming is
simply a mode of procuring subsistence and not a trade,
and until provision cultivators as a whole make a trade
or business of farming, native-grown food-supplies must
not only fluétuate between extremes, but in general
be both scarce and high priced. Provision cultivation
on the empoldered land may be described as four years’

* Read at the October Meeting of the Society.
LL

262 TIMEHRI.

cultivation, to be cropped and fallowed in bush or grass
for six or more years, while on the forest land bordering
the numerous rivers and creeks of the Colony, all the
advantages of the system in vogue with the Hill tribes of
India and Burmah are secured and the option of fallow-
ing or moving to new lands can be praétised. Sir WM.
HUNTER says: “ The system yields a larger return for
“the same amount of labour than permanent plough
“husbandry, A virgin soil, manured many inches deep
“ with ashes and watered by the full burst of tropical
“ rainfall, returns forty to fifty fold of rice, which is the
“ staple grain thus raised.” Here we have the return of
rice from land so situated that it is impossible to flood the
rice fields, and if our farmers on the Pomeroon and in the
North West Distri€t would take the hint, they might add
largely to their profits, but upland rice would require to
be planted or rather sown. The different kinds of rice
vary, some having straw 12 feet long which keeps the
head of grain above the rising waters of the Bramapootra
River, others have straw 18 inches long, grown on the arid
plains and dry uplands of Orissa. In Nepal “ various
“ dry rices are cultivated, and some do not require to be
“ flooded as in Bengal, but flourish in the driest and
“ loftiest spots.’’ Such is the wide extent of soil and
climate to which rice may be profitably cultivated.
Would that some individual or the Colony’s landlord,
would experiment for the benefit of all, and thereby
make rice a staple produétion. Returns from provisions
generally are in a like case. Notwithstanding all
this abandon of tropical nature, playing upon a virgin
soil, which I cannot think is one grain of yielding power
behind that of the East Indies, the price of provisions

263

Our PROVISION SUPPLY.

rules high and stocks are largely supplemented from
Barbados. The following gives in detail the prices and
quantities of growing provisions brought to the principal
market :—

TABLE OF AVERAGE DAILY RECEIPTS AND DELIVERIES OF PROVISIONS
AT STABROEK MARKET DURING NINE MONTHS, ENDING goth SEPT,

1894.
Lbs, per

eee haes eae! St > RS megs ie ee
Plantains—

Bunches $0°24 76 30 489 = 14,670 642 pc. of
flesh matter,
= 354 skin.

Com. Yams,brls. 2.16 3.24
Buck Yams _,, 3.00 APA ie 9 eee
Sweet Potatoes—

Brls. and bags 1.68 3.00 168 gt 15,288
Chinese Eddoes ,, 69 2,00 147 rey hey
Tanias Ssh he 2093/ 30 t54 14 2,150
Sweet Cassava—

baskets, 64°79:72°" 65 24 1,625 lbs. = 28,2506

roots
Corn, bris. 2.40 4.00 232 used for poultry,
&c,
Bitter Cassava—
bags, 155 14 1,876 used for starch

making.

This is from one-half to three-fourths less than the
necessary supply for Georgetown.

The sources of provision supply vary; while the East
Coast of Demerara during 1892 forwarded about 4o bags
of sweet potatoes and from 200 to 600 bunches plantains
weekly, during the nine months of 1894 the supplies
have become almost nil. The distriéts of Mahaicony and
Abary have however forwarded 600 to 800 bags of sweet
potatoes per schooner during 1894 up to date.

LL 2

264 TIMEHRI.

There has also been an improvement in the quantity
of plantains and roots sent forward from the Banks
of the Demerara River within reach of the City
market.

The Chinese of Camoonie Creek continue to send large
quantities of eddoes, sometimes 300 bags, and 40 to 50
barrels of yams in a week. The South East bank of
the Essequebo appears to be owned or tenanted by an
energetic class of Creoles and East Indians, who nearly
monopolize the market on Monday in each week, with
large quantities of bitter cassava and Chinese eddoes.
A new source of supply has been tapped during the past
few months; plantains, corn and roots, are bought in
New Amsterdam market and transported by schooners
and steamer to be sold in Stabroek Market, thereby
making Georgetown the centre market for the Colony.
The farmers on the banks of the Pomeroon river, and in
the North West Distri€t employ about twenty small
schooners transporting plantains, corn, roots and other
provisions to the Georgetown markets, and shopand house
supplies on the return voyage, and the steamer brings in-
creasing quantities from the Barima river and tributary
creeks.

Having mentioned the chief sources of the vegetables
supplied to our City market, I may now recur to the neces-
sity of an increase of one-half to three-fourths in the quan-
tity of provisions furnished, to meet the want of the over
50,000 inhabitants of Georgetown, who have only 15
ounces of plantain, flesh matter, and 44 ounces of roots per
day, for every family of five individuals, if no additional
supplies are taken into account, Since the above calcu-
lations were made, I have obtained a note of the

OUR PROVISION SUPPLY. 265

aétual food used by a man, his wife and three chil-
dren as under :—

$ lb. Plantains... awe ae samt 2Creee aC.
2% ,, Roots eddoes, yam, potatoes seo OCA gre
or Bread 4c.
1 ,, Flour, serve 4 days 45 ey OE Se
Tos, MOUSAL, phys De 55 tee sie Te Cae
Pork AY: aan eee csemecuG. 2
Fish ay, “re ied oa Cee
2 X 3=5 persons ot oes +» Igc. 15c. per day.
ozd.
Sunday 4 lb. Butcher’s meat a 6c.

21c, per Sunday
Perhaps our medical men will know whether with the
potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) imported, the people
have enough vegetable food furnished for their mainten-
ance in health. ;

- We have only dealt with the quantities of provisions
which pass through Stabroek Market, but if we go beyond
the wants of the city and note the universal lament of dull
trade, and that sugar estates do not pay, we find the supply
of provisions not only requirestobeincreased three-fourths,
but from three to four times or more, even enough to enable
the day labourer to live upon a lower rate of wages without
having to reduce his amount of food, but rather to enable
him toincreaseit. Howis this to be accomplished ? Pro-
vision farming must pay as well as store keeping, sugar,
coffee and cocoa planting, and although with only manual
labour available, there is little facility for labour saving
methods of cultivation being adopted, yet there are a few
loopholes through which light may be thrown upon the

266 TIMEHRI.

possible. One of these is that although with the virgin soil
we possess to so great an extent, any fallin price of provi-
sions would infringe on the large margin of profits
which is the reward of the intelligent cultivator, it would
be useful in quickening his foresight. He now thinks of
bringing down six trees by cutting one when clearing
land, and of empoldering his farm in seétions, so as to
confine injury or loss to one seétion if the back dam.
breaks and bush water comes upon his farm, then he
would look to increase his crops by change of seed.
That grown on sandy or clay soil would then be used to
plant pegass soil, in a word, he would calculate how to
conquer nature by applying nature. The landlord of
our great virgin soil distriéts—the Government Execu-
tive—might lend a helping hand by allotting land in
portions of five acres and upwards on a lease for seven
or fifteen years, at a rent fixed according to quality of
the soil at the time the land is surveyed. Then at the
end of the term of lease the rent might be revised and
adjusted. This would enable poor industrious men to
open land, feed and educate their family, and save enough
to enlarge their farm when the lease expired. I can
look back to a parish I know well nine miles long and
six broad, in the south of Scotland, which by similar
means was converted in 20 to 30 years to return a rental
of over £8,000 per annum, and to become a populous and
fertile country from being a heathy waste ; this scheme
was begun about 100 years ago. Some one says * The
people.” People are people all the world over, it only
requires the head to make use of them. In praé€tice it is
a great mistake to oblige a poor man to purchase land,
and then keep him poor by the necessary duties attached

OUR PROVISION SUPPLY. 267

to land owners however small. Let the land be peopled
with farmers on separate allotments, not by villagers.
There are two points gained. By this less capital is
sunk, more kept floating, and more produce is furnished
for the market-—by the farmer living on his land. A
villager is subjeé& to the disadvantages of living two or
three miles (some even ten miles) away from his cultiva-
tion---either negleting his family in the village, or his
crops on his provision land. In certain conditions of the
soil rain falls, and before he arrives in his field the benefit
and opportunity is gone; corn is ready to gather, but
before he gets there the rain is down. Again the Govern-
ment landlord might assist by subsidizing a steam barge
system for the speedy transport of produce. The fore-
going is an indire€t yet a permanent mode of giving
prosperity toward the profitable working of our various
industries. I must leave the great benefits and advan-
tages of rotating sugar cane with provisions on sugar
estate lands to the experienced young planter, only calling
attention to the success of the system of converting la-
bourers into tenant cultivators and assisting them by the
steam plough, adopted by the controllers of the Daira
Sanieh in Egypt, which converted estates suffering from
large losses, in five years into a source of great profit (see
Daily Chronicle 28th September, 1892), a system, I con-
sider, capable of adoption on large estates in this Colony

of British Guiana. The following is the extraét : —
SUGAR CULTIVATION IN EGYPT,

An interesting note by Mr. Hamilton Lang, C.M.G., controller of
the Daira Sanieh, upon the results of the year 1891 shows how under
skilful management, this administration, which during the previous five
years had been a drain upon the Egyptian treasury to an extent varying
from £75,000 to £265,000 annually, has been transformed into a source

268 TIMEHRIL.

of revenue. In 1891 it yielded £38,000 profit, after paying 4 per
cent. interest on the Daira debt of seven and one-quarter millions
sterling.

The three controllers, a native, an Englishman and a Frenchman,
have the management of 475,000 acres of land, of which 150,000 are
waste. Sugar cane alternated with cereals, is grown over about 180,000
acres, situated in Upper Egypt, of which over go,000 acres are always
under sugar, which is crushed in the mills of the Daira and constitutes
the chief source of revenue. Another traét of 140,000 acres situated
north of the sugar district and in Lower Egypt, produces the usual
cereal crops and yielded a net profit varying from 3s. 6d. to 11s., and
averaging 5s. 8d. per acre. The system adopted by the controllers,
which is the only right one for properties of such magnitude, is to lease
the lands to cultivators rather than cultivate them direétly, and last
year they leased 309,000 acres and cultivated direct or on joint account
with tenants, only 14,000 acres.

The controllers fix a uniform price at which their tenants are bound
to deliver to the factories all the canes grown on the sugar estates, and
this price enables the tenants to support their families and to pay a
rent to the Daira, which then makes a profit on the manufaéture of the
sugar. The Daira gives all necessary assistance to its tenants by
supplying ploughing, seed, irrigation, etc, and, though its leases con-
tain all the usual stringent clauses, it invariably exercises great for-
bearance toward all deserving tenants—a principle found to be
advantageous to both, Improvements to the machinery and in the
processes of the manufacture and also close supervision over the culti~
vation and all details are among the methods by which the adminis-
tration has attained an unanticipated success.

Their total production of sugar in 1891 was 58,728 tons. Very
much more could be grown, but the existing machinery could not work
more during the twenty-four to forty-eight hours between the cutting
of the cane and its crushing, a period, which cannot be exceeded with-
out causing deterioration. Mr. LANnG forecasts an increase of surplus
to £66,000 for 1892. The example of the Daira Sanieh has induced a
private company, with a capital of £120,000, to start sugar growing
and manufaéture upon 7,000 acres, and they expect to put their crop on
the market next January. Upper Egypt is very well adapted for sugar
cultivation on a large scale, it is a more remunerative crop than cereals,
but the large outlay necessary for the machinery puts it out of the

OuR PROVISION SUPPLY. 269

power of the natives, and Europeans are afraid of sinking capital in
Egypt while its political future is so uncertain,

In this colony the sugar estates’ authorities after careful
selection, from among the East Indian immigrants and
creole labourers, of the most suitable families, might per-
haps bring about a similar result. They might locate them
on land to cultivate in provisions, for a term of years.
At the end of the term, the land might revert to the
estate, to be planted by the owner in sugar canes, as
practised on Pin. Houston, or the tenant might continue
his occupancy and plant sugar cane to be purchased by
the owner or owners. Here comes in the old Scotch-law
system, of thierlage, by which tenants were bound to bring
all grain to a certain mill, and English Radicals may from
this learn the necessity and value of feudal usages. By
this system, improved methods of cultivation would be
taught to the tenants by the estate’s staff, especially if
assisted by the steam plough, and seeds and plants
suitable to the soil could be procured; by which means
a greater quantity of grain and pulse might be produced
and thereby save the colony money paid to the United
States for such necessaries.

No person knowing how Village proprietors in British
Guiana perpetuate in their methods of provision culti-
vation and daily life, the institutions taught their fore-
fathers during the regime of slavery, can be surprised at
the value of forty years desert wandering to the Israelites,
Habits contraéted in Egypt were forgotten and elimi-
nated and a clear course was opened for new habits
more suitable to the new conditions. The only path out
of this beaten track, is tenant occupation. Toconclude,
the owners of sugar estates in this colony at the present

MM

270 TIMEHRI.

time are in a condition very similar to that of the land-
owners and farmers of Great Britain. About the years
1845-6 the general adoption of rotation of crops rescued
the farming industry from ruin, brought about by the
necessary abolition of the corn laws. The island of Bar-
bados also benefited by adopting the same system. When
rotation of crops is mentioned in British Guiana the
stiff clay soils are put forward as an obstacle ; this
imaginary difficulty may be overcome by the application
of lime and suitable tillage. JETHRU TULL’S system is
played out—and steam ploughing is not understood —
there being a great deal too much expeéted from the
implement. Time may evolve a new regime; I hope
it will.

The Guiana Orchids.

By the Editor.

5.—DIVISIONS OF THE ORDER.

RCHIDS may be popularly divided into two

great classes, first, the terrestrial division

which is distributed all over the world, and
second, the epiphytes, including those growing on rocks
or sand, only found in the tropics. In Guiana we have
representatives of both classes, the well-known English
butterfly orchis being represented here by several species
of Habenaria. The showiest of the terrestrial species
however are found in the genus Pogonia (Cleistes) which
grow in swamps where the soil is barren pipe-clay or
sand. This class contains but few species native to
Guiana and is therefore hardly recognised, in faét with
the exception of a green and inconspicuous Habenaria,
common at certain seasons in one or two old trenches in
Georgetown, none are found within the cultivated area.

The epiphytes however are far more numerous, as
might be expected from the great extent of the forest
region. As certain animals, whose congeners in other
countries live on the ground, have here taken to an arbo-
real life, so many plants in Guiana mount the trees and
obtain a share of the sunlight by the help of others, The
stages in their progress are still recognisable in several
genera, and are beautifully exemplified in the genus Cata-
setum, The oldest form is probably Catasetum discolor,
common all over the sand-reefs and very plentiful about
old charcoal pits, easily known by its pale yellow-green,
MM 2

272 TIMEHRI.

hood-like flowers and plump pseudo-bulbs. Catasetum
macrocarpum (tridentatum) has made a leap upwards and
lodged itself in the lower branches of trees, often just
above the surface of the creek or swamp, while Catase-
tum longifolium has got to the top of the eta palm and
settled under its crown. In habit these three species
are very similar, the pseudo-bulbs being in each case
retained, the differences mainly consisting in the flowers.
In Oncidium however we have no species now living on
the sand, but we can easily conceive that it commenced
with a plant something like a Cyrtopodium, which genus
contains the largest sand orchids in Guiana. The first
step now visible is exemplified by Oncidium altissimum,
a plant with large pseudo-bulbs and rather thin leaves,
and culminates in Oncidium Lanceanum, the species so
well known in Georgetown. Because the latter climbed
highest and got into the sunlight, it became able to bear
the drying winds of our city streets and illustrate
the survival of the fittest from several points of view.
All the species which climbed from the sand have
their pseudo-bulbs immediately above the tangle of roots,
and their flowers issuing from beneath these or at least
below the apex. There is another division of epiphytes,
however which rose from the rocks, on hill and mountain,
and these have developed on different lines. When
growing from crevices it is easy to understand that a
soft juicy bulb like that of a Catasetum would be liable
to injury, and that a clump of roots could hardly find
room to spread. Something had to be done to over-
come these disabilities, and it was most beautifully accom-
plished. When we look at a Cattleya the whole contri-
vance is plain. The pseudo-bulb has been mounted on

THe GUIANA ORCHIDS. 243

a hard stalk, the flowers are produced at the apex, and
the aérial roots extend in every direétion without mat-
ting together.

_In these two great divisions we have the germ of a
natural classification which nearly corresponds with the
tribes Epidendreze and Vande, the first having usually
terminal and the second lateral inflorescence. Botanists
separate these and the other tribes to be presently men-
tioned, by certain characters conneéted with the anthers
and pollen masses, but as these are not conspicuous or
easily recognisable by any one but the student we have
looked round for something less difficult. To recapitulate
therefore, before going farther, the Epidendree were
originally rock plants and have terminal flowers and
generally stalked pseudo-bulbs or fleshy stems, while
the Vandez were sand-orchids and have flowers coming
from below the bulbs, or where these are absent, from
among the leaves at their base. There are a few excep-
tions, but not enough to invalidate the rule.

The third tribe, Neottiez, is not so easily recognised as
the two first, in faét it is rather anomalous, containing
such genera as Vanilla and Sobralia as well as others
more stri€tly terrestrial. The fourth and fifth tribes,
Ophrydez and Cypripedee, are wholly terrestrial, being
represented in Guiana by only one genus each.

The following list of the genera found in Guiana will
show how they are arranged in tribes :—

Tribe 1.—Epidendree (epiphytal ; growing on rocks or trees.)

Pleurothallis, Stelis, Masdevallia, Octomeria, Liparis, Bulbophyllum,
Elleanthus, Bletia, Diothonea, Scaphyglottis, Diacrium, Isochilus,
Epidendrum, Cattleya, Lelia, Brassavola, Schomburgkia.

Tribe 2.—Vandee (epiphytal ; growing on sand or trees.)

Galeandra, Polystachya, Cyrtopodium, Zygopetalum, Aganisia, Aca-

274 TIMEHRI.

callis, Batemannia, Bifrenaria, Lycaste, Gongora, Coryanthes, Stan-
hopea, Peristeria, Catasetum, Cychnoches, Polycycnis, Stenia, Scuticaria,
Maxillaria, Camaridium, Dichza, Ornithidium, Eriopsis, Trichocentrum,
Rodriguezia, Aspasia, Odontoglossum, Oncidium, Brassia, Trizeuxis,
Trigonidium, lonopsis, Ornithocephalus, Quekettia, Lockhartia, Angre-

cum, Macradenia, Notylia.
Tribe 3.—Neottiee (mostly terrestrial).
Vanilla, Sobralia, Epistephium, Wullschegelia, Stenoptera, Neottia,

Spiranthes, Pelexia, Pogonia.
Tribe 4.—Ophrydee (terrestrial.)

Habenaria.
Tribe 5.—Cypripediee (terrestrial.)

Selenipedium.
6.—THE GENERA AND SPECIES.

Tribe 1.— Epidendree.

1. Pleurothallis.—A large genus of inconspicuous plants
very common along the banks of the rivers and creeks,
growing generally on the smaller branches and even twigs
of low trees in the form of cushions or rosettes. They
may be recognised by their single leaf, mounted on a
short stalk, from the top of which and the base of the
leaf, proceed one or more flower spikes. Some of them
are very pretty when grown in masses but individually
they are hardly showy enough for the orchid fancier.
They are however useful to cover the surface of the
baskets in which such plants as Cattleyas are grown.
Twenty-one species have been recorded :—

1. P. ciliata ... Flowers brownish yellow, downy.
2. P. ruscifolia ... Flowers green.
3. P. pruinosa ... Flowers yellow,
4. P. Lanceana .»» Flowers yellow and crimson,
. P, pitta .». Flowers yellow with red stripes.

5

6. P. sicaria ... Flowers greenish with purple stripes.

7. P. aristata ... Flowers purple veined.

8. P. Grobya ... Flowers yellow and purple.

g. P. emarginata ... Flowers green and white with a rosy lip.

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 275

10. P. orbicularis ... Flowers purple.
11. P, multicaulis
12. P. succosa

13. P. crassifolia ... Flowers yellowish green.

14. P. sertularioides ... Flowers whitish, with yellow tips.
15. P. stenopetala ..- Flowers brownish yellow.

16. P. rhombipetala

17. P. Miqueliana ... Flowers dark purple,

18, P. Surinamensis ... Flowers yellow.

1g. P. acuminata ... Flowers dull yellow.

20. P. biflora _ ae Flowers purple.

2t. P. brevipes - ... Flowers brownish purple.

2. Stelis.—This genus is similar in habit to the pre-
ceding, but the plants are somewhat larger, and whereas
the floral divisions in Pleurothallis are generally pointed
and more or less connivant, in this they are rounded and
the whole flower almost flat. They are exceedingly
pretty little plants and S. grandiflora is a lovely gem.
Eight species :—

1. S. ophioglossoides _... Flowers greenish, tinged with purple.

2. S. argentata ... Flowers green and purple.

3. 8. grandiflora ... Flowers white and red.

4. S. zonata ... Flowers yellow, zoned with mauve.
5. S. Heylidyana ... Flowers greenish purple.

6. S. ovalifolia ... Flowers dull yellow.

7. S. flavida ..» Flowers dull yellow.

8. S. tristyla ... Flowers green.

3. Masdevallia.—A genus containing some very beau-
tiful plants and also others little more showy than
some species of Pleurothallis, which they much resemble
in habit as well as in the shape of the flowers, these being
however larger, fewer on a stalk and the divisions often
tapering to long points. Three species :—

1, M, Guyannensis

2, M. brevis .- Flowers yellowish brown with purple spots
3. M. piéturata

276 TIMEHRI.

4. O€tomeria.—This genus is also similar in habit to
Pleurothallis but the flowers are stemless, clustered, and
even less conspicuous. Two species :—

1. O. tridentata ... Flowers yellow.
2. O. Surinamensis ... Flowers yellow.

5. Liparis.— With this genus we come to a different
type, with pseudo-bulbs. Only one species has been
recorded from Guiana, a small plant with broad, thin,
ribbed leaves suffused with crimson, and flowers in a
loose spike :—

1. L. elliptica ... Flowers reddish brown.

6. Bulbophyllum.—The Guiana speciesaresmall plants,
more curious than beautiful. The flower-spikes are
luteral and therefore the genus is an exception to
the rule laid down for the tribe. The species have small
pseudo-bulbs with one or two thick leaves on the top.
The commonest, B. bra¢teolatum, is called rat’s tail in
the colony from the shape and size of the flower-spike.
the resemblance being increased by the little flowers
being inserted as it were into small pits all along the
surface. Four species :—

1. B. braéteolatum ... Flower-spike thick, fleshy.
2. B. setigerum ..- Flower spike thin, drooping.
3. B. quadrisetum ... Flower-spike thin, almost upright.

4. B. Geraense

7. Elleanthus.—Inconspicuous plants with leafy stems
and flowers in terminal spikes supported by large braéts.
Two species :—

1. E. furfuraceus ... Flowers bright red,
2. E. Caravata ... Flowers yellow.

§. Bletia——Handsome plants growing in sand, with
roundish tubers depressed to the level of the ground,
from which rise long thin ribbed leaves, and, from the

THE GUIANA’ ORCHIDS. 277

sides, flower spikes or racemes two feet or more high.
The only Guiana species is a pretty plant having white
flowers with a touch of yellow on the lip :—

1. Bletia florida

g. Diothonea.—One inconspicuous species has been
recorded from Guiana, a plant with leafy stems, narrow
leaves and flowers in a cluster at the top :—

1, D. imbricata

to. Scaphyglottis—A genus of small plants having
fleshy internodes, with leaves and flowers from the
joints; leaves either narrow or half-cylindrical, Six

species :—
1. S, violacea .. Flowers pinkish-violet.
2. S. reflexa ... Flowers yellow.
3. S. pallidifiora ... Flowers white.
4. S. stellata ... Flowers purple.
5. S. rosea ... Flowers rose.
6. S. fasciculata

11. Diacrium.—A single species, separated from Epi-
dendrum, with long tapering hollow pseudo-bulbs, from
the top of which spring two or three thick leaves, and a
raceme of white flowers with a touch of violet on the
lip. A very desirable plant but rather difficult to estab-
lish, possibly from want of ant protection when under
cultivation. The plants should be colleéted on the
original logs and not be too much shaded.

1. D bicornutum

12. Isochilus.—Very inconspicuous plants with one or
more leaves on the top of the stem; resembling Scaphy-
glottis, but the flowers clustered at the top instead of at
each internode. Three species :—

1. I, linearis ... Flowers purple.

2. I. fusiformis ... Flowers rosy,
3. I. ramosus

NN

278 TIMEHRI.

13. Epidendrum,—One of the largest genera in the
order; all the epiphytal orchids being at first called by
the name of Epidendroz* meaning plants living upon
trees. The species vary greatly in size and habit
but all agree in having the terminalinflorescence. They
may be divided into two great classes, those with
and those without pseudo-bulbs. The most showy
approach Cattleya, being sometimes difficult to dis-
tinguish when not in flower, in faét except for their
extraordinary brilliancy of colour, and size, there is little
to distinguish the Cattleyas, some botanists still consider-
ing them as highly developed Epidendrums. Among the
species worth cultivating are E. bifidum, E. ciliare,
E. fragrans, E. ionosmum, E. imatophyllum, and E.
Schomburgkii, Forty-four species :—

1. E. bifidum ... Pseudo bulbs; flowers purplish green,
lip rose, orange and white.

2. E. ciliare ... Pseudo-bulbs ; flowers white, lip fringed.

3. E. fragrans ... Pseudo-bulbs; flowers white, scented, lip
striped with violet.

4. E. Oncidioides ... Pseudo-bulbs ; flowers yellow, spotted
with brown,

5. E. graniticum ... Considered a variety of the last: flowers
yellowish green, spotted with red.

6. E. clavatum ... Pseudo-bulbs ; flowers white with purp‘e
bracts,

7. E. piétum ... Pseudo-bulbs; flowers dull yellow.

8. E. pachyanthum ... Pseudo-bulbs; flowers straw-colour.

g. E, ionosmum ... Pseudo-bulbs; flowers reddish-green, lip
white striped with deep rose.

10. E. chloroleucum ... Pseudo-bulbs ; flowers yellow: green, small.

11. E. viviparum ... Pseudo-bulbs; flowers white, on a very
long stem.

* In our first paper we used the termination om, but, following the
best authorities, now substitute um.

12. E. saxatile
13. E. variegatum

14. E, prismatocarpum

15. E. tetrapetalum

16. E. Schomburgkii
17. E. imatophyllum
18. E. stenopetalum

1g. E. noéturnum
20. E. longicolle
21, E. elongatum
22. E. patens

23. E. rigidum

24. E. durum
2s. E. raniferum

26. E. umbellatum

27. E, ramosum

28. E. scutella
2g. E. flexuosum

30. E. fuscatum

31. E. strobiliferum
32. E. smaragdinum
33. E. microphyllum
34. E. dichotomum

35. E. ellipticum
36. E. globosum
37. E. diceratum

38. E, sessiliflorum

39. E prostratum
40. E. violescens

41, E, tigrinum
42: E. alsum

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 279

. Pseudo-bulbs ; flowers reddish-purple.
. Pseudo-bulbs ; flowers variegated, green-

ish white with purple spots and dashes

. Pseudo bulbs; flowers yellow, green and

purple, lip lilac-purple with a white
border.

. Pseudo-bulbs ; (Oncidium ?)
. Leafy stems; flowers vermillion.
... Leafy stems; flowers pale rose.
... Leafy stems; flowers purple.
. Leafy stems; flowers white.
. Leafy stems; flowers pale yellow.
. Leafy. stems; flowers bright rose.
. Leafy stems; flowers rusty yellow.
. Leafy stems; flowers greenish incon-

spicuous.

. Leafy stems; flowers yellow.
. Leafy stems; flowers green with purple

dots.

. Leafy stems; flowers greenish.
. Leafy stems; flowers greenish white,

very small.

. Leafy stems; flowers greenish yellow.
. Leafy stems; flowers greenish, lip white,

fringed.

... Leafy stems; flowers yellowish-brown.

. Leafy stems; flowers white.

. Leafy stems; flowers bright green.

. Leafy stems; flowers small, purple.

. Leafy stems; flowers yellowish-green.

. Leafy stems; flowers rosy.

. Leafy stems; flowers very small, green,
..’ Flowers pink.

. Flowers brownish-white.

. Leafy stems ; flowers in a panicle, green.
. Leafy stems; flowers very small with

violet bracts.

. Flowers yellow and red,
. Leafy stems; flowers fleshy small.

NN 2

280 TIMEHRI.

43. E. im Thurnii ... Leafy stems; flowers very small.
44. E. montigenum ... Leafy stems; flowers very small.

14. Cattleya—This genus, taken altogether, is quite
distin€t, although some of the species of Epidendrum
approach it very closely. The flowers are always showy,
borne on the apex of club-shaped pseudo-bulbs and
accompanied by one or two thick rigid leaves. Some of
the species have exceedingly beautiful flowers. Two
species :—

1. C. violacea (superba) ... Two leaves ; flowers rosy purple.

2. C. Lawrenciana «. One leaf; flowers purple lilac.

15. Lelia.—A genus very nearly allied to Cattleya and
like it containing also some species with magnificent
flowers. One species was recorded by SCHOMBURGK,
from Roraima, but it does not appear to have been
found by later colleétors.

1, L. pumila ... Flowers single, rosy, with crimson lip.

16. Brassavola.—Pretty plants with short stems, each
bearing one cylindrical or narrow leaf, at the base of
which one or more white or creamy yellow flowers are
produced. Although not showy they are well worth
cultivating :—

1. B. cucullata ... Flowers single, white, lip fringed.

2. B. angustata ... Flowers clustered, white, lip fringed.

3. B. nodosa ... Flowers clustered, greenish-yellow, lip
entire.

17- Schomburgkia.—Very tall plants of a similar habit
to Cattleya. The flowers are clustered at the top of
long stems, are dull in colour and the divisions much
curled, very insignificant as compared with the size of the
plants. Two species :—

1. S. marginata ... Flowers yellow, spotted with red.

2. S. crispa .» Flowers yellow, spotted with brown,

Tue GUIANA ORCHIDS. 281

Tribe 2.—Vandee.

1. Galeandraa—A genus of very handsome plants,
the flowers borne on the top of fleshy leafy stems in
drooping ciusters, the lip bell or funnel shaped with a
spur. Four species :—

1. G, Baueri ... Flowers yellow, with purple lines on the
lip.

2. G. Devoniana .. Flowers chocolate, lip white with pink
lines.

3. G. dives (cristata) —... Flowers pink and dark purple.

4. G. yuncea

2. Polystachya.—Rather insignificant plants with yel-
low flowers growing in simple or branching spikes at
the top of leafy stems. Two species :—

1. P. luteola ... Flower stems branching.
2. P. species ? ... Flower stems simple

3. Cyrtopodium. --Magnificent plants with tall branch-
ing panicles or simple spikes of (generally) showy
flowers, rising from the sides of depressed or elongated
pseudo-bulbs. They are common on the sand-reefs,
some of the species having pseudo-bulbs two to three
feet high and panicles of brilliant yellow flowers stand-
ing five or six feet above the ground ; the most showy
of the sand orchids. Five species :—

1, C, Andersonii ... Flowers yellow, wavy.

1, C. cristatum ... Flowers yellow, lip crested.

3. C. punctatum ..- Flowers yellow, dotted with red.

4. C. parviflorum ..». Flowers yellow, smaller than the others.

5. C. (Cyrtopera) Wood- Flowers greenish yellow with dark crim-
fordii son lip.

4. Zygopetalum.—Epiphytes with pseudo-bulbs, thin
leaves and handsome flowers from below the bulbs. The
lip is almost flat and is therefore very conspicuous,
Light species, the two last formerly placed in Huntleya :—

1, Z, rostratum es» Flowers white, lip white with a violet crest.

282 TIMEHRI.

2. Z. Mackaii ... Flowers green, barred with chocolate, lip
white streaked with lilac.

3. Z. cochleare ... Flowers whitish, lip variegated with blue.

4. Z. Burkei ..- Flowers blackish purple, lip white with
purple stripes.

5. Z. tricoler ... Flowers greenish white, lip crimson.

6. Z. venustum

7. Z. violaceum ... Flowers violet.

8. Z. sessiliflorum ... Flowers violet almost stemless.

5. Aganisia.—Pretty little plants with delicate flowers,
resembling the Zygopetalums in habit, but smaller.
Three species :—

1. A. pulchella ... Flowers white with a yellow blotch on
the lip.

2. A. graminea ... Flowers yellow, spotted, with red.

3. A. fimbriata ... Flowers white, lip blue, fringed,

6. Acacallis,—-A single species, separated from Agani-
sia, with tufted leaves and a spike of flowers 18 inches
long :—

1. A, cyanea ... Flowers white, blotched with blue and

yellow.

7. Batemannia.—The only species is a small plant
with four-angled pseudo-bulbs and a nodding spike of
almost unique coloured flowers.

1. B. Colleyi ... Flowers reddish-brown.

&, Bifrenaria.—Rather pretty plants with pseudo-
bulbs and thin ribbed leaves. Flowers small, in spikes,
with spurs. [wo species :—

1. B, aurantiaca ... Flowers orange with crimson spots.

2. B. longicornis -«. Flowers pinkish, spotted with brown.

g. Lycaste.—The only native species is generally
known by the name of Paphinia. It is a small plant
with thin delicate leaves and bluntly two-edged pseudo-
bulbs, from below which proceeds a drooping spike of
two or three large and handsome flowers :—

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 283

~—_-— ee

1, L. cristata ... Flowers pale, blotched and barred with

crimson.

10. Gongora.—Fine plants with large pseudo-bulbs,
ribbed leaves, and limp pendulous flower spikes, along
which are ranged curious grasshopper-like flowers. The
flowers vary much in their markings and colours, and
although rather small and generally dull tinted they are
interesting and curious. Five Guiana species have been
recorded but it is doubtful whether they can be con-
sidered more than varieties ;—

1. G, atropurpurea ... Flowers dark crimson.

2. G. maculata ... Flowers yellow or white, more or less
spotted.

3. G. variegata ... Flowers variegated.

4. G. histrio.

5. G. quinquenervia ... Flowers yellow and purple.

11. Coryanthes.—This genus ts perhaps the most in-
teresting of the whole order. ‘The native species have
pendulous flower-stems proceeding from the base of
tapering, conical, channelled pseudo-bulbs, and thin
ribbed leaves. They grow on saplings or bush-ropes,
the aerial roots forming oval masses in which live colo-
nies of black ants. The flower buds resemble a swathed
Chinese lady’s foot, the bands or outer divisions of the
flower turning back as they open, disclosing a most
extraordinary development ofthe lip. This lip is turned
back upon itself to form a cup, above and at one side of
which for a handle as it were is a short column bearing
a mushroom-like expansion at the apex, below which
are two small horn-like processes which distil a muci-
laginous liquid into the cup. The flowers are large and
handsome, not so showy as some others, but far more
interesting. Three species have been recorded, but C,

284 TIMEHRI.

speciosa and C. maculata appear to run into each other,
in fact, like most other orchids every plant differs in
some way from another. When not ia flower however
the two above-mentioned are exaétly alike, but they
can be easily distinguished from C. macrantha by their
narrower leaves and sharp edges to the flutings of their
pseudo-bulbs :—

1. C. macrantha ... Flowers very large, cap deep orange, vel-
vetty, cup pale rose blotched with
crimson.

2. C. speciosa ... Flowers about half the size of the first,

cap yellow, smooth, cup pale more or
less spotted with rose.

3. C. maculata ..» Similar in size to No. 2, with the cap pur-
ple and other parts of the flower
yellow, dotted or blotched with crim-
son,

12. Stanhopea.—Verv beautiful plants with extra-
ordinary shaped flowers on short stems coming from
below conical pseudo-bulbs. The flowers are large, highly
scented, waxy in texture, and the leaves ribbed. Four
species :-—

1. S, eburnea ... Flowers waxy-white with atouch of violet
on the slipper-like lip.

2. S. grandiflora ... Hardly distinguishable from No, 1 except
by a little more colour on the lip.

3. S. insignis ... Flowers pale yellow, spotted with violet.

4. S. oculata ... Flowers creamy white spotted with dilac,

lip with two or four blackish eye-like
spots.

13. Peristeria— Large plants with slightly compressed,
tapering pseudo-bulbs, from the base of which proceed
(in the Guiana species) short nodding flower-spikes.
The flowers are pale and almost globular in shape, the
lip small somewhat resembling a dove nesting within,

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 288

np

from which one species, not native, has received the
name of Dove Orchis. Three species :—

1. P. cerina ... Flowers yellow.
2. P. pendula ... Flowers white, spotted with lilac.
3. P. selligera ... Similar to the last but with slight differ-

ences in the shape of the lip and
column.

14. Catasetum.—This is perhaps the most interesting
genus in the whole order to, the botanist, as several
species have apparently the power of producing different
shapes and sexes of flowers according to circumstances.
The typical form of flower has a pouch or hood-like
lip, widening in front, and placed upside down as it were,
with the column below instead of above as in most
orchids, This, the female, is common to most of
the species and probably to all, although it has not
yet been recorded from more than about half. In
the case of Catasetum macrocarpum this form was, when
discovered, made the type of the genus Monachanthus
and named M. viridis. It is borne upon shorter flower-
stems than the other forms and in the forest is often
found bearing numbers of its very large capsules. The
second form is doubtful as to sex but is probably male,
and in the species in question was named C. tridentatum.
It may be compared in shape to a sun-bonnet and is
more showy than the Monachanthus. Finally we have
the Myanthus form, originally put in a separate genus
under the name of M. barbatus. This is distinétly male
and its lip is flat, fringed, and in its normal position.
When out of flower the species are hardly recognisable
from each other, ail having fleshy cylindrical pseudo-
bulbs with a double rank of leaves. Even the female
flowers closely resemble each other and it is therefore

00

286 TIMEHRI.

by the male that they can be best distinguished, the in-
termediate form being apparently confined to C. macro-
carpum. Sixteen species, the first three growing on
sand and nearly allied :—

1. C. discolor ... Flowers yellowish green, hood slightly
fringed.
2, C. cristatum .«.. Flowers green, fringed at the crest.
3. C. fimbriatum «» Flowers pinkish-white, much fringed.
4. C, macrocarpum ««. Flowers green, blotched with crimson.
5. C. trifidum ... Similar to the last, lip of male flower
with a white fringe.
6. C. cornutum .«»» Male flower ; lip fringed, heart-shape with
a horn-like appendage.
7. C. saccatum ... Male flower ; lip bag-like, fringed,
8. C. deltoideum .«- Male flower ; lip flat, triangular.
g. C. poriferum «.. Male flower; lip flat, heart-shaped.
10. C. luridum ..» Male flower ? lip bag-like.
11. C, barbatum ... Male flower; lip bearded with fleshy hairs
12. C, Darwinianum ... Male flower; lip oblong, green with dark
spots.
13. C, recurvatum
14. C. planiceps «« Male flower; lip roundish, compressed,
serrated.
15. C. scurra ... Male flower? white, lip fringed.
16. C, longifolium .». Leaves long, ribbon-like, flowers orange
scarlet.

15. Cychnoches.—Another interesting genus, in habit
much like Catasetum, the flower-stems borne on the
sides of the pseudo-bulbs above the base but not on the
apex. The flowers have been compared in shape toa
swan, the long arched column forming the neck and the
remainder of the flower the body. ‘Three species, all
handsome :—

1, C. Loddigesii ... Flowers brownish green, lip white with
crimson spots,
2. C. chlorochilon .» Flowers yellow, —

3. C, purpureus «+» Flowers purple,

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 287

——_— eee...

16, Polycycnis.—Rather pretty plants, removed from
the genus Houlettia, One species, having conical
pseudo-bulbs, from the base of which rises an upright
flower spike :—

1. P. vittata ... Flowers yellow, striped with chocolate.

17. Stenia.—Without pseudo-bulbs ; the leaves spread-
ing like a fan, and the single flowers rising from their
axils. One species, neither showy nor particularly
interesting :— .

‘1S, pallida ... Flowers pale, almost colourless.

18. Scuticaria—Curious looking plants with cylin-
drical leaves hanging downward to a length of four or
five feet; flowers on very short stems, large, handsome
and highly scented. One species —

1. S, Steelii ... Flowers pale yellow, blotched with purple.

1g. Maxillaria-—A large genus of weedy-looking
plants with insignificant flowers, the lip of which resem-
bles a palate or lower jaw, from which its name is derived.
The flowers are usually borne singly, often hidden
among the leaves and rising from the base of pseudo-
bulbs which are generally small in proportion to the
size of the plant. Twenty-three species have been
recorded, these varying much in size and general
appearance, from two or three inches to as many feet in
height, in some cases creeping or trailing and in others
forming great masses :—

1, M. alba .»» Flowers white.

2. M. cristata ... Flowers white, spotted with crimson, lip
fringed,

3. M, Parkeri .» Flowers white, spotted with purple, lip
lilac.

4. M. Henchemanni __... Flowers purple.

5. M. chlorantha ... Flowers yellowish-green.

6. M, foveata .» Flowers clustered, straw coloured.

002

TIMEHRI.

. porrecta
. densa

. pumila
. uncata

. acutifolia

Batemanii

. Guyanensis
. graminea

. sinuosa

. eburnea

. gracilis

glauca

. pallens
. crassifolia

. bicolor

. iridifolia
. discolor

-. Flowers pale, purple spotted.
. Flowers clustered, white spotted with

red.

... Flowers purple.

. Flowers brown,

... Flowers yellow, spotted with red.

. Flowers striped.

. Flowers white.

..- Flowers red.

.. Flowers yellow.

.. Flowers pale white.

. Flowers yellow.

. Flowers yellow, with a blackish-purple

lip.

.. Flowers yellow, spotted.
. Flowers orange.

20. Camaridium. Ani to Maxillaria. One species
has been recorded from Guiana, a straggling plant with

branching leafy stems and rather pretty flowers, which

only last a day :—
1. C. ochroleucum
21. Dichza.— Pretty little plants with leafy stems and
small flowers proceeding from the axils of the leaves.

Six species :—

om

An bw

Das So ee Oro

. echinocarpa
. graminoides
. ochracea

. Wiegeltii

. Splitgerberi
. Kegelii

22, Ornithidium.—
laria, with pseudo-bulbs, and flowers borne on compara-
tively long stalks, singly :—

1, O, coccineum

. Flowers white, with a yellow lip,

... Flowers white, capsule prickly.
... Flowers whitish, capsule smooth,

A single species, allied to Maxil-.

. Flowers crimson.

Tue GUIANA ORCHIDS. 289

23. Eriopsis —A single species with thin ribbed leaves
on the top of a fleshy oblong stem ; flowers spike from
the base, long :— .

1. E. Schomburgkii ... Flowers orange.

24. Trichocentrum.—A genus of small plants with
comparatively large flowers, very neat and pretty. The
pseudo-bulbs are almost obsolete, the leaves thick, and
the nodding flowers provided with spurs at the back.
Two species :—

1. T. iridifolium ... Flowers yellow.
2. T. recurvum .». Flowers white, lip purple.

25. Rodriguezia.—Small plants with handsome flowers
borne on stems proceeding from below small pseudo-
bulbs which bear thick leathery leaves. The first species
has a one-sided spike of small deep rose-coloured
flowers, while the others, formerly placed in a genus
called Burlingtonia, bear fewer but much larger white
flowers :-—

1, R. secunda ... Flowers deep rose.

2. R. candida .., Flowers waxy white with a tinge of pale
yellow down the centre of the lip.

3. R. fragrans .. Similar to the last but larger and more
fragrant.

4. R. venusta -». Flowers white tinged with pink.

26. Aspasia.—One species, a plant with two-edged
pseudo-bulbs, from below which rise flower-stems bearing
two or three not very conspicuous flowers.

1, A. variegata -.. Flowers greenish, lip white, violet-spotted,

27. Odontoglossum.—A genus well-known among
orchid growers, and which unfortunately is sparsely
represented here, the most handsome species being only
found on mountains. They are charaéterised by having
two or more tooth-like warts at the base of the lip, and

290 TIMEHRI.

have pseudo-bulbs, from below which rise the flower-
spikes. Two species :-—

1. O. citrosmum .-» Flowers waxy-white with a rosy lip.

2. O. epidendroides ..- Flowers yellow, dotted with purple.

28. Oncidium.—A large genus containing some very
fine plants, charaéterised by having a little pile of
excrescences on the base of the lip. The species vary in
size from an inch or two high (O. iridifolium) to as much
as ten or twelve feet (O. altissimum). Some are pro-
vided with monster pseudo-bulbs, while others are des-
titute of these and have thick leathery leaves. The flowers
are generally of some shade of yellow with crimson
markings and are borne on spikes or panicles. Fourteen
species :—

1. O. Lanceanum « Without bulbs, leaves leathery, flowers

pale yellow blotched and barred with
chocolate, lip violet.

2. O. luridum «.. Similar to the last but flowers smaller
borne on longer flower-stems and dull
in colour,

3. O. sanguineum .«.» Without bulbs, flowers-stems very long;
flowers straw colour and crimson.

4. O. tetrapetalum ... Without bulbs, flower yellow, spotted
with brown.

5. O. variegatum .. Without bulbs, flowers white, spotted
with rose.

6. O. pulchellum ... Without bulbs, leaves awl-shaped trian-
gular, flowers pale rose, with crimson
markings.

7. O. nanum «» Without bulbs, leaves oval, concave,
flowers white.

8. O. iridifolium .»» Very small, without bulbs, leaves spread-

ing like a fan, flowers yellow.

g. O. altissimum «» Pseudo-bulbs large, flower-stems 8 to 12

feet high, flowers yellow, orange
spotted.

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 291

to, O. Baueri .» Similar to the last, differing in the column
tr. O, lunatum .-» With bulbs, flower-stems rising a little
beyond the leaves, flowers yellow, orange
spotted,
12, O. Pirarense ;
13. O, nigratum .. With bulbs, flowers crimson, brown
spotted,
14. O. orthostates. ... With bulbs; flowers green, brown spotted.

2g. Brassia. Handsome plants with pseudo-bulbs,
and flowers in spikes, generally yellow, with brown dots.
The two lower floral divisions (petals), are always longer
than the upper, sometimes very long and tail-like. The
two ranks of flowers on arching stalks, highly perfumed,
make the Brassias very desirable, especially as they
flower freely. Six species :—

1. B. cochleata ... Lip broader than long, petals equal with
the lip.

2. B, Lanceana ... Lip oblong, wavy, shorter than the petals,

3. B, Lawrenciana «»» Similar to the last, hardly more than a
larger and finer variety.

4. B. caudata ... Lip ovate, petals very iong.

5. B, verrucosa ... Lip oblong, curled, covered with shining
warts.

6, B. odontoglossoides

30. Trizeuxis.—A single species, without pseudo-
bulbs, with narrow sword-shaped leaves and insignifi-
cant clustered flowers :-—

1, T. falcata ..» Flowers greenish.

31. Trigonidium.—Rather peculiar looking plants for
orchids as the flowers are almost regular, the outer
divisions enclosing the lip and petals, making the flower
appear something like a crocus, which resemblance is
increased by each being borne on a stalk by itself. All
the species have pseudo-bulbs and yeltow flowers. Four
species ;—

292 TIMEHRI.

= ws

1. T. Egertonianum ... The largest species, with balbs and leaves
the size of a Brassia.

2. T. acuminatum . Much smaller, leaves narrow, sepals
pointed.

3. T. obtusum ... Similar to the last but sepals blunt.

4. T. tenue ... The smallest species.

32. lonopsis.—-Very pretty little plants without pseudo-
bulbs, having narrow fleshy leaves, from below which
rise slender branching flower stems, bearing scores of
violet-like flowers. Two species :—

1. I. utricularioides ... Leaves linear, flower stem branched.
2.\ i teres .». Leaves cylindrical, flower stem simple.

33- Ornithocephalus.—Pretty dwarf plants without
pseudo-bulbs, the thick fleshy leaves spreading in the
shape of a little fan, from the axils of which proceed
short stems bearing two or three flowers, the shape of
which has been compared to a bird’s head with beak.
Three species :—

1. O. gladiatus .». Flowers white.

2. O. trichorhizus ... Flower straw-colour.

3. O. ciliatus

34. Quekettia—The only species is a pretty little
plant about four inches high with cylindrical leaves and
a branching flower-stem :—

1. Q. microscopica ..» Flowers yellow.

35. Lockhartia.—Pretty plants with compressed leafy
branching stems and flower stems proceeding from the
axils of the upper leaves. They have been called
“ Alligators’ tails” in the colony from the shape of their
leafy stems. Two species :—

1. L, elegans ... Flower-stems simple, flowers yellow with
purple spots.

2. L. acuta ... Flower-stems branching, flowers yellowish
white,

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 293

36. Angrzecum.—The native species are inconspicuous,
and may be recognised by their close spikes of small
flowers, with spurs. Two species :—

1, A. fasciola ... Stems leafy branching, flowers white.
2. A. filiforme ... Plant reduced to a bunch of aerial roots,
flowers yellow.

37. Macradenia.—The only species is an inconspicuous
plant with pseudo-bulbs, and small flowers borne on a
drooping raceme.

1. M. triandra ... Flowers greenish, spotted.

38. Notylia.—Rather pretty little plants with very
small, almost obsolete pseudo-bulbs, and short thick
leaves from amongst which hang drooping flower-stems
bearing a great number of small flowers. Four species :—

1. N. punétata ... Flowers whitish, spotted.
2. N. micrantha ... Flowers pale green.

3. N. tenuis ... Flowers yellow.

4. N. Parkeri

; . Tribe 3.—Neottiee.
1. Vanilla——This genus is easily recognised by its

climbing habit, fleshy stems and thick leaves. The
flowers are borne in clusters and are of a fair size, but
usually dull in colour. Four species :—

1. V. bicolor. . a Flowers dull red.

2. V. planifolia ... Flowers yellowish green, lip white.

3. V. anaromatica ... Flowers greenish white.

4. VY. palmarum ... A dwarf species found on the eta palm.

2. Sobralia.—Large semi-terrestrial plants with hard
wiry stems and bamboo-like foliage. The flowers are
generally large and handsome, but last only a very short
time. Three species :—

1. S. liliastram ... Stems 8 to 12 feet high, flowers rosy.

2. S. sessilis .. Stems 4 to 6 feet, flowers deep rose.
3. S. stenophylla

3. Epistephium.—The only species found in Guiana
PP

204 TIMEHRI.

resembles in habit a young palm; the flower-spike pro-
ceeding from the base and the flowers opening at. in-
tervals :—

1. E, parviflorum ... Flowers almost hidden, white.

4. Wullschlzgelia,—A single species, a tiny saprophyte
growing on the ground in the forest. The whole plant
consists of a leafless stem about six inches high with a
few small flowers at the top :—

1. W. aphylla ... Flowers pale white.

5. Stenoptera.—Semi-terrestrial plants growing among
mosses, with rosettes of leaves, and inconspicuous flowers
in spikes. Two species :—

. |
1. S. viscosa ... Flowers pale.

2. S. adnata ... Flowers greenish white.}

6. Neottia—Allied to the next genus. Terrestrial
plants with inconspicuous flowers. One species :—

1, N. lanceolata

7. Spiranthes.—Terrestrial plants with thick fleshy
roots, and clustered leaves which often wither before the
flower stem is produced. Spikes sometimes spirally
twisted, flowers half hidden among braé&ts. None of the
species are showy although one is worth growing for its
white-spotted foliage. Six species :—

1. S. bicolor ... Spike spirally twisted, flowers small
greenish, lip white.

2. 'S. pica --- Spike not twisted, flowers larger, similar
in colour to the last.

3. S. elata ... Spike twisted, flowers small greenish,

4. S. tenuis ... Spike not twisted, flowers white shining,

5. S. Hostmanni ... Spike twisted, flowers very small greenish.

6. S. orchioides .«. Spike not twisted, flowers lurid.

8. Pelexia—A genus allied to the above. One
species :—
1. P. aphylla,

THE GUIANA ORCHIDS. 295

g. Pogonia.—This genus contains the most showy
terrestrial orchids found in Guiana, including species
formerly called Cleistes, the flowers of which are as
handsome as some of the Cattleyas. The flowers are
borne on the top of leafy stems, two or three together.
Four species :——

1. P. rosea ... Flowers bright rose, large.
2. P. lutea ... Flowers yellow, large.
3. P. Surinamensis ... Flowers rosy, about half an inch across.

4. P. parviflora.
Tribe 4.—Ophrydee.

1. Habenaria.—Terrestrial plants, distributed all over
the world, with underground tubers and leafy stems,
bearing spikes of greenish white or white flowers on the
top; lip with a spur, which 1s very long in some species.
Mostly inconspicuous but some of them are rather pretty
when in flower. Nine species :—

1, H. longicauda ... Lip divided into three segments, spur
very long.

2. H. seticauda ... Lip incurved, spur very long, pointed.

3. H. Schomburgkii ... Lip divided, spur short.

4. H. heptadactyla ... Flowers few, spur short.

5. H. Démerarensis -__... Flowers small, spur short.

6. H. pauciflora ... Lip divided, spur short.

7. H. macilenta ... Lip divided, spur club-shaped.

8. H. parviflora ..«. Flowers very small.

g. H. Moritzii .. Lip divided, spur short.

Tribe 5.—Cypripediee.

1 Selenipedium.—This genus is allied to the well-
known “ Lady’s slipper,” of which so many species are
in cultivation. The species are terrestrial, having
fibrous roots, and leaves either clustered or borne on long
wiry stems. The floral lip is always more or less pouch-
like resembling the front of a shoe, from which the name
is derived. Four species :—

PP 2

96 TIMEHRI.

1. S. palmifolium --» Flowers straw-colour, yellow.

2. C, Lindleyanum ..- Flowers reddish brown, lip green.

3. S. Kaieteurum .. Similar to the above; a doubtful species
4. S. Klotschyanum

Richard Schomburgk’s Account of Roraima.*

Translated by Mrs. M. H. von Ziegezar.

¥ HE beauty of the valley of the Kukenaam as well
as the friendly welcome which we met with
from its inhabitants, the Arekunas, made us
fix upon this spot for our headquarters during the time
we should remain in the neighbourhood of the Roraima,
which was now rising in its full majesty at a distance
of only a few miles to the north-east. We had chosen a
picturesque spot. On the left bank of the Kukenaam,
which winds here through innumerable quartz and jasper
boulders, the mountain savannah rose destitute of every
trace of tree or shrub, and to the N.N.E. the red walls of
the Roraima and Kukenaam were almost perpetually
shrouded in a thick mass of clouds.

As the neighbourhood harbours but few mammals and
birds, and as the mountain rivers contain also but few and
small fishes, of the size of a finger and belonging chiefly
to the family of the siluri, the Arekunas depend almost
exclusively on vegetable food.

In spite of this, they love their home, and more par-
ticularly the Roraima, with an attachment equalled only
by the passionate love of the Swiss for their Alps.

The Roraima is the subjeét of all their festive
song. Tell them about the beauties of Pirara with its
vast savannahs, its numerous herds of cattle, its deer;
about the enormous fish in its rivers, the abundance of
food, and they will answer you: ‘‘It cannot be a

* Reisen in Britisch-Guiana, Vol. ii. Chapter 7, (part only).

298 TIMEHRI,

beautiful country because there is no Roraima.”’ Every
morning and evening, when old and young, headed
by their chief KAIKURANG, passed by our huts with
the ‘“ Bakong baimong’’ (good day), or “ Saponteng”’
(good night), they never failed to add the words:
“ Matti Roraima-tau, Roraima-tau” (look at our Ro-
raima), pronouncing the word faz very slowly and
solemnly.

The climate and the atmospheric conditions of our
settlement were far from having our approval. ‘ Our
Village” as we had named the six little huts forming
our headquarters, lay in 4° 57° of northern latitude and
61° 1° of western longitude, about 3,300 feet above the
level of the sea.

In the morning between 4 and 5 o'clock, the ther-
mometer only once or twice went up to 58°; at noon
in the shade to 87° and in the sun rarely higher than
100° Fahrenheit. Besides these differences of temper-
ature there were almost continual changes of light and
shade, fog, rain and sunshine. Before sunrise and until
about half an hour afterwards, the sky, except for a few
transparent cloudlets, kept absolutely clear. The mighty
mountain giant Roraima was then unveiled and stood
out with its straight lined contours against the blue sky.
But soon the mist began to rise from the plains and
valleys, and quickly spreading in all dire€tions it
was lifted by a sudden gust of wind into the upper
regions, from whence it returned in violent showers to
the ground. Then there followed in quick succession
short periods of bright clear sunshine, the sun warming
for a minute the atmosphere previously cooled by the
rain, and then hiding again behind heavy storm clouds.

SCHOMBURGK’S ACCOUNT OF RORAIMA. 299

Sometimes the rising mist would spread over only small
distri€ts, the Roraima for instance getting enveloped in
a thick layer of clouds, while the bronze coloured rocks
of the neighbouring Kukenaam were refleéting the bright
rays of the sun, or these huge blocks of sandstone lay
hidden in a gloomy ocean of mist while their steep red
summits were lit up by glaring sunlight.

In an equally abrupt manner the air currents used to
change. Only this minute all nature might seem at
peace. Not a breath of wind wasstirring. I was busily
profiting by the bright quiet moments to dry my damp
blotting paper for the herbarium, including advertise-
ment sheets of the London 7zmes, of which I had bought
up a stock in London for drying my plants, when a
sudden whirlwind carried them up by a spiral motion,
driving them off for miles and miles, amid the delighted
shouts of the Indians but to my own bitter mortifi-
cation. Many times on our excursions we encountered
them again streaming in the wind among the branches of
the trees or lying on the ground. Ata height of 4,000
feet when ascending the Roraima, I| still met some of
them drifting towards me before the wind.* Amidst
continual changes the day advanced to three o’clock in
the afternoon. Then almost regularly a wild thunder-
storm came on, accompanied by a violent downpour of rain.
If this finale was delayed until 5 o’clock in the afternoon
it was sure not to occur. The storm discharged itself
amidst frightful thunderings and once more the setting
sun poured his magic light on the red walls of Roraima
and Kukenaam, while the silvery gleam of the foaming

+ What became of tome of these sheets is told by Appun (See
Timehri 1893, Pp. 342).

300 TIMEHRI.

cascades and cataraéts, swollen by the preceding rains,
rushed down from the glistening summit to afford
an exquisite contrast. I mentioned already that the
annual rainfall on the coast and in the savannahs amounts
to about 100 inches; here it is surpassed by far, and
well may the Indians call the Roraima the fruitful
mother of rivers.

However anxious we were to ascend the Roraima, we
had to delay this until our ambassador to the Seekongs
should come back, as according to the Indians we should
find neither fruit nor game to appease our hunger
on the way. Meanwhile I took some rambles through
the surrounding country in order to explore its fauna
and flora. The former proved scanty enough, as
the whole of the neighbourhood was just as devoid
of mammalia and birds as the mountain traéts which we
had just past. I was however richly repaid by the
abundant vegetation which prevails here. The mountain
slopes—the banks of the river and streams—the woody
oases—displayed such a wealth of forms, species and
families, as never before had met my eyes. This fer-
tility of the soil rendered the scarcity of animals the
more striking. Now and then we met a stray Aguti,
rarer still a Laba or a flock of the before mentioned
Mycetes and of a species of Cebus. Then there was
a certain ratlike animal which later on was brought us
alive and which we took to be Cavia leucopygia. Occa-
sionally we met an Ant-eater (Myrmecophaga trid-
a€tyla) or a Nasua. Of birds we met Penelope, rarely
Rhamphastos and more frequently Euphone, Tanagra,
Pipra, and Neétarinia, among which.the pretty Tanagra
puntata, spotted green and black, the seven-coloured

SCHOMBURGK’S ACCOUNT OF RORAIMA. 301

speckled Tanagra tatao, and the pink-headed Pipra
cornuta and serena were conspicuous.

The large owl (Strix torquata,) and one Ralle
(Crex Schomburgkii) of the size of a sparrow, were
the only representatives of the higher classes of animals.
The latter, a new species, was always to be found in
pairs. Its forehead is red like iron rust, its wings dark
brown, the upper side of its body shows small white
specks beginning at the back of its head in closely
crowded tiny dots, increasing in size and spreading over
the whole of its back and wings. Its throat is white, the
breast the colour of iron rust, the abdomen whitish, and
the feet have a yellowish colouring. The pretty little
creatures are very easily caught, as their flying capacities
only carry them a little distance and they consequently
try to hide in the grass. I managed to keep a cock and
hen for a pretty long time in a cage, but the cock
escaped one day, and the hen died of grief the day
after.

The numbers of berry bearing trees, especially of the
family of Laurinez and Sapindacez which are to be found
here may account for the presence of Penelope. The
Penelope is an exceedingly cautious and shy bird, the
only chance for getting a shot at it being when it teeds,
during which time from 6 to 10 birds always colle&t on
one tree. If you come upon them under such circum-
stances you may succeed in killing 3 or 4 of them before
the other birds notice it and take to flight. The bird
that has been hit by the noiseless little arrow drops
from the tree without its companions allowing them-
selves to be disturbed in their feast beyond looking after
it with outstretched necks to inquire timidly the cause

QQ

302 TIMEHRI.

of its disappearance. Should they find this out they
hasten with uncommon swiftness from one branch to the
other towards the thick foliage of the tree-tops, either to
hide there or to fly from thence to the next tree and so
on, They build their nests on the ground, but as soon
as their young ones have acquired some skill in using
their wings they lead them from one bush to the other
until they can reach the branches of a tree. Except
at daybreak their strange rattling voice is never heard.
The flesh of the older birds is edible only if they
have been killed by a poisoned arrow dipped in Urari,
which poison renders the otherwise tough flesh perfeétly
tender.

The entire absence of beasts of prey in the high
regions inhabited by the Arekunas may account for their
using only the blowpipe for shooting purposes, which
weapon they handle in such a masterly way as to hit
theic mark at a height from 150 to 180 feet. I already
mentioned that the Indian prefers increasing his stock of
domestic animals by getting them-when very young and
when sucklings, and handing them over to the maternal
cares of his wife. I here witnessed in what manner the
Arekunas proceed to tame an old stubborn monkey. If
they wish to take one of these animals alive they cover
the arrows with diluted poison, which only stupefies the
monkey. If in this condition the monkey drops from
the tree they immediately suck his wound, bury him up
to his throat into the ground, and make him swallow a
strong solution of nitrous earth, or if this is not at hand
sugar or cane juice. As soon as the patient has half
recovered his senses, he is taken out of his temporary
grave and is tightly bound up in palm leaves after the

SCHOMBURGK’S ACCOUNT OF RORAIMA. 303

manner of swaddling clothes ; every movement is made
impossible to him. In this strait waistcoat he remains
for some days; he is made to drink cane juice, and eat
meats cooked in nitrous solution and highly seasoned
with capsicum. This drastic treatment still failing in
its effect, the unruly patient is at every outbreak of his
wild fury hung up for a short time above a smoky fire.
Very soon his frenzied rage will soften, his éyes, which
shot malicious venom only a few minutes ago, become mild
and humbly pray for deliverance. His fetters are now
loosened, all memory of bygone times is gone, and the
greyest and morosest of monkeys becomes as tame as if
he had never frolicked about in the forest. According
to Professor PoppPiG the same proceeding is used by the
Indians on the banks of the Huallaga, whenever they
want to tame a monkey.

Of the above mentioned cavia, (C, leucopygia) we
often had from 6 to 8 live specimens brought to us
without our ever succeeding in keeping one of them
alive, which seems to confirm the opinions of the
Indians that they cannot be tamed. Though we
had sometimes as many as ten or twelve, not one of
them would be alive after the second or third day of
their imprisonment, They live in caves, from out of
which they are swamped with water and easily caught.
They have a dark grey skin, rather whitish on the
abdomen. Their forelegs are very short, only 3 inches
long, the hindlegs somewhat longer. The female has
only two nipples close to the fanks. ‘Their silky coat is
so delicately fixed to the skin that even the softest touch
removes it, leaving a bare spot.

The scarcity of fish in the rivers [ have already men-

QQ2

304 TIMEHRI.

tioned; the number of snakes in the valleys and on the
river-banks was all the greater. Rattle snakes from 4 to
6 feet in length were brought to me. On one of our
botanical excursions I myself came into conta&t with a
huge Coulacanara (Boa constriێtor), an encounter which
might have led to most unpleasant consequences for
myself but for the quick eye of my young companion,
the Macusi MISSEGARAI, who noticed the animal. before
my touching it, as it lay entwined in a dense thicket of
ferns (Mertensia) which enclosed the outskirts of a
woody oasis, along which we were walking. The noise
of our steps may have roused its attention, for with its
head lifted above the thicket, it had very likely stared at
us already for some minutes before MISSEGARAI noticed
it and called my attention. Had I seen the objeé
before, I should very likely have taken it for the end
of an outstretching thin branch, We were without any
weapons, and our village was too far away to enable us
to fetch them from thence before sunset. In spite of
MISSEGARAI’S fright and representations, as well as of
the repulsion evidenced by our dog, I quickly made
up my mind to at least make an attempt to kill the
animal. A heavy club was soon found with which to
begin the attack, MISSEGARAI seeing that no praying
of his could detain me from the attempt withdrew
from the supposed scene of combat. His dog followed
him, his tail between his legs, and, sitting down
beside him, he followed all my movements with the same
intense watchfulness as that of his master. As yet the
serpent kept its head immovable above the thicket. I
cautiously drew near in order to reach it with my weapon
and to disable it with one well aimed blow; but in the

SCHOMBURGK’S ACCOUNT OF RORAIMA. 305

very moment | raised my arm to do so, the animal dis-
appeared beneath the green cover, and from the singular
quick motion of the fern fronds I perceived that it
was taking to flight. The close thicket prevented my
getting near, but the motion of the leaves betrayed
the direction which the animal had taken. It soon came
towards the outskirt again close to which I hastened
along keeping in the same line with it. All of a sudden
the waving movement of the ferns stopped and the
snake’s head peeped through the leafy screen, probably
to look out for its persecutor. <A lucky blow hit it so
hard that it fell back stunned, and before it had recovered
several vigorous blows had already succeeded the first.
Like a bird of prey I now flew at my victim, knelt down
upon it and strangled it with both hands. When
MISSEGARAI saw the real danger over, he hastened up
on my calling out for him, loosened one of my braces,
and laying a loop round the neck above my hands he
‘pulled at it with all his might. The dense thicket hindered
the animal considerably in its movements making it all
the easier for us to master it. Only after we had finally
succeeded in dragging it into the open space did I
become aware with what a monster I had been fighting.
The serpent measured twelve feet and a quarter long
and was of an enormous strength. Though I have met
with the Boa murina up to a length of twenty feet I have
never found it of such enormous strength as the Boa
constrictor of a length of from eight to ten feet. With
the greatest difficulty, and with infinite precaution so as
not to injure the skin, we dragged the animal to the
village, which we reached, wet with perspiration. It had
got too late already to skin it the same day, I therefore left

306 TIMEHRI.

this work for the following. Having experienced already
something of the indomitable vitality of snakes, I had
become careful, and substituting the braces by a stronger
sling, I fastened this latter to the doorpost.

Loud screams and uproarious laughter awakened me
next morning ; at the same time I heard a strange and
loud hissing. I hastily jumped from my hammock and
stepped outside the door. The snake had actually recov-
ered and was now working with all its might to get loose
from its fetters. A whole crowd of Indians had gathered
round and were trying to provoke it into even greater
rage. With its mouth open it emitted its unceasing sounds
resembling the hissing of geese, its eyes looking all the
time as if they were trying to force themselves out of
their sockets. Its tongue was in uninterrupted motion.
To put an end to its exertions, I shot it through the head,
but unfortunately lost its lovely skin later on,

Among the inseéts we were particularly interested in
the innumerable cicadas, which punétually every day at
noon and again at 6 o’clock in the evening carried on
their shrill concert. A choir of a thousand voices then
filled the bushes, shrubs and trees, having however little
charm for the listener. Simultaneously with the evening
concert a bird, which I however never got tu see in spite
of all my efforts, uttered a shrill, whistling sound, resem-
bling mostly the whistling of an engine. These animals
commence their notes with the punétuality of a watch;
the beginning of the concert varying only about two or
three minutes at the most. Other animals again raised
their voices at other definite hours, which enabled one
even without a watch and without the sun being visible,
to determine the time of the day. In the same way the

SCHOMBURGK’S ACCOUNT OF RORAIMA. 307

parrots announce the break of day by their hoarse cries,
for every morning at the same hour they move from the
upper woods to the lower places, and after having spent
the day there they return just as regularly and as punc-
tuallv to their roosting places a short time before sunset.
LINNE suggested a floral clock, but the tropics possess an
animal clock of far greater precision and reliability.
Among the inseéts the curicus Prionus cervicornus and
a number of fine Buprestes occurred.

The scantier my zoological collection proved to be,
the richer I found the flora. On the heights of the
neighbouring mountain, the rivulets were mostly covered
with the most charming floral specimens. Their summits
and slopes displayed throughout a many-coloured sand-
stone of very brittle substance, ranged partly in hori-
zontal layers, some having an inclination from South to
East. In the riversheds also horizontal layers of a
gravel-like, firm red sandstone occurred, underlying a
mass of jasper pebbles of all sizes and colours ; even the
red jasper which I had seen on the Rué-imeru fall was
among them. I counted seven different colours, besides
a beautiful kind with variegated bands, the colouring of
which is exaétly the same as the Siberian jasper, in
consequence of which it was taken for the latter on our
return back. In the savannah stray pieces of a green
jasper as big as the fist were lying about which were
used as flint by the Indians and eagerly gathered by the
Macusis. The savannah itself was crossed by wide
layers of clay with a rich admixture of gravel earth, jasper
and feldspath.

_ The abundant and fairy-land like wealth of vegetation
and the wildly romantic mountain masses, often formed

308 TIMEHRI.

valleys of such bewitching loveliness that even the
Indians, otherwise little susceptible to the beauties of
nature, stood in speechless admiration. The discovery
of more of these little paradises used to form the greatest
treats in my botanical excursions. I shall never forget
the magic surprise which I had one day while botanising
at the wood clad foot of the Erematuri, when I found
myself unexpeétedly at the mouth of a narrow ravine
down which a small mountain brook hastened to the
Kukenaam, forming a hundred cascades in its mad course.
In the river beds as well as on either side of the preci-
pices bordering the valley, huge strata of a deep red
sandstone stood out, now forming perpendicular walls.
now terrace-like landings filled with high reeds, luxuri-
ous groups of bamboo and tree-ferns, with innumerable
slender palms raising their lofty crowns above them or
drooping over the roaring waters. ‘The single bolders
which rose above the river’s bed were thickly overgrown
with mosses, small delicate ferns and jungermannias, while
from the walls of the recky heights, treelike ferns
(Dicksonia, Cyathea and Alsophila) overhung the ravine
in all possible kinds of angles, forming the most exquisite
roof of foliage which fancy could create. Through the
mysterious darkness—for the rays of the sun tried in
vain to penetrate this luxurious vegetation and to refle&
in the cool brook —the crystalline waters were sparkling,
roaring and splashing with bewitching voices, until,
having reached the valley of the Kukenaam they still
and speechless met their doom. Gigantic trees crowned
the summit of the ravine with their tall, smooth and
stately crested stems. On entering this lovely place, I
was seized with the same awe and calm repose which

SCHOMBURGK’S ACCOUNT OF RORAIMA. o
399

comes over one on entering a venerable old Gothic
Cathedral.

A tew days before starting for the Roraima the Indians,
whom we had sent to fetch our luggage from the Torong-
Yawise and who were to take it to the Roraima, arrived
and were richly paid for their honesty and for the services
which they had rendered us. They were sent back to
their settlement on the following morning. If they had
furnished us with a new proof of the faultless probity
and honesty of the Incians, we were to experience during
the following days also the extremely delicate and sus-
ceptible sense of honour among these children of nature.
Among our Macusis there were three inhabitants of
Nappi, who at every opportunity that offered itself
managed to withdraw themselves from their work,
and had already got several reprimands in consequence.
This day all hands were required in order to complete the
necessary preparations. Everybody came hurrying up and
set vigorously to work, only three lazy ones remaining
quietly in their hammocks, My brother sent for them,
but all in vain. He next went himself to urge them on
to assist in the work, but even this had no effe&t beyond
their shaking their heads and remaining quietly in their
hammocks. Indignant at their conduét, and remem-
bering the excellent effect of a similar coup de main
against the laziness of his atteadants on his first journey,
my brother quietly cut through the ropes with which
the hammocks were fastened to the trees, which
of course brought the lazy ones quickly to the ground
and on to their feet. Quietly, and hiding their anger
perfeétly, they now set to work and did their duty
without grumbling—but on the next morning they had

RR

310 TIMEHRI.

vanished without leavingatrace. Their dignity had been
deeply wounded. Without food, and without having
as yet received the slightest reward for their previous
services, they had started back for Mappi during the
night ; they rather chose to suffer hunger, privation and
trouble than to live any longer with him who had ren-
dered them ridiculous.

The following day brought us the long expeéted arrival
of our Serekongs. Headed by their chief, a venerable old
man with long snow white hair, they entered our village.
Curiosity had driven the hoary chieftain to undertake
the long and troublesome journey in order to see the
Paranaghieris, in spite of his old age, which betrayed
itself especially in his emaciated body and wrinkled
skin, far less so in the faded colour of his hair, for this
sign of old age I had hitherto noticed in but one individual
and a bald head I have never seen even with the
oldest of Indians. The men had tidily combed back
their long hair and plaited it into a long tail, which gave
them an entirely Chinese look. But for this way of
dressing their hair and some strange charaéters which
they had painted on their bodies, they resembled in
physique the Macusis and Arekunas. It was the
same with the women, several of whom had brought
over sick children, which they brought to us soon after
their arrival, so that we might breathe on their faces and
bodies and in this way restore them to health. Curiously
enough, the breath is considered with them as well as
with the Orientals as the emanation of the innermost
faculties of the soul and mind! Our persons, and instru.
ments and tools were, of course, also objeéts of the greatest
astonishment and admiration to them=-more than every-

SCHOMBURGK’S ACCOUNT OF RORAIMA. 311

thing else, our forks. Seeing us eating with them, they
burst into loud derisive laughter, shaking their heads
sarcastically and pointing to their fingers, which evidently
they considered the most unsurpassable forks. As great
as our expeétations with regard to the provisions which
they were supposed to bring along, had been, as sorely
were we disappointed and we had therefore to start as
early as possible for the Roraima.

Accompanied by some twenty Indians we started at
daybreak on the 17th of November, in the best of spirits
and full of excited expeCtations as to the events of the
coming days, not thinking that the first day of our
journey would be saddened in so mournful a way.
We began by cutting through the magnificently wooded
oasis bordering the western banks of the Kukenaam,
which here forms a grand and pi¢turesqve waterfall
of several cascades tumbling down with a thundering
noise. A _ projeéting height hiding the actual base
of the Roraima lay in front, and above this arose the
gigantic walls of the latter and of the Kukenaam,
shining to-day in the bright morning sun without any
trace of fog. To the North-West the Murre rushed
over a mighty sandstone wall into the Kukenaam, over-
hanging which was an exquisite Leguminosz in full bloom.
Before crossing the Murre, the Indians drew our atten-
tion to a big sandstone block with hieroglyphics; on its
surface we noticed several carved lines, about an eighth
of an inch deep, looking just as if somebody had passed
with both hands in a curvelike direétion over the stone,
leaving the impression behind. When MAKUNAIMA
still walked on the earth, he passed by this spot and left
this sign of his presence to the coming generations,

RR 2

312 TIMEHRI.

Having asked one of our companions who this MAKu-
NAIMA was, he answered without any hesitation “ JESUS
CHRIST.”

After we had crossed the Murre we took a north-
westerly dire€tion through an undulating savannah. Here
we encountered another small river about ten feet across
which also hastened towards the Kukenaam. A big sand-
stone bolder lying in the middle of the river bed was
already serving the foremost Indians as a crossing;
they jumped from one side of the river on to it
and then to the opposite bank, a manceuvre which all
the rest imitated. I was the sixteenth in the line. Close
behind me came the young Indian woman KATE, who
shortly before our departure had been married, and who on
account of her brightness, and her saucy engaging ways,
qualities which are very rarely met with among the fair
sex of the Indians, had been permitted to follow her
husband, She had become everybody’s pet. When 1
had got to the river, some ‘“‘ Schultsias,” which were
fringing the bank, attra€ted my attention, and in order
to convince myself whether I had gathered them already
I stopped a minute before getting ready for my jump,
while KATE a little impatiently urged me on, laughing
and saying that I must not detain everybody else for a
little flower. Laughingly I took my start and jumped
on to the boulder. Iwas just going to make the second
jump when a heart-rending piercing scream from KATE
stopped me and the Indian immediately following her,
AWACAIPI, jumped the whole river uttering the frightened
shout ‘ Akuy, Akuy,”’ (poisonous snake.) This bap-
pened the moment I turned round, for KATE was
standing deathly pale on the boulder beside me and

SCHOMBURGK’S ACCOUNT OF RORAIMA. 313

pointing likewise to the bank we had just left, uttering
the same cry: “ Akuy.” Greatly alarmed I asked her
whether she had been bitten, when the poor girl broke
into bitter tears and at the same instant I noticed some
drops of blood trickling from her knee. Only a poisonous
snake could have caused a similar wound and only the
speediest help could save the life of our pet. Unfortu-
nately, Mr. FRYER and my brother were the last, and the
Indian carrying the medicine chest with the lancets
the first in our long line. For want of a better ban-
dage, I immediately unstrapped one of my braces and
tied it as firmly as possible round her knee just above
the wound, making the Indians suck out the latter at
once. I believe the poor woman did not even know at
first that she had been bitten, though the snake had
twice darted for her, biting her once above and once
below the broad bead-strings which she had twisted
round her leg. Our commotion had called the atten-
tion of the others and among these also that of KATE’S
husband, upon which they came hurrying on. Deeply
moved as he was by the sight of his beloved wife, he yet
managed to overcome his feelings, and throwing himself
down by her side, began to suck her wounds. Mean-
while also my brother and Mr. FRYER as well as the
Indian with the medicine chest had arrived. Mr. FRYER
scarified the wounds, and, crouching upon their heels, *
the rest of the Indians to all appearance indifferently
looked on, taking each of them their turn in sucking
out the blood from the wounds, The circle of these
unsympathetic faces with their bloody lips looked some-
thing ghastly. Though we instantaneously applied spirits
of ammonia externally as well as internally all our

314 TIMEHRI.

efforts proved useless ;—at the end of three minutes the
normal symptoms of poisoning appeared, the whole body
was shaken with violent trembling ; her face grew more
and more livid and corpselike. Soon cold perspiration set
in all over her body, the poor woman complained
of violent pain all along the side of the bitten leg, in her
back and about the heart, while the wound itself seemed
to remain free from pain. She could no more freely
move her foot ; convulsive retching set in next, which soon
turned to blood-vomiting; her eyes became bloodshot
and blood flowed from her nose and ears. Her pulse
beat 120 to 130 ina minute. At the end of eight min-
utes our darling could no more be recognised in this
picture of human suffering. Already at the begin-
ning of the blood-vomiting she had lost her speech.
Meanwhile the snake which the Indians had found
lying a few inches off the road had been killed by
them. Perhaps in jumping from the bank to the boulder I
had touched the animal, which then darted for poor KATE
who followed close behind me, unless she had touched
it herself. When the Indians found it, the snake had
already coiled up ina spiral, its head lifted up and threat-
ening a new attack, a sufficient refutation to the state-
ment that they take to flight after each bite: It wasa
specimen of the highly dangerous Trigonocephalus atrox,
which had just thrown off its skin, during which time all
poisonous snakes are considered more dangerous than
under ordinary circumstances. The Indians called it
Sororaima. Fourteen Indians and Mr. GOODALL had
already passed it by without noticing or without stepping
on it. KATE became the viétim. The unfortunate
woman, already in a state of unconsciousness, was carried

SCHOMBURGK’S ACCOUNT OF RORAIMA. 315

in her hammock back to her village, which only in the
morning she had left in such a gay and happy mood.
Accompanied by Mr, FRYER and her husband, who still
exerted ail his fortitude of soul to hide his sorrow, the
procession moved towards our village. The look which
we had thrown upon the unconscious sufferer before she
parted would be the last we knew.

In what kind of a mood we continued our journey,
especially I who still considered myself the innocent
cause of the accident, is better felt than said. A long
time passed before any sound was to be heard from
among our silent column. Even the Indians could not
give room to any other thought but about what they had
just lived to see.

Four Old Letters from Demerara.

HE writer of the following letters was WILLIAM

PARKINSON, owner of Pln. Grove, Mahaica,
ws and his correspondent in Boston, GARDINER
GREENE, whose name is perpetuated in Greenfield in
the same district. They were written at two very critical
periods in the history of Demerara and are well worth
preserving. We have to thank Mr. JOHN PARKINSON
of Boston for the loan of the original letters :—

Dear GREENE,—I wrote you on the 14th August and
sent duplicates » different opportunities vza Barbados.—
Nothing very interesting has happened since, in our
political way remaining mucn as you left us, we arelooking
out every Day for Colonel KINGSTON who is appointed
our Governour.—We have vessels in plenty to take in
Freight, but the inhabitants still as backward in ship-
ping.—Little or any provisions have arrived here since
you left Barbados, and begin to be very scarce, the Bar-
bados Merchants make a fine Hand of it in draining
their stores of the relicks of their old Goods, by the
demand here, they also do very well by selling their
worst worthless lazy Negroes, not above 300 New ones
has been yet exported from there, owing to a scarcity,
otherwise the great Prices would well induce them.—
Produce remains as you left us, Sugar 3 st, Coffi, 4 st,
Cotton 14 st, Rum 16 @ 18 st.—I have made another
purchase of CLEMENT and RICHES of 50 or 60 Hhds.
fish, which expeét to turn out something handsome by,
but am very sorry to tell you the poor Betsey loaded w*.
9 Hhds. of it, 4 Boxes Candles and about 750 (Ibs.) Rope

Four OLD LETTERS FROM DEMERARA. 317

was knocked in a 1,000 pieces on the Sugar Bank by
our infernal stupid Negroes. I dispatched them away
before one, last Tuesday afternoon w. sufficient Day-
light to get over the Banks and went after them in C’.
w. P. & B. When I got to the Philadelphia found
they were not there; and soon after came the Gentle-
men in ye canoe, w. an Acct. of their leaving ye Boat
full of water—The next morning before Daylight, Mr.
BUCKLEY and JOHN HOOD, not calling me, went and
found the stem and stern sticking in the Bank w". a few
pieces plank and Floor Timbers to the Keil. They saved
abt. 700 Ibs. Rope, the Mast, Boom and Mainsail ; have
since found a Box Candles.—I shall endeavour to save
the Keil, Stem and Stern, and get a new Befsey rebuilt’
a little wider and deeper.—Take the misfortune as easy
as I do and it will not occasion a Grey Hair more among
your sage locks.—I have some little Expectation of getting
by the by asraall nice Schooner of ourfriend WINTHUYSEN,
and am offe-ed by Mr. M. DALY, the loan of his boat
awhile so liope not to suffer for want of a craft,
besides am sure of BUCKLEY’S & ROGER’S, both which
expeét in to-day.—I wrote Messrs. LAWSON & FRASER
the 15th ultc. acquainting them Mr. M. DALy told me
he had shipd. 20,000 Ibs. Coffi y Capt. TOURNAY and had
wrote them twice to make Insurance on it and requested
me to mention it again to them.—you’ll find that there
are shipd. in Capt. FORTUNE 28 Baggs Coffi forthe £100
stg. desired, insured the 14th Augt., which I recd. of the
Est. of PH. 3ROTHERSON, decd., and am taking up some
Debts in Rum and Sugar to the Amount.—The Purchases
I make afor! a good profitt, the 7 st on the Ib. Sugar and
2 st y Gal. Rum.—I should not tell you myself but I
SS

318 TIMEHRI.

think I am more industrious than before your depar-
ture.—However be (that) as it may you may rely on my
assiduity on every Occasion. Capt. THOMSON, who is
to convoy Capt. FORTUNE, ye ag/e and other Vessels
from here, has not given out when he will sail, but as
we suppose it will be on very short Intelligence have
therefore closed my Letters of this date to LANE, SON
and FRASER, to go by them, and left them w”. Mr. J. B.
asam going to Essequebo, but expeét still to write
further by them, as suppose they’ll not be sailed before
I return in a Day or two, vza Barbados—under cover to
to our Friend J. H, All our Friends here and in the
other River are well in ye old way, our Worthy Friend,
Mr. Rotu, died about 10 days agoe greatly regretted
by his Family and acquaintances, I wish you the
greatest Happiness, and believe me D'. GREENE, Yours,
WM. PARKINSON.
Rio Demerary, the rst O&r., 1781.
(Copy vza Barbades.)

Demerary, the 18th May 1795:

Dear GREENE,—It is possible you are now arrived and
happy among your Friends in Boston, however a few
Days more may bring about that desirable Point.—And
you will be impatiently waiting, I make no doubt, to hear
how your Friends are here, and know the Events that
may have taken place-—We were after you left us all
quiet, and in anxious Expeétation of the arrival of the
Dutch Commissioners that were spoke off, and we had
afterwards official Dispatches to our Governour va
Surinam that they certainly were dispatched over France,
on the 3rd Inst. After those Dispatches, an English

Four OLD LETTERS FROM DEMERARA. — 319

sloop (of) war, the Zebra, appeared of here and imme-
diately sent her Boat w*. an officer to ye River; after
delivering to the Governour his dispatches the Court of
Policy was immediately convok’d for the purpose of
deliberating on them, which consisted in a Letter from
the Commanders in Chief at Martinique, VAUGN and
CALDWELL, to GROVESTYNS, informing him (¢hat) in
consequence of Directions from Ministry at home they
sent to inform the Governour how that Troops were ex-
pe&ted momently out and 600 would be sent over here for
the purpose of taking over the Colony for the Prince of
Orange, and to know where (whether) the(y) might be
received.

The Court judiciously pay’d no attention to the Mis-
sion; there accompany’d the Dispatches a Letter from
the Prince of Orange to the Governour requesting him
to give over the Colony, when the English should send.—
The Governour however in ye mean time, tho’t it
best to take himself off clandestinely on board the Zebra
the 5 of May, and went off w’. her, sending letters from
on board, by the return of the Pilot Boat he went off in,
to the Court of Policy, that he found after his going on
board the vessel, from urgent Buisness, He was under
the Needcessity of going with her, and recommending
the care and welfare of the Colony to them in his
absence.

Ten days had only elapsed when the Burgers of
of Stabroek began to make a stirr about the situation
the colony was left in, and took on themselves by a
pretty general Eleétion to choose four Representa-
tives, w". a Secretary, and lay’d down certain points of
consideration and imediately communicated them to the

SS 2

320 TIMEHRI.

Captains of the different Divisions, requesting their co-
operating with them in a like Eleétion for each Quarter,
and the representatives to meet in Stabroek 8 days after
that, for the purpose of taking in considzration what
plan was requisite for the condu€ting the Business of the
Colony. Those steps —laying aside some restlessspirits—
might have been a great deal owing to the tardiness of
the Court of Policy, not stepping forth imediately, but
as such self created Societys are mostly attended
w". and cause evil minded People to be busy; who
should at this time step forth a Candidate for the Govern-
ment but HENNING the Cobler, a/zas Baron STRAP, and
began to hold up Guillotines, the Lanthorn Posts to be
without Exception ornamented as Gallows Posts ; Conk-
ling among the coloured people, &c.; he had got for his
Secretary the little limping Fellow called STYLE, whom
you may have seen w®. VLUSHOUWN as clerk, and
assisted by a Blacksmith and a Taylor; and God knows
what might have been the End of it, if Mr. FILEEN (who
was luckily chosen as one of ye Stabroek Representa-
tives, w". OUCKAMA, Doctr. VAN DURA and DUHART)
had not taken notice of the Frenzy of the Cobler, and
immediately summoned a Dozen of his Militia, and
took into custody the four culprits, and put them in the
Guard House, and next day it was tho’t proper to con-
dué& them to the Fort, where they still are. It was high
time for our Court of Policy now to do something and
after a short session and opening Letters, some time past
arrived, in case of the Death or Absence of our Gover-
nour, found in No. 1, A. BACKER to succeed, and No. 2
in case he A. B., was not here, the Government then to
devolve to A. BEAUJON, which he refused accepting off ;

Four OLD LETTERS FROM DEMERARA. — 321
EN a SRE TD EI ACIS oc
they got however Ad. Int. Commandeur PLETTNER to
take the seat; They thought it now best to convoke both
Courts, which was the 12th Inst., the Kiesheers ye same
Dey met for the purpose of choosing two members for
the Court of Policy in place of the Governor and Fiscal,
as WOLF was deemed not fitt, BRETON and DE MELLET
turn’d up (that necessary Policy), The Serious Buisness
of the Cobler was now a chief obje&t in view, a new
Fiscal was requisite which office Mr. HEYLIGER was
prevailed on to accept Ad. Int., so that he is now in-
vestigating that Plott. It was tho’t best, and in order
to undeceive the Stabroek Representatives, that the
Burger Captains should call together all the Inhabitants
in their different Quarters and they have unanimously
in each approved of ye present form of Government
without any Innovation, ¢o¢ tyd en wyl; and I have the
satisfa€tion to inform you that the time of my C......p
being at last expired I yesterday humbly lay’d my resigna-
tion at the feet of the Bench, as doth confrater GRAVES-
ANDE (and he has sold your Joulter again after one
ride), there is a new member chosen in place of BRETON
but have not heard as yet who. So far for Politicks,
and we are even till now longing for ye arrival of our
natural Prote€tors, and it seems the unanimous wish that
none others should come.—I have the pleasure of saying
we are all pretty well at the Grove.—POLLY has been
very Poorly, caused by what we had been some time
dreading; she grows better as fast as can be expeéted.
We have been lucky yet in having abundant opportunitys
over from B’dos to take our C. (Cotton) away; 17 of
yours went ye other Day and I expeét to send 13 to
morrow by the //ary, the prices have been favorable as

322 TIMEHRI.

you will see by some Copys of Letters I have inclosed
you, since sales at 2/, it is again dull no vessels being
there now; it has bro’t me into a disagreeable Predica-
ment as I have now 62 there and going there, already
ship’d, and fear C. and I. will not remitt 1. HOWLAND a
Bill for £260 to meet a Bill of mine on I. H,, ye 18
April, fav. THos. LONG for £320 3 10, 60 Days sight,
which I suppose LONG took w’”. him, he sailed last
Thursday in Cordelia (?)—if you will drop a line for me
to I. H. I will thank you—I have ordered P. and I, to
send ye 2d, 3d, and 4th Bills here that I may forward.—
THOMAS began to trim a few Days ago—and ail goes on
well at Greenfield—Mr. HUBBARD is now shipping from
Saratoga for Boston.—DANIEL T. says you did not under-
stand him as he only promised 5 more Bales, to make
up 15:—have not got ye 5 yet.— Our worthy Friend Mr.
CAMPBELL was buryed on Friday.—Mr. Bro. has del’d
over Eliz. Hall to the widdow, they are quite distant.—
She has appointed 1. HOPKINSON and Mr. HEYLIGER—
Mr. B. stays now w". Mr. JONEs till his House is ready
on ye Pear/—your old Neighbour PENDERGRASS has
made his Exit, you are nominated, ye other Execu-
tors decline also—they are by ye will in that case
to nominate other Executors.—Hatch picks slowly
I believe he has not 20 Bs. ready, when they are shall
send them on to you.—I will conclude wishing you and
yours, with much good will every Blessing.—Our Dear
Girls JANE and ANN I send my love to and hope they
will be good Girls, also my Cousin BETSY PATTERSON,
with best respeéts to Mr. HUBBARD and Family,—Dear
GREENE: I am Ever yours,
_ W. PARKINSON.

Four OLD LETTERS FROM DEMERARA. = 323

Rio Demerary, 28 July, 1795.
GARDINER GREENE, Esq.,
Boston.

DEAR GREENE,—We are now expe¢ting anxiously to
hear from you, and may the welcome news soon reach
us—my last was on ye 3d Inst., before that I wrote you
of ye 18 May and 15 June, since which time it has been
very unpleasant here, owing to the bush Negroes, who
have been more troublesome and have been join‘d by
some delinquents from some Estates. Altho’ it’s very
painful intelligence to give you, I think it best, as you
will ere the receipt of this perhaps have very unfavourable
accounts circulated ; and indeed my feelings before this
would not allow me to inform you by a New London
vessel, which if this fails meeting it will be sent vza
Barbados. I think it was on the 4th Inst., about g at
night —a Post of a few soldiers stationed at St. Felix’s
in ye canal was attacked, it was supposed by a number
of above 100 of ye runaways, they were however obliged
to fly w*. ye loss of two or three who were drop’d; the
revolters discharged near 50 Shott it is said. You will
say how is it possible for them to have armed themselves,
DE MELLET bro’t some Indians early next morning, and
by scouring the Fields and contiguous Bush took up a
few. Only a few nights after that poor I. CLARKE (of
Windsor Forest) next to Mr. WATERTON’S (La Falousie)
fell a viétim, with two or three other whites on the
estate, and every Building on the Estate (was) burnt to
the Ground. This however has been laid to the Driver
of the next Estate, Ruymazigt, and a House Negroe of
CLARKE’S own, who have been since, with others, exe-
cuted. This caused the Post at the Hague to be

324 TIMEHRI.

stronger man’d and another one to be established at
Waterton’s one at Schuylenburch’s, (Phenix) and
others up the river; immediately on this a part of Ruym-
zigt, Wadler’s, and Harlem Negroes went off and an
attack was made on ye post of a dozen men at Schuy-
lenburch’s, which fail’d w*. a loss on the side of ye
runaways only. The same night they attempted burning
KRAIN’S (Nouvelle Flandres) but were prevented by
his own Negroes, (they) went to CLAy’s, (L’Unton)
which Negroes could not prevent thei- burning ; there
the dwelling house was saved ; every Bu Iding on Roétter-
dam the same night was consumed, aid an attempt at
Harlem but miscarried. CLAY’S negrovs remain trusty,
but all Rotterdam, men, women and children, went of ;
this happened I think a week ago. I: is supposed, as
the whites were so much alarmed and Ic ft those Estat:s,
that (therefore) those depredations and attempts have
taken place, and the cause of (the) Rotterdam negroes
going awav (was) owing to a villain of a driver of Hur-
lem, (who took off some of ye negroes) who told them
they would all be put to death by the Indians, as
no white Person was with them; this may not be so
improbable as severai of (the) Rotterdam negroes have
come in since. No lives have been lost since (ihe
affair), at CLAKKE’S, except t1e poor Cockney sold er
we knew at this Post, who was shott going between soine
of the Posts. You may well suppose how alarmed the
Colony must be at this Crisis. ‘Reinforcements of Indians
were dayly expeéted ; a few soldiers from Berbice have
arrived, and Dispatches sent over land to Surinam for
what assistance can be given from there. In this inter-
mediate time I have not heard of any thing alarming

FouR OLD LETTERS FROM DEMERARA. 325
taken place, the different Posts not being yet a€tive,
expeéting the Reinforcements, and waiting till the bush-
water abates, the back dams as I hear being all ordered
(to be) cut open on Saturday night. A few Prisoners or
Hands are bro’t in now and then, as rewards of 3 and
400f (guilders) is held for a Hand or alive; and dreadful
executions took place on Saturday and Monday. The
Court of Policy have given the command (fo) KOPPIERS,
who has Mr. McCrAGH w*. him to aét on the river side
and canaal, and Mr. DE MELLET on the sea coast, and
has issued out a Publication a few Days ago for the
Inhabitants to send one chosen negroe man to every
fifty, who will go voluntarily to make up a Corps of 100
men, to remain permanent for the Colony, whom on
their good Behaviour are to be freed ; the Colony paying
the value of the negroe, not to exceed f1,000. I have
given two, who went willingly, and on the proposal at
Greenfield, where | assembled them all, several offered,
and AMSTERDAM and MARS were nominated and went
with mine; I suppose by this the Corps is complete
w". uniforms made for them,

In the Quarter of Mr. Tappin, (Mahaica) many
gentlemen offered their Personal Services, and to take
about ro chosen negroes each, in preference to sending
one, which in that Quarter, I found, w’. small Estates,
difficult to raise, being commissioned in TAPPIN’S absence
by Koppiers. Those Gentlemen were all ready in
Boats yesterday at the mouth of Mahika waiting an
answer to a letter to KOPPIERS, to know if their services
would be wanting. It came about noon from Mr.
McCRAGH on behalf of KopprERs ; he said that the plan
of 100 chosen men was by the deliberate Resolution of

4 ili

326 TIMEHRI.

Councill, and must take place. He was very thankful
for the Gentlemen’s spirited offer of personal aid ; and
that any one might bring from one to three negroes as
servants, to be armed and aét in case of need; in conse-
quence this assistance returned. I beleive there are
several volunteers who will be ready to go as soon as
Mr. TAPPIN returns from ye river ; it is pleasing that the
Gentlemen said their People were so ready and willing
to go with them. I suppose a grand attack is soon
meditated on, and I think cannot fail of success ; the
numbers cannot be so great, and their Ammunition must
be spoil’d and expended as it has been found at ye attack
at Mr. SCHUYLENBURCH’S they were obliged to fire
w". clay balls.

Happy my friend ought you to think yourself, that is
now with your dear Family in a Country of Peace and
Quietness, and a wherewithall to make you comfortable.
You may well judge of our Feelings at this critical time—
they may be compared to the Thermometer, rais’d or
depressed as the different reports reach us. I have to
exert myself for my own part and put a good face on it.
I have in view indeed removing my Family to Barbados
so long, in faét, I should be happy they were there, but
the appearance of removing them at the time I| intended
might have been attended w". bad consequences, and
I feel at present easyer than I did, as the flame
that threatened once to spread over that unhappy
coast has stop’d I trust. The s/ague negroes have
been very true and faithfull, and promise to continue
SO. ;

We are all, thank God, in good Health, tho’ low in
spirits as | have said. God help you and yours, and our

Four OLD LETTERS FROM DEMERARA. = 327

Dear Girls (¢o) whom tell as good a story as you can,—
Believe me, yours most sincerely,
Wo. PARKINSON.

Rio Demerary, the 17th Augt., 1795.

Dear GREENE,—I wrote you the 28th ulto., by a
vessel going to New York, which if it reaches you will
not convey the pleasantest Intelligence, as it painted
our situation to have been a short time previous to ye
date of it really dreadfull, and altho’ then not relieved of
anxiety still) we were much easyer than before. The
Bush Negroes I mentioned had burnt three Estates on
the West Coast and had been joined by many fresh
Deserters, particularly ye greatest part of Rotterdam
Negroes, which Estate was one of those burnt, and some
of Harlem, but since that time (say ye 21st ulto) they
have not done any acts of violence. Three days after I
wrote you, the different Partys of Indians, Volunteers
and black Corps, entered the woods by the signal of the
fire of Cannon from the Fort, in tive or six different
Divisions at half past five am. Some of the Partys
came out the same day without success, that under Mr.
KOpPIERS, which included the black Corps and some
Volunteers, entered at ye Hague back Dam, and from a
Diagonal course towards ye river and canal fell in in ye
afternoon at 4 o'clock w’. a Town (of) from Forty to 50
Houses, they found only 2 Negroes in them, one a woman
who had died not long previous to their getting there,
the other a man who had been wounded ; from what they
could learn the Houses had been evacuated that morning ;
they halted there for the night and left it next morning
after destroying all the Buildings, they come out at St.

TT 2

328 TIMEHRI.

Felix’s in ye canal in ye afternoon without meeting
any thing further.—The other partys, the chief one under
Mr. DE MELLET, did not meet with any thing, except a
few Houses; from those circumstances the Banditti
must have moved further towards Essequebo. It appears
strange it being now ten Days since that Expedition
was terminated that we cannot learn where the run-
aways are; there is a report that there came out a party
lately at Jonas’s into the Plantain Walk for Provisions,
which is not improbable:-—The black Corps I am told is
at Blankenburg, and the other Posts no doubt will move
down as Intelligence may be obtained of them, there
will not be any considerable incursions again into ye
woods till the water abates more, as it was very deep
the last time, and the chief objeét will be to guard the
back Dams in the mean time.

I am in hopes that this desperate crew will not be
joined by any more, as the flame did not spread at ye
time it was most violent, we have had no orders from home
as yet to make any changes in (the) form of ye Govern-
ment. 1 am told ye Court House doors are open at the
Sessions. We have had so few American vessels here
that it has not been in our Power to ship any of your C:
(Cotton) since that by. Capt. COLMAN, and the few who
went having filled up with their own produce. I should
certainly have preferred it by far, but it not being prudent
to have kept so much on hand at such critical times as
has been.

I think there has been sent 128 Bales C. to C. and J.,
who have ship’d 20 By ye Zephyr and do rfot say your
Quota (was) sold, asthey had agreed for alarge parcell, but
not del’d, as there are vessels eno’ now to take in for

FOuR OLD LETTERS FROM DEMERARA. 329

America you may expeét getting the remainder of your
crops that way; the crop is now finished ginning at G,
(Grove) and Twenty odd Bales on hand.—At Saratoga
picking has not been able to go on so well on account of
his Grass, I suppose there may be 40 to 50 Bales more
to expeét from there, tho’ not 20 of them yet ginned
off,

We were rejoiced two Days ago to receive all your
Letters by Capt. BOSSON, tho’ a letter of Mr, HOWLANDS
to me that had been a week past in ye river might have
announced previous to your’s the Happy Tidings of your
safe arrival. We feel glad indeed and pleased that you
have not had occasion to say our Dear Girls badly bore
ye chills,—The pleasure of seeing Mrs. GREENE w". you
here would be a great comfort indeed, but we rather
despair of that agreeable Event now.—But Flatter our-
selves w". ye pleasure of seeing yourself before winter.—
I think you ought to chose some pleasant place to the
southward in America for your durable residence, as
there is a doubt if ever this colony will become an
Eligable situation for Ladies.—I am determined for my
own part to remove with mine next year. We have a
very pleasing prospect of another Crop and God grant
that we may reap it off in Peace and Quietness.—Should
you go to New York, ask Mr. VAN DEN HEUVEL if he
has sold my 4 bales Cotton and remitted Mr. BUCKLEY,
if not, request him to remitt only 850 and pay you ye
rest—-ye bales weighed 360, 295, 360, 369—heavy bales.
Assure your good Lady of my high Esteem and Friend-
ship, tell my Dear JANE and ANN I send them love and
beg them to be good girls, my best regards to Mr.
HUBBARD and Family, my Cousin BETSy give My Love

330 TIMEHRI.

and tell her to write her cousin Polly—My dear Friend
oelieve me,—Sincerely yours,

W. PARKINSON.

The Crown Lands of British Guiana.*

By Fohn Dalgleish Paterson,

4Y experience of the wood-cutting industry has
been acquired on the Demerara River, hence
j what I may write herein should be taken as
striétly applicable only to that distri€.

Reducing the price of Crown Lands from $1 to 25 cts.
per acre is most commendable, as much of the land for
cultivation would even be very dear at that small price.
It might be as well to lump all the fees and stamps, &c.
connected with the purchase of such land in one, and fix
the price at so much per acre inclusive of everything
the scale per acre being construéted from the existing
fees, stamps, &c., about to be used, as recommended by
the Crown Surveyor ; thus in buying 350 acres, and using
existing fees &c., the price per acre would be $1 34.
This way of putting the price of Crown Lands is far more
comprehensive than $1 per acre with a long string of fees,
stamps, &c. attachable to the bargain. Inthe way I sug-

gest a man would know at once that instead of a $1 an acre
he has to pay $1 34, which is a matter of paramount
importance to the class of working man likely to put his
savings in such an investment. With regard to the
5 cts. per acre tax on uncultivated land, I am of opinion
that if the land is worth cultivating profitably, it will

* The following paper has been handed to us by the Chairman of
the Select Committee on the Crown Lands’ Regulations, by consent of
the writer, and refers to the report of that Committee dated September
6th, 1894.

332 TIMEHRI.

not require a stimulant, and if it is not worth cultivating
profitably, then the owner would be taxed for the privi-
lege of owning land for which he has already paid the
Government too much. A crucial point would lie in
what the Government might call “ beneficial’ occupation
and what the owner might consider the “ beneficial”
occupation to be to him. Perhaps the fewer strings left
in the hands of the Government in purchases of Crown
Land, the better alike for the Government, the land,
and the purchaser. Your suggestions about the sale
by Auction of Crown Land, are in my opinion exaétly
what is wanted. It is hard ona man after he has been
to the trouble and expense of locating a spot, to have
another man bid against him ; one who had perhaps never
thought of using the land before for the purpose that the
locator has had in view all along.

I cannot honestly say that “ It is manifest ¢o me that
all progress in the settlement of British Guiana is re-
tarded by the quantities of land that are held in the
Dead Hand in the more accessible parts of the
Colony.” If the lands were worth anything to the
“ living hand” I have not the slightest doubt that the
“ dead hand” would rent or sell to the “ living hand,”
or more probably do himself what he expeéted the
“living hand” was going to do with the lands to his
(the “‘ dead hand’s”) own profit. [The writer will be
glad to do a little business with any gentleman of the
Hon’ble. Committee in this line]. What does to some
extent obstruét transaétions in these private lands is the
want of proper transports, I use the words to “ some
extent” because there is plenty of land that has been
bought and sold and rented &c., without any transport

THE CROWN LANDS OF BRITISH GUIANA. 333:

furthermore, I think there are ways and means of obtaining
a Letter of Decree from a Judge in the matter through the
medium of a promissory note, a sale at Auétion, and a
Lawyer. To all praétical intents and purposes, in most
cases, this Letter of Decree is as good as a transport.

To make a long and expansive story short, in this
matter, let the Government give transports for all lands
that have been undisputedly claimed for the last 5 years
and charge the recipients with the cost of making such
transports. In the first instance the land must belong to
somebody if you want the colony to progress; I don’t
suppose you are going to make a gigantic “ public works”
of the Colony; therefore as your first progressive step
let the land be properly and individually owned. Allthe
people I may say who claim lands are either themselves
old settlers or the descendants of old settlers, and from
that faét I would deem they had a better right to the
land than any one else, and should be the first to benefit
by the profitable use of it.

Referring to licences of occupancy, such a case as the
following may occur—a man may want a piece of land
for his residence and such land might be unprofitable for
cultivation, this might be the case with a wood-cutter or
ballata colle€tor; it is necessary that his house be near
the highway, z.e. river or creek. Is it fair then that the
licencee of such land, at great expense to himself, should
be compelled to keep 6 acres of barren land in cultiva-
tion, or do without that which would otherwise be a
very valuable piece of land in the general conduéting of
his business? Would this come under the head of
* beneficial occupancy’’? I would also advise the adoption
of the inclusive system of charging per acre for licences

UU

334 TIMEHRI.

of this kind. I would also urge that a definition be
given to the term “ beneficial occupancy” when used by
the Crown Lands Department in licensing and convey-
ance of land. As it stands now the term bids fair to be
a most formidable weapon in the hands of the Govern-
ment diplomatist for use against the purchaser of Crown
Lands from the Government.

When licensing grants for wood-cutting purposes, I
think the power of making the grant should be vested in
the Governor to deal with as he may think fit both as re-
gards the welfares of grantee and the colony.

“It does not appear that there has been a single in-
stance where it has been foundexpedient to putupany such
licenses to competition ;” as a matter of faét there might,
and would have been, had the grant-holders been men of a
different stamp to what they are. Now for instance, A.
takes out a grant in a creek and spends a matter of $1,000
or so in clearing, digging, and stop-offs and, otherwise
making the creek navigable. This A. does on the
assumption that if one grant does not recoup his out-
lay, another or 2nd may, but before A. can see his
way financially to do so, B. steps in and takes out the
grant, A. has had in prospeét, and makes use of A’s in-
vested capital, in the navigable creek, to get his (B’s) tim-
ber out cheaply, and in so doing generates a good deal of
friction about the use of stop-offs, landings, &c., between
himself and A. SoI think this well worthy of yourattention

“ Laying out a grant in such manner as shall best.
enclose the trees” is most beneficial to the wood-cutter,
and has in my opinion effe€tually stopped much illegal
wood-cutting—the temptation was great and the manipu-
lation very easy !!

THE CROWN LANDS OF BRITISH GUIANA. 335

About a fair average area for a wood-cutting grant on
the Demerara river is in my estimation between 250 and
300 acres. There is not the slightest necessity for sub-
letting, and if there were I could not recommend the
system as it would lead to complications all round.

I do not think that asarule, Aboriginal, or East Indians
are ever fully pazd ix money; the question is rather, are
they ever fully paid in any equivalent of money. This
subjeét is of vital importance ; there is the ordinance and
a just and right one, but it might as weil not occupy
space in the law books, for it is worse than useless as it
leads the uninztiated to believe that there is really none.
Spirituous liquor in payment of wages is just exaétly
like the preceding subject I have dealt with. What I
ask becomes of all the liquor taken up to these grants ?
It is no hidden faét that part of a man’s rations ona
charcoal grant consists of rum, that is, the rations being
part of his a€tual pay, the labourer is partly paid in rum.
The two clauses in the existing regulations, just alluded to,
require re-construction of such a nature as to render
them applicable to the morally and physically good
purpose for which they were intended. We want some-
thing that cannot be slipped round—something grasp-
ing—something with no holes in it, then things will be
healthier for both master and servant.

A great deal could be said in favour of imposing a
restriétion on the size of Greenheart and Bullet trees cut
on Crown Lands, and just as much against it. When
looked at from all points of view, however, it is
a toss up which is the better course to pursue—I would
give the wood-cutter, and the public generally, the
benefit of the doubt by having no restriétion at all.

YU 2

336 TIMEHRI.

A curious anomaly exists in the regulation about hard-
wood ; the regulation says tbat “‘no other hardwood shall _
be cut than that will square less than 6 in.” Very well;
in the Crown Surveyor’s statistics of produce from Crown
Lands I find 5,000 beams and 64,000 spars stated as having
come off Crown Lands. Now beams and spars are round
pieces of hardwood with the bark on them, 20 to 22 ft. long
by 3 in, (spar) and 5 in. (beam) in mean diameter, both
being the produét of the stems of young hardwood trees
that would not square 6 in. or anything like it. It might
also be well for you to find out if all the cordwood
mentioned in the table was the produét of hardwood
trees as defined by the ordinance as lawful to cut. I
direét your attention to this as | think it extraordinary
that any person should in the first place take out a grant
of Crown Lands for cordwood-cutting and secondly if he
did, would be so honest as only to cut the soft wood trees
he might find on it; I mean of course under the specified
restriGtions. All the provisions of the ’90 Ordinance con-
trolling the removal, conveyance and sale of timber, are
remarkable good and quite easily worked.

The right to make paths through unoccupied Crown
Land should be included in the right to cut timber &c.
on the grant; nobody takes out a grant to cut timber,
and lets it remain on the grant, why then this absurdity
about privilege in making a path to remove your pro-
duce. The privileged occupation of 5 acres is nearly
always a necessity and must not be confounded with
my previous remarks about wood-cutters’ licenced grants
of occupancy.

The royalty payable in the wood-cutting industry, as
fixed in the Schedule of the 1890 Ordinance, is not calcu-

i en ee

THE CROWN LANDS OF BRITISH GUIANA. = 337

lated in my opinion to injure the trade in one way or
another, or to oppress or injure the licenced wood-cutter.
The people who really have to pay this royalty are the
owners of construétions in timber, &c., that have been
made since 18go, and also the consumers of charcoal
and other produéts of the bush. Greenheart, wallaba,
mora, charcoal, cordwood, &c., are only used for pur-
poses that no other wood or articles can be imported to
profitably serve; hence these woods and articles are
bound to be used whether the tax of royalty be on them
or not. If the wood-cutter does not see this and pays
the royalty for the consumer then he has himself to
blame for his want of foresight and should “ stand easy”’
and try on the first opportunity to make the consumer
pay. [look upon the royalty as making no more difference
to the licenced wood-cutter and timber merchant than
does the duty on rum to an estate or a rumshop keeper ;
moreover the royalty is nothing very great when done;
even if the wood-cutter had to pay it a€tually himself !
It often occurs to me that the casual observer of
the industry ignores the following curious fa& re-
lating to the subjeét, that is, that in certain construc-
tions, were colony wood selling at the same price as
imported wood, it would be cheaper in making a
constru€tion to pay a cent or two more for imported
wood as it would answer the purpose better with an
expenditure of Jess labour on the job; particularly so
would this be the case with anything requiring lightness
combined with the capability of resisting the a€tion of
the natural elements.

One dollar per acre of security is far too little for a
grant to cut wood ; the higher this bond is the fewer the

338 TIMEHRI.

people engaged in the business and the better the chances
for their making a living at it, and paying their way
honourably. This is just where about 80 o/o of the
trouble you are deliberating on really lies; it is far too
easy for any man, whether he is competent either finan-
cially, expertly, or educationally, to take out a grant.
At present the trade is in the hands of men who use
other people’s money to carry it on, consequently the
market is glutted and heavy loss ensues to those who have
advanced the incompetent grant-holder; this, coupled
with the abandoning of sugar estates and general de-
pression in trade all over the colony, (greatly due to
gold), is I think responsible for the present state of the
wood-cutting industry. Eighty per cent of the wood
cut on the Demerara river is used up in the colony and
the islands. In Essequebo this is quite the reverse, but
trade there has had to meet bad markets in England and
the Continent, bnt I have never heard much crying out
from the Essequebo people in the business. Essequebo, I
may say carries on all the export trade, the greenheart
logs in that locality being squared for, and naturally
suited to the requirements of the export trade. My
firm are about the only export shippers of greenheart
from the Demerara River and we find that in order to be
able to sell our timber in England, we have to select and
resquare our logs after buying them from grant-holders ;
only about 80 o/o of the ordinary Demerara river logs
can be thus prepared by us for profitable export.

We don’t run our own grants because it would be
injudicious to do so as long as there are other people
quite willing to do so and sell us the timber at a loss to
themselves We always try to make our undertakings

THE CROWN LANDS OF BRITISH GUIANA. 339

pay and as a rule succeed, or leave it alone for some one
else to undertake and to lose the money on; this 1s how
we have conducted business in this line for 80 years,
and have always been able to pay 100 cents to the dollar.
No one grant-holder on the Demerara river could load
you a ship.

Four or five men in Essequebo produce more than
half of the timber taken from Crown Lands in the colony
annually and any one of these men could load you a
vessel with timber off his grant in 35 days. These are
the men who do the most work in the trade and have
least to say on the royalty matter. From the table of
statistics in your report | cannot tell how many grants
were in the Demerara river or what they produced in any-
thing, neither is it possible to say whether the grants
were used for greenheart, shingles, charcoal or any-
thing else, but I think I shall be safe in making
a few assertions about them, the accuracy of which
can easily be proved by the Crown Surveyor. In
1893-4 there were about 22 grants for cutting green-
heart in existence, and about 20 grantholders, and I
think that the average output per grantholder for the
year would be about (certainly not more) 6,500 c. feet.
Some of the grantholders did not, I am sure, ship indivi-
dually more than 3,000 feet. I think possibly about 15,000
feet would be the largest individual shipment for the
whole year. Licenced grantholders do not cut Mora,
Wallaba and other woods, into the shape of timber for
mercantile purposes: these kind of woods are all cut by
jobbers off private lands, either their own or ob-
tained from some one else. This kind of timber is
sold at about a quarter of what its real value ought to be,

340 TIMEHRI.

that is if the labour expended in its produétion was
taken into account at its present market value. A good
deal of the work done on grants (Licenced) is performed
“ Buck fashion,” a most unbusinesslike, unmethodical,
and unsatisfa€tory kind of labour swapping system. No
grantholder that I have ever come across, with one ex-
ception, could ever give me any comprehensive idea,
supported by data derived from former experience, of
what he was about to do, had done or was at present
doing ; they all seem to be totally devoid of any calcu-
lating power; their ideas of space, time and quantity
being summed up in the well worn and edifying phrases
of not too far, not too long, (in the latter a period of
time is inferred) and a heavy bush, or a mass of green-
heart.

All the grantholders on the river are in debt, with
perhaps one or two exceptions at most. Some are more
heavily in debt than others, but it matters little to them
whether the debt be large or small, as they never had
any money when they started, nor do any of them possess
realizable property sufficiently valuable to be worth a
creditor’s trouble and expense to take away. I pity some
from the bottom of my heart, a few who really deserve
it, Generally, the chief aim on taking out a grant, isto
make a living off the provisions and advances obtained
from people who are foolish enough to believe all that is
told them and to keep the grant running as long as
deception can be made to manage it. If the grantholder is
a smart fellow, he can generally make his grant run three
fools ata time. The fools usually consist of his labourers
and two merchants in town, preferably Portuguese, or
still better one merchant in town, and the other PATERSON

THE CROWN LANDS OF BRITISH GUIANA. = 3.41

at Christianburgh, the latter sele€tion of dupes is found
to work easier and gives less trouble with better results.
The term usually applied to this method of busi-
ness is “ Flooring” and it is looked upon as praiseworthy
and indicative of genuine aptitude for the healthy con-
duét of the wood-cutting profession ; it is more or less
neatly done according to the mental development of the
operator. All wood-cutters who have any pretentions
to doing good business are married; the wife being
found extremely useful for transaéting some of the more
delicate parts of the business in which it might not be
prudent for the husband to engage. I have written
on the foregoing points as I have solidly experienced
them and also with the grim satisfaétion of seeing a
well merited end fast approaching to such a deplorable
state of affairs.

The labour system on wood-cutting grants is rotten 7
toto. Ona grant of say 300 acres in the Demerara river,
there is not more than an average of to men employed, and
they work in such a desultory way that it is only for a few
days when hauling is going on that anything like an ap-
. proach to the complement of men necessary for profitable
work isemployed. The accompanying estimate of days
labour on a: 300 acre grant yielding 20,000 cubic ft. will
show you that a clean sweep of the grant could be made
in about 212 working days with 40 men—the number I
would deem absolutely necessary for profitably working
sucha grant. I have carefully prepared this table tor you
from pra€tical data which I have colleéted from time to
time, as opportunity offered it.

Three years it will then be admitted is ample time for
any man who is really working, to clear a 300 acre

XX

342 TIMEHRI.

grant. In handling greenheart the quicker it is done
when started, the less the cost, which implies the
command of capital and is just one of the desideratums,
disqualifying the men for the work who are at present
engaged in it. There is a want of that confidence be-
tween the master and servant which is all important to
harmony in work. The labourer is rarely if ever paid in
full on the expiration of his contraét; experience has
taught him to expeét this, consequently he is always
on the alert to “ floor” his master whilst working. The
labourer also knows that when his master “ floors” him it
is a waste of money, if he has it to spend, and time,
to legally sue for what the master has not in his poses-
sion. Furthermore, the labourer comes on the grant
and goes away when it suits his convenience regard-
less of the terms of his contraét, and whilst on the
grant does his work in such quantity and of such quality
as he thinks fit. Discipline is unknown to the servant,
and the master cannot enforce-it; the law is then of
no practical use, it is too expensive to use owing to
the time and money lost in traversing the distance to
and from Court and the long intervals between Courts &c.
The truck system is universally used by grantholders in >
their transactions with their men, so that really the prices
quoted in your report are fictitious and form no adequate
measure of what the man makes per day. You want to
get at the purchasing power of the dollar before any
real and true estimate of the man’s wage can be made.
I think this pernicious system ought to be abolished by
law. There should be no need for a man to buy any-
thing from his master whilst working for him, but if at
any time such need did arise, let the necessary article be

THE CROWN LANDS OF BririsH GUIANA. 343

supplied to the man at fixed rates by law and a true
record kept of the transaction, subjeét to periodical in-
spe€tion and on occasion of request by any Government
officer.

The institution of sworn measurers would be no end
of ahumbug. The callipers is the measure in use in all
timber transa¢tions on the Demerara river.

The string is only used on the Essequebo and in Eng-
land. I use both callipers and string in loading ships for
England and consequently ought to know the relation
between the two systems. I use Liverpool style not
London. The 18go regulation stipulates that string mea-
sure be used in paying royalty. String measure is
always less than calliper, the difference between them
being a measure of the quality of the squaring, more
so in large than in small logs. The difference between
string and calliperin Demerara river varies from about 14
to 200/o. It is impossible for the Crown Land Officer to
measure by string owing to the manner in which timber
is delivered, therefore with the knowledge and san€tion of
his chief he measures by calliper and deduéts 10 o/o
only to turn his measure into string. It is penny wise
and pound foolish for any dealer to employ a common
porter to measure timber. My driver, who does that
work, is an expert at it, and usually does it with a gang
of 4 men, and it requires all his acumen to pick out
plugs and sundry other little pieces of inlaid work
calculated to defraud the buyer. I have never cut off
anything but actually bad timber and that is done in
the presence of the seller or his representative by the
driver if it is anything usual; if unusual he consults
me as to how much he should cut off. As a rule the

XX 2

344 TIMEHRI.

seller and I arrange to our mutual satisfa€tion; I like a
fair and just transa€tion and generally make it without
much trouble. Let us take an example of what is
done at present in measuring, and what would be done
in future by the proposed style; say the load = 300
cubic ft, after it has been measured by calliper in the
usual way and the usual cut off has been made in doing
so, then old style by calliper and 12> 0/o allowance for
string on royalty would give

300 cubic ft. @ 24 cts. ... $72 00
270 cubic ft. @ tIcts.... 4 05
$67 95

New style by string (aétual) and no allowance, but actual
string used by Crown Lands’ Department Officer, would

give
240 cubic ft. @ 24 cts. ... $57 60
240 cubic ft. @ 1tcts. .... 3 60 and Newrate of 1 cent not used,
$54 00 ‘

If this is what Mr. FORSYTH calls better for himself and
better for the Government, I would like to have a few
transaétions with him under his new suggestion, The
third matter, to which Mr. FORSYTH dire€ts your atten-
tion, ought not to exist at all with a man doing good
round business, but from what | have already told you
about grantholders you won’t wonder at it; to me the
marvel is the exceedingly small rate (only 5 0/0) for
which the risk of security is taken. If you really want
to give the Government a shadow, in lieu of a reality,
I can confidently recommend you to use the grant-
holder’s own personal security to obtain the requisite
result.

Dogs and guns are not necessary on grants, and are

THE CROWN LANDS OF BRITISH GUIANA. 345

usually a great deterrent to steady reliable work. I
should advise the cultivation of the fine art of legis-
lation in the renewal of grants even to the perfection of
fining the security (the wood cutter would be no use) if
any timber were left on a grant on its expiration, because
that would indicate that the grant had not been properly
worked, and means a loss to the Crown Lands Department
and the colony at large. I do not think a labourer can be
legally compelled to pay his own registration fee, but I
don’t see that there would be any particular hardship to
him if he had to do so, as his only contribution to the
Colony chest is at present through the medium of the
rum and tobacco he uses.

The cultivation of charcoal grants as suggested by the
Crown Lands Department would increase the cost of pro-
ducing charcoal, for whatever was cultivated would cost
more to grow than it would fetchin the market. Theidea
is theoretically good but not pra€tically good in dollars
and cents. If the Government have the money and are
willing to spend it in this way the writer is of opinion
that the most suitable and least expensive thing to
cultivate on such traéts is the casuarina tree. I
formed the opinion from a small praétical experiment,
tried with the tree named, on such a place. The anni-
hilation of vegetation on charcoal grants zs not com-
plete; this is just where the expense in the rearing of the
Casuarina would come in, all sorts of rank ‘‘ Minab”
bush immediately grows up, and if not cut down would
kill the casuarina. I have seen this happen. Regarding
Mr, 1M THURN’S letter I may say that this certainly
would at first sight appear to be a move in the right
direétion, and it did so occur to me years ago, but the

346 TIMEHRI.

faét is that it does not pay a licenced woodcutter who has
his path cut and his men on the spot to cut one of these
cedar aad other trees. Ihave often talked with woodcut-
ters on the subjeét as suggested to me, on seeing the trees
standing in their paths. Much less then would it pay a
man to make a speciality of the job and construét
the same path for one or two trees as would do for
100 trees, use the same gang, in faét incur all the
heavier expenses of a woodcutter, for one or two trees
scattered over a very large area. If the proposed
ordinance were put in force a large portion of the
present scarce wood-cutting labour would be diverted
into an unprofitable channel; because it is noto-
rious that when a _ wood-cutting labourer, whether
negro, Indian, or mixed breed, goes to work for him-
seif he values his labour at xothing; but when the
same man goes to work on a grant for a wood-cutter he
values his labour at something ; of course the grantholder
and he have different ideas about the value of that some-
thing, yet nevertheless the labourer would make more
off the wood-cutter than he would do by putting in
wood-cutting on his own account as you would encourage
him to do by the ordinance. Seeing that quite enough
of this exists already, | would say leave the existing
ordinance alone. Some kind of double purchase regu-
lation should be enforced to preserve the Bullet-free, as
the “ piece work” or “job work” system employed in
colle€ting ballata lends itself to the reckless destruétion
of trees. I fully agree with Government Officer SUTHER-
LAND in his remarks on the Demerara river.

I have never bought any timber from Indians, or rather
so-called Indians, since 1890, as the regulations of that

THE CROWN LANDS OF BRITISH GUIANA. = 3.47

——__

—

year distin&tly forbid any timber dealer so to do, save
for his own personal use. The Government have helped
other merchants to break this ordinance in town. There
is no depot for the sale, by a Government Officer, of such
timber on the Demerara river or at Christianburgh. My
business at this place has been affected by the sale
‘of Indian timber exclusively in town as can be sur-
mised from the above statements; so long as so-called
Indians are allowed to cut and sell timber in the open mar-
ket even if royalty be imposed, just so long will they
continue to be a millstone about the neck of the licenced
woodcutter ; at the present moment the reputed Indians
bid fair to produce more than half of all the timber that
will be cut in the year 1894-5 on the Demerarariver. The
only sure cure for the evilis very drastic, but must be
used if the woodcutter is to live, and that is to stop the
Indians by repute cutting timber altogether. The long
tailed variety or “real Indian” does not cut timber because
so doing does not coincide with his natural habits of life.
Every word that the Crown Surveyor, Mr. FORSYTH,
and Mr. DA GRACIA have told you about the unfortunate
Indian, is, I sincerely deplore and regret to say only too
true, I could bear out fully from personal experience
every statement made by these three gentlemen. The
relatives, other than Indian, of some reputed Indians,
make use of their Indian relative as a fence behind
which to carry on a little illegal timber business ; as a
matter of faét this would be exceedingly difficult to
prove at law. Before I am burst up by Indians I| think
it might be well for me to find an Indian relative and
open negotiations with him. I don’t think it would be diff-
cult to do this!!! as I see my name flourishing about in

348 TIMEHRI.

your report showing clearly that the Indian has carried
the enterprising spirit connected with the name into
timber trade along with the name.

Drunkenness is natural in an Indian. Nature on the
other hand guards him against the evil with the un-
written law, Thou shalt grow thine own cassava before
drinking thy grog. We step in and interfere with this
arrangement between the Indian and his Creator by
making it easy for him to get liquor without its atten-
dant impediment of labour extended through time; with
the consequent result of a drunken Indian for a few
years or days and then no Indian at all. This crying
evil daily calls for some compound triple expansion
surface and otherwise condensing ordinance, to deal
with it, and the sooner you get under-way with the
construétion of this powerful engine the better, alike for
your own repute as a moral nation and your own
souls in the hereafter. I have heard you pray in your
Honourable Court for guidance in moral matters, I beg
of you therefore not to neglect the golden opportunity
before youin the Indians. The real ‘‘ Raw Buck” as he is
called commonly, is gradually becoming scarcer and
scarcer; some say civilization and rum is killing him. I
hold he is dying by rum, civilization, natural death, and
absorption into other races by intermarriage ; possibly
the last has more to do with the Indian’s demise than
ordinary people who don’t come much in contaét with
Indians would be apt to think.

I simply look upon the obliteration of the Indian as
inevitable, in short, a realization of DARWIN’S theory
of the survival of the fittest. At thesame time J think it
would be well to preserve a few Indians by reservation,

THE CROWN LANDS OF BRITISH GUIANA. 349

&c. as is done in Ameriéa, just as a curiosity for future
generations. The Indian as I have always found him,
in his natural state far away from the striving world of
civilization, is a peaceful, often dirty but altogether
natural looking man, he is most hospitable to the
stranger, naturally good in morals, tractable in his own
groove of life, and in every way a man calculated to be
worth the study and comparison of a civilized man along-
side of himself. He is truly nature’s own child and we
have to remember that the soil he is on belongs to him
when we deal with him.

300 ACRE GRANT = 20,000 CUBIC FT. = 500 LOGS AT AVERAGE of 40 FT,

PER LOG = 663 CUBIC FT. PERACRE = 12 LOGS PER ACRE.
Day’s Labour of one Man,

Days.
Ereéting Building... noe “oe a3 200
Squaring 20,000 cubic ft. at 50 mee it per day eee 400
Path making for 3 miles of timber path, or 1,320 roods, at
4% roods per day ri as aa ey 293%
Allowance made of same in day’s labour for moderate
bridging eve coe ove ase 100
Canting, Slewing and Tawihes 500 logs at 8 logs per day 62}
Boring 2 holes in each log, 500 logs at so logs per day 10
Sniping 500 logs at 20 logs per day... oe ave 25
per day... due ase 6,000
Hauling 20,000 cubic ft. over a 3 mile path at 3°3 Aner ft
Clearing the creek and making stop-offs = say ae 1,000
Transporting 2,000 cubic ft. downa long creek to river at
25 cubic ft. per day oss ove see see 800
Making 80 bush rope punt slings at 1 sling perday ... 80
Making 40 water beams at 1 beam per day ... sen 40
Loading 20,000 cubic ft. at 150 cubic ft. per day eve 1333
Taking 20,000 cubic ft.in punts to town ; discharging and
returning at 50 days per 1,000 cubic ft, ... <é 1,000
Miscellaneous days labour... oes “ “on 356
20,000 cubic ft, to put in town == days labour... eve 10,500

YY

359 TIMEHRI.

10,500 days labour at 72 cts. per day S53 +$ 7,560 00
20,000 cubic ft. delivered in town costs “ce ess 7,560 00
20,000 cubic ft. at 37°8 cts. or eas «+ 7,560 00

40 men in 212 days would thus clear the whole grant of
20,000 cubic ft. and deliver it in town.

The Future Prosperity of the Colony.

By Harry I, Perkins, F.R.G.S.

WT the present time, when the state of the Sugar
‘ Industry is in so unfortunate a condition, and
men talk with bated breath of the impending
financial difficulties, consequent on a long continuation
of the depression which threatens to destroy the pros-
perity of the colony indefinitely, it is surely the duty of
all to whom the colony furnishes ahome,—and a far from
unpleasant home too,—to use their best efforts, by a€tive
combination, to stave off the evil days which seem so un-
pleasantly near; and by cordial co-operation with the
Government and each other, to make what appears to be
a calamity, into the turning point of the Colonial fortunes.

In the first place, an alternative to the Sugar Industry
—the mainstay of the Colony—must be sought for, and
its merits examined.

The most obvious alternative lies in the Gold Industry,
which, after an almost uninterruptedly successful and
rapidly increasing growth, has this year for the first time
failed to add to its already considerable proportions.
There are several causes of this arrested development,
some of which were already in existence when the
Industry first started, and others which have “ grown
with its growth.” It is impossible to overcome them all ;
but much may, and can be done, to lessen their influence
in such a degree, that the progress of the Industry and
Colonial prosperity generally may not be unduly re-
tarded.

YY2

352 TIMEHRI.

First and most important of all, is the difficulty and
tediousness of the existing state of communication
between the settled parts of the Colony and the diggings.
To this is due in a great measure another cause, the
general ignorance that prevails, from amongst the highest
to the lowest classes, but chiefly amongst the former, of
the conditions of, and the circumstances attendant on, a
life in the bush. In consequence of this ignorance, the
general idea is that the bush is a dreadful region, full of
alarms of fever, and the haunt of Death in many and
varied forms. A further cause, due to inadequate means
of communication, is the high price of labour at the
fields, for it is, or used to be regarded as mildly heroic
to venture on a life at the diggings; to face the falls
in the various rivers and the death-dealing (?) climate of
the forest-clad country, where, up to the present
the gold has been found. The same may be said
as regards the employment of the horde of rascals who
have from time to time been deputed to manage the
affairs of those too timid to face the forest life, and who
have been content to continue to labour at a small wage
in the civilised distri€ts, whereas by a bush life they might
have had the conduét of their own affairs at a much
higher rate of remuneration, receiving at the same time
the satisfaétion of eye-witnesses that their affairs were
carried on in such a manner as they themselves could
approve.

The extremely unsatisfa€tory condition of the labour
market is one of the chief disabilities under which the
Industry at present suffers. It is due in a great
measure, to the natural disposition of the labourers
themselves, who, though as a rule possessed of great

THE FUTURE PROSPERITY OF THE COLONY. 353

physical strength and powers of endurance, are incapable
of sustained effort for long periods. Many of them
_are absolute malingerers, and not having the virtue of
thrift, generally dissipate their earnings, which in some
cases are large, after their return to town, or to their
native villages. Quite as much at fault, however,
are those who employ them and rob them of the wages
for whichthey have worked; and taking both sides of
the question, that of the inefficient and unwilling
labourer on the one hand and the dishonest em-
ployer on the other, the balance appears to be equal.
As in other human affairs the good and bad suffer alike,
and one party pays for the delinquencies of the other.
This is a state of matters which all can and should assist
to improve. Several Companies and individuals do take
care to secure reliable hands and to induce them to
return to the same employment, after each period of
service followed by its period of rest has expired. The
concentration of the registration and engagement of
labourers, by having one single agency in each distri,
will tend greatly to ameliorate matters and afford pro-
teétion both to the labourer and employer. It seems
scarcely to be a subjeét which can legitimately engage
the attention of the Executive, but to be more within
the province of the public itself, which can by a con-
sensus of opinion establish its own medium of registration
and engagement of labour in addition to the registration
exacted by the Government. It has already been pointed
out that if the labouring classes only realised their power,
were thrifty, and had the faculty of working in combi-
nation under the leadership of one of themselves,
they would rapidly acquire not only most of the wealth

354 TIMEHRI.

of, but aétually the leading positions in the community
of which they form part, and where this class can help
towards the attainment of the common good is in
striving to be more self-reliant and in cultivating habits
of thrift and economy. For the dishonest employers the
only measure required seems to be the amendment of the
penal code in order to meet with and discourage the
repetition of such offences as they are guilty of, and which
tend to make an already bad labour supply still worse.
The depression in sugar and the abandonment of
various sugar estates may set free a supply of labourers,
who have not as yet attempted the bush as the sphere in
which to earn their livelihood. If this should be the
case, and itis by no means unlikely that it will be, it is
to be hoped that the new labour, skilled as it must be
in greater or less degree, in the main requirements in
the labour line at the diggings, viz. good cutlass, axe and
shovel men, may meet with a fuller measure of fair
dealing than those who preceded them have done,
and that the relations of employers and employed, may
in consequence be strengthened and improved to the
advantage of both parties. Here again the estab-
lishment of a single registering agency would meet the
case, as has been testified to by witnesses before the
Commission appointed to enquire into the state of the
Gold Industry and easy acquirement of Crown Lands.
Amongst the most, if not the most destructive
causes of the prosperity of the Industry in its existing
shape, is the wholesale theft of gold from placers, which
is carried on in spite of all the precautions for searching
and supervision that have been taken to stop it. Most
of it is done by dishonest foremen in charge of the toms

THE FUTURE PROSPERITY OF THE COLONY. 355

and sluices, who subtra&t a small portion of the daily
output as it is made, and dispose of it either to pro-
fessional thieves and illicit gold buyers in the bush, or
else in rare cases risk the chances of deteétion, and sell
it in Georgetown or at other centres, It would perhaps
be a source of annoyance and loss of time to make each
parcel of gold pass through the hands of the Government
Officer resident in each distri€t. He, on account of
his local knowledge would have the most reasonable
and just grounds to aét on any suspicions of unlawful
dealing, with regard to any parcel of gold, the circum-
stances attendant on the winning of which, might not
satisfy him, and to seize it; but in the absence of detec-
tives and police, and of skilfully laid traps to secure the
detection and punishment of offenders, there does not
seem to be any more reasonable and expeditious manner
of dealing at once, as things are now, with the matter.
Here again improved communications are the key toa
large part of the situation, for if people will look after
their own affairs they wiil stand less chance of being
robbed. Widely extended supervision will tend to
check a great deal of the evil which flourishes owing to
bogus placers being located for the real purpose of pass-
ing through the registers of the placers, in judiciously
distributed portions, the various parcels of gold bought
from thieves working on dona fide rich claims in their
vicinity.

A very important point remains to be enumerated
and one which though it seems to have been but seldom
mentioned, has nevertheless exerted a strongly depressing
influence on the Industry,—the point is this—that there
has been a widespread opinion in spite of the hard fa&ts

356 TIMEHRI.

of statistics to the contrary, that there is no stability in
the Industry, and that though apparently flourishing
now, and the source of wealth to a few, it must ina
short time entirely cease, or if not aétually cease, be
reduced to such insignificant proportions, that it will
scarcely be worthy of a place amongst the important
produéts and exports of the colony. It seems almost
a work of supererogation to show how fatal to any In-
dustry or business, such an idea must necessarily be,
and more particularly so when the idea is entertained by
the very persons who have most to gain by an exaétly
opposite state of affairs and of mind. How can any
confidence arise and remain in the minds of those whose
capital is so urgently desired here ; (and by capital is
meant not only the capital counted by the current coin
of the realm; but also by a far higher and more useful
standard of importance, the capital of brain power, of
strong willing arms, and of clever skilful fingers), if we
have no confidence in our own country? There is need
not only of the rich investor with his money ; but also of
the highly trained intelleét of the mining engineer and
the metallurgist, and the precision of the skilled artisan.
Stated briefly if we do not believe in ourselves how can
we expeét others to believe in us; and further if we do
not help ourselves, how and where is the required aid to
come from ?

The possibilities before this colony are praétically
limitless, due chiefly to the striking natural features it
possesses. It will be enough to mention them briefly
and in rapid succession. Take first the long stretch of
fertile coast land, easily drained and within no great dis-
tance of suitable markets for its produce throughout the

THE FUTURE PROSPERITY OF THE COLONY. 357

——e

West Indies and North America. Next, the equally
fertile soil of the river mouths and for short distances up
their courses. Then,—the valuable forests of timber,
—the boundless savannahs capable of supporting countless
head of cattle—and the Gold Mining Industry coupled
with what has been prophesied by an expert may become
a Diamond Mining Industry. Take all these together
and then look for the means of communication which we
find in the vast network of more or less navigable rivers,
with their huge affluents and yet smaller tributaries.
Sum up all these features and then, bearing in mind the
statistics of the gold output to date, decide whether the
inhabitants of this colony have reason to disbelieve in the
future of the Gold Industry and to distrust the capabili-
ties of the country for almost indefinite expansion or not.

There exists unfortunately one very serious obstacle
to the future expansion of the colony in the labour ques-
tion. The history of the past as illustrated by the old
Dutch maps of the interior, shows that no reliance as
permanent useful settlers and agriculturists can be placed
upon those, who ought as has been said before, to have
most of the wealth of, and be in leading positions in the
community of which they form part. Thousands of acres
granted free in Dutch times remain as free to-day; but
their chief freedom is freedom from useful cultivation, or
beneficent occupation ; they lie waste. Immigration is
the only remedy and it must be of a thrifty race who
come from a sub-tropical region, and who are capable of
toiling in the powerful heat of our tropical sun. The
races that seem to be the most suited for introduétion to
the colony are Japanese, Chinese, and East Indians, who
should be induced to come here, free, or under indenture,

ZZ

358 TIMEHRI.

and if possible induced to identify themselves with the
country, and become so attached to the soil that they
will pra€tically accomplish the regeneration of the labour-
ing population of the country. Free land might be given
to them, or land to be free on conditions of cultivation
and beneficial occupation.

The Commission now sitting is entrusted with the
serious task of discerning the proper method of amelio-
rating the condition of the Gold Industry and the easy
acquisition of Crown Lands, and has before it the
two subjects of enquiry which form the principal part of
its descriptive title. These are merely the pointers, so
to speak, of a much more important matter, but yeta
matter of which they form the main feature. The great
and important matter is the Opening up of the Country,
which can be slowly but surely accomplished with two
such powerful fa€tors as a Gold Mining Industry which,
in spite of little or no encouragement has in the space of
ten years added nearly £2,000,000 worth of solid gold to
the treasure of the world; most of this too in the last
three years ; and of a Diamond Mining Industry, which
can and must come to the front if only it be taken in hand
at once and judiciously fostered.

The prosperous condition of the South African Colo-
nies to-day is mainly due to the existence and discovery
in them of the two most powerful attractions just named.
The Australian Colonies, except Western Australia,
owe their position to the discovery of gold. Western
Australia, which occupies nearly one half of the huge
continental island, was praétically uninhabited and
of little importance till the recent rich finds of gold
brought it prominently forward. Its future can hardly

THE FUTURE PROSPERITY OF THE COLONY. 359

be estimated. All these countries have possessed, and
still possess, along with great mineral wealth, vast capa-
bilities for agricultural wealth also. The same can be
said of this country, for in addition to the lands already
in cultivation and empoldered, there are the thousands
of square miles of hilly savannahs, whereon millions of
cattle can be reared. To give some idea of the possi-
bilities of cattle raising, the words of ALEXANDER VON
HUMBOLDT, who visited Venezuela in the company of
Mons. BONPLAND in the years 1799-1804, may be quoted.
“ T shall not hazard any general estimates, which from
“their nature are too uncertain; but shall only observe
“that in the Ilanos of Caracas the proprietors of the
“ sreat hatos are entirely ignorant of the number of the
“cattle they possess. They only know that of the young
“ cattle, which are branded every year with a letter or
“ mark peculiar to each herd. The richest proprietors
“ mark as many as 14,000 head every year and sell to
“‘ the number of five or six thousand.”

The most reasonable scheme of realising these valu-
able pasture lands is by following the gradual extension
of the Gold Industry, and improving the means of com-
munication with the new diggings as they are opened
up in the dire€tion of the savannah country. There is
every reason to believe that gold bearing quartz exists in
these savannahs, if the words of so generally accurate
and careful an observer as the late Sir ROBERT SCHOM-
BURGK, may be relied upon. He constantly refers to
quartz in conne€tion with savannahs Thus he says “ the
“ savannahs between the Rupununi and Rio Branco are
“ covered with numerous angular quartz rocks.” Speak-
ing of the Takutu river “ he says on approaching Curata-

ZZ 2

369 TIMEHRI.

*wuiburi mountain in the Canuku range I found large
“banks of pebbles and sand in the Takutu, the pebbles
“being chiefly of quartz of a yellow and white colour ;
“but also I found some agates of the kind known as
“fortification, from the parallel zigzag lines. Other
‘“‘ pebbles were of globular stru€ture and veined with
‘jasper like the Egyptian pebbles. Below these beds
“of pebbles and sometimes beside them, I noticed a
“black sand with minute quantities of gold of a light
‘« yellow (the italics are not SCHOMBURGK’S) but whether
“the metal is present in sufficient quantities to render
‘‘ washing for it profitabie, must be determined by closer
‘“ examination than I could give it.”

Again, “ Near latitude 3° 12° 53” North, 264 miles
“from Pirara, I saw a remarkable geological feature—a
‘large block of granite gneiss was surrounded as it
‘‘ were by contorted masses of gneiss, which rose 2 feet,
‘©6 inches above the water. The granite gneiss is
“ stratified at an angle of 45° pierced by veins of quartz,
‘‘ and large blocks of quartz lie upon it.”

Again, still speaking of this distri€t, he says, “ passed
‘“here banks with quartz pebbles, and could trace the
“‘ quartz pebbles in the conglomerate, not cemented, for
‘“some distance in the savannahs.” In another place,
“ We crossed at 10 o'clock the creek Canaru, which
“ flows into the Rupununi. The fragments of quartz
‘* which covered the savannahs appeared more numerous
“than on the previous days, sometimes huge blocks of
“the same formation pierced the soil. Our path was
‘fatiouing in the extreme and our feet blistered and
‘injured by the sharp pointed rocks.” Another quota-
tion will suffice to show how abundant quartz is in this

THE FUTURE PROSPERITY OF THE COLONY. 361

region. “ The Wapisiana Indians call all hills which
“ consist of solid rock and are only sparingly covered
“with vegetation, by the general name of Kuipaiti.
“ The hill to which we dire&ted our course this morning
‘does not stri€tly belong to this class. The base con-
“ sists of granite or granite gneiss, forming (about 250
““ feet above the savannah) an immense wall from 50 to
‘ 60 feet high, extending S.W. for several hundred yards.
“ Near the summit the substance of the rock changes.
‘The seams of the stratification where they are exposed
‘in consequence of the rains having washed off the soil,
“run E.N.E., and are apparently traversed by others in
‘(a N.E. dire€tion, which divide the rock in the form of
“lozenges. As this rock has a basaltic appearance, I
“have little doubt it has pierced the granite. Large
“ veins of quartz traverse this rock.”

The testimony and deduétions of HUMBOLDT regard-
ing this part of the country, seem to add confirmation to
the theory that it is highly auriferous “ I have already
“‘ observed that the silvery lustre and frequency of mica
“have contributed to give Guiana great celebrity for
“ metallic wealth, * * * According to the fabulous
*€ stories of the natives, the islets of mica-slate, situated
“in Lake Amucu, augment by their refle€tion the lustre
“ of the nebulz of the Southern sky. * * * RALEIGH
“ asserts that he brought back gangues of auriferous white
‘quartz (‘hard white spar’) and to prove the richness of
“ this ore he gives an account of the assays that were made
“ by the officers of the mint in London * * * * * *
“The gneiss of the littoral chain contains traces of the
“precious metals; and some grains of gold have been
* found in the mountains of Parima near the mission of

362 TIMEHRI.

“ Encamarada! How can we infer the absolute sterility -
“ of the primitive rocks of Guiana from testimony merely
‘ negative ; from the circumstance, that during a journey
‘of three months we saw no auriferous vein appearing
“ above the soil? In order to bring together whatever
‘may enlighten the government of this country on a
“‘ subje& so long disputed, I will enter upon a few more
‘ geological considerations. The mountains of Brazil,
“ notwithstanding the numerous traces of imbedded ore
‘‘ which they display between Saint Paul and Villa Rica
‘have furnished only stream works of gold. More than
“ six-sevenths of the seventy-eight thousand marks
* (£52,000) of this metal, with which at the beginning
‘© of the 1gth century, America annually supplied the
“ commerce of Europe, have come, not from the lofty
‘‘ Cordilleras of the Andes; but from the alluvial lands
“in the east and west of the Cordilleras. These lands
“ are raised but little above the level of the sea, like
“¢ those of Sonora in Mexico; and of Choco and Barbacoas
“ in New Granada; or they stretch along in table lands
“ as in the interior of Brazil. Is it not probable that
“some other depositions of auriferous earth extend
‘‘ towards the northern hemisphere, as far as the banks of
‘“the Upper Orinoco and the Rio Negro, two rivers
“ which form but one basin with that of the Amazon? I
‘‘ observed, when speaking of El Dorado de Cafielas, the
“ Qmaguas and the Iquiare, that a/most all the rivers
“ which How from the west, wash down gold in abun-
“ dance very far trom the Cordilleras, * * * * The
‘plains of Ramora * * * in fine all the country com-
‘prised between Juan de Bracamoros and the Guaviare
“ preserve their ancient celebrity for metallic wealth.

THE FUTURE PROSPERITY OF THE COLONY. 363

“More to the east between the sources of the Guainia
““(Rio Negro) the Uaupes, the Iquiare, and the Yuru-
“besi, we find a soil incontestably auriferous. There,
“ ACUNHA and Father FRITZ placed their Laguna del
“ Oro; and various accounts which I obtained at San
“Carlos from Portuguese Americans, explain perfectly
‘‘ what LA CONDAMINE has related of the plates of
“ beaten gold found in the hands of the natives. // we
“pass from the Igquiare to the left bank of the Rio
“ Negro, we enter a country entirely unknown, be-
“ tween the Rio Branco, the sources of the Essequibo
“and the mountains of Portuguese Guiana. ACUNHA
“ speaks of the gold washed down by the northern tribu-
“tary streams of the lower Maranon such as the Rio
‘* Trombetas (Orixinoina), the Curupatuba and the Gini-
“pape (Rio de Paru). /¢ appears to me a circum-
“ stance worthy of attention that all these rivers descend
“ from the same table-land, the northern slope of which
“ contains the lake Amucu, the Dorado of Raletgh and
“the Dutch, and the isthmus between the Rupununit
(Rupunuwint) and the Rio Mahu (Ireng), There is
‘* no reason for denying the existence of auriferous allu-
“ vial lands far from the Cordilleras of the Andes, on the
*€ north of the Amazon; as there are on the south in the
“mountains of Brazil. The Caribs of the Caroney, the
“€Cuyuni and the Essequibo, have pra€tised on a small
“scale the washing of alluvial earth from the remotest
“times. When we examine the structure of mountains
‘and embrace in our point of view an extensive surface
‘of the globe, distances disappear ; and places the most
remote insensibly draw near each other. The basin of
“the upper Orinoco, the Rio Negro and the Amazon is

564 TIMEHRI.

‘“ bounded by the mountains of Parime on the north and
“ by those of Minas Geraes and Matogrosso on the south.
“The opposite slopes of the same valley often display
“ an analogy in their geological relations.” *

A discovery of SCHOMBURGK’S which may be men-
tioned here in conneétion with the opening up of the
country, and of this savannah country in particular, is
the following :—Near the ‘‘ Quitaro River” we had to
cross numerous swamps abounding in a species of cocao
(Theobroma bicolor). The large melon shaped fruits
of all sizes, ‘‘some green, some of a bright yellow, were
‘“ eagerly colleéted by the Indians, who however did not
‘‘ appear acquainted with the fine aroma which the seed
“itself possesses—we colleéted a number of seeds of
“which I counted as many as sixty in one capsule.
‘“‘ They afforded us for some mornings the most delicious
“cup of cocoa I ever tasted. It is remarkable that
“cocoa in its wild state is only found in swampy, or at
* the best moist situations. The trees which I observed,
‘although of a peculiar growth, almost shrubby, and
“ the trunks less developed than in large forest trees,
“often attained the height of 50 feet. The capsules
‘‘ were large and contained from sixty to seventy seeds,
“which were larger than in the cultivated kind but not
“so thick.”

In Reports on geology of British Guiana by Charles
B. Brown, F.G.S. and F. G. Sawkins, F.G.S., p. 94,
B. Concretionary Iron Ore, it is stated that: “ On the

* Humboldt’s Personal Narrative Vol. iii, page 139. It seemscertain
from several historical notices that there exist two groups of auriferous
alluvial land * * * and the other between the sources of the Esse.
quibo, the Caroni and the Rupunuri (Rupununi),

THE FUTURE PROSPERITY OF THE COLONY. 365

“ savannah it frequently occurs on the surface in the form
“ of gravel, with black shining exterior. The cause of
“this is explained by the clay and sand beds overlying
“the gravel or concretionary iron ore having been
** washed off.

“ Jt ts in these formations the greater portion of the
“ sold obtained from Caratal in Venezuela ts found,
“ which I suggested as my opinion prior to that fact
“ being known to me. (See my report on the Cuyuni
* River, 1868.)”

To return again to the subjeét of possible quartz
mining in the savannahs, there is no doubt that if the
stone is proved to be sufficiently rich to pay working
expenses, many mines will be found and the run of
the different veins and lodes easily and rapidly deter-
mined owing to the absence of dense forest from the
surrounding country. One of the greatest difficulties in
the way of finding the direétion of quartz veins is the
forest, and in faét the words of Mr. W. T. BLAN-
FORD, F.R.S., in the Article “ Geology,” (Hints to
Travellers published by the Geographical Society) may
be fitly quoted. ‘‘ Dense forest,” he says, “is perhaps the
“ worst obstacle to geological exploration.”

Regarding the occurrence of gold in this colony and
the many localities where it is found, it may perhaps
help to open up distriéts and lead to important discover-
ies, to state that the Indian name for gold is caricur?
and the prefixes carz, curi, cura, curu, and corz, to many
of the names of places, rivers and streams of the colony
which may be noticed on consulting any large map
possibly denote the existence, in the vicinity of these
different spots, of either auriferous soil or rock. Speak-

3A

366 TIMEHRI.

ing of this word Carzcurz, HUMBOLDT says in his Per-
sonal Narrative (Vol: 3, BOHN’S Edition page 51, also
page 344, note): This denomination clearly indicates
“the country of gold, for I find that this metal is
“ called Caricurz in the Tamanac, and Carucuru in the
“ Caribbee. Is it a foreign word that word that de-
“notes gold among the nations of the Orinoco as the
‘** words sugar and cotton are in our European languages ?
“ This would prove that these nations learned to know
“the precious metal among the foreign produéts which
“came to them from the Cordilleras* or from the plains
“ at the eastern back of the Andes.”

At the present time, and unfortunately somewhat to
the discredit of the colony, the reported diamond dis-
coveries in the Mazaruni have not been followed up and
thoroughly investigated. What is now required is an
exhaustive inspeétion of the diamond bearing ground,
and full reports on the locality, with dire@tions for reach-
ing it, accompanied by a carefully made chart of the
Mazaruni River and the main creeks in its neighbour-
hood, together with the dire€tion of a suitable path
by which to reach the diggings from the riverside.
This should be taken in hand without delay and if it
prove feasible, and the reports on the diggings are
favourable enough to warrant the expenditure of money
to open up and improve communications with it,
this should be done. Cheap copies of the map when
made might be reproduced by the ferro-prussiate process
of photography and issued to the public to induce them

* In Peruvian or Quichua (lengua del Inca) gold is called cori, whence
are derived chichicori, gold in powder and corikoya, gold ore,

THE FUTURE PROSPERITY OF THE COLONY. 367

‘to try their fortunes on the ground as well as to serve as
guides to prospeétors.

As regards towns and settlements in the forests, these
may be gradually founded in the important distriéts, if
the sale and purchase of gold and merchandise be per-
mitted in the distri€ts, and as has been suggested
in evidence before the Commission already mentioned,
if the labourers are paid off in the localities where
they work. British Guiana is at present not a poor
man’s gold mining country, chiefly on account of the
difficulties of travel, which necessitate the carriage of
large stores of provisions, the employment of many
boat hands, large boats and experienced captains and
bowmen. Much of this might be avoided were there a
resident gold mining population in the forest, surrounded
by cultivated felds and pasture land with cattle thereon,
and in a manner thoroughly self-maintaining and self-
dependent. The means of intercommunicatioa must
clearly be the different rivers and smaller streams wher-
ever practicable ; and where communication must neces-
sarily be by land, bush roads must be made. Through-
out the vast territory of Venezuela it is safe to say there
are not many miles of macadamised road, and, almost all
the roads that traverse the country are bush roads or roads
through the savannahs fit for pack and draft animals
donkeys, horses and mules. In certain parts of Trinidad
these bush roads have long existed and proved of im-
mense service to the Island before the better and metalled
roads were made. In wet weather they often became
a€tual quagmires, but nevertheless traffic was maintained,
over them. Here the experience in the wallaba bush,
where shingles and posts are carried long distances

3A2

368 TIMEHRI.

through the forest in mule carts, is, that the roads stand
the traffic well, and not being cut very wide open, do not
admit enough sunlight to allow of the too rapid growth
of all kinds of bush ropes and creepers and small trees,
which might render the maintenance of the pathway a
matter of even very small extra expense after its first
construction.

There is unfortunately no rich leisured class in the
colony who from pure love of adventure and travel
would add to the general knowledge of the interior of
the country by carefully chosen spheres for exploration.
The only leisured classes are by a curious anomaly the
black labourers and the bucks; the former enjoy their
cessation from toil at the beginning and end of every
week, while the latter appear to maintain an unending
indefinite holiday, and nothing can be expeéted from
either of these classes to add to the small amount of
information at the disposal of the traveller, All must
be done either by Government or private enterprise.
For private enterprise the Steamer Contraétors must be
commended for the way in which they have helped to
facilitate access to the interior, so far as their steamers
have, up to the present, been able to penetrate, as in-
stanced by the large number of voyages made by their
boats over and above the number required by the terms of
their contract. In this, of course, business acumen has
pointed out how very much to the advantage of the Con-
tra€tors the incréased though unsubsidized steam service
would be, There is, however, a far wider field yet
before them and there is also scope for the energies and
capital of any one who may in the future secure the
right to navigate the higher still-water reaches of the

THE FUTURE PROSPERITY OF THE COLONY. 369

various waterways of the colony, when the Government
are warranted by the spread of the Gold Mining Industry
to invite tenders for this special service. A seldom
considered source of prosperity to the celony lies in the
immense tracts of fertile coast lands, where rice, the
main food of the East Indian population, can be grown,
not only to supply local needs, but also for export.
The aomunt annually imported into the British Isles
is between eight and nine millions of hundred weights.
The local consumption is 37,800,000 Ibs., and bearing in
mind the large number of men and women that the
imminent abandonment of some of the sugar estates
will put out of work, and the difficulties to be expe-
rienced in finding reasonable employment for them as well
as the very grave question of possible food and labour
riots if work be not forthcoming, it does seem that
a€tive, and indeed very a€tive steps should be taken to
throw open to cultivation the immense traéts above re-
ferred to,

The “ Divinity that shapes our ends,” may unknown
to us have decreed that the abandonment of sugar
properties is to be the turning point in the Colo-
nial history; and that the labour set free from the
sugar fields is to be utilised on the rice patch, the
gold placer, and the provision ground in the forest,
Full warning has been given of the coming crisis and
it is for the inhabitants to manfully accept the new
order of things, and while supporting sugar as it de-
serves, to provide other avenues of employment and of
wealth and prosperity. To foster and encourage the
gold industry, to work with a set plan for the opening
up of the country gradually, and the improvement and

370 TIMEHRI.

maintenance of communication with the interior, may
safely be recommended to our administrators as the wisest
and soundest of policies to ensure future prosperity.
There is no need to assure the Government of the un-
bounded faith that the colonists have in them, nor to
prove their loyalty and the ready way in which all will
be found to respond to any beneficial legislation that the
Government may think fit to enaét for the improvement
of the Gold Industry or any other Industry generally.
If proof be required, let those who can remember the
time, call to mind the vast impetus given to the Gold
Mining Industry in 1886-87, immediately after the
regulations for mining became law. Previous to the
passing of the regulations, few persons in town knew
that gold was even being obtained in any quantity in the
colony ; and still fewer were those who embarked capital
in prosecuting the search for the precious metal. Imme-
diately the Government took the matter in hand, specu-
lation became general, because everybody had the fullest
confidence that by their a€tion the Government meant
to protect and help the Industry ; and from all quarters
money came pouring in freely for expeditions into the
interior. The experience of the past in this is bound
to be repeated, and it may be said again that the wisest
of all policies now, is to assist the Industry and vigo-
rously push it forward with the immediate prospeé of
generally increased prosperity to all in the colony.

Occasional Notes.

By the Editor.

Bites and Stings:x—RICHARD SCHOMBURGK’S account
of the death of poor KATE (ante p. 312) reminds us that
we have very few reliable accounts of the effe&ts of
venomous bites and stings, As for popular ideas on
this subje&t they are exceedingly vague, the common
expression in regard to what does not kill being, that it
‘‘ gives fever.” Except the bites of ants we have rarely
experienced any of these, yet it may be interesting to
give an account of three cases.

The most virulent was undoubtedly that of a mason
wasp or “mud dauber.” While hanging up our hat in
an open gallery we must have gone too near its nest,
the consequence being a sting on the second finger of the
right hand. The immediate effe€t was a burning pain as
if a hot needle had penetrated the skin, soon followed by
numbness almost amounting to paralysis. The finger
was slightly swollen and very shortly afterwards the
stiffness extended over the whole hand and up the arm
to the shoulder. The pain was trifling but the whole
arm and hand was so paralysed as to prevent their being
used properly. It was with very great difficulty we
could use our knife at dinner and the stiffness, although
it became gradually less, could be felt up to the third
day. From these feelings we could easily understand
that the numbing effeét on a spider must be something
very great ; no wonder that it produces catalepsy for
weeks or even months.

372 TIMEHRIL.

We have never been stung by a scorpion, but on one
occasion found ourselves bitten on the back of the neck,
or rather between the shoulders, by a small centipede.
We were led to expeé something very painful, but as
a matter of faét it was hardly worth thinking about.
True, the creature was young and not more than two
inches in length, but there was little pain and no signs of
anything like the paralysis of the mud dauber. The place
was hot and sore for a time, but not so fiery as the bite
of the common red ant and in an hour or two the pain
was entirely gone.

In handling some newly colleéted orchids on one occa-
sion we were bitten on one of our fingers by what at first
we thought was a poisonous snake. As we did not catch
sight of the creature we thought it best to take every pre-
caution. There were the marks of two fangs, and soon
after a slight swelling and a rosy blotch the size of a
shilling. We tied the finger tightly below, sucked the
place, applied some iodine liniment which happened to’
be at hand, and in an hour or two felt all right. There
was never anything more than a slight burning sensation,
but as we squeezed and sucked and burnt the part with
the iodine it can hardly be said that this was all that
might have resulted without interference. In looking
over the orchids afterwards we found a large hairy
spider (Mygale) and believe this must have been the
culprit.

There appears to be great differences in the effeéts of
bites and stings according to constitution and tempera-
ment. The new-comer suffers much more than an old
colonist, as is well known, especially if he is oKthe
florid robust type; thin wiry people on the contrary are

OCCASIONAL NOTES. 37

i?)

little affe€ted. Probably in the case of mosquitoes a sort
of inoculation takes place, after which the poison has
little effect,

In conneétion with this matter we may mention that
when a gnat or other small inseét gets into the eye,
however painfu! it may be, the instin€tive desire to rub
it should be carefully avoided. Once we suffered for
two days from killing a gnat under one of the eyelids
and since then have escaped inconvenience by letting
them always crawl out again, which they generally do
very quickly or by letting the consequent flow of tears
wash them away.

There is a hairy caterpillar in which the hairs re-
semble the sting of a nettle. These are much dreaded,
and although the popular notion is undoubtedly ex-
aggerated, the effeét is sufficiently painful to account for
their careful avoidance, From the statement of a medical
friend who was stung by one or more of these hairs, it
appears that there was a numbing effeé& similar to that
produced by the mason wasp; possibly this would cause
a bird to drop the creature at once when its mouth was
stung,

a Tergee” care ee

Text-books for Botanieal Students.—For over twenty
years past we have been asked now and again to state
where a beginner can find an account of the plants of
Guiana so as to be able to recognise them. In the
absence of anything like a Flora of the country we have
always had some difficulty in answering the question
and could only point to our library, or enter into a long
explanation. Perhaps a few hints as to the best books
may be useful, and if they lead anyone to take up the

3B

374 TIMEHRI.

study of botany will help on what is undoubtedly a good
work.

To begin with the books that are absolutely necessary.
First, we have GRISEBACH’S “Flora of the British
West Indies.” This is very useful indeed, especially
for the coast plants, as these are virtually identical with
species found in Trinidad and the more southern islands.
A beginner can get along fairly well with this book alone
up to the time when he begins to visit the forest region.
Now and again he will come upon something which he
cannot identify, but this may be preserved until a later
period when his knowledge of the more wide-spread
species is fairly complete. If he wishes the assistance of
illustrations there are several old books such as those of
PLUMIER, JACQUIN, and SWARTZ, which will help him
considerably. These are referred to by GRISEBACH, so
that there will be no great difficulty in finding them out
however obscured they may be from their out-of-date
nomenclature,

Having got so far as to be able to identify almost
everything in his neighbourhood, the student may pre-
pare himself for the more difficult task of identifying the
plants of the forest region, and here he will meet with
many checks. GRISEBACH helps him but little and there
is no single book of the same kind which can be utilised.
However, he need not despair as there are a few books
which will prove of very great assistance. First among
these we place the third volume of RICHARD SCHOM-
BURGK’S “ Reisen in Britisch Guiana,” which contains a
list of the plants found by that indefatigable botanist.
Unfortunately it does not contain descriptions, and there-
fore the student has to go farther for these, but neverthe-

OCCASIONAL NOTES. 375

less even such an index is by no means to be despised.
Most of his early ‘ finds’ will be included in this list—
in faét, unless he has special opportunities he will hardly
discover any species not mentioned. Having checked
off every plant that he has seen, the list will be much
reduced, so that instead of having to wade through a
crowd of species he only has perhaps half a dozen to
investigate. If he is “ weil up” in the genera and their
divisions he can often make a fair guess by elimination.
Thus, he knows all that are checked off, so the new
plant is not one of these—then it belongs to a certain
division of which only one or two are strangers,
therefore it is likely to be one of these, and there may
be something in the habitat that makes the enquirer
morally certain that it can only be so-and-so. Now, to
confirm this guess it is necessary to have access toa few
books which are perhaps not so easily procurable. First
among these we place the “ Contributions towards a
Flora of South America” published in Hooker's Fournal
of Botany. This is very incomplete as a list of Guiana
plants, yet there are many species first described here.
Then come three books which will be found very useiul
as they are authorities for many species, viz, Aublet’s
“Flora de la Guyane Frangaise,” Meyer’s “ Primitiz
Flore Essequeboensis,” and Rudge’s ** Plantarum Guianz
Icones.” Finally, we have the whole field of botanical
literature, commencing with that indispensable book
Decandolle’s “ Prodromus.” An _ exceedingly useful
work is the “ Flora Braziliensis” which has been coming
out in parts for over half a century, but unfortunately it
is beyond the means of most botanists.

We have presumed that the student has obtained

3B2

376 TIMEHRI.

some knowledge of botany before commencing to study
the flora of Guiana and here he meets with a great diffi-
culty at the very commencement. His text-books have
dealt with the plants of the country where they were
published, and the authors took their examples from the
fields, woods and gardens around them. There is no
introduétion to botany in which plants from Guiana,
South America, or the West Indies are utilised in a simi-
lar way, and therefore a new alphabet as it were must
be learnt. This however is not so difficult as it appears
at first sight and with a little perseverance the natural
orders become quite as familiar as those which are so
well represented in Europe and North America. It
would undoubtedly be a good thing if some botanist
were to publish an introduction to botany for tropical
America, but unfortunately the small amount of support
likely to be given would prevent such a work being a
financial success.
RL Sas Pas

Ward’s Trench.—Since we published Mr. KIRKE’S
paper on the Early years of the Lamaha Canal (Zzmehrt
1893, p- 284) we have seen a document which giv. s some
interesting particulars bearing on WARD'S Trench.
HuGH HUGHES, attorney of JOSEPH WARD of Liverpool,
proprietor of Pln. Industry and also of Lots g and to in
No. 3 Canal, extending from the third depth of Industry
to the Canal, these not having been put under cultivation
and therefore doubts having arisen as to their having
lapsed to the crown, petitioned Governor D’URBAN to
have them secured. What was the date of this first
petition does not appear but a second was dated August
31st, 1826, this stating that a trench commonly called

OCCASIONAL NOTES. 377

WARD’S Trench had been dug out at his expense along
the western side line of the second and third depths of
Pln. Industry, and that the Canal lots which were con-
sidered to have reverted to the Crown had been taken
possession of in order to facilitate the bringing of the
waters of the Lamaha Creek to Georgetown. A third
petition dated September 21st, 1826, set forth that by
the sacrifice of the convenience of his navigation in
giving up the Trench, which had been dug at great
expense, he had in faét contributed more labour towards
bringing fresh water to town than other estates which
derived benefit therefrom, and which had also claimed
remuneration by grants of land. In consideration of the
circumstances, on the 13th of March, 1829, permission
was granted to the proprietor of Pin. Industry to
resume possession of the Canal lots and to occupy
during His Majesty’s pleasure certain lands adjoining
the Lamaha Canali.
de ee

A Method of getting round the Rapfids.—lin reference
to water communication, which is undoubtedly indicated
by nature as the best mode of opening up the colony,
the Hon. N. D. DAvis sends the following :—

Dating from Himarracka, on the Mazaruni River, Mr.
A. B. BARNARD, the successful gold-finder, wrote to a
friend in Georgetown, on the 9th December last, as
follows :—

“I wish to explain to you that the difficult falls are
few, and that the greater part of the river is open and
deep, as well as perfeétly safe, (1 speak exclusively of
the Mazaruni). And further, on close examination it
will be found (as I am already aware) that there is a

378 TIMEHRI.

large number of narrow ‘“‘Itabos” (that is, side pas-'
sages), which are dry part of the year, being cut off
from water by high rock at the upper end or entrance.
Now, to deepen the head of such a passage, and supply
it with Locks of the splendid Greenheart that is growing
at hand, is my plan.

“ By utilising these side passages, and introducing
water; which is the most important factor, and is plenti-
ful; all the many miles of the river can be brought into
cheap and effeétive connection with tide water, and also
all the tributaries, many of which are very large rivers
themselves, requiring many days in the boat constantly
going, to get to any obstruétion.

“It would certainly surprise you to see what grand
rivers these branches are. We are, besides, at least
280 miles here, above the last fall; a wide river, say as
wide as the Demerara at Georgetown.

“ The resources of the country inland are almost unli-
mited. Timber and Gold and other metals, are at
present secondary. But, for Crops and Cattle, it is
equal to the best. The possibilities are very great.’

a See oe

The Chief Fustices of British Guiana.—We have ‘to
thank Mr. H. Kirke for the following :—

Owing to the recent retirement of Sir DAVID PATRICK ©
CHALMERS, from the office of Chief Justice of British
Guiana, it may seem opportune to give a list of all the
Chief Justices, Judges, and aéting Judges who preceded
him on the Judicial Bench of the Colony. ‘There is some
difficulty in furnishing a perfeét List, but the following will
be found to be fairly accurate. It may be noted that there
have been only six Chief Justices of British Guiana

OCCASIONAL NOTES. 379

since the Supreme Court was established on Nov. 22nd,
1831, viz: WRAY, BENT, ARRINDELL, BEAUMONT,
SNAGG and CHALMERS; of these, four have died in
harness in the Colony, one was dismissed from his office,
and Sir DAviD CHALMERS alone has retired on a well-
- earned pension.

In 1832 Charles Wray, Esq., was Chief Justice and
J. W. Willis and Samuel Firebrace were the Puisne
Judges. In 1835, the pay of the Chief Justice was
£3,000 and each of the Judges received £2,500.

Date.

1840. Feb. 25 ... William Furlonge, A&ting Judge.
1842. May 16 .-- William Furlonge, 5 e
1842. March 1 ... Henry Gloster, as -

» June 24 .-- Jordan Roche, 56 3
Deer ss by ..- Thomas Norton, Judge.

1844. O&. 14 ..» Robt. Rutledge Craig, A€ting
Judge.

1844. Nov. 30 ... John Downie, Judge.

1846. July 6 --- Robt. Rutledge Craig, A&ing
Judge.

1846. Sept, 30 ..- Robt. Crosby Beete, Aé&tg. Judge.

1846. O&. 15 ... Enno Lambertus Christiani, Aét-
ing Judge.

1847. July 11 ... Jeffrey Hart Bent, Chief Justice.

[Bent, C.J., died June 2gth, 1852. |

1847. Aug. .-» William Arrindell, A&ting Chief
Justice.

1847. Nov. - John Downie, Aéting Chief Tus-
tice.

1847. Nov. ee Rights Crosby Beste, A Aine idge:

1848, June 13... Robt, Crosby Beete, ,, ‘3

380 TIMEHRI.

1849. Dec. 22 ... Enno Lambertus Christiani, A&t-
ing Judge.
[vice Saml. Firebrace, decd, |
1849. Dec. 22 .«» Robt. Crosby Beete, A&ting Judge.
1850. Nov. 11 ..» Robt. Crosby Beete, ,, a
[Mr, Beete was subsequently confirmed as a Puisne
Judge. ]

1850. Nov. 11 ... Enno Lambertus Christioni, AG-
ing Judge.

1§52. June 21 .»» William Arrindell, A€&ting Chief
Justice.

1852. June 29 ..«» William Arrindell, Prov. Chief
Justice.

[In consequence of the death of Bent, C.J.]
{William Arrindell was subsequently confirmed as C.J.
and Knighted. ]

1852. ... Adam M. Alexander, Judge,
1853. April 27 ... John Noble Harvey, A@ing Judge.
1862. Dec. 29 --» John Lucie Smith, Prov. Chief
Justice.
[In consequence of the death of Sir William Arrindell. |
1863. April ... Joseph Beaumont, Chief Justice.
1865. Nov. ... Bernard Gustavus Norton, Judge.
1865. Aug. 9g ... John Lucie Smith, A&ing Chief
Justice.

[In consequence of the suspension of Beaumont, C.J.]
1865. Nov. 8 ... James Crosby, A€ting Judge.

1868, Aug, 8 ... John Lucie Smith, A&ting Chief
Justice.
{In consequence of the removal of Beaumont, C.J.]
1868. Dec. 5 ... Sir William Snagg, Chief Justice.

1868. Feb. 24 -.. John Hampden King, Judge.

OCCASIONAL NOTES. 381

1869. Mar. 10 ... W. F. Haynes Smith, A€ting
Judge.
1869. Decr. 8 ... W.F.Haynes Smith, ating Judge.
1870. Mar. 25 .... James Crosby, 4 x
1871 Aug. 31 ... George Phillipo, 7
1673. Sep. 23 ... Conway Whithorne Lovesy, _,,
1874. April 7 ... Henty Kirke, acting ,,
1875. Oét. .26 ... J. Hampdon King, aéting Chief
Justice.
7 e326 ... Nicholas Atkinson, aéting Judge.
1878. Jan. 19 ... Hugh Riley Semper, s
eeeeD aeri

On the Summit of Mt. Roraima.—Mr. QUELCH,
who returned on the 23rd of January froma long journey
in the interior has favoured us with the following note :—

Since the discovery of a path to the summit of this
famous mountain, and its first ascent in 1884 by Messrs.
IM THURN and PERKINS, several orchid colle€tors have
made the ascent; but little, however, has been con-
tributed by them to our knowledge of its Topography.
Taking advantage of the opportunity afforded by our
expedition to the great Savannah, Mr. F. V. MCCONNELL
and myself, accompanied by Mr. C. A. Lioyp, de-
termined to make a more detailed examination of
the summit than had hitherto been attempted. Leay-
ing the Makusi village of Kwaimatta with 39 Makusi
and Arrekuna bearers and with two taxidermists in
the middle of Oétober, we reached the Arrekuna village
of Kamaivawong at the base of the mountain on Novem-
ber 3rd, after a most arduous walk of 17 days, across
the intervening mountains—portages of the Ireng and
Kotinga Rivers having been made at Karona Falls and

3C

382 TIMEHRI.

Sokoking respe€tively. Three days were spent in
reconnoitring the path and in building a_ half-way
house at a height of 6,400 ft., and on the 7th the ascent
was made to the summit along the path discovered by
Mr. IM THURN, which we found to present no difficulty
whatever as regards climbing, though the walking was
intensely arduous and tiring. The general aspe& of the
plateau on the summit fully bore out the description as
given by Mr. IM THURN, though our more extended exam-
ination during the two nights and three days spent there
enables us to add to it considerably. The extent of the
summit should be described as presenting not the aspeét
of a hollow basin, but of a plateau which has been
worked by aérial denudation into altogether irregular
and broken series of deep valleys and precipitous ridges,
the total difference between the lowest and highest
points being more than 4oo ft. The ridges are frequently
broken into isolated peaks, the highest being 8,740
above the sea level, presenting the aspeét of piles and
terraces of irregular boulders and masses. The valleys
wind about in almost an endless maze, lake-like shallow
pools, more or less obscured by an abundant dwarf vege-
tation of more than fifty species of Xyrzs, Pepalanthus,
Abolboda, Heliamphora, Stegilepis, Brocchinia, Bon-
netia, Epidendron, Lisianthus, Befaria, etc., and
various ferns, lycopods and mosses, succeeding each
other at close intervals, After the slightest rains the
surplus water is carried off along these valleys as an
overflow to the ravines on the edge, descending to
the slopes below as waterfalls to swell the various
surrounding streams, Many small trees are spread over
the valleys, and climb up in a jdensely packed bushy

OCCASIONAL NOTES. 383

jungle along the western slopes of the higher ridges, the
common species of Bonnetia (B. Roraime) being at
once the most abundant and the largest, reaching toa
height of more than thirty feet. Three species of birds,
a mammal, a toad, an earthworm, a woodlouse, two
spiders, two myriapods, a dragon-fly, a butterfly and a
few other small inse€ts—chiefly beetles,—are to be
found on the summit, and doubtless more complete
examination will greatly extend the list. The sand-
stone and conglomerate which form the entire mass
of the summit, are worked into almost every conceivable
grotesque shape, and are more or less darkened by
weather and saturation with water, fine layers of sandy
shale here and there projecting from the mass. Clouds
and mists of various degrees of density constantly lie on
or pass across some portion of the plateau and made it a
difficult matter to secure good photographs. The cold
winds and low temperature (47° F.) make it necessary
to secure good shelter for the night; while the rugged
charaéter of the plateau entails a considerable amount of
time for its exploration. Descending on the evening of
the gth, at the urgent entreaty of our Indians, to the
village at the base of the slope, we had to make arrange-
ments for leaving on the 12th, and after a journey of 11
days, via the portage of Kalisha-sararu on the Kotinga
and Karona Falls on the Ireng, we arrived at Kwaimatta
on the 23rd November after an absence of 36 days. A
more detailed account will be given later.

3C2

Report of Meetings of the Society.

Meeting held Fuly 12th.—Mr. R. G, Duncan, F.R.s
President, in the chair.
Members present 20.
EleGtions.—Members ; Messrs, E. D. Wight, E. H.
King, M. J. Morpurgo, A. Moody Stuart, R. J.
Gaskin, D. C. Evans, Geo. W. Brown, A. R. Labad
and H. A. L. Rowe.
The annexed reasons for awards at the Columbian
Exposition were laid over :—

Max & Co.; Essence of Tonka.—For excellence of Flavour.

Coolie Colonist; Gold and Silver Ornaments.—Originzlity of the de-
sign; novelty and good workmanship.

Booker Brothers; Bath Tubs and Vat.—Good workmanship, and the
peculiar properties of Wallaba wood, which makes the tubs and vat
non-absorbent and thus sanitary.

Park & Cunningham ; Colleétion of Woods.—A full hand colleétion of
all the important woods of the Colony, permitting ready inspettion of
their struéture and qualities, thereby conveying valuable information.

Julio Siza; Photographs; Illustrating the Habitations, Industries and
Peoples of British Guiana.—This colle€&tion of photographs represents
the various races and types of British Guiana, The Chinese and
Coolies, or East Indians, show the imported working classes; the Negro,
the race left from the days of African slavery: the Forest, Savannah
and Coast Tribes of Indians, the natives of the country; the Spanish,
French, Creole types, and the Scotch and English.

The series shows adults and children, and forms an interesting study
of race and climatic modifications. There are pictures of native
houses, of scenes in the primeval forest, and views of the present re-
markable development of the ccuntry under the influence of European
enterprise. The entire colleétion is a valuable contribution to an un-
derstanding of the people of British Guiana and their environment.

British Guiana Exhibition Committee; Stuffed Fishes, Reptiles.—

Report OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 385

For a collectively interesting and good representation of the fauna of
British Guiana.

British Guiana Commission; Bark Hut.—This is a careful reproduction
of the dwellings of the natives of British Guiana who live upon the
Savannahs. The workmanship is most interesting, the outside parts
of Tau-ra-ne-ro wood are carefully chipped after the bark has been
peeled, and the thatch of palm leaves retains its symmetrical beauty after
months of exposure to wind and storms. The interior arrangements
have been carefully arranged, showing the hanging Babracot for the
storage of valuables, as well as the same frame-work which is set up
outside the hut for smoking and drying meat. Much praise is due the
British Guiana Commission for its labour and care in reproducing this
interesting exhibit.

British Guiana Commission; Collective Ethnographic Exhibit of
British Guiana; Indian Pottery, Gourds and Wooden Vessels.—The
value of this complete exhibit of utensils for cooking and storage of
food and water is greatly enhanced by its admirable classification and
arrangement. No labour has been spared to bring together from widely
separated and isolated localities, specimens to represent all kinds of
vessels in use among the natives of British Guiana.

Indian War Canoe.—This canoe belongs to the Macusi Tribe of
British Guiana and has been transported at great labour and expense,
and is a most valuable contribution to the study of native art in canoe-
building. The body, about thirty-seven feet long, is hollowed by fire
and chipped into the desired form, which is low and broad, adapted to
river travel; the height is gained by the addition of a top board of
crab-wood which is fastened by Karamani and calked with fibre. This
is a War Canoe similar to those once used by the Caribs. It is a most
valuable contribution to the study of the natives of Guiana and is the
first of its kind to be placed beside similar crafts built by Indians of the
North Pacific Coast for purposes of comparison,

Household Utensils and Furnishings.—This colleétion is of great
value in the line of native arts, especially wood carving, textile art, bark.
work, cloth, and hammocks of all known types. Especial care has been
given to show the types of Geometric-ornament in basketry, There are
several hundred objects trom the Guiana tribes and of ancient dates.
The objects are chosen by funétion and by tribe. The cases and many
of the objeéts are carefully labeled,

British Guiana Commission ; Dug-outs from Demerara River; Two

386 TIMEHRI.

Bark Canoes: Dug-outs.— Native dug-outs from Demerara River, They
show a curious mode of transportation, and illustrate the manners and
customs of the country.

British Guiana Commission: Large series of the different groups
of Birds with Nests and Eggs.—An excellent representation of the
bird-fauna of British Guiana.

British Guiana Museum: Large series of many mounted and Aat
skins of Mammals of the chief species of the different Orders.—This
exhibit comprises a large series of flat skins of mammals of the chief
species of the different orders of the chara&teristic mammals of British
Guiana, It is of much scientific interest and value.

British Guiana Museum: Indian Necklaces, Aprons, Hammocks and
Frames of all Descriptions.—The collection of seed and bead neck-
laces worn by women, and those of filed Peccary teeth with long
pendants terminated by brilliant birds, worn by the men, is large
and valuable. The Queyu or aprons, the sole garments of the
women are classified according to tribes; the bark aprons of the
Swamp Indians, the cotton ones of the Savannah tribes. A peculiar
point of interest is well brought out, that the design woven with beads
are reproduétions of those used by the different tribes in their basketry.
The looms set for weaving are shown. The hammock making industry
is admirably illustrated. The palm fibre, the cords and ropes beauti-
fully twisted, and the well finished hammock display the skill of the
Warrow tribe; while the raw cotton, the several grades of yarn, and
the remarkable variety of netting of the Macusis are shown. The
Arawak Indian combines the cotton and palm yarn in his hammock.
The entire colleétion is exhibited with ethnographic skill.

British Guiana Museum: complete series of Indian Basketwork.—
This exhibit forms a very complete series of Indian Basketwork, the
various types made by the natives being well exemplified: the large
suriana made of bark fibre, and used as pack or pannier baskets;
the quake made for temporary purposes, or for permanent wear; the
forms used in cotton picking; and the Pegall or covered baskets, from
the little receptacle of two inches square to those of large size. The
ornamentation of these baskets of reed and bamboo is of much interest.
Care has been taken to gather the various patterns, woven in black or
red and the natural colour of the material. Basketry is also shown in
the matopee, used for squeezing the juice of the cassava, and in the
sifters which are in many sizes and styles of weaving; mats, trays and

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 8
3°7

coverings for pottery, to prote& the large earthern pots and by which
to carry them, are also included in this industry, as well as fans for blow-
ing the fire, fish-traps and ant baskets, used to catch ants and apply
them to the backs of youths to train them in endurance and prepare
them for the life of a hunter. The entire collection shows the customs
of the native races and their skill in weaving free-hand designs, the
turkey pattern being one of the most curious.

British Guiana Museum; Special collection of Feather Crowns of
Guiana Indians, Stone Implements.—The collection is comprised of
twenty-six feather crowns, embracing the types used among the
Indians of British Guiana. ‘These with the feather shoulder capes, form
a valuable series for the study of the ceremonies of the native people-
Specimens of all the species of birds from the feathers of which these
ornaments are made are exhibited. The small colletion of prehistoric
implements is of much scientific value.

Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society of British Guiana;
Timehri, the Scientific Journal of Guiana; Several Volumes.—The
Timehrvi, a Semi-yearly Journal published by the Royal Agricultural
and Commercial Society of British Guiana, took its name from the
native’s appellation of the pictured rocks on the large rivers, the work
of some ancient and forgotten tribe. The volumes exhibited contain
many papers based upen original researches in geology, and the fauna,
flora and native races of British Guiana. This able journal also records
much of the history of the colony and the enterprise of its citizens, and
displays the intelligent zeal and public spirit manifested by the Royal
Agricultural and Commercial Society in the establishment and mainte-
nance of its Museum, Library, Reading Room and Scientific course of
Le&tures. This Institution, therefore, not only is to be commended for
this exhibit of its work, but commands the sympathy and support of all
persons interested in the development of the Sciences in South America.

Letters from the Government Secretary were read, ac-
knowledging the receipt of the final report of Mr. Commis-
sioner Quelch on the Chicago Exhibition, and also the
recommendation of the Society passed at the previous
meeting. In reply to the latter he stated that “ it willafford
His Excellency much pleasure to comply with the request
of the Society and forward the resolution to Lord Ripon.”

388 TIMEHRI.

The paper read at the previous meeting on the “ Cost
of sugar produétion in British Guiana’ having been
declared open for discussion :-—

Mr. Thorpe said, as a West Coast Manager, he thought
it impossible to make sugar at the price mentioned—at
least during the last four years.

The President in reply, stated that the figures he had
given applied generally, not to any particular distri€t or
season. He was willing to admit that during the last
few years it was impossible—he did not know any
estate that had done it.

The Hon. B. Howell Jones said that from his expe-
rience he had come to the conclusion that prepared
estimates were misleading. It was almost impossible
to say in January what the crop would be by December,
or what the expenses would amount to. In heavy rainy
seasons the cost would be above the average—the
expense of coal for the draining engine being consider-
ably more. Some of the expenses were to a certain
extent under control—others, such as those dependent
on the seasons were not. Looking over his note book
he found that some years ago one estate made sugar ata
cost of $61 a ton and another at $103. The position of
estates had a great deal to do with this. Where, as in
Berbice, large areas of rich land could be taken into culti-
vation, the returns were much better than in other places
with a limited area. He did not agree with Mr. Luard
in his statement that managers did not know the things
mentioned in the President’s paper. He knew that on
the contrary they compared notes with each other
to try and lessen the cost of produ€tion. He thought
the paper very valuable and he had no doubt it

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 389

would assist in keeping them up to the mark in
future.

The Hon. Mr. Luard said he did not state that the
managers were ignorant of the cost of the different
operations but only that some did not go into the
details.

The Hon. N, D. Davis said that the paper referred to
the burning of trash in Berbice. If this was done there
with satisfa€tory results why was it not adopted in other
parts of the colony? He understood that it was a pre-
ventative of the borer and also useful to destroy rats.

The President referring to the remarks of the Hon.
Mr. Jones, said that he did not think any manager could
make sugar at $68 a ton under present conditions, and
he was willing to admit that during late heavy seasons it
had cost $roo in some places. His objeét was to point
out that unless they could produce sugar for an average
of years with present prices they would be unable to go
on at all. He wished them to look this faét squarely in
the face, and he did not think they would argue that the
sum ought not to be sufficient under average conditions.
Sugar was going down again and something must be done
to reduce the cost of manufaéture. In regard to trash
burning, he believed it had originally arisen from cane-
cutters refusing to work unless it were done, probably for
fear of snakes. As far as he knew no damage was done
by the pra€tice and it saved the expense of burying the
trash. In Demerara the trash was buried as manure,
and where the land was not as rich as in Berbice this was
desirable, but he thought the pra€tice could be intro-
duced on many estates without injury.

The Hon. Mr. Jones said’ he had seen the eyes of the

‘ 3 D

390 TIMEHRL.

canes so burnt that they did not spring after the crop
was cleared away. In most cases however he had seen
trash burning carried out without injury and he even
thought the ashes of some value as manure.

Professor Harrison said the burning could only be
valuable mechanically, as the ashes had no manurial
value.

The President thought that if the eyes of the canes
were burnt it was because the stools were too high
above the ground. He had never seen a field in Berbice
fail to spring on this account—on the contrary the canes
seemed to come up better. é

Mr. F. C. Thorpe then read his paper on “ Changes
on Sugar Estates in British Guiana from 1865 to the
present time.” *

On the motion of the President a vote of thanks was
accecrded.

The meeting then terminated.

Fen cee

Meeting held August gth.—Hon. A. Weber, Vice-
President, in the chair.

Members present 13.

Eleétions.—Members: Mr. G. A. Stewart.

Associates: Messrs. Thos. H. Chatterton,
J. S. Macarthur and W. A. L. Langstaff.
The following report from the Committee of Corres-
pondence was read :— .
Georgetown, August oth, 1894.
To the President and Members of the
R. A. and C. Society.

Gentlemen,—On behalf of the Committee of Correspondence I have
the honour to report that the arrangements for the Horticultural Show

* See page 205.

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 391

of the 16th inst., are virtually complete. His Exceilency the Governor,
has promised to open the Show at 3.30 p-m, and there is every pros-
peét of competition in all the classes. Two sheds are already put up,
and these will give more accommodation than the single shed provided
last year—this is all the more necessary as there is an additional Class
for Economic Produéts. Additional prizes for cut flowers, roses, and a
single Musk Melon, are offered, and baskets for fruit and vegetables
haye been provided for cases where these are not put up in a manner
suitable for display. These baskets may be obtained by intending
exhibitors, at the Reading Room, so that a little more uniformity in
the display can be produced while allowing plenty of scope for arrange.
ment. Entries are to be made to morrow, the toth inst., but the
Committee will not refuse later entries although they would like to
know what room is to be provided as soon as possible.
I have, &c,
J. RODWAY, aéting Secretary,

Committee of Correspondence.

The Revd. W. B. Ritchie, speaking as Chairman of
the Committee said he hoped the members would interest
themselves in the Show. Several friends outside the
Society had helped the Committee, and he would es-
pecially mention Mr. Menzies, who had superintended
the ereétion of the sheds.

The Secretary laid over the following list of awards at
the Columbian Exposition, with the reasons why they

were given :—

Exhibition Committee of British Guiana; Starches —Absolutely
pure, and well preserved, two of them, the Dakamabally starch ( from
Voucapoua Guianensis) and the Greenheart starch (from Neétandra
Rodiei), are of special interest' as being new to Science.

Thomas Garnett ; Cacao Beans.—Exceedingly well prepared.

Exhibition Committee of British Guiana; Seventeen varieties of
Fibres.—Superior strength, length, color, and general utility of the
specimens exhibited. !

Exhibition Committee of British Guiana; Display of Cocoanuts.—
A good exhibit showing the nut in different conditions, also its products
including the coir, all of which are admirably shown,

3Cz2

392 TIMEHRI.

John Junor; Fibres.—Superior strength, great length and genera
utility for manufacture.

Mrs. Collet; Preserved Fruits.—A large colleétion of preserved
fruits in an excellent state of preservation and of delicious flavour, espe-
cially the pine apples, guavas and tamarinds. The last named possesses
merit for its medicinal properties.

E. W. Kerr; Cassava Meal.—It is nutritious, palatable aud bears
severe exposure. Combined with sugar and Chili pepper it is ef great
use in making bread.

Pln. Anna Regina; Sugar; Yellow Crystals.—Color, grain and polar-
ization as indicated by the following relative percentages of excellence :—

Maximum. Obtained.
25 Color 23
25 Grain 23
50 Polarization 49

Pln. Tuschen de Vrienden; Sugar; Yellow and White Crystals.—
Color, grain and polarization, as indicated by the following relative
percentages of excellence :—

Maximum. Obtained.
Yellow. White.
A B
25 Color 25 25
25 Grain 25 25
50 Polarization 48°4 48°4

Pln. Uitvlugt; Yellow and White Crystal Sugar.—Color, grain and
polarization as indicated by the following relative percentages of excel-

lence :—
Maximum. Obtained.
A B
25 Color 25 24
25 Grain 25 25
50 Polarization 49'5 48'5

Pln. Vryheid’s Lust ; Yellow Crystal Sugar.—Color, grain and polariza-
tion as indicated by the following relative percentages of excel-

lence :— .
Maximum. Obtained.
25 Color 25
25 Grain a2
50 Polarization 48'5

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 393

Booker Brothers; Sugar Crystals——Color, grain and polarization
as indicated by the following relative percentages of excellence :—

Maximum. Obtained.

White. Yellow. Refined.
25 Color 25 25 15
25 Grain 25 25 25
50 Polarization 48'6 48 40'8

Pln. Port Mourant; Sugar; Yellow Crystals —Color, grain and polar-
ization as indicated by the following relative percentages of excellence :—-

Maximum. Obtained.
25 Color 25

25 Grain 25

50 Polarization 48°4

Pln. Perseverance; Sugar (White Crystals).—Color, grain and polari-
zation as indicated by the following relative percentages of excellence :—

Maximum. Obtained.
Pressed. Loose.
25 Color 25 25
25 Grain 20 22
50 Polarization 49 49

Colonial Company ; Sugar; Yellow Crystals.—Color, grain and polari-
Zation as indicated by the following relative percentages of excellence —

Maximum. Obtained.
25 Color 25

25 Grain 25

50 Polarization 48°7

Pin, Skeldon; Sugar ; White Crystals.—Color, grain and polarization
as indicated by the following relative percentages of excellence: —

Maximum, Obtained.
25 Color 25

25 Grain 23

50 Polarization 49°4

L. F. Valladares; Cherry and Lemon Syrup.—Color, taste, soda test

and consistency, as indicated by the following relative percentages of
excellence :—

Maximum, Obtained.
Lemon. Cherry.
65 Color 64 64
15 Taste 14 14
1o Soda Test 10 10

10 Cofisigjjency 10 10

394 TIMEHRI.

Scott & Co.; Crab Oil, Cocoanut Oil, Balsam Copaiba —Colleétion
of oils and balsam showing skilful preparation.
Jacob Conrad ; Crab Oil and Seeds.—Skilfully and carefully prepared.

The following letter from Mr. Jas. V. R. Swann, an

Honorary Member of the Society, was also read :-—
85, Perry Road, Shepherd’s Bush,
London, W., England,
July 13th, 1894.

Honourable Sir,—I have the honour to forward by this post a brief
statement “Imported Eggs’ showing the number of Eggs imported
into Great Britain, &c. This statement, partly compiled from the
Russian, is one of a series of mine published in Russian, commencing
with my “ Domestic Industries of Russia” Department of State Wash-
ington, 1885. (Report of Acting Consul-General Swann, St. Petersburg. )

Since this statement was published I have colleéted and revised the
data, &c. that relate to the Sterilisation of Eggs (for Export), also
arranged the photo-micrographs &c., of Bacteria &c., associated with
this particular and most interesting investigation. My intention is to
publish this information for free distribution.

Before I return to Russia I have the promise of a small case of
sterilised eggs from Russia, to prove what has already been accom-
plished in this direétlon.

Professor Volkoff writes (June 13th, 1894), ‘I have eaten eggs that
were sterilised at Warsaw in May, 1893, and left on a shelf exposed
to atmospheric influences, at ordinary temperatures until May, 1894.
These eggs, covered with dust &c., notwithstanding 12 months negleét,
were excellent breakfast eggs. Other eggs that had been in juxtaposi-
tion were rotten &c.”

With a view to stimulate Colonial produétion, I am in the hope that
one or two members of your Society will generously assist me to prove
or disprove what has been asserted, and I respectfully request per-
mission to place at your disposal (all charges paid) some of the Eggs I
am about to receive from Russia. Your co-operation and advice will be
gratefully acknowledged in the forthcoming publication and I will
hasten to embody your suggestions.

I have, &c.,
JAMES V. R. SWANN.
The Honourable Secretary,
Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society,

Goormar”: Demerara.

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 395

The thanks of the Society were accorded for the com-
munication, and the Secretary was dire&ted to inform
Mr. Swann that they would do what they could to assist
in his experiments.

The following communication from the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England was also read, and the Secre-
tary directed to forward the thanks of the Society for
the information :—

Royal Agricultural Society of England,
12, Hanover Square, London, W.,
July oth, 1894.

Dear Sir,—In reply to your letter of the 30th May last, I have com-
municated with two Members of the Council of this Society who are
practical Agriculturists, conversant with Fen farming, and I have
the pleasure to append below extracts from their letters dealing with
the points to which you refer:

Extract from letter No. 1,
(Mr. W. Frankish, Limber Magna, Ulceby, Lincolnshire.)

“Although I live fortunately considerably above high water mark,
yet it may serve your purpose to describe what I know of the fens and
marshes below that level. They are very much as described in the
second paragraph of the British Guiana Society’s letter. The sea, of
course, is banked out, and the main drainage is by large open drains;
the land is interseéted by other drains at various angles to suit the
levels of the land, and these may form different Fields, or be sub-divided,
as is found most suitable. These Fields are drained by tiles, at such
depths as are found most effeétive, into the open drains, so that Steam
cultivation does not interfere with any ditches. I do not think Steam
cultivation is carried on to any great extent, and when used is mostly
in the dry weather in Summer or Autumn. The round about system
was first tried, but now double engines are almost entirely employed,
and as a necessity, the weight of these Engines prevents much work
being done at unsuitable times, say when the land is too wet. The
drainage of these low lying lands is always a difficulty; but as the tide
goes down twice in 24 hours, these large open drains are generally
found sufficient to hold such water as may accumulate in ordinary
weather; but in exceptionally wet times, such as in 1879 and some

396 TIMEHRI.

other such seasons, these lands were to a considerable extent under
water, the sluices being qutie insufficient to discharge the water in the
few hours they could be made use of.”
Extract from letter No. 2.
(Mr. Joseph Martin, Littleport, Isle of Ely.)

“Very little Steam cultivating or Ploughing has been done in, the
Fen Country, because 2 horse land is ploughed more cheaply by horses
than steam. The ditches are no impediment where steam has been
used, as the ropes can be worked over the drains or ditches. Noimple-
ment has done more harm than the Steam Plough on the heavy land by
bringing to the top the alluvial clay ; and I should advise everyone to
be careful in ploughing very deep on such asoil. If Steam is used,
I would recommend ploughing by horses, and afterwards Steam Culti-
vation. I presume the surface in British Guiana is alluvial clay. In
the Fen distri€&t (Cambridgeshire) the top soil is peat or moor, under
which is a blue clay, about four feet from the surface. This is thrown
out by manual labour, and very much improves the soil; but I do not
imagine this can in any part of the world be done by Steam Ploughing:
if it is at all practicable, it must be done by a sort of Steam Dredger.”
Trusting that the above information may be of service to you,

I am, Sir, &c.,
ERNEST CLARKE.

On the paper read before the previous meeting being
declared open for discussion, the Secretary stated that
Mr. Thorpe was unable to be present, and it wasagreed
to let the matter stand over.

Dr. H. B. Ford read a paper entitled, '‘ What the
Banana Trade has done for Jamaica.’’*

The Chairman in moving a vote of thanks said he
hoped the discussion at the next meeting would promote
the serious consideration of the matter in reference
to this colony.

The Hon. Mr. Davis in seconding said that a great
impulse had been given to the industry in Jamaica by

dire&t steam navigation. He remembered reading in a

* See page 218-

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 397

Jamaica paper that subsidies were granted under the
administration of Sir John P. Grant. That gentleman
foresaw the advantages of regular communication,
although the Jamaica papers of the time ridiculed the
idea.

Mr. H. Von Ziegesar read his paper on “ Diffusion
versus Crushing.”* !

The Chairman moved a vote of thanks and Mr.
Liewellyn Jones in seconding said the subje€t was a
large one, and he thought Mr. Von Ziegesar’s paper a
valuable supplement to that which had comme before the
Society a short time ago.

The thanks of the Society were accorded to the Gov-
ernment for a copy of Mr. Crowther’s report on his visit
to the West Indies.

The meeting then terminated.

i Pig es

Meeting held September 13th.—Mr, R. G. Duncan,
F.R., President, in the Chair,

Members present 11.

Ele&tions.—Meméers : Hon. G. W. Dickson and Mr,

W. B. Ebbels.
Associates; Messrs. J. W. Tucker and
Robert Dodds.

The following report of the Committee of Correspon-

dence was read :—
Georgetown, September sth, 1894.
To the President and Members
of the R,A. & C. Society.
Gentlemen,— By dire&tion of the Committee of Correspondence, I

have the honor to submit the following report on the Horticultural
Show held August 16th :—

* See page 229,

3E

398 TIMEHRI.

On the whole they consider this, the Second Exhibition, to have been
most encouraging. The competition for some of the prizes was very
keen, especially in the new class of Economic Produéts, where there
were 12 entries for Creole coffee, 13 for cocoa and 15 for cassava meal,
besides a fair number for each of {the other articles, Vegetables
were also well represented, peppers standing first with twenty entries,
while ochros and bread fruit had respectively 17 and 16 competitors,
Among the fruit, limes took the lead with 19 entries, followed by oranges
with 15 and 7 (two prizes), bananas 15 and cocoanuts 14, When com-
pared with the entries of last year these numbers are very favourable,
and when we come to the whole the difference is enormous, as is shown
by the following table :—

1893. 1894.

A. Plants and Flowers... ae ae sinaeen 108
B. Floral Decoration “ 7 es Poe ee, 47
C. Fruit ... Se aaa aa =~ eas Nae 168
D. Vegetables ove ons ae ooo! | 38) 172
E. Economic Produéts (addition in 1894) ose 84
F. Miscellaneous <P ae 5 17
Total entries one ore eee 596

The expenses of the Show were naturally higher than on the
first occasion. Anticipating an increase of the number of ex-
hibits, two sheds were provided, and they have to thank Mr. John
Menzies for his kindness in superintending their ereétion. These
cost $281 71, and it was at first intended to sell the materials
after the Show, but on consideration, the Committee decided
that it would be more economical to keep them for other occa-
sions. Advertising and printing cost $163 31, Bands of music and
refreshments $119 16, Lights $135, Prize money $358 and Miscella-
neous expenses $78 27, making a total of $1,135 45. On the other side
the receipts for admissions amounted to $520 80 and the Government
Grant $500 = $1,020 80, leaving a balance to be advanced by the
Society, of $114 65. This apparent loss would have certainly been
made up if the shed materials had been sold, but as these ought to be
worth at least $200 to the Committee next year, they consider it better
to stow them carefully.

The experience of the second Show indicates that there is every

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 399

probability of their becoming more popular each year, and also that the
arrangements were by no means perfeét. The Committee are of
opinion that most of the exhibits should be received the day previous
to the Show, and that three gates be opened in the evening and as
many ticket offices provided.

Finally, they recommend that the Society again apply to the Gov-
ernment for a grant of Five hundred dollars, as they consider it highly
desirable and beneficial to the colony that the Show be continued
annually; in faét, now that a fair beginning has been made, they think
it would be very unfortunate should anything occur to prevent this.

I have, &c.,
]. RODWAY, aéting Secretary.

The President said the Committee deserved the best
thanks of the Society for the pains they had taken with
the Show; he agreed with them that it was desirable to
keep the shed materials. He would therefore move that
the report be adopted and that the Society apply to the
Government for the sum of $500 to assist them in hold-
ing another Horticultural Exhibition in 1895.

Mr. Bellairs, in seconding the motion, said that he
was of opinion that the whole of the Government grant
should be awarded in prizes.

Mr. Afneas D. Mackay spoke of the difficulty in con-
trolling the admissions in the evening, on account of the
crowd, and thought that turnstiles should be procured.

The motion was carried and the Secretary directed to
make application to the Government for the grant in aid.

The following reports on the awards at the Columbian
Exposition were laid over for pubiication :—

Exhibition Committee; Canes of mixed kinds of native woods.—
Excellence of a collective exhibit showing the various kinds of wood
found in British Guiana and suitable for use in the manufacture of
canes and similar goods.

Exhibition Committee ; Portuguese Lady colonists, Artificial flowers in
scales, feathers and shells.—These flowers made of fish scales, feathers

3E2

400 TIMEHRI.

and shells, by the women of British Guiana, are artistically arranged
and represent a great amount of labour and patience.

L. F. Valladares ; Universal Relish.--A very delicious sauce.

Portuguese Lady colonists; Embroidery, Art Needlework.—Em-
broidery—different pieces of embroidery, all showing a high skill in the
art. The designs are artistic. Art Needlework—a very large exhibit
consisting of a number of lace handkerchiefs and yokes. The work is
very good and the designs well chosen.

James Rodway; Dried Capsicums.—A dried pepper of good quality.

E. Leila; Curry Powder.—Pungent and of good flavour.

Gaskin & Co.; Chocolate; sticks, cakes and powdered.—Purity,
strength and flavour of the pro?uét as exhibited in stick, cake and
powdered forms.

Mrs. and Miss Waby; Necklaces of ‘‘ Job’s Tears.”—Novelty, attrac-
tive appearance and good execution,

Mrs. Clegg; Fish Scale Work.—Well designed and constructed,
showing good work,

The following communication from the U. S. Vice-

Consul was read, and the Secretary was direéted to for-

ward the thanks of the Society :—
Georgetown, August 13th, 1894.
Thomas Daly, Esq., Secretary,
R. A. & C. Society.

Sir,—In reply to your letter of sometime since, touching Steam
Plowing in the cultivation of Sugar under certain conditions, I now beg
to enclose herewith a communication dated July 3rd 1894, and received
the 12th instant, from the Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station, through
the Department of State at Washington, which, it is hoped covers the

information desired.
Iam, &c.,
EDGAR FURBUSH,

Actg. Vice-Consul.

Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station,
Audubon Park, New Orleans, La,

July 3, 1894.
Hon. J. Spaight, Vice-Consul,

United States of America, Georgetown.
Sir,—The letter of the Hon. Thomas Daly has been referred to me
by the Department of Agriculture at Washington for reply.

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 401

Permit me to say, first, that in the sugar belt of South Louisiana the
soils are entirely of an alluvial character, varying from light sandy
clay to very stiff, black tenacious clay; secondly, the whole area is a flat
country and much of it considerably below high water mark, and hence,
crevasses frequently cause destructive inundations of our crops; thirdly
our drainage is mainly of open ditches crossing each other at right
angles and cutting up the fields into comparatively small beds, and to
some extent tile draining it, when properly done, is very efficacious and
desirable, From this statement you will see that the conditions that
exist here are almost identical with those that exist with you. In faé&
by reference to letters published some time ago in the Louisiana Planter,
you will find a similarity ot conditions pointed out by the editor of that
paper. Steam Plowing is not generally carried on in the low lands of
Louisiana, There are only one or two steam plows in the State and
these are not continually worked. The reason given for not using steam
plows is the multiplicity of ditches and the numerous delays in trans-
ferring the steam boilers and engines. Where tile draining exists, the
ditches have been filled up completely and the plowing is done in both
dire&tions. As a rule, however, it may be said that on account of the
proximity of the ditches on our plantations and the small area in each
plat, it is considered far more economical to break with four, six
and eight mule plows, than with steam engine. I must confess however,
that I cannot from my past experiences form such opinions ; in faét, it
has been to me a wonder why these steam plows have not been long
ago introduced. I shall be glad to answer any questions relative to
agriculture in South Louisiana that may be propounded by the Hon,
Thomas Daly.

I have, &c,
WM. C. STUBBS, M.C.H.,

Director.

A communication from the Government Secretary,
covering memoranda on timbers suitable for carriage
building at the Imperial Institute was referred to the
Imperial Institute Committee.

A letter from R. M. Maer, Dallas, Texas, was read,
and with the reply of the Secretary, taken for notifica-
tion :—

402 TIMEHRI.

The Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway Co. of Texas,
Sealy Texas, U.S.A., July 25th, 1894.
Secretary Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society,
Demerara, British Guiana.

Dear Sir,—There is a desire amongst the people back here to leave
the U.S. and hunt a country where there is a better chance for enter-
prise; all the natural resources of this country having passed into the
hands of millionaires. We have a movement on foot to establish a
colony of Americans in British Guiana or Venezuela, and will probably
be able to take out 5,000 families in the first 2 years after getting a
location. Will expect to engage in agriculture and manufaéturing and
possibly mining. We must have as an essential inducement to
emigraticn a large tract of land in one body so our people can remain
together and congenial society be assured.

It will require about all our ready capital to get there and get to
work supplying our wants and if we cannot get land as a donation,
would have to have it on easy terms. Would want several hundred
thousand acres so as to get a variety of natural resources.

Will you please tell me, pending my trip out there in Sept. or O&.,
what I could hope to accomplish in such an undertaking, your laws,
conditions, &c.

Am particularly anxious to learn your laws governing corporations or
organizations to hold property jointly and co-operatively.

Oblige yours, &c.
R. M. MAER,

The President said that such a settlement as proposed
by Mr, Maer would undoubtedly be of benefit to the
colony, and he hoped that when Mr. Maer arrived he
would be able to see his way to establish it. .

Dr. Ford’s paper on “What the Banana Trade has
done for Jamaica” having been declared open to dis-
cussion, no response was made, and the President re-
marked that he hoped the trade might do something for
British Guiana in the near future.

Mr. H. Von Ziegezar’s paper on diffusion being
declared open to discussion, nh

Mr. Llewellyn Jones spoke of the small number of

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 02
403

Members present and the desirability that the paper
should be freely discussed. He thought that Mr. Von
Ziegesar’s paper shewed some serious errors and
omissions. He did not agree with the abolition of air
pressure. It was true that it was unmanageable at first
but now that they had it in working order, there was no
difficulty. Several statements in the paper were am-
biguous and he had great doubts as to the corre€tness
of the figures. These were too favourable, and although
he was as much in favour of diffusion as Mr. Von
Ziegezar, he did not agree with him in giving maximum
results. ‘There was always a darker side, and it led to
much disappointment when the returns were not ob-
tained in practice. To put maximum instead of average
results left the writer open to criticism. Mr. Von
Ziegesar spoke of good results not being obtained for
want of technical he]p—in Demerara this assistance
had been often given with disastrous results. The
colony would be helped more by the abolition of German
bounties than by the introduétion of German professors.
From such outside interference Pln. Belair fell. It wasuse-
less to minimise the value of professional assistance, but
technical training was not an universal panacea. Latterly
there had been difficulties in working diffusion in Mau-
ritius, where the Chemist had full control. There was a
good plant yet it had failed. This he considered did
not militate against the process, but showed the want of
wise administration and good management. Mr. Von
Ziegesar had spoken disparagingly of the employes on
the estates, he (Mr. Jones) said, “ if you cannot carry on
diffusion with the old officials, don’t introduce it at all.’
Under wise guidance the present employes should be

404 TIMEHRIL.

able to carry on the work satisfa@torily without assis-
tance from outside. They wanted thoroughly well-
informed and pra€tical men—not persons with mere tech-
nical training. Mr. Von Ziegesar had also spoken as if
Demerara was behind other countries in sugar machinery.
He himself had visited a large establishment in Ger-
many, but could find nothing of importance worth intro-
ducing into our factories. He would assert that the
Demerara sugar machinery was equal to any in the
world. Among the omissions in the paper the most
notable was the absence of any reference to mill and
diffusion juices. This he thought very remarkable as
these were so important in any estimate of the value of
the process.

Mr. Von Ziegesar stated that he would prepare a reply
for the next meeting, and the discussion was therefore
adjourned.

The thanks of the Society were accorded to the Hon:
N. D. Davis for a copy of J. B. Smith’s, ‘‘ English Orders :
whence obtained” and to Dr. T. Law Gaskin, Barbados,
for 2 vols. “ West Indian Civil Rights Guardian.”

The meeting then terminated. :

a f

Meeting held October 11th.—Mr. R.G. Duncan, F.R.,
President, in the chair.

Members present 13.
Eleétions.—A ssociates: Messrs. Hubert Parris and H.
Dupuy Gething.

The President said, before proceeding with the
business of the meeting he would like to say a few words
about the discussion which took place at the previous
meeting on Mr. von Ziegezar’s paper on Diffusion.

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 405
While strongly deprecating and objeéting to anything
personal, he at the same time considered that vigorous
and searching criticism was desirable, and that it would
tend to put more life and vigour into their proceedings
if the members would study and criticise the papers,
and not pass them over with a few congratulatory re-
marks. He made this explanation as they were all
aware that remarks had been made, and that Mr. von
Ziegezar had taken refuge in the public press after the
discussion, and appeared hurt that he (the President)
had not prevented the introduétion of personalities.
For anything that appeared personal he was grieved,
but apart from that he approved of the most searching
and even adverse criticism of the papers.

Mr. Daly said he was glad the President made this
statement as he had intended to mention the matter.
He agreed that papers should be criticised, but thought
that Mr, Llewellyn Jones had introduced personal matter.
If such were allowed it would tend to hinder the reading
of papers before the Society and he hoped that in future
all personal matters would be avoided.

Mr. Llewellyn Jones said he was not prepared to
admit that his remarks at the previous meeting were
too personal and he certainly did not intend them to be so.
He did not think there was any necessity for an expla-
nation—the colony was attacked, and with all due
deference to the meeting he thought some one should
have stood up to defend it. In doing this he had spoken
forcibly, and while some gentlemen thought him too
personal others had congratulated him on the way he had
defended the colony. However severe he may have
been Mr. von Ziegezar had the opportunity of reply,

3E

406 TIMEHRI.

The Secretary read the following communication
from the Agricultural Committee, which was laid over

until the next meeting :—
Georgetown, October 11, 1894.
To rhe President aud Members of the
R. A. and C. Society.

Gentlemen,— By direction of the Agricultural Committee, I have the
honour to lay over a copy of Prof. J. B. Harrison’s report on a Standard
method of examining sugars by the Polariscope. which has been adopted
by the Committee as well as the Planters’ Committee, and for which
they request the official sanction of the Society.

I have also to report that in accordance with the Government Regula-
tion, whereby the Committee is allowed to have articles examined and
analysed by the Government Chemist free of cost, samples of diseased
canes from Pln. Reliance have been examined, with the result that
Prof. Harrison states that they are infected with Trichosphzria
Sacchari, the same fungus of which so much has been written lately in
the Island papers. The Committee agree with him in the opinion that
this disease is by no means new, but that lately, from drought, cr some
other cause, it has become epidemic in the Islands.

I have, &c.,

S. R. COCHRAN, © ‘3
Secretary. |

A further list of the Chicago Awards was taken for

notification.

British Guiana Museum—Specimens of Wood, and Drawings; A
large collection of samples of the hard woods of British Guiana, pre-,
pared for Museum purposes. They show the grain, colouring and high
polish to which the wood 1s susceptible, thus forming an interesting and
instructive exhibit. The series of large water colour Drawings shows
many interesting physical features of the country.

Messrs. Park & Cunningham—Canes of Letter-Wood; skilful work-
manship in making and polishing, and as a superior exhibit of cane in
letter-wood,

Pln. Anna Regina -Rum; Entire absence of deleterious matter,’
excellent taste and general charaéteristics, a good distillation, as’
indicated by the following relative percentages of excellence :—

REPORT OF SOCIETY'S MEETINGS. 407

Maximum possible. Obtained.
Purity and absence of alien matter 25 25
Distillation 25 22
Aroma and taste 25 23
Appearance and condition 25 23

M. Carreiro- Gold Nuggets ; The variety and quality of the placer
gold nuggets of British Guiana; from the fine grained placer savings
to nuggets weighing two ounces and over.

Exhibition Committee—Gold Ores and Minerals, mixed; especially
interesting in the fact thatit is an illustration of the nature of the whole
auriferous region of British Guiana, an area of 60,000 square miles.

Pln, Versailles—Coftee, (Liberian); Clean large beans of good
flavour.

The Hon N. D. Davis gave notice of motionas follows :—

* That the sum of Two Hundred Dollars be placed at the disposal of
the Agricultural Committee of this Society, to be used by that Committee
in experimenting as to the introduétion into this colony of families
of Agricultural labourers from the neighbouring British Colonies.”

The Secretary read the following covimunication from

the Government :—
From the Secretary of State tothe Governor of British Guiana.
British Guiana, No. 179. Downing Street,
18th August, 1894.

Sir,-I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your des-
patches Nos. 201 and 202 of the 11th ult, transmitting copies of the
Report of the Representation of British Guiana at Chicago Exhibition
by Mr. J. J. Quelch, Commissioner for the Colony, and a copy of a
Resolution passed by the Royal Agricultural and Commercial Socicty
with regard to the services of Mr. Quelch in his capacity of Commis-
sioner.

2. I have read the Report with interest, and I have received with
much satisfaction the testimony of yourself and of the Society above-
mentioned to the valuable services of Mr, Quelch as representative of
British Guiana, and to the able and satisfactory manner in which he has
carried out the important duties entrusted to him.

I have, &c.,
(Sgd ) RIPON,
Governor Sir C. C. Lees, K.C.M.G.,
&c., &c., &c.

3F2

408 TIMEHRI.

The following communication from Mr. J. H. de Jonge,
Consul for the Netherlands, was laid over :—

Georgetown, Demerara, 26th Sept., 1894.
R. T. A. Daly, Esq., Hony. Secretary,
Royal Agricultural & Commercial Society.

Dear Sir, —I have the honour to report that I have just received from
the Legation of the Netherlands in London, the following reply on the
subject of steam ploughing—London, Sept. 4th, 1894.

“Referring to your letter of May 21st, No. 22, I have the honour
hereby to transmit to you, in behalf of the Hony. Secretary of the Royal
Agricultural & Commercial Society of British Guiana, a report with
annex, written by Iman Vanden Bosch Esq. Dire€tor of the Wilhelmina-
polder in the Province of Zeeland (Netherlands) on steam culture, which
report will have to be returned to this Legation in due time. The
Netherlandsch Landbowcomite, on whose demand Mr. Vanden Bosch
wrote it, begs to add that the steam-plough is harldly used in the
Netherlands as it is not suited for the comparatively small landed
properties existing there and above all as the fields are of small dimen-
sions and mostly divided by ditches. In the Wilhelmina polder alone
the steam- plough is in use.”

In conclusion, I would add, that the enclosures are in the Dutch lan-
guage, but that it would not be difficult for the Society to get the
essay translated.

I have, &c.,
J. H. bE JONGE, Consul.

;
STEAM PLOUGHING ON THE WILHELMINA POLDER,
To the R. A. and Commercial Society.

In reply to your enquiries concerning Steam Ploughing, | have the
honour to forward the following information :—

In regard to the fa& that it is desirable to introduce Steam-Ploughing,
this depends very much on the presence of different faétors, and I
found it better not to confine my report exclusively to answering the
questions.

I therefore divide my report into the following parts :—

1. The original calculation on which Steam Ploughing was intro-
duced in the Wilhelmina Polder.

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 409

4

2. The experiments which have been made with the apparatus on the
same Polder.

3. The reply to the questions.

1. The reason for the application of Steam-Ploughing in the Wilhel-
mina Polder was to obtain the means of working the land when the
usual number of horses was insufficient to turn up the heavy soil, and
when to provide for this deficiency it became necessary to purchase
more teams. The question was then put, would it not be preferable
and more profitable, to introduce Steam-Ploughing instead of buying
sixteen more horses to produce the desired result. To work out this
question comparative calculations were made as regards ploughing
with horses for the round-about system as well as the direct system,
which was divided as follows :—

a, The “Single System” with one Locomotive, and

6. The “ Double System” with two, were compared.

First, according to the “Double System.” Two Locomotives of
twelve horse-power each, with complete six fold ploughing apparatus,
a harrow and extras, were purchased from Fowler at a cost of about
21,000 guilders.

Interest on /21,000 at 15 o/o ... a ee soy 35150
100 days, coal and oil aed eee ene eran « Fogens
100 days labour, three men ... ns aes one 450
loo days ,, one man with two horses to bring water.. 400

Ff 5,780

too days at 5 H.A. (Hectares) = 500, 75,780 7.e., 11°56 per H.A.
Second, according to the *‘ Single System,” one locomotive of twelve
horse power, complete with windlass and six-fold ploughing apparatus, a
‘barrow &c., was purchased from Fowler for about /15,000.

Interest on f15,000 at150/o ... coo aaa anf 250
100 days, coal and oil =u éce one dco) 2.33280
100 days, 3 men and 2 boys ... 42 tty aoe 550
100 days, 1 man with 1 horse to bring water ... aes 250

F 4,330

1co days at 4 H.A. per day = 400, £4,330 i.e., f10"42 per H.A,
Third, according to “ Round-about System” of fisher—

4to TIMEHRI,

For this system we could use one locomotive of eight horse-power,
which we had for our thrashing machine. The amount required for
this is, say /6,100

Interest on /6,100 at 17 o/o ... a aus ann NAOT,
190 days, coal and oil ons a oe a) 800
too days, five men .. oa ane wes ae 752
50 days, 1 man with 1 horse to bring water was 125
J 2,712

100 days at 2} H.A. per day = 250, f2,712 7e., f10°85 per H.A.

In these calculations the implements of Fowler were taken into con-
sideration for the first two systems, as he is the greatest manufacturer
and his apparatus for Steam Ploughing is well-known and generally con-
sidered the best. For the “ Round-about System” Fisher is preferred
as his apparatus for this kind of Steam Ploughing is considered the
best. The English calculation of 5 0,0 interest on the purchase money,
5 0/o for repairs and renewing (wear and tear) and 5 o/o for deprecia-
tion is taken. For the apparatus of Fisner 2 o/o more is calculated for
repairs and renewing, on account of the greater wear and tear of
some of its parts such as the hempen cable and the metal channels in
which it runs, this making not less than a thousand revolutions a °
minute. Further, it is accepted that for about a hundred days every
year the Steam Plough should be used on the Polder to give a finish to
the work of cultivation.

By Fisher’s Steam Plough, not a hundred but fifty days are reckoned
for the supply of water, as the Locomotive stops longer in one place
and can be supplied from a well at one end of the field.

The number of hectares in the Polder to be ploughed every day is
calculated at somewhat more than those usually given in England,
because it is usual there to plough with one team cf horses one acre,
4,000 yards, daily while we can do at least 6,000 yards in the same
time. So, in England it is calculated that with the “ Double System”
between nine and ten acres can be ploughed, or about four heétares,
and therefore we calculate for five. This will serve to explain the
above calculations.

When we compare steam against horse ploughing, we allow that 8
teams or 16 horses should plough as much daily as an apparatus with
two Locomotives on the “ Double System.” According to experience

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. Att

and the result of statistics, &c., it is accepted that these 16 horses cost
yearly per team, for food, keeping hire of servant, interest on pur-
chase money and wear and tear of harness and implements of husban-
dry, and depreciation, /650; ploughing then according to the above
calculation, of five heétares daily or 500 annually, costs f5,200, Thus
the plough work of the horses amounts to 10.40 per heétare against
fit.56, 10.82 and f10.85 respeétively by the different systems of Steam-
Ploughing. From this it ‘appears the work of horses is somewhat
cheaper than Steam Ploughing--it will appear later that this difference
is very great.

The introduétion of the Steam Plough into the Wilhelmina Polder
was not altogether a question of expense, but the recommendation was
based on some benefits likely to accrue from the better cultivation
obtained by steam than by horses. These advantages were the
consideration estimated to result from the introduétion of Steam
Ploughing into the Polder, and were as follows: —

The steam plough works quicker and better than horses ; better above
everything else from the faét that the ground is not trodden, which,
especially in a wet season in the autumn, is a great advantage to the
land. Again, with the larger steam implement a more powerful agent
is available to plough with advantage to greater depths than are other-
wise attainable, and also to plough in summer even if the land should
be caked so hard by drought as to make its working impossible by
horses. Further, the steam horse is never tired; we possess an appa-
ratus that requires no rest, and can be fed while working; thus the
working day can be lengthened by a fourth or more, and the ploughing
of a hundred days be done in seventy five. For example, if the time is
too short to work the field properly after the crop and before the winter
sowing, then the benefit derived from the work being done with greater
speed and in less time is great enough to be appreciated. Not only
does the work tuke longer when done by horses, but by sudden showers
the best time for working is often lost. Then, with Steam Ploughing,
especially under the “ Double System,” we require fewer hands and
have therefore less to do with all sorts of servants and labourers. Along
the track of the engines we can also draw heavy loads of man-
gles, sugar beets, potatoes and earth from the field, when, for ex-
ample, after a long drought it is not possible to do so otherwise
without injury to the soil. In such cases the steam appliances are
put on the tracks and waggons, made by Fowler for the purpose

412 TIMEHRI.

and drawn by the metal cable. These waggons hold 4,000 to 6,000
(kilos) K.G, and one of the Locomotives can draw a load of at least
20,000 kilos; they are already largely in use for the transport of
coals, &c Also, one of the Locomotives can be used to drive the
thrashing machine, Finally, we have with the Steam Plough no fear
of sickness or death among the horses.

Taking into consideration all the advantages of the Steam Plough over
horses, we have in the Wilhelmina Polder followed the example of the
English in deciding to buy a steam apparatus instead of sixteen horses,
to do work which could not be properly done by the latter.

Of the different systems (the Round-about and two machine) which
we have in Steam-ploughing, we have taken the ‘ Double System” of
John Fowler of Leeds by preference, and although it is the most
expensive at the outset it is cheapest in the end,

First, it is best because there are no cable carriers, pulleys nor
chains required, and therefore it gives very little trouble, and

Second, the very easy way of removing it from one field to another,
which is done quickly without help, as the steam engine draws along
everything, through which we can work more land per day than by any
other system.

2. Our experience in the Polder for twenty years (1874-1894) under
the operation of Steam-Ploughing considered with regard to the
expected benefits on which the introduétion was based.

At the beginning it was intended to use the Steam apparatus or
Steam Plough, and in the first year (at the beginning of 1873) it
arrived on the Polder from England. A start was at once made so as
to do away with horses, and with the disappearance of the mud the
apparatus went farther down to the subsoil so that the nine-toothed
extirpator and the turning cultivator could be used, these being almost
exclusively used in later years and the plough but seldom, we therefore
can say little of that implement.

The time when the plough was to be used was the autumn to tura
over the winter furrow. If the land was heavy, which was to be
expe&ted in the autumn. especially in the climate we have here, it was
imposssible to go to the usual depth of 25 centimetres, with six ploughs,
as they were too heavy for the engines, and therefore two were removed
and we worked with four.

The number of heétares per day was therefore reduced and beyond
this the working was not so satisfactory and was worse than by horses,

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 413

especially when the soil caked. The depth was less and there was
difficulty in the steering and therefore the furrows were not of the same
width.

If the land is very wet it is no use to talk of ploughing, as the locomo-
tives sink into the ground and cannot be moved, only going deeper and
deeper instead of moving forward. In such cases we have to do away
with the Steam Plough toa great extent or work it when the ground is
hard. And then again by using horses we have to put up with the spoil-
ing of the ground by their trampling.

The rails are 82 centimetres broad, which the locomotive leaves
embedded in the soil behind by its weight (15,000 kilo.)

If the ground is very hard and has not yet been worked, then the
ploughing is very difficult, not because the plough doesn’t go deep
enough, but because it does not run even but goes deeper in one
place than in another and rebounds from hard places without entering.

In the autumn the Steam Plough can do good service, and the
advantages we have from it above cultivation by horses is that it goes
quicker and therefore we can work the whole day. If the harvest is not
too late then we see its use, otherwise horses are quite capable of doing
the work. Fowler has, however, lately brought the implement to such
a state of perfection that it is more successful than horse-ploughing.
There are also many new models which deviate very much from that we
have, which is the first, and therefore of the oldest constru¢tion.

On the fallow in the summer, which has already been worked by
horses and where we wish to plough deeper, then the Steam Plough is
best.

If we desire but little more from the Plough than to break up rough
land, even if we get large clods, and where there is no bottom (which
in the rainy seasons is very bad, and allows the implement to sink) the
Steam Plough is put on dry ground and will then produce the desired
effect when it would be almost impossible with horses.

In California ploughing by steam in the wheat distriét is carried on
with great success, first, because the fields are so large that enough
horses cannot be obtained, and second, because the ground is hard and
dry, there being no rain from May to Oétober.

We give a few figures of the twenty years working, by which it is
shewn that the Steam Plough has been working about 67 days per year,
the average being about 58 heétares per year and about 2.7 per day.
By these figures the cost is different from that already given, being

3G

414 TIMEHRI.

fit.56 per heétare. During the last fifteen years the cost of coals, oil
and labour and horses to bring water and coals, averaged about £7.09
per hectare, to which must be added the cost of repairs and interest on
capital 15 0/0 on £22,000. The more we plough each year the less be-
comes the expense per heétare, and taking into consideration that the
plough worked only about 58 days per year, this brings the expenses
higher, making them about /17'50 per hectare. The Steam ploughing
cost during the twenty years /24°14 per hectare, and to do the same
work with horses only fio'50. Thusthe Steam ploughing cost double
and no better work was obtained. From this we come to the conclu-
sion that the introduction of steam ploughing implements was not
profitable.

There is however one implement, the extirpator, or as the English
call it, the Turning Cultivator, the work of which cannot be done by
horses, and which cannot be too highly praised. This is already in
use, not on the score of cheapness, but specially for quicker and better
work. This quicker and better work leads to better results and this is
the main advantage over working by the Steam Plough.

Just after harvest when the horses are engaged in carting and it
would be impossible to use them for cultivation, the extirpator can be
utilised. As soon as the crop is taken off we can go on with the Steam
Cultivation while the horses are yet employed in the harvest work, and
break up the ground however hard it may be. We all know what a
great advantage this is in a very dry season or where it is choked with
couch grass, as it exposes the roots to the sun until they wither.

If we desire to get any benefit from the short duration of the hot
weather we must be quick about it and the extirpator is set to work and
will turn up a field of 8 hectares in one day at the same time drawing
out the couch grass. The steam harrow or horse harrow further draws
out the grass roots so that they get more exposed and dry all the quicker.
If we wish to make the ground more loose we use the g or 11 toothed
extirpator which goes through it like a comb and does better work and
work which is impossible by the other implement, especially when we
can work both ways. The work of the horse cultivator has proved of
great advantage as the same work was not done by any other implement,
but the Steam extirpator by its greater power and the quickness with
which it does the work is undoubtedly the best, although expensive to
work, and we could not dispense with it.

If the land becomes lumpy then we have to abandon the extirpator,

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 415

especially in unmanageable clay where the soil remains sticking to the
teeth of the implement, fortunately, however, the time of working the
fallow, starting in May, and the preparation of land, for carraway seed,
etc., is the best in the year for the purpose.

I give a few figures of the Steam cultivator, which show that in
about a year we worked 267°3 heétares, an average of 6°24 per day, the
cost of which was /Io 41 per heétare; in future the cost will probably
be less. By using horses the expenses would be about the same as for
ploughing, z.e., f10°50.

Of the other implements the steam harrow is at present the only one
in use, and that but seldom, because the horse harrow does the required
work quite as well. For 79 heétares or 11 per day, the cost is /5 86 per
heétare. With horses it costs only fz per heétare, but we can scarcely
compare the two cultivations, as what can be done by the Steam harrow is
hardly possible with horses, from which we can see that the steam
implement is more advisable.

I hope I have been plain enough in explaining the difficulties of the
Steam ploughing implement and what are the reasons tor its use on the
Wilhelmina Polder— especially the use of the turning cultivator. We
may state that the Steam Plough is worked on the Wilhelmina Polder
but we more especially use the extirpator. If we wish to introduce Steam
ploughing it must only be in places where the areas are large. It can
only be used on farms of at least 1,000 hectares, and which are divided
into very large fields. In the Polder the fields are 8 to 10 heétares, and
to work the same profitably, we require a length of at least 300 metres,
‘otherwise too much is lost by the turning. The unmanageable clay—
I mean the clay which cakes into hard lumps in the summer and be-
comes a slough in the winter—requires broad hard gravel paths and
strong conduits. Working with narrow paths is very difficult, especially
in the rainy season, as it is quite impossible to keep the locomotives on
them and they often slip into the ditches. If the weather is not too
changeable and the dry season lasts, the work can be done much better,
In such a wet season as that of 1879, the profits were small.

In the English letter mention was made of land divided into small
beds on account of drainage by open ditches crossing each other. On
such land we require a locomotive of 12 horse power, which must have
a road of 3'to metres and a cultivator of 2:08 metres (now 2°68) broad,
quite impracticable in use as the plan will shew, unless we work only in

one way.

3G2

416 TIMEHRI.

In the Wilhelmina Polder the land is very dry although it belongs to
the low lands of our country. In California they have gone back to the
first idea of making the steam engines of use generally. I said already
that the Locomotive goes over the field, drawing loaded waggons, and that
these are quite different from those of Fowler. The wheels are not so
broad and are much higher, while the boilers are built lighter but are still
very powerful as compared with horses. It is astonishing to see how
quickly you can go over the land even if the soil is heavy. {n polder
land such as ours, however, the Californian system would be unwork-
able. In California we used the plough and extirpator more on the
back lands, and the same apparatus was utilised to gather the corn by
means of a Combined Harvester, which cut and dried it at once to the
extent of 11 hectares per day, and put it in bags; it is set in motion by
usingst raw in the furnace,

IMAN G. J. VANDEN BOSCH.
Wilhelmina Polder,
1oth July, 1894.

The Secretary was direéted to thank Mr. de Jonge and
also to forward the thanks of the Society to the writer
of the paper on Steam Ploughing (Mr. Vanden Bosch.)

The President said he would like to draw the atten-
tion of the planting Members of the Society to the work
of the indentured immigrants. Every able-bodied im-
migrant, under indenture, was supposed to perform in
the course of a year about 300 tasks, but owing to
sickness, absence with or without leave, desertion, &c.,
a great number of them did not perform fifty per cent.
of the work that could be legally claimed. He thought
the matter one that ought to be taken up and con-
sidered by the Society. Those in charge of estates
ought to do away with some of this absence with or
without leave, and try to get more work from their
people. It would be better for the immigrants, better for
the estates, and bettcr for the colony, that the legal number
of tasks should be performed, and he mentioned it that

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 417

some of the planting members might give it some con-
sideration, and if they could lay over statistics of the
number of tasks performed, and of those lost to the
estate, and the reasons why these latter had not been
performed, it would be very interesting.

The Secretary read the following communication
from J. T. Quigley, Galveston, Texas, and stated that in
reply he had forwarded a copy of the ‘‘ Handbook of
British Guiana,” and stated that he would be happy to
supply any special information.

Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.,
August 2oth, 1894.
Secretary Royal Agricultural & Commercial Society,
of British Guiana, Georgetown.

Dear Sir,—On behalf of a small number of English-speaking agricul-
turists who contemplate locating in a tropical country, and who are
favorably impressed with what they have heard of British Guiana, I beg
to ask (in case such action is customary and might be deemed mutually
» beneficial) that you kindly furnish me with a little of such information
regarding the country and its inducements as you might consider
useful to intending settlers of this class.

Very respectfully yours,
J. T. QUIGLEY.

Mr. W. T. Binnie read his paper on “Our Provision
Supply,’* for which a vote of thanks was accorded, and
the discussion left over until the following meeting.

The thanks of the Society were accorded for the
following donations :—

From the President—4 reports on the West Coast
Sea Defences.

From Mr. E. H. G. Dalton—Lanzi’s History of Paint-
ing, 3 vols.; Schlegel’s Dramatic Literature and Philoso-
phy of History.

The meeting then terminated.

* See page 201.

418 TIMEHRI.

Meeting held November 15th.—Mr. R. G. Duncan,
F.R., President, in the Chair.
Members present Io.
Eleétions.—MWembers ; Messrs. Wastel Bull, Leslie
T. Le Mare and the Hon. Cavendish Boyle.
Associates; Messrs. J. C. Bryden, W. G.
Chapman, A. Hurley, J. E. Brandon, H. W. Fuge,
and Edwin Futty.
The Chairman of the Agricultural Committee (Hon.
B. Howell Jones) read the following report on the papers

sent in competition for the Caramel Premium :—
REPORT OF THE JUDGES ON THE COMPETITIVE ESSAYS ON THE MANUFAC-
TURE OF CARAMEL FOR THE COLOURING OF SPIRITS,

Seven essays only have been sent in, in competition for the premium
of two hundred dollars offered by the Royal Agricultural and Commer-
cial Society, for an improved way of producing Caramel,--combined
with its economical manufaéture -for colouring rum for market and
producing the least degree of obscuration, and these have received
careful consideration by the Judges appointed by the Agricultural Com-
mittee,

We are unanimous in considering that the results of the competition
are most unsatisfactory, both with regard to the small number of com
petitors and to the merits of the essays sent in.

In our opinion none of the essays contain anything of value beyond
what is already of common knowledge, or eyen any addition to our
present knowledge of the best methods of preparing Caramel for colour-
ing spirits.

We therefore, cannot recommend the award of the premium to any one
of the competitors, and in view of the lack of interest evoked by the
competition, consider it unadvisable to, in the immediate future, again
offer a premium in conneétion with this subject,

We cannot refrain from expressing our astonishment and regret that
none of the technical sugar chemists and experts resident in the colony
sent in essays for competition. We are satisfied that if these gentle-
men had competed that important additions to the general present
knowledge of the best methods of preparing Caramel for the purpose of
colouring spirits would have resulted from the offer of the award.

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 419

In addition to the essays, two preparations were also submitted for
competition, but were not within the lines of the award. One of these,
* Melline,” was itself barely as dark as really good coloured Demerara
rum, and was therefore quite useless for the required purpose, whilst its
high price was quite prohibitory toits use. The other, “ Spirit Colour-
ing,” prepared by Messrs. A. Boake, Roberts & Co., of London, whilst
found to be capable of colouring rum of 45 O.P., to a full colour, with
an obscuration of only two per cent, produced a cloudy rum, which
required a long time for its clearing.

B. HOWELL JONES,
Chairman of Agri. Committee,
]. B. HARRISON,
Government Analyst.
H. R. L. von ZIEGEZAR,
Agricultural and Analytical Chemist.

The Hon. N, D. Davis, in moving the adoption of the
report, said that it was satisfaétory to learn that as
much was known in this colony about Caramel as in
any other. There was no doubt however that some
estates’ managers had knowledge which others had not
and he thought it was desirable that this knowledge
should be communicated to the planters generally. It
was he thought very unsatisfactory that no chemist had
competed, and he understood that the preparation of
colouring was considered by some as a trade secret.

Mr. Llewellyn Jones in seconding the adoption of the
report, asked whether the competition had been open to
scientists outside the colony.

The President in reply said that it was open to the
whole world, The information had been circulated in’
all sugar-growing countries. He thought they had to
thank the Agricultural Committee for the trouble they
had taken. As to the preparation of Caramel being a
secret, this was not the case. It was prepared in the
same way all over the colony, but as it was done by

420 TIMEHRI.

“ rule of thumb,” it was not uniform. The trouble had, he
thought, been brought about by persons interested in the
sale of a particular colouring. At present, however,
scarcely any rum left the colony with a very high obscura-
tion, as by care and attention they could always keep
below three per cent.

The Hon. Mr. Howell Jones stated that virtually all
the essays had been sent from other parts of the world,
and he agreed with the President that there was no
secret in the preparation.

The report was adopted.

The Secretary read the following report from the
Agricultural Committee :—

Georgetown, Novr. 14th, 1894.
To the President and Members,
of the R. A. and C. Society.

Gentlemen,— By dire&tion of the Agricultural Committee, and in
accordance with the Government Regulations for free analyses by the
Government Chemist, I have the honour to report that specimens of
diseased canes from Pln. Windsor Forest have been examined, These
canes were taken from three fields where five per cent. of the crop was
either dying or dead, the remainder being apparently healthy, and Mr.
R. G. Duncan stated that he had ordered the fields to be reaped at
once, although the canes were not ripe, and the trash to be burnt. Prof,
Harrison reports that the damage was done by the moth borer and
that the canes were also much affected by rind fungus.

I have, &c.,
S. R. COCHRAN,

Secretary, Agricultural Committee.
The President stated that the canes referred to had
-been sent by him to Prof. Harrision. They were at-
tacked by the same fungus that had done so much damage
in Barbados. Fortunately the disease had not become
epidemic here, although it had been found on several

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 421

estates, and he hoped they would not have much of it
to add to their other troubles.

The Hon. Mr. Davis said he had heard from St.
Kitts that they were much troubled there with the
borer, which they attributed to the faét that lizards
had become scarce from having been eaten by the
Mongoose.

The Hon. Mr. Jones stated that it was Prof. Harrison’s
opinion that the fungus was always the result of the
borer, and that it was no new disease. The matter need
not alarm the people here as they could always get rid
of it by inundating their fields.

The Secretary laid over the following reasons for
awards at Chicago :—

B. H. Jones; Rice,—Ten varieties of plump dark grain, in husk and
stalk ; of educational value as illustrating the resources of the country.

S. R. Cochran; Rice.—Several varieties, including white and black,
in the hull and cleaned, all of good quality.

A. R. Gilzean; Rice.—Large colle&tion of the different varieties of
native rice, clean, in the hull, and in the husk. The white variety is
excellent in quality, being a large plump grain and well filled. The

small sized variety yields three crops annually and averages about one
ton per acre.

L. M. Hill; Road Material (six boxes).—The good quality of materials
and the advancement shewn by a comparatively young country.

The exhibit consists of one box of sea sand, one box of white
sand, one box of burnt clay, and three boxes of different kinds
of granite. These materials are used in building the roads in and
around the towns in British Guiana and also along the sea shore,
Previously the granite with sea sands was used to build these roads,
but at the present time the burnt clay is largely in favour. The clay is
pressed together by the road roller and the so created smaller parts and
dust, form, with moisture, which is contained in and attraéted from
atmosphere, a kind of connection, so that the surface of such roads
appear as if cemented.

Pln. Rose Hall ; Coloured Rum.—Perfe& purity, good aroma and

3H

422 TIMEHRI.

taste, excellent distillation and good general chara€teristics, as indi-
cated by the following relative percentages of excellence.

Maximum possible. Coloured Rum.
25 Purity and absence of alien matter 25
25 Distillation 23
25 Aroma (bouquet, flavour) and taste 22
25 Appearance and condition 22

Pln. Versailles—White Rum; Absolute purity, excellent general
charaéteristics, good aroma and taste, as indicated by the following

percentages :—
Maximum possible. Coloured Rum.
25 Purity 25
25 Distillation 22
25 Aroma and taste 23
25 Appearance 24

Pln. La Bonne Intention—White Rum; Perfect purity, good aroma
and taste, good distillation and general charaéteristics, as shown by the
following relative percentages of excellence :—

Maximum possible. Coloured Rum.
25 Purity 25
25 Distillation 22
25 Aroma and taste 22
25 Appearance 22

Pln. Nismes—White Rum; Entire absence of deleterious matter,
good taste and distillation, and excellent general charatteristics, as
indicated by the following relative percentages of excellence :—

Maximum possible. Coloured Rum.
25 Purity 25
25 Distillation 22
25 Aroma and taste 22
25 Appearance 23

Exhibition Committee; Colleétion of Commercial Woods.—1. For a
good display of native commercial woods in large sizes; 2, for showing
their application in the arts; 3, for giving a comprehensive view of the
forest resources of the colony.

Exhibition Committee; Yellow Dent India Corn.— Ears not long
but large and well filled with a deep kernel; small cob, Three and
four crops can be raised annually, Average temperature 80°, rainfall
85 inches,

REPORT OF SociETy’s MEETINGS. 423

The Hon. N. D, Davis brought forward his motion,
of which due notice had been given, for $200 to be
placed in the hands of the Agricultural Committee to
carry out an experiment in the introdu€tion of families of
agricultural labourers, In introducing his motion he
stated that up to and including the present year, the
colony had spent about £4,600,000 on immigration
since the abolition of slavery, and still they had no
regular labour supply. It was certain that in the pre-
sent condition of things the colony could not afford
to continue the importation of labourers to the number
of four or five thousand every year. By immigration
they had increased the population of the colony from
100,000 to nearly 290,000, at a cost of about £30a
head. East Indians did not settle here to any great extent
nor did the people from the Islands, probably because
their families were left behind. He would suggest as a
commencement that the Agricultural Committee should
find out what agricultural labourers on the plantations
here had families in the Islands, and whether they would
like them to be brought over at the Society’s expense.

Mr. Daly in seconding the motion said he thought the
amount was too small for the experiment.

The Hon. Mr. Jones also said the amount was too
small and that it was a matter for the Govern-
ment rather than the Society. In faét it had al-
ready been under the consideratisn of the Government,
who had obtained the opinion of the Planter’s Associa-
tion, with certain recommendations. Attempts had also
been made by individual enterprise with the result that
some families were already located on estates. The
Society had over and over again recommended the

3H2

424 TIMEHRI.

introduction of families from the Islands but the diffi-
culty was that they would not come to stay, but as they
made a little money, looked to go back.

The President said he was in favour of the principle
of the motion but did not think the funds of the Society
should be spent in such a way, they might however ask
the Government to allow them a grant for such an ex-
periment. The Barbadians could not be got to remain ;
they came and went, getting home-sick as soon as they
had a little money saved. Some were so pleased with
an estate that they returned to it after a visit to Bar-
bados but they would not settle down altogether. If
they introduced 5,000, two-fifths of them would go
away by the end of the year. In regard to what he
said at the last meeting about indentured immigrants
performing such few tasks, this was greatly due to the
a€tion of certain officials in making themselves counsel
for them; this prevented necessary discipline, and
nothing but a vagrancy law would prevent it. He was
well within the mark in saying that the labourers in the
villages worked only 150 days ina year. He thought
that great credit was due to Mr. Davis for the interest
he took in this matter and he would vote for a motion to
ask the Government for $1,000 to try the experiment.

The Hon, Mr. Davis said his obje& in bringing for-
ward the motion was to find out whether it would work
or not, and he would have asked for a report on the
result. However, as he saw that the feeling of the mem-
hers was against the spending of the money of the
Society on the experiment, he would withdraw it with
consent of his seconder.

This having been given the motion was withdrawn.

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 425

No discussion took place on the two papers read at
the previous meeting—‘’ Steam Ploughing” and “Our
Provision Supply.”

The meeting then terminated.

ST OR Lee:

Meeting held Decr. 20th.—Mr. R. G. Duncan, F.R.,
President in the chair.

Members present 19.

The Secretary laid over a communication from the
Government asking the opinion of the Society as to the
probability of there being any exhibits from the Colony
at che coming Exhibition of Photography at the Imperial
Institute, which was referred to the Direétors for their
consideration.

The President then addressed the meeting as follows :-—
PRESIDENTS VALEDICTORY ADDRESS,

Gentlemen, a year has passed away, since you conferred on
me the esteemed honour of electing me President of this Society,
and it is my duty to-day, before vacating the President’s chair, to
refer briefly to matters of interest in connection with the proceedings
of the Society during the year now drawing toa close. I consider the
Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society the most important
Society in British Guiana—a society which, if it fulfils the objeét
for which it was founded, ought to leave some footprints on the
sands of time, in conneétion with the history of the progress and
development of this Colony. But unfortunately a great lack of interest
is displayed on the part of those most deeply concerned, viz., the
Agricultural and Commercial community. During the current year
many papers have been read on Agricultural subjects, but those mem-
bers of the Society who are connected with agriculture have been
conspicuous by their absence from the meetings. This is a terrible
Colony for allowing things to ‘* drift ;’ you will observe that any stir
made in matters agricultural, commercial, or political, is at the instance
of one or two individuals, the majority of those interested waiting to
reap the benefits of the success, or to criticize freely the results of a failure
The same thing applies more or less to every community, but it is

426 TIMEHRI.

especially noticeable in British Guiana, and must I fear, along with
many other shortcomings be charged to the enervating effeéts of our
climate. All the more credit is therefore due to those gentlemen who
prepared papers, attended the meetings, took part in the discussions,
and in this way kept alive some interest in a society whose aim and
object deserves the support of every intelligent member of the com-
munity. It is certainly very desirable that members of the Agricultural
and Commercial community should meet together for the interchange of
ideas and the discussions of important questions affecting their welfare,
but unfortunately there is a conservatism amongst them, which is
antagonistic to their general welfare, and each individual prefers to
work out his own salvation in his own way, if I may so express it. It
is quite true the Chamber of Commerce and the Planters’ Association
each occupy a small corner of the field, but they leave a wide area
available for the work and usefulness of this Society. The R. A. and C.
Society was founded with the view of promoting in every possible way
the Agricultural and Commercial prosperity of the Colony, and it is
within my province as President, nay more, it seems to be my duty, to
refer to the depressed condition of our chief industry at the present
time. You are all doubtless aware that the market value of sugar is
now less than the cost of its produétion, and the sugar industry, on
which the well-being and prosperity of this Colony depends, is in a
wavering condition, This state of depression has been brought about
chiefly by overproduction. Witness the enormous output of beet sugar
on the continent of Europe, stimulated by export bounties, and safe-
guarded as regards home consumption by proteétive duties. It looks as
if the sugar industry would give a great object lesson regarding the
“ survival of the fittest,” and yet it could not be regarded as the survival
of the fittest if the industry succumbs in countries possessing the best
natural resources for cheap produétion, beaten in the unequal fight by
countries where sugar can only be produced at a profit if largely pro-
tected and state-aided. Take Louisiana for instance, where severe
frosts occur, and only during a limited portion of each year can canes
be grown. That country is now protected by a duty of 40 per cent.
levied on the value of all raw sugars imported into the United
States, and yet at present prices, the industry in Louisiana is
languishing and unprofitable. But, if a tropical country such as
ours, with every natural advantage for the growth of the sugar cane
should go down before a country such as Louisiana, it could not

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 427

in any sense be said that the fittest had survived, but rather that
the sugar industry had survived in that country where the Goy-
ernment considered it most advisable in the interest of the people it
should be maintained, Again, in beet sugar growing countries on the
continent of Europe, bounties are paid on all sugars exported, whilst
heavy import duties shut out all foreign sugar from competition in the
markets, and French and German sugar is about treble the price in
Paris and Berlin that it is in London. Under existing conditions the
English sugar growing colonies have in every country to meet heavy
duties on sugar, except in England, and there they have to compete
with sugar cheapened by bounties, the Russian beet sugar manufac-
turers actually binding themselves not to sell more than a certain
quantity of sugar annually in Russia, so as tc maintain the local price,
the balance, at whatever loss, they export to the only free dumping
ground in the world, viz., England. So that it is no wonder if we
faint and grow weary in the race, seeing our competitors favoured by
our Mother Country, England, whose interests in her Colonies should
surely be paramount to the benefit she derives by getting for a time
cheap sugar, at the cost of the continental labourer and taxpayer. The
sugar industry in this Colony has also been heavily handicapped by the
indolence of our peasantry, and to this faét also will to some extent be
attributable the result, should the present wave of depression com-
pletely swamp us. There are notable exceptions, some of our peasantry
being industrious, steady, persevering men, but the great majority of
them are indolent and unreliable. The labour available in this Colony,
would have easily produced all the exports that have ever left our
shores, without the assistance of a single coolie, and yet we all know that,
had coolie labour not been procured, the sugar industry would probably
have disappeared from our midst long years ago. It is absolutely
necessary for the continuance of the industry in this Colony, that labour
should be certain and cheap. We compete in sugar growing against
countries such as France and Germany, where every labourer in good
health can be relied on for six days’ work per week, and where the average
wages paid to field hands would be equivalent to about 24 cents per day.
We may not enforce a vagrancy law to save our peasantry from the evil
results of their own indolence, but the Government, the Clergymen,
the Schoolmasters, and the more intelligent of our peasantry, should
use every endeavour to impress upon our labourer the value and the
necessity of steady industrious habits, and the fact that during the

428 TIMEHRI.

present struggle for existence on the part of our sugar industry
they may have to work six days to earn what in more prosperous
times they could easily do in three. Gentlemen, we all hope
and believe there is a silver lining to every cloud, and that although all
looks dark at present, the dawn of a brighter outlook for our staple
industry may be near at hand. But when this dawn arises we must not
stand still ; satisfied with things as they are. If wedoso other countries
will be pushing ahead and adopting every device and assistance to
enable them to produce sugar cheaper, and when a severe period of
depression comes again, as come in the natural course of events it
must, we shall be inevitably crushed out. From my point of view it
appears certain that large central factories, capable of manufacturing
not less than 20,000 tors of sugar per annum, must be erected, the
interest on capital necessary being guaranteed by Government for a
certain period, as has been done in other countries, and notably recently
in Queensland. Such factories, complete with the most modern and
approved appliances, would extract more sugar from the cane than can
be done at present, for a lower expenditure on labour, fuel, sala-
ries, &c,, and would be able to pay the cane grower a much higher
price for his canes than what their present value represents to him.
The agricultural and manufaéturing operations would then be entirely
separated, and people with small capital would be in a position to grow
canes and sell them to the central factory at a price agreed upon, and
regulated by the market value of sugar. The proposed factories should
belong to Limited Liability Companies, and the cane grower should
be given the opportunity of becoming a shareholder in them.
If a properly equipped central factory could, in addition to ex-
tracting more sugar from the canes, produce sugar for an outlay
of £1 per ton less than is done in a well-arranged Demerara
Fa&tory to-day—and this, I assure you, is well within the mark—
it would pay a very handsome dividend on the capital necessary for
its erection. But, gentlemen, I have digressed considerably from the
mere review of the Society’s affairs during the year now closing, and
with your permission, will now return to that subjeét. The Society’s
roll of members shows an increase of five, there being 535 on the roll as
against 530 on January Ist, the losses by death, resignation, departure
from the Colony and non-payment of subscriptions being g1, and the
new additions 96. Among those who have died, I may especially
mention: A. Barr, L. B. K. Collins and M. R. O’Maley, whilst amongst

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 429

those who have departed our shores to enjoy a well earned retirement
in the mother land, are to be found the names of Sir D. P, Chalmers,
and Dr. R. Grieve. The usual number of general meetings were held
during the year, and the following interesting papers were read :—“ The
maintenance of roads and bridges” by Mr. T, N. King; ‘“ A few popular
fa€&ts about diffusion” by Mr. L. Jones; “Open drainage and steam
Husbandry” by the Hon. E. C. Luard; “Some effeéts of the late Rain-
falls” by Mr. J. Gillespie; “Some enemies of our cane fields” by Mr.
S. R. Cochran; “Cost of sugar produétion” by the President;
** Changes on sugar estates since 1865” by Mr. F. C. Thorpe; “ What
the banana trade has done for Jamaica” by Dr. H. B. Ford; “ Diffusion
versus Crushing” by Mr. H. von Ziegesar, and “‘ Our Provision Supply”
by Mr. W. T. Binnie. Among other important matters discussed at the
meetings was a premium for improvements in the manufaéture of
caramel, offered on the motion of the Hon. N. D. Davis, and answers to
questions on steam ploughing sent by the Society to England, Louisiana
and the Netherlands. A premium of $50 was awarded in January to
Messrs. Da Silva Bros. of the Pomeroon for establishing the kiln drying
of Indian corn. The jubilee of the Society was celebrated on the 27th
March with a historical exhibition and a conversazione, both of which
were well attended and thoroughly appreciated by members and their
friends, The horticultural show took place on the 16th of August, and
was very successful. This show can now be held-annually as it is
established on a sound basis. The library has been increased by the
addition of about 600 volumes. A new gallery to afford increased
accommodation has been erected, and for superintending the erection
of this gallery and other improvements to the buildings the thanks of
the Society are due to Mr. Conyers, The Museum has received im-
portant accessions by the return of the specimens mounted for Chicago,
As continual additions are made the want of room becomes more
apparent every year. With regard to Zimehri I may say it continuesto
maintain its high standard of excellence, and you are all aware its
Editor, Mr. Rodway, wields the pen of a ready and elegant writer. In
conclusion, I have to thank you all for your courtesy towards me during
my term as President, and the Hon. Secretary, Hon, Treasurer and the
Assistant Secretary and Librarian, for the able and willing assistance
they have afforded me. It has been the privilege of the retiring Presi-
dent to submit for the approval of the members the name of the gentle-
man suggested as his successor, and I have much pleasure in proposing

31

430 TIMEHRI.

that the Hon. E. C. Luard, be ele&ted President for 1895. He is a
gentleman well known to most of you, a leading member of the com-
munity in matters agricultural, and I am confident will make a worthy
and useful President.

Mr. Kirke in seconding the nomination of the Hon.
E. C. Luard as President, said they had to thank the
Chairman for his excellent address. He would however
like to mention one thing in conneétion with his re-
marks on the position of the British Government towards
this colony. They must all be aware that the Govern-
ment was now controlled by the masses, whose idea was
to get as high wages as possible and at the same time
obtain every food produ& at the lowest price. It would
therefore be useless for them to expeét the Government
to do anything to raise the cost of such an article as
sugar. In reference to Mr. Luard’s qualifcations for
the office of President of the Society, he would notice
one not mentioned by the Chairman; that he was a
resident proprietor.

The Hon. Mr. Luard having been unanimously eleéted,
he thanked the Chairman for his remarks both general
and personal. Mr. Duncan, he said, had been a model
President—one who spared neither pains nor trouble to
infuse vigour into the Society. He would move a hearty
vote of thanks to him for his great services during the year.

Mr. Jacob Conrad seconded the vote of thanks, at
the same time remarking that without disparagement
to the new Presdent, he regretted that they could not
ele&t Mr. Duncan a second time. He would also like
to have the other Office-Bearers associated with the
President in the vote of thanks.

The Hon. N. D. Davis supported, and the vote of
thanks was carried with acclamation.

REPORT OF SOCIETY’S MEETINGS. 431

The President thanked the members for their ex-
pressions towards him and said he hoped that there
would be a larger attendance at the meetings in future.
With over five hundred members he thought it strange
that little more than a dozen could be got to attend
regularly.

On the motion of Mr. S. R. Cochran, seconded by
Mr. Aéneas D. Mackay, Mr, R. G. Duncan was eleéted
Vice-President.

The Ordinary, Managing and Exchange Room Direc-
tors were then eleéted, after which the President in a
few highly complimentary expressions proposed that
Mr. Conyers be retained as Honorary Treasurer, which
was carried with acclamation. Mr. Thomas Daly was
also re-ele€ted and the various Committees as per
following list (see over) :—

In conneétion with the Resident Dire€&tor in London,
Mr. Luke M. Hill asked if Mr. Nevile Lubbock could
not look after the exhibits at the Imperial Institute ?

The President in reply, said they had a Committee for
that purpose, but although the matter was under con-
sideration it had not yet been arranged. It was pro-
bable that the Government would be asked to grant a
small amount for a Curator, but he did not think the
Resident Direétor could do the work.

Mr. AEneas D. Mackay asked permission to have
copies of the papers in conneétion with corn drying in
the United States, obtained some years ago through
Major Walthall, which was granted.

The meeting them terminated.

OE
er

312

432 TIMEHRI.

Office-Bearers for 1895.
Patreness
THE” CULE N:

Vice-Patron:

His Excettency Sin CHARLES CAMERON LEES, K.C.M.G.,
GOVERNOR AND COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, &c., &c., &c.

President:

Hon. E. C. LUARD
Vice-President ;

R. G. DUNCAN, F.R.
Hon. Secretary:
THOMAS DALY
Hon. Treasurer:
F. A. CONYERS
Ordinary Directors:
S. R. COCHRAN
Hon. B, H. JONES
GEO. H. HAWTAYNE, C.M.G., F.R.G.S,
LUKE M. HILL, C.E., A.M.I.C.E,
H. KIRKE, M.A., B.C.L.
Hon. A. WEBER
Managing Directors:

Hon. N. D. DAVIS, C.M.G.
GEO. GARNETT, F.R.
Pror. J. B. HARRISON, M.A., F.LC., F.G.S

Exchange Room Directors:
T. H. GLENNIE
FERRIS GRANT
C. WIETING

Agricultural Committee:

Chairman : Hon. B. H. JONES

Vice-Chairman : Pror. J. B. HARRISON, M.A,,

F.LC; EGS.
Hon. Secretary: S. R. COCHRAN

Report OF Society’s MEETINGS. 433

ROBT. ALLAN ]. GILLESPIE
GEO. BAGOT Hon. A. R. GILZEAN

S. M. BELLAIRS LLEWELLYN JONES
G. M. BETHUNE Hon. E. C. LUARD

W. T. BINNIE W. S. MARR

JACOB CONRAD ]. B. MAYERS

R. G. DUNCAN, @.R. W. R. SPENCE

]. M. FLEMING, M.A. Hon. W. A. WOLSELEY
H. GARNETT H. VON ZIEGESAR

Commercial Committee:

Chairman : J. H. De JONGE
Vice-Chairman: A. SUMMERSON
Hon. Secretary: J. ¥. BALDWIN

W. W. BIRCH J. WOOD DAVIS

C. BROMLEY G. H. RICHTER
JACOB CONRAD Hon. W. H. SHERLOCK
W. CUNNINGHAM JAS. STUART

S, A. H. CULPEPER E. T. WHITE

and the Exchange Room Directors.
Committee of Correspondence:

Chairman: GEO. H. HAWTAYNE, C.M.G.,
F.R.G.S.

Vice-Chairman: Rev. W. B. RITCHIE, M.A.

Hon. Secretary : J. |. QUELCH, B.Sc.

Treasurer: F, A. CONYERS.

S. M. BELLAIRS Pror. J. B. HARRISON, M.A.,

Very Revp. Dean CASWELL FIL, E.GS.

H. H. CUNNINGHAM L. M, HILL, C.E., A.M.LC.E.

THOMAS DALY Hon. B. H. JONES

Dr. H. B. FORD H. KIRKE, M.A., B.C.L.

P. P. FAIRBAIRN ZENEAS D. MACKAY

G. F. FRANKS, M.A., F.G.S. Rev. D. J. REYNOLDS

T. S. HARGREAVES, F.R.G.S.,| His Honour W.A.M. SHERIFF
EGS; SAMUEL VYLE

J. B. WOOLFORD

434 TIMEHRI.

Book Committee:

Chairman: F. H. ANDERSON, M.D.
Vice. Chairman: G. B. STEELE

R. N. BLANDY, M.A. | H. KIRKE, M.A,, B.C.L.
Ven. Arcup. CASTELL C H. G. LEGGE
Very Revp. DEAN CASWELL ZENEAS D. MACKAY
Hon. N. D. DAVIS, C.M.G. C. G. PARNELL
Pror. J. B. HARRISON, MA.,| Rev. E. POCKNELL '
ELC. J. A. POTBURY, M.A.
G. F. FRANKS, M.A., F.G.S. Rev. D. J. REYNOLDS
GEO. H. HAWTAYNE, C.M.G., Rev. W. B. RITCHIE, M.A.
F.R.G:.S. J. VEECOCK
JAS. GILLESPIE S. VYLE
aR See

Local Secretaries (Berbice) Dr. E. D. ROWLAND.
(Essequebo) Hon. A. R. GILZEAN.
Curator of Museum: J.J]. QUELH, B.Sc.
Assistant Secretary & Librarian: J. RODWAY, F.L.S.
Resident Director in London: NEVILE LUBBOCK.

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