: ! OBSERVATIONS NATURAL HISTORY. BY THE SAME AUTHOR. A MANUAL OF BRITISH VERTEBRATE ANIMALS : or, De- scriptions of all the Animals belonging to the classes Mnmmiilia, Ares, Reptilia, Amphibia, and Pisces, which have been hitherto observed in the British Islands. Octavo, 13s. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SELBORNE. By the late Rev. Gilbert White, M.A. A New Edition, with Notes and Illustrations. Fools- cap octavo, 7s. 6d. OBSERVATIONS IN NATURAL HISTORY: WITH AN INTRODUCTION ON HABITS OF OBSERVING, AS CONNECTED WITH THE STUDY OF THAT SCIENCE. ALSO A CALENDAR OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA IN NATURAL HISTORY; WITH REMARKS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF SUCH REGISTERS. By the rev. LEONARD JENYNS, MA., F.L.S., etc, VICAR OF SWAFFHAM BULBECK, CAMBRIDGESHIRE. Multa enim in modo rei, et circumstantiis ejus, nova sunt, quse in genere ipso nova non sunt : qui autera ad observandum adjicet animum, ei, etiam in rebus quse vulgares videntur, multa observatu digna occurrunt.— Bacon. LONDON: JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW. M.DCCC.XLVI. LONDON : Printed by S. & J. Bentley, Wilson, and Flev, Baneor House, Shoe Lane. PREFACE. The author of the present work, when engaged a few years back m preparing notes for a new edition of "White's Natural History of Selborne, soon found a larger stock of matter collected upon his hands than it was thought desirable to use on that occasion. This led to the idea of embodying a considerable proportion of this matter in a separate work, such as is now offered to the public. It further appeared to him that a work of this kind might take the place of the " Naturalist's Calendar " and " Observations in various branches of Natural History," extracted from White's papers after his death, and first given to the world in a separate volume, by Dr. Aikin; both which have generally been incorporated with the later editions of White's work, but were not included in the edition spoken of above. This omission was in consequence of an opinion, that the " Calendar," though useful to a certain extent, wanted that method and exactness which alone can give any permanent value to such Registers ; while the " Observations " contained little of importance beyond what might be found in the Natural History of Selborne itself, or VI PREFACE. what, in the case of the above edition of that work, it was easy to transfer to it in the form of notes. The present volume, therefore, may be considered as an original work, offered in lieu of a reprint of the old one by Dr. Aikin, though for the most part similar to this last in plan and arrangement. The " Observations," which occupy a large proportion of it, are of a miscellaneous kind, and relate to various branches of Natural History; but they are all ar- ranged under independent heads, and the animals to which they refer are classified according to their respective places in the system : by this means they will admit of being readily referred to as occasion may require. Of these observations a few have been contributed to the author by some of his friends, who have kindly interested themselves in the subject, and to whom he here begs to express his thanks ; but the great majority of them have been made by himself, and principally in the immediate neighbour- hood of his own residence. At the same time they have been made at very diiferent times, over a con- siderable number of years, as the dates which are annexed to many of them sufficiently shew ; some going as far back as the day, when he was only just commencing observer, and yet warm with the ardour inspired by a first perusal of White's own work. Indeed, not unfrequently the observations relate to matters, which the author had been led to notice from what White himself had previously observed ; or they are accompanied by remarks suggested entirely by what the latter had vvritten upon the same subjects. This will account for the frequent allusions to White, PREFACE. Vll as well as for a certain degree of similarity, which perhaps may be traced in some parts of the book to passages which occur in the Natural History of Selborne. It is not thought that this last circum- stance will render the public less favourable to the undertaking ; or that a work like the present will be the less welcomed from the fact of several other works, equally indebted for their origin to that of White's, having already appeared at different times. The works alluded to can scarcely be said to be altogether upon the same plan as this one ; and if they had been, works of this kind can hardly be mul- tiplied too much, so long as the observations they contain are trustworthy and original. Neither is the value of such works necessarily limited by the degree of importance which may be attached to these observations. The author is aware that many of the observations here brought forward, have little in them that is either likely to attract the notice of the experienced naturalist, or calculated materially to promote the advancement of any de- partment of the science of which they treat. Never- theless, he conceives, that they may not be, on the whole, without interest ; or unacceptable to such young persons as are likely to be readers of the Natural History of Selborne, to which work the present may be considered as a companion. He is disposed to hope that this volume may also have its influence in tending to increase the number of observers ; that it may help to put those, who are much abroad, or who are otherwise favourably cir- cumstanced in this respect, into the way of collecting, and entering in a daily journal, such little facts as may offer themselves to their notice, and which, under the guidance here afforded them, they may deem worthy of record. It is especially with a view to this end, that the author has treated in a General Introduction to the work, of the value and advantage of those habits of observing, which are indispensable to the progress of all sciences, but especially of the science of Natm'al History, and which, at the same time, are the sources of so much delight and amusement to all true lovers of Nature. He need not here enter into details connected with this subject, which the reader will find in that Introduction stated at length. He may simply mention that, in addition to the remarks he has there offered on this head, he has drawn up a few rules, by attention to which, young naturalists may acquire the habit of observing correctly; from which also they may derive a few hints for carrying on their observations upon such a plan as would materially enhance the value of what they observe, as well as tend more surely to recompense them for the time and labour they had bestowed on such a purpose. For some of these hints, or for trains of thinking that have led up to them, the author him- self has been indebted to certain parts of the admi- rable " Discourse on the study of Natural Philo- sophy," by Sir John Herschel. With respect to the " Calendar," which forms the concluding portion of the present work, enough is stated in the Introduction to that particular part, to render any further explanation of it unnecessary. PREFACE. IX It may serve in some respects to take the place of White's : but it is rather offered as a specimen of the kind of Calendar, which it would be desirable to see kept in different localities, in order to determine (what science at the present day principally re- quires), the mean date of occurrence of the several periodic phenomena observed in such localities. With this view, as well as for the purpose of shew- ing the coincidences more clearly, the plan of it is somewhat different from, and, as the author is in- clined to hope, an improvement upon, that of the one compiled from White's Manuscripts by Aikin. The Calendar itself is, confessedly, very imperfect ; though, in respect of a considerable number of the entries contained in it, it may be regarded as a near approximation to the truth. Strictly speaking, also, it has no immediate reference to any other district, than that in which the author is resident, and in which the registered phenomena were severally ob- served : nevertheless, it may serve in a general way for all places in this country on or near the same parallel of latitude. In order to assist observers in comparing the dates of the periodic phenomena which they may notice in their own neighbourhood with those here given, as well as to facilitate the in- quiries of persons generally, who may wish to know when any particular phenomenon takes place, there is annexed to the whole an Alphabetical Index having a reference to the meaii date of occurrence in each particular case : any information that may be desired beyond this must be sought for in the Calendar itself. The author does not think it necessary to speak here of the utility of such Registers, as this point will be found amply discussed in the Introduc- tion above alluded to. In conclusion, it may be added, that though all the "Observations" which form the main part of this work are original, yet from the circumstance of their having been mostly made many years back, it has happened that similar ones, in some instances, have been since made by other persons. Where this has been the case, the observation has still been admit- ted ; and a reference has been given in a note to those works (so far as they are known to the author) in which the observation already occurs, or in which there is anything connected with the particular fact to which it relates. The author has also transferred to the notes all the scientific names of the animals spoken of, (except where they have no English one generally received) ; as well as any matter of a more strictly scientific nature, which it was thought de- sirable to introduce, in further illustration of the particular subject under notice, but which was con- sidered as not likely to be interesting to the general reader. It was intended that this work, which was an- nounced as in preparation a considerable time back, should have appeared before now, but the author found so much more labour in the arrangement of the Calendar than he at first anticipated, that his professional duties did not allow him the requisite leisure for getting the whole ready for publication sooner. SWAFFHAM BULBECK, JullJ 6, 1846. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. Introduction ; on Habits of Observing as connected WITH THE Study of Natural History.. 3 — 46 Observations on Quadrupeds 49 — 85 Miscellaneous 49 — 55 Bats 55— 60 Noctule 56— 58 Pipistrelle 58 Long-eared Bat 59 Barbastelle CO Hedgehog 61 Common SlirevF 62 Weasel 63 Stoat 63— 66 DomesticCat 66— 70 Dog 70— 72 Squirrel 72 Harvest Mouse 73 Long-tailed Field Mouse 74 Common Mouse 74 Water Vole 75— 77 Bank Vole 77 Common Hare 77 Rabbit 78 — 80 Horse 81 Ox 81 XU CONTENTS. PAGE. Sheep 82— 85 Grampus 85 Observations on Birds 86 — 196 Notes of Birds 86 — 102 Birds of Passage 103—107 Equal distribution of Birds 107 — 111 Nestsof Birds Ill Birds appearing fat in winter 112 Mortality among Birds 11 3 — 1 1 7 Notes on Particular Species of Birds 118 — 196 Kestrel 118 Honey-Buzzard 119 Marsh Harrier 119 Long-eared Owl 120 Short-eared Owl 120 White Owl 121—124 Tawny Owl 124 Red-backed Shrike 124 Missel Thrush 124 Redwing and Fieldfare 125 SongThrush 126 Redbreast 127—130 Pettychaps 131 Lesser Whitethroat 131 Wood Warbler 132 Willow Warbler 133 Chiff-chaff 134 Wagtails 135 Tree Pipit 135 Titmice 136 Snow Bunting 138 Common Bunting 138 Reed Bunting 139 Siskin 139 Raven 140 Rook 140—152 Jackdaw 152 CONTENTS. xm PAGE. Jay 154 Great-spotted Woodpecker 154 Common Creeper 155 Nuthatch 157 Cuckoo 158 Kingfisher 158 Swallow 158 House Martin 160—162 Sand Martin 162 Swift 163 Ring Dove 164 Stock Dove 165—168 Common Turtle Dove 168 Collared or African Turtle 168—170 Domestic Cock 170 Pheasant 172 Partridge 173—175 Red-legged Partridge 175 Quail 176 Bustard 176 Great Plover 177 Dotterel 177—179 Ringed Plover 179 Oyster-catcher 180 Curlew 180 Green Sandpiper 180 Common Snipe 181 Dunlin 181 Water Rail 182 Landrail 183 Spotted Crake 184 Little Crake 185 Moorhen 185 Wild Goose 186 Tame Swan 187 Domestic Duck 187 Wild Ducks 189 XIV CONTENTS. PAGE. Red-breasted Merganser 190 Smew 191 Dabchick 191 Razorbill 191 Gannet, or Soland Goose 192 Black Tern 193 Coddy-moddy Gull 194—196 Observations on Reptiles 197 — 207 Common Lizard 197 — 199 Common Snake 199 Common Frog 199 Common Toad 200 — 204 Natter-jack 204—207 Observations on Fishes 208 — 224 Ruffe 208 Great Weever 209 River Bullhead, or Miller 's-thumb 209 Ten-spined Stickleback 210 Gold-fish 210—212 Pomeranian Bream , 212 — 214 Red-eye or ShallovF 214 Groundling 215 Pike 217 Smelt 218 Eel-pout or Burbot 220 Eel 221—224 Sturgeon 224 Observations on Insects 225 — 297 Miscellaneous 225—234 Carabus violaceus 234 Omaseus aterrimus 235 Sinonendron cylindricum 236 Cockchaffer 236 GlovF-worm 238 Ptinusfur 239 Death-watch 240 Turnip Weevil 241 CONTENTS. XV PAGE. Lixus productus 242 Apion flavipes 243 Bruchus granarius 244 — 246 Helodes phellandrii 246 Coccinella globosa 246 Meloe proscarabaeus 247 Earwigs 248 Grasshoppers.. 249 Dragon-flies 250 Mason Wasp 250—254 Common Wasp 254—259 Tree Wasp 259 Hornet 261 Bees 262 Butterflies 263—266 Papilio machaon 263 Gonepteryx rhamni 264 Pontia cardamines 264 Vanessa urticae 264 antiopa 265 atalanta 265 Death's-head Hawkmoth 266 Vapourer Moth 266 Pink-under-wing Moth 267 Herald Moth 267—269 Gnats (Culices) 269 Gnats (Chironomi) 271 Trichocera hiemalis 272 Flies 273—277 Extraordinary swarm of flies 275 Eristalis tenax 277 Anthomyia canicularis 278—280 Dung-flies 281 Livia juncorum 281 Aphides 283 Lettuce blight 284—286 Lice 286—288 XVI CONTENTS. PAGE. Mites 288—293 Tick (Ixodes) 288 Sarcoptes passerinus 289 Acanis domesticus 290 Cheyletus eruditus 290 Philodromus limacum 291 Red Spider 293—295 Chelifer Geoffroyi 295 Entomostraca 295 — 296 Cyclopsina castor 295 Argulus foliaceus 296 Electiic centipede 296 Observations on Worms 298 — 317 Small red Ditch-worm 299 — 301 Earth-worm 301 Clay-worm 302 Thread-worms 303 — 311 Worm in a Gnat 311 Eel in vinegar 311 Liver Fluke 312—314 Ground Fluke 314—317 Observations on Mollusks 318 — 328 Helix lapicida 321 Helix carthusiana 322 Cyclostoma elegaus 322 Small fresh-water bivalves 324—328 Remarks on the Importance of Registers of Periodic Phenomena in Natural History 331—365 Calendar of Periodic Phenomena in Natural His- tory 366—412 Alphabetical Arrangement of the Phenomena in the foregoing Calendar 413 — 428 General Index 429 — 439 INTRODUCTION HABITS OF OBSERVING, AS CONNECTED WITH THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. Naturae divitife plane sunt inexhaustae, nee cuiquam post mille secula nato deerit quod scrutetur, et in quo se cum laude exerceat. — Raii Epist. Nature, enchanting Nature, in whose form And lineaments divine I trace a hand That errs not, and find raptures still renew'd, Is free to all men universal prize. Strange that so fair a creature should yet want Admirers, and he destin'd to divide With meaner objects ev'n the few she finds ! COWPER. INTRODUCTION. (1.) Natural History has been said by some to be a study of facts ; by others, a science of observa- tion. Each of these statements is to a certain ex- tent true : it is only by observation that we can acquire a knowledge of the facts upon which all ulterior views must be based. But neither does this, nor any other science, rest satisfied with the bare recording of isolated and independent pheno- mena. It seeks to classify these phenomena, and to comprise them within certain general principles, established by inductive reasoning, to the influence of which they may all ultimately be referred. Doubt- less this is taking an extensive view of the subject, and, when vve contemplate the immensity of nature, en- tering upon a field which it may require years to tra- vel over, and which we may never be able to measure in its full dimensions. Yet that there are such principles as we allude to, is next to certain. Look- ing only to the analogy of other sciences, we might predicate their existence ; when, however, we re- gard further the frequent attempts which have been made of late years to discover and fix them, and the B 2 ^ INTRODUCTION. present aspect of the science compared with what it exhibited a century or two back, we can hardly entertain a doubt on this point. And though we may never attain to a complete knowledge of them, they form as it were the main aim and object of the science, to which the labours of the scientific natu- ralist are ever directed, and to which at least he makes a nearer advance, the more he investigates the relations existing amongst the various matters that present themselves to his notice. (2.) What has been said may seem, at first hear- ing, to discourage the labours of a certain class of observers, who take the greatest delight in watch- ing nature, but who can never hope to undertake any such investigations as those above alluded to. It may be thought to subject them to the charge of resting satisfied with first steps, without caring to advance in the true path of scientific research. This, however, is far from what is intended ; and it is rather in especial reference to these persons that the remarks we are about to offer will be brought together. A man may never aim at be- ing anything more than a mere observer, and yet em- ploy his time usefully to others, as well as agree- ably to himself. He may restrict himself to simply noting and recording what falls under his own autojjsia* and unconsciously be laying the found- ation of the most important generalizations. For observation, though not itself the true end of the * This word was particularly used by White, to signify the observing things for oneself and with one's own eyes. ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 5 science of Natural History, is nevertheless a means to that end ; and, whatever principles we ultimate- ly arrive at, it is only observation that can have insured their correctness or permanence. Hence the facts and observed phenomena collected by such persons may be of much value to others, though the observers themselves make no immediate use of them. And it has not unfrequently happened, that the profoundest naturalists, whilst engaged in the higher departments of the science, have ex- pressed themselves indebted to some retired ob- server for the knowledge of a fact which has proved of the greatest importance to their views, and been one of the main supports of the theory they were seeking to establish. (3.) Of course it is presumed that the observa- tions we propose making in any department of nature should be correct, which is all that is ne- cessary to give them value and importance ; and, without this, they will have no value at all. It is essential to premise this, because some per- sons, who are not habituated to observing, may fall unintentionally into errors, and, being first de- ceived themselves, may afterwards mislead others. Further on it will be our object to lay down a few rules, and to suggest certain hints, that may prove of service in this matter, and by attending to which, young observers may be put upon their guard, and withheld from needlessly sacrificing both their time and their labour. (4.) But further ; it has happened in most sci- ences that the collecting of facts, and the deducing b INTRODUCTION. from them any such important generalizations as may lead to a comprehensive theory, have been the work of different individuals. In sciences, in- deed, which have made any considerable advance, such division of labour becomes unavoidable. The observer, therefore, need not be discouraged, be- cause he is not possessed himself of those attain- ments necessary for proceeding to the investigation of such principles as his observations may assist in establishing. He may leave this to others, and content himself, if he will, with a more subordi- nate part. And in Natural History especially it is almost necessarily the case that the observer and the theorist should be in some measure separated. For the facts here required are of such a kind as cannot all be procured at will, or in any situation we please. Many of them call for opportunities of a very peculiar nature ; and those who enjoy such opportunities are not unfrequently, by that very circumstance, shut out from making any applica- tion themselves of the knowledge they have ac- quired to the furtherance of the general interests of the science. (5.) That we may see this the more clearly, let us stop to take a general view of the descriptions of facts which are wanted by the naturalist to enable him to proceed in his inquiries into the general principles upon which Nature seems to have based her system. For this purpose he must have under his view all the different species and varieties of animals with which this earth is peo- pled ; and he ought to be able to inspect them, not ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 7 merely in the dead or preserved state, but in the living or at least recently-killed. Without this he can never closely investigate, or fully understand, many parts of their structure, the knowledge of which is sometimes essential for forming even the most distant idea of their true affinities. Besides this, there are many tribes of animals, especially among the lower classes, which, from their delicate organiza- tion, are scarcely capable of being preserved at all. To study these, therefore, and to obtain even the most general view of their organization, it will be necessary for him to resort to the spots where they are found. But further ; in addition to a knowledge of structure, the naturalist requires a knowledge of habits. The former, indeed, is always connect- ed with, and more or less subordinate to, the lat- ter. And though he may sometimes infer a par- ticular habit from a given structure, yet such in- ference can only be the result of having first ac- tually observed their co-existence in a large num- ber of instances. After all, what is more varied than the habits and instincts of different animals ? How multiplied are the resources of Nature in com- passing her ends ! How often do we find the same object attained in as many different ways as there are cases in which the object is sought! Again, how strangely are both habits and structure some- times modified by accidental circumstances, and by conditions affecting certain particular localities ! — So that it is at once obvious, that, in order to be- come acquainted with all the phenomena of Natu- ral History, a man must leave the retirement of 8 INTRODUCTION. his Study, and pursue Nature into her own haunts, amid fields, waters, woods and mountains, (to say nothing of travelling to foreign climes,) or else he must have a large proportion of such facts col- lected to his hand by others, upon whose accuracy he can depend. (6.) This circumstance has given rise to a dis- tinction between (as they have been sometimes call- ed) in-door and out-of-door naturalists. Every one who has read White's Selborne, is aware how its estimable author uses this latter term in speaking of himself, not professing to be anything more than a close observer of natiu'e, and leaving to others to compare and classify the facts so obtained, and to build up systems in their own closets at home. Neither is this distinction a bad one. There is a great deal, as regards the real advancement of the science of Natural History, which can be done only at home, where there is quiet and leisure, to- gether with ready access to a well-stored library ; and there is a great deal likewise, as we have just seen, that can be done only abroad. And it is ab- surd for either of these two classes of naturalists to throw contempt and censure upon the other, as sometimes has been the case ; seeing that they both work together for the good of the science, and la- bour in a common cause, although in different ways. The in-door naturalist cannot do without the out- of-door ; and the latter, one might suppose, would never undervalue the inquiries of the former, which tend to increase the importance of his own researches. ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. U (7.) Each of the above habits of life has its pecu- liar advantages ; but the out-of-door naturalist, with whom alone we have to do in these pages, has this in his favour, that he is never at a loss for the means and opportunities of carrying on his favourite pur- suit. He is, as it were, independent of circum- stances ; and he can scarcely be so situated as to be altogether shut out from observing nature, and add- ing to the store of facts which it is his amusement to collect and note down. All places oifer some- thing worthy of his attention, though certain spots may be more favourable in this respect than others. And here we shall make a remark which may be of service to young naturalists, viz. that they should avail themselves of the particular situation in which they may happen to be placed, for studying what- ever that situation offers. We mean, that they should be guided by it in their choice of the parti- cular department of Natural History to which they intend mainly to confine their researches. They should take what comes to hand, and bestow their chief time on what falls directly under their eye. They will often thus have it in their power to supply facts for the more scientific naturalist, which others, differently circumstanced, have no means of ascer- taining. For almost every locality has its pecu- liarities; and we should endeavour rather to turn these to account, than to be on the constant search for what our neighbourhood is not calculated to afford. We like the remark made by White in one of his letters to Pennant, that if he had been by the sea-side he would have turned his attention to B 5 10 INTRODUCTION. Ichthyology.* Can there be a question as to whether that observant naturalist, had he been so situated, would not have given us just as entertaining and instructive a volume, as that he has left us in his Natural History of Selborne ? It was not the exact locality in which he was placed, but the inquisitive turn of his mind, and the ardent zeal with which he devoted himself to the study of Nature, that enabled him to glean those materials, which have afforded so much delight to the present generation. He him- self observes in another passage of his book, " that that district produces the greatest variety, which is the most examined ;"f and few, who reflect on the many novelties constantly occurring in certain dis- tricts, where there happen to be more observers than elsewhere, will be disposed to question the general truth of this statement. (8.) It is doubtless in a great measure owing to the influence which White's Natural History of Selborne has exercised on the present generation, that the science has had so many followers in this country of late years. It is not that his work carries us any great way in unravelling the mysteries of Nature, but it is the spirit which it breathes that so strongly recommends "it to our notice. He has induced others to follow up the same sort of life which had such charms for himself; and to him we are indebted for many volumes besides his own, of which the authors, by their own acknowledgment, were first excited and trained to habits of observing, * Nat. Hist, of Selb. Lett. xxi. to Pennant. t Id. Lett. XX. to the same. ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 11 by the perusal of his work. He has taught us how much there is of interest to an intelligent and in- quiring mind in the history of the meanest and most familiar of animals. Naturalists are not now, so much as formerly, content with the discovery of new species, nor desirous merely of enriching our mu- seums with rare and costly specimens ; but they seek to know the economy and mode of life of the differ- ent animals they meet with. Many of these they have traced with the greatest assiduity and patience through their several changes dependent upon age, as well as watched the modifications induced by varying circumstances on their particular habits. They have learnt to attach a value to httle points in their history, which formerly would have been passed over as unimportant, or perhaps not observed at all. And it is greatly to be desired that all professed collectors would follow such a course, and note down whatever facts they can get hold of in illustra- tion of the specimens they acquire. This practice would much enhance the value of their collections, so far as these are calculated to aid in extending our knowledge of the laws which respect the arrange- ment and distribution of animals. The systematist would thereby be enabled to judge better of the affinities of any new species, and to determine the place they occupy in Nature's plan, so intricate in its details, v^th more certainty and exactness. The collector, moreover, has it in his power to supply much information of the above kind, which, if not recorded at the moment, may be in vain sought for afterwards. 12 INTRODUCTION. (9.) And let none think that, because we have so many works conducted on the plan of Wliite's, and so much on record in these days respecting the habits of animals, there is nothing more to be learnt. Ray has remarked, that so rich is Natiu'e, that a man born a thousand ages hence will still find enough left for him to do and notice.'* The field open to the observer is really inexhaustible; and this is not more true in respect of the immense number of species inhabiting this globe, than of what is requisite to perfect the history even of those known. In how very few cases, if any, can we say that we have attained to a complete knowledge of any one species, so as to give a detailed account of all its characters and instincts, and the degree to which these are liable to be affected by an alteration in the circumstances of its life ! To those who travel in foreign and remote countries, still more to those who are stationed in localities but seldom visited by man, the force of this remark must be obvious. But even vnthout going from our own neighbourhood, or withdrawing from spots with which we have been long intimate, how much may be learnt in addition to what we yet know! It is not always the animals that we are most familiar with by name and frequency of occurrence, whose history we understand the best. And amongst the lower tribes especially, there are many that fall under our notice almost every day, respecting whose mode of production, food and instincts, we are as much * Philosophical Letters, p, 35. ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 13 in the dark, as if they had been only just brought to our museums from a remote quarter of the globe. (10.) Neither let us disdain to notice the most trivial facts that may be brought under our eye, from a feeling that they can be of no use. "When Wliite made the remark (at which some might smile) that the field-cricket " drops its dung on a little platform at the mouth of its hole," he proba- bly did not stop to consider whether the fact were worth recording, but was actuated only by a desire to give the whole history of the little insect before him, so far as he could learn it. And it is impossi- ble to say at the moment of what use the most trifling fact may be. It is impossible to determine the exact importance of any circumstance in the history of an animal until we know its whole history ; and not only this, but the whole history of other allied species, so as to ascertain what is peculiar to the one in question, and what is common to all the species of the group to which it belongs. Many facts, which seem in themselves trifling, may be found hereafter of the greatest importance to science. They may lead to the unravelling of some knot, or the solving of some difficulty, that would long have remained a mystery without them. And one simple observation, thought nothing of at the time by the observer himself, may avail to the overthrow of an entire system, the fruit perhaps of years of labour and close meditation.* * See Cuvier, Hist, des Prog, des Sci. Nat. torn. i. p. 5. J 4 INTRODUCTION. (11.) We have hitherto spoken of observations in Natural History, as made with a \T.ew to promote the advancement of that particular science, and to supply facts upon w^hich all generalizations must rest. But some of these facts, when obtained, may be of use in other ways. They may assist in forming the statistics, as it were, of other sciences, particu- larly Meteorology, for which purpose they have been assiduously collected by some observers. The differ- ent times at which the periodic movements of animals take place, their times of breeding and hybernation, and many interesting phenomena of the same na- ture; also, in the vegetable kingdom, the times of the leafing of trees, and the flowering of plants, the ripening of fruits, &c. — all these are more or less connected with the progress of the seasons, and climatological considerations, and on this account are well worthy of our notice. The Calendar of Flora in the Amcenitates Academicce of Linnasus is well known, and White's Naturalist's Calendar known, perhaps, still better in this country; and from the circumstance of the attention of the scien- tific public having been lately reawakened both here and abroad to this subject, we have been induced to devote to it a certain portion of this work, as a guide and stimulus to those who are disposed to join in making observations of this nature. What, however, we have chiefly to say on this head will serve as an immediate introduction to the Calendar, which we propose ofiering to the reader in another place. We shall simply state here that the regularity which pervades nature, as regards the recuiTence of ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 15 periodic plienomena, is very striking. We mean not that the incidents of the several kinds above alluded to always fall out on a particular day, though no doubt the averages of many years' obser- vations, taken at intervals, would bring them to a near coincidence. But it is rather the regularity with which they uniformly succeed each other, from which there is little deviation, that is so remarkable. Why the toad should be always a few days later in spawning than the frog ; — or why the pheasant should hatch before the partridge, though the latter pairs for the breeding-season long before we hear the sexual crow of the former ; — or again, why the apricot should invariably flower a few days before the peach, yet generally come into leaf a day or two later ; these, and a thousand other little matters of the same kind that might be mentioned, furnish much room for reflection to the thoughtful inquirer. Nothing also is more surely regulated by the seasons than the various sounds emitted by different animals, whether the notes of birds, or the cries of insects, &c., which fall so gladly upon the ears of the naturalist, indicating to him the different feelings by which such animals are actuated. The pleasure, indeed, afforded by rural sounds has been often rapturously spoken of by ardent lovers of Nature, and the poet has left us lines on that subject, the beauty and force of which have been frequently alluded to : — Nor rural sights alone, but rural sounds, Exhilarate the spirit, and restore The tone of lansfuid nature. 16 INTRODUCTION. Ten thousand warblers cheer the day, and one The livelong night : nor these alone, whose notes Nice-finger'd art must emulate in vain. But cawing rooks, and kites that swim sublime In still repeated circles, screaming loud, The jay, the pie, and ev'n the boding owl. That hails the rising moon, have charms for me. Sounds inharmonious in themselves and harsh. Yet heard in scenes where peace for ever reigns, And only there, please highly for their sake. The Task. But we are here speaking of the sounds of animals as simply indicating the progress of the seasons. It has been said, and it is not far from the truth, that if an observant naturalist, who had been long shut up in darkness and solitude, without any measure of time, were suddenly brought blindfolded into the open fields and woods, he might gather with consi- derable accuracy from the various notes and noises which struck his ears what the exact period of the year might be."* Some instances of a remarkable coincidence in this respect will be found mentioned in the body of this work. (12.) There is much pleasure in watching and re- gistering such natural phenomena as we last alluded to, whether, after all, we turn them to any account * Humboldt has made a somewhat similar remark, with respect to the power of distinguishing the different hours of the day, in tropical countries, by the hum of the insects that succeed one another at fixed periods. He observes, " The insects of the tropics everywhere follow a certain stand- ard in the periods at Avhich they alternately arrive and disappear. At fixed and invariable hours, in the same season, and the same ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 17 or not. Many persons also have found their chief happiness in a habit of observing the life and man- ners of the animals in their immediate neighbour- hood, without any view to the facts so acquired being made subservient to the progress of Zoology. We would throw no hindrance or discouragement in the way of such observers. We desire not to say anything that might tend to check their inquiries, though no benefit were thereby to accrue to the higher departments of the science. For we are deeply sensible ourselves of the pleasure which attends an observing habit of mind, as well as its usefuhiess in other ways, besides its bearing upon the general objects of science. When a man has learnt to take an interest in the varied operations of Nature, which are everywhere being carried on about him, and has acquired the habit of directing his attention to such matters, and keeping his senses always alive to any new information thereby afforded him, he has made himself almost independent of outward circumstances. He has opened to himself a source of occupation and mental enjoyment, but little affected by the ordinary vicissitudes of life. Of how few of the pursuits of the world in general can this be advanced ! How few can secure those latitude, the air is peopled with new inhabitants, and in a zone where the barometer becomes a clock (by the extreme regularity of the horary variations of the atmospheric pressure), where every- thing proceeds with such admirable regularity, we might guess blindfold the hour of the day or night, by the hum of the insects, and by their stings, the pain of which differs according to the nature of the poison that each insect deposits in the wound." Fers. Narr. (Engl. Transl.) vol. v. p. 95. 18 INTRODUCTION. who follow them from disappointment and ennui, or are of that nature that they can be carried on in every possible situation, without prejudice or incon- venience to others ! The pursuit of Natural History is itself a relief from ennui, and from many of the unavoidable anxieties to which the human mind is exposed. There have been persons, who have been forced to keep residence in some of the most deso- late spots on this globe, and who have declared that it was the study of Nature alone which made their condition tolerable. How well then must this study be calculated to augment our happiness in more favoured climes, like our own ! We are not sur- prised, indeed, at some men not becoming professed observers ; but sure we are that those whose inclina- tions lead them that way, have an enviable advan- tage over others. They have always a resource to turn to, for the purpose either of filling up those leisure hours, which hang so heavily upon many, or of diverting the mind from anxious and oppressive thoughts. (13.) It is, indeed, to be regretted that there are not more observers than there are. Though all can- not become such, there are surely very many who might, and who in this way would add greatly to their usefulness as well as happiness. We speak not of professional men, whose time is necessarily en- grossed by business, or avocations, which could not be neglected for scientific pursuits. But it is lament- able to think, as an excellent author has observ- ed, how many " waste a whole life, without ever being once well awake in it, passing through the ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 19 world like a heedless traveller, without making any reflections or observations, without any design or purpose beseeming a man."* There are some who are not tied down by their circimistances to any par- ticular employment, and who are content to do no- thing. They either let their faculties rust in idle- ness, or direct them to objects unworthy of rational beings. Might not, we repeat, such individuals fill up their time more profitably, and in a way more calculated to advance their own happiness, by applying their minds to the great Book of Nature, always open to them, but hitherto unread ? Is it not to be regretted that they can find even no amusement in the exercise of their senses, in discerning and noting down what there is of marvellous and instructive in the works of the Creation ? The very variety that exists in Nature, the endless diversity of plan, the marks of skill and adaptation that everywhere meet us, seem almost to put forth an irresistible claim to our regard, and to command our attention. And when we have it in our power, from our situation and circumstances, to direct our studies that way, — not to do so is, to say the least, to shut ourselves out from some of the^ purest pleasures of which the human mind is capable. But to pass from the case of these persons, we apprehend that there are some professed lovers of Natiural History, who want to be further stimulated in the exercise of their own selected pursuits. Such as live at a distance from the great centres of liter- ary concourse, who have no access to museums and * Lucas on Happiness. 20 INTRODUCTION. libraries, and who have few or none to consult, or with whom they can associate, sometimes fall into habits of indolence, from a feeling that they can do but little for the advancement of science.* But we have already said (9) how much is often within the reach of these persons. And if they could only be induced to become observers upon some regular plan, they would soon find how little room for com- plaint there was on the above ground ; how, indeed, objects, worthy of notice, crowded upon their view in proportion as they sought after them, of which, perhaps, some had been daily under their eyes, but passed over, from the mind never having been pro- perly directed to them. (14.) The habit we are here recommending is pe- culiarly adapted to a country life ; and, in the plea- sures which it affords, offers a full compensation for the loss of those advantages, which are only to be reaped in the society of large towns. In the midst of Natm-e's best gifts, and surrounded by the many living inhabitants occupying the same ground as himself, the observer hardly knows what it is to be alone. He finds company wherever he goes, and of a kind, moreover, from which there is always som^ lesson to be gleaned, some instruction to be gather- ed. He feels the truth of the great poet's remark, that— " Solitude sometimes is best society." Nor is there here any insipidity or sameness to tire or disgust him. He takes the same rounds every * See, on this subject, For. Qu. Rev. vol. xiv. p. 317. ON HABITS OF OBSERVIN(i. 21 year, and there is always something fresh to quicken his attention — some novelty to recompense his re- searches. There is, also, an inducement to take that regular exercise, which is so essential for main- taining the health of the body. We know how com- mon it is for persons of sedentary habits to neglect this important matter, thereby inviting all those dis- eases which arise from torpor and inactivity. Or if they do force themselves to take daily what is called a constitutional walk, too frequently they derive little benefit from it, in consequence of the mind not participating with the body in the imposed task, but still recurring to the occupations at home. It is, then, a great advantage, in respect of health alone, not merely to have an inducement to go out, but, the moment we do so, to be able to let the mind expa- tiate freely on surrounding objects ; to have it in our power to convert every walk into a source of in- struction as well as pleasure, and to find happiness where others seldom even think of looking for it. (15.) As a further encouragement to the forming a habit of observing the works of Nature, we might men- tion, what has been so often alluded to, its tendency to foster, if not to generate, a devout turn of mind to- wards their adorable Author. Undoubtedly it has this effect, where there is no perverseness or viciousness of temper present to counteract it. In watching the habits of animals, and the provision made for their welfare and happiness, in noting their varied in- stincts, their arts and stratagems to obtain the necessary support for themselves and young, their mode of defending themselves against their enemies, 22 INTRODUCTION. and all their ways so replete with matter for reflec- tion and astonishment, we cannot but trace the finger of their Great Creator : we cannot but con- sider all we see as affording the clearest indications of His over-ruling Providence. It speaks to the existence of some mighty Power, whose secret in- fluence upholds order and harmony, amid what would otherwise be a chaos of confusion and turmoil, from the conflicting interests of so many different agents. View the animal world in one light, and it would seem to be a world of rapine and bloodshed. We find different tribes waging a perpetual war against each other, — the weaker daily falling a prey to the stronger, mitil we might suppose that these last would be left alone upon the earth. Yet it is re- markable, that, notwithstanding this constant strug- gle for the mastery, or what is more frequent, this necessity of yielding to the attacks of a superior foe, the relative numbers of each species of animal seem on the whole to remain nearly the same. Certain species may have disappeared from the face of the earth, or from particular districts, through the agency and interference of man, or from the operation of other causes ; but this is not ordinarily the effect produced by one species preying upon another. — It is further remarkable, that, though many animals are thus in perpetual jeopardy of their lives from the number of their enemies, they yet seem in the en- joyment of as much happiness, as if all were security and peace. Who can witness the gambols of a hare, proverbially one of the most defenceless and perse- cuted of creatures, without being struck with this ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 23 reflection ? * To speak of the frolics of a lamb, so familiar to every one, or of the evident signs of happiness in all young animals, would be quite superfluous. But the same signs of happiness appear everywhere, even in the lower tribes of ani- mated nature. It will be remembered by those, who are conversant with Paley's Natural Theology, how he has adduced the instance of swarms of young shrimps, which he had observed jumping repeatedly out of the water, from no apparent motive but that of the feeling of happiness, as one of the many proofs of " the goodness of the Deity." He consi- dered it as speaking to the fact of His having not merely provided for the wants of His creatures, but * The reader will probably remember Cowper's humorous lines in his " Epitaph on a Hare :" — A Turkey carpet was his lawn, Whereon he lov'd to bound, To skip and gambol like a fawn, And swing his rump around. His frisking was at ev'ning hours, For then he lost his fear ; But most before approaching show'rs, Or when a storm drew near. Eight years and five round-rolling moons He thus saw steal away, Dozing out all his idle noons, And ev'ry night at play. I kept him for his humour's sake, For he would oft beguile My heart of thoughts, that made it ache, And force me to a smile. 24 INTRODUCTION. given them, in addition to what was necessary as a means of welfare, a capacity for enjoyment in the simple exercise of their limited powers and faculties.* And no right-minded observer can witness many similar instances of the apparent happiness of ani- mals, without being led in like manner to meditate on Him who is the source of all good. For our- selves, we never witness, in particular, the broods of gnats that may so often be observed hovering in the air during still weather, successively rising and fall- ing every instant, without thinking of Paley's slu-imps, and being forcibly reminded of his conclu- sion, that " it is a happy world after all." Perhaps, however, it is in the instincts of animals that we see the strongest evidence of a Creator's care ; in the workings of a sagacity, apparently making near ap- proaches, in some instances, to that of man, though too narrow in its operations, and too uniform in its results, to allow of our attributing it to the exercise of any reasoning faculties like his. On this field, which has been so largely treated of by many authors, we are not at present about to enter far. We will not stop to enumerate the numberless cases, in which animal instinct shews itself, — or to point out the exact line of demarcation, by which it * We would strongly recommend the perusal of Paley's work to all young naturalists, especially the chapter on " the Goodness of the Deity," in which will be found some of the above argu- ments carried further into detail. The system of animals devour- ing one another, Paley well defends, by shewing it to be, under all circumstances of their condition, the most merciful provision that could have been made. ON HABITS OP OBSERVING. 25 is separated from reason.* Sure we are, that to whatever source we attribute the effects we witness, their adaptation to the purposes, which the several agents have in view, is very remarkable. And we feel convinced that there is some other wisdom be- sides their own, to which we must turn for a true explanation of the mystery, although we may not immediately discern the Hand that guides and regu- lates their deportment. (16.) And surely he is but little worthy of the name of a naturalist, who rests satisfied with this conclusion, without making any deductions calcu- lated to improve and benefit himself. If the divine wisdom and goodness are thus manifest in the works of Creation,! do we not see stamped on these works the character and disposition of Him, who is our own Maker ? If, especially, so much vigilant care is exercised on behalf of the beasts that perish, is there not conclusive evidence in respect of the same or greater care being felt for man, made after the divine image ? There is no immediate impress made upon us, as on the lower animals, to keep us in the right way, because of our superior faculties * Authors generally, who have written on this subject, seem not sufficiently to have distinguished between intelligence and reason. The former is found in many animals, and, when pre- sent, is generally in an inverse ratio to instinct ; but reason, pro- perly so called, is confined to man. See, in further illustration of this point, Coleridge's " Friend,'' vol. i. Essay, 5. + The Apostle tells us that, — " The invisible things of God from the Creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and God- head." Bom. i. 20. 26 INTRODUCTION. which render such a step unnecessary : nor is there any control exercised over our minds, to protect us from harm, that would interfere with our moral freedom, of which animals are altogether destitute. But then these higher gifts, which thus far more than supply the place of instinct, are themselves the proofs of what the Creator has done for man. They testify, in a still more remarkable manner, what is purposed by the Almighty in respect of ourselves, and speak to the more exalted kind of happiness to which he would lead us. What then must be the state of that heart which reaps no moral lesson from the great truths which Nature everywhere proclaims ; — which can observe the instincts and habits of animals, without thinking of the great unseen Agent, whose will they obey, or without seeking to inquire what that will is as regards himself, and which he is left (partly by the aid of his reason), to carry out or neglect, to his own eternal happiness or misery ? A,s we said before, there must be some wilful pervers^- ness or viciousness of temper present to counteract this effect. But where this is the case, it must be met by further and different arguments from what would be in keeping with this work. Instead, there- fore, of following up this subject, let us express a hope that the supposed case is not of frequent occur- rence, and that natural observers are generally awake to a sense of the moral and religious inferences, which ought to accompany them in their pursuits. We well remember once seeing a naturalist involun- tarily shed tears, on the occasion of a hen partridge practising its well-known stratagem to divert atten- ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 27 tion from its young : she came running out of a ditch towards him, and threw herself at his feet, at the same time feigning herself hurt, and uttering a shrieking note as of the most poignant distress. He was touchingly affected by this artful device on the part of the poor bird, serving to show her maternal affection, and anxiety for the safety of her brood. Yet we know this device is always resorted to by the partridge in similar cases ; and the feeling, conse- quently, thereby generated in the breast of the pious observer, is not so much directed to the bird itself, as to that Providence, which by an instinctive im- press teaches the lesson, and guides her as to the exact moment in which it is to be repeated. (17.) Before we quit this part of our subject, it may not be improper to make one remark as a cau- tion necessary to be impressed on some observers. Good and excellent as are the feelings towards the Creator, which the study of Nature is calculated to produce within us, we must not attach so much im- portance to them, as may lead to the exclusion of other considerations of far higher and weightier mo- ment. In other words, we must not mistake natural religion for revealed ; nor suppose that the truths, which this last alone can teach us, are to be learnt by the most attentive regard to this lower world and its varied productions. This is a solemn reflection, which it would be out of place to follow far here. And we simply allude to it, from our belief that there are some naturalists, who make their study of the works of the great Creator the whole of their religion, and the sense they thereby attain of His c2 28 INTRODUCTION. adorable perfections a plea for neglecting the teach- ing of His revealed Word. — May we never forget, that both these come from the same author ; — that man's welfare and interests are as much concerned and bound up in the one as in the other ; — and that no feelings are to be trusted, which prompt us to make our o\vn selection, in respect of what is to be our rule of duty or our guide to happiness. (18.) In addition to what has been advanced in favour of habits of observing, as connected with the study of Natural History, there are some collateral advantages resulting from them, which deserve to be mentioned. Such habits tend generally to sharpen the senses, and to make them more ready at com- mand, when wanted, whatever be the particular ob- ject soliciting our regard. Even he, who confines his attention to the science we are considering, and who never quits the field, wide indeed in itself, which nature opens to him, will after a time be sur- prised at the quickness with which he notices things compared with what he did formerly. The more he observes, the more he finds to observe. From having been long accustomed to have his eyes and ears al- ways open, he perceives objects, and catches at sounds, which formerly he would have entirely passed over, and which others, less practised than himself, with difficulty distinguish, even when their attention is ex- pressly drawn to them. The readiness with which the experienced ornithologist will hear and distinguish the notes of different birds, all singing together on a fine spring morning, is an instance in point ; and we mention it from having sometimes found it almost ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 29 impossible to get an accompanying friend, on such an occasion, to be sensible of some note, uttered by a particular bird, perhaps close at hand, which was to ourselves perfectly audible. The attention, also, of an habitual observer is more and more ar- rested by little things, which formerly, though they might have been noticed, would have made no im- pression, nor called up a single reflection in the mind. We remember once being much struck with the acuteness in this respect of a great philosopher, whose senses, perhaps, were more practised and awake than those of almost any person that ever lived, and who was no less close and accurate an observer in natural history, than in those higher departments of science, to which he more particu- larly devoted himself, and which he cultivated with so much success.* Walking with him one day in the country, and discoursing on the dif- ferent objects that fell under our view, his eyes turned suddenly to the ground, his attention being arrested by the appearance of some minute specks, scattered here and there, which he was not satisfied till he had taken up and examined. They proved to be only the excrement of some small caterpil- lars feeding upon a tree overhead, from the branches * The allusion made above, is to the late Dr. Wollaston ; of whom it has been well observed in a recent publication, " Inerat etiam Wollastono ea perspicacitas, ut qua communi hominum sensui parum ubvia essent, ea statim an'mio a?'riperet atque complecteretur." (Dr. Daubeny's Harveian Oration, 1845, p. 11.) This remark referring to his quickness of mind, might have been quite as justly- applied to the quickness of his senses. 30 INTRODUCTION. of whicli the atoms in question had fallen. But the manner in which, for the moment, he threw his whole mind into what would have been to others so insignificant and almost invisible an object, was strikingly characteristic of such an observer: the remarks, also, to which it led on his part, showed how the greatest intellects will consider nothing unworthy of their notice, from which the smallest addition of knowledge, loved for its own sake, can possibly be derived.* (19.) But the naturalist, whose senses have been sharpened in this manner by habits of observing, will thereby have the advantage over others in mat- ters not immediately connected with his own pur- suits. He becomes a more quick and ready observer on all occasions. An eye that has been well dis- ciplined, and accustomed to exercise, and which is always on the look out for information, is prepared to make the most of every opportunity of getting it. Two persons shall enter an exhibition together, and in the same time one shall have seen far more of it than the other, shall, perhaps, have traversed the whole in a general way while the other was only gazing vacantly about him, besides, here and there, noticing details which escaped the other's observation altogether, though occurring in that particular quarter to which he professed to have directed most attention. This is solely the effect of a habit of ob- serving ; a habit of knowing how to use the eyes * The nature of the remarks above alhided to, in reference to the excrement of caterpillars, will be fomid further treated of in the body of this work. ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 31 when wanted, of adapting them to receive an imme- diate impression from the objects presented to them, of distinguishing minute differences, where others see none at all, and, when restricted in time, glean- ing all that a momentary glance will allow. The case just supposed is in fact but another illustration of the lesson taught us in Mrs. Barbauld's well- known story of " Eyes and no Eyes " in her Even- ings at Home. We all remember the moral of that lesson ; yet how few, nevertheless, carry through life the spirit of the young active inquirer there repre- sented to us, who saw so much where his brother had seen nothing, and whose interest was excited, and his senses kept on the alert, by what to the other afford- ed neither instruction nor entertainment. How many are there, rather, who the further they advance in the world, have their senses more and more blunted by disuse, and who not only regard half what they see (if they can be said to see at all) with apathy and indifference, — but even in cases in which they are more immediately interested, scarcely know how to employ their eyes aright, so as to profit by them as much as possible, or to ensure their being trust-worthy interpreters of whatever is submitted to their notice.* RULES FOR OBSERVING. (20.) The remark with which we concluded the last paragraph leads to the consideration of a few * " It is surprising how little we see until we are taught to ob- serve," Forbes in Edinb. New P/til. Journ. vol. xxxii. p. 85. 32 INTRODUCTION. points, which it may be useful to impress on those who purpose to become observers of nature. And first as regards the importance of observing accu- rately. The value of the facts which we propose to collect must rest primarily on the correctness with which they are noted. And though it may seem hardly necessary to insist on this, yet in fact it is so, from the numberless errors into which persons are led every day, in respect of the objects that fall under their notice, from not giving them a sufficient examination. If we are not habituated to looking closely at objects, we are apt to be misled by first appearances, and to mistake one thing for another. Thus we have known many persons mistake the " large hop-like fruit" of the wich-elm, so conspi- cuous in the latter part of the spring, for leaves; and they would scarcely believe that the tree was not in full leaf, until it had been made evident to their senses, by plucking a branch, that what they saw was merely the expanded seed-vessel, the true leaf-buds being as yet scarcely evolved. Had one of these individuals been requested by a botanical friend to register the dates of the leafing of the different trees in his neighbourhood, he would have been liable in this instance to have registered a false fact, without the slightest suspicion of its being incorrect. In like manner the fall of the floral leaves, or bractecB, of the lime, towards the end of August or beginning of September, might lead a hasty observer to ima- gine that the true leaves were beginning to fall at that early period. How often again are the great flies, which enter our apartments so frequently in ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 33 the autumnal season, and keep up a perpetual humming not unlike that of a drone, consider- ed to be bees.* Indeed it is hardly possible to enter much into society, without being struck with the positive manner, in which we sometimes hear persons stating matters as facts, which every one, in the least degree acquainted with science, knows must be erroneous. We remember once hearing a gentleman distinctly assert that humming-birds were found in this country, and surprised at our denial of the fact : it appeared that he had frequently seen the well-known humming-bird hawkmothf hovering over the flowers of plants, and had mistaken it for a real bird. Such errors are pardonable in those who have paid no great attention to natural objects, and who pretend not to collect facts for scientific purposes ; but they show the caution that must be exercised, and the scrutiny that must be made, before trusting to first impressions upon the senses, as soon as we may have enlisted ourselves in the rank of scientific observers, j (21.) But besides being carried away by first im- pressions, we must carefully guard against being in- fluenced by prejudices. And such prejudices as are likely to interfere with correct observation are of two kinds. We may be prejudiced by popular no- tions, which have been long and generally enter- * Allusion is here made to the Eristalis tenax of Meigen. t Macroglossa stellatarum, Steph. X We may allude to the erroneous statement of Jesse, that "ear- wigs turn to flies," {Gleanings, 3rd. Ser. p. 149,) as an instance of the mistakes which sometimes occur in our popular works from incorrect observation. c5 34 INTRODUCTION. tained, and which are originally due either to igno- rance or superstition ; or by a bias affecting our own minds individually, and caused by a peculiar train of thinking into which we have fallen. The first class of prejudices are those which prevail so frequently with persons of slender education and weak abili- ties, who readily embrace whatever notions have been handed down to them by their forefathers, without troubling themselves to inquire whether they are correct or not. These hindrances to the diffusion of true science are gradually dying away, as knowledge spreads, and education advances, and we hope in a few years most of them will be extinct. But they still in many instances main- tain an obstinate hold over the mind, utterly in- capacitating it for investigating the truth. When due to superstition, they are, as White observes, sucked in, as it were, with oui mother's milk, and growing up with us at a time when impressions generally take the most lasting hold, become so interwoven into our very constitutions, that the strongest good sense is required in order to dis- engage ourselves from them.* Every one's memory will supply them with instances of this class of pre- judices, of such frequent occurrence in respect of matters of Natural History, that it is needless to particularize. But we guard all persons, wish- ing to become observers, against their influence. We require them to dismiss every notion from their minds, imbibed from others, until they have taken correct steps to verify it, and to go forth into the * Letter xxviii. to Daines Bcarring-ton. ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. oO haunts of nature, determined to see and judge for themselves, with as much caution and exactness as possible. (22.) The second class of prejudices above alluded to are not those of an uneducated mind, but of one that has been ivarped hy long reflection on a pecu- liar train of ideas. Under such circumstances, the observer sees everything through a distorted mirror. His usual habits of thinking interfere, and mix themselves up, with the impressions of the senses, substituting, in many cases, a false image for the true one. Nothing is noticed but what bears upon the favourite matter of speculation ; or, if observed, it is not observed in its proper colours, and often, when the mind is on the search for novelty, it is so full of a preconceived idea, that it fancies it sees what has no existence in nature. This is too frequently the case with those naturalists who have some theory to maintain, and who seek to uphold and confirm their particular views by an appeal to facts. Everything appears to fall in exactly with their pre- conceived notions. Instances in point are readily found; sometimes resemblances traced, and infer- ences drawn, the former quite inappreciable to other eyes, the latter quite illogical to other minds. There is not here, any more than in the case of the class of prejudices first mentioned, any real intention of per- verting the truth ; but the judgment is so blinded by a strong desire to find things squaring with its own views, that it becomes utterly unable to take proper hold of the naked truth, or interpret it aright. 36 INTRODUCTION. {23.) To those who are collecting facts for their own use, and not merely to supply others with ma- terials for generalization, it may be useful to be taught the importance of observing a particular fact in a sufficient number of instances, before coming to any conclusion respecting it. Long and repeated observation is required in most cases to enable the mind to generalize correctly. And this, which is true in all sciences, is especially so in the science of Natural History, in which there are as yet so few princijjles well founded and universally received. In proportion to the advance of our knowledge of such principles, will be our safety in taking analogy for our guide. Yet analogy is rarely to be trusted, as those will testify, who have studied longest the book of nature, and searched it the most -deeply. We often find quite a different law (if we may use the term) prevailing in two cases which at first view appeared parallel. By law we mean some rule which seems to regulate either the structure or the habits of animals. Let us take the instance of aquatic and land animals. What observer who was acquainted with the mode of respiration in the land mammals, and then found fish breathing by gills, would at first suspect that the cetaceans accorded with the former in the organs adapted to the ex- ercise of this function. And in the case of certain groups lower down in the system we may observe the converse of this singular phenomenon. The land crabs breathe as exclusively by gills, as any of their congeners which reside always in the water. So also, it is now found, do the common wood-lice, ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 37 though for a long time this was never suspected.* Again, when first it was observed that the natatorial birds had webbed feet, doubtless there was a feeling that this structure and the power of swimming went always together ; yet every tyro now knows that there are birds with webbed feet which never swim, as there are others, in which the toes are divided to their origin, which swim admirably. In fact, num- berless are the cases in which we find a deviation from some general rule. Nature seems to delight in the production of apparent anomalies, for the ex- press purpose of baffling our attempts to bind her by the fetters of a preconceived system. These are for a while so many stumbling-blocks in our way, which we as little expect to meet with beforehand, as we are prepared to explain them when they occur. There are some facts, indeed, of this kind so extra- ordinary, that had they been recorded formerly, when correctness in observing was less attended to than at present, and had they rested only on such statements, they would not now be received. And some which were so recorded, and for many years disbelieved on account of their strangeness, have been observed again in modern times, and to the surprise of naturalists, been proved true.j- From these circumstances we learn caution, as well in pro- nouncing any fact in itself to be true or false, as in * See Duvernoy and Lerebouillet on the organs of respiration in the Crustacea Isopoda in the Ann.des. Sci. Nat. Ser . iii. torn. xv. p, 177. t As an instance in point, we may mention the fact of some of the great serpents in India incubating their eggs. See a note on this subject in our edition of White's Selborne, Lett. xvii. to Pennant. 38 INTRODUCTION. drawing any inference from facts, which, though true, have been noticed but in a limited number of in- stances. We must enter upon the study of Nature prepared to believe everything which is not actually impossible, and which has not certainly been dis- proved ; ready to confirm the observations, however strange, of those who have gone before us, if occasion offer ; ready, also, to give up what we had considered our best established principles, if called upon to do so by a more extended research. In a word, we must equally repress a harsh judgment upon the statements of others, and a too hasty desire to generalize on our parts. (24.) Besides observing the same fact in a suffi- cient number of instances, we should, as far as possible, observe it in instances, in which the attend- ing circumstances are different. This is especially of consequence in all that relates to the habits of animals, and the dates of periodic phenomena ; for these are often so modified by some peculiarities of place or season, as to offer quite a different result from what would ordinarily occur. To mention many examples of either of these two classes of exceptions would be unnecessary. As regards the manner in which instinct often conforms to cir- cumstances, we may just allude to the case of birds choosing such materials for their nest as are most readily obtained, or adapting the situation of it to the nature of the particular locality.* The altered * See White's Selborne, Lett. 56, to Daines Barnngton ; also Lett. 21 to Pennant, on the subject of daws breeding in unlikely spots. See also Bolton's Harmonia Huralis, vol i. p. 492, ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 39 habits, in many instances, of animals in confinement, or in a domestic state, are notorious. As regards dates, of which the Naturalist's Calendar is almost exclusively made up, they are liable to be influenced not merely by season, but by many accidents affect- ing the individuals to which they relate. Age, health, sex, the interference of man, an unusual supply of food of a particular kind in certain spots, the greater or less prevalence of enemies, and several other causes, may all operate in forwarding or postponing any natural occurrence. Hence, if we desire to arrive at the true law regulating any class of ob- served facts, especially when some of them appear to deviate from the usual order of things, we should carefully note down all the attending circumstances ; all such at least as can by any possibility have any influence over them. And herein it is much better to be too diffuse than too meagre. "We must guard against thinking, in any doubtful point, that it can be of no use to note this or that circumstance, for we are not at the moment in a position to determine its importance. This can only be decided afterwards, when we or others shall have collected many such parallel cases ; and we can see what circumstances are common to them all, and what are evidently adventi- tious in a few only. And if we neglect to register at the time all that the eye notices, we may in the end deeply regret the omission of many particulars, when it is out of our power to supply the defect by any fresh observation. For unlike the natural philos- opher, who can often, by experiment, create for him- self all the circumstances attending a particular 40 INTRODUCTION. phenomenon, or vary them as he may choose, and so repeat his observations as often as he will ; — the naturalist has to collect facts, w^hich are generally beyond his control, and for the occurrence of which, he must wait patiently till Nature herself bring them under his notice. It is hardly necessary to add, how important it is that we be accurate as well as cir- cumstantial, in our detail of the particulars accom- panying any fact ; and that our record of them be registered at the moment, without trusting to memory, that fruitful source of error and exagge- ration. (25.) It may be useful to young observers, to say a few words in reference to the best manner of searching for facts in Natural History. — When a traveller reaches a new country, or one which has been seldom visited by naturalists, almost everything he meets with will be new also, and at every step he is called upon to register some fact or other. There are here scarcely any directions necessary beyond what have already been given. He must have his eyes and ears open, and with pencil in hand faithfully record whatever falls under his observa- tion. Often too in unexplored regions, there is no difficulty in watching the habits of animals, from their being unaccustomed to man, and under no fear at his approach. Where this is the case he possesses great advantages, and has an opportunity of seeing more of their ways, as well as seeing more surely. Eut this seldom happens anywhere ; and in thickly inhabited countries the observer must exercise great caution and address, or even have recourse to strata- ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 41 gem, in order to become acquainted with the objects of his search. Of course this remark is not applica- ble to the collecting of facts respecting the lower animals, which are often stationary, and quite indif- ferent to being watched. Here the observer may immediately resort to those localities, which are tenanted by the particular tribes he wishes to study. But as regards quadrupeds and birds, with which principally the greater number of persons occupy themselves, they are generally not to be approached without stratagem : and if they are species frequent- ing plains or other open places this is unavoidable. Also, if the observer is collecting facts for the history of any particular species, he must follow up that species wherever it is to be met with, and must exercise care and ingenuity, as well as a perpetual watchfulness, in getting acquainted with all the par- ticulars of its life. But if our researches are carried on in a woodland district, especially in our own country, and we are not particularly interested in one species of animal more than another, we would strongly recommend, or at least as an occasional practise, the taking our station in some particular spot, and, instead of going to look for objects, noting down whatever occurs, which we consider worthy of our regard. Sometimes in this manner we shall have our attention called to little matters, which, by being always on the move and on the look out for more striking facts, we should have long continued to overlook. In the dearth of larger animals, or in the intervals between their drawing near enough to be observed, we shall naturally look closer into what is 42 INTRODUCTION. at hand, if it is only to while away the time. And there is no spot so barren of life as not to afford insects and other minute creatures, whose ways and actions will amply reward the curiosity of such as deign to bestow their attention upon them. Many a naturalist, when standing under a tree to "shelter himself from a passing shower, has been led to the observation of facts, connected with the smaller animals, or the more concealed processes of vegeta- tion, or perhaps to the discovery of some new species of lichen or fungus, which, but for this accident, he might never have noticed. And to return to the case of the observer in the wood, he will gain an ad- vantage over the larger animals by being himself stationary. It often makes a considerable difference whether you approach them, or they you. They are much more easily frightened in the former case than in the latter ; and less easily induced to resume their freedom of manner, after the interruption caused by having their retreat suddenly broken in upon. Add to which, there is always the chance, when moving about, that we disturb some bird or quadruped, which, till the moment of surprising it, we did not observe, and which not only takes the alarm itself, and instantly hurries away to be seen no more, but at the same time gives the alarm to others, and causes a general desertion of the locality we are traversing. {26.) Perhaps it will be thought that to act upon the plan just suggested, requires much patience on the part of the observer: but we fear without patience a man will never be a proficient in Natural History, ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 43 more than in any other department of science ; at least he can learn but little of the habits of animals from his own autopsia. And perhaps it is not suffi- ciently known or considered how near it may be pos- sible to get even to the most timid animals, to watch them in their actions, if the observer will be occasi- onally content to remain still and motionless for a few minutes. We have seated ourselves in a wood, and, while keeping perfectly quiet, without moving a limb, have had the hares sporting at our very feet, as if quite unconscious of our proximity : the same thing has occurred with the water-rat, one of the shyest of our native quadrupeds, and which in gene- ral darts into the water with great rapidity on the slightest alarm. It is moving objects or the noise of some one approaching, which most readily frightens animals. Yet even where it becomes ne- cessary to advance, in order to see anything of their ways, as where they are feeding at a distance in open ground, — we may sometimes, by dint of great caution and patience, get almost completely up to them, with- out causing them to fly. We must only be careful to take very short steps, and at intervals, always desisting the moment our object shows any apprehen- sions, and remaining stock-still, till we see it re- suming its former state of ease, and retiirning to its food, or to whatever else it is occupied with. By these means, we remember once succeeding in actually getting so close to an old rabbit feeding upon a lawn, as to secure it with a common walking-stick, where there was nothing whatever to conceal our ap- proach to the animal, which appeared in perfect 44 INTRODUCTION. health and nowise disabled. It might not be easy to do this again ; and some accidental circumstance, besides patience on our part, might have favoured the success which attended the experiment in this instance ; but certainly ivithout patience, it would have been altogether impracticable ; and we mention it in order to show, how it is possible gradually to habituate animals to the appearance of man, just as we know birds get in time habituated, as the farmer is too well aware, to the scare-crow in the fields. (27.) There is but one hint further, which we would suggest in addition to those which have been already given; and that is, a recommendation to observers to visit the same spots repeatedly, espe- cially at different periods of the year. To those whose situation and circumstances necessarily limit their researches to a small field, it will be an en- couragement to be told of the fruits that may be gathered from attending to this plan. Having once gone over the ground, or visited it perhaps a second season, and gleaned nothing from it which they had not observed before, they might be inclined to think their task done, or rather we should say, their amusement ended. But we assure them this is not the case. We advise them to return again and again to the same localities, and this at all seasons ; and we feel assured they will find in the end their trouble repaid by the discovery of some new fact, their curiosity further stimulated. To those who are collecting materials for a Fauna or Flora of any district, it is notorious, not only what a con- stant succession of different species are to be found ON HABITS OF OBSERVING. 45 in a given neighbourhood as the year advances,* but how occasionally in certain seasons some spe- cies will abound, and then disappear, perhaps, and not be seen again for several years. We remem- ber once finding several species of orchis growing abundantly in a pasture, which we had been in the habit of crossing again and again in former seasons, without noticing one ; and two of these have not been observed since in that locality. But every botanist, and yet more every entomologist, can adduce similar cases. Even among the larger animals, novelties will perpetually occur; and we cannot do better than call to the reader's mind, in reference to this subject, the remark with which White begins his letter to Daines Barrington, giving an account of that rare bird the stilt-plover, which he had just procured in his own neighbour- hood. He says, " It is now more than forty years * St. Pierre affirms, — "I can say, with truth, that I have not permitted a single day to pass, without picliing up some agreeable, or useful observation." Afterwards, in illustration of the boundless extent of Nature, he writes thus : — " One day, in summer, while I was busied in the arrangement of some observations which I had made, I perceived, on a strawberry plant, which had been accidentally placed in my window, some small winged insects, so very beautiful, that I took a fancy to describe them. Next day, a different sort appeared, which I proceeded likewise to describe. In the course of three weeks, no less than thirty-seven species, totally distinct, had visited my strawberry plant : at length, they came in such crowds and presented such variety, that I was constrained to relinquish this study, though highly amusing, for want of leisure." Studies of Nature, (Engl. Transl. by Hunter,) vol. i. p. 2. 46 INTRODUCTION. that I have paid some attention to the ornithology of this district, without being able to exhaust the subject : new occurrences still arise as long as any in- quiries are kept alive." * In fact, as we observed in a former part of this introduction (9), the subject is inexhaustible ; and it is a satisfying thought to know that we may continue all our life long in a retired village, like the above amiable observer, to whom we have so often alluded, without our entertain- ment coming to an end ; to be assured that Nature will spread a fresh repast for us each year, and that so long as we keep up a relish for her works, she will take care that our interest therein shall not flag for want of variety. It is no little solace to have an occupation which will hold by us, as White tells us it did by him,-]- even to declining years ; — which may tend to quiet and compose our minds under the infirmities of age ; and even serve a still higher purpose, when accompanied by those religi- ous feelings which it ought continually to strengthen, and when aided by the help which Revelation so bountifully affords ; thus preparing us for our last great change, and raising our thoughts from this lower world to Him who made it, " In whose pre- sence is fvilness of joy, and at whose right hand are pleasures for evermore." * See Lett, xlix, to Daines Barrington. f See the concluding portion of the Preface to the Natural Histori/ of Selborne. OBSERVATIONS NATURAL HISTORY. The works of the Lord are great, sought out of all them that have pleasure therein. Ps. cxi, 2, Birds and Beasts, And the mute Fish that glances in the stream, And harmless Reptile coiling in the sun. And gorgeous Insect hovering in the air^ The Fowl domestic, and the household Dog, In his capacious mind he loved them all. Wordsworth. OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. MISCELLANEOUS. The most common occurrences, and such as are brought under our eyes every day, sometimes escape the notice of inobservant persons. A farmer, who had lived all his life among stock, was not aware, till I drew his attention to the fact, that horses and oxen rise from the ground differently. There is a slight difference in their mode of lying dovni, the horse not generally remaining so long upon his knees as the ox, before bringing the rest of his frame to the ground. But in getting up, the horse invariably rises first upon his fore-legs, before rising upon his hind. The ox, on the contrary, rises first upon the hind, and often remains upon his knees some few seconds until his hind legs are straightened These differ- ences probably prevail throughout the two Cuvierian groups of Pachydermata and Ruminantia, to which the horse and ox respectively belong. The elephant and rhinoceros both rise first upon their fore-legs, like the horse ; so does the pig : the sheep, goat, and deer, in this respect, are like the ox. The horse, in trotting or walking, lifts his feet off 50 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. the ground in a certain order : first he raises the oiF fore, then the near hind, then the near fore, and lastly the off hind. The appearance, as is well known, is that of the two legs which are diagonally opposite being raised nearly simultaneously; but the two on the same side following one another at a moderate interval, the hind one advancing first. The elephant, as many observers have noticed, appears, in walking, to move the two legs on the same side at the same time ; and it has occasionally been thought that the order in which the legs are raised from the ground is different from that in the horse. But, upon close watching, it will be seen that this order is in all cases the same ; the only difference consisting in the length of the intervals between taking the feet successively up. In the elephant, the interval be- tween raising each hind-foot and the fore imme- diately in advance of it is very short, and it be- comes relatively shorter as the pace increases. ^^Tien the animal walks very slowly, the legs ap- pear to move just as in the horse ; the interval in the two cases being the same. The same may be observed iai the rhinoceros, though I have had no opportunity of noticing this animal moving fast, so as to say whether it then resembles the elephant in the appearance of the legs or not. The giraffe, whether it walks fast or leisurely, appears to move the two legs on the same side together, as in the elephant. It is observable, that both the giraffe and the elephant have short bodies (the former especially) in respect of their height and length of leg. Whether this has anything to do in lessening the MISCELLANEOUS. 51 interval above spoken of, I am not prepared to say ; but I thought I observed, when the rhinoceros w^as vi^alking slov^ly, in which animal the body is rather long in comparison of the legs, that this interval was also longer than in the horse, as it is shorter in the two animals just mentioned. Dogs, cats, and pigs lie down, in general, to suckle their young. In one instance, however, I saw a sow suckling a whole litter of pigs at once in the standing position. The sheep and cow, and probably all ruminants, as well as the mare, stand for that purpose. Mr. Yarrell informs me, that the mode of suckling in the giraffe, as observed by him in the case of the two young born in the Zoological Gardens, London, is the same also, and precisely similar to that of the mare. White has observed that " the brute creation recognize each other more from the smell than the sight ; and, in matters of identity and diversity, ap- peal much more to their noses than to their eyes." In confirmation of this, he mentions the well- known circumstance of ewes and lambs not being able readily to distinguish one another after they have been shorn; and the confusion that there is, in like manner, in the flock after sheep have been washed.* * See his Naturalist'' s Calendar, with Observations in various branches of Natural History ; by Aikin, p. 92. d2 52 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. Many other facts of a similar kind might be ad- duced, tending to show the correctness of this re- mark. Thus, to take another instance from sheep, it is a common practice with shepherds in the lamb- ing season, when they have occasion to put a strange lamb to a ewe that has lost its own offspring, to clothe the supposititious young one in the skin of the dead lamb of the mother to whose care it is to be confided. Without this precaution, the eWe would refuse to suckle it ; but the former does not seem aware of the fraud thus put upon her, so long as the notus odor (as White terms it) is present to direct her judgment in distinguishing, as she conceives, her own offspring from that of another. It is also very remarkable to what a distance ani- mals will discriminate, by the smell alone, others of their own species ; sometimes long before they are in sight of one another, and when therefore the recognition is manifestly due to the above faculty. The unaided sight, on the contrary, seems in many cases to make but little impression upon them. This is attested by the circumstance of their not recognizing in general the most faithful represent- ations of their own species on paper or canvass. I had a cat which passed by vrith the most sullen indifference a worked portrait of a cat sitting upon a stool, when purposely placed in her way, though so well executed as to deceive one or two persons on their entering the room for the first time where the portrait was. Yet it is to be remarked, that animals do not in all cases remain unmoved by pic- tures of other animals not of their own species ; for MISCELLANEOUS. 53 a relative informs me of an instance in which she was present when a dog that was much afraid of cats shrunk back, and showed manifest signs of fear, on seeing a picture of a cat, that happen- ed to be upon a low screen in the room of a gentleman upon whom his master was calling, and whom he had accompanied into the apartment. Animals will also sometimes be deceived by re- presentations of what constitutes their usual food, provided it be not prey which is hunted down by the scent.* * Humboldt mentions an instance of this in his Travels in America. Speaking of the titi of the Oroonoko (a species of monkey) he says, " It is extremely fond of insects, particularly of spiders. The sagacity of this little animal is so great, that one of those we brought in our boat to Angostura distinguished perfectly the different plates annexed to the Tableau Elementaire d'Histoire Nattirelle of Cuvier. The engravings of this work are not coloured ; yet the titi advanced rapidly its little hand in the hope of catching a grasshopper or a wasp, every time that we showed it the eleventh plate, on which these insects are repre- sented. It remained in the greatest indifference when it was shown engravings of skeletons or heads of mammiferous animals." But, in a note upon the above passage, he makes a statement confirmatory of what has been said above, as to the general indif- ference of animals to pictures of other animals in cases where they would be ordinarily guided by the nose rather than by the eye. He says, "I shall observe on this occasion, that I have never heard of a picture, on which hares or deer were represented of their natural size, and with the greatest perfection, having made the least im- pression even on hunting-dogs, the intelligence of which appeared the most improved. Is there an example (he adds) well ascer- tained of a dog having recognized a full-length picture of its master 1 — In all these cases, the sight is not assisted by the smell." — Personal Narrative, (Eng. Transl,) vol. iv. p. 527-8, 54 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. Happening, on one occasion, to throw a dead long- eared bat to a cat, the latter was observed to seize it with the greatest avidity, at the same time utter- ing a kind of savage growl (as cats often do when they capture a favourite prey) ; and presently retiring with it to a corner, soon devoured it entire, not re- jecting even the flying membranes. This was a well-fed, parlour cat, and apparently not suffering particularly from hunger. On repeating the ex- periment with another cat, this last took not the least notice of the bat whatever, though repeatedly placed in its way. This shows how different indi- viduals of the same species will occasionally differ in respect of food; and how little importance is to be attached to the fact of any particular food being selected by an animal in a single instance. Thus I have seen, in some botanical books, men- tion made, in the case of certain plants, that " a horse ate it," or " a cow refused it ;" when perhaps, on a second trial, another horse would have refused it, and another cow have eaten it. It is probable, also, that all animals, from lumger, or some other cause, will deviate occasionally from their usual food. We have an example of this in the case of the hedge-hog that devoured a snake, recorded by Mr. Broderip ;* another, in that of the polecat which has been known to prey on eels.f Owls, rooks, jackdaws, and carrion-crows have all * Zool. Journ. vol. ii. p. 19= t Bewick's Quad. (edit. 8.) p. 253. The stoat also sometimes devours eels : see a notice of this fact further on in this work, communicated to me by Mr. Selby. MISCELLANEOUS. 55 been observed to devour fish, in one or more in- stances : * on the other hand, the heron, which usually preys on fish, is v^^ell satisfied at times v^^ith the common water-rat, which, according to Mr. Waterton, it gulps down entire, f Many more such anomalies are probably on record, or might be observed if sought for, in the varying habits of different animals. I will only add here, that though, as is well known, owls and cats usually reject shrews, I have knovni both occasionally to devour them, especially kittens, which have not as yet had much opportunity of satisfying their appetite for mice. The different species of bats found in this coun- try appear, for the most part, to have each of them their own peculiar place of resort. With us the noctule I and Natterer's bat § occur chiefly in trees, but the former sometimes also in houses. All the specimens found by me of the whiskered bat, || and they have been several, were taken in rooms in * See Atkinson's Compendium of the Ornithology of Great Britain, p. 23 ; also several notices in Loudon's Magazine of Nat. Hist., all speaking to the fact of owls eating fish. Instances of the rook and jackdaw feeding on fish Avill be found mentioned in a subsequent part of this work. For a case of the carrion-crow's doing so, see Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. xv. p. 168. t Loud. Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. viii. p. 455. J Vespertilio noctula, Gmel. § V. naitereri, Kuhl. II V. mystucinus, Leisl. 56 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. houses. The long-eared bat* resorts in great num- bers to churches, and the roofs of houses; in which last situation they may often be observed in great numbers, congregating in the angles formed by the meeting of the timbers, and hanging in clusters of twenty or thirty together, like swarms of bees: I have once or twice only taken solitary indivi- duals of this species from hollow trees. The pipis- trelle f delights especially in the crevices of decayed brickwork, in the cracks of old gateways and door- frames, or behind the leaden pipes frequently at- tached to buildings for carrying off the rain. In these situations they sometimes collect in astonish- ing quantities, several hundreds having been counted coming out, one after another in quick succession, Noctule. — On the 14th of June, 1842, I received from Mr. Henderson, of Milton Park, Northampton- shire, three old female noctule bats, one having two young ones at the breast, and each of the others one. They were taken, he informed me, from a hollow tree. The young hung at the teats, the mother wrapping them romid with her wing, so as almost to conceal them from view : occasionally, however, they * Plecotm auritus, Geoff. + Vespertilio pipistrellus, Gmel. X The habits, however, of bats, in this respect, vary a little in different places. Mr. Bell has had Natterer's bat, the whiskered bat, and the long-eared bat, all brought him from a chalk cavern at Chiselhurst, where they were found at the bottom of a shaft seventy feet in depth. — The barbastelle, (Barbastellus daubentonii, Bell) was taken in the same place. BATS. 57 left the mother, and remained by themselves in the corners of the cage, in which all were put. The old ones would not feed, and, on the night of the 16th, contrived to escape from their confinement, leaving their young behind them. Three of these young died within three or four days ; but the fourth lived till the 25th, nine days after it had been deserted by its parent. During this period it appeared to be sup- ported by a small piece of sponge saturated with milk, which was put into the cage with it ; the milk being renewed once or twice a day. It clung to the sponge with great tenacity, and seemed occasionally to suck it : now and then a drop or two of milk was squeezed into its mouth. These young must have been born some little time before they reached me, from the size which they had attained ; though they were all still entirely naked, and without a vestige of hair. The largest of them measured 1 inch 11 lines from the ex- tremity of the nose to the root of the tail, which was 11 lines more, giving the entire length as 3 inches all but 2 lines. The expansion of the wings rather exceeded 6 inches. The fore-arm measured an inch in length. The hind-feet and claws were much developed, and remarkably strong, even at this early age. The eyes were scarcely or only just opened: the teeth quite apparent, though as yet small, and not protruded far. — Of these young bats, two were males and two females. The noctule, or great bat, withdraws earlier in the season than the common species. White says he never saw it after July. In 1829, on the last day of 58 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. August, I found one sticking to a post near some water, from which one might infer that the species was still about at that period. This individual was under size, and appeared to be the young of the year. In a previous year, on the 14th of September, I found some in a hollow tree that was evidently intended to be their winter-quarters. These were in a reduced state, and had not, as I imagined, taken food for some time. Pipistrelle. — I have known two or three instances in which this species has been taken on wing, with the young adhering to the breast. On one occasion, an individual fell dead at the feet of a gentleman, who was out in a thunderstorm near Cambridge, im- mediately after a flash of lightning, as if struck by the electric fluid ; a young one was clinging to the teat at the time, and still alive, apparently unin- jured.* * I have already mentioned this circumstance in a note in my edition of White's Selborne (Lett. XIV. to Daines Barrington). I reinsert it here, with the view of referring the reader to some in- teresting remarks, which I had not then seen, by M. Pouchet, a French naturahst, on the mode in which the female bat carries its yomig. These remarks are contained in L^Institut for 1842, p. 43, and relate to the horse-shoe bat, of which species he met with im- mense quantities in the subterranean vaults of an old abbey. The following is a translation of some part of his communication. " M. Pouchet, having taken four females which had their young still clinging to their bodies, was able to observe in what manner they adhered, and resisted the sudden movements of these animals in their flight. Each female had but one young one, which adhered firmly to the mother by means of its hind-feet, in a reversed position. It embraced her indeed so closely, that, at first sight, the two animals, the forms of which were in a BATS. 59 Long-eared hat. — The sexes of this species would seem at certain periods to keep separate. On the 7th of September, 1825, I found a large number of individuals in the roof of a house, of which all that I examined proved to be females. I never observed this bat abroad during the winter months, any more than the noctule. Like the last species, it appears to retire early. The pipistrelle I have seen on wing regularly every evening during a mild December. manner confused, had a most strange appearance. When the group was carefully examined it appeared, that the young one was fixed to its mother by means of the sharp claws of its hind-feet, each of which was hooked on to the sides of the body beneath the axilla, in such a way that the belly of the young one was in con- tact with the abdomen of the female that carried it : its head looked backwards, and reached beyond the membrane which ex- tends from the feet to the tail. M. Pouchet presumes that the mother, in order to allow of its suspending itself with more ease, must necessarily pass its tarsi beneath the bend of the wing of its young one. " The adherence of these young bats to their mother was such, that the most violent shocks did not detach them. We may also imagine, that, by means of this close union, the mother, although carrying its offspring, is able to fly without inconvenience, and to go in search of food ; only it would be necessary for it then to make much more strenuous exertions in order to sustain itself in the air, since it would often carry a burden, the weight of which is enormous in relation to its own, and which in the end must nearly equal it. In fact, the bats which M. Pouchet observed measured sixty millimetres in length from the nape to the root of the tail, and weighed twenty grammes ; while their young ones, which appeared far from being able to abandon their mother, were already forty-five millimetres in length, and weighed twelve srammes.^'' 60 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. Barbastelle.— On the 17th of April, 1829, 1 took an individual of this rare bat in the garden at Bottis- ham Hall, whilst on wing.* It was a male, and fly- ing in the middle of the day, about noon. I remem- ber once or twice before to have seen a bat on wing in mid-day near the same place, which I judged at the time, by its manner of flight and superior size, to be different from the common sort, and which may possibly have been referable to this species. Is it a common habit with the barbastelle thus to come abroad in open day ?|' The flight of this individual was slow, and near the ground. — It is worthy of note that this bat, when in hand, was perfectly free from any bad odour ; wherein it differs remarkably from the noctule and the pipistrelle, both which, but espe- cially the former, are peculiarly rank and foetid. * The barbastelle has since been met Avith in other parts of England in several instances : in Epping Forest, Mr. Doubleday is inclined to believe that it is not uncommon. See The Zoologist, p. 6. + Other observers have occasionally noticed bats flying during the day. See The Zoologist, pp. 6 and 35. In one of the cases here referred to, "a large bat" is said to have been seen " sailing about most majestically, one sunny day in August, on Wimbledon Common." In the other, "a bat of the smaller species" was observed on wing, "on the 11th of November, at half-past three o'clock, in the wide part of the Borough (South- wark)." This last was probably the pipistrelle ; and, as the sun sets soon after four at the above season, there is nothing, perhaps, so remarkable in the appearance of this species abroad at the hour mentioned. In a subsequent part of the above Journal, (p. 75,) other in- stances are mentioned both of the pipistrelle and Daubenton's bat being seen on wing in the middle of the day. The circumstance, therefore, is probably not of uncommon occurrence. HEDGE-HOG. 61 HEDGE-HOG.'^ Oct.28th, 1828. — Hedge-hogs are still about, and on the alert for food. I fell in with one to-day in my walks, in a sheltered part of the garden, which I was enabled to watch unobserved, and which afforded me an opportunity of seeing a little into their habits and mode of feeding. It was creeping up and down a grass walk, apparently in busy search for worms. It carried its snout very low, insinuating it among the roots of the herbage, and snuffing about under the dead leaves which lay about. After a time, it com- menced scratching at a particular spot, to which it seemed directed by the scent, and drew out a very large worm from just beneath the surface of the ground. This it immediately began to devour, taking it into the mouth by one extremity, and gradually eating its way to the other ; an operation which lasted some time, and was attended by an incessant action of the teeth, which grated upon one another with a peculiar noise. After the worm was all gone, as I thought, I was surprised to see the whole put out of the mouth again ; and, from the appearance of the cast, I was led to believe that it had been only sub- jected to the action of the teeth, for the purpose of being bruised, and squeezing out the soft internal parts of the body, which alone were eaten in the first instance : the skin itself, however, was shortly re- taken into the mouth, and the whole clean devoured. From the above observation, it is probable that * Erinaceus europceus, Linn. 62 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. worms form no inconsiderable part of the food of the hedge-hog, and that they are enabled to detect them by the smell, and to extract them from the ground with their snout, after the same manner that the hog uses his in searching for buried food. In the above instance no attempt was made to kill the worm before eating it ; but that part of the poor creature which was still out of the mouth of the hedge-hog kept up a perpetual "WTithing as the nibbling of its other extremity proceeded. COMMON SHREW.'* The extreme voracity of the mole is well known.f The shrew, which belongs to the same natural group as the mole (the insectivorous carnivora), would seem to resemble it in this peculiarity, according to a statement furnished to me by my esteemed friend Mr. Selby, of Twizell. He observes in a letter re- ceived February, 1843: "What greedy gluttonous animals the shrews ajDpear to be ! One was caught * Sorex tetragonurus, Herm. ■|- Mr. Bell, in his British Quadrupeds, quoting from Geoftroy St. Hilaire, says, " The mole does not exhibit the appetite of hunger as we find it in other animals ; it amounts in it to a degree of frenzy. The animal, when under its influence, is violently agitated ; it throws itself on its prey as if maddened with rage ; its gluttony disorders all its faculties, and nothing seems to stand in the way of its intense voracity." Mr. Jesse also observes, that, " as soon as the mole is caught and placed in a box, it will begin to feed with tiie utmast uncon- cern." Gleanings in Nat. Hist. (3rd Ser.) p. 1G7. COMMON shrew: weasel. 63 alive upon the snow here the other day, and brought mto the house, and placed in a glass box : a piece of raw mutton was given to it, which it attacked with the greatest voracity the moment it smelt it ; and it continued eating almost without intermission till it had devoured the whole of it. The piece, I should think, could not have weighed less than half or three quarters of an ounce. When the shrew iirst seized it, it shook it as a dog does a rat, and then began to gnaw it with its sharp-pointed grinders on one side of the mouth. It lived for a couple of days, almost continually eating; and previous to its death, which was very sudden, seemed in perfect health." White has observed, in his Natural History of Selborne, that " weasels prey on moles, as appears by their being sometimes caught in mole-traps." Some years since a mole-trap was found at Bottisham Hall, having two weasels in it. These animals had both been hunting their prey in its subterranean paths — but not, as it might be supposed, in concert : they had come in opposite directions, and, by a curious coincidence, must have both sprung the trap at the same instant. STOAT, j- Mr. Bell has observed, in his British Quadrupeds, that " the stoat is certainly one of the boldest ani- * Mustelu vulgaris, Linn. t Mustela enuinea, Linn. 64 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS, mals of its size." As an instance of this, I may mention that I was one day sitting in my room on the ground-floor in summer with the door open, when I was surprised to see a stoat enter, and run rather rapidly about the room, snufling about as if in search of prey. It showed not the least symptoms of alarm at finding itself in unusual quarters, and after a minute or so quietly went out again.* Stoats and weasels, as is well known, run up trees with great facility in pursuit of birds. To-day (Sept. 3, 1827), we saw a stoat in the top branches of a tall yew-tree ; but, in this instance, it appeared to be attracted by the berries, which it was eagerly devour- ing. The circumstance of the foumart's occasionally preying upon eels is well knowni to the readers of Bewick's Quadrupeds, where there is an instance given of this fact.f Mr. Selby has observed the same predilection for this kind of food in the case of its * An instance of boldness is recorded in The Zoologist, (p. 36,) of the weasel, which, from its similarity to the one above men- tioned in the case of the stoat, I am induced to transcribe here. "One day in Jmie, 1842, as a lady was sitting in a room at Ilford, the windows of which opened to the ground, she was very much surprised by the appearance of a weasel (Mustela vulgaris), which, after trying round the window for an entrance, stood up on its hind-legs against one of the panes of glass, and remained there, notwithstanding the furious barking of a little terrier that was in the room, until the window was opened, when he started off very leisurely, but was overtaken and killed by the dog." t Eighth edit. p. 253. STOAT. 65 congener the stoat. The particulars which he has sent me, connected with this discovery, are as follows. During the course of a walk, in company with his brother-in-law. Captain Mitford, R.N., by the mar- gin of a rivulet in time of severe frost, and when the ground was covered with snow, their attention was drawn to the trace of an animal, close to the margin of the ice, where an open current still remained un- frozen from the swiftness of the stream. At this spot the footmarks were very numerous, and the animal appeared to have been frequently moving to and fro within a circuit of a few yards. The trace, which was supposed to be that of a stoat, was followed to a burrow about a quarter of a mile lower down the bank of the rivulet, the footsteps being accom- panied by further marks upon the snow, which were attributed to the prey it had secured, whatever that might be. The entrance to the burrow was a little larger than that of a mole-hole. Spades were imme- diately procured, with a view of digging the animal out, if possible, and ascertaining what the prey was by which the above marks were made. In following the hole, care was taken to keep a stick constantly in advance to mark the direction of the burrow, the earth being soft and rather sandy. It was found to penetrate much further and deeper than was expect- ed ; and it was necessary to dig several yards before any approach could be made to the animal's retreat. At length some remains were met with, which ap- peared to be a mass of fatty decomposing animal matter ; but which, upon closer examination, proved to be the skin of an eel turned inside out, A little fur- 66 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. ther on, more of the same substance was observed, as well as the remains of a water-rat, and the feathers and bones of what seemed to have been a moor-hen.* After a few more spadefulls had been thrown out, they came close upon the animal, which then bolted, but was almost instantly seized and killed by a ter- rier in attendance. It proved to be a male stoat of the largest size, nearly clothed in its winter or ermine garb ; the cheeks, shoulders, and ridge of the back alone being interspersed with a few reddish-brown hairs. At the end of the retreat, where the hole was enlarged, the remains of other eels were found, and among them one quite fresh ; which, judging from the marks observed upon the snow, as above alluded to, was supposed to have been caught the preceding night. This it had begun to devour, commencing with the head, and proceeding to eat downwards, at the same time turning back the skin, probably by the aid of its fore-feet ; and this accounts for what had been observed in respect of the other skins, which were all, as already stated, turned inside out. How the stoat succeeds in catching its slippery prey at this inclement season, when the eel, as has been generally supposed, is inactive, or nearly dormant, is a problem which remains to be solved. DOMESTIC CAT. Cats catch and devour the common lizard,-j- play- ing with it also in the same manner they do with mice. * Gallinula chloropus, Lath. t Zootuca vivipara, Bell. DOMESTIC CAT. 67 In one instance a cat seized a more unusual prey. As we were strolling near the house, we heard the cry of some animal in distress, and, on going to the spot whence it proceeded, observed a cat crouched in the long grass of a meadow with some animal in its claws that was struggling for liberty. As we approached nearer, the cat scampered off, leaving its booty behind, which to our surprise turned out to be a large stoat, that likewise took to its legs as soon as it was re- leased, not apparently injured. This was to me quite a new fact, that any cat, at least of the domestic kind, would attack so powerful and fierce an animal as the stoat. Had it been undisturbed, would it have devoured its prey ; or was the latter merely seized from that innate propensity to rapine and vio- lence which characterizes the feline race ? That the stoat was conscious of being in stronger hands would appear from the cries which it uttered, and from its making no attempt to attack the cat, evidently under the influence of great alarm. It is curious to observe what slight deviations from the course which Nature has prescribed for each species of animal are sometimes sufficient to mo- dify, and even entirely overrule, their instincts ; at least in the case of domesticated animals, these instincts are liable to be much perverted. My cat has a kitten nearly full-grown, to which she fre- quently brings mice, offering them with evident symptoms of complacency, and sitting quietly by while the kitten devours them. Yet, when the 68 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. family are at meals, the old cat, who has been accustomed to be fed from the table, is exceed- ingly jealous when the kitten approaches her at such times : she is apprehensive lest the attentions of the party should be diverted from herself to the kitten ; and, if the latter attempt to take any of the food which she conceives intended for her- self, she growls, and flies at her offspring in the most savage manner. This has nothing to do with any feelings of hunger, for she is often manifestly hungry when she has caught a mouse, but which, notwithstanding, she gives up to the kitten. I observe that in summer, when my cat is prowl- ing about the garden, and appears upon the lawn, water-wagtails often come and alight near her, and keep running about within a short distance of where she is, chirping all the time incessantly. Sometimes they suddenly take wing, but seldom fly above a few yards, settling again almost immediately at the same distance as before. The cat during the interval re- mains crouched upon the ground, eyeing the wag- tail, but not attempting to spring at it, as if con- scious that it was not within her reach. This conti- nues for a longer or shorter time, when one or the other moves further off", and the matter ends. We can well understand that the wagtail would take care not to approach sufficiently near the cat to be seiz- ed ; but why it does not at once fly away at the sight of its enemy, which evidently inspires it with fear, and thus put itself beyond all danger, is not so easily to be accounted for. It would seem like one DOMESTIC CAT. 6^ of the supposed cases of fascination, as it is called, of which there has been so much written by different authors.* There can hardly be a doubt that all these cases are referable to one cause ; and the only probable explanation of them, as it appears to me, is that which has been sometimes suggested, viz. that ani- mals, under certain circumstances of great and unex- pected danger, are for a time, as it were, paralyzed by fear, and so unnerved (if we may use the expres- sion) as to be almost powerless in regard of taking the proper steps for their safety. Some have con- sidered these cases as arising from what would be termed in man want of presence of mind. But this seems hardly taking a right view of the question, inasmuch as animals, being under the guidance of instinct, which prompts to immediate action, with- out any previous consideration on the part of the * See instances mentioned in the Journal of a Naturalist, (3rd. edit.) p. 203 ; Jesse's Gleanings, (2nd. Ser.) p. 295 ; Bell's British Quadrupeds, p. 149. — See also an article in The Zoologist, (p. 293,) containing, " Notes on some peculiarities in the manners of the water-rat. On the supposed power of fascination in serpents, see an article in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, entitled "Fables and Prejudices regarding Serpents," by Dr. H. Schlegel, (vol. xxxvi. p. 69.) See also a note in VInstitut, (1842,) torn. x. p. 114. The author of this last communication, M. F. de Castelnau, asserts that he was witness to a fact in N. America, which seemed to prove to him that certain serpents really possess the power of fascination. He saw a squirrel ready to fall from the top of a tree, being fascinated by a large black snake {Coluber constrictor), which was at the bottom of it, coiled in a spiral, with its head elevated in the direction of the little animal. 70 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. individual, are not like human beings, who are left to reason for themselves at every step, and who, therefore, need continual presence of mind, as it is called, not only to reason rightly, but to reason at all. Anecdotes of the dog are so extremely numer- ous, illustrating its instincts, and the high degree of intelligence which it possesses above other ani- mals, that it almost requires an apology to men- tion more, which, though they may be new, do not thi'ow any additional light on this subject. Yet the following may be interesting, and not out of place in the present work, the object of which is to bring together a few miscellaneous facts and observations in Natural History, without attempting to refer them to any particular principles. A lady, living in the neighbourhood of my own village, had some years back a favourite Scotch terrier, which always accompanied her in her rides, and which was also in the habit of following the carriage to church every Sunday morning. One summer the lady and her family were from home several weeks, the dog being left behind. The latter, however, continued to come to chiu'ch by it- self for several Sundays in succession, galloping off from the house at the accustomed horn-, so as to arrive at the time of service commencing. After waiting in the church-yard a short time, it was seen to return quiet and dispirited, home. The distance from the house to the church is three DOG. 71 miles, and beyond that at which the ringing of the bells could be ordinarily heard. This was probably an instance of the force of habit, assisted by some association of recollections connected with the movements of the household on that particular day of the week. The same lady has communicated to me an anec- dote, somewhat similar to the above, but more ex- traordinary. This related to a poodle dog belonging to a gentleman in Cheshire, which it appears was in the habit of not only going to church, but remain- ing quietly in the pew during service, whether his master was there or not. One Sunday the dam at the head of a lake in that neighbourhood gave way, so that the whole road was inundated. The con- gregation in consequence consisted of a very few, who came from some cottages close by, but nobody attended from the great house. The clergyman in- formed the lady, that, whilst reading the Psalms, he saw his friend, the poodle, come slowly up the aisle dripping with wet, ha\'ing swam above a quarter of a mile to get to church. He went into the usual pew, and remained quietly there to the end of the The above lady has also given me the following anecdote of a dog and cat. A little Blenheim spa- niel of hers once accompanied her to the house of a relative, where it was taken into the kitchen to be fed ; on which occasion two large favourite cats flew at it several times, and scratched it severely. 72 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. The spaniel was in the habit of following its mis- tress in her walks in the garden, and by degrees it formed a friendship with a young cat of the gardener's, which it tempted into the house, — first into the hall, and then into the kitchen, — where, on finding one of the large cats, the spaniel and its ally fell on it together, and without further provocation beat it well ; they then waited for the other, which they served in the same manner, and finally drove both cats from the kitchen. The two friends continued afterwards to eat off" the same plate as long as the spaniel remained with her mistress in the house. A person of my acquaintance had a favourite spaniel that lived to be upwards of eighteen years of age. Probably not many dogs exceed that age ; and I have seen some which appeared to be quite helpless and infirm, short-breathed, and without hard- ly a tooth in their heads, at the age of fifteen.* SQUIRREL, f April 23, 1822. — To-day, in a plantation of spruce- firs, we observed at the top of one of the tallest trees, * Mr. Selby tells me, that he considers twelve or fourteen years the usual length of the dog's life. He says he has known one or two that have lived to he seventeen or eighteen, and thinks he has been told of one that had attained to twenty. Lord Bacon, in his History of Life and Death, says, " The dog is but a short liver ; he exceeds not the age of twenty years, and, for the most part, lives not to fourteen years." Twenty years may therefore probably be set as the extreme limit they ever reach. + Sciurm vulgaris, Linn. SQUIRREL. 73 a large collection of moss, leaves, and slender twigs, which proved to be a squirrel's nest. It was about neighbourhood, but which was not preserved, both pairs of incisors had very much exceeded their usual length, there being also a great irregularity in their mode of growth. The lower pair, when viewed toge- ther, assumed the shape and appearance of the lener V, diverging firom one another at the surface of the gum, and extending in opposite directions, to the length of nearly an inch and a half: the degree of divergency observed in the upper pair was nearly as great as this in the lower, and their length about the same, but their curvature verv much greater, as 80 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. indeed would necessarily residt from the greater bend of that portion of the jaws in which these incisors are formed. In this instance, the portion without the gums had completed three parts of an exact circle, and their cutting edges were in close contact with the roof of the mouth. Both the above rabbits, when taken, exhibited the appearance of having been nearly starved to death, through an inability of procuring their usual food. In the first case, life had been sustained solely by the small quantity of herbage which the animal was enabled to crop with its lips at the sides of the mouth, which appeared to have been used for that purpose. In the second instance, even this method of feeding could scarcely have been resorted to with success ; the rabbit being actually unable to close its mouth, from the pressure of the lower portion of the curve, formed by the upper incisors, upon the surface of the In the spring of 1839, a great many young rabbits were found dead in the plantations at Bottisham Hall ; which, when opened, were found to have their livers much enlarged and full of flukes, similar to those which cause the rot in sheep. * The above was first published in Loudon's Magazine of Natural Hhtory, vol. ii. 1829, }). 134, with some further details and remarks here omitted. HORSE : ox. 81 When horses are out at pasture, and resort in hot weather, as they constantly do, to the shade of some tree, they may often be observed at such times stand- ing parallel to one another, but with their heads in opposite directions. By this arrangement, with their tails they brush the flies from one another's faces. M. Milne-Edwards has observed* that the com- mon ox, when it lies down, after grazing, for the pur- pose of chewing the cud, usually reposes upon the left side. Any little fact of this sort has an interest, if it really admits of generalization ; and I have often amused myself, when among cattle feeding in pastures, by watching them with a view to this point. But, in general, I have found the numbers lying upon the right and left side respectively so nearly equal that I can hardly attach any importance to the above statement. Still, I think I have more often observed an excess on the part of those lying upon their left side, over those on their right, than the contrary. White, in one of his letters to Pennant, speaks of a calculus cegagropila which had been taken out of the stomach of a fat ox.f Professor Henslow tells me that he has got two such calculi or balls, that were found together in the stomach of a calf only nine * Elemens de Zoologie, p. 457. t Nat. Hist, of Selborne, Lett. XXXV. to Pennant. E 5 82 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. months old. The larger of the two consists chiefly of hair, and is not perfectly spherical, being flattened at the poles : it measures four inches and three quar- ters in diameter, and weighs seven ounces, three hun- dred and eighty-two grains. The smaller one is made up chiefly of fragments of straw, and is spherical, but with a very uneven surface. This last measures two inches and a half in diameter, and weighs one ounce, one hundred and twenty-nine grains, SHEEP. June 29, 1826. — Owing to the hot weather that has prevailed of late, the cattle and flocks are dread- fully annoyed by flies, which will not suffer them to have a moment's rest. The cool of the evening is the only time in which they can feed in peace. The sheep which have been lately shorn, and whose skins are in consequence susceptible of the slightest irrita- tion, are in particular terribly worried by the great horse-fly,* which eats into their flesh in the most un- merciful manner. Hence this species does not con- fine its attacks to horses and the larger cattle. In the present instance, we observed them sticking, four or five together, to those parts of the sheep's backs which had been just touched by the shears and raised to a slij^ht sore. March 25, 1828. — A shepherd brought me to-day for examination some minute parasitical insects with * Tuhanus boviniis, Linn. SHEEP. 83 which his flock are at present much infested, but which he never observed till lately. He at first took them for the young of the common sheep-tick ;* but, on subjecting them to the microscope, it was at once evident that they were true lice. It is v,'orthy of note, that, according to his statement, these insects are only found upon the long-woolled sheep, which are so plagued and irritated by their constant tick- ling, that they are incessantly rubbing themselves against posts, hurdles, and anything near, to allay the uneasiness they suffer. It is to be remarked also, that last winter was a very mild one ; and this seems to accord with White's observation, that sheep are more teased in this way in such seasons.-f- In some instances these lice abound in such quantities, and cause such an intolerable itching, as to render the sheep almost frantic ; and it is noticed at such times, that, when rubbed on the back, they immediately turn round and lick the hand, which gives them this mo- mentary relief. This last circumstance may be no- ticed also, the shepherd tells me, in sheep infected with the scab. These lice generally keep close down at the roots of the wool. They are small, being scarcely three quarters of a line in length : the head and thorax * Melophagus ovinus, Latr. — Curtis's British Entomology, vol. Hi. 1)1. 142. t " The sheep on the downs this winter (1769) are very ragged, and their coats much torn ; the shepherds say, they tear their fleeces with their own mouths and horns, and that they are always in that way in mild, wet winters, heing teased and tickled with a kind of lice." Naturalist^s Calendar, by Aikin, p. 92. 84 OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS. are of a deep ochraceous yellow, approaching to ferruginous ; the abdomen pale yellow, with the edges of the segments deep brown ; their general form is oblong.* Adhering to many of the hairs of wool near the roots, we found a great quantity of the nits, or eggs, of these parasites. These were dirty white, of an oval-oblong form, about three- eighths of a line in length, and between two and three times as long as broad. They were applied laterally to the hairs on which they were fastened, and were furnished at one extremity with a short neck, ha-vdng apparently an aperture resembling the mouth of a phial. This aperture was in all cases directed /;'om the root of the wool. Ewes that have lost their lambs, often, it is well known, have other lambs, which have lost their mothers, given them to bring up. I was much struck, in one instance, with the fact of a ewe refus- ing to suckle a strange lamb, except so long as the shepherd stood by with his dog ; the presence of both was necessary to over-awe the poor sheep, as it were, into obedience. The sheep-paths in a pasture, made by the animals constantly passing backwards and forwards one * The insect above noticed is the Trichodectes spharocephulus of Nitzsch, and is described and figured by Mr. Denny, in his Mono- graphia Anopluroritm Britannur, p. 193, ph xvii. lig. 4. Perhaps it may be uncommon in this country, or, ■what is more likely, has been overlooked, as Mr. Denny states his never having seen any specimen except the one which I forwarded to him for examination. GRAMPUS. 85 before the other, are of course bare of herbage ; but I observe in most cases that the grass imme- diately at the sides of the path grows more luxuriantly there than elsewhere, and betrays itself at a distance by its bright green colour, forming a line completely across the meadow. This, I presume, is owing to the additional manure which it receives from the droppings of the sheep as they pass to and fro. GRAMPUS.* During a short visit at Thorney, in the Isle of Ely, in August, 1843, I was obligingly shown by a gentleman of that place an entire skeleton of some large cetaceous animal, undoubtedly a grampus, which had been found a few years back, about four miles from Thorney, in the moor, three feet below the surface of the ground. The skeleton was very perfect, and eighteen or twenty feet long. The teeth were ten in number on each side of the jaw, above and below, conical, and slightly curved : those below were rather blunted by use ; those above somewhat smaller than the others, and more pointed. I was informed that three or four of these skeletons had been found at different times in the fens of that neighbourhood. This is unequivocal evidence of the sea having formerly come over the whole of that district, as indeed is sufficiently testified by other evidence. * Phocana orca, F. Cuv. OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. NOTES OF BIRDS. Birds which, are silent during the winter, as most are, appear to acquire their notes in the spring by- degrees. At first their song is very weak and imper- fect; and to hear them labouring at it, and only managing to get a part out, conveys the idea of some physical impediment, which for a while they are unable to surmount. As the temperature of the season advances, their system receives a correspond- ing stimulus, and their song becomes louder and more lengthened.* This may be particularly noticed in the chaffinch, and those birds whose song is generally made up of a definite number of notes. I have also observed it in the ring-dove, whose cooing note with us, in the height of the summer, is invariably repeated five times to complete the usual call ; but in January and February, when these birds are only induced perhaps by a mild day just to try * There is some allusion to this circumstance in White's Sel- borne. See his Fifth letter to D. Barrington, where I have pre- viously given the substance of the above remark in a note, in my edition of that work. NOTES OF BIRDS. 87 their powers, I have sometimes heard them as if obliged to stop after the second or third coo. Birds also appear to lose their song in the same gradual way in which they first acquire it. This has been often remarked in the case of the cuckoo, which towards the end of June is sometimes only master of the first syllable of its call.* Birds in general are regular to their appointed times for commencing and ceasing song ; but occa- sionally individuals may be heard out of season. I do not allude here to those species which re- assume their notes in the autumn, and even during the winter, if the weather be mild ; but more par- ticularly to such as occasionally protract their summer song beyond the usual period. Thus the chaflinch, the willow warbler, and the nightingale, all stop generally about, or shortly after, midsummer ; the nightingale, indeed, much earlier than this ; but in some years I have heard certain individuals of each of these three species persevering through a great part of July, and the willow wren even through August and September. These are probably cases * According to the old lines quoted in " Observations on some Passages in White's Natural History of Selborne," appended to the edition of 1813, vol. ii. p. 312. " Use maketh maistry, this hath been said alway, But all is not alway, as all men do say, In Aprill, the koocoo can sing her song by rote ; In June, of tune, she cannot sing a note : At first, koo-coo, koo-coo, sing still can she do. At last, kooke, kooke, kooke, six kookes, to one koo !" 65 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. in which some accident has occurred to break in upon the usual habits of the species ; the nest perhaps destroyed, whereby the season of nidification has been prolonged ; or they are cocks whose mates have been killed, and who have been unsuccessful in procuring- others. When I hear a nightingale in July continuing its plaintive song so long after all its companions have ceased, with the thought that it may be due to the destruction of its first brood, such misfortune stimulating it to fresh exertions, I cannot help calling to mind those well-known lines of Virgil, which, under such circumstances, are so strictly applicable. " Qualis populea moerens Philomela sub umbra Amissos queritur fetus ; quos durus arator Observans nido implumes detraxit : at ilia Flet noctem, ramoque sedens miserabile carmen Integrat, et mcestis late loca questibus implet." Georg. iv. 511. " So, close in poplar shades, her children gone, The mother Nightingale laments alone, Whose nest some prying churl had found, and thence, By stealth, conveyed th' unfeather'd innocence : But she supplies the night with mournful strains. And melancholy music fills the plains." Dryden. The following table shows the periods of the principal species of birds commencing, ceasing, and re-assum- ing song, or note, in this neighbourhood. It is for the most part similar to the table given by Wliite.* * In his Second letter to Daines Barrington. NOTES OF BIRDS. 89 It embraces, however, at one view, not only the singing-birds strictly so called, but others which White has arranged separately, from their scarcely deserving that name, though possessing " somewhat of a note." It also contains four species, viz. the cuckoo, ring-dove, stock-dove, and turtle-dove, which, though belonging to quite different orders of birds from all the rest, are most of them well known for their peculiar call or note, heard for a longer or shorter interval during the warm season. The whole are given in the order in which they are generally first heard. First Last Re- heard, heard. assumes. 1. Wven {Troglodytes europaus) . . Jan. 5 2. Redbreast {Erytlmca rubecula) . „ 8 June 23 Aug. 20 3. Coramon'Bxxnimg {Eniheriza miliaria) „ 11 Nov. 10 4. Marsh Tit (Paras jM^Ms^m) . , „ 15 Apr. 18 Dec. 25 5. Hedge Accentor {Accentor modularis) „ 17 July 26 Sep. 2b" 6. Cole Tit {Parus ater) .... „ 19 Aug. 8 7. Sky-lark {Alauda arvensis) . . „ 23 Nov. 5 8. Great Tit (Farus major) ... „ 24 May 22 „ 10 9. MisselThmsh (Turdus viscivorus) „ 26 „ 27 Nov. 2 10. Song Thvash. (Turdus musicus) . „ 31 July 19 „ 29 11. Chaffinch (FriTigilla coelebs) . . Feb. 1 „ 5 Sep. 2 12. Blackhni (Tardus merula) . . „ 12 ^,16 13. Golden-crested "Wren (i?e^M;Ms cmtatos),, 14 June 23 „ 18 14. Y ellow-havameT {Emberiza citrinella) „ 15 Aug. 12 Oct. 19 15. Greenfinch (Coccotkraustes chloris) „ 21 „ 16 16. Ring-dove (Columba palumbus) . „ 25 Sep. 28 17. Stock-dove {Colu7nba asnas) . . Mar. 5 „ 5 18. Pied Wagtail (Motacillai/arrellii) „ 17 19. Linnet ( Linota cannabina) ... „ 23 Aug. 9 20. Chi«-chaS (St/lviahippolais) . . Apr. 3 Sep. 20 21. Goldfinch (Carc?Mefe e%aws) . . „ 11 Aug. 14 22. Tit Ti^it (Anthus prafensis) . . „ 11 July 21 23. Willow Warbler (St/lvia trocUlus) „ 15 „ 23 2i. 'Red&taT:t{P]mnicuraruticilla) . . „ 15 June 13 First Last Re- heard. heard. assumes. Apr. 16 July 27 „ 20 » 9 „ 21 June 7 „ 23 Sep. 7 „ 24 June 30 „ 25 July 18 s)„ 25 „ 22 'a) „ 26 ., 7 „ 27 June 27 ) „ 28 May 4 „ 28 » 4 July 12 ,, 8 „ 23 90 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. 25. Black ca^ (Ciirrueacdricapilla) . 26. Tree Pipit {Anthus arboreus) . 27. Nightingale (Philomela luscinia) 28. Swallow {Hirundo rustica) 29. Whinchcit {Saxicola riibetm) . 30. Whitethroat {Ctirruca cinerea) 31. Sedge Warbler {Salicai-ia pkragmitis) 32. Lesser Whitethroat (Curruca sylviella) „ 33. Cuckoo {Cuculus canorus) . 34. Reed Bunting {Emheriza schceniclus) „ 35. Wood Warbler {Sylvia sibilatrix) 36. Pettychaps {Curruca horteiisis) 37. Turtle-dove {Columha turtur) . The dates given in this table are, most of them, the means of a great many years' observations. They are the same as those given in the Calendar at the end of this work ; by referring to which, the exact number of years in each case, from which the mean is cal- culated, may be ascertained. — As the dates relating to this subject in that calendar are necessarily much scattered, it was thought that it might be useful to bring them together in this place, for the sake of those observers who take an especial interest in the notes of birds. Remarks. — The wren and redbreast are usually considered as singing all the year. The latter, however, appears to me invariably to stop, like so many other species, after the breeding-season is over ; it may be the end of June or beginning of July. It re-assumes, however, its note in about a month's time ; and, from the middle of August on through the autumn, its singing is notorious, when scarcely any other species is to be heard. I do not feel sure that it is not the same with the wren, at least with the great majority of individuals ; though NOTES OF BIRDS. 91 here and there one may undoubtedly be heard at all seasons. The bunting and the sky-lark are species, of which individuals may in like manner be heard during a great part of the year, if the weather be favourable ; nevertheless many stop after the breeding-season, about the end of July. White says of the sky-lark, "sings in February, and on to October;" of the bunting, "from the end of January to July." The hedge accentor, great titmouse, missel thrush, song thrush, chaiRnch, yellow-hammer, and golden- crested wren, all these decidedly reassume their song in autumn in this neighbourhood, with more or less regularity, according to the character of the season. Some of them are not mentioned by White as doing this. The marsh tit, so far as I have observed, stops earlier in the spring than the great tit, or almost any other species ; but it will occasionally re-assume its note towards the end of the year. The cole tit, on the contrary, is heard during a great part of the summer. White says, both of the thrush and blackbird, that they re-assume their song in autumn. The former, as already observed, is one of those species that may be constantly heard at that season, and sometimes on to the end of the year, if the weather be mild ; but it is worthy of note, that the latter never re-assumes in this neighbourhood. The black- bird with us, from the time of its ceasing in July, is invariably silent till the follovdng February or March. During a period of more than twenty years that I 92 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. have attended to the notes of birds, I never remember to have heard it in a single instance in autumn. It is also always later than the thrush in commencing song, after the severe part of the winter is over : it seems to wait for some decided increase of tempera- ture, such as characterizes a fine mild day in the early spring, of the gradual approach of which season its note is a sure harbinger. The greenfinch I have, in two different years, heard for a few days in the month of December, but it does not re-assume with any regularity. The chiff-chaff, as observed by White,* " chirps till September." The willow warbler also will oc- casionally prolong its note till that month, though the greater number appear to stop about the middle of July, if not sooner. The whitethroat is also said by White to " sing on till September." This, however, is cer- tainly not the case here, where I never heard it after July S8th, and the greater number of individuals stop ten days sooner. It is probable that, after allowing for errors of ob- servation, it will still be found that the same species of birds, in some instances, have different habits, in respect of their periods of singing, in different locali- ties. It is this circumstance which gives an interest to tables of the above kind, brought together from various stations, and compared with each other. Thus, I have myself observed that thrushes and blackbirds, which are seldom heard at Swaffham * Called by him the " smallest willow- wren." NOTES OF BIRDS. 93 Bulbeck much after the middle of July, generally continue in song at Ely till the middle of August. For several years that I was in the habit formerly of spending a portion of the summer there, I noticed this fact. The earliest date of their stopping, that ever occurred to me in the precincts of that town, was the 10th of August; whilst some seasons I heard them both, on to the 26th of that month. With regard to birds re-assuming in autumn, it seems a matter of great uncertainty, in most cases, even in a given locality. Some species re-assume with considerable regularity ; but still at variable periods, and for very different lengths of time in dif- ferent seasons. Occasionally they are heard for a few days only, before they are again silent ; at other times they will continue singing, on and off at inter- vals, to the end of the year, according as it may happen. White has observed, that, in the case of the red- breast, " many songsters of the autumn seem to be the young cocks of that year." * It has often occurred to me that this may be generally the case with all birds that re-assume in autumn, after having once ceased. Their singing at that season is, as above observed, very irregular ; and their notes often few and desultory, as in young birds. Is it improbable that the young cocks may be stimulated by a fine autumn to try their powers before actually wanted ; or that they may, oftener than old birds, feel prema- turely those desires which are always the accompani-r * See Lett. XL. to Pennant. 94 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. ments of song in the spring of the year ? At the same time, it is not meant that none of the individuals w^hich are heard singing in the autumn may not be old birds. In the height of the spring, the thrush may be heard throughout the day without intermission ; but as the season advances towards midsummer, and after the solstice, especially if the weather be hot, its song is principally confined to the morning and evening. It is then one of the earliest and latest of songsters, commencing in the morning almost before it is light, and not desisting in the evening till long after sunset. During the first week in July, I have heard it in the evening as late as twenty minutes past nine. The blackbird appears to be partial to damp wea- ther, and, when near the time of ceasing, a continu- ance of rainy days, if not very cold, will often induce it to prolong its song beyond the usual period. During the fine and very dry weather which pre- vailed over a great part of June, 1844, the blackbirds hardly sung at all ; but when the rain came, in the last week of that month, they resumed, and conti- nued to be heard till after the middle of the month following. July was even hotter than June, but then there was much more wet : this it was which seemed to make the difference. I also once noticed, quite late in the summer, and when no blackbirds had been heard for some time previous, that one evening, after the occurrence of a violent thunder-storm, seve- ral were heard singing, but for that evening only. NOTES OF BIRDS. 95 The atmosphere at the tmie was cahn, and the air mild, but extremely damp. I have occasionally had the curiosity to note down the exact time at which the different species of birds are first heard on a fine summer's morning.* One of these instances was the 17th of July, 1826, the weather at the time being remarkably fine and set- tled. The following is a list of all the species whose notes reached my ear, arranged in the order in which they struck up : A. M. 2 hrs. 10 min. 15 min, 25 min. 26 min. Sky-lark {Aluuda arvensis) commenced singing Cock (Gallus domesticus) CYO-wing . . . „ 40 min. Thrush ( Tiirdus musicus) first in song Yellow-hammer (Emberiza cltrinella) ditto . \ 3 hrs. Swallow (Hirundo rustica) ditto Blackbird ( Turdus merula) ditto Duck {Anas boschas domest.) quacking Pettychaps {Curruca hortensis) singing Ring-dove {Columba palwnbus) cooing Rooks (Corviis J'rugilegus) cawing . Linnet {Linota cannabina) singing Bunting {Emberiza miliaria) ditto House Sparrow {Passer domesticus) chirping . j- 4 hrs. Turkey {Mekagris gallopavo) gohlAmg Pheasant {Phasianus colchicus) crowing After four o'clock, from the fineness of the morning, the concert became so general in every direction, that it was useless making any further observations. * This subject has been slightly touched upon in the Journal of a Naturalist (3rd Edit. p. 234), but not in detail, or with any at- tempt at exactness. 96 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. The second occasion of my pursuing these inqui- ries was on the 4th of July, 1843. The morning in this instance was very mild and calm, but damp and lightly clouded, inclining to rain. The following species were noticed : Domestic Cock crowing . Blackbird chirping (but not singing), at the same [ 2 hrs. time flying about from bush to bush Sky-lark singing Rooks, a few cawing Thrush singing Swallow ditto Ring-dove cooing Thrushes everywhere singing Blackbird singing . Redbreasts chirping (never sung at all) Turtle-dove {Columba turtur) heard Yellow-hammer singing 3 hrs. Guinea Fowl (^Numida meleagris) calling House Sparrows chirping Rooks beginning to leave their nest-trees N.B. The cawing had been gradually increasing since 2 hours 30 minutes. Wren {Troglodytes europaus) singing Spotted Flycatcher {Mmcicapa grisola) chirpin No other species were heard previously to four o'clock. I attended a third time to this subject, on the 13th of June, in the present year (1845). The two former occasions were some days after the occiu'rence of the summer equinox ; I purposely selected this a short time before. The morning was fine, the air very still, with a thin mist at times hanging over the meadows. The following occurrences were noted down. i.. M 3 min. 15 min. 20 min. 42 min. 47 min. 50 min. 52 min. 57 min. 3 min. 6 min. 15 min. 20 min. 25 min. NOTES OF BIRDS. 97 Domestic Cock crowing .... Skylark singing ...... Ring-dove cooing Collared Turtle (Columba risoria), in confine- ment, cooing Duck quacking Blackbird, one individual singing . Redbreast singing Swallow singing ...... Thrush singing Blackbirds everywhere singing Guinea-fowl calling ..... Thrushes everywhere singing Ring-doves everywhere cooing Rooks, a few cawing Cuckoo heard Yellow-hammer singing .... Rooks on wing, beginning to leave their nest-trees Chaffinch singing House Sparrows chirping .... Jackdaw (Corvus monedula) on wing and cawing Lesser Whitethroat {Curruca sylviella) singing Turtle-dove heard N.B. The thrushes and blackbirds, which had been singing everywhere incessantly from half past two, or shortly after, at this time became silent. A, M. Ihr. 51 min )> 58 min 2 hrs. 2 min. 5 min ,, 21 min !J 24 min 27 min 5J 28 min. »5 30 min. „ 32 min. „ 33 min „ 35 min >J 38 min. 40 min. » 48 min. „ 53 min. 5J 57 min. 3 hrs . 3 min. J) 10 min „ 14 min. „ 25 min. „ 31 min. Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) chattering Stock-dove (Columba anas) heard . Linnet singing ..... Greenfinch ( Coccothraustes Moris) singing Wren singing One Thrush resumed its song 4 hrs. 40 min. 46 mim 55 min. 16 min. 20 min. No other species noticed previously to half past four, at which time I ceased observing. yo OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. On comparing the above tables, it will be seen that on all three occasions the skylark was the earliest of our song-birds, strictly so called, heard actually singing. It commences about two o'clock ; which, in the first of the above instances, would be very nearly two hours before sunrise. " Up-springs the lark, Shrill-voic'd and loud, the messenger of morn ; Ere yet the shadows fly, he mounted sings Amid the dawning clouds, and from their haunts Calls up the tuneful nations." This fact is worth noting, because Dr. Jenner has denied that the lark is entitled to the credit of this precedency, giving it to the red-breast.* The red- breast is undoubtedly an early bird, but it is not, usually, even the next after the skylark. In two of the above instances, though heard chirping, it was not heard to sing at all. This may have been acci- dental ; but in the third instance it was not heard till after the blackbird, and not tiU nearly half an hour after the lark. The earliest species, in gene- ral, after the lark, appear to be the thrush, f the swallow, the blackbird, and the yellow-hammer. The blackbird I have repeatedly noted on various occasions to commence about ten minutes after the thrush, as in the first two of the above instances ; though in the third of these instances the blackbird * Phil Trans. 1824, p. 37. t J\Ir. Thompson states that he has heard the thrush singing in Ireland in June as early as a quarter past two in the morning. Mag. ofZool. and Bot. vol. ii. p. 434. NOTES OF BIRDS. 99 was heard first. The yellow-hammer is remarkable for its great regularity in keeping to a given hour, which, during the height of summer, is three o'clock, a few minutes before or after. This species is followed generally by the chafiinch. The linnet, green- finch, and wren appear to be among the later birds, and are seldom heard till near four o'clock, if not after that hour, though the last is earlier sometimes than others. The circumstance of the general silence among the blackbirds and thrushes after half past three, in the instance of the 13th of June 1845, is curious. Their singing had been so unceasing and so general for about an hour previous, that it required a nice ear to be able to distinguish the notes of other birds. It will be seen that at twenty minutes after four one thrush was heard to resume its song, but this was the only individual of either species that sung afterwards so lonsr as the observations were continued. Many birds appear to be more or less clamorous before going to roost. In the case of the rook this fact is notorious, and, before they are in sight, the approach of these birds to their nest-trees in the evening is signified to the observer by the united voices of the whole body " returning in long strings from the foraging of the day." " Retiring from the downs, where all day long They pick'd their scanty fare, a blackening train Of clamorous rooks thick urge their weary flight, And seek the closing shelter of the grove." F 2 100 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. They are often preceded, as Wliite observes,* by a flight of daws, which act the part of avant-couriers. After their arrival at the rookery, they do not settle to roost immediately, but continue sailing round and round the trees, or hovering over them, till they al- most darken the vault of heaven with their accumu- lated numbers, and deafen the observer standing be- neath with their cries. The common pheasant, as is well known, betrays the place of his repose by his reiterated crowing. The cock bird, for the hen appears to be nearly mute on these occasions, springs from the ground on to the tree selected for roosting, with a harsh scream that continues unremitted till he has assumed his perch ; it is then softened into a more harmonious crow, consisting of two or in some cases three notes, which are repeated at intervals for a considerable time. Besides this cry, which is heard to a consi- derable distance, there is a weak inward noise im- mediately following, which sounds exactly like an echo of the first, consisting of the same notes, only in a different key, and uttered very softly. To hear this distinctly, it is necessary for the observer to be almost immediately under the tree on which the pheasant is perched. Some individuals crow in a much shriller key altogether than others : such, per- haps, are the young cocks of the year. House sparrows assemble together in immense bodies at the approach of sunset, more especially in winter, when the shrubs in the garden at such times * Nat. Hist. o/Selb. Lett. XVII. to D. Barrington. NOTES OF BIRDS. 101 appear quite alive with their numbers. Thus con- gregated they keep up an incessant chirping, mixed with a shrill squeak occasionally uttered by certain individuals, exactly resembling the cry of some ani- mal in distress. So great, indeed, is the deception, that I have been often dra^vn to the spot in the ex- pectation of finding a hare in a trap, or that had been seized by vermin, or some occurrence of the like nature. Blackbirds, prior to roosting, are not only clamorous, but singularly restless. They fly about from bush to bush in a hurried and agitated manner, as if endeavouring to escape some bird of prey, or otherwise apprehensive of danger. Their note at such times is a kind of twittering scream, different from what is usually heard at any other time of the day. Other birds have no particular cry which they use at roosting-time, but, as the time draws on, they pur- sue their ordinary song with greater earnestness and vivacity. This is particularly the case with the song thrush and the hedge accentor. The latter was observed by one of our older naturalists * to keep up its song to a later period of the day than almost any other species. It may be noticed also that swifts become more * W. Turner, a physician and naturalist, who lived in the time of Henry YIII. He -rn-ote a work in Latin, now scarce, on the principal birds mentioned iu Pliny and Aristotle. Speaking of the hedge sparrow (as he terms it) he says, " paulo ante vesperum solet impensius strepere, et omnium fere avium postrema dormitum petit.'''' 10:2 OBSERVATIONS OX BIRDS. active and noisy as the evening advances. "Wldte remarks that, " just before tiiey retire, whole groups of them assemble bigb in tbe air, and squeak, and shoot about with wonderful rapidity." On these occasions, all the individuals of a town or village seem to unite, in one large body, and, by way of finale to their day's exertions, to wheel round and round the adjoining buildings, all screaminsf toge- ther. "White has given a list of birds, few in number he observes, that sing in the night.* In it he has in- cluded the nightingale, woodlark, and lesser reed- sparrow, f Some other species, however, may occa- sionally be heard at such times. On the 30th of April, 184o, I heard a hedge accentor singing after midnight. The cuckoo may be often heard in the night, as Montagu and others have noticed.! As an unusual occurrence, it may be mentioned also that I once heard the collared or African turtle {Columha risoria, Auct.) cooing in a cage, out of doors, at 10 p.m. on a frosty night, in the first week of January. It would seem, from this circumstance, that this species, not in general considered very hardy, suffered but little from the inclemencv of our winters. * 'Sat. Hist. Selbome. Let:. I. to D. Barrington. + Xow more conrmonly called the sedore-warbler (Salicaria phragmitis). X The skylark has been also heard sinsrng- at night. See The Zoologist, p. 238. I^ *^ - nr "iia.~"ii~"j.- if Jfe^i mr dB^ . . . - f*^ ^vs2i i^'" Wiiie 104 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. 7. Swallow (Hirundo rustica) 8. Sand Martin {H. riparia) 9. Tree Pipit (Ajithus arbo- ^ reus) .... 10. Nightingale (Philomela lus- cinia) . 31. Wryneck {Yunx torquilla) • 12. Wheatear {Saxicoln cenan- the) . . . . 13.Whinchat(SrtxJcoZa ruhetra). 14. Whitethroat {Curruca ci- nerea) 15. Lesser Whitethroat (C.S!//- viella) .... 16. Sedge Warbler (Salicaria phragmitis) . 17. Cnckoo (Cuculus canorus) 18. Yellow or Ray's Wagtail Motacilla rail) 19. House Martin (Hirundo urhica) 20. Pettychaps {Curruca hor- tensis) .... 21. Wood Warbler {Si/lvia si/l- vicola) .... Usually first seen about April 19 : stays till the middle of Oc- tober. This species is not found nearer than Quy Water, (three miles from hence,) where I have observed it usually about the third week in April. About April 20. April 22. A few of these birds are seen upon Newmarket Heath, where they breed in holes on the Devil's Ditch ; but they are not very numerous, and I am uncer- tain at what period they arrive. These four species appear very much together ; usually about April 25. Seldom heard with us before the last week in April, and sometimes not till May. End of April. End of April or beginning of May : generally stays a few days later than the swallow. Beginning of May. Ditto. Not common with us, and generally heard but a very short time ; some years not at all. BIRDS OF PASSAGE. 105 22. Turtle-dove (Columba tur- tur) . . . . 23. Common Sandpiper (Tota- nus hypoleucos) 24. ^mii {Cypselus apus) 25, Spotted Flycatcher {Mus- cicapa grisola) 26. Q\XB.i\ {Coturnix vulgaris) 27. Landrail (Crei'prafensjs) 28. Hobby {Falco subbuteo) 29. Red-backed Shrike {Lanius collurio) 30. Goatsucker {Caprimulgus europmus) 31 . RuiF {Machetes pugnax) 32. Black Tern {Sterna nigra) Generally the first week in May, but sometimes in April. Remains till September, if not longer. April or May, but not com- mon. Never seen here before the 6th of May, and sometimes not till the third week : departs early in August, if not sooner. About May 16 : monotonous chirp heard till late in the sum- mer. These species are seldom heard with us before the middle of May : how much earlier they arrive I am not certain. Some quails remain the winter. iMet with occasionally during the summer months, but not sufficiently plentiful to deter- mine the exact date of their arrival. /■ Resort occasionally to our fens to breed, but only in very 4 wet summers ; are getting scarcer every year ; ruffs especially I very seldom seen now. 33. II. Birds of double passage. Ring-ouzel ( Turdus tor- quatus) A few years back some of these birds were observed for two or three seasons in succes- sion, each spring and autumn, in the adjoining parish of Swaff- ham Prior ; but I have not heard of their having been seen there lately. F 5 106 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. (Makes its spring passage be- tween the 20th and 30th of April : returns about the third week in September. TIL Birds that spend the winter, or a portion of the winter, with us. 35. Golden Plover (CAarac?nMS ■pluvialis) 36. Snipe {Scolopax gallinago) 37. Jack Snipe {S.galUnula) 38. Short-eared Owl {Otus brachyotos) . 39. Bean Goose {Anser sege- tum) .... 40. White-fronted Goose {A. ' albifrons) . 41. Grey "Wagtail (Motacilla boarula) 42. Wild Duck (Anas boschas) 43. Woodcock (Scolopax rusti- cola) .... 44. Hooded Crow (Corvus cor- nix) .... 45. F'vAA^^re (Turdus pilaris) 46. Redwing (r.i/jacws). 47. Teal (Anas crccca) Arrives the middle or end of September : stays till March or April. Middle of September ; but many remain the whole year, and breed in the fens. End of September : never stays to breed. September or October ; plen- tiful some years in the fens. Earliest flocks seen the be- ginning of October ; return northwards in March : much less plentiful than formerly. Beginning of October. Middle of October. Middle or end of October : stays some seasons till near the end of March. October or November : last seen about the second week in March. Rarely seer> before the end of October. Sometimes fieldfares remain very late in the spring ; occasionally till near the end of April. Has occurred the first week in October, but generally later. Not seen every year. DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS. 107 48. Hooper {Cygnusferus) 49. Bewick's Swan ( C. bewkkii) 60. Pintail Duck {Anas acuta 51. Wigeon {A. penelope) 52. Pochard {Fuligula ferind 53. Scaup Duck (F.raanYa) 54. Tufted Duck (F. cristata 55. Smew {Mergus albellus) 56. Great Grey Shrike (Lanius excubitor) 57. Brambling (Fringilla mon- tifringilla) . 58. Siskin (Carduelis spinus) . 59. Twite (Linota montium) . 60. Lesser Redpole {L. linaria) Seen only in very hard win- ters. Visit our streams and ditches occasionally in hard weather, but not of regular occurrence. Now and then one killed during the winter. Appear at rather uncertain intervals during the winter, and not every year. Siskins most often seen in January and Feb- ruary. EQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS. There is, in this neighbourhood, an annual de- struction of rooks and sparrows to a great extent every year ; yet I observe, as others have observed before in similar cases,* that no apparent diminution of their numbers takes place. The rookery at Bot- tisham Hall is very large, and has existed from time immemorial ; it appears to be the head-quarters, vv^hence many small colonies, which are now estab- lished wherever there are a few tall trees in the sur- rounding neighbourhood, originally emanated. And to these head-quarters the inhabitants of the small scattered colonies appear to return in winter, flocking with the general mass, till the approach of the breed- ing season. The number of young birds in this rookery, either shot, or taken unfledged from the * See Journal of a Naturalist (3rd edit.), p. 183. 108 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. nest, has amounted in some years to nearly a hun- dred dozens ; to say nothing of the old birds which are occasionally destroyed at all seasons of the year. Yet I feel satisfied that the general aggregate of the nests in spring, as also of the individuals forming the immense flocks we see in autumn, is much the same as it was thirty years back. — So too with the sparrows, which abound in such multitudes, to the great annoyance of the farmer ; they are not, to my thinking, more or less abundant than they were formerly, though here, as in other places, the parish ofiicers give rewards for their destruction every year. My idea in regard of this matter is, that species, which, like the rook and sparrow, are generally dis- persed over the kingdom, have a tendency to equalize their numbers throughout the different parts of it ; deficiencies from accident, or any other cause, in one locality, being made up by supplies from another, in which there happens to be an excess. It seems also not improbable, that, without a diminution of numbers in any one place to induce strangers to settle there, the numbers in another are not allowed to increase beyond a certain limit, in consequence of the law which impels old birds to drive away their offspring, as soon as they are suffi- ciently matured to shift for themselves. If there be convenient space for them in the neighbourhood, without interfering with the old birds, they may be suffered to remain ; but otherwise they are forced to go elsewhere ; and if there is no colony near, allow- ing of increase, to which they can attach themselves, they found a new colony, wherever circumstances DISTRIBUTION OP BIRDS. 109 may be favourable to their so doing. In some instances, they may have to traverse long distances before they can effect this object ; or they may be compelled to leave the country altogether, and resort to another ; and perhaps this supposition may serve to explain the circumstance of their sudden appear- ance in some localities, vs^here they had not been previously observed.* The veell-known fact, too, of old birds driving away their young may, in the case of certain rare species, account for their being young or immature individuals, v^hich alone occur, perhaps, at irregular intervals, in a given country. These individuals are such as have vs^andered to near the extreme geographical limits assigned to their species. If, from a general excess of numbers in other places, they are compelled to travel so far from central quarters as to overstep these limits, existence is w^ith difficulty maintained, or may be no longer possible. They then perish ; and it may be in this v^^ay that the numbers of some species are constantly held in check, or at least reduced, in certain seasons, when particular circumstances have led to an undue increase. It seems further deserving of inquiry, whether the flocking of birds in some instances, as well as the * An instance of this kind is mentioned in the volume of Re- ports on the Progress of Zoology and Botany, lately published by the Ray Society. " In April, 1838, a flight of rooks" is said to have " entered into the city of Danzig, and settling upon all the larger trees, in gardens as well as in the most crowded streets, built their nests there and brooded." — Prof. Wagner's Report on Birds, p. 71. 110 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. partial flittings of individuals from one part of the country to another, may not arise from the desire, perhaps the necessity, of seeking some new ahode. White has observed, that " there are, doubtless, many home internal migrations within this kingdom that want to be better understood";* and though the instance he adduces of the vast flocks of hen chaffinches that appear at Selborne in the winter is probably quite independent of the above cause, his remark is not the less deserving of consideration in reference to the subject we are speaking of. Flocks of individuals, of several species, may occasionally be seen, at all seasons, wending their way steadily in a direct line, as if under the influence of some com- mon impulse. There are also flittings which appear to have nothing to do with the ordinary migrations, inasmuch as they occur in species which do not, so far as we are aware, migrate. It would be an interesting record if naturalists, resident in the country, would enter in their journals any facts of this kind that might come under their observation, as also any cases of new species taking up a per- manent abode in their neighbourhood, f or of old ones experiencing a marked increase, or falling off", of their numbers. There is one circumstance, not wholly uncon- * Eighth letter to Pennant. f One such instance in the case of the turtle-dove, a migra- tory species however, I have mentioned further on in this work. This species was not observed in the neighbourhood of Bottisham and Swaffham Bulbeck before the year 1823. Since then they have visited it regularly each season, and in increasing numbers. NESTS OF BIRDS. Ill nected with this last point, which seems to have been frequently noticed by English naturalists ; and that is, the fact of certain species, which flock regularly in winter, being observed at such seasons in larger numbers than can well be supposed to have been bred in one neighbourhood. This is White's observation in regard to the flocks of hen chaffinches above spoken of. The same idea has been enter- tained by others, in the case of the large flocks of greenfinches, linnets, buntings, and some other small birds, which are everywhere so abundant in this country in winter. It is clear that such flocks cannot, in all places at once, exceed in numbers the accumulated individuals of the respective localities in which they occur ; unless we suppose, as suggested by some naturalists, that they receive their accessions from abroad. * This, indeed, may possibly be the case : and it may further happen, that many of the strangers thus coming in amongst them may be induced to remain on in the spring, where there is an opening to allow of their gaining a settlement ; supplying in this manner another means, in addition to those before suggested, by which the original numbers in any particular spot, where they were deficient, may be recruited. NESTS OF BIRDS. I OBSERVE that birds sometimes begin the shell of their nest, or the outer part of the fabric formed * See White's Selborne, Lett. XIII. to Penn, note in my Edition. 112 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. of the coarser materials, before it is wanted, and let it remain in this state for some days, and then finish it on a sudden. In other cases I have known the nest entirely completed, and afterwards a fortnight or more elapse before laying commenced. This last circumstance I have observed occasionally in the chaffinch ; and had been led to suppose in such instances that the nest from some cause had been deserted. I passed it day after day, and found it exactly in the same state, without any eggs in it. But it proved, in the end, to be only a delay, from the circumstance of the nest not being needed sooner. After an interval of longer or shorter duration, the eggs were duly laid, and the brood reared. I have noticed the same habit in the tree creeper. BIRDS APPEARING FAT IN WINTER. The circumstance of birds puffing themselves out, so as to appear plump, in severe weather, has been often noticed. " The redbreast, ruffled up by winter's cold Into a feathery bunch," has not escaped the observation of the poet. But if this is what White alludes to, when he speaks of " birds growing fatter in moderate frosts," I conceive he is wrong as to the fact, to say nothing of the way in which he attempts to explain it. His remark, in- deed, in the first instance, is in reference to " long- billed birds" (the Grallatores I presume he means) ; with regard to which it may be true, though I am MORTALITY AMONG BIRDS. 113 not aware of it. But then he adds, " the case is just the same with blackbirds," &c. * Here I should be disposed to doubt the fact altogether of these birds being fatter in frosts than at other times. They may appear to be so ; but it is appearance only, and, as I imagine, simply an expedient to which they re- sort in order to keep up better the temperature of their bodies in cold weather. By ruffling up their feathers, they admit the air between them, which is a worse conductor of heat than the feathers them- selves, at the same time that it removes further from their bodies the conducting surface by which their natural heat would be carried off; just as a loose cloak about the person is warmer than one which fits closely to it. The conducting surface itself also is less effective when the feathers partially stand up than when they are smoothed down; though the feathers radiate more freely under the former condi- tion than under the latter. This is according to the known laws, by which, cceteris paribus, bodies radiate and conduct heat according to the nature of their surfaces. MORTALITY AMONG BIRDS. It has been thought by some a matter of surprise, that we so seldom meet with dead birds, j- notwith- standing the immense multitudes that must die every year. It is said that man destroys few, comparatively speaking ; and it is asked what becomes of the re- * Letter V. to Daines Barrington. t Jesse''s Gleanings, Second Series, p. 296. 114 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. mainder. This inquiry leads to several other inqui- ries connected with the statistics of birds, which it would be most interesting to have answered ; but which, in the present state of our knowledge, it would be difficult to clear up. More especially it would be important to determine at what period, as regards both the age of the individual, and the season of the year, as well as how and in what exact manner, the mortality among birds takes place. This mor- tality must, in the instance of some of the smaller species, be very great. The numbers reared each year seem to bring no proportionate accession to the general number of individuals the year following. Does then the mortality fall principally upon the old birds or the young, and during winter or during summer ? White has observed with respect to house martins, that " they must undergo vast devastations somehow, and somewhere ; for the birds that return bear no manner of proportion to the birds that re- tire."* From this one might suppose, that, in the case of this species, it was during their sojourn in a foreign country in winter that their numbers became thinned, and that the deaths were in proportion to the increase they had received here during the breed- ing season ; for about the same numbers seem to return each year. It would follow also that it was not by the destruction which fell upon the very young birds, that these numbers were kept within the assigned limits, but by that of the adult. I think, however, it may fairly be questioned, whether, * Letter XVI. to Paines Barrin^on. MORTALITY AMONG BIRDS. 115 because martins return to this country in smaller numbers than they quit it, it necessarily follows that the overplus have all died abroad during the w^inter. The excess of numbers at the time of migration in autumn is made up of the young birds of that year. Now^, though it seems weU. ascertained, that old birds, v^^hich have bred in this country, generally re- turn to the same breeding-places each season, I am not aware of any facts that prove that all the young birds return with their parents. Is it improbable that, instead of doing this, many may disperse them- selves about in various directions, when the spring arrives, and assist in filling up gaps, wherever, from accident or other cause, the numbers in any place may be deficient ? It may be in this way, partly, that there is kept up, in the case of some species, that equal balancing of numbers in different coun- tries, to which we have already alluded in a former place.* If it be indeed true, that, with regard to martins, a vast devastation of individuals (as White supposes) takes place somewhere in other countries during winter, and if the same could be shown of our sum- mer migrants generally, analogy would lead us to expect that our winter migrants would receive the check to their undue increase, in like manner, during winter, in this country. And according to this view these migrants must visit this comitry in autumn in much larger numbers than those in which they quit it in the spring. But I doubt if we have any ob- * See back to p. 108. 116 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. servations on record fully to establish this point in all cases, however it may hold in some. After all, this leaves the original question, as it regards those species which remain with us the whole year, un- touched ; and these constitute a great proportion of the whole. How then, it may be asked, is it with respect to them ? For my part, I should be inclined to think that, in most instances, the mortality would not be confined mainly to the old birds or to the young, but divided between them ; and that it was not, on the whole, more general during one season than the other. Young birds, that had but lately quitted the nest, would, during summer and autumn, most readily fall a prey to rapacious animals ; * while the old, from their enfeebled powers, would perhaps be less able to contend with the severities of winter. And a certain proportion of these also must fur- nish food for the Raptores, at least during icinter. Probably then, from these causes combined, but few individuals attain to old age, or fail of meeting, sooner or later, with an untimely end. The law by which animals prey upon each other, seems to be an express provision of Nature, as a means of ter- minating their existence, without subjecting them to that amount of previous suffering and priva- * Thus White, speaking of a pair of sparrow-hawks, in the month of July, says, that they " had been observed to make sad havoc for some days among the new-flown swallows and martins ; which, being but lately out of their nests, had not acquired those powers and command of wing that enable them, wlicn more ma- ture, to set such enemies at defiance." — Lett. XLIII. to Pennant. MORTALITY AMONG BIRDS. 117 tion, which would necessarily, in their case, attend death from old age.* In those species which are not the prey of others, but which are themselves the devourers, the number of individuals of each sort is generally small ; and, doubtless, there exists some other provision in their case, causing death at an appointed age, before life has been protracted to its utmost limit. There seems to be a reason, then, at least in the case of the smaller birds, why we should not oftener meet with dead individuals. A consider- able proportion undergo a violent death: of those which die in other ways, probably many are carried off by small predaceous quadrupeds almost as soon as they fall to the ground; while the rest are left for the scavenger insects to devour or bury, and it is surprising in how short a time, during the warm months of summer, some of the burying beetles will accomplish the humble task allotted them by Provi- dence, f * This subject has been before alluded to in the Introduction to this work. See p. 24, note. t I have repeatedly, in spring, placed dead birds on the ground in different spots, and found them so completely buried by the Necrophorus vespillo, and other allied species, within twenty-four hours after, or nearly, that I have sometimes had difficulty in finding them again. 118 NOTES ON PARTICULAR SPECIES OF BIRDS. KESTREL.* April 22, 1823. — This morning we found a kes- trel's nest in one of the highest branches of a tall spruce-fir, containing five eggs, all of equal size, and colom-ed alike f : four is the more usual number. A2)ril27, 1831. — Another nest of the kestrel was found to-day, with one egg in it. The old bird was shot as it flew oif, and proved to be the male. This species of hawk feeds much on insects occa- sionally, as appears by their casts and faeces, which often consist entirely of the remains of beetles. | * Falco tinnunculus, Linn. + Mr. Yarrell observes that, when there are five eggs, " the fifth has been known to Avcigh several grains less than any of those previously deposited, and it has also less colouring matter spread over the shell than the others ; both effects probably occa- sioned by the temporary constitutional exhaustion the bird has sustained in her previous efforts." ;{; This fact has been noticed by others. — See Ann. and Mug. of Nat. Hist., vol. xiii, p. 93. 119 HONEY BUZZARD.* Sept. 23, 1826. — A honey buzzard was trapped at Bottisham to-day at a wasp's-nest. The keeper had observed it there previously several different times, tearing the nest in pieces, and on one occasion actually carrying away large pieces of the comb in its bill and talons.-j- The plumage of this individual seem- ed to indicate that it was a young bird of the year. When the mouth was opened, a very perceptible smell of honey proceeded from the gape. This spe- cies of buzzard has been killed in this neighbour- hood in three or four instances. MARSH HARRIER. % This species of harrier is very plentiful in the low grounds of Cambridgeshire, making its nest on the ground among tall grass and rushes. I have had the newly-fledged young brought me from Burwell Fen, the second week in May. These have uniform- ly wanted the yellow patch on the crown of the head, so conspicuous in the adult bird. It is rather a variable species in respect of plumage, being some- * Pernis apivorus, Gould. + Mr. Selby has also trapped this species at a wasp's nest, in Northumberland. See Proceed, of the Berwickshire Natural- ists' Club for 1836, p. 109, where he has given a detailed account of the capture. ^ Circus rufus, Selby. 120 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. times found with the lower half of the abdomen en- tirely white, and the other parts of the body here and there spotted with that colour. This, and the common buzzard, bear indiscriminately, in these parts, the provincial name of Puttock. LONG-EARED OWL.* April 16, 1827. — This morning we found the nest of a long-eared owl in an old ivy-tree much tenant- ed by jackdaws, one of whose holes had been mono- polized for the purpose. This confirms what authors state as to this species of owl not making any nest of its own, but availing itself of that of some other bird. The nest contained two eggs, which had not yet been incubated. The long-eared owl is occasi- onally, but not very commonly, met with at Bottis- ham. It seems partial to the gloom of thick fir plantations. SHORT-EARED OWL. f This species of owl is not uncommon throughout the low grounds of Cambridgeshire, where it makes its first appearance towards the latter end of Septem- ber. I have been informed that in the fens, in the neighbourhood of Littleport, it is sometimes found in astonishing plenty, particularly after those sea- sons which have been most productive of field-mice, which appear to be its favourite food and a great * Ohis vulgaris, Flem. t Otus brachyutos, Flem. WHITE OWL. 121 object of attraction. In those districts they are known by the name of Norway Owl. Their usual haunts are fields of cole-seed and turnips ; in which situations they may often be put up one after an- other, to the number of fifty or more : but they are never observed in stubbles, or amongst trees during the day ; though they resort to these last to roost in at night, and at such times seem much attached to plantations of spruce-firs. WHITE OWL.* I FORMERLY Spent a portion of the summer, for several years in succession, in a house at Ely, the eaves of which were tenanted by a pair of white owls, that bred there regularly every season ; and I had an opportunity of testing the accuracy of what White has said respecting the habits of this species. I never observed them bring anything home to their young except mice and small rats. Amongst the former, shrews were not unfrequent ; but these, though captured, did not appear to be in general devoured, as they might constantly be found entire on the ground beneath the nest, hav- ing been cast out, along with the usual rejected pellets of bones and fur. I once noticed amongst these rejectamenta a specimen of the water-shrew ;f and on another occasion a half-grown individual of the black variety of the water-rat mentioned in a former part of this work. % I never in any instance * Strix Jiammea, Linn. t Sorexjbdiens, Gmel. i See p. 76. G 122 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. heard this species of owl hoot, (agreeably with what Wliite observes,) though I have attended to its habits for a very long period. I mention this, because some naturalists have denied the accuracy of White's state- ment on this point. White has mentioned a tame brown owl, with which he was acquainted.* A friend of mine has sent me the following particulars respecting a tame white one, which was taken, when young, from a nest in the woods at Dilstone, near Hexham in Northumberland, and given by a lady to her children, who brought it up. Great pains appear to have been taken to domesticate this owl, in consequence of which it became very familiar. In imitation of its own call, it received the name of Keevie, to which it would readily answer when within hearing, following the sound from whatever part of the premises it might happen to be in. Its usual place of rep6se during the day was under the branches of an old Scotch fir, which grew doAvn a steep inaccessible bank, where it would sit appa- rently asleep, but sufficiently awake to endeavour to attract the notice of any one who passed, by its usual cry of keevie, keevie. If the passenger stop- ped and answered it, it immediately scrambled up the boughs of the fir, till it brought itself to a level with the walk above, in hopes of being fed ; but if he went on again, unheeding its solicitations, it * Nat. Hist. qfSdborne, Lett, XL to Pennant. WHITE OWL. 123 returned to its former place, and resumed its slum- bers. One of the most striking peculiarities in this tame owl is said to have been its fondness for music. It would often come into the drawing-room of an evening, on the shoulder of one of the child- ren, and, on hearing the tones of the piano, would sit with its eyes gravely fixed on the instrument, and its head on one side in an attitude of attention ; when, suddenly spreading his wings, he would alight on the keys, and making a dart at the performer's fingers with its beak, would continue hopping about, as if pleased with the execution. After a while the flights of this owl into the woods became longer, and he only returned at dusk to receive his usual supper from the person who was in the habit of feeding him, and whom he readily permitted at such times to take him up, and carry him into the house for this purpose. Bye-and-bye it was observed that he did not devour his meal in the kitchen as formerly, but fled along the pas- sage, dragging the meat after him, till he reached the garden-door, when he flew with it to a part of the shrubbery : on being followed, it was dis- covered that he had brought with him a companion, who, not having courage to accompany him the whole way, remained at a respectful distance to re- ceive his bounty. After having served his visitor in this manner, he returned to the kitchen, and leisurely devoured his own portion. This practice was continued for some months, till at length one evening he was missed, and nowhere to be found : his companion, it is said, continued to visit the spot g2 124 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. alone for several weeks uttering doleful cries, but could never be persuaded to come nearer to be fed. It proved, in the end, that the favourite had been killed; and its stuffed skin was one day recognized, alas ! in a woodman's hut, by the childi'en, who had so assiduously nurtured it and brought it up. TAWNY OWL.* This species appears to be an earlier breeder than any of our other native owls. In some sea- sons I have known the young hatched by the end of March. RED-BACKED SHRIKE. f I HAVE occasionally examined the stomach of this species, but never found it to contain anything beyond the remains of coleopterous insects. From the statements of other observers, however, it would .seem that it does undoubtedly sometimes prey on small birds. MISSEL-THRUSH. J White observes that the missel-thrush " is called in Hampshire and Sussex the storm-cocJc, because its song is supposed to forebode windy wet weather." The fact is, that it sings very early in the season, sometimes commencing with the new year: but it * Syrnium aluco, Jen. t Lanius collurio, Linn. 1 Tardus viscivorm, Linn. REDWING AND FIELDFARE. 125 does not generally sing, except the weather be mild ; which is seldom the case in January and February, without more or less wind and wet accompanying. The missel-thrush is plentiful about us ; and its notes, which are rather loud and powerful, come grateful to the ear at a time when there is but little vocal music to be heard in the woods. Many persons mistake it for the common thrush, but its song has not the variety which belongs to that of this last species. It mostly frequents the tops of the highest trees, where it sits singing on a naked bough for a considerable time without intermission,* and like the common thrush seems to delight in one particular ■spot. Besides its regular song, it has a kind of hiss- ing jarring note, which it uses as a menace during the breeding season. REDWINGf AND FIELDFARE.| Feh. 20, 1827. — The stomach of a redwing shot this morning was found to contain the remains of coleopterous insects, earwigs, and spiders ; some of these last were quite perfect and entire : there were also a few shells of the Helix hispida. — The stomach of another individual, shot at the same time, was almost entirely filled with the above shells, and contained little else. The stomach of a fieldfare, killed at the same time * This peculiarity in the missel-thrush, of its song being carried on continuously for a longer time than in most birds, has been noticed by another observer. See The Zoologist, p. 492. t Tardus iliacus, Linn. J Tu7-dus pilaris, Linn. 126 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. as the two redwings, was crammed tight with the half-digested remains of berries, — chiefly haws. The above facts seem to indicate a difference in the food of these two species of birds, the redwing inclining more to an insect, or animal diet, than the fieldfare ; and if so, this difference may serve in some measure to account for a remark of White's, that " when birds come to suffer by severe frost, the first that fail and die are the redwing fieldfares."* I have myself occasionally noticed the same circumstance, and many times picked up redwdngs during hard weather in a dead or starving condition, whilst I never met with a fieldfare in the same state. Insects and shells must be obtained with considerable diffi- culty as the severity of the season increases, whereas of berries there is seldom a deficient supply. -j- SONG-THRUSH.J Thrushes, as White and others have observed, live much on snails during the summer, especially in * Nat. Hist, of Selborne, Lett. V. to D. Barrington. t Mr. Thompson has also made some remarks on the food of these two species of birds, which appear rather to confirm the above idea. The stomachs of three redwings, opened by him, contained principally insects and shells, mixed however in two individuals with some vegetable food (chiefly bits of grass). The stomachs of three, out of six fiddfares, were found to contain vegetable matter alone (mostly grain) ; one being " filled with oats, though the weather had been mild for some time before, and when it was shot :" the other three contained insects, shells, and worms, in addition to the vegetable matter. — See Mag. of Zool. and Bot. vol. ii. pp. 433 and 437. | Tardus musicus, Linn. SONG-THRUSH. 127 dry weather.* They appear to resort to particular spots and favourite stones for breaking the shells of these animals. There are two or three such spots in my garden, which are very much visited for this purpose, and where the shelly fragments of the Helix aspersa may be found in some seasons accu- mulated by handfuls. It is very amusing to watch the thrush holding the snail in its bill, and forcibly knocking it against a stone, in order to get at the contents of the shell. The rapping noise which it makes may be heard to a considerable distance, and I have often known persons puzzled at such times to know whence the noise proceeded. When disturbed during the operation, I have seen the bird fly off with its booty to another spot. REDBREAST.f A LADY has furnished me with the following striking instance of maternal affection in a redbreast, that had built in some ivy against a wall in a garden at Whitburn, near Sunderland, in April 1839. The bird was sitting upon four eggs, when the gardener one day trimmed the ivy so close with his shears as * And sometimes also in winter, it would seem, during frost, when other food is scarce, according to Mr. Selby. In a letter, dated Twizell, Feb. 12th, 1845, he observes: "We have had severe frost, and a good deal of snow, since the commencement of the month. The thrushes are all now near the coast, about the roots of the thickest hedges, where they obtain a supply oi helices: as soon as a thaw takes place, we shall have them in the planta- tions." t Erithaca rubecula, Swains. 128 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. almost to destroy the nest ; in consequence of which the eggs were precipitated to the ground. They lay there till observed by the lady shortly afterwards, who was attracted to the spot by the plaintive cries of the parent bird. It was at first thought that to restore them to the nest would prove useless. The attempt, however, was made ; the eggs, which were nearly cold, were picked up, and placed back again in the nest, after it had been repaired and put toge- ther again as well as was possible. They had not been returned to their former situation five minutes, when the bird came, and again took charge of them, and in two days they were hatched; the infant brood being from that time, of course, objects of daily interest and observation. Great was the dismay of the lady, some days afterwards, at finding all the little ones upon the ground, stifi* and cold, ha\dng fallen through a fracture in the patched nest, which was not sufficiently strong to keep together. She took them up, and perceiving a slight movement in one of them, carried them into the house, where, partly by the warmth of the hand, and partly by the infiuence of a fire to which they were held, they all gradually recovered. They were then again placed in the nest, which was further patched with a piece of drugget, fastened into the fracture through which they had fallen. They were doomed, however, to go through more trials ; for it happened, some nights after, there was a heavy rain, which so com- pletely soaked the nest, and the drugget which had been placed in it as a lining, that the young ones were found the following morning almost drowned, REDBREAST. 129 and to appearance lifeless. They were again brought to the fire, and thoroughly dried ; after which they were placed in the empty nest of another bird that was substituted for the old one, and fixed in a currant-bush, a few yards from the wall where the ivy was. The young ones, which were half-fledged when they got this wetting, still continued to receive the attentions of their parent ; and in due time they were all safely reared, and flew away. It is stated, that it was very curious to observe the familiarity of the old birds during the whole course of these pro- ceedings : they always sat close by, and never seemed the least alarmed at the liberties taken with their progeny. The pugnacious disposition of the redbreast towards its own kind, as well as towards other birds, is well known. Mr. Selby sends me the following remarkable anecdote, shewing to what an extent their passion will sometimes carry them, and how completely they are lost to all apprehensions of danger while under its influence. A redbreast had for some time taken up its abode in a hot-house, from which it had egress at pleasure. One day, when the gardener was in the house, another redbreast found his way in ; but he had no sooner made his appear- ance than he was furiously attacked by the usual tenant, and soon shewed that he had the worst of the combat; so severely was he treated, that he was taken up by the gardener, and held in his hand, where he lay struggling and panting for breath. G 5 130 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. The victor, however, was not thus to be deterred from further wreaking his vengeance upon the in- truder. He boldly flew, and alighted upon the hand of the gardener ; and forthwith proceeded to peck the head of his victim, and buffet him in such a manner that he would soon have put him hors de combat, had not the gardener carried him out, and turned him off" at some distance from the building, Mr. Selby mentions another instance, in which a most determined battle was fought between two red- breasts, who were so engrossed with the combat, that they allowed themselves to be twice taken up and separated by a person witnessing it. The occupation of a shed seemed to be the object of dispute. Feb. I2th, 1845. — White says of the red- breast and the wren, that they sing all the year, hard frost excepted.* Not even hard frost, however, will always cause the redbreast to desist. We heard one singing this morning at 7 o'clock, when the ground was covered with snow, and Fahrenheit's ther- mometer was only 13 degrees, being 19 degrees below the freezing point. Nor was it, as the poet describes it at this season. Content With slender notes, and more than half suppress'd ; but its voice was as strong, and its notes as varied and melodious, as in the height of spring. * Nai. Hist. ofSelbonie, Lett. II. to D. Barrington. PETTYCHAPS : LESSER WHITETHROAT. 131 PETTYCHAPS.* This species of warbler is far from infrequent about us, haunting gardens, black-tbom copses, and high hedges, though more plentiful some years than others. Its note is soft, possessing much variety, and particularly pleasing, somewhat resembling that of the black-cap, but not so loud and powerful : it is often continued for a very considerable time without intermission. The songster itself is not often seen, from its extreme shjTiess, and its habit of concealing itself in the thickest coyert. In the early part of the season, I have occasionaUj observed it in sycamores, picking at the flower-buds of that tree, to which it seems par- tial. I never heard it before the 1st of May, nor after the 20th of July. lesser WHITETHROAT.j- The lesser white-throat is common in this neighbourhood. During the second week in May in 1822, 1 observed a pair of these birds busily employ- ed in building their nest in a low yew-bush close to the house. The nest was completed about the 12th : the first egg was laid on the loth, and by the 19th there were five deposited, when the bird ceased lay- ing, and commenced sitting. I had many opportuni- ties of observing both sexes : the hen engaged on the nest ; the cock generally close by, and constantly re- * Curruca hortemis, Bechst. t Curruca si/lriella, Flem. 132 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. peatiiig the shrill shivering cry which so peculiarly distinguishes this species. When the hen was put off the nest, she did not fly straight away, but merely hopped into an adjoining bush, and remained flitting about my head, uttering all the while a harsh sharp chattering note ; which on one occasion was made by the cock also, but it was quite distinct from the usual call above-mentioned. Once, when I approach- ed very near the nest, for the purpose of looking into it, the hen bird alighted on a twig within a yard of where I was standing, and uttered its harsh chirp, shivering with its wings, as if in great alarm for the fate of her dwelling. A day or two after incubation had commenced, I found the nest gone ; which circum- stance stopped fui'ther observation. The nest and eggs of this species are figured, along with the bird itself, by Latham, in the first Supplement to his Synopsis of Bi?'ds.* The accompanying description is very correct, and exactly accords with the nest and eggs above noticed. It maybe simply observed, that the wool, which he mentions as one of the materials, forms no great part of the nest, but is merely scat- tered here and there in small patches, so as to keep the whole together, which is of a very flimsy struc- ture throughout. W^OOD-WARBLER.f White observes of this species, that it " haunts only the tops of trees in high beechen woods ;" and Mr. Selby remarks also, that " it frequents natural * P. 185, pi. 113. t Sylvia sibilatrix, Bechst. wood-warbler: willow-warbler. 133 woods, and plantations of old growth, and is seldom seen in hedges or brushwood, like the yellow wren." This accounts for its rarity in this neighbourhood, (common as it is in many other counties,) where we have no large woods, and where the beech is not in- digenous. I have never heard above three or four individuals in the course of a long term of years. These have been mostly noticed in the beginning of May, generally for a few days only ; which leads me to doubt whether the species ever breeds with us, and whether the above were not merely in their way to other localities in the kingdom more congenial to their habits. WILLOW-WARBLER.* May 21 5^, 1824.— We found to-day the nest of a willow-warbler, in a tuft of grass on the ground, containing five ,eggs. The nest was large for the size of the bird, and nearly spherical, with a small opening on one side near the top. It was composed of dried grass, stalks, and coarse herbage, and pro- fusely lined with feathers. The eggs were white, and speckled all over with light rust-colour ; in some, the spots were chiefly confined to the larger end. They had been incubated some days. — I am told, in Nor- folk the nest of this bird is called an oven, which it not unaptly represents in miniature, as regards This species of warbler will occasionally sing in its flight ; Mr. Selby has observed the same of the wood- * Sylvia trochilus, Lath. 134 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. warbler, last noticed : both these species, therefore, may be added to White's list of " Birds that Sing as they fly," * and which he states to be but " few." CHIFF-CHAFF. f This species, which is found in tolerable plenty in most parts of England, is of very uncertain ap- pearance in this neighbourhood : in some seasons not a single individual is seen, whilst in others they are abundant. It is a restless and active bird, and seems much attached to spruce-firs and other tall trees, from the tops of which it issues its incessant but monotonous song, consisting of only two loud piercing notes ; which it continues throughout the summer, and sometimes even till late in September. It is most frequently heard here in the early spring, and then again in the autumn ; which inclines me to think, as in the case of the wood-warbler above mentioned, that it does not generally breed with us, but merely stops here in its passage to and from other districts. The chifl'-chaff', in general, is only heard to utter the two loud notes above alluded to, which have gained for it its well-known name. In July, how- ever, of last year (1845), I heard an indi\ddual varying its monotonous song, at intervals, with a kind of shrill whistle, repeated two or three times in suc- cession. This whistling note was quite new to me, and such as I had never heard before from this * Nat. Hist, of Selborne, Lett. II. to D. Barrington. f Si/lvia hippolais, Selb. WAGTAILS : TREE-PIPIT. 135 species ; nor can I find it alluded to by any of our British ornithologists. I distinctly ascertained that it proceeded from the chiff-chaff, as no other bird was singing near at the time ; and I could easily trace the individual that uttered it about the garden, as it flew from tree to tree. WAGTAILS.* I OBSERVE about here greater numbers of the common pied wagtail in the autumn than any other season of the year. This is probably accounted for by the circumstance of the birds of our own neigh- bourhood being joined at that time by those which arrive from the higher parts of the country. Accord- ing to Selby, this species is a regular migrant in the North of England, retiring southward in Octo- ber, and not reappearing till February or the begin- ning of March. The grey wagtail f is most common with us in the month of January, and I know no instance of its being seen here in the summer. TREE-PIPIT. :f July 9th, 1827. — Found the nest of a tree-pipit placed on the ground beneath a tussock of Aira ccBspitosa. It was formed of hay and grass, patched externally with moss and lined with fine grass. The * Motacilla yarrellii, Gould. f M. boarula, Linn. X Anthus arbor eus, Bechst. 136 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. eggs were four in number, coloured greenisli-brown with dusky streaks and blotches; their weight thirty-seven grains. They had been incubated some days. From the above it would seem that this species is either a late breeder, or else sometimes has two broods in the season ; most likely the latter. I have always noticed that it continues in song till some time after midsummer. The notes of the titmice are rather puzzling to distinguish, owing to the variety possessed by some species, and the same note being occasionally used by more than one of them. The great titmouse* is the only one which has any pretensions to song. This species has several distinct sets of notes, all of them "joyous" and lively, which it repeats from the tops and higher branches of the larger trees. Besides these, it has two or three chattering notes, which it appears to possess in common with the blue titmousef and others, and which are uttered princi- pally whilst running up and down the smaller shrubs. I cannot discover that the blue titmouse itself has any one constant note peculiar to the species. The marsh titmouse]: is sufficiently characterized by a note resembling the word chip or chit, repeated seven or eight times in pretty rapid succession, and which is often heard from the tojDs of tall trees in the early * Purus majoi^, Linn, t 2-*. cai'uleus, Linn. + P. palustris, Linn. TITMICE. 137 part of the spring. The cole titmouse* also fre- quently utters from the tops of the spruce-firs a compound note, which sounds like titwee, repeated quickly about five or six times ; the first syllable being pronounced very short, but great stress being laid upon the second. Both these species, however, have other notes, not so well marked, some of which they use in common with the great titmouse, f The long-tailed titmouse;]: appears to be almost mute, or to possess scarcely more than one rather weak note, that acts as a sort of call to the young birds, which, after leaving the nest, follow the old ones throughout the season. § April 17, 1830. — Found the nest of a long- tailed titmouse, in a red cedar, about five feet from the ground ; of a very curious and singular form, long and oval, about the size of a smallish melon, vvdth a small hole in the side, through which the parent bird enters ; constructed chiefly of mosses, wool, and dry grass, having the outside beautifully studded with lichens, and the inside thickly lined vvdth a profusion of down and soft feathers. The nest contained ten eggs, about the size of a small * P. ater, Linn. f It is correctly noted by an observing naturalist, that the great titmouse and cole titmouse "will often acquire or com- pound a note, become delighted with it, and repeat it incessantly for an hour or so, then seem to forget or be weary of it, and we hear it no more." — Journ. of a Naturalist, 3rd edit. p. 164, X P. caudatus, Linn. § According to Selby, the notes of this species " in the spring are more varied, and it can utter a pleasing, though low and short song." This, however, I never heard. 138 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. bean, of a white colour, thinly sprinkled with rusty dots at the larger end. SNOW BUNTING.* Snow buntings occasionally occur with us during the winter months, and are often called ivhite larks. I note this, from White's mentioning that white larks had been supposed to have been seen now and then about Selborne in the winter -time, and his suggesting that they might have belonged to this species. COMMON BUNTING.f The common bunting, which Wliite speaks of as a rare bird at Selborne, is extremely abundant in the open corn-lands of Cambridgeshire, where it is called the hinting lark. In winter-time they col- lect in flocks, and frequently assemble in large quantities on the bare twigs of some tall thorn, where they sit by the hour together uttering their harsh monotonous notes, not deserving the name of a song. Varieties of this bird, more or less spot- ted and variegated with white, are not uncommon : they sometimes occur wholly white, and are then called by the common people white larks, like the species last mentioned. * Plectropkanes nivalis, Meyer. f Emberiza miliaria, Lmn, 139 REED BUNTING.* White did not appear to be well acquainted with the note of this species. In our fens, where it is abundant, its simple and inharmonious song, if song it can be called, may be constantly heard during the breeding season ; the cock bird uttering it at short intervals from the top of some low bush, near to where the hen is engaged in incubation. It consists of two long notes, followed by three or four similar but short ones, — these last being hurriedly pro- nounced. SISKIN. f Feb. 15, 1829. — Siskins everywhere plentiful just now. They seem most attached to alders, and hang upon the boughs of those trees with their heads downwards like titmice, whilst endeavouring to get at the seeds of the last year's cones. The crops and stomachs of some individuals which we ex- amined were stuffed quite tight with this kind of food exclusively, nor was there a single seed of any other tree or vegetable to be found. These birds are not unfrequent about Bottisham most winters during the months of January and February, but are more numerous this year than usual. * Emberiza schanidus, Linn. t Carduelis spiuus, Steph. 140 RAVEN.* On offering a dead bat to a tame raven, he seized it with the greatest avidity, and devoured every portion of it, not even rejecting the leathern wing. ROOK.f Few persons who have lived much in the neigh- bourhood of an extensive rookery, as has been the case with myself, have not something to say in reference to the habits of these birds, wliich, from living in large communities, strike the atten- tion of the most careless observer. I am always much amused in watching them of an evening as they return to roost during the summer and autum- nal months. After the breeding season is over, they seem for a while to desert their nest-trees entirely, and for a few weeks we see none there, except per- haps two or three stray individuals, by night or by day. But about the end of June a few begin to return home in the evening, and the numbers con- tinually increase during July, August, and Septem- ber, till at length the air is almost darkened by the collected multitudes winding homewards at the de- cline of day. J The regularity, and I may say pmictu- ality, with which they return is very surprising. * Corvus corax, Linn. f C.frugilegus, Linn. % It is generally stated in ornithological works, that rooks do not return to their nest- trees till the autumn. But what I have ROOKS. 141 At the lapse of a certain interval after sunset, they are sure to be heard giving notice of their approach by their united voices. The length or shortness of this interval depends upon the time of the year and the character of the weather. For the first fortnight after midsummer, v^hen the twilight is strong till quite late in the evening, those that come home at all do not return till near an hour after sunset. The average time for their return during July I find to be forty-five minutes after sunset, if the weather be fine and clear ; but, if much overcast, they generally shew themselves about ten minutes earlier. In August as it gets more rapidly dusk, the inter- val is reduced to about thirty or thirty-five minutes after sunset; and in September it is still further reduced, — on an average to twenty-five minutes. From all this it would seem that they are probably guided by the light. Sometimes, when the weather is damp and gloomy, but nevertheless mild, I observe that they will return from feeding half an hour or an hour earlier than usual, but do not retire actually to the roost-trees till the accustomed time, employing that interval in flying about in the neighbourhood, or settling for a while on the trees that lie on the outskirts of their immediate dormitory. When they really betake themselves to rest, or for a few minutes mentioned above in respect of their returning at night to roost, is certainly true in this neighbourhood, and the result of many suc- cessive years' observations. The numbers so returning are some- times very considerable, even as early as the first and second weeks in July. 142 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. previous, they exercise their voices all together in a very peculiar way, different from at other times, producing a deep hollow sound that may be heard to a considerable distance ; and it is a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes before they are hushed for the night. Late in the autumn, if the afternoons are cold and frosty, and also often during winter, they may be observed sitting in a sullen way, in immense clusters, at the tops of the trees near adjoining the rookery, which are blackened with their numbers, for an hour or two before roosting : at such times they are quite silent, and hardly noticed by persons passing, till they all suddenly take wing, frightened at his approach. But, if the weather be mild and open, they keep flying about at the decline of day in immense multitudes, high in the air, with an inces- sant cawing, till the increasing darkness obliges them to retire for the night. Rooks appear to be very restless at times in the dead of the night, and to wake much ; for often at 10 and 11 p.m. (and this in winter as well as sum- mer) I hear a squabbling and cawing on the nest- trees near my room-window. They are early risers too, and at all seasons leave their roosting-places half an hour or more before sunrise. Jan. 16, 1830. — Rooks up this morning at half past seven exactly. N.B. Sky much overcast, with ROOKS. 143 sleet and rain at intervals. In the afternoon, about two, seen in immense flocks closely compacted toge- ther, hovering over the lands adjoining Newmarket Heath, principally turnip-fields. For a few weeks previous to the actual time of building, as early as the commencement of February, and sometimes earlier, if the weather be mild, the rooks remain upon their nest-trees during a great part of the day, as if in contemplation of the approaching season. Whilst so collected, they are very clamorous, and much confusion seems to prevail amongst them, as if they were trying to claim their old nests, or were disputing for those already in part made. At this period of the year, also, they are very shy, and easily alarmed ; whereas in the advanced spring, when building, and the cares attendant upon bringing up the young brood, engross their attention, they seem comparatively to take little notice of persons passing under the trees. Rooks, like many other birds, have a particular note which they utter when wishing to sound an alarm of danger to their companions. When the keeper at Bottisham Hall appears with his gun, approaching the trees on which they build, if a single individual see him, it immediately warns the rest of the community, who with one accord rise simul- taneously from the trees with loud vociferations, apprehensive of danger, though as yet unper- 144 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. ceived by many of them. Frequently, where the rookery is extensive, and the trees straggling from one another, the alarm is quickly propagated from party to party down a long avenue, and in less than two minutes the whole is in an uproar. This is most noticeable in February, when the rooks are much on the trees during the day, as just above observed, but the building season not actually com- menced. Rooks that are much shot at, like those at Bot- tisham, have the greatest possible dread of a gun. Often, when walking in the neighbourhood of the trees, I observe they suffer me to approach within a certain distance without taking fright, though they watch my movements narrowly ; or are not much disturbed, as long as I continue walking on : but the moment I stop, and put even a walking-stick to my shoulder, as if about to fire at them, they are off directly ; and the distance at which this will operate, often considerably more than a hundred yards, is quite surprising.* It is also observable, that when they would be frightened by any one walking or stopping near the trees, they will often suffer a cart or a carriage to pass immediately beneath them, * I am induced 2)articularly to mention this circumstance, be- cause it lias been sometimes stated that they can distinguish a gun from a stick : and that a person with only this last, may feign as if about to fire at them, without putting them to flight. — See De Selys-Longchamps, Fuune Beige, p. 69. Perhaps the habits of individuals may differ in different localities. ROOK. 145 without taking the least notice, as if conscious that there was no danger to be apprehended from such The rooks seldom begin to build in good earnest before the first week in March. One year (1826) they were first observed busy in this way on the 4th of March ; the young were first heard squeaking in the nests on the 7th of April, and the first fledged birds were noticed on the 29th of the same month. These dates give a period of exactly two lunar months allotted to the business of nidification, of which about five weeks are taken up in building and incubating, and the remaining three devoted to feed- ing and bringing up the young birds, till able to leave the nest. — In subsequent years, these dates have sometimes fallen a few days later, but the intervals between them respectively have remained nearly the same. There are also always some pairs much behind the others, to the extent of a month or more. A few young rooks may be observed most years sitting at the edge of the nest, hardly yet fledged, as late as the beginning of June, long after the great bulk have flown and taken their departure. In building their nests, rooks are not content with picking up any dead sticks that may fall in their way, but use principally fresh twigs, which they forcibly detach from the branches of the neigh- bouring trees. They may often be observed at such 146 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. times clinging to the twigs with their bills and claws, and pulling at them, at the same time flapping their wings in order to support themselves. The nests are lined with grass, and other vegetable matters of that kind. One year we noticed a number of nests having the leaves of pine-apples interwoven with the sticks ; these had been obtained from a dung-hill in the garden near a hot-house, out of which the dead leaves of these plants had been ejected. In large rookeries, during the breeding-season, a strong smell proceeds from these birds, very percepti- ble to persons walking under the trees on which the nests are built. This seems to arise partly from the number of individuals collected together, and partly from the quantity of dung dropped. Where this dung falls, nettles vegetate very luxuriously. March 18tk, 1848. — The nests of the rooks appear finished, yet few birds can be observed actually sitting. They keep stationary on the trees, perched in pairs on the very uppermost twigs, which bend beneath their weight. They spend much of their time in cawing, accompanied by a shaking of the wings ; the hens receiving the attentions of the cock. Every now and then I see them pulling at the blos- soms of the elms, on which trees the nests are mostly built. ROOK. 147 I observe every year, that, from about the begin- ning of April to the end of the first week in May, the rooks visit the pasture in front of my house regularly every day. This is the period during which the young are in the nest, and it is probably for the purpose of obtaining food for them. They chiefly come early in the morning, and are often all gone by 8 o'clock a. m. With the help of a small pocket eye-glass, I occasionally see some of them walking about with their bills half open. Query, if this is not owing to the number of grubs they suffer to accumulate in their mouths before flying off with their booty ? They are constantly digging. May 12th, 1828. — Rooks undoubtedly suck par- tridges' eggs occasionally, since the keeper at Bottis- ham, who found that havoc had been made in that way by some vermin or other, lately set some traps near the nests and caught several. June 2^th. — The men who are engaged in mowing the hay and clover state that the rooks follow their movements, and fall-to upon any nests which are ex- posed by the scythe, devouring the eggs without mercy, and carrying others away in their bills, — not sparing even those of the skylark. This singular fact, which they say they never observed in former seasons, seems to be a new circumstance in the history of the rook, and confirms what was recorded last month. H 2 148 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. It has been sometimes thought that rooks have the power of discovermg by scent, or some other faculty, the prevalence in any particular pasture of the grubs of the cockchaffer.* I should almost be inclined to doubt this, from the circumstance that, in the autumn of 1 842, the field in front of my house was so attacked by these grubs that a large quantity of grass was completely destroyed ; immense patches appearing as if scorched; and it was under con- sideration, whether it would not be necessary to pare and burn the whole pasture, and lay it down afresh; yet the rooks never found the grubs out. From my proximity to a large rookery, the inha- bitants of which were daily under my observation, it was expected and confidently hoped each day that the rooks would soon discover and extirpate the enemy. To our surprise, not a single rook was seen to alight on any of the bare places ; and, in- deed, hardly a bird noticed in the field at all previous to Christmas, when the grubs had worked deeper from the approach of the cold weather, and were not easily obtained. The size of the pasture was a little less than three acres. Dec. 30t/i, 1829. — Feeling some desire to know how rooks support themselves during severe frost, like that we have now experienced for this fortnight back, I caused one of these birds to be shot and * See Journ. of a Naturalist (3rd edit.), p. 179. See also Jesse^s Gleanings in Natural History, p. 62. ROOK. 149 brought to me. It appears that they manage to subsist well, notwithstanding the cold weather ; for, on open- ing the body, we were surprised to find it in most excellent condition, with the stomach, intestines, and other abdominal viscera, completely covered with layers of fat. The stomach itself was unusually dis- tended, and projected externally below the extremity of the breast-bone like a large egg. The contents proved to be turnip and wheat, mixed with a few gravels. The turnip was in a semi-digested state, but easily identified by the smell : the grains of wheat were whole, and scarcely at all altered. The stomach was completely full of this mixed food, and stuffed as tight as a pin-cushion. From the large size of the stomach in this indivi- dual, we were induced to measure it, and found it five inches in circumference, and two inches and- a-half in length. Whether this organ is always as large in the rook, and whether it is usual to find it so low down in the cavity of the abdomen as in the present instance, I am not aware ; but it had a very remarkable appearance in this bird, and such as I never witnessed before in any other species. At the same time, it is possible that it may have been due to nothing else than to its being so unusually dis- tended with food. We made a few other anatomical memoranda with respect to this bird, as follows : — Pylorus eight lines below the cardiac opening; — oesophagus, with the lower part a little dilated, but, on the whole, of tolerably uniform character throughout its length ; — intestinal canal three feet long, furnished at the 150 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. posterior extremity (about one inch from the vent) with two caeca, which lay parallel with the main gut, and were of unequal lengths, the longer one measur- ing eight lines, the other six : — the upper part of the intestinal canal, nearest the stomach, was of a much more red and florid appearance than the rest ; this, however, may have been owing to some slight acci- dental inflammation. Rooks will occasionally prey on fish. A relative of mine once saw a rook take a fish out of the piece of water in Kensington Gardens, and devoiu' it on the bank. He told me he had seen jackdaws do the same in the Thames.* Varieties of the rook occasionally occur here, as in other places. In the spring of 1823, we picked up two yomig birds alive under the nests, just fledged, in which each feather was tipped with dirty- white, giving the whole plumage a speckled appear- ance. One of them, also, had a single claw that was snow-white. These birds were found in different parts of the rookery, and did not appear to have belonged to the same brood. * Mr. Bkckwall has observed that the carrion crow also devours fish, " particularly eels, in pursuit of which it wades into the shallow water of rivers and brooks that flows over beds of stone and gravel ; seizing the object of its search with the bill and conveying it to land, where it is eaten at leisure." — Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. xv. p. 168. ROOK. 151 The following year I had brought me a young rook, the plumage of which deviated from the usual character as follows : — Bill mostly of a pure white, having only a few black spots on the upper mandi- ble ; the forehead, including the feathers which fall forwards over the nostrils, mottled with black and white ; chin wholly white ; the first three quills on the right wing with a white line running longitudin- ally down each feather ; the quills on the other wing not marked with this peculiarity; — the first four feathers on the greater wing-coverts, covering the primaries, wholly of a pure white on each wing; toes mottled with black and white; nails mostly pure white. All the rest of the plumage was of the usual colour. In the spring of 1841, a completely white rook was shot near Cambridge. This, and the two spot- ted varieties first mentioned, are preserved in the Museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. On the 12th of May, 1827, we picked up a dying rook at Bottisham, remarkable for a monstrosity in the bill ; the upper mandible of which had grown to a prseter-natural length, and passed beyond the lower to the distance of nearly an inch and a half. The individual was an old bird, but considerably imder size, and had been apparently starved, being nothing but skin and bone. Doubtless the extraor- dinary prolongation of the upper mandible must have much interfered with the operation of grub- bing in the earth, and prevented its obtaining more 152 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. than a very scanty suj)ply of food.* Nevertheless the forehead and the base of the bill were as much denuded of feathers as in other adult individuals of this species. This case of monstrosity seems an- alogous to that already instanced in the wild rabbit among quadrupeds. f It is worthy of remark that this rook swarmed with lice to the most astonishing degree I ever wit- nessed in any animal. Some parts of the plumage were quite alive and covered with them.J It is probable that all vermin increase greatly upon dis- eased animals, owing to their neglecting the ordi- nary means of ridding themselves of them ; and in some cases they may serve to hasten their death, and thus relieve them from their misery. JACKDAW.§ Jackdaws sometimes prove a great nuisance in this part of the country in spring, from their habit of build- ing in chimneys. They often bring such a number of * See a representation of the cranium of a rook, having a simi- lar peculiarity in the lower mandible, in one of the vignettes of YarrelVs British Birds, vol. ii. p. 90. + See p. 78. + These parasites consisted principally of the Colpocephalum siibaquale of Nitzsch. See Denny's Jnoplura Britannia; p. 213, pi. xviii. fig. 5. I showed some of the specimens to this last gentle- man, who has noticed the circumstance alluded to in the text, in his valuable and beautiful work. With the above species of Col- pocephalum there was also the Docophorus atratus, Nitzsch, but much less abundant. See Denny, pi. iv. fig. 8. § Corvus monedulu, Linn. JACKDAW. 153 sticks together as quite to choke up the flues. Whilst engaged in constructing their nests, they occasionally fall into the rooms below; and I have more than once been favoured with a visitor of this kind in my bed-room, in the early part of the morn- ing. They do not seem much to mind smoke, as I have known them attempt to build in chimneys where there were fires kept pretty regularly from day to day. From the quantity of horse-dung which occasionally falls into the grates beneath where they are at work, I should suppose that they employ this material in some way, — ^perhaps as a lining for their nests. A white variety of this bird was once shot at Bottisham. April 27, 1828. — A farmer in this neighbour- hood observes, that, for about a month at this period of the year, his corn-stacks are more resort- ed to and attacked by the jackdaws than at any other time, and that he is obliged to employ a boy to keep them off. This circumstance, one would suppose, must have some connection with the breeding-season. Jackdaws are not only fond of carrion and offal, but will occasionally attack living prey. A friend of mine saw one well punished for attempting to take a young chicken just hatched. A cock and the old hen beat him so severely, that he made his escape with difficulty. H 5 154 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. Nov. 20, 1826. — Jays are not regular denizens of this neighbourhood, but only visit it occasionally at uncertain periods. A party of these birds, how- ever, have frequented our plantations for several weeks back ; and one was brought me to-day, the first that could be obtained, owing to their extreme shyness. On examining the stomach of this bird, we found it stuffed to the full with the remains of both animal and vegetable substances. These were in a state of intimate union, and had the ap- pearance of a stiff mud ; amongst which, however, was discernible the tail of a mouse, (there being no trace of any other part of the animal,) and a great quantity of the seeds of some berry, staining paper of a purplish-blue : there were also many gravels, some of considerable dimensions. There were no traces of either acorns or beech-mast, which we had supposed to have been what had attracted these birds to this neighbourhood. GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER. f The great spotted woodpecker is of not very unfrequent occurrence in this neighbourhood ; but it is remarkable that all the specimens that have come to my knowledge have been killed either in spring or autumn, and mostly in March. This * Garmlus glandariits, Flem. f Picus major, Linn, GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER. 155 looks as if it were migratory with us, at least from one part of the country to another, and that we saw it only in transitu. In March 1827, two male and female, were shot together in the park at Bottisham, but I never heard of the nest being taken about here ; nor am I aware that they breed so early in the spring as to induce the belief that these had paired for that purpose. The noise made by these birds is very peculiar, and one that I had often heard in the spring for several years in succession, before ascertaining the source whence it proceeded. It very much resem- bles the creaking of an old tree in the wind, though I never could observe the way in which it was produced.* I have noticed that this species of woodpecker always swarms to a prodigious degree with a minute kind of Acarus {Sarcoptes ? Latr.) mostly infesting the plumage about the head and neck. It is closely allied to the Ac. avicularum of De Geerf, but is specifically distinct. COMMON CREEPER. I May 1, 1826. — To-day we found a creeper's nest beneath the loose and decayed bark of one of the limes in the avenue in Bottisham Park, a situation in which * Some authors assert that it is produced by the bird putting the point of its bill into a crack of the limb of a large tree, and in that position making a quick tremulous motion with its head. t Mem. torn. vii. p. 107, pi. vi. fig. 9. X Certhiu familiaris, Linn. 156 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. these birds are fond of building. This nest afforded an instance of the long interval that occasionally elapses with some birds between completing their nest and commencing incubation ;* as I had ob- served it apparently in a finished state, but with- out eggs, as long back as the 13th of last month. To-day the old bird was sitting for the first time, more than a fortnight afterwards. This nest con- sisted of twigs and small sticks piled rudely toge- ther, and somewhat compacted by the addition of wool, mosses, and jungermayinm, with a layer of feathers on the top, and what appeared to be fine shreds of wood probably torn from the inner surface of the bark. Though tolerably firm and well matted together towards the top, the nest was wholly sup- ported by the bark ; so that, if this had been hastily broken away, it must have inevitably fallen. The eggs were six in number, and much resembling those of the willow-warbler, being of a pinkish white, and marked at their larger end with numerous rust-coloured spots. Their weight was seventeen grains each. The creeper has a pleasing, though somewhat plaintive and monotonous song, which it utters from the tops of trees early in the spring, and which might be mistaken for that of some species of warbler, were it not heard previous to the arrival of any of our summer migrants. * See p. 111. 157 NUTHATCH.* Nuthatches are not uncommon in the neigh- bourhood of Bottisham, and may often be heard in the spring uttering their shrill whistling note. Dur- ing a certain portion of the year these birds feed chiefly upon nuts, which they break with their bill, after having firmly fixed them in the crevices of the bark of trees. For this purpose they appear to resort frequently to the same spots, (as thrushes do to break snails,-}-) as I have observed some old trees in particular whose clefts are full of broken shells, whilst in others not one is to be seen. March 6, 1843. — A nuthatch was shot by the keeper at Bottisham Hall to-day, while feeding, as he asserted, on a dead sheep. This seems in keep- ing with Bewick's observation respecting this spe- cies, that it is fond of picking bones ; though I never before knew an instance of its shewing any such carnivorous propensities. The stomach, however, of this individual, which we examined, and which was very strong and muscular, did not appear to contain much of this kind of food. It was princi- pally stuffed with gravels, and the remains of coleo- pterous insects, amongst which the elytra of ladybirds were very distinguishable. " Sitta europsa, Linn. t See p. 127. 158 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. CUCKOO. The note of the female cuckoo is so unlike that of the male, which is familiar to every one, that per- sons are sometimes with difficulty persuaded that it proceeds from that bird. It is a kind of chattering cry, consisting of a few notes uttered fast in succes- sion, but remarkably clear and liquid. KING-FISHER. f KiNG-FisHERS are occasionally seen skimming over the siu:face of a stream which runs along one side of my garden. I am often warned of their ap- proach by a shrill piercing note, which they utter during their rapid flight, and which may be heard to a great distance. I hear this note at all seasons of the year. SWALLOW. J The arrival of this species at Swaffham Bul- beck takes place on the 19th of April, according to a mean of twenty years' observations. The first broods are fledged in the middle of June, the second early in August, and towards the middle of the latter month these begin to collect into large flocks, which increase in numbers as the season ad- * Cuculus canorus, Linn. f Alcedo ispida, Linn. I Hirundo rusiica, Linn. SWALLOW. 159 vances, and the time of departure di'aws near. This, with respect to the majority, takes place in the be- ginning of October ; but stragglers (generally young birds of the second hatching) may be often noticed till the third or fourth week in that month. I once observed a white variety of this bird at Ely, flying in company with others of the usual colour. The swallow has a peculiar note, which it utters in the height of summer, just at break of day, when it begins to get light. This note differs from its ordin- ary song at other times, in being much less varied and lively, and is put forth in a peculiarly plaintive and very monotonous manner. It is sometimes re- peated without intermission for nearly an hour toge- ther, and is always uttered from the nest or chimney top, while perched, and appears to be preliminary to taking the first morning flight. This note of the swallow is often the earliest of any bird heard in the morning, the skylark excepted : the thrush and the blackbird, however, strike up shortly afterwards, and occasionally take the precedency ; but all appear to be regulated by the degree of light. On very flne mornings I have heard the swallow singing at twenty minutes after two ; but when it has been wet, and the sky much clouded, I have not heard it till near three o'clock. After it has taken wing, (which is often not till an hour, or an hour and a half from the time of its first commencing the above note,) it then assumes its more usual song. 160 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. HOUSE MARTIN. * House martins with us appear about a week or ten days after the swallow, but are seldom numerous till the beginning of May. They, however, remain with us later than that species, and are occasionally seen through the first week in November, though the greater part withdraw before that time. In the autumn of 1842 they were seen by myself at Cam- bridg'e as late as the middle of that month. Martins love to build under the projecting eaves of my house ; but so abundant are the sparrows in this corn district, that more than half the number of nests are seized, as soon as finished, by these last birds, and adapted to their own use, by a plen- tiful lining of straws and feathers ; the rightful pro- prietors being forcibly expelled. The old line. Sic vos noil vobis nidijicatis aves, is here true in a more exact sense than the poet contemplated. It is principally in June and July, whilst engaged in providing for the first broods, that the martins are annoyed by these besiegers. Nests built in August and September for the later broods generally escape molestation, the sparrows by that time having mostly reared their own young. * Hirundo urbica, Linn. HOUSE MARTIN. 161 Sept. ord, 1829. — House martins have a singular practice throughout the breeding-season, and more particularly towards the latter part of it, of flying up against the walls of buildings, just below the eaves, and daubing them with mud, apparently with- out any intention of constructing a nest. Perhaps they do not go twice to the same spot : at a,ny rate, these patches of dirt are not applied with any regu- larity, but may be seen sticking to the brickwork, at intervals of two or more inches all along the front of the building. Just at the present time, my own house has a line of these mud patches carried round nearly three sides of it. I fancy I notice, that the birds are more inclined to this sort of proceeding in some states of weather than others. Occasionally, twenty or thirty martins will be busily engaged in this manner from morning till night, when perhaps, for several days before and after, not one is to be noticed. A damp, cloudy day, especially if also warm, seems to call them most to this employment, during which they appear actuated by some feeling or ex- citement which it is difficult to explain. It is surely something more than an instance of their " caprice in fixing on a nesting-place," (alluded to by White,*) which induces them to " begin many edifices, and leave them unfinished." In the present instance, I suspect they may be the first broods but lately fledged, whose instinct begins to operate and shew itself in this manner before it is wanted. We see something analogous to this in the beha- * Nat. Hist, of Selborne, Lett, XVI. to D. Barrington. 162 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. viour of caged birds, who seem to experience a plea- surable sensation in carrying about in their bills, at the proper season for building, any little pieces of thread, straw, or other materials, which happen to be within their reach, even when they have no mate, and no convenience for making a regular nest. This is evidently an instinctive action occasioned by the excitement of unsatisfied desire, increased perhaps by high and stimulating food. SAND MARTIN.* I ONCE met with a person who assured me posi- tively, he had in former years seen swallows taken in a torpid state during winter from the holes and crevices in the gravelly banks by the side of the road near Quy Water. At this place, which is between three and four miles from hence, I observe a small colony of sand martins every year ; and, if the above fact be correct, which is very doubtful, it was proba- bly this species of swallow which was discovered there. Yet White mentions instances f in which the holes of sand martins had been expressly searched during the cold months, with a view to discovering whether they used them as hybernaeula, without finding a single torpid bird. The locality above mentioned is the only one I know of in this neighbourhood, for many miles round, frequented by this species of swallow; and they are not numerous there. The soil being prin- * Hirundo riparia, Linn. t Naturalists' Calendar (by Aikin), p. 83. SWIFT. 163 cipally chalk or clay, with very little of gravelly or sandy deposits, is unfavourable to their habits. SWIFT. * Swifts, which delight much in large and exten- sive buildings, are not numerous in this village. Recollecting White's remark, that he observed the same number of pairs at Selborne invariably every year,f I have often counted the few that are to be seen flying about, in order to ascertain whether any thing similar is the case here. As far as my observ- ation goes, the number does vary, and seems to have been rather increasing of late years. Previously to 1826, 1 never noticed more than two pairs ; but since then I have observed generally four, and during the one or two last seasons as many as five. These all build in the crannies of the church steeple, with the exception of a single pair that take up their abode from year to year under the eaves of a dovecote in an adjoining orchard. They are always late in coming to us in the spring, being seldom seen before the middle of May, and are generally gone again by the end of July ; thus making but a short visit of scarcely more than nine or ten weeks. Swifts remain longer at Ely than any other place where I have had an opportunity of observing them. The bulk of them hardly ever retire there till quite * Cypselus apus, Flem. t Nat. Hist, of Selborne, Lett. XXXIX. to D. Barrington. 164 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS, the end of August ; and a few individuals may often be observed through the first week in September. From what cause they are induced to protract their stay at that place so much beyond its usual limit, I am unable to say; but the fact itself I regularly noticed during a period of several years that I was in the habit of residing there for the summer months. Possibly they may, in some measure, be influenced by the cathedral and other old buildings adjacent, in the holes and crannies of which these birds meet with a retreat peculiarly congenial to their habits, as appears by the immense numbers that annually resort thither in the early part of the season. RING-DOVE.^ Ring-doves are very abundant in this neighbour- hood, though less so than formerly, and do much mischief some seasons by devouring peas, beans, and other leguminous plants. Their cooing notes are heard incessantly from February to October. After that time they begin to collect into enormous flocks, which disperse themselves over the country during the day-time to feed, but return regularly home in the evening to roost in their native woods and plan- tations. Some of these flocks do not separate till very late in the spring, though the greater part pair ofl" for the purpose of breeding by the beginning of March. In the autumn, they appear to subsist chiefly on acorns and beech-mast. * Columba pal umbus, hinii. RING-DOVE. 165 The coo of the ring-dove consists of five or six distinct notes, the whole being repeated generally three times, occasionally four or more ; but, what is curious, it almost invariably stops with the first note in the series. Feh. Gtk, 1830. — During the severe weather which has prevailed of late, the field in front of my house, which has the remains of a crop of cole-seed upon it, has been visited daily by large flocks of ring-doves, which subsist upon the leaves, and seemingly draw their support entirely from this plant. A singular circumstance occurred to my nephew one day last July (1845). As he was walking in the fir-plantations at Bottisham Hall, a ring-dove fell suddenly to the ground a short distance from him, as if wounded. On going up to it and securing it, he found it swarming with individuals of some species of fly, which, by his description, I have no doubt was a species of ornithomyia, and which ap- pear to have collected upon the bird in such numbers as quite to overpower it. It was a young bird of the year, but fully fledged, and had not fallen from any nest ; neither did it appear to have sustained any injury in other ways. STOCK-DOVE.* White mentions the stock-dove as being seen at Selborne during the winter only, appearing in large * Columha anas, Linn, 166 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. flocks about the end of November, and departing in February. With us, however, they certainly remain the whole year, as I have noticed them at all seasons and repeatedly found their nests. They are by no means uncommon in the plantations at Bottisham Hall, though less plentiful than the ring-dove. Their habits are very similar to those of this last species, v^dth which they frequently associate in hard wea- ther. Like them, they breed very early in the spring. The nest, which is flat and shallow, consists merely of a few sticks put loosely together in the hollow of some old tree. The eggs are two in num- ber, white like those of the ring-dove, but somewhat smaller and rather more rounded. The stock-dove does not coo like the ring-dove, but utters only a hollow rumbling note during the breeding-season, which may be heard to a considerable distance. Both species are indiscriminately called wood-pigeons by the country-people. March 'HXst, 182^.— A stock-dove was shot at Bot- tisham this evening as it was returning from feed. On handling it, a distinct rattling noise was heard in the crop ; from which, when opened, we took out nearly a teacup-full of field-pease, above fourscore in num- ber. They were unchanged in any way, excepting that some appeared to have sprouted since they had been swallowed.'* After they were taken out, they * A similar fact is recorded with respect to acorns taken from the crop of a wood-pigeon ; many of which, in the instance men- tioned, are said to have " been so forced by the warmth and mois- STOCK-DOVE. 167 retained for a considerable time a strong vinous smell. May 4}th, 1827. — A stock-dove's nest was found to-day in a hollow tree in Bottisham Park, and the old bird shot as she flew off. This nest had been constructed in an old pollard elm that was hollow for about twelve or eighteen inches down from the top ; but the top itself was covered over, and the sides also enclosed, so as to afford the bird no entrance except through one of three or four holes, about the size of itself, opening outwards in different places. The surface of the decayed wood, or floor of this cavity, which somewhat resembled in shape a small oven, was strewed over with earth, bits of stick, a few dead leaves, and other rubbish ; but appeared to have re- ceived very few additional materials brought by the bird, with the view of forming much of a nest pro- perly so called. The eggs were two in number, and had been incubated some days : they weighed four drachms and twelve grains each. Sept. 28th, 1827. — Both ring-doves and stock-doves are subject to a peculiar kind of disease, that shews itself in fleshy tumours and fungous concretions somewhat resembling warts : these affect more espe- cially the feet, bill, sides of the head, and contour of the eyes. — To-day we picked up a young stock-dove in a dying state, which had those parts completely ture of the stomach as to have thrown out roots." See The Zoo- logist, p. 649. 168 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. covered with, such excrescences, many of a large size. They were more full out than in any specimen I had ever seen previously. COMMON TURTLE-DOVE.* It is singular that turtle-doves should never have been seen or heard by me in this neighbourhood till 1823. That year, and the year following, we noticed a few individuals : since then the numbers have been increasing each season ; and now their very peculiar notes, more resembling the whizzing noise of a spin- ning-wheel than anything else, may be heard every- where during the spring and summer from the middle of May till after the solstice. They appear to be partial to fir-plantations. Whether the old birds continue with us after the breeding-season is over, I am not certain ; but I have occasionally knowni the young shot in the month of September. On the 18th of June, 1824, we found the nest of a turtle-dove in one of the plantations at Bottisham Hall. It was built of sticks, and shallow; like that of the ring-dove, only smaller. There were two eggs, of a pure white, and somewhat elliptical ; also resembling those of the ring-dove, except in size. They measured about an inch and a quarter in length : they did not appear to have been incubated. COLLARED OR AFRICAN TURTLE.f The unfledged young of all the pigeon tribe are * Columba turtur, Linn. t C. risuria, Auct. AFRICAN TURTLE. 169 fed, as is well known, from the macerated contents of the crop of the parent birds, mixed with a curdy secretion of the crop itself. I am often much amused in watching the way in which this is effected in the instance of the collared or African turtle, of which I have several individuals in confinement. The old bird opening its beak to the full extent, the young plunges its own almost, as it were, down the throat of its parent, whose efforts to regurgitate the required food into the mouth of its offspring are distinctly visible. But what particularly takes my attention is the persevering and often fruitless endeavour made by the young to induce the parent to open its mouth for this purpose. This is especially the case when the young are now nearly fully fledged, and partially able to feed themselves ; and when, perhaps, the usual secretions of the parent's crop are beginning to fail. Under such circumstances, they will often chase the old birds round the cage, and again and again present themselves before their face, as often as they turn away from their solicitations : at the same time they keep up a continual flapping with their wings, utter a plaintive whining note, and peck at the sides of their parents' bill, trying every stratagem to make them yield to their entreaties. — The old birds, however, as if conscious that there was no supply, or that it was no longer needed, obsti- nately refuse to pay any regard to the demands made upon them ; or they are not prevailed upon till after a long time, and till wearied, as it were, with the perpetual teazings of their offspring. The difficulty experienced by this last in effecting its object is 170 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. greater as it advances to the age at which it is capa- ble of taking care of itself. Probably the secretion in the parent's crop is dependent upon a certain degree of excitement caused by maternal affection ; andj after a time, when this excitement wears off, by reason of the increasing age of the young bird, it is with difficulty elaborated. At length it ceases alto- gether ; yet the habit of the young coming to its parent to be fed is kept up for a while, in like man- ner as we see nearly full-grown kittens and puppies still occasionally pulling at their mother's teats after they are dry. The scene above described may, at any time, be witnessed by throwing down a little hemp-seed into the cage where the parent and young birds are, when, as soon as ever the former begin to feed, the latter will be immediately at them impor- tuning for a share. DOMESTIC COCK. " The cock's shrill clarion" does not always wait for the break of dawn, but is occasionally sounded during the dead of the night, and this even in winter ; when, if the air be still and frosty, the distance to which it may be heard is quite surprising. I have at such times distinctly heard two cocks calling to one another from two different homesteads, situate a mile and a half or more apart.* The notion of cocks * Mr. Blackwall has observed, that the hooting of the ta^vny owl may be heard to the distance of a mile, or even two miles, under very favourable circumstances. See Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. XV. p. 167, DOMESTIC COCK. 171 crowing often during the night before Christmas, and its supposed effect of driving off evil spirits, is fami- liar to us from the w^ell-known lines in Hamlet : Some say, that ever 'gainst that season comes Wherein our Saviour's birth is celebrated, This bird of dawning singeth all night long : And then, they say, no spirit dares stir abroad ; The nights are wholesome ; then no planets strike, No fairy takes, nor witch hath power to charm. So hallow'd and so gracious is the time. I once vras staying at a friend's house in the month of January, where the cock crew every even- ing regularly at nine o'clock ; keeping it up for about ten minutes, and then desisting. March, 1841. — A friend, residing in the next vil- lage to this, communicates to me the following cir- cumstance in proof of the courage and ferocity of the common hen under the attacks of an enemy, whilst engaged in incubation. A fowl, which had commenced sitting in the hen- house upon thirteen eggs, was observed each suc- cessive morning to have lost one or more of them during the night, till the number was reduced to nine. At length, one morning, a rat was found lying dead on the ground near the nest, with its skull fractured, whilst the hen bore marks of hav- ing sustained a severe conflict : her breast was torn and bloody, and her feathers much ruffled. The rat -was a very large one ; and there could be no doubt i2 172 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. of its having been killed by the hen, on renewing its attempt to get at more of the eggs.* PHEASANT.f May 24, 1827. — A hen pheasant was picked up this morning, near its nest, dead, but still warm. There was no appearance of any external injury. On opening the crop, we found it stuffed quite full with the blossoms and roots of the common butter- cup {Ranunculus hulhosus), which had been swallow- ed whole, and did not appear to be the least changed. At first we thought this circumstance had something to do with the death of the individual ; but upon inquiry learnt that these birds were in the habit of feeding upon the roots of this plant, strong and acrid as it is, during the spring and summer months. % The cock pheasant sometimes exhibits marks of great daring and fierceness, even attacking man. I was once staying with a friend, who had a bird of this character in the plantations near his house, * A somewhat similar case of a " combat between a hen and a rat" is recorded in Loudoii's Mug. of JS'at. Hist. vol. ix. p. 105. + Phasiunus colchicus, Linn. ;}: I find Mr. Selby also mentions, in his Illustrations of British Ornithology, that he has observed that the root of the bulbous crowfoot (Ranunculus bulbosus) is particularly sought after by the ]theasant, and forms a great portion of its food during the months of I\Iay and June. PARTRIDGE. 173 "which was accustomed to make frequent sallies upon persons passing near the place of its resort. I saw it myself fly boldly at the proprietor of the grounds, who purposely approached the spot, in order that I might witness the extent of its cou- rage and ferocity; — it commenced pecking his legs, and striking with its wings, pursuing him for a consi- derable distance down one of the walks. He said that he generally carried a stick to beat it off, when- ever he went that way. Some wood-cutters, who were at work close by, were in the habit of pro- tecting their legs with strong leather gaiters from the attacks of this bird, which was constantly in- terrupting and annoying them in this manner. PARTRIDGE.* June 21, 1824. — A brood of young partridges went off" this morning. This species appears in general to hatch about a week or ten days later than the pheasant. A covey of these birds were bred in this neigh- bourhood a few seasons back, the greater part of «vhich were perfectly white. t. 30, 1829. — A FRIEND, who was lately sporting in the sandy parts of Suffolk, observes that the par- tridges about there are so infested this season with lice, that numbers have died in consequence. He * Perdix cinerea, Lath. 174 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. suggests it may be owing in some measure to the wet summer, which has kept the soil in such a wet state as to prevent their dusting themselves so effectually as usual. The courageous and almost fearless conduct of birds during the breeding season, even in the case of species at other times remarkable for their timi- dity, is very striking, though it has often attracted the attention of the natural observer. I have, a little way back, mentioned an instance of such daring courage in the domestic hen. Mr. Selby sends me another, in the case of the partridge, which occurred in his neighbourhood, and which was observed by a person on whose veracity he can rely, and who indeed produced evidence quite con- clusive of the nature of the scene of which he had been an eyewitness. Happening to be walking in a grass-field one day in the beginning of July, his attention was arrested by cries and screams, which he soon re- cognized as those of a partridge in distress, when alarmed for the safety of her young brood. On looking to the quarter whence the cries proceed- ed, he perceived two partridges engaged in a se- vere conflict with a carrion-crow, which, no doubt, had made an attack upon the newly hatched young, and attempted to carry some of them off. This the parents resented with such determination and vigour, as not only to prevent the crow from exe- cuting his intentions, but to compel him to stand RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE. 175 on the defensive. They continued persecuting their enemy ; and, not content with driving him fairly off the field, carried on the assault, till the crow was so fatigued with defending himself from their attacks, and became so disabled by the blows he had re- ceived, as to be no longer equal to taking wing. In this state he was eventually laid hold of by the person witnessing the battle, who had quietly ad- vanced towards the scene of action, unheeded by the combatants, whose attention was wholly en- grossed with the momentous struggle going on be- tween them. RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE.* One of these birds was shot near Anglesea Ab- bey, on the 27th of September 1821, previously to which there was no instance to my knowledge of its having occurred in this neighbourhood; but since then many other individuals have been met with, and the species appears to be getting more and more plentiful each year. In 1839, during the last week in June, a nest was found containing numerous eggs, which were taken, and hatched under a hen in Bot- tisham Park. This kind of partridge is tolerably plen- tiful in some parts of Norfolk and Suffolk, whence probably our Cambridgeshire birds have originally come. We have occasionally dressed them for the table, but found the flesh decidedly inferior to that of the more common sort. * Perdix rubra, Temm. •i'76 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. Quails are less plentiful with us than formerly, since the inclosure of so many of our open lands. They sometimes stay the winter, as in that of 1825-6, when they were shot about Bottisham, at intervals, •throughout the whole of that season. The whist- ling call-note of the male, heard occasionally in our •corn-fields during June, is very peculiar, and often puzzles persons who are not familiar with it, to know from what it proceeds ; — it frequently ap- pears to come from some spot close to one's feet ; yet it is almost impossible to get sight of the bird that utters it, from its sculking habits and its never taking wing at such times, but only retiring a little from the approach of the observer. This note I think, as far as my observation goes, is mostly heard of an evening; but I have sometimes heard it in given spots in certain fields without intermission from morning to night, the birds neither tiring with their monotonous exercise, nor seemingly wandering from a favourite station. BUSTARD.f Dec. 26, 1827. — A friend assures me that he saw a bustard to-day in the open lands, between the vil- lage of Swaifham-Prior and Newmarket Heath, and that it approached sufficiently near for him to have * Coturnix vulgaris, Flem. t Otis tarda, Linn. GREAT PLOVER. 177 killed it, if he had had his gun with him. It is now many years since one of these noble birds was last seen in this neighbourhood. Persons are living, however, who remember them to have been by no means infrequent. GREAT PLOVER. * Sept. 29, 1830. — My brother, while shooting to- day near Alington Hill, observed his dog make a point, and, on going up, found a specimen of the great plover, or stone curlew, which he secured alive. It proved to be a young bird of the year, which had in all probability been bred in the neigh- bourhood. After it was killed we opened it, and found the stomach to contain gravels mixed with the half-digested remains of coleopterous insects, amongst which the legs and elytra of some of the larger carahidcB were very conspicuous. These birds are not very uncommon about here some seasons; and in spring I occasionally hear their shrill start- ling cry, as they pass over the village late in the evening. The earliest period I have known them to occur is the 3rd of April. DOTTEREL.f May 7, 1829. — A neighbour of ours shot some dotterel this morning on the open lands about Great Wilbraham, which were sent to me for exa- * CEdicnemvs crepitans, Temm. "i" Charadrius morinetlus, Linn. 178 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. mination. These birds are seen with us in the spring and autumn only, for a short time, on their passage to and from the North, where they breed. The largest flocks generally occur in September. Those killed in the present instance consisted of one male and three females. The former, though not an old individual, was in his full spring plumage, and made a lively appearance. In the females the colours were similar, but less bright and fixed. On opening these birds, we found them loaded with fat, which lay spread in broad bands over the surface of the breast and abdomen : here and there was noticed a peculiar oily secretion, intermixed vrith the fat, and collected in large drops, which floated on water. The Kver was large, conceaKng the stomach, and consisted of two lobes, the right one nearly double the size of the left. The lower part of the oesophagus was considerably dilated. The stomach was a true gizzard, with the coats very strong and muscular, varying in thickness from two to four lines ; it was filled with the ely- tra and other remains of coleopterous insects, espe- cially the smaller carahidce, intermixed with a few gravels. The length of the intestinal canal was sixteen inches and a half ; its diameter nearly uni- form throughout : at its further extremity were two caeca, two inches in length, and taking their origin about that distance from the vent. In the female birds the ova were found to be scarcely at all developed. It is probable, therefore, that this species is a late breeder ; and that, though found on our open lands to the middle or even the RINGED PLOVER. 179 end of this month, it continues its journey to a much higher latitude before it rests for the busi- ness of nidification.* We dressed two of these birds for the table, and found them exceedingly well-flavoured, and much resembling the snipe. RINGED PLOVER.f Great quantities of these birds appeared in our fens in the months of June and July 1824 ; but they have not occurred since, to my knowledge. The spring of that year was remarkably wet, so that a considerable portion of our low lands were com- pletely flooded. There were at the same time several other species of water-birds observed there in plenty, which had not been seen for many years, and which were supposed to have quite deserted our neighbourhood. Amongst them were ruffs and reeves, godwits, redshanks, dunlins, and black terns. The appearance of our fenny districts that season, and the variety of birds that were attracted thither, gave us some idea of the state in which the fens habitually were in former times before drainage and culture had done so much to alter their character. * Since the date of the above observations, Mr, Heysham has found this species breeding on the mountains of Cumberland. According to his account, they vary much in the time of laying, but the greater part are said seldom to commence before the first or second week in June. See YarrelPs Birds, vol. ii. p. 394. f Charadrius hiaticula, Linn. 180 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. OYSTER-CATCHER.* March 28, 1827. — Dr. Thackeray, the Provost of King's College, informs me that he obtained a few days since, in the Cambridge market, a specimen of the oyster-catcher, which had eggs in the ovarium in a state of great forwardness. This looks as if this species were an early breeder. curlew, j- An ornithological friend informs me, that, in the spring of 1827, he found a curlew's nest in an old chalk-pit at Gogmagog Hills, and that the eggs are now in his possession. This is not a species of bird that I should ever have suspected of breeding in these parts. GREEN sandpiper. J Dec. 28, 1825.— The keeper at Bottisham Hall went up early this morning to Whiteland Springs, about a mile from this village, to look for ducks. On his return, he told us he had seen in the shallow streams about there what he called a stone-runner, but was not able to get a shot at it. — Not knowing what bird he alluded to under this name, we sent him back in the hopes of his finding it again, which he did, at the same time succeeding in killing it. It * Htematopus ostralegus, Linn. f Numenius arquata, Lath. % Totanus ochrapus, Tenim. COMMON SNIPE. 18t proved to be a green sandpiper, a species which I had known to occur about here in a few previous instances in spring and autumn ; but never at any other season. From the case of this individual, however, it would seem as if they remained the winter with us : whether they continue also during the summer, and breed anywhere in the neighbour- hood, I am not aware. On dissecting this bird, we were surprised at finding it so fat, especially as the stomach was quite empty, without a ve;stige of any- thing in it that could lead to a conjecture as to the nature of its food : the coats of the stomach were very strong and muscular, COMMON SNIPE.* June I5th, 1837. — A man brought me to-day an old snipe, with two young ones in their nestling fea- thers, which he obtained in Burwell Fen yesterday. — These birds are now known to breed in our low gromids in considerable numbers ; but I never could hear of any instance of the nest of the jack snipe being found there. DUNLIN. f These birds occasionally visit our fens during the summer months, and I am inclined to think sometimes breed there. In the beginning of July, 1824, they were very abundant. Several which were then killed, * Scolopax galUnago, Linn, t Tringa variabilis, Temm, 182 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. and came under my observation, were in their sum- mer or breeding plumage, as described by authors. The black, however, on the under parts was very variable in different specimens ; some being only faintly spotted with this colour, others having the whole of the belly and abdomen thickly blotched over with large irregular patches of the same ; but in no case without some mixture of white. Query, whether the season of incubation was not just over with these individuals, which had the two colours thus mixed, rather than not yet commenced ? WATER-RAIL.* Water-rails are common, as might be expected, in our fens and low grounds, and certainly are not migratory with us ; at least they do not all migrate, as I have known them killed at all seasons of the year. Even the severest weather does not oblige them to quit the neighbourhood, as I have a note of one being shot at Bottisham on the 26th of January, 1827, during a very sharp frost, accompanied by deep snow, which had prevailed for more than a week previous. The evening before this bird was killed, the thermometer had descended to 12° Fahr., which is a degree of cold seldom exceeded in these parts. I never found the nest of this bird myself, which, indeed, few naturalists have seen; but a man once brought me the eggs, which he had found in Bur- ^ Hallus aquaticus, Linn. LANDRAIL. 183 well Fen: this was on the 8th of July, 1831.— These eggs were not very unlike those of the landrail, but of a whiter hue, with the spots smaller and much less numerous. The body of the water-rail is strongly compressed, and admirably adapted for enabling the bird to insi- nuate itself between the reeds and high stems of sedge, which abound in the locahties which it mostly haunts. The legs are long, and placed far behind, with a small space bare above the knee ; the toes likewise are long, and divided to their very origin. The wings are remarkably short, and but ill calcu- lated for flight. Annexed to the bastard winglet is a small but sharp spur, two lines in length. — Query, if this is equally developed in both sexes ? LANDRAIL.* Some seasons landrails are not uncommon in the grass meadows adjoining this village, and may often be heard in the evening uttering their peculiar harsh cry ; in others, not one is to be found. One thing always very much strikes me whilst listening to this bird, and that is the wonderful rapidity with which it seems to change its place in the field, judging from the note, which, from being one minute close at hand, in a few seconds will be so distant as to be almost out of hearing. Landrails are noted runners, and thread their v;ay through the long grass with great swiftness ; but whether they really have the * Crex pratensis, Bechst. 184 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. power of transporting themselves from one spot to another as quickly as it appears, or whether there may not be some deception in this matter, is doubt- ful.* The note of this bird is sometimes heard during the day, but more frequently in the evening : during the first half of July one year, I noticed that it commenced pretty regularly about half-past nine, and was heard on to near midnight. June ISfk, 1827. — To-day, whilst mowing the hay in the field in front of the vicarage, we found the nest of a landrail containing seven eggs : these were of a very light brown, spotted and stained with rust- red, and not very unlike those of the moorhen ; of an oval shape, and about an inch and a half long ; their weight 3 di-achms 27 grains each. They were fresh laid, and not as yet incubated. The nest was little else than a hollow in the ground scantily lined with weeds and dead grass. The note of the old bird had been heard for many days back in the neigh- bourhood of the spot where the nest was found. SPOTTED CRAKE.f I HAVE known these birds killed in Bottisham Fen as early as the 26th of March, and occasionally during the summer and autumn on to October, but * Mr. Selby thinks tliat the bird varies its note in snch a man- ner as to cause it to seem to a listener to come from different dis- tances, producing thus an effect similar to ventriloquism. t Crex porzanu, Bechst. LITTLE CRAKE. 185 not during the winter. They appear to be summer migrants. The body of this species of crake, like that of the landrail, is so strongly compressed, that when dead, and laid on its back on a table, it will not remain in that position, but rolls over to one side. LITTLE CRAKE.* A FEMALE specimen of this rare crake was caught alive in the fields at the back of Barnwell, near Cambridge, towards the end of March 1827.f Dr. Thackeray, the Provost of King's College, into whose collection it passed, informed me that, when opened, the eggs were found to be in a forward state. This indicates the species to be an early breeder, and looks as if the present individual might have bred in the neighbourhood, had it been suffered to remain. Moorhens occasionally build in trees. In one instance that occurred in the park at Bottisham, I found the nest constructed amongst the ivy encircling a large elm which hung over the water's edge, at the height of at least ten feet from the ground. These birds not unfrequently appear on the lawn * Crex pusilla, Selb. + As already recorded by Mr. Yarrell, in his British Birds, vol. iii. p. 16. :{: Gallinula chloropus, Lath. 186 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. in front of my house, picking up worms and insects within a few feet of the windows. When alarmed, they retire to a stream which runs along one side of the garden. WILD GOOSE. The flocks of wild geese which visit our fens and corn lands in the winter season, and which consist principally of the bean* and white-fronted -|- kinds, are much less numerous than formerly, when scarce a day passed without more or fewer flying over the village : — ^now it is only occasionally that we see or hear them at all. This is attributed by some per- sons to the circumstance of rye crops being much diminished, in consequence of the improvement which has taken place in the cultivation of the land, enabling it to bear wheat in many places where only rye could be grown before. It has been observed, that these birds are always much attracted by young rye ; the tender blades of which they devour with avidity, and which, being sown earlier than wheat, is often in a state of great forwardness by the end of October or beginning of November. One individual assures me that the enormous flocks which he used to see about thirty years back, at this period of the year, on the rye-lands in Great Wilbraham parish almost exceed belief. Very little rye is now grown there, or anywhere else in this neighbour- hood, and no such flocks are seen at the present day. * Anser segetum, Steph. t A. albifrons, Steph. 187 TAME SWAN.* Jan. 2nd, 1826. — My brother this morning see- ing a tame swan, which frequents the piece of water in the park at Bottisham, with something singular in its mouth, approached it nearer in order to observe what it was, when, to his surprise, he found it to be a small roach, which the swan was dashing against the surface of the water, and tearing in pieces with its bill. On being disturbed, the swan let it drop, and left it. — Whether this fish had been caught by the swan in the first instance, or found dead and floating upon the water, it would be interesting to know. It was, however, evidently proceeding to make a meal of it ; and this is the first instance that ever came to my knowledge of swans preying upon fish at all. DOMESTIC DUCK.f Nov. 1829. — I WAS lately shown at Cambridge three varieties, or rather monstrosities, of the com- mon duck, which had been bred in the neighbour- hood in the spring of the present year. These birds deviated from the usual conformation of the duck tribe in respect of their bill and feet. The former had the lower mandible twice the length of the upper, which last was deformed, and somewhat like that of the common fowl : the tongue was long, and hanging * Cygnus olor, Stepli. + Anas boschas, Linn.; var. domesticus. 188 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. out of the mouth. The legs appeared rather longer than usual, and not set so far back as is generally the case in ducks ; and, what was principally re- markable, the toes were divided to their origin and without webs. These birds were in the Botanic Garden when I saw them, where there is a pond ; but they took to the water with some reluctance, and but seldom resorted to it, as I was told, excepting when approached too nearly. They seemed to swim with some difficulty, and were compelled to keep their feet in constant motion in order to support themselves above the surface ; sinking deeper than ducks usually do, with the breast nearly all im- mersed. One of the three individuals, which was a drake, and more active and healthy than the other two, occasionally dived half the length of the pond. — They all endeavoured to devour the lemnce and other floating weeds on the siu'face of the water ; but, from the monstrous formation of the bill, they did not readily succeed in securing their food. The person to whom these birds had originally belonged, fancied they were a cross between the domestic cock and the common duck ; and stated the circumstance of a cock and duck having been for some time alone in the farm-yard in which they had been reared, and which had led to an intimacy be- tween them. There was nothing, however, in sup- port of this idea to set against the extreme impro- bability of any fertile union taking place between two species of birds belonging to such totally different families. The absence of webs between the toes, which was the main point in which these individuals WILD DUCK. 189 resembled the gallinaceous tribe, was clearly nothing more than a case of accidental monstrosity.* WILD DUCKS. During a short stay in the neighbom-hood of Crowland in Lincolnshire, in August 1843, I was taken by a friend to see a duck decoy near that place. As decoys are now less plentiful than formerly, as well as becoming yearly less and less profitable, from the extensive drainage and cultivation of marsh lands, I was pleased with the opportunity of seeing one. This decoy covered twenty acres, but had not more than three acres of water in the middle. At the time of our visit, there were only a few wild ducks in it, supposed to be young birds that had been bred in the fens in the neighbourhood. The regular season, we were in- formed, begins in November, and ends in February or March. The best weather for taking the ducks is moderate frost and snow : in very mild wet winters they are too shy. The occupier of this decoy told us that, in his father's time, he had known as many as seven hundred dozen birds taken there in one season. This is, perhaps, as large a quantity from one decoy, during a single season, as any on record. Pennant mentions thirty-one thousand two hundred * The above is the substance of some notes I made at the time of seeing these ducks. A short communication respecting them was afterwards published by some other person in Loudon'' s Mag, of Nat. Hist. vol. vii. p. 516. 190 OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. ducks as having been sent up to London in one winter from ten decoys together ;* but this number, when divided amongst the ten, is not more than two hundi'ed and sixty dozen each. Of late years, the numbers taken in the decoy above spoken of have greatly decreased, from causes already men- tioned. RED-BREASTED MERGANSER. "j- Aug. 24 The outer case is formed of seve- ral layers of a papyraceous substance, easily separ- able one from another, and, on the whole, very simi- lar to the external covering of the nest of the com- mon wasp. On examining this substance under a high lens, it appears to be made up of minute fila- ments irregularly matted together, and afterwards besmeared with some viscous fluid causing them to adhere. Within the nest were four tiers of cells one above another : the lowermost tier alone, which was much the smallest, consisting of upwards of one hundred and thirty. Some of these cells are much bigger than others. Many of them were open, and contained larvae ; others had the mouths sealed up, and contained pupa?, or the perfect insect just ready for exclusion. It seems remarkable that, at this advanced period of the year, so large a portion of the brood should be still in the immature state. One can hardly ima^ gine that the whole would have completed their metamorphosis before winter, had the nest remained undisturbed. Probably, however, nidification con- tinues to go on till the cold puts a check to further operations, when those larvae, which are the latest in hatching, must necessarily perish. 261 HORNET.* A FRIEND of mine gave me, some time back, a small nest, supposed to be that of the hornet in an incipient stage, which was found suspended, in the month of June, from the top of the inside of an empty beehive, at Mickleham in Surrey. In shape it is very similar to that of the Vespa holsatica last described, but much smaller, and very differently constructed. Its size is about that of a large orange. The outer casing consists but of a single layer, which is thin and porous, the colour brown, yellowish-brovni towards the top, and similar to that of decayed wood. This casing, when closely examined, is found to be made up, not of filaments, but of minute abraded chips and fragments of rot- ten wood, opake, and apparently very little altered by any kneading process. There are not more than five-and-forty cells in all, forming a single layer at the upper part of the nest, the walls of which ex- tend far below it, as if to allow of other layers being added. These cells are very much larger than those of the tree-wasp, but not so firm in texture. When the nest came into my hands, they were all empty. This appears to have been the first commence- ment of a nest by the mother-queen alone, previ- ously to having any workers to assist her in the undertaking. * Vespa crubro, Linn. OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. Sejjt. 13, 1825. — I had often remarked that the blossoms of the dahlias in gardens contained bees apparently dead, but had not reflected much on the circumstance, till I lately heard the same observa- tion made by another person. I have since paid more attention to this matter, and have v^atched bees entering the flowers of these plants, for the purpose of sucking the nectarium, or collecting the pollen, when they were obviously soon seized with a sort of torpor ; in which state, if not speedily remov- ed, they often died. This appears to result from some poisonous quality in these flowers detrimental to bees : they should not therefore be planted near their hives. When these plants are in full blossom, numbers of bees may be found in this state of in- toxication. Humble-bees, however, seem to be more influenced by its narcotic powers than hive- bees.*' In the early part of the spring, when there is no great abundance of flowers, hive-bees are very much * The above observation, made by myself many years back, has been since made by others, as appears by the following ex- tract from one of the numbers of the Gardener's Chronicle : — "Bees and Dahlias. — The cultivation of the dahlia is incom- patible with the success of the bee-keeper. For many years I was very successful with my bees, having upwards of twenty hives yearly, and of course abundance of honey ; but from the time that I commenced growing dahlias the bees declined, and I had at last to give up those useful insects altogether. They became intoxicated by feeding on that flower ; many of them I found BUTTERFLIES. 263 attracted by the box, and resort to it in great num- bers as soon as it is in blossom. I was struck, how- ever, by the fact that, in 1844, they seemed impati- ent of waiting till the buds had expanded, and ac- tually proceeded with their jaws to force them open, to get at the immature pollen. I observed very many engaged in this process, wherever there were box-trees, on the 29th of March, and for several days afterwards. BUTTERFLIES. Papilio machaon.* — This splendid butterfly was formerly found in the greatest profusion throughout the whole extent of the fens between Cambridge and Ely. It is still in tolerable plenty some seasons ; but the numbers appear annually diminishing, from its being so much sought after. Large numbers are caught by the poor people, in the hope of disposing of them to collectors. It is probable that in a few more years it will become rare. There appear to be two broods in the year; the first shewing itself on wing from about the middle of May to the end of June, the second from the middle or end of July to the middle of August. f The larvae are found dead in the blossoms, or lying on the ground underneath, and those which got home formed little or no honey. I have heard the same remark made by many persons to whom I mentioned it, both in England and Ireland." — Notice by a Correspondent. * Steph. Illust. (Haust.) vol. i. p. 6. t Stephens is rather inclined to the supposition that there is a 264 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. principally on the marsh milk-parsley {Selinum pa- lustre), which is undoubtedly the plant to which they are most attached, though in confinement they will feed readily on several species of umbellatae. Gonepteryx rhamni.-f — Some plants of the red valerian, which grow in my garden, are much visited by brimstone butterflies in the autumn. On a fine bright day in September, they are often covered with these insects, which seem to prefer them to any other. In what the attraction consists I am not aware. Pontia cardamines.% — The disproportion of sexes in the orange-tip butterfly is very remarkable. The males may generally be observed in plenty in lanes and meadows, making their appearance with great regularity the first or second week in May; but the females I have never taken, at least in this neigh- bourhood, more than a very few times : perhaps it is owing to the latter being more inactive, and less fre- quently on wing. Vanessa urtica. § — The tortoise-shell butterfly, and the peacock {V. io)\\, though they hibernate like the rest of the vanessce, are sometimes on wing in the open air on fine days in winter. — In December 1843, when the weather was remarkably fine and mild for the season, I observed both those species together flying briskly in the park at Bottisham Hall. Only one or two nights' frost occvirred during that month : constant succession of individuals during the above period rather than two distinct broods. t Stepfi. Illust. vol. i. p. 8. t Id. vol. i. p. 23. § Id. p. 43. II Id. p. 44. BUTTERFLIES. 265 the wind was generally W. or S.W., and the ther- mometer occasionally as high as 54°.* Vanessa antiopa.-f — This insect, as is well known, is remarkable for the irregularity of its appearance in this country. I have a manuscript note by a naturalist, a relation of mine, now dead, in which it is stated that in August, 1789, this species appeared in the greatest profusion throughout Norfolk and Suf- folk: great numbers are said to have been found drowned on the coast, and it was the general belief at the time that they had come over from the con- tinent. Of late years, a few specimens of this beautiful Papilio have been taken in this neighbourhood: one shewn to me in the autumn of 1842 had been captured a short time previous at Great Wil- braham, within three or four miles of Swaffham Bulbeck. Vanessa atalanta.% — Admiral butterflies are much attracted in the autumn by ripe fruit, and especially by mulberries. § One of these trees, which formerly grew near here, was generally visited daily, in the month of September, towards noon, when the sun * I find a notice in The Zoologist (p. 64), of the peacock but- terfly being seen on wing at Lavenham in Suffolk, Dec. 13, 1842: also (p. 113), of the little tortoise-shell flying about briskly at Dover, Dec. 15, in the same year. t Stepk. Illust. (Haust.) p. 45. % Id. p. 46. § I find the fact of admiral butterflies feeding upon the juices of the autumnal fruits mentioned by Mr. Knapp, in his Jownal of a Naturalist (3rd edit.), p. 289. N 266 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. was warm, by swarms of these insects, whose rich tints of red and velvet black had a fine effect when presented to the light. I never particularly noticed any other species of butterfly about this fruit. DEATH S-HEAD HAWKMOTH.'^ Sept. 23rd, 1830. — A full-grown caterpillar of this immense moth was brought me to-day from a potatoe-garden in this village. We had the curiosity to weigh it, and found its weight no less than four drachms and forty-two grains. These caterpillars have become not unfrequent of late years in this neighbourhood, from the extent to which potatoes are now cultivated; — but I never knew but (me or two instances of the occurrence of the perfect insect. VAPOURER MOTH.f Oct. 2nd, 1839. — The faculty by which the sexes find out each other among the insect tribes is very mysterious. Having bred a female vapourer moth from a caterpillar found in the park at Bottisham Hall, I put it alive into a small chip box covered with gauze, and set it in a room in my own house with the window open ; and, in a few hours, two males had flown in at the window in search of it, * Steph. Illust. (Haust.) ji. 114. (Acherontia utropos.) t Id. Orgyia antiqua, vol. li. p. 61. HERALD MOTH. 267 and alighted on the wall near where the box was placed.* PINK UNDER-WTNG MOTH.f Julz/ llth, 1826. — The caterpillars of the pink under wing abound this year to an immense degree on the common ragwort {Senecio jacohaa), reduc- ing the plants to mere skeletons by their ravages. The caterpillars of the mullein moth J are almost equally plentiful on the plants of the common Verhascum. Both these insects, as far as I have observed, are periodical in their appearance, shew- ing themselves in vast quantities after an interval of a few years. I have a singular variety of the Callimorpha jacohcea in my cabinet, taken near Cambridge, in which the bright red of the under wings is exchanged for a pale orange yellow. herald moth.§ This insect, as is well known, makes its appear- ance generally in the autumn, and hibernates during * This faculty, possessed by some of the Lepidoptera to a great extent, is well known to collectors, who often avail themselves of this way of obtaining the male sex of certain species. See some remarks by Haworth on this practice, with amusing details, in his Lepidoptera Britannica, p. 82. + Callimorpha jacobaa, Steph. Illust. (Haust.) vol. ii. p. 90. X Cucullia verbasci, Steph. Id. vol. iii. p. 85. § Calj/ptra libatrix, Steph. Id. vol. iii. p. 50. N 2 268 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. winter. Its torpor and listlessness, however, in some cases, before the numbing effect of the winter's cold can be possibly felt, as well as after it is over, are very striking. I was much interested, in the autumn of 184^, with a moth of this species, in which this sluggishness prevailed to an unusual degree. I first observed it sticking to the inside wall of an outbuilding about the middle of Septem- ber, evidently just emerged from the pupa state. The weather was at the time very warm and sea- sonable, and the temperature of two or three days consecutively as high as 70°. It was thought, of course, that it would only rest there during the day, and take wing in the evening. Yet, to my surprise, it remained day after day in exactly the same posi- tion as when first noticed. This induced me to watch it more narrowly, which I continued doing throughout the whole winter, and a part of the fol- lowing spring ; and during all this time it never changed its place once, or even shewed signs of ani- mation, except when gently touched, when it would move its head and antennae a little; but, on the finger being withdrawn, would quickly relapse into its former state of repose. It was not till the 20th of April, 1 843, that it began to move. I then ob- served that it had shifted its quarters to another part of the wall : the following day it had flown to the ceiling of the building, where it remained over the 22nd ; and on the 23rd it was gone. This last day was the hottest we had had that spring, and the temperature rose to 68°. Thus this moth was in a half-torpid state over a period of seven months, during which time the weather was often extremely mild, and December and January, considered as winter months, quite unseasonably so. — One is almost irresistibly led to ask in what state must be the volition and feelings of an animal, which, under such circumstances, for more than half a year, is not roused from its slumbers by any of the usual calls to locomotion and activity.* GNATS (CULICES). The gnats which bite, and which are so trouble- some in houses, consisting of the Culex pipiens and two or three allied species, appear to me to be almost all females : it is rare to be bitten by the males at all.f These last keep more out of doors ; and I observe, that the broods which may be seen * The inactive habits of this insect, and its seldom taking wing, may be the cause of its being found in such perfect condi- tion so many months after its first appearance in the moth state. Thus, a writer in The Zoologist (p. 260) mentions taking one in an empty house on the 13th of March ; and observes that "it was thoroughly perfect, the scales not being abraded on any part of it." He seems in doubt whether it had hibernated or not : this however had most probably been the case. See also p. 333 of the same work, for a further notice respecting the hibernation of this insect. t This fact is noticed by Humboldt with respect to the Culices of South America. He says, "the males are extremely rare, and you are seldom stung except by females." — Pers. Narr. vol. v. p. 98. Humboldt mentions also another fact, with respect to one spe- cies, called in South America the Zancudo, which, if generally -true of this tribe of insects, is curious, and interesting to know ; 270 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. playing about in the air on a summer's evening con- sist exclusively of this last sex. Oct. 5, 1828. — Stinging gnats of various species, but more particularly the Culex pipiens and the C. annulatus of Meigen, abound in houses this au- tumn to a degree far surpassing anything I re- member in former years. The cellars especially are swarming with myriads, which blacken the walls and ceilings with their numbers. This I attribute to the wet summer.* and that is, that if, when it has once fixed its sucker, " it be left to suck to satiety undisturbed, no swelling takes place, and no pain is left behind." He says, " We often repeated this experi- ment on ourselves in the valley of the Rio Magdalena, by the ad- vice of the natives. It may be asked, whether the insect deposit the stimulating liquid only at the moment of its flight, when it is driven away; or repump the liquid, when it is left to suck as much as it will. I incline to this latter opinion ; for, on presenting quietly the back of the hand to the Culex cyanopterus, I observed that the pain, very violent in the beginning, diminishes in propor- tion as the insect continues to suck ; and ceases altogether, when it voluntarily flies away." — Id. p. 114. I have not noticed anything like this in the case of our English Culices. Neither did I find, on mentioning Humboldt's statement to Sir Robert Schomburgh, who has travelled over the same parts of South America, and felt all the annoyance experienced by Humboldt and Bonpland from the attacks of these insects, that he could confirm it by his own observation. * However gnats may occasionally abound, and annoy us, in this country, we can form but a small idea of their immense numbers in some other countries, particularly Equinoctial America. Hum- boldt observes, that " persons who have not navigated the great rivers in that part of the world, for instance, the Oroonoko and the Rio Magdalena, can scarcely conceive, how without interrup- GNATS. 271 GNATS (CHIRONOMI). White has noticed the immense swarms of gnats which are sometimes observable in the fens of the Isle of Ely, and their resemblance to smoke.* In the autumn of 1843, such a cloud of these minute insects was seen rising from the top of the west tower of Ely cathedral, and the deception was so great, that an alarm was raised, under the idea that the cathedral was on fire. It was not till persons had ascended to the top of the building that the cause of the appearance was satisfactorily ascertained. I did not see any of these insects myself, but I was informed by a gentleman of that place that some tion, at every instant of life, you may be tormented by insects flying in the air, and how the multitude of these little animals may render vast regions almost uninhabitable. However accus- tomed you may be to endure pain without complaint, however lively an interest you may take in the objects of your researches, it is impossible not to be constantly distiubed by the moschettoes, zancudoes, &c., that cover the face and hands, pierce the clothes with their long sucker in the form of a needle, and, getting into the mouth and nostrils, set you coughing and sneezing when- ever you attempt to speak in the open air." — Pers. Narr. vol. v. p. 87. The above illustrious traveller has dwelt at considerable length on the subject of the moschettoes in his work, to which we would refer the reader for the sake of the interesting details he has brought together relating to it. He speaks of the importance of this subject, from the great influence which these insects exert "on the welfare of the inhabitants, the salubrity of the climate, and the establishment of new colonies on the rivers of Equinoctial America." * Naturalises Calendar, p. 116. 272 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. had been shewn to Mr. Newman, the editor of the Zoologist, who pronounced them to be the Chiro- nomus prasinus.* Broods of a small jet-black species of Chirono- mus -j- may sometimes be observed in winter actu- ally hovering over snow. From the freedom with which black surfaces radiate out caloric, one would think the colour of these insects must have the effect of reducing the temperature of their bodies, even below that of the air. Yet they seem almost as active, and as much at their ease, as if it were summer. TRICHOCERA HIEMALIS. The power which some of the TipulidcB have of resisting cold is very remarkable. During the severe winter of 1829-30, in the month of January, when the mean temperature of the twenty-four hours was varying from 28° to 331°, and in two instances de- scended as low as 25° and 16" respectively, a brood of the Trichocera hiemalis, Meig., suddenly made their appearance in considerable numbers, settling upon the walls of different outbuildings, as if they had just emerged from the pupa state ; and though they did not offer to take wing for several weeks, * See a notice of similar clouds of dipterous insects being ob- served in Ireland, in Ann. and Mag, of Nat. Hist. vol. x. p. 6. •f Either the C. bt/ssinus of Meigen, or some closely allied spe- cies. FLIES. 273 yet they readily moved their quarters when dis- turbed ; a proof that, notwithstanding the conti- nued frost, they were not actually torpid. FLIES. Besides the true horse-flies,* which settle on horses in order to suck their blood, and which for this pur- pose have their mouths furnished with a most for- midable set of knives and lancets, — there are hosts of others, which hover about them in swarms in hot weather, but which, having only a soft proboscis, without any instruments for cutting or piercing the hide, appear quite incapable of inflicting any sen- sible injury. These consist of various species of Musca and Anthomyia (Meig.), and perhaps other genera ; and their sole object, as it appears to me, is to suck the perspiration of the animal when heated. They tease by their numbers, and by the constant titillation they keep up in settling; some horses, however, get habituated to them, and almost disregard them entirely. If the leaves of different trees, but especially the lime and ivy, be examined in an autumn morning after a cold night, they will be found in many places covered with flies, having all the appearance of life, but which upon being touched are found to * Different species of Tabanus, Hcematopota, and Chrysops, Meig. N 5 274 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. be dead and stiff, and what is more, in some cases firmly glued down to the surface of the leaf by a sort of cottony mildew. This seems owing to the chill and dampness of an autumnal night coming suddenly on, and surprizing such individuals as had been tempted out of their hybernacula by the morn- ing's sun ; rendering them powerless, and unable to effect their retreat in time. The same circumstances promote the growth of the mildew, by which their death is accelerated, if it be not mainly owing, in the first instance, to the attacks of that fungus. I observe this frequently about the latter end of October or beginning of November, when the tem- perature of the air at sunset, especially if the sky be clear, falls very rapidly, and radiation also exerts a powerful influence in cooling down objects that are much exposed. Sometimes flies may be observed on windows, killed in the same way, and presenting a similar appearance. In both cases, many of the in- dividuals so nearly resemble living insects as almost to deceive an entomologist ; and I have occasionally approached with unnecessary caution to entrap with the forceps what I conceived to be a fly basking on a leaf. * * The above is extracted from a journal-book of mine bearing the date of 1824. Since then the observation recorded has been often made by others, and many suggestions offered in explana- tion of the fact. See Loudon's Magazine of Natural History, (vol. vii. p. 530,) where there are several similar remarks by dif- ferent observers. The cottony mildew above spoken of appears to be a peculiar fungus found on flies only. Mr. Berkeley (in a letter dated Dec. 5, 1837) informed me that he believed it to be the FLIES. 275 Extraordinary swarm of flies. — During the month of September, in the year 1831, a small dipterous insect, belonging to Meigen's genus Chlorops, and nearly allied to, if not identical with, his C. Iceta, ap- peared suddenly in such immense quantities in one of ihe upper rooms of the Provost's Lodge, in King's College, Cambridge, as almost to exceed belief. The same species of fly, or one closely approaching to it, is not uncommon in most houses towards the de- cline of the summer ; but in this instance their numbers were so great, and their appearance so sudden, as to surpass anything of the kind I had Sporendonema muses of Fries ;* adding, that there was little doubt that the fly is attacked by it while yet living, but that the para- site is not fully developed till after death. The disease, it appears, may occur at any time, where circumstances are favourable for the growth of the fungus. The reason why it prevails most in the autumn is the dampness of the air at that season, which promotes the growth of all kinds of mould ; and the suddenness with which the flies appear to be attacked is probably due to the rapid deve- lopment of the fungus during the chill of an autumnal night. In the case of flies which are found occasionally, at all seasons, stick- ing to panes of glass, especially of windows that are not often opened to keep up a free circulation of air, the cause of death is the same, but it seems to come on more gradually. It was probably individuals labouring under this disease which "White saw, when (speaking of flies in houses in the decline of the year) he says, " at first they are very brisk and alert, but, as they grow more torpid, one cannot help observing that they move with difficulty, and are scarce able to lift their Iges, which seem as if glued to the glass ; and by degrees 7nani/ do actually stick on till they die in the place.'" — Nat. Cat. p. 114. * See Eng. Flor. vol. v. pt. ii. p. 350. 276 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. ever before witnessed. It was not till after a fort- night had elapsed from the time of these insects being first noticed that I had an opportunity of seeing them myself, during which interval their numbers had been greatly thinned by fumigations of tobacco and other substances employed as a means of destroying them ; nevertheless they were still in immense profusion, and my informant told me that in the first instance the greater part of the ceiling, towards the window of the room, was so thickly covered as not to be visible. The ex- act day of the month on which these insects first shewed themselves was not noticed, but, as far as could be remembered, it was about the 17th of September. They appear to have entered the room very early in the morning, by a window looking due north, which had been open during a part of the night, being first observed between eight and nine a. m. A few were noticed in the ad- jacent rooms facing the same way, although, com- paratively speaking, in no great quantity; perhaps, in consequence of the windows of those rooms not being opened at quite so early an hour. None at all, however, had been seen in the house pre- viously to that day. We are at present so igno- rant of the habits and economy of the minuter tribes of insects, that it is not easy to give an ex- planation of this phenomenon. It would be inte- resting to know whether the above had been all bred in the immediate neighbourhood, and at the same time, or whether they were swarms that had collected from different quarters for the purpose of ERISTALIS TENAX. 277 migration. Many facts are on record which seem to confirm the idea that insects do occasionally change their quarters in immense bodies ; and some have occurred to myself, which, I have no doubt, were connected with such a circumstance, not only from the large numbers of the insects observed, but from the steadiness of their flight, and their continually persevering in one given direction. It is worth noticing, with respect to the present case, that King's Lodge is situate close to the river Cam, which at that place runs nearly due north and south ; and it is just possible that this circumstance may have had some influence in di- recting the movements of these insects. I find also, by referring to a journal of the weather, kept in the neighbourhood of Cambridge, that, about the time when they were first observed, the wind was N. N. W, and that it had been blowing steadily from that quarter for four successive days.* ERISTALIS TENAX.f From the middle of September onwards during the autumn, these flies are much in the habit of entering houses, where they prove tiresome in rooms from the incessant humming they keep up. This is so like that of a bee, and the fly itself so much * The above account was published at the time in Loudon'' s Mag. of Nat. Hist. (vol. v. p. 302), and is reprinted here. + Musca tenax, Linn. 278 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. resembles a bee in general appearance, that persons who are not entomologists constantly mistake them for such, and call them drones. I observe that almost all the individuals that come into houses in this manner are, as in the case of gnats already alluded to, females. ANTHOMYIA CANICULARIS, In the spring of 1837, a physician at Cambridge acquainted me with a case which had occurred to him a short time previous in his practice in that neighbourhood, in which large quantities of the larvae of some dipterous insect were expelled from the human intestines. Some of these were sub- mitted to my inspection, and proved to be the larvae of the AntJiomyia canicularis of Meigen. The patient was a clergyman, about seventy years of age. The symptoms of which he complained, previously to the first appearance of these larvae, were — general weakness, loss of appetite, and a disagreeable sensa- tion about the epigastrium, which he described as a tremulous motion. These symptoms commenced in the spring of 1836, and it was not till the summer and autumn of that year that the larvae were observed in the motions. They then passed off in very large quantities on different occasions, the discharge conti- nuing at intervals for several months. According to the patient's own statement, the chamber-vessel was sometimes half-full of these animals ; at other times they were mixed with the stools. He thinks that altogether the quantity evacuated must have amount- ANTHOMYIA CANICULARIS. 279 ed to several quarts. The larvas were all nearly of equal size, and, when first passed, quite aKve, moving with great activity. The patient was not aware of having voided anything of the kind before. After the discharge ceased, his health improved, but was by no means perfectly re-established ; and for some months after he was impressed with the belief that more larvae were still in the stomach and intes- tines, though I never was informed in what way, or at what exact period, the complaint terminated. It would be a matter of great interest, as well as importance, to ascertain the means by which these larvae were introduced into the human body ; but it is difficult to throw much light on this inquiry. It is observable that the symptoms of which the patient complained first shewed themselves in the spring of the year, which is the season in which, under ordi- nary circumstances, the larvae would be hatched. The larvae were not voided till the summer and autumn following, when they appear to have been nearly, if not quite, full-grown. Hence it would seem proba- ble that they were conveyed into the stomach in the egg state, and that, after being hatched, they passed thence into the intestines ; where they would have no difficulty in finding subsistence, if, as De Geer states of this species, they reside naturally, during this period of their existence, in the ordure of pri- vies. But the question still remains, how, in the first instance, the eggs were introduced into the stomach ; and I can only conjecture that they may have been deposited by the parent fly in some article of food, which had possibly become tainted, or was in 280 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. an incipient state of decomposition, previously to being eaten.* May 29, 1845. — I observed a species oi Anthomyia this morning on the window of my study affected in a peculiar way, and similar to what I have before occasionally noticed in the common house-fly. It attracted my attention, from having remained a long time stationary without moving. On examining it closely under a lens of low power, it appeared to be engaged in slowly vomiting up a clear but slightly adhesive liquid from the extremity of the proboscis, and then as slowly drawing it back again into the mouth. This was repeated a vast number of times at short intervals. The globule of liquid, which was about the size of a large pin's head, remained at the extremity of the proboscis from one to two minutes, partly resting upon the glass, previously to being sucked up again. Just before its reappearance each time, the insect was much agitated, a violent tremor seizing its legs and halteres (especially the latter), though the wings remained motionless. Oc- casionally a drop of the same clear liquid was expelled from behind also, and at the same moment, and left upon the window-pane. The fly remained * The above is abridged from a notice of this case, which was communicated at the time to the Entomological Society, and afterwards published in their Transactions, {vol. ii. p. 152,) where there will be found a full description, as well as figure, of the larvse, together with references to one or two analogous cases previously on record. DUNG-FLIES. 281 half an liour engaged in this operation, and then flew away. During the time, it appeared to take but little notice of objects, and suffered me to place my finger very near it without moving. Whether the whole was the result of any accidental derangement of the system, or whether the regurgitation of the liquid in question was attended, as in the case of rumination in quadrupeds, by any pleasurable sen- sations, and effected at will, I am unable to de- termine.* DUNG-FLIES. f These flies, though bred in dung, are in their per- fect state truly carnivorous, and devour other flies with greediness. Among the smaller species of Anthomyia they make great havoc, seizing them with their fore-feet, and then piercing their head with their proboscis to suck its juices. LIVIA JUNCORUM. The alteration of structure induced in certain plants by the attacks of insects, so complete, in some instances, as almost to deceive at first the most expe- rienced naturalist, is extremely curious. Nothing is more common than to find, during the latter part of the summer, in our fens, what at first view appears * Since the above was written, I find a somewhat similar observation recorded in Loudon's Mag. of Nat. Hist., vol. ix. p. 108. t The flies here alluded to belong to the genus Scatophaga of Meigen. ^O^ OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. to be a dwarfed variety of the common jointed rush {Juncus articulatus), but which is in fact the nidus of a peculiar insect, known to entomologists by the name of Livia juncorum. The larvae of this insect, when hatched, feed upon the juices of the plant, the supply of which is increased by a greater determin- ation of sap to the particular part punctured by the parent in laying its eggs ; and the plant in conse- quence becomes monstrous at that part, producing compact leafy bunches, instead of stalks and flowers. If these be opened, they will be foimd full of the larvae and pupae ; and by gathering them, and keep- ing them in a box for a few days, the perfect insect may be reared without difficulty. The latter appear about the second or third week in September.* The galls, which occur so abundantly on oaks in the spring, as well as on other plants, are familiar instances of an analogous diseased growth of particu- lar parts from the attacks of insects. Tubercles of a peculiar form may also be observed occasionally on the Scotch and spruce firs, very much resembling young cones, but which on being cut open are found to be the nest of a species of Aphis.^ * The first notice of this insect, so far as I am aware, by any English naturahst, will be found in the Linnean Transactions, (vol. ii. p. 354,) where there is also mention of the peculiar mon- strosity which it occasions in the Juncus articulatus, and which was actually considered as a viviparous variety of that plant by Linnaeus. Since then, both the insect and its nidus have been figured by Mr. Curtis in his British Entomology, (pi. 492,) to which work I refer those who desire further information respect- ing them. t For notices of many other gall-like excrescences on plants Oct. Srd, 1822. — This morning on rising we found the air completely choked with Aphides. The steps at the house-door, and even the very walls, were black with them. On walking out, myriads alighted upon one's clothes ; and getting also into one's eyes, ears, and nose, proved an intolerable nuisance. In the middle of the day I took a circuit of about three or four miles from home, but found the quantities of these insects the same wherever I went. A friend, too, who arrived from Cambridge, distant about eight miles off, assured us that they were in equal plenty there. Where could these prodigious multi- tudes come from, and whither were they directing their flight ? Such questions are easier asked than answered. It is worth noting that the day was par- ticularly mild and calm for the time of year, and had begun with a fast mizzling rain, which lasted for a considerable part of the morning. At 4 p. m. the thermometer was as high as 64°. The wind was easterly, and had blown steadily from that quarter for three or four days previous.* caused by insects, see Kirby and Spence {Eniom, vol. i. pp. 448, 9.) * A similar instance of large swarms of Aphides in a state of migration is recorded by White, {Nat. Hist. Lett. LIII. to D. Barr.,) as having occurred at Selborne, Aug. 1, 1785. It is de- serving notice, also, that he particularly mentions that the wind was then "all the day in the easterly/ quarter." 284 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. LETTUCE BLIGHT. In the summer of 1 844, the entire crop of lettuces in my garden were destroyed by a blight at the roots, arising from the attacks of a small species of Erio- soma.* This insect had never shewn itself there in any previous year to my knowledge. In this in- stance, all the young lettuces, from six to nine inches high, were observed with their lower leaves flaccid, and flat on the earth, as if parched from drought : the older ones, which had been tied up for blanching, were — some of them completely dead, and brown at the heart — others dying. No insects were observed upon the plants above ground ; but, on pull- ing them up, the fibres of the roots were found thickly matted with a glutinous cottony substance, amongst which were crawling hundreds of the larvas and pupae. This was on the 28tli of August, and at that time no perfect insects were as yet visible. The larvae were of all sizes, some very small, and ap- parently but just hatched : here and there imbedded in the cottony substance were the eggs themselves. The former were rather active in their movements, of a green colour, mth six rather short feet, the hinder pair not longer than the others ; the antennae also short, of six joints. The pupse had rudiments of * One of the genera belonging to the family of Aphida, or plant-lice, but distinguished from Aphis by its short filiform antennse, tomentose body, and abdomen destitute of horns or tubercles towards the apex. LETTUCE BLIGHT. 285 wings, but were similar to the larvae in all other respects, except in being larger ; they were exactly a line in length. On placing some of the lettuces under a bell glass, several of the perfect insects ap- peared on the 3rd of September ; others following in succession for some time afterwards. These were of two colours, perhaps characteristic of the two sexes. Some had the head and thorax dusky brown; the abdomen pale dusky, tinged with greenish-yellow ; the legs dusky, with the joints rather darker : others inclined generally to ochraceous-yellow, especially the abdomen, and the collar between the head and thorax.* Amongst the larvae at the roots of one lettuce I observed a single specimen of the larva of some other totally different insect, which appeared to be feeding upon them. This latter was vermiform, and much attenuated towards the anterior extremiri-, which was very protractile ; it was of a pale green * If the above be an undescribed species of Eriosoma, which is extremelv probable, from the little attention which has been paid to the insects of this family, — it might be named jE. lactuca, and thus characterized : £. capite et thorace fuscis : abdontine oblongofuscescenti-ochraceo, vel viridi-ochraceo ; pedibus fuscis, articulis saturatioribus. Long 1. lin- — Hab.&d radices lactucae sativge. Possiblv it may be the Aphis radicum, briefly alluded to by Kirbv and Spence, (vol. ii. p. 89,) as deriving its nutriment from the roots of gra^s and other plants. There are, however, without doubt, several species of these root Aphides. I have occasionally observed another, besides the one described above, at the roots of the Lt/simachia nummularia, when growing in a pot in my garden, and rendered unhealthy by being kept too dry. This was like- 2bb OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. coloiir, and about two lines in length. There were also some small brown coceoons among the roots, here and there, likewise about two lines in length, which I kept, in the hope of their turning to the perfect state, but without success. Probably these were the larva and pupa respectively of some dip- terous insect, which keeps the root aphis in check. When once, however, the nuisance occasioned by this last parasite shews itself in a garden, the only effectual way of getting entirely rid of it is imme- diately to pull up all the diseased plants and bum them. LICE.* Almost every animal, as well as bird (it is well knovm), has its peculiar louse. It is, however, singular, and contrary to what one might have ex- pected, that the size of the parasite is by no means, in all cases, proportioned to the size of the animal it infests. — The louse of the swine f is as large as the wise a species of Eriosoma, but differed from the E. lactuca in having the abdomen shorter and broader, (or more approaching to round than oblong,) and in being more shiggish in habit, hardly attempting to move when taken from the plant : it also kept more on the surface of the ground, at the bottom of the leaves and stems, than under ground ; though many might be noticed at the roots themselves. Reaumur has given a list of plants, at the roots of which he had found Aphides, but the lettuce is not included. Hist, des Ins. (12mo. ed. Amst. 1738,) torn. iii. 2nd part, p. 80. * Anoplura of Leach. t Hamatopinus suis, Denny ; Anopl. Brit. pi. xxv. f. 2. LICE. 287 louse of the ox : * the louse of the eagle j- is not larger than the louse of the rook ; J while the louse of the great snowy owl§ scarcely exceeds that of the tiny gold-crested wren.|| Birds also of the same size harbour species that are very dissimilar in this respect. The louse of the sparrow-hawk^ does not measure more than three-quarters of a line in length ; while that of the hobby** (of which I have two specimens taken by myself from that bird) is among the most gigantic of its race, and exceeds a quarter of an inch. Some species of birds are much more troubled with these parasites than others. The rook and the common buzzard appear to be particularly infested by them. The latter I have often found swarming with them, more especially the feathers about the head and neck, to an extraordinary degree. Other birds, again, appear to be nearly free from lice alto- gether. The common heron is one, on which I never could detect a single specimen, though repeat- edly searched for this purpose. ff It once occurred to me, that the dust, which naturally abounds so in the plumage of this bird, might have the effect of * H. eurysternus, Id. pi. xxv. f. 5. t Docophorus aquilinus, Id. pi. ii. f. 7. X B. atratm, Id. pi. iv. f. 8. § D. ceblebrachys, Id. pi. i. f. 3. II D. reguli, Id. pi. vi. f. 4. IT D. msj, Id. pi. iii. f. 11. ** Lemohothrium laticolle, Id. pi. xxiii. f. 4. t+ Mr. Denny, however, has described two species found on the heron, Lipeurus leucopygus (pi. xiv. f. 4.) and Colpocephalum im- portunum (pi. xviii. f, 1.), though the former would seem rare. 288 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. keeping them off; as it is generally supposed that the object for which common poultry and other birds dust themselves is that of ridding themselves from these vermin, or preventing their accmnulat- ing. MITES.* Tick {Ixodes). — Whilst examining a blue tit- mouse [Parus coeruleus), I v^^as surprised to find under its feathers a specimen of a tick, nearly equal in size to the dog-tickj-f- and to all appearance iden- tically of the same species. One would hardly ex- pect to meet with so large a parasite on so small a bird.+ On the same bird were large numbers of a very minute sort of mite, so small indeed as to be scarcely visible to the naked eye. I examined some of them with the microscope, and found to my astonishment that they consisted of several distinct species, refer- able in some cases to distinct genera. This led me to reflect on the numberless tribes of minute beings * Acarida ; thought by some to constitute a peculiar class among the Annulosa, but more probably only a subdivision of the class Arachnida. \ Ixodes ricinus, Leach. ^ Dr. Leach, in a paper published in the eleventh volume of the Linnean Transactions, has described the British species of Ixodes , one of which (/. pari) is mentioned as found on the great titmouse {Parus major). This species I have myself taken from that bird ; but it is quite different from the one noticed above, and much smaller. that probably yet remain to be detected by the naturalist. Perhaps there is no species of bird, cer- tain individuals of which may not harbour in their plumage hosts of these little animated specks, con- sisting of various kinds destined to feed on the superabundant juices of the body. If so, how many hundreds, one might almost say thousands, of species of such Acari must there be of which we know nothing ! And though some may think it trifling to bestow much time or trouble in the investigation of these atoms, — yet it should be remembered that our acquaintance with the entire scheme of nature can only be advanced so far as we search into all the varying forms of structure that occur, be the indivi- duals in which they appear large or small. Sarcoptes passerinus.* — This is one of the more common forms of Acari, parasitical on birds, and remarkably distinguished by the disproportionate size of the third pair of legs. It is well described by Linnaeus, who, in reference to this circumstance, says,-]- pedes tertii paris magni ; femora enim hujus ambo simul mole ipsum corpus fere adcequant, reliquis minimis : Ms monstrosis pedibus non incedit, sed modo sese adjigit pennis vivacissimce et agilissimce avis, ne excutiatur. — In confirmation of this last remark I observe, that, when placed upon a piece of white paper, this creature in walking draws these enormous legs after it as a dead weight, without attempting to * Acarus passerinus of Linnseus. It is well figured by De Geer, torn. vii. pi. vi. f. 12. t Faun. Suec. p. 480. 290 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. assist its march by tliem, which is entirely effected by the other three pair. I suspect, however, that there are several distinct species of these Acari, tertiis femoribus incrassatis, which have been hitherto confounded :* some that I have taken from the green woodpecker are of a much more oblong form than the more common sort figured by De Geer, with the third pair of legs of more moderate size, and not so enormously thick. Acarus dom.esticus.-f — The mites which infest museums, and make such havoc in collections of dried specimens, appear to me to be of two or more kinds. One, however, seems identical with the cheese-mite, as described and figured by De Geer ; at least, I can discover no difference between them on the closest comparison. These little creatures are of active habits, and run with considerable speed. They appear to shift their skin very often, as appears by the numberless empty sloughs that may be found in their haunts. When first hatched, and for some time after, like many others of this tribe, they have but six legs, the two others not sprouting till they are near full-grown. The deficient pair is always the third. Cheyletus eruditus.X — This little mite, which seems scarcely to have been noticed by English authors, is remarkable for its very large and conspicuous sickle- * They will probably be found eventually to constitute a peculiar genus by themselves, subordinate to Sarcoptes of Latreille. + De Geer, torn. vii. p. 88. pi. v. ff. 1-4. :j; Lam. Hist. Nat. des An. sans vert. (2nd edit.) torn. v. p. 75. MITES. 291 shaped palpi, ending in a minute cheliform process. These palpi it moves about in a very free and active manner, constantly opening and shutting the cheli- form fingers at the extremity. Its motions, in this respect, are very similar to those of the genera Chelifer and Ohisium amon^ the pseudo-scorpions. I have occasionally taken this species in collections of dried plants that had been kept in rather a damp place. Either it, or a closely allied species, is sometimes found parasitical on birds : such I have taken from the green w^oodpecker, differing only from the common kind in being almost quite white, the posterior extremity of the abdomen alone in- clining to yellovs^ish. None of these mites, however, have more than six legs, and possibly they may prove to be only the larvae of some other genus. Philodromus limacum,* — This mite is parasitic on the larger kinds of slugs, especially the common black slug, on which it may frequently be observed in great plenty. The most striking feature in its history is the circumstance of its not confining its abode to the external surface of the slug, but often retiring within the body of that animal ; effecting its entrance by means of the lateral foramen which leads to the cavity of the lungs. Indeed, I am in- clined to think that this cavity is its principal resi- dence, whence it only comes forth occasionally, to ramble upon the surface of the body. In one in- * See Loudon''s Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p, 538, where I have given a detailed account of the characters and hahits of this little mite, from which the above is taken. 0 2 292 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. stance, I confined in a close box a slug which, to all appearance, was free from parasites. On opening the box a day or two afterwards, I observed very many crawling about the slug externally, all of which would seem to have proceeded from the pul- monary cavity. On another occasion, I observed these insects running in and out of this cavity at pleasure ; and some which I saw retire into it never reappeared, although I watched the slug narrowly for a considerable time. It is remarkable that the slug appears to suffer no particular inconvenience from these parasites, and even allows them to run in and out of the lateral orifice without betraying the slightest symptoms of irritation. Another curious circumstance in the history of these little mites, is the extreme rapidity of their motions. One might have thought that so slimy a ground as the surface of a slug's back would have impeded their progress ; but so far is this from being the case, that they are never to be seen at rest : indeed they run with greater celerity than any other parasites of this tribe I am acquainted with ; these insects, in general, being rather slow in their movements than otherwise. From this circum- stance, it becomes difficult to secure them for exami- nation ; and the more so, from their bodies being of a soft nature, and crushed by the slightest touch. Perhaps the most effectual way is to drop the slug into very weak spirits, sufficient to paralyse the limbs of the parasite, without immediately destroy- ing life. If dropt into plain water, the mites rise to the top, and run about with as much ease and RED SPIDER. 293 activity upon the surface of the fluid as upon the sluof itself. RED SPIDER.* In the summer of 1844, the gardener at Bottis- ham Hall directed my attention to a peach-tree in- fested with the red spider. The tree had a very diseased appearance ; the leaves were red and spotted on their upper surface, and fell prematurely, stimu- lating the tree to put forth new leaves from the next year's buds, and so subjecting it to great exhaustion. On examining the leaves through a microscope, they were found to be infested with a very minute mite, scarcely bigger than the point of a pin, of an oblong- oval form, with eight legs of not very dispropor- tionate lengths, but the anterior pair a little the longest ; the body of a yellowish orange -colour, some specimens redder than others, and some with an oblong dark spot on each side of the abdomen ; the legs pale whitish, and transparent ; two eyes, one on each side of the anterior part of the body, forming a bright red spot. These mites were in all stages of growth, and had evidently been bred upon the leaves. The young were more pale-coloured than the adult, which were often deep red ; the former were also much more bristly than the latter, the hairs seeming to wear off with age. Here and there might be discerned (more especially on the * Acarus telarius, Linn. ; Tetranychus telarius, Duges, Aim. des Sci. Nat. (2nd ser.) torn, i. p. 25. 294 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. young leaves that were prematurely forced, as above mentioned,) clusters of minute globules that appear- ed to be eggs. There were also, on the tree, great numbers of aphides, which appeared to have had some share in bringing it into its diseased state ; and also a few of the larvae of what was supposed to be a Hemerobms, preying upon both mites and aphides, empty skins of which were scattered everywhere upon the leaves. This mite is no doubt the Acarus telarius of Lin- njEus, so called from a thin filmy web which it spins, and with which it mats the under side of the leaves of the trees it frequents. Such a web I discovered upon the leaves in question ; but the threads of which it is composed are so extremely fine, that, when single, they can be with difficulty perceived, except under a high power of the microscope. The web alone must injure the health of the leaves, independent of the punctures made by the mites themselves, which last were distinctly seen in some instances inclining forward the anterior extremity of their bodies, and plunging their rostrum into the leaf to feed. The mites run upon the threads of their web like spiders, but not very swiftly ; off" the threads their motions seem impeded, and upon a smooth surface like glass it is with some difliculty they move at all. When once a tree has become much infested with this parasite, its cure is next to hopeless. In the present instance, the tree had shewn the disease year after year ; and there was nothing to be done, as I was told, but to cut it dovm, which has since been effected. Some have recommended frequent CHELIFER GEOFFROYI. 295 sprinklings with cold water,* at least for plants in hot-houses, which are often attacked by these insects ; but this remedy is not a certain one, nor to be relied on as permanent in its effects. In the case of fruit- trees labouring under this disease, the leaves are constantly falling, and carrying with them to the ground numbers of the mites, which either ascend the tree again, or, if it be late in the season, har- bour under stones, &c. near its foot, till the ensuing spring. CHELIFER GEOFFROYI. f I ONCE took four specimens of this insect from one little fly, which was so fettered in its movements by the grasping hold of so many aggressors at once, as hardly to be able to crawl. The natural habitat of these pseudo-scorpions appears to be under the bark of trees, whence they probably spring out on their unwary prey basking near. They are often found on Tipulce. ENTOMOSTRACA. Cyclopsina castor.% — This little crustacean is very amusing to watch in its habits. It occurs in pools of water in this neighbourhood not unfrequently. * See Kollar's Treatise on Insects injurious to Gardeners, Foresters, and Farmers, by Loudon, (p. 182,) where there is some notice of this insect. + Leach, Zool. Misc. vol, iii. tab. 142, fig. i. % M. Edwards, Hist. Nat. des Crustaces, torn. iii. p. 427. 296 OBSERVATIONS ON INSECTS. It often remains at rest in the same spot for several seconds together, with its antennae extended and motionless, but its feet in a state of intense vibra- tion, and then after a while suddenly darts off to another situation with wonderful rapidity. It would seem also to be tenacious of life ; as I observed that, amid a large variety of different Entomostraca that were kept in a vessel of water, which was not changed for a considerable time, it survived all the others by several days. Argulus foUaceus.^ — In 1835, 1 found this singular species, which has been very little noticed by English naturalists, in fish-ponds at Ely in great abundance. They are there parasitical on pike, adhering to dif- ferent parts of the body of that fish. The fishermen called it the pike-louse. ELECTRIC CENTIPEDE, f Dec. lOth, 1843. — A man brought me to-day what he called two glow-worms, which he had seen shining on a bank the preceding evening. They proved to be only the electric centipede, which is frequent in the autumnal months in this neighbourhood, and may often be seen shining by road-sides, more espe- cially on mild damp evenings. They are constantly mistaken for glow-worms by the common people. * Hist, Nat. des Crustaces, torn. iii. p. 444. t The Scohpendra ele.ctrica of authors ; but probably under that name two or more species have been confounded, as I suspect tliere are at least two in this country which are luminous. It belongs to the genus Geophilus of Leach. ELECTRIC CENTIPEDE. 297 These two individuals I kept alive in a small box w^ith damp earth at the bottom, for several months ; but I never observed them to shine once after they were taken.* The luminosity of this insect is remarkable for diffusing itself over the ground, or the fingers of those v\^ho attempt to handle the individual from v^hich it emanates, in like manner as when pure phosphorus is handled. I am not aware that this is ever the case with the real glow-worm. * I was not then aware of the observations of Mr. Gosse, who states that he found the light might be immediately reproduced by breathing upon the centipede : the experiment fails (it is said) if repeated too often at once, though after the lapse of a day and night it will produce the same results as at first. See The Zoologist, p. 160. OBSERVATIONS ON WORMS/ The different kinds of worms, as they may be called in a general way, inhabiting the land or fresh- water, appear to be numerous : yet they have re- ceived but little attention from naturalists, at least from the naturalists of this country. They whose inclinations have led them to the study of these tribes, have for the most part restricted their atten- tion to the marine species, which doubtless are more attractive from their larger size, and greater variety. — Nevertheless, those abovementioned are not without interest, and would repay a careful investigation of their characters and history. Those found free, that is, not inhabiting the bodies of other animals, belong principally to the old genera of Lumbricus, Nais, Gor- dius, Hirudo, and Planaria, which have been since divided into several others. Some of those common in ponds, though not strictly parasitical, are often found infesting the shells of certain fresh-water molluscks, more particularly the Physa fontinalis, Paludina vivipara, and Planorhis marginatus, which appear particularly to suffer from their attacks, wriggling much about in the attempt to rid them- selves of their enemies, which creep round them, and adhere very closely to their soft parts. It seems * Comprising the two groups of Annelida and Enlozou of uioJern naturalists. SMALL RED DITCH-WORM. 299 not improbable that some of the minuter worms of this kind, including one which is frequently to be met with in wet moss, and soft decomposing wood that has lain long in wet places, may be the first forms of other species which have been hitherto con- sidered distinct. But as yet we are very much in the dark respecting the modes of propagation and development of these obscure animals, and scarcely know what changes they may pass through before arriving at their full growth : — this is especially the case with the Entozoa.* SMALL RED DITCH-WORM. There is a small red worm, about an inch and a half long, not uncommon in this neighbourhood, in ditches, and in the rills which are cut to drain pas- tures, either burrowing in the mud, or conceal- ing itself amongst aquatic plants, particularly the Chara vulgaris, to which it shews much attachment. It has not often been noticed by English naturalists, but it appears to be the species described by Miiller under the name of Lumhricus variegatus.-f This worm has often astonished me by its powers of reproduc- * Since the above was written, I have seen the important me- moir by Steenstrup, On the Alternation of' Generations, an Eng- lish Translation of which forms one of the last publications of the Ray Society. The observations of this author, if correct, throw a new aspect over the whole subject of the origin and first life of the Entozoa, as well of some other of the lower animals. * Vermium Historia, vol. i. pt. ii. p. 26. See also The Zoological Journal, vol. iii. p. 326, where it is well described by Dr. Johnston, the only English author who, so far as I am aware, has noticed it. 300 OBSERVATIONS ON WORMS. tion and multiplication, when divided into the small- est pieces. Mliller, indeed, has noticed this pro- perty which it possesses ; and states it moreover to be the species which was the subject of Bonnet's experiments, which are well known.* But what has most struck me, is the readiness with which a severed portion will acquire a fresh growth of parts, both anteriorly and posteriorly, not merely when placed in the same ditch-water in which it ordinarily lives, and which may be conceived replete with animal and vegetable matter, but when kept in pure pump- water, renewed every day. Such water, when quite fresh, rarely, if ever, is foimd to contain the smallest animalculae, still less anything of a vegetable nature ; so that one wonders whence the worm, under such circumstances, can derive nutriment sufficient, not merely for maintaining life, but for enabling it to reproduce lost parts. How great must be its powers of assimilation to elaborate a new head and tail from the purest water in the course of a few days ! The smallest portion, cut out of the middle of a perfect worm, is not long in doubling its own length in each direction. With the view of ascertaining what the limits of its powers were in this respect, I, on one occasion, put such a portion into distilled water, but found that when thus treated it speedily died, with- ouc acquiring any fresh growth. This little worm is at all times of so delicate a structure, that, after being removed from its native * Experiences sur la reproduction d'une espece de Vers d'eau douce. CEuvres, torn. vi. p. 20. (8vo edit. Neucliatel, ] 789.) 5OT ditches, the dig: body to separate ZARTH-'W-OEM.* to, but Ti lace, a quioiiitj oi vered. about as Tnanx he ppeareiJ a; 184^, my nepbew r ;itpeDe- wlietlier. fr leading ic STOund, it re^Uici about ^kl^zch aad ApriL'' ei; are found at all seas:-? : I irov^KNit die vinter, i: ii as oftai as die lawn 1- i ^. „i 302 OBSERVATIONS ON WORMS. CLAY-WORM. March 20, 1826. — A man brought me to-day what he called a clay-worm, which he threw up with his spade while digging. It was rather more than ten inches in length ; filiform, about the thickness of a horse-hair; and white, inclining to yellowish; slightly attenuated towards the tail. The head was obtusely conical. Scarcely any trace of a mouth could be dis- cerned, except under a very high magnifier. Whether English readers to a fact said to have been observed by a foreign naturalist, which I have never noticed myself, but which it would be very interesting to have confirmed by the observations of others. It respects the phosphorescence of a certain species of earth-worm during the act of coupling. The following passage is translated from a French Journal, in which the fact is recorded. "AgTcat number of small phosphorescent animals were noticed, two or three years back, in a garden at Toulouse, during a very warm summer's evening. MIM. Saget and Moquin-Tandon, hav- ing carefully examined them, recognized them as positively belonging to the genus Lumbricus. They were from forty to fifty millimetres"'^ in length, or thereabouts. The light they emitted appeared bluish, and much resembled that of iron at a white heat. When one of these worms was crushed with the foot, the light spread itself on the ground ; it could be made to leave also a long luminous track, as if one had rubbed the ground with a piece of phosjAorus. Each of these Lumhrici shewed a clitellum well developed, which proves that the individuals observed were adult, and in the act of coupling. M. Moquin-Tandon observed that the luminosity resided in the substance of the clitellum, and that this property ceased to exist immediately after coupling." r Institut, torn. viii. (1840) p. 381. * Equalling rather more than an inch and a half to two inches, English measure. THREAD-WORMS. 303 this be the Gordius argillaceus of Linnaeus is per- haps doubtful ; but it is quite distinct from a worm somewhat similar, but much thicker, as well as of a darker colour, occasionally found in water, which last I suppose to be the Gordius aquaticus.* THREAD-WORMS. A REMARKABLE phenomenon occurred at Fair- ford in Gloucestershire in June of the last year (1845). On Sunday the 15th of that month, count- less numbers of thread-worms, apparently allied to the genus Filaria f of naturalists, were found in a * It is also quite distinct from the Thread-worms next noticed. It is probably a species of Filaria, but I have not as yet satisfied myself on this head. t The worms alluded to in the above notice do not belong to the genus Filaria, but to that of Mermis of Dujardin. The reader is referred to a memoir by that naturalist, published in the Annates des Sciences Naturelles for 1842, (tom. xviii. p. 129,) in which he has given the distinctive characters, and what he con- siders to be the true history (so far as he has yet made it out), of this new genus of worms, closely resembling both Filaria and Gordius, and hitherto confounded with this last by some obser- vers. They are worms, which, it would seem by his account, have been not unfrequently noticed, sometimes in great abundance, on the moist ground after lain, or the morning after a strong dew, sometimes also on newly-dug borders, or on the box edging of borders, twisting themselves round the plants like whitish threads spotted more or less with black internally. He believes them to be the same as what Goeze speaks of as having found in the month of June spread over the newly-dug borders of a gar- den by hundreds after a heavy storm of rain, so long back as the year 1781, but which he confounded with the Gordius aquaticus. — 304 OBSERVATIONS ON WORMS. garden in that town, after an exceedingly hard storm, and under circumstances that at first sight seemed to He believes also that it was these worms which Audouin found in considerable quantity in the larvae of the cockchaffer, of which Dujardin conceives them to be the parasites, during the first stage of their existence. And this serves to explain why the worms have been only met with in certain seasons, as appears to be the case. He supposes that, the larvae of the cockchaffer being many years in coming to their full growth, their intestinal worms wouid, like them, shew themselves more abundantly some years than others. — We may explain also (he adds) why it is generally on the surface of the earth in gardens, where these larvae live at a certain depth, that the Mermis shews itself in the spring, when the earth has been disturbed, or softened by rain : their appear- ance is furthermore occasioned by the moisture stimulating the larvae already sick to expel their parasites by contraction, and thus allowing the Mermis to get free, in order to deposit its eggs upon the ground, without being dried up. Dujardin is of opinion that many of the long filiform worms, reported to have been found in the bodies of different caterpillars and insects, have been really species of Mermis, the colour of which, becoming more and more dark according to the degree of development of the ova, has led to their being confounded with the true Gordius, as well as the circumstance of their being able to live a considerable time in pure water. He has himself kept the Mermis in water for more than eight days ; but he has always observed that the deepest-coloured indi- viduals tried to escape from the water, with a view of depositing their eggs in dry places, where they soon died. When the worms are not pressed by this necessity, he states that they can subsist for a much longer time in pure water ; and this is precisely the case with those that have been drawn from the bodies of larvae or living insects. The above is an abridged extract fromDujardin's account of the habits of these worms. He has followed it up with a very detailed description of their anatomical structure and the cha- THREAD-WORMS. 305 indicate that they must have been precipitated with the rain. I am indebted to Sir Thomas Tancred, of racters by which they are distinguished from those genera of worms most nearly allied to them. He has dwelt especially on the tegumentary system, and the reproductive organs, which last have much of peculiarity in respect of the mode in which the eggs are gradually developed. The digestive apparatus is very simple, at least in the adult state; for the embryo is provided with a distinct intestine. And comparing this embryo, (so similar to the small eel-like worms found in damp earth, and amongst moss, as well as in the visceral cavities of earth-worms, slugs, insects, and their larvae,) with the adult Mermis, in which, by reason of the excessive growth of the tegumentary system and the reproductive organs, the digestive apparatus is become incomplete and in part rudimentary, Dujardin is led to conclude that the Mermis, as already observed, is the last stage of development of an entozoon, different from all the known Nematoidece, undergoing great changes with age, and only arriving at this last stage, in the bodies of larvae or insects whose life is sufficiently long. It comes afterwards into the air merely to lay its eggs, and then dies. It is not, therefore, a terrestrial or an aquatic worm, but an intestinal one ; for which, on account of its peculiarities, Dujardin conceives it necessary to create a new order, intermediate between the Nema- toide<£ and the AcanthocephuU. The characters of the genus Mermis are thus laid down : — Vermis, corpore longissimo filiformi, elastico, antice parumper attenuato ; capite subinflato, ore terminali minima rotunda ; intes- iino simplice, postice ahsaleto, ana nulla ; vulva untied, trayisversd. Ova juxta placentas Uneares, intra tubum muscular em concepta, denique in capsulis monospermis, bipolaribus, bipedicellatis, deciduis inclusu. The species described by Dujardin, and which there is great reason to believe is identical with the worms noticed in the text, and found at Fairford, he calls Mermis nigrescens. It is thus cha- racterized : — Mermis caudd obtusd, capite subangulalo ex papillis 5-6-obsoktis ; ovis nigris. 306 OBSERVATIONS ON WORMS. Stratton, in that county, for the first information I received of this phenomenon, which seemed so singu- lar an occurrence, that, on a late visit into Glouces- tershire, I went to Fairford myself, and called upon Mr. Samuel Vines, of that place, the individual by whom it had been noticed, in order to examine the spot, and obtain further particulars. The result of my inquiries quite satisfied me as to the accuracy of the facts reported to me, which I proceed to detail. Mr. Vines informed me that there had been an ex- tremely heavy rain at Fairford, accompanied by thunder, about the middle of the day ; and that a little earlier there had been even a water-spout at Castle Eaton, a small village situate about three miles south-west of Fairford, from whence the storm came ; being, as it would seem, the residue of the water-spout in some measure spent before its arrival at the place last-mentioned. On going into his gar- den immediately after the rain had ceased, between the hours of three and four in the afternoon, he first observed some of these worms on the top of the box edging by the side of the walk ; he afterwards ob- served others, both on the soil of the borders, and on the walk itself; and, on carrying the search fur- ther, soon discovered that they were scattered over the whole of the garden, three or four on the aver- age being to be met with in every square foot. He next noticed that they were not confined to the ground, but that they were equally abundant on the leaves of the potatoes, and other crops of vegetables in the garden ; and even upon the tops of the fruit- trees, as high as he examined, certainly seven or THREAD-WORMS. 307 eight feet from the soil. In short, wherever he sought them, they were to be found ; and in his opinion there must have been thousands altogether. When first noticed, the worms were alive and writhing : those which lay upon the ground did not attempt to go into it, but remained on the surface till dried up by the sun ; and this was speedily the case with many that were observed upon the flag-stones immediately before the house ; but others, that were on the box edging, and found shelter amongst the leaves of the plants, retained their vitality for a longer period, and reappeared the Tuesday following, when there was another fall of rain at Fairford, though not in any great quantity.* On placing some of the worms in water, soon after they were obtained, they did not shew much activity in their motions, but twisted themselves into knots, and remained at the bottom of the vessel in a kind of half-torpid state, for the period of about fourteen days ; at the end of which they died, notwithstanding the water had been occa- sionally changed during the time. On inquiry I found that a few of these worms had been seen also in the neighbouring gardens, but only on the ground ; it did not appear, however, that they had been looked for elsewhere, nor that they had much attracted the attention of other observers. Mr. Vines was kind enough to give me a number of these worms, which he had preserved in spirits of wine. They were very slender, of the thickness of * It appears, however, that there was an unusually heavy fall of rain at Oxford on this day. 308 OBSERVATIONS ON WORMS. a fine thread, and measuring from three and a half to six inches in length ; somewhat attenuated an- teriorly, with a slight contraction behind the head, which was oblong and a little truncated. The tail was obtuse, and rather narrower than the body. They were of a whitish, or yellowish-white colour ; transparent at first, according to his account, but rendered nearly opake by the spirit when I saw them. Just at the contraction behind the head was a reddish stain. There were several dark spots and streaks about the middle of the body, and a few nearer the extremities, which under a high magnifier were found to be the ova, apparently quite ripe, and ready for exclusion. These ova were of a deep brown colour, and were very abun- dant and distinct in some individuals. The body was cylindrical and quite smooth in the moist spe- cimens ; but in one, which had been suffered to dry from the living state, the sides of the body, especially about the middle, presented a number of transverse plaits or folds, so as to shew a cre- nated appearance : these, however, disappeared after some hours' immersion in water, when the body resumed its natural appearance. These worms undoubtedly belong to the genus Mermis of Dujardin, to whose memoir, giving a detailed account of their structure and organiza- tion, I have referred in a note. They accord exactly with his description, and are in all proba- bility identically the same species, which had been noticed by him and others under circumstances very similar to those above recorded. The only THREAD-WORMS. 309 fact of importance, in addition to what he has mentioned, is that of their having been found in this instance upon the trees in the garden, as well as upon the ground and low vegetables. Dujardin mentions their occasional appearance in large num- bers in gardens after rain, both on the soil and on the box edging so common by the side of bor- ders, and the theory by which he accounts for it is stated below. But to explain the circumstance of their being met with at Fairford on the tops of the trees, consistently with this theory, we must either suppose that the worms, after their exit from the soil, and when searching for a spot to deposit their eggs, actually ascended to the height at which they were found, working their way up the stems of the trees by a continued writhing, and, as it would seem, in a marvellously short space of time ; or that some of them had not quitted the bodies of the grubs in which they were originally imprisoned till after these last were transformed into beetles, and had conveyed themselves ta the trees.* At the same time, it is possible that some of the worms, which had climbed to so considerable a height, might have first left the ground on a former occasion, only not have been noticed till after the hard rain on the 15th which caused them to revive ; in like manner as those which were found on the box edging reappeared two days after on the return of wet, having in the mean time * I did not hear, however, that any coekchaffers had been observed in the garden previously. 310 OBSERVATIONS ON WORMS. concealed themselves amongst the leaves. Also, when attention had been attracted towards them by the occurrence of others in such numbers on the ground, they might readily be perceived, when but for this circumstance they would have passed unobserved. The fact of their having been ob- tained at such elevations is quite certain. Mr. Vines was so good as to take me into his garden, and to point out the exact spots in which he found them ; and everything he stated was con- firmed by the testimony of a second person, who was employed as a labourer in the garden and at work when I called. Possibly such a phenomenon may be more frequent than is supposed ; though I am not aware of more than a slight notice of it, in one previous instance, in this country.* If so, the recording of it in this instance may have the effect of leading naturalists to look out for, and to discover, other instances of its occurrence in their own neighbourhood. They will also be di- rected by the foregoing details to the particular points requiring further examination ; and be en- * " On Tuesday, June 19, after a very heavy storm, an extraor- dinary phenomenon was observed at the Buckhold Wood, Lydart, Troy Park, and other places in the neighbourhood of Monmouth. The ground and trees were covered with myriads of live snake-like insects, quantities of which were collected by different persons. They are six or seven inches in length, about the thickness of a horse-hair, white, and quite transparent." Mug. of' Nut. Hist. vol. ix. p. 241, quoted from the Lilerary Guzttte of June 23, 1832. The worms in this instance were erroneously referred to the Gordius aquaticus. WORM IN A GNAT. 311 abied perhaps to remove so much as there is of mystery still enveloping the vs^hole subject. WORM IN A GNAT. Even the smaller insects do not appear exempt from worms, which sometimes are of such a size, compared with that of the species they infest, as to occupy almost the entire cavity of the abdomen. I once caught a gnat* by the side of a stream, which, shortly after it had been secured, gave birth, from between the segments of the abdomen, to a worm more than an inch in length. This worm was thicker than the thread-worms noticed in the last article : when it was wholly out of its prison, the abdomen of the gnat collapsed like an empty glove. VINEGAR EEL.f The little eels found occasionally in vinegar are well known. Some persons suppose that they are to be found at all times in that liquid, when sought for with the microscope. This, however, is not the case. It is only vinegar, which has been kept some time, and which is become bad, that gives birth to them. What is more, they will not live long in good vinegar. This I ascertained * Chironomus plumosus of Meigen, or a nearly allied species, t Vibrio anguillula, Miill.? V. uceti of some authors. 312 OBSERVATIONS ON WORMS. on one occasion, when, on adding fresh vinegar to some that had been given me by a friend full of these eels, their motions from that day became more and more languid, and in a fortnight's time they were all dead. Previously to this, I had kept them several weeks in the same vinegar in which they had been brought to me. AVlien these little eels are immersed in sweet oil, or proof spirit, their motions are much impeded, but vita- lity is not immediately destroyed. LIVER FLUKE.* Tpiis parasitic worm is well kno^\^l to be the cause of rot in sheep, infesting the liver and biliary ducts of that animal. A few individuals are to be met with in most sheep ; but their presence seldom leads to any fatal results, except when they occur in great quantities. Such was the case in 1828; in the au- tumn of which year, and during the ensuing winter, the above-named disease prevailed generally in low grounds in this neighbourhood, and in some of the more marshy districts in the county raged to an alarming extent. The previous summer had been very wet, heavy rains continuing to fall without intermission throughout July and August. According to the statement of the farmers in these parts, sheep contract this disease by feeding upon the long rank grass, which springs up abundantly * Fasciola hepaticu, Linn. Distoma heputicum of modern helmintholoo-ists. LIVER FLUKE. 313 in pastures that are low and swampy, or which are subject to inundation. They say that it is chiefly after a wet summer or autumn that the disease shews itself; that on such occasions, particularly in marshy districts, it generally prevails to a greater or less extent ; but some think that if the rains do not abound until the winter's frost is over, the sheep are not so liable to it. Feeding sheep for a very short time in wet pastures is sufficient to bring on the disease : a relation tells me, that, some years back, his flock contracted the disease by only one day's feeding upon a wet moor. This account, on the whole, seems to favour the opinion that these worms are bred in the water, and adhering to aquatic grasses, either in the egg, or, as it may be termed, the larva state, (in which last state they may possibly differ greatly from the adult fluke,) are swallowed by the sheep.* The greater part of these worms may perhaps be destroyed by the frost of winter, which would serve as a reason why there are less apprehensions of this disease * The following case, recorded by Dr, Watson, seems to con- firm the idea of these worms being swallowed by the sheep in the first instance, in some state or another: — "A healthy flock of sheep were driven through a considerable tract of country, and one of them on the way broke its leg, and had to be carried on horse- back. For one night the flock, with the exception of the maimed one, rested in a marshy meadow, and every individual was seized with the rot but itself ; it escaped the disease, and had no liver fluke. May it not be assumed, that the flock swallowed the eggs of the fluke with the fodder they cropt from the moist meadow?" I have copied this from the volume of Reports on the progress of Zoology and Botany, recently printed by the Ray Society, p. 291. P 314 OBSERVATIONS ON WORMS. in the early part of the spring, however wet that season may be. This disease does not appear to be confined to sheep. I understand that hares in particular are very subject to it, and that they not unfrequently die in great numbers the same seasons in which it prevails among sheep. This was the case during the winter of 1828-9, above referred to, when many hares were picked up dead in their forms, presenting on dissection all the appearances that sheep exhibit from the effect of this complaint. On throwing some of these flukes into cold spring- water, immediately after they had been taken from a sheep's liver, they contracted their bodies, and shewed some slight symptoms of life, but very soon died. This, however, is no argument against their aquatic nature in an early stage of their existence, as great changes may possibly take place in their organization and habits during their progress to maturity, similar to what we are familiar with in the case of many other animals which undergo meta- morphosis. There is a good description, illustrated by figures, of this entozoon, in Hoole's edition of Leeuwen- hoek's works, with notes by the translator. (Pt. ii, p. a — h. cum tab.) GROUND FLUKE. 315 GROUND FLUKE.* There is a small animal, somewhat resembling a liver fluke in shape, but more like a leech in its motions, common in this neighbourhood in damp woods and plantations, secreting itself under stones and rotten sticks. Of this animal, I can find no notice whatever by British naturalists. It is, how- ever, most accurately described by Mliller, under the name oiFasciola terrestris, which I have ventured to translate ground fluke, as an English name for this apparently neglected species. Its general appearance is more like that of a Planaria than any thing else I am acquainted with ; and to that genus, as adopted by modern authors, if it be not a distinct one of itself, it is probably to be referred. It so closely resem- bles, indeed, some of the planarice common in stag- nant waters, that I have sometimes thought (espe- cially from the circumstance of its often occurring on the banks of ponds, under stones resting upon the soft mud,) that it was only one of that tribe, which had been left on land by the partial drying up of the waters. But I have never noticed it in such situations, except where the ponds have occurred in woods ; and in certain extensive plantations at Bot- tisham Hall it is so generally distributed, occurring where no water ever stagnates at all, (though the soil is of course damp, as it always is amongst trees,) that I am now quite convinced it is strictly a terres- * Fasciola terrestris, Miiller, Hist, Verm. vol. i, pt. ii. p. 68. 316 OBSERVATIONS ON WORMS. trial animal ; though it cannot exist without much moisture. The ground fluke is from half to three quarters of an inch in length. Its form is an elongated oval, when the body is stretched out for motion : but the latter is capable of great contraction as well as ex- tension ; and, when at rest, is gathered up into a small compass, as in the leech. Above, it is slightly- convex ; beneath, flat. The skin is viscid and opake, and of a dusky or grepsh colour, darker in some individuals than others. When the body is con- tracted, it appears slightly annulose, or the surface compassed by fine ring-like striae. The anterior part can only be distinguished from the posterior when the animal is in motion. There are two small black eye-like points at the anterior extremity, but they are not discernible, except when the animal is on the stretch, so as to attenuate the skin ; and not then without the help of a strong lens. As the animal advances, it leaves a slimy track behind it, like a slug; and (as Miiller observes) it might easily be mistaken for a young slug at first sight. Miiller mentions having met with this creature in September and November. I have observed it prin- cipally in the spring, but believe that it is to be found at most seasons of the year, when there is sufiicient moisture in the soil and surrounding at- mosphere to bring it into activity. I have not been able to satisfy myself entirely in respect of its food ; but I am strongly inclined to believe that it is car- nivorous, feeding principally upon the smaller land moUusks, especially those species which inhabit the GROUND FLUKE. 317 same damp situations as itself. I have frequently noticed empty shells of the Vitrina pellucida in par- ticular, also of Helix nitida and nitidula, as well as some others, near its abode ; which is the chief ground of my thinking so. I have occasionally kept these little animals for a short time in wet moss, placed in a box with damp earth at the bottom ; but, if a certain quantity of moisture be not constantly kept up, they speedily die. OBSERVATIONS ON MOLLUSKS. Few things are more remarkable in Natural His- tory than the sudden appearance of species, in great plenty, in places in which they had been previously unknown. This has often been observed among insects, but such an occurrence is not confined to that class of animals. It happens not unfrequently with animals of other classes. I have twice espe- cially had my attention caUed to this circumstance in the case of the fresh-water mollusks. — The first instance occurred in 1822. During the spring and summer of that year, some small pits in this parish, the bottom of which consists of a gravelly clay, and which are generally full of water, but sometimes dry, or at least many of them, during the warmer months, swarmed with the Limneus glutinosus of Draparnaud * to such an extent that the shells might be scooped out by handfuls : in some places, if a bucket had been lowered into the water, it might have been drawn up half full with them. Many other species * Amphipeplea glutinosa, Nills. — Gray's edit, of Turton's Man. of Brit. Land and Fresh-water Shells, p. 243, tab. ix. fig. 103. MOLLUSKS. 319 of mollusca were in company with the above limneus ; but this species was the most abundant, and, from the circumstance of its being usually accounted rare, the most interesting of all. Many of the specimens were very large, much exceeding in size any I have seen in collections. These shells, however, did not prevail in any great numbers after that year. A few continued to shew themselves for three or four sea- sons, but they gradually disappeared ; and now many years have elapsed since I noticed even a single indi- vidual.* A somewhat similar phenomenon, in the case of another species, occurred in February 1825. The early part of that month had been very wet, causing the water to stagnate in large puddles in several parts of the park at Bottisham Hall, but which parts are not usually flooded, though sometimes a little swampy. Happening shortly afterwards to cross the park with a shell-net in hand, I immersed it into one of these puddles casually as I passed, when, to my surprise, I drew it out full of the Aplexus hypnorum,^ a species which I had not at that time taken before in Cam- bridgeshire, though I have since met with it in one or two places. In this puddle the shells were col- lected in immense quantities, whilst none of the other puddles contained one. The shells were of various sizes, though none were full-grown. It were almost vain to speculate as to how they came there. * I observe that Gray, in his Manual, speaks of this species as periodically abundant in certain places, which seems to be con- firmed by what is above stated. + Grays Manual, p. 255, tom. ix. f. 113. 320 OBSERVATIONS ON MOLLUSKS. Even supposing that the spaw^n had been dormant in the soil, or conveyed there in any way the imagina- tion can suggest, still hov^^ could the shells have acquired so rapid a grov^th in the short time the vv^ater had been standing in that spot ? — The puddle vv^as scarcely more than three feet by tv^o across ; it had not been in existence above a fortnight at long- est ; it w^as only a few inches deep ; and half a dozen fine days would have been sufficient to lay it dry again. Such, in fact, proved to be the case before the month had expired, and the species has not been observed since in that locality. Professor Henslow has communicated to me the following case of a mollusk being found in plenty in rather a singular situation, and in which also, as in the case last-mentioned it is not very easy at first sight to account for its appearance, though the conjec- ture he has offered is perhaps the most probable one. " The Messrs. Ransome, at Ipswich, supply water to a trough, connected with the supply of a power- ful steam-engine, which is obtained by a bore of considerable depth through the chalk. After sus- taining a temperature of about 100°, this water is pumped into a large cistern upon the roof of their establishment, where it retains a temperature of about 70 degrees. This tank is regularly cleaned out once a year. My attention was directed to the fact of its being continually replenished with a very large number of the Limneus pereger. Individuals of small dimensions (when I inspected the tank) were HELIX LAPICIDA. 321 crowded over the sides, and many full-grown speci- mens were also crawling about. As the water from the bore was conveyed pretty directly to the cistern, it was supposed that these moUusks might have been brought up with it ; and that they had resisted the effects of the somewhat high temperature to which it had been subjected. But a little investigation sug- gests the probable method by which the spawTi of the moUusks is introduced. Some moss and confervse also grow in the cistern, and their sporules may very possibly have been wafted there by the winds. But the most probable method by which the spawn of moUusks would arrive at this cistern, thus placed on the top of the house, is (I conceive) by its becoming entangled about the bodies of water-beetles, and I observed three or four species of these tolerably abundant in it." HELIX LAPICIDA.* Dec. 8th, 1822.— We found a pollard elm this morning pierced in all directions by the Helix lapi- cida. — On tearing away the bark, and portions of the wood, great numbers were observed of all sizes. The tree was so weakened by their attacks, and so much of its substance gone, that a slight wind would have been sufficient to overturn it. These animals appear to eat their way along in the same manner as woodlice, and will soon devour all the internal wood of a tree where they abound. Some of the indivi- * Gray's Manual, p. 140, pi. v. f. 51. p 5 iiyi'Z OBSERVATIONS ON MOLLUSKS. duals observed in this instance were in a torpid state, and had stopped up the mouths of their shells with a bung of sawdust and small chips of wood cemented toffether. HELIX CARTHUSIANA.* It is curious to observe any marked difference of habit between nearly allied species. Some years back, when collecting specimens of Helix carthusiana on the south coast between Dover and Folkestone, where this shell occurs in great plenty, I noticed that on taking them up, and holding them between the fingers for a few seconds, the animal, instead of retiring within its shell from alarm, as is generally the case with the helices when handled, invariably protruded itself to its full length, remaining ex- tended so long as it was kept in that position. I never observed this in the case of the Helix cantiana, or of any other of those species most nearly allied to the Helix carthusiana. CYCLOSTOMA ELEGANS.-f Jan. Sth, 1827. — Whilst searching to-day for fossils in Reche chalk-pits, we stumbled upon a few dead shells of the Cyclostoma elegans, which lay scat- tered over the rubbish that had weathered off from * Gray^s Manual, p. 146, pi. iii. f. 27. — H. carthusianella, Drap. t Id. p. 275, pi. vii. f. 75. CYCLOSTOMA ELEGANS. 323 the perpendicular sides of the pit. Upon looking further, a large number of specimens were found dispersed in all directions. The shells were of every gradation of growth from very young to full-sized. They were scarcely at all altered, the outer surface still retaining in part its usual colouring. They were also for the most part extremely perfect, even to the preservation of the opercle, which, in the case of many individuals, still closed the aperture of the shell. — It is a matter of curious inquiry how these shells came there, as the species is not known to occur anywhere in the neighbourhood. Though I have repeatedly searched for it in the living state, I never met with it in the entire county of Cambridge- shire, except in one locality near Linton,* and there only obtained a single specimen. The shells at Reche cannot have been brought from any distance, nor can they have remained long in their present unoccupied state. We can only suppose that they must have existed at no very remote period, if they do not still exist, somewhere in the immediate vicinity of the above pits, into which they must have been washed with the soil by the agency of some land-flood. Possibly they were confined to a small district, so that the entire race may have been drowned. * Pennant, in his British Zoology, mentions its being found at Madingley Wood, but I never observed it there myself. o24f OBSERVATIONS ON MOLLUSKS. SMALL FRESH-WATER BIVALVES.* Some years ago, when studying these little ani- nialsjf I was greatly struck with the differences of habit observable in species, which externally so much resembled each other as hardly to offer, at least to an unpractised eye, any distinguishing characters.^ These bivalves are common in ponds and ditches, as well as in streams ; the smaller species are not unfre- quently found in the gullies cut in the pastures for the purpose of draining the soil. They all live readily in confinement for several days when kept in water ; and under these circumstances their different habits may be conveniently observed. Occasionally it will be found that they become languid and inert, especially if they have been confined a long time, but they may generally be roused into activity by * Cyclada of Gray's Manual, p, 277. t See my " Monograph on the British species of Cyclas and Pisidium," Camb. Phil. Trans, voh iv. p. 289. ;[ Probably in all cases in which species are really distinct, except, perhaps, in the lowest and most imperfectly organized animals, there exist some corresponding differences of habit, as well as of structure, to mark the distinction. These differences cannot be too closely inquired into by the naturalist. When- ever it is in his power to watch the habits of any supposed new species, either in its native haunts, or by keeping it in confine- ment, let him not pronounce positively respecting it, till he has called to his aid the valuable assistance to be derived -from this source. The importance of noting the smallest fact in respect of the habits of animals has been already spoken of in the Introduc- tion to this work (10). FRESH-WATER BIVALVES. 325 the sudden application of cold spring- water ; and this is by far the best method of getting a sight of the siphonal tubes which in some cases afford good dis- tinguishing characters. Certain species, however, are at all times much more active than others. Thus the Pisidium ohtusale * is almost always in motion, residing less at the bottom of the vessel in which it is kept than any other species in the family : it trans- ports itself rapidly along from place to place, and appears to delight in floating masses of confervas and other weeds. — The P. amnicum,\ on the contrary, keeps wholly at the bottom, with the anterior half of its shell buried in the mud. — The P. pusillum X ap- pears to be somewhat amphibious in its habits : it fre- quently leaves the bottom of the vessel, and, ascend- ing the sides, takes up its residence immediately above the edge of the water, with its shell wholly exposed : there it will remain tranquil for a length of time. The most remarkable habit, however, pos- sessed by some species of these bivalves is that of walking, if we may so express it, on the under side of the surface of the water. This habit is common to many gasteropoda, but I am not aware of its having been observed in any of the bivalve mollusks. The action consists in the animal extending its foot along the surface, with its shell immersed, and in an inverted position. In this manner it contrives to traverse the water as though it were crawling along a solid plane. This habit is not exercised, except by * Monograph, p. 301, tab. xx. f. 1—3. t Id. p. 309, tab. xix. f. 2. X ^^- P- 302, tab. xx. f. 4-6. 326 OBSERVATIONS ON MOLLUSKS. a few species : the Cyclas calyculata /3*, and the Pisidium ohtusale, shew it in perfection ; whereas I never noticed it in the P. pusilliini, or the P. pulchel- lum,f though both these will freely ascend the sides of the vessel, and the latter especially is at times very active and lively in other respects. J * Monograph, p. 298, tab. xix. f. 1. t Id. p. 306, tab. xxi. f. 2—3. % The above remarks on the habits of these bivalves are ex- tracted from my Monogi-aph ; at the time of publishing which, I was not aware of any one who had attempted to explain this singular property, possessed by certain mollusks, of walking in an inverted position immediately beneath or agamst the surface of the water. Since then I have met with a passage in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, (2nd series, tom. xix. pp. 309 — 10,) in which it is alluded to by M. Quatrefages, who explains it by referring it to ciliary action. As his remarks are interesting, and enter more into the details of the phenomenon than what are given above, I will here translate the passage in question, though perhaps the phenomenon may require some further explanation than that which he offers. The passage occurs in a memoir on the Eolidina para- doxum, a new genus of Nudibranchiute mollusks, in which he finds vibratory cilia existing on every part of the surface of the body. In reference to their supposed occurrence in other gasteropoda, he says : — " The peculiarity that I have just noticed, seems to me to serve to account for a fact, which has at different times attracted the attention of malacologists, and of which I have nowhere seen any very satisfactory explanation. It is known that almost all the gasteropods can walk, as it were, on the surface of a liquid, turn- ing themselves upon their back. In this position, the lower sur- face of the foot coincides nearly with the superficial stratum of the liquid, and it is seen contracting itself and bending itself in different directions, as if it took its resting-place upon the stratum of air which it just grazes : the animal advances, though very slowly, without employing any other apparent means of locomo- FRESH-WATER BIVALVES. 327 All the species of this family of bivalves breed readily in confinement, during the spring and summer months. They are probably ovoviviparous ; and the young appear to remain for a certain period within the folds of the branchi^ previous to their exclu- sion, since many may be found of different sizes within the parent at one and the same time. They have the faculty of producing long before they are tion. This phenomenon offers two distinct peculiarities, both which stand in need of explanation. First, how can an animal, specifically heavier than the liquid in which it is immersed, remain thus suspended without falling to the bottom ? — In the second place, where does it find a foundation of sufficient support to enable it to move 1 is it in the liquid itself ? or is it against the stratum of air, as some naturalists seem to allow ? This last hypothesis seems to me scarcely tenable, looking to the difference of the density of air and water ; from which it would follow that the resistance to be overcome in order to advance, would be in- comparably greater than the effort produced by resting itself against the air. Moreover, the body of the animal possesses no appendage proper for producing this effort. The little rounded inequalities, or undulations, which the foot forms in contracting itself, cannot serve for this purpose. The same reason appears to me to be an objection to that view which regards the foot as the immediate agent in locomotion, by taking its support or resting- place in the ambient water. In that case, though the undulations of the foot might have a certain hold upon this liquid, the move- ment they produce is very far from active enough to create an im- pulse capable of overcoming the resistance presented by the water to the bulk of the body. "But if the entire body were covered with vibratory cilia, there would be no longer anything surprising in seeing the animal use a means of locomotion which serves for the large Planaria, and the Nemertes. This fact enables us also to clear up the first of the difficulties which we raised. Undoubtedly the pulmoni- 32b OBSERVATIONS ON MOLLUSKS. arrived at their full growth ; and even some individuals which are themselves so immature as to possess hardly any of the distinguishing characters of the species to which they belong, frequently contain young of a sufficient size to be seen from without through the transparent valves. ferous gasteropods can sustain themselves on the surface of the liquid by taking in a larger quantity of air. But this explanation in no way applies to those gasteropods which breathe by gills, and still less perhaps to those which, like the Actaeon for example, possess no appendage ; and all these mollusks exhibit the same phenomenon. I have even seen a small Actaeon move itself in exactly the same manner in the very body of the liquid. These facts find a very simple explanation in the existence of vibratory cilia ; and this mode of locomotion is not more extraordinary in the case of these mollusks than it is in that of the Infusoria, that of the Planaria, the Nemertes, &c." There is no allusion, by M. Quatrefages, to the circumstance of any of the acephalous mollusks possessing this property, as well as the gasteropods. CALENDAR OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA NATURAL HISTORY; WITH REMARKS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF SUCH REGISTERS. Calendaria Florae quotannis conficienda sunt in quavis Pro- vincia, secundum frondescentiam, efflorescentiam, fructescentiam, defoliationem, observato simul climate, ut inde constet diversitas regionum inter se. — Linn. Phil. Bot. Les phases de I'existence du moindre puceron, du plus ch^tif insecte, sont liees aux phases de I'existence de la plante qui le nourrit ; cette plante elle-meme, dans son d^veloppement successif, est en quelque sorte le produit de toutes les modifications anteri- eures du sol et de I'atmosphere. Ce serait une etude bien inter- essante que celle qui embrasserait a la fois tous les phenomenes p^riodiques, soit diurnes soit annuels ; elle formerait, a elle seule, une science aussi ^tendue qu'instructive.— Quetelet. EEMAKKS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA IN NATURAL HISTORY. (1.) It has been already stated in the Introduction to this work, that a Calendar of periodic phenomena in Natural History may be constructed for other pur- poses than those immediately connected with that particular science. Observations of such pheno- mena may be combined with others in Meteorology, and tend to enlarge our knowledge of particular cli- mates. Or, without being so combined, they may serve of themselves to point out many climatological considerations, of the greatest importance in certain branches of human industry dependent upon the dif- ferences which one climate exhibits compared with another. This results from the close connection which subsists between the phenomena of climate and the phenomena of the animal and vegetable worlds. The station, or habitat, together with the geographic range, both of plants and animals, and almost every feature in their history that is of a pe- riodic nature, is more or less regulated by the laws 332 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS of climate, combined with the varying influence of different seasons. It has been observed that the several stages of existence in the tiny plant-aphis, or the most insignificant insect, are connected with the stages of existence in the plant which nourishes it ; and this plant itself, in its gradual development, is in some measure the product of all the previous modifications of the ground and atmosphere.* It becomes therefore a most interesting study, and almost forms a science in itself, to trace out this con- nection, and to observe the periodic time, as well as the simultaneity, whenever it occurs, of all the resulting phenomena, considered relatively with each other. (2.) Of the phenomena themselves, or the kinds of facts which, in reference to these points, should be attended to by the observer, we shall speak in detail presently. Some of them have been already alluded to in a former part of this work.f Such persons as have made it their occupation or amusement to col- lect and register these phenomena, have seldom failed to notice in many cases a coincidence of date, which is both interesting and instructive. It has been found, that, however much the seasons may differ in different years, the phenomena generally follow one another in the same order. This indeed is what we might expect, from the circumstance of any inter- ruption in the time of their occurrence, due to seasonal * Instructions pour robservation des phenomenes perioJiques, par Quetelet. From this memoir some of the remarks that follow are borrowed. t Inirod. (11.) OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 333 influence, necessarily affecting them all equally. And it follows that those which occur together any one year, will occur at or nearly the same time every other. It would not be difficult to make out a long list of such coincidences, the phenomena in which they appear being either instances from the vegetable kingdom alone, or from the vegetable and animal kingdoms together. Thus it has been noticed that the biting stonecrop {Sedum acre), the vine {Vitis vi- niferd), and wheat {Triticumhyhernum), are all usually coincident in their time of flowering, which is about midsummer. A similar coincidence of date takes place most years in the flowering of the catmint {Nepeta cataria) and the purple loosestrife {Lythrum salicaria), about a fortnight after Midsummer. Earlier in the season, we find the box {Biixus sem- pervirens), and the ground-ivy {Nepeta glechoma), opening their flowers most punctually together on the 3rd of April, or thereabouts.* The bugle {Ajuga reptans), and the horse-chestnut {JEsculus Mppocastanum), generally flower together, in like manner, about the 3rd of May. As examples of coincidences between the periodic phenomena of plants and those of animals, we may mention Mr. Selby's remark, j- that the black-cap and willow-warbler never arrive in the north of * I find these plants flowering together on the 3rd of April, on an average of nine years in the case of the box, and of eleven in that of the ground-ivy ; and it is remarkable that the same date stands equally against both of them in the 'Naturuli&th Calendar by White. t Quoted by Mr. Yarrell in his History of British Birds. 334 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS England till the larch-trees are visibly green ; and that the garden-warbler and wood-warbler make their appearance at the same time that the elm and the oak are bursting into leaf. Indeed, the very name imposed upon some plants and animals is indicative of such sort of coincidences. Thus the flos-cucuU or cuckoo-flower of the older botanists was so called from its opening its flowers about the time of the cuckoo's commencing his call. Again, the wheatear, Ray tell us,* had this name originally given to it by the Sussex people, on account of its resorting to the Downs of that county in such numbers, previous to its depar- ture, just when the corn is ripe for harvest. (3.) But, besides the above class of coincidences, there are others which, after several years' obser- vations, may be determined with tolerable cor- rectness ; and which, being once fixed in any given country, may not only be instructive, but useful in an economic point of view. We allude to those which indicate an accordance between particular phenomena and a certain condition of soil, or sea- sonal influence, fit for the varied operations of the gardener and the husbandman. As this is a subject which has been often treated of by former writers, it will not be necessary to dwell long upon it here.f We may state, however, the * Synops. Meth. Avium, p. 75. t See especially Harald Barck's Dissertation " On the Foliation of Trees " {Aman. Acad. torn. iii. p. 363, and Stillingjieet'' s Tracts, p. 133) ; also the Preface to Stillingfleet's Calendar of Flora. OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 335 grounds upon which it rests its claims to our consideration. It is obvious that to insure suc- cess in many field operations, as for instance the raising of crops, the farmer must avail himself of a particular period of year, most favourable, in respect of the state of the atmosphere and soil, for sowing the seed. Now, the determination of this period might probably be made to rest more safely on the first occurrence of some phenomenon in the vegetable world, such as the leafing of some tree or the flowering of some plant, than on the return of a fixed day, even if the weather just at that time were to be such as might be deemed favourable for the undertaking in question. Thus, the middle of March may be, in the long run, the most suitable time for sowing several kinds of grain ; but we know that in some years every- thing at that time is locked up in frost and snow ; and even if it were not so, and the weather were fine and open at the usual period of putting the seed into the ground, still its germination, and the casualties to which the young shoot is liable to be exposed after it is evolved, must depend in a great measure upon the actual condition of the soil in respect of temperature and moisture ; which last must depend upon the whole character of the previous weather from the very commencement of the year. Whatever be the weather just when the farmer sows, it must make a wide difference whether the quantity of rain for several weeks previous has been in excess or not, or whether the mean temperature of the soil has reached a 33b IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS certain degree. Now, if he only go by the almanack in fixing his time, or if he only avail himself of the first fine week after the usual time is gone by, nothing of this sort will be taken into account : but if he know that the same conditions of soil and atmosphere, which are requisite for his pur- pose, are also requisite for bringing into flower or leaf any particular plant, he cannot be far out in his reckoning, if he wait for the first appear- ance of such plant to guide him in his operations. (4.) It is not improbable that some natural phe- nomena might be found, in every month in the year, calculated to assist in indicating the fittest time for undertaking all the principal operations both in the field and garden. Of course the selec- tion of them must be made with great care, and, as we before said, should be the result of many years' patient and accurate observation. It would be necessary with this view to take down the exact date, over a long period of time, at which such operations are now carried on ; together with that of the first occurrence of the most obvious, and at the same time most characteristic pheno- mena, in regard of the indication they afford of certain states of weather or advances of season. By afterwards examining the results of those oper- ations, and noting the time at which the most successful appear to have been conducted, it may be found, on looking back, what natural phe- nomena first showed themselves just at that pe- riod, or were coincident with the time selected. Something has been already attempted in this OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 337 way,* but it would require the cooperation of many observers to arrive at any useful or trustworthy con- clusions. Nevertheless, the subject is worth attend- ing to ; and if a natural calendar, constructed, as some have proposed, after this manner, did not entirely supersede the artificial one at present in use, it might at least have a subsidiary value in the case of some matters in husbandry and gardening, calling for a more than ordinary regard to the conditions of the soil, and the influence of particular seasons. (5.) We come now to speak of another application of the Naturalist's Calendar of Periodic Phenomena, and one calculated to advance the ends of science in a more general manner. This is its application to the subject of the laws of climate, and at the same time to many important questions in animal and vegetable physiology. In reference to these ends, it is requisite that such calendars be kept in differ- ent places, upon a given plan, by as many different observers as may be prevailed upon to join in the inquiry.-}- When so conducted, as they have been lately, according to a system to which we shall have occasion presently to allude further, the results * See Bark's tract, already alluded to, and Berger's Calenda- rium Flora, in the Amanitates Academics ; both translated by Stillingfleet, who has appended to the latter his own calendar. f Such calendars should be combined with observations in Meteorology, according to the suggestion of Linnaeus placed at the head of these remarks ; Ccdendaria Flora quotannis conjicienda sunt in quavis Provincia, secundum frondescentiam, efflorescentiam, fructescentiam, defoliationem, observato simul climate, ut inde con- stet diversitas regionum inter se. Philosoph. Botan. p. 276. Q 338 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS may be of great interest as well as value. By the help of such observations, made simultaneously upon a fixed number of species of plants and ani- mals judiciously selected, we are enabled to dis- tinguish those localities which are similarly circum- stanced in respect of the phenomena to which the observations relate ; and when put in possession of many such localities, we can, by drawng lines through them, indicate in a very expressive and instructive manner, the isochronism of these pheno- mena, which must be dependent upon certain condi- tions of climate connected with physiological condi- tions in the phenomena themselves. For instance, the first flowering of particular plants occurs, we know, at difierent times in difierent places ; but there are some places in which, in the case of a given species, it occurs at the same time : lines passing through such places may be called isan- thesic lines. In like manner we may have lines of equal leafing, or lines passing through those places on which particular trees come into leaf simultaneously; also lines of isochronic fructi- fication. All these lines would be analogous to the isothermal and other lines adopted by Hum- boldt to denote places having the same peculiari- ties of temperature ; and from the close connexion, before alluded to (1.), between the phenomena of climate and the phenomena of the vegetable king- dom, it would be extremely interesting to trace the relation which they bear to these last lines as well as to each other. We might ask whether the isanthesic lines preserved any parallelism with OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 339 the isothermal* lines, or whether in certain cases with the isotheral f or isocheimal ? J Again : as we may conceive lines upon which a given plant comes into flower at the same time, we might have other lines upon which its flowering is retarded or ad- vanced ten, twenty, or more days ; would these lines be equidistant from each other ? Also, would the lines of synchronic leafing, flowering, and fruc- tification, for the same plant, be generally coinci- dent ? § A number of such questions suggest them- selves to the thoughtful observer. And there is no reason why we might not extend the same mode of illustration to periodic phenomena in the animal world. All those points in their history which are dependent upon time and place ; such as their periods of migration and winter sleep, or of nidification and breeding; or, in the case of the insect world, their periods of metamorphosis ; as well as accidental occurrences, coincident with particular seasons, such as the prevalence of cer- tain epidemic diseases, or the unusual abundance of any particular species ; these questions might re- ceive great light from a simultaneity of observa- tions, made with precision in many different loca- lities, and indicated in this manner. We may al- lude to synchronic lines in respect of the first appear- ance of birds of passage, indicating their gradual * Places having the same mean temperature, t Places having the same summer temperature. X Places having the same winter temperature § Quetelet. Q 2 340 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS progress as the seasons advance, as those which would have an especial interest, and which would perhaps be the simplest to determine. (6.) Having made these remarks on the uses to which we may apply a calendar of the principal periodic phenomena in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, we may go on to state, in a more methodi- cal way, what sort of phenomena it may be desirable to record, as well as to mention certain consider- ations which should be attended to by the ob- server. (7.) The naturalist who collects such dates simply for his own use, and in order to perfect as far as possible the history of that particular class of ani- mals or plants which is the object of his studies, or such history as connected with the particular dis- trict in which he resides, is differently circumstanced from him who has more general purposes in view. Such an observer is independent of other observers. He may make his own selection of the facts he is to notice, or rather he will try to get together all the facts of a periodic nature to which he can have access. It may, nevertheless, assist him to have the principal of these phenomena classed to his hand under their several heads, in order that he may not overlook any, and that his observations also may assume more of a systematic character. With this view, we have drawn up the following tabular arrangement of such periodic phenomena in the animal and vegetable kingdoms as appear most worthy of record. OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 341 MAMMALS. With respect to these should be noted — The times of first appearance and withdrawal of those species which, like the bat tribe, conceal themselves dm-ing winter, „ of commencing and waking from winter sleep, in the dormouse, badger, &c. „ of assmiiing spring and winter dress, in the case of the Mustelida. „ of coupling and parturition. „ of shedding the antlers, in the stag and deer, BIRDS. Times of first appearance and disappearance* of regular summer and winter migrants. In respect J „ of double passage, in those species which of migration. occur twice in the year. „ of appearance of rare or accidental visit- ^ ants. )„ of commencing song. „ of full song ceasing. „ of re-assuming song, in those species which are heard again in the autumn. f„ of pairing and building. „ of laying, and commencing incubation. „ of hatching. „ of fledged young quitting the nest. The times of moulting, whether single or double. ,, of collecting in flocks, and dispersing of the same in spring. * The exact period of departure is with difficulty ascertained in the case of many species ; but it should be especially attended to in that of the swallow tribe, in which it may be readily observed. 342 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS REPTILES. The times of hybernation and first appearance in the spring. ,, of coupling ; 'i • i PI- J u ^ 1,- in the serpent 01 laymo^ and hatchma: : [ ^ f .• .1 1 1 tribe. „ 01 casting the slough ; ' „ of parturition, in the case of the viviparous Hzard. „ of commencing the spring croak ; „ of coupling and spawning ; „ of the hatching of the tadpoles ; i in the frog ,, of the tadpoles acquiring feet ; f and toad tribes. „ of the young frogs and toads coming on land ; „ of coupling and spawning ; „ of hatching; ^ in the newts. „ of larvae losing their branchiae, and acquiring the perfect form ; Time of ascending rivers to spawn, in those species which quit the sea for this purpose. „ of leaving deep water, and approaching the shore ; in those species which never quit the sea, but appear periodically on the coast. „ of spawning, and hatching of the young fry. INSECTS. Time of first appearance. „ of depositing their eggs. „ of hatching of the young larvas or caterpillars. „ of the larvse passing into the pupa state. „ of the appearance of the imago or perfect insect. „ of hybernating, in those species that live through the winter. „ of the accidental occurrence of any species, either in the larva or perfect state, in unusual quantities. OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 343 MOLLUSKS. Time of land and freshwater species quitting their respective winter retreats. „ of coupling, and laying their eggs. „ of hatching of the young. The above heads of periodic phenomena relate to the animal kingdom. In the vegetable kingdom the observer should notice — With respect to Phanerogamous Plants. Time of the sap's rising in trees, indicated by the swelling of the buds.* Time when the first leaves open, „ when in full leaf. „ when second, or midsummer, shoots appear.t „ when leaves begin to change. „ when change becomes general. „ when leaves begin to fall, „ when trees stript of leaves, * An observer has suggested, that, with respect to buds, it would be very interesting to note, at least in the case of some of the principal trees, whether at the end of the season they were much or little developed. With this view, we might give the size of them towards the end of October, by measuring their longitu- dinal and transverse diameters. He attaches much importance to such observations, from the circumstance that the rapidity with which the leafing takes place the following spring, and even the time of leafing, do not depend so much on the temperature of the spring, as on the degree of development to which the buds had arrived previously to winter. Phenomenes periodiques du Regne Vegetal. (Extrait du tom. ix. No. ii. des Bulletins de I'Acad. Roy. de Bruxelles.) t The same observer alluded to in the last note thinks that the Times of leaf- ing, &c,, comprising 344 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS Time of the germination of seeds, annuals more especially, noting also the period when sown. „ of herbaceous plants first appearing above ground. (Time of flower-buds appearing. „ when flowers first open. „ when in full flower. „ when going ofi^ flower. „ when out of flower. Time of seed or fruit ripening.* With respect to Cr^^togamous Plants. Time when mosses first shew their thecae. „ when they ripen ditto, „ when confervse, or other algse, abound in ponds and ditches. „ when fungi appear, and whether in fairy-rings. If the observer extend his inquiries to field hus- bandry, it would be important to note — Times of sowing different crops. „ of young crops appearing above ground. „ of haymaking. „ of corn, especially wheat and barley, coming into ear. „ of corn ripening, and commencement of harvest. „ of corn all carried, and fields cleared. period of the second leafing, which is very noticeable in some trees, and takes place about midsummer, is interesting, from its marking the commencement of summer and of the greatest heat ; he considers also that it is not unlikely to be coincident with many periodic phenomena in the animal kingdom, especially with the appearance and hatching of certain insects. * In the instance of the Lime, the period of the ripe seed fall- ing is a very marked epoch, from the circumstance of the large size of the attached bracts, which fall with it. This phenomenon, which has been alluded to in a former part of this work (Int. p. 32), should be particularly attended to. OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 345 To which may be added — Time of occurrence of any accidental disease or blight affecting any particular crop. (8.) Such are some of the most important periodic phenomena in natural history, which the attentive observer will do well to record. It will be obvious, on inspecting the above table, that there are a few of these, which, in respect of relative date, will be the same or nearly the same every year, and can scarcely be called so much dependent upon season, as upon the date of occurrence of some anterior phenome- non with which they are connected, this last alone being influenced by the cause just alluded to. Thus the exact time of a bird's commencing to lay may vary with the season ; but, this being determined, the periods of incubation, and of the young being hatched and fledged, probably follow regularly in all cases after a given interval. Parturition in like man- ner in mammals is determined by the time of coupling. Also, occasionally, we may have a varia- tion of date, usually dependent on season, but in certain instances varying from other causes. Thus, cock birds which have lost their mate will some- times protract their song considerably beyond the usual time of ceasing. But, in general, the great bulk of such periodic phenomena are directly con- nected with season and climate, and have a range of variation according as these last vary. And this will be particularly the case with plants, from their being attached to the soil. With these there is scarcely one epoch, throughout their several suc- Q 5 346 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS cessive stages of development, which can be called fixed, even in reference to epochs that have already transpired : there is no fixed interval between the times of their coming into leaf and flower, or be- tween the time of flowering and the time of matura- tion of the fruit. (9.) The average range of variation in respect of different periodic phenomena of the above kinds appears to be about a month. By average range we mean an average deduced from the sum of the extreme ranges in the several individual cases. But of course this will greatly differ in different localities. It is also observable, though just what might be expected, that the range of variation is much greater in respect of those phenomena which occur early in the year, than of those which occur later. The flowering of plants which naturally open in January or February, or the first appearance of animals which are torpid during the winter, may be accelerated or retarded two months or more by an unusually forward or backward spring : whereas such phenomena as generally shew themselves at or about Midsummer rarely vary, in the times of their occur- rence, to anything like that extent. The conse- quence is, as observed by Lord Bacon in the case of flowers,* that a long winter makes the earlier and later phenomena come together. The pheno- mena themselves, however much they vary in their respective dates, generally, as has been before ob- served (2.), follow one another in the same order. * Nat. Hist. (edit. 7,) p. 119. OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 347 But then, to insure the correctness of this state- ment, we must make our observations wherever we can, as in the instance of plants we readily may- do, upon the same individuals. For though all are equally subject to seasonal influence, there is a dif- ference in individual temperament, which causes some to be much sooner impressed by this influ- ence, and to have their development proportiona- bly accelerated. — To this subject, however, we shall have occasion to revert presently. (10.) Taking into consideration all that has been above stated, it appears that the naturalist or the botanist who wishes to determine the date of oc- currence of any natural phenomena connected with his particular studies, even in reference to a given locality, must extend his observations over a con- siderable number of years to obtain the mean time, which is what he should always inquire after. It should be remembered that there is a mean time for the return of every phenomenon which is regulated by time at all, however great may be the depar- ture from it in particular instances. And the ob- server's object should be to endeavour to find this mean, by repeating his observations through such a number of successive seasons as may insure com- prising within the period seasons of as varying a character as ever occur in that particular climate. When the mean is ascertained,* it will be interest- * It must be borne in mind that the true mean of several dates is not the mean of the extremes, but the mean of all the dates, ascertained by adding the whole together, and dividing by the exact number to which they amount. 348 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS ing to add the extreme dates in respect of early and late occurrence, and the included range in the case of each phenomenon. (11.) We have been considering the case of the naturalist who collects these dates solely for natural history purposes, and who gets together as many as he can of every different kind. He, however, who has it in view to deduce results serving to illustrate any particular climate, and who makes observations of this nature in connexion with, as they always ought to be in connexion with, others in Meteorology, will find it better, instead of ob- serving indiscriminately all that offers itself, to make a selection of phenomena in the first instance to be particularly noted, being those which are most obvious in themselves, as well as most de- pendent upon atmospheric causes for the time of their occurrence. — Also, if he desire to compare the results so obtained with similar results ob- tained in other places, it can only be by acting in union with other observers, all agreeing to ob- serve the same periodic facts, either in some given year, with reference to climate only, or for a given number of years consecutively, with reference to climate and season combined. (12.) Persons desirous of beginning to observe periodic phenomena might of course select their own course in this matter, and in reference to whatever ends they please. But hitherto natu- ralists have been unable to do more than to collect observations here and there for their own immediate use, from the want of other observers with whom to OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 349 co-operate upon some common plan. Hence the application of this subject to climatological purposes has been scarcely practicable.* The case, how- ever, is much altered now, from the circumstance of a number of scientific persons having agreed to undertake a regular system of observations in Meteorology and Natural History, with an espe- cial view to those important questions connected with climate, and animal and vegetable phy- siology, before spoken of (5). In the paragraph just referred to, we have already alluded to this scheme of systematic observing, which originated, * We would not have it inferred by this, that some valuable attempts have not been occasionally made to combine the obser- vations (upon the periods of vegetation jJrincipally) collected by different observers in different places, so as to shew^ their con- nexion with, and to illustrate, the laws of climate. All we mean is, that such attempts could hardly be productive of results equal to what may be expected from carrying out the plan to which refer- ence is about to be made, and which we believe is quite new as regards European observers, though we are not sure whether a similar one has not for some years back been acted upon in the United States. As a specimen of what has been effected hitherto in this way in modern times, we may allude to an instructive paper by Mr. Hogg, " On the Influence of the climate of Naples upon the periods of Vegetation, as compared with that of some other places in Europe." {Phil. Mag. and Journ. of Sci. 1834, vol. iv. p. 274, and vol. v. pp. 46 and 102.) The greater part of this paper, the author tells us, is translated from an " Essay on the Physical and Botanical Geography of the Kingdom of Najjles," by Signer Tenore : the remainder consists of some comparative remarks on the vegetation of England, principally compiled from White's Naturalist's Calendar, with observations of his own. 350 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS we believe, with M. Quetelet of Brussels ; and this gentleman has been at the pains to print and circulate ample directions for all those who are willing to join in it, so as to insure that unifor- mity of plan which is necessary for its success. For our part, we consider the scheme so desirable, and the ends which it is likely to answer so im- portant, that we strongly recommend all willing observers, who have not already adopted any other, to fall in wdth it. They may thus lend their as- sistance in a common cause, and do more perhaps for the interests of science than they could do in any other manner. We mean not to say that ob- servations according to their ovra views, and un- combined with those of others, will be useless. On the contrary, they must always have a certain value, if correctly made, and made in order to determine the mean time of any periodic pheno- menon whatsoever. For it would be desirable to know the mean time of all the periodic pheno- mena in natiu-e without exception, as well as in all places. But it must be immediately obvious, from the boundless extent of such a field, what an enormous mass of materials must be collected in reference to such a piirpose ; and how hope- less would be the task of deducing any important generalizations, for an almost indefinite time to come, if each observer were left to choose for him- self to what particular phenomena he should direct his attention. — It is far preferable, therefore, in the present infancy of the attempt to arrive at any fixed laws of climate in this manner, that we OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 351 restrict our observations to such given points, as may admit of comparison in their results, and re- move the risk of observers labouring to no pur- pose, because not labouring upon any common plan. (13.) The meteorological observations which M. Quetelet has proposed should be made, are foreign to the subject of this work. But it may be de- sirable to say more on that part of his scheme which relates to the observing of periodic pheno- mena in Natural History. — We may state that, for the guidance of those who may be prevailed upon to join in these inquiries, and to insure a simul- taneity both in their observations and their me- thod of observing, he has published lists of such species of plants and animals as he and others have agreed upon to notice, (and to which it is recommended observers should exclusively confine their attention,) as well as laid down certain con- ditions, which should be strictly kept to, in order to give value to the results. (14.) The principal heads of observation are si- milar to some of those we have already presented to the reader in a tabular form (7). They com- prise the times of foliation and defoliation of up- wards of a hundred species of trees and shrubs ; the times of flowering and ripening of the fruit in the same species, and in about two hundred plants besides ; — the first appearance and retreat of certain hybernating mammals ; the times of mi- gration of about forty different species of birds, as well as a few other points in their history of 352 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS a periodic nature ; the times of appearance and breeding in some of the commoner reptiles ; the times of certain fish ascending rivers, or approach- ing the coast, to spawn ; and the time of the first appearance of a limited number of insects amount- ing to about twenty. These lists* have been se- lected with much care, and with due reference to some especial points, — which deserve the consi- deration of observers generally in this department of scientific inquiry. Thus, in the case of the plants, it has been thought desirable to exclude all annuals and biennials, from the circumstance of their time of flowering depending in a great measure on the time when the seed was sown, so that the results would not admit of fair comparison : the only ex- ceptions made are those of the autumnal cerealia, such as winter rye, wheat, -j- and barley, from their great importance and extensive cultivation ; but it would be proper to notice also the time when these are sown, as well as that of their first coming into ear. There are also other grounds on which it becomes necessary to reject some plants : we must reject those, for instance-, which, like the dandelion and chickweed, flower nearly the whole * We do not think it necessary to insert the lists here, as they will be found in the last volume of the Reports of the British Association, (Cambridge Meeting, 1845,) according to the recom- mendation of a Committee appointed by the Association to con- sider this subject. t The particular variety noticed in this case should be named ; as some kinds of wheat, the Talavera, for instance, flower a fortnight before others. OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 353 year round ; — or which yield varieties by cultiva- tion, varying much in their time of flowering, so as to render it necessary to observe always the same variety, which is often impossible ; — or which have other species so nearly allied to them, as to make it difficult for observers in general to distinguish between them ; — or which, lastly, are of such a kind that the exact period of the flowers opening does not admit of being determined with precision ; such are the Illecehrum, Aguilegia, and others. (15.) With due regard to the above points, the selected species are for the most part perennial or woody ; these last deserving especial notice from their serving also for observations in respect of leaf- ing. The list comprises plants from all the European families, preference being given to those which are most common, or which are most widely distributed, and which have large-sized flowers ; they are also so chosen as to offer species, some of which flower every month in the year. There are some precautions to be observed with respect to the particular individuals on which our observations are made. Thus, we should avoid those plants which have been planted within a year previous ; — as transplanting in the spring leads to some uncertainty in the time of leaf- ing and flowering the season following. We should also, for reasons already given (9.), make our observa- tions, as much as possible, on the same individuals every year; which should be selected according to the circumstances under which they grow. On these accounts it is judged preferable to observe cul- tivated plants, in most instances, rather than wild 354' IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS ones : we can then be sure of observing the same in two successive seasons, and we can choose those which grow in spots that are well ventilated, where they are neither too much sheltered, nor exposed to the unnatural warmth of a south wall. With regard to trees, such should be selected as grow in the open fields, not in woods, where they are very unequally screened from atmospheric influence. (16.) Tlie directions for observers, issued by M. Quetelet, give rules also for judging of the exact epoch of leafing, flowering, &c., in any particular case. Thus, in regard to leafing, we should choose the moment when the first leaves are so far expand- ed as to bring their upper surface into contact with the atmosphere, from which time the commence- ment of their vital functions is dated. The flowering is determined by the petals or corolla being suffi- ciently open to shew the anthers, which will apply equally well to the flowers of the family of the Com.' posifcs, as to other cases. The fructification is regu- lated by the dehiscence of the pericarp, at least in dehiscent fruits, which are the great majority : in indehiscent fruits, it must be determined by their being manifestly ripe, and arrived at maturity. Lastly, the time of defoliation should be considered as come, when the greater part of the leaves of the year are fallen : it being well understood that what concerns the leaves applies only to the woody plants ; moreover excluding evergreens, in which the defolia- tion takes place at successive periods.* * In the above remarks upon M. Quetelet's plan, we have not made any allusion to his proposed horary observations on the OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 355 (17.) Similar considerations, in some measure, have determined the selection of the particular species of animals recommended to be observed in the lists of M. Quetelet, as in the case of plants. Generally- speaking, they are those which are most common and extensively distributed, or which possess parti- cular interest on any other accounts. The most im- portant perhaps are the birds, on account of their migrations, which offer points of comparison in dif- ferent countries, especially valuable and instructive, as has been already alluded to (5). These are di- vided into four classes, comprising, first, those which pass the summer in central Europe ; secondly, those which are of regular double passage, spring and autumn, without stopping ; thirdly, those which pass the winter, or a part of the winter, in central Eu- rope ; and lastly, those which are of accidental pas- sage, and occur at uncertain intervals. In the selec- tion of these species of birds, preference has been given to the land, rather than to the aquatic kinds, on account of their migrations being carried on with more regularity in all regions, and the exact time of them being more easily determined. The migra- • tions of the latter would be not the less valuable, if correctly ascertained ; but in order to arrive at any general results, it would require more observers in marshy districts, or on the sea-coast, than can readily diurnal periodicity of plants, (or noting the hour, varying with the time of year, at which certain species open their flowers,) as un- connected with our subject. A list of the species recommended for this purpose is given in his Instructions, &c. n. 14, (4to.) 356 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS be found in the present state of inquiry on this subject. (18.) Having thus given a brief abstract of the scheme which has been recently set on foot by M. Quetelet for obtaining observations in different loca- lities on periodic phenomena in Natural History upon one uniform plan, — we may now proceed to speak of the Calendar of such phenomena presented to the reader in the present work. As the bulk of the ob- servations there registered were made many years back, and long before the above scheme had been proposed, they have no immediate reference to it, nor will they admit of close comparison with any single observations made subsequently : indeed many of them are not much adapted to assist in questions of a climatological character. It has been already stated, that for such purposes a selection of phenomena would be the most serviceable (11.); whereas the pre- sent calendar is of a more general nature, and in- tended rather for the use and guidance of observers of all classes. Its main object was to endeavour to ascertain the mean time of occurrence of the various ■ periodic phenomena most noticeable in our own im- mediate neighbourhood, and for the furtherance of that department of natural history in reference to a given locality. — In the present work, it is intended in some measure to take the place of White's Natu- ralists' Calendar. With this view, the phenomena which White has recorded have been revised ; and some rejected, and others added, according as the sub- ject, especially when taken in connexion with the cir- cumstance of the increased attention of late paid to it. OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 357 seemed to require ; for, in reference to this last matter, it may still be of some service. Though it cannot be directly compared with the results of any one year's observations made upon the plan which it is proposed hereafter to adopt, — yet, according to what was before stated (12.), it must always have a certain value, so far as it assists in determining the mean date of any periodic phenomena in a given district. To fix the date of an occurrence in dififerent locali- ties with reference to a given season, the observa- tions must be made simultaneously, or during the same year ; but to fix it in reference to climate generally considered, and independent of the varia- tion caused by seasons of dififerent character, they may be made at any time, provided only they are continued a sufficient number of years to eliminate the error arising from this source. A mean date thus obtained will always be available in any ques- tions of climatological research with which it is con- nected. It stands ready for use when wanted ; and against the time when dates of the same phenomena, similarly determined in other places, may be mar- shalled along with it. Thus, for example : M. Que- telet has observed that the time of the lilac's flower- ing at Brussels is the 1st of May :* here then is a given fact always ready for embodying with others, when ob- tained, to unite in forming a synchronic line in refer- ence to the flowering of that particular plant, or, as we have called it, an isanthesic line (5). In like manner, the mean time of any other periodic pheno- menon, when once determined for a given locality, * Instructions, &c. p. 2. 358 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS preserves its value, and may prove of use, if not im- mediately, yet at some future day, for such purposes as the above. (19.) It is true that the mean date of the greater number of the periodic phenomena in the accompa- nying calendar may be little more than the most rude approximation ; and, in many instances, there has been no more than a solitary entry in one year. Of course it is not to be expected that all which have been registered are of the same value in this respect : neither, as before said, is it exclusively our object to give a table of such dates in reference to climatological inquiries. Entries, which would prove of little or no use in such investigations, may still interest the naturalist. Pains, however, have been taken to make known exactly what the precise value of each recorded observation is, as regards its ap- proach to a correct mean time, by annexing in all cases the number of years in which the observation was repeated, and from which the mean, as it stands in the calendar, was deduced. (20.) This calendar, also, though it may not admit of comparison with those formed upon the plan pro- posed by M. Quetelet, may still assist observers who contemplate acting upon that plan. This it may do, by guiding them to the time when any of the selected phenomena generally occur, and so put them upon the watch, as these phenomena successively follow one another, throughout the several months of the year. Each month in a general way has its ovm distinguish- ing occurrences, and it maybe convenient to have these arranged to one's hand, even if the arrangement is OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 359 not in all cases in such exact accordance with nature as more extended observation would make it. Also, though the number of species (at least of plants) in M. Quetelet's list is much greater than in the pre- sent calendar, still, as this last is mainly intended for English observers, and comprises most of the species given by M. Quetelet which are found in Britain, it may be of much collateral advantage in this respect. (21.) The grounds of selection, in respect of the phenomena registered in this calendar, are for the most part similar to those already alluded to in the case of the lists published by M. Quetelet. (15.) (17.) Such as belong to the animal kingdom relate principally to birds and insects. In the class of birds, they are generally those which have a more or less marked reference to, or connexion with, some fixed period of the year, especially such as are cha- racteristic of the season, and easily seized upon by the observer. At the same time there are a few which, without affording any particular indications of this nature, may tend to illustrate and improve our knowledge of the species to which they severally relate. In the case of insects, nothing is noted, with a few exceptions, but the time of their first appear- ance. Of course, in this class, the list of species inserted might be almost indefinitely extended. It has been thought proper, however, to confine it, for the most part, to such as are generally common and well known, or which at least occur in greater or less plenty each year in the neighbourhood in which ObU IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS the observations were made ; to such as are not liable to be mistaken, or confounded with other species closely allied to them ; or to such, lastly, as particularly shew themselves at fixed periods, and are most regular in their appearance. {22.) In regard of plants, nearly the same points have been attended to, as those recommended by M. Quetelet. — The species given in the calendar are mostly common ones and widely dispersed in this country; the greater number, though by no means all, are perennials; also for the most part plants grow- ing wild, though a few are only cultivated, the choice of these last being regulated by the circumstance of their being generally common in gardens, and well adapted to marking the progress of the seasons. It should be stated, that, in the case of the wild species, garden-plants have been preferred, when they were to be had, both for the convenience of being able to watch them more narrowly, as well as for the security of being able to note the same individual in successive years : — those only have been selected for this purpose, which grew in spots moderately exposed, and not affected in their time of flowering by any undue influence of heat or shelter. In addition to the observations on plants and animals, there are a few inserted relating to field husbandry, such as the times of sowing some of the principal crops, and the times of haymaking and harvest, which will not be deemed unimportant by those observers to whom the periodic phenomena of nature are a subject of interest and research. (23) For the assistance of those who are dis- OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 361 posed to commence observations on the plan recom- mended by M. Quetelet, but who are not in pos- session of his lists, it has been thought useful in the following calendar to mark with an asterisk (*) all those periodic phenomena which are included in the number proposed by him to be attended to. Certain others are distinguished by a dagger (f), which, though not given by him, appear also to be deserving of notice, or at least by observers in this country, from their being, as it has been termed, " more than ordinarily prognostic" of the season at which they occur. (24.) It has been endeavoured in this calendar, as before stated (18), to ascertain, so far as the observa- tions would allow, the mean time of the occurrence of the several phenomena therein noted. At least there are many of the phenomena, in the case of which this endeavour has been more particularly made. The observations were all made in the immediate neighbourhood of Swaffham Bulbeck, for a number of years consecutively, commencing with 1820, and ending with 1831. During this period, there were some seasons as remarkably forward as others were backward ; there were also some very hot and fine summers, as well as cold and wet ones. — The observations therefore extend over a period of twelve years. Those which have been repeated each year, or during any number of years short of the whole, but exceeding one, have their dates registered under the columns of mean, earliest, and latest, to the first of which is attached a subordinate column indicating what the exact number of years may have been, d62 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS from which the mean is calculated. When the ob- servation has been made in only a single instance, the annexed date has been entered mider the head of mean, as a place which it is entitled to hold till other observations of the same phenomenon point out what its exact value is in this respect. When only two observations have been made, and both these have occurred, as in a few instances, upon the same day, the entry has been registered under the same head, with the figure 2 annexed to it. When but two observations have been made, and they have occurred on two consecutive days, these two days have been bracketed together under the head of mean. Lastly, it may be observed, that all the entries under one date, to whatever class of pheno- mena they may belong, are bracketed together in such a manner that the eye may catch, at one glance, the several coincidences as they successively occur, without having to sort them out from the first of the three columns above spoken of. (25.) Perhaps the most perfect portion of the calendar, in respect of the number of years in which the observations have been repeated, is that which relates to the periods, at which difierent birds com- mence song, and at which our principal summer visitants make their first appearance. And these phenomena are also amongst the most important, in respect of the indications they afford of the time of year, and the character of the season. Many of the observations, likewise, connected with the leafing of trees, and the flowering of the more common plants, are perhaps sufiiciently numerous, in certain in- OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 3Qo stances, to fix the mean time of such periodic phe- nomena with tolerable precision. In others, no doubt, the date registered would be liable to consi- derable alteration from observations continued over a longer period of years. (26.) Each entry must be considered in itself alone, and as an approximation more or less to the mean period of occurrence of the phenomenon re- corded,— not as in necessary connection with any other, with which, if so viewed, it may appear incon- sistent, from the observations not being equally extensive in the two cases. Thus, to illustrate our meaning by a particular instance, there is of course a mean time, with every species of bird, for laying and hatching : if the true mean were really deduced and known, in respect of each of these two pheno- mena, the interval between them would be the exact period occupied in incubation. Looking, however, at the present calendar, and without remembering that each date is but an approximation to the true one, this approximation being sometimes much nearer than others, it may appear otherwise, and this interval be thought much shorter than in reality it is. (27.) This circumstance has suggested the pro- priety of inserting the dates of the various pheno- mena observed as they occurred in succession in some one year, and without reference to obtaining a mean time ; by which arrangement, perhaps, their true order of sequence can be more correctly traced. And accordingly such a column in the calendar has been annexed to the others already spoken of (24), and set aside exclusively for the entries of a given R 2 364 IMPORTANCE OF REGISTERS year, the one chosen being that which has just elapsed, viz. 1845 : and it will have an especial in- terest, perhaps, compared with the results of the series of years registered in the other columns, from the circumstance of its having been an extreme year ; and, throughout each of the seasons, as backward as, if not more so than, any of those which are in- cluded in the above series. At the same time it must be observed, that during this year only those phenomena are registered which happened to be observed, — and that therefore there are many blanks, some perhaps most important ones, in reference to other phenomena registered before. (28.) It may be as well to state that the scien- tific names of the several species of plants and ani- mals noted in this calendar, are believed to be in most instances those adopted by the latest authors in their respective departments. The names of the birds are the same as those given by Yarrell in his work on British Birds : the names of the mammals and the reptiles are from Bell : the names of the plants, (at least the British ones) from Babington's Manual. In all cases, however, the English names are prefixed, where there are any generally familiar to the English reader. Many of the insects have no English name at all ; this, however, is not the case vdth the lepidoptera, to which the same En- glish ones have been applied as those given by Haworth in his well-known work on this order. The Latin names of the insects generally are those of Stephens. (29.) It only remains, in conclusion, to express a hope that all errors which the reader may notice, or be OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 365 led to suspect, in this calendar, will be considerately pardoned. The bulk of the observations having been made and registered many years back, it is extreme- ly probable that there may be some wrong entries by mistake in the journal from which they are now copied, though it is believed that they are generally correct. It will also sometimes happen that the first occurrence of a particular phenomenon is in re- ality previous to the day of its being first noticed ; and this is especially likely to be the case with re- spect to the appearance of birds and insects, which cannot be watched with the same exactness as plants, and in regard of which the attention is not given to any particular individuals but to the species gene- rally. It may be added that the calendar here offered to the public is of too comprehensive a kind to ad- mit of being more than an approximation to a true Calendar of Nature. To form such a calen- dar, even for Natural History purposes alone, would require a combination of observers, each confining himself to one particular department, and in the enjoyment of such advantages, in the way of situation and leisure, as the under- taking, in order to be at all successful, demands. If the present imperfect attempt should anywise be conducive to such an end, by stimulating others to the prosecution of this subject, or should afford either interest or instruction to young observers, for whom principally this calendar has been ar- ranged, the author will be well satisfied, as well as repaid for the trouble which it has cost him, in putting it together. 366 CALENDAR OF >H £ p:^ 1 H P C/2 . ^t 5 ^ < w ^S •:-il§ i-i?i 5 ° ^-^15^ is i ii t^ o 1 ill III P4 2 O ^ 1— . liii gg '"III p^ ^ ^ 1 p^ § H«^Je! ^ ■^^^s ft •S8,S 1- III r^< a ^ ctf « i 1 :: ::- =- >c ^^ „ ^ m Xi w^ T^ en i/i lO ^2Sn a ^ ^ „ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ », o -ts ii o '1§ s a a> PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 367 t-lOCCOOO"* O'^rHlOMffl OS .^ c r*" ■V, ^ c V ^ rtrtO»CQOMTfe(S(M«5«aO«p^ 00 rf "O ^ "Tn J2 fc," X! tJ J3 t: ,fl 5 !3^ j£ Pi ■^ s g^ ^ © 0 ^ ^ IN IM (M (N S 5. 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Si O *1 OS i-H CIS t» JO , c l.s •«m>o>flw««0'0<0©OOffl«t>t^i>t»t-aoaO(» II HP, 394 CALENDAR OP Tf C5 'T i «.o,»-,.w« « ««. .....«« II -^ "3 11 "O -£ ^ J' ^-|o I'-l 1 S O CD (U •- 'b g s "i "« ^ CD (U •— ca a-" ■ CZ3 £ ^ .™ "S oj b S u C^M S >* W S & '3 ^ S! -S I, S- s S ^« -« '§« PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 395 r)< «q o lo to R :; 3 ;j ■•^s 396 CALENDAR OF -31 © O Ci « O IN 5^ (N O OS CD Ol t- O O o in i-H (N (N «u2>o«(N^"OTPOt (MCTmcomm i iN'NiMiM(Niq5q(N«q(M- (» g a 1 3^1^ r5 .■§ ffj .« OJ -J o ^ « ^ tZ3 _ PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 397 t^ '-; i> to © t> o '^£ t> 00 oo o (N OD CO Tf O © CD pH iM (M 'N .III:?. ^ i S S -» I g -2 "^ I -S i s S-Sm^mS ft-* i^ 1 -I O f ' io^s ■S3=S^ bj3 a o) — 398 CALENDAR OF O rt O M 50 t- 5« =- h s b a B § & 't/3 '« o -S-^§ i o o," S aS 1 felt '" * s S S: ~ ^ .S-r^S > o K § ^ 10C5Mt» E ^ M §2 2a^?^loQ 1,1 I I « « i " PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 399 O Oi ''S O 05 t> GO IC O 0<0 t^OiCTOff5r)c lOlOlftlfllOiOlOlfllClOW , ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ , ^ t dl ^ S I S « ^ ■ d; « f*> s § s S g s I fee hO-^ ill 115 -1 -S oq 1; -^ a, cs ■ ~ ^ta i op« H « P -^ -5 ^1 ^ s nc^^a o £ C fl J3 .fl _ bfi be Baa S 3 3 cc >- >< 2 .3 ^ OJ OJ ,^ f- ilill ^ - ! i i ' ^ i ^ i Phk" H 05 •§ £ .S &-^ ffil^ e ffll?^ 400 CALENDAR OF >, fee ^2^^ ^2S XOOCOCOXOOOlOOOOOOOOOrt PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 401 50 (N F^ (N r-4 '■<^ lO t~ X Oi l>i-ICCT)lTflQO TrO©lOO©l>»>t^i-lWr-l" ^ » ^ ^o c „ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ I I 3 -s 5 1 e s :s _ ^ s 2 I ^ g ^-P ■* § .-2 til g -fe § 1^=3 g ^ §.g §Di "§ i -g ^ > I, P s ss^'a^ ^ ;=; "S -^ '^ ^ ^ i I 2i « ^ -^ P2 Z t» O S H O ' 402 CALENDAR OF t^ t-H o o X t^ oto !Nt^T(.n(;j u5TP-*o«ai : '" i WioOOOOO-OOOl^t-t-t-t-b-OC* CC XI CO s ^ssss:i:;:;^SR:iE:;Ksss : :; :i s ^ fee ■~ !>§< •5; s la 11 'a' 2 8 s O g o be o o '2 .S2 "S go til ?~ tt ^ _ ^ a a lis « S 00^ 1^ 1^1 iE^^ si)a-i •I §^^ be a S "S, S I 1 --I S5 ^ ■~ ?L S ^ O O b£3lE 5? _ '^ ■« S "-"i? ^^ a,'^^^ 5 ^p: M fi, M H X Z ^Cu ?: ^ bC 3 S ^ PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 403 . 1-1 (N . IM « . Tf «5 Ot 1— I o CO »> sq o *1 iM ff^ (N ec «5 (N (N (M IN (N S' 5 s t. a a "^ S § S a, ; o •£ ' — '"K i f? o !>>-^ I a3 S "S <-> * tc sS 3 o Fs^ rio; « -g « til d« S ^ "S J « Is ■tf -^s S o i m g ;! -3 ^ . JO'S S ^ ^^ 1 § J3 Steffi UMOt^^g"' .12 s' *5^ -9 ^ S Iw^. : a, 3 "« s 1 =<5 S 2q .5uo ( ^ g CC < -o a be 0) IS "l-^ i iJJ ■i5§ s ts ^ f^ .2 22 404 CALENDAR OF pi? bD ^ O Ci Oi CI t^ (M O 0> CO 2 Ox 43 be \ ■n -^ ■ So 02 * '^^•s -§ .« ^ , I ■? -I ; 1,1 ^•1 a' a. -5.2 ^O' O! --'"111 ~ C5 *^ '^ "S ^ M f '~^ S -ti o oj " :: !r! !" 5^ J6 hffl fen '5 M >< JicK O W : S S § 'III PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 405 O I-H i-H 1-1 (N *» Tf CJ 0> O jq OJ u? i« 0) 3 & ^ be gn M ^ o " o> t^ ^ « " « « « - t^ - « - « - - ^ N IM M »fl Wl o «> t- 1-. CR © O (N eo MS lO O (O o OD 00 CO 00 1 s S S s S s R E S - - - - - E - - E - E E ^ 408 CALENDAR OF ffqcct- (N Tfco oo a N _^. (M ^. ^ =^ • «^ ^ '^ij! ■goo - ?M OX>C b.C5(MOiM©000 eHC* . • . -^ o ^ -w u o 5 *j u . u ! 3 a. |0 . o^^ .....^ -o . o s t- 01!NTl< (NO-^fuso— IT)n .(NO "^ 2 c. ©©r1r-l(NeCT)'«£Ot-00CCG005OO rt P- fi 1 o ^ a, o -X K W M IT^ k g >, O a i O c a 3. >> 2 .c bi) 'S'i _c 1 3 a is), turns ters houj n), turns c - 1 1 ii 13 a. (1 H Sylvia hippolais), no hiladelphus coronarii {Eristalis tenax), en ipericum androscemm a hpo-in fn fall i 1 s 1 1 g 1 "a 1 s J: ( Viburnum tinus), fl Hirundo urbica), bul een-carpet Moth (JF/ "3 So := Chiffchali' ( Syringa (P tDrone-fly Tutsan {Hi Lime leave Herald Mo Beech-mas Hedge Ace *lYj{Hede Birch turnj Ringdove ( Acrida vari Laui'estine ■*Martins (. Autumn-gr Beech turn -^ i 1 a j2 < it E" Cl O -HtMCO-fOt^ 00 Oi *» !N(NI^'N'N(M (N (N 5 ^ o PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 409 >0 CO ?N !N O :; = s o o^ ■^t; Pi (M 50 rP Tj« lo lo u? t> ^■5 5"! ■ 5^1 '■ ^ 1 .1 s II ti « 1 1 'c c 1 1 1 1 I c 1 5 c 'b 1 > 1 "'I c ii J bj c 1 ) 3 > 1 !iiH PIS ^i2 a 5 ai o o I i be u "u 'a : • = ti •=: 3 > H M 33 to o ? =^ O o ^^n^oKa< 410 CALENDAR OF O O '^6 5^ r-' (N IN 0,0 02 (N-^OiO !Ni-H t-.t^in S R !^ S O S R ■^ ■^ ffl t> i § ■« '^ ~ -= a .11 'SO ^.i:B l-l^ fisr^j:: S O I" S g S ^ §f2 Si o^ 6 2 'fee's 'S, § -« iS l-H IM Tl" 1« O CO N IN (N »» ■ >■ o ai 0) o • o Qi Q O Ci t^ 0 05 0 t» 4\2 CALENDAR OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 1-3 2 s -g : : : -^s ■?.H.^, : : :£ ■^ I ^ - :: " ^ .a -I ^ s -^ J ^" fa ^ ,== cs O W o * M O 1-1 * * VI IM ^ « t^ M ^: Q •^ .« o ^ 5^ M r^ i- ^ • ^ c Iq to cc CO ->_o 2 s "" S "U -S r" p« (M CO lO «5 ALPHABETICAL AHHANGEMBNT OF THE PERIODIC PHENOMENA IN THE EOREGOING CALENDAR, WITH A REFERENCE TO THE MEAN DATE OF OCCURRENCE. N.B. Only the English names are given in general. A. Accentor, hedge, song com- mences Jan. 17 „ hatches Apr. 1 8 „ young broods fledged „ 23 „ song ceases July 26 „ song reassumed .... Sept. 26 Aconite, winter, flowers . Jan. 26 Acorns, fall Sept. 1 9 Acrida, great green, stridu- lous note heard July 25 Acrida varia, ap Sept. 28 Agrimony, common, fl. . . June 30 Alder, fl Feb. 28 „ leafs Apr. 1 1 Alkanet, evergreen, fl. . . Apr. 9 A llecula suJphurea, ap. . . July 5 Almond, fl Mar. 28 American-Cowslip, fl. . . Apr. 26 Anemony, snowdrop, fl.. . May 13 „ wood, fl Apr. 10 Angelica, wild, fl July 31 Ant, red, ap Mar. 15 Ants, winged, migrate .. Aug. 25 Apple-tree, stript Nov. 4 Apricot, fl Mar. 10 „ leafs Apr. 3 „ stript Nov. 15 Apricots ripe July 25 Archangel, yellow, fl May 13 Arrow-head, fl July 20 Artichoke, fl Aug. 16 Ash, fl Apr. 11 „ leafs „ 30 „ leaves begin to fall . . Oct. 1 1 „ stript Nov. 4 Aspen, fl Mar.l7 „ leafs Mayll „ leaves fall Oct. 13 Atopa cervina, ap June 19 Avens, water, fl May 14 B. Badister hipustulatus, ap. Mar. 22 Barberries, ripe Sept. 2 Barberry, 1 Apr. 3 „ flowers „ 29 Barley, sown Mar.21 414 ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT Barley, fl July 1 „ cut Aug. 17 Basil, wild, fl July 1 1 Basil-thyme, fl June 30 Bastard-stone-parsley, fl. July 28 Bastard -toadflax, flax- leaved, fl June 29 Bat, long-eared, comes May7 „ noctule, comes abroad . „ 10 „ pipistrelle, comes a- broad Mar.20 „ „ last seen . Dec. 2 Bedstraw, great hedge, fl. June 1 3 „ white water, fl „ 30 „ yellow, fl July 6 Bee, hive, comes abroad Jan. 29 „ swarms May 25 Bee, plume-footed, ap. .. Apr. 15 Beech, 1 „ 23 „ flowers „ 28 „ turns yellow Sept. 29 „ leaves begin to fall . . Oct. 7 /Nov. 15 » stript \ ^^ jg Beech-mast, falls Sept. 24 Beetle, asparagus, ap June 21 „ burying, ap May 9 „ carrion, ap Apr. 13 „ large bloody-nose, ap. Mar. 29 „ musk, ap July 21 „ oil, ap Mar.23 „ rose, ap June21 „ sailor, ap May 20 „ shore, ap July 9 „ small bloody-nose, ap. Feb. 1 6 „ soldier, ap May 15 „ sparkler, ap Apr. 19 „ wasp, ap June 28 „ whirlwig, ap Mar, 5 Bell-flower, clustered, fl. June 4 „ corn, fl „ 16 „ nettle-leaved, fl July 12 „ peach-leaved, fl July 15 „ round-leaved fl June 28 Betony, water, fl „ 19 Bindweed, great, fl July 8 „ small, fl June 9 Birch, 1 April 9 „ flowers 5, 20 „ turns yellow Sept. 27 „ leaves fall Oct. 5 „ stript Nov. 8 Bird's-foot-trefoil, fl May 24 Bistort, fl „ 25 Bitter-vetch, spring, fl. . . Apr, 2 Blackberry, fl July 1 Blackbird, song commences Feb. 12 „ lays Apr, 7 ,, hatches „ 19 „ young fledged ,, 26 „ song ceases July 16 Blackcap, first heard .... Apr. 16 „ lays May 1 9 „ song ceases July 27 Blackthorn, 1 Apr. 5 „ flowers „ 7 Bladder-campion, fl June 6 Bladder-nut, 1 Mar. 30 „ flowers May 2 Blue-bell, fl Apr. 25 Blue-bottle, com, fl June 1 1 Bog-rush, black, fl May 12 Borage, fl July 1 Box, fl Apr. 3 Bramble, 1 Mar. 29 „ hazel-leaved, fl June 13 Brome-grass, barren, fl. . . „ 24 „ hairy wood, fl July 6 „ heath, false, fl „ 7 OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 415 Brome-grass, slender,false,fl. July 8 „ soft,fl May 21 „ upright, fl June 13 Brook-lime, fl IVIay 27 Brook-weed, fl June 30 Bryony, black, fl June 10 „ red,fl May 31 „ berries ripe Aug. 30 Buckbean, fl May 18 Buckthorn, fl June 7 „ alder, fl May 17 Buckwheat, fl July 12 Bugle, fl May 3 Bugloss, Italian, fl June 5 ,, small, fl „ 11 Bull-rush, fl „ 26 Bunting, common, note commences .... Jan. 1 1 „ note ceases Nov. 10 Bunting, reed, song com- mences Apr. 28 n lays May 11 „ lays a second time . . July 19 Buntings collect in flocks Oct. 6 Burdock, fl July24 Burnet, lesser, fl May 1 1 Bumet-saxifrage, fl July 5 Bur-reed, branched, fl. . . „ 10 „ simple, fl „ 17 Butcher's-broom, fl Feb. 1 2 Butter-bur, fl Apr. 24 Buttercup, fl „ 25 Butterfly, admiral, ap. . . July 28 „ brimstone, ap Mar. 10 „ brown-argus, ap May 26 „ chalk-hill-blue, ap. . . July 19 „ clouded -y ello w, ap.. . Sept. 1 „ common-blue, ap. . . June 5 „ dark- green -fritillary, ap. July 1 6 B utterfly, dingy-skipper, ap .May 14 „ grayling, ap July 26 „ greasy-fritiUary, ap. May 23 „ green - veined - white ap. Apr. 26 „ grizzled-skipper . . . . May 26 „ large-heath, ap July 16 „ large-skipper, ap. . . June 14 „ large - tortoise - shell. ap Apr. 29 „ large- white, ap „ 23 „ meadow-brown,ap... June 19 „ orange-tip, ap May 8 „ painted-lady, ap June 24 „ peacock, ap.... Mar. 31 „ ringlet, ap July 6 „ silver-spotted-skipper ap Aug. 10 „ silver - studded - blue ap , Julys „ silver - washed - fritil lary, ap „ 12 ,, small-blue, ap June 13 „ small-copper, ap. . . Aug. 20 „ small-heath, ap May 24 „ small-skipper, ap. .. July 28 „ small-tortoise- shell. ap Mar. 27 „ small-white, ap Apr. 11 „ speckled-wood, ap. . . „ 30 „ swallow-tail, ap May 30 „ 12 Butter-wort, fl „ 25 C. Campion, rose, fl July 2 „ white,fl May 22 Calamint, common, fl. . . July 29 Carahus nemoralis, ap. . . Mar. 24 Carex, great, fl May 8 416 ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT Carline-thistle, fl Aug. 8 Carrot, wild, fl June 20 Cat-mint, fl July 10 Cat's-ear, long- rooted, fl. June 14 „ spotted, fl „ 26 Celandine, fl May 11 Centaury, common, fl July 14 ChaflFer, small garden, ap. June 5 Chaffincli, song commences Feb. 1 „ builds Apr. 14 „ lays „ 28 „ hatches May 4 „ young broods fledged ,, 17 „ song ceases July 5 „ song reassumed .... Sept. 2 Chaffinches collect in flocks Dec. 25 Chamomile, wild, fl June 16 Charlock, fl May 11 Cherries, ripe June 27 Cherry, 1 Apr. 3 „ flowers ,, 14 „ leaves fall Oct, 8 „ stript Nov. 5 Chervil, rough, fl June 4 „ wild,fl Apr. 18 Chickweed, field, fl May 4 „ water,fl June 29 ChifFchaflf, note first heard Apr. 3 „ note ceases Sept. 30 Cinque-foil, creeping, fl.. . June 16 „, strawberry-leaved, fl. Apr. 15 Clary, English, fl May 13 Clover, red, fl „ 7 „ white, fl „ 22 Cockchaff'er, ap „ 15 Cocksfoot-grass, fl June 7 Coltsfoot, common, fl Mar. 13 „ sweet-scented, fl. . . Feb. 23 Columbine, fl May 1 3 Comfrej^fl „ 12 Cord-moss, hygrometric, ri- pens its capsules Mar. 1 8 Corn-cockle, fl June 18 Com-sallad, fl May 1 3 Cotton- thistle, fl July 18 Couch-grass, fl June 27 Cow-parsnep , fl „ 4 Cowslip, fl Mar. 30 Crab, 1 Apr 3 „ flowers „ 27 Crab-apples, ripe and falling Oct. 12 Crane's-bill, bloody, fl. . . June 11 „ dove's-foot, fl May 3 „ jagged-leaved, fl . . . . June 8 „ meadow, fl „ 17 Creeper, spring note com- mences Mar. 1 1 ,, builds May 6 ,, lays „ 7 Creopliilus maxillosus, ap. June 5 Crocus, spring, fl Feb. 19 Crosswort, fl May 20 Crow , hooded , last seen . . Mar. 9 , , arrives Nov. 7 Crowfoot, celery-leaved, fl. May 16 „ com, fl May 30 „ creeping, fl Mar. 22 „ upright, fl May 16 „ water, fl Apr. 24 „ wood, fl „ 21 Crown- imperial, fl „ 5 Cuckoo, first heard „ 27 „ last heard June27 Cuckow-pint, fl Apr. 30 „ berries, ripe Sep. 7 Cudweed, common, fl. . . June 21 „ mountain, fl „ 7 Currant, black, 1 Mar. 19 „ flowers Apr. 17 Currant, red, 1 Mar. 24 OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 417 Currant, red, flowers .... Apr. 1 1 „ stript Oct. 29 Currants, red , ripe July 2 Cushion-moss, grey, ripens its capsules ... ■ Mar. 5 D. Daffodil, fl Daisy, fl „ double, fl Dandelion, fl Daphne, trailing, fl Day-lily, tawny, fl „ yellow, fl Dead-nettle, henbit, fl. . . „ red, fl „ white, fl Deadly-Nightshade, fl. . . Dew-berry, fl Dock, broad-leaved, fl. . . „ curled, fl „ fiddle, fl „ great water, fl „ sharp, fl Dog-rose, 1 „ flowers „ casts its leaves .... Dog-rose, trailing, fl Dog-wood, 1 „ flowers .„ turns red Dogs-tail-grass, fl Dor, midsummer, ap Dor-beetle, ap Dotterel, makes its spring passage „ makes its autumnal passage Dragon-fly,four-spotted,ap. „ golden-green, ap... . Mar. 13 Jan. 28 „ 30 Feb. 18 Apr. 14 June 25 May 29 Apr. 26 Feb. 15 Mar. 5 June 5 May 25 June22 « 12 July 4 „ 12 „ 5 Mar. 18 June 9 Sept. 9 June 16 Apr. 24 June 9 Oct. 17 June 23 July 6 Mar. 6 Apr. 27 Sept. 19 , May 31 ,, 21 Dragon-fly , large-brown, ap. June 1 0 Drone-fly, enters houses . Sept. 21 Drop-wort, fl June 25 Duck, domestic, hatches . . Mar, 31 Dung of cattle, swarms with coleopterous insects Apr. 30 E. Earthworms, lie out .... Feb. 23 Earwig, ap Mar. 25 Eft, small smooth, ap. in ponds Feb. 8 Slater lineatus, ap Mar. 21 „ sputator, ap V 22 Elder, common, 1 Feb. 14 „ flowers Junel „ berries ripe Sept. 13 „ leaves fall Oct. 13 Elder, dwarf, fl July 26 Elm, common, fl Mar. 21 „ leafs Apr. 7 „ sheds its seed Mays „ turns yellow Oct. 11 „ leaves begin to fall . Oct. 31 „ stript Nov. 28 Elm wych, fl Apr. 1 „ leafs „ 29 „ leaves begin to fall . Sept. 16 Empis pennipes, ap. ... May 5 Enchanter's-nightshade, fl June 23 Everlasting-pea, fl July 8 Eye-bright, fl „ 17 „ red,fl „ 20 Fennel, fi July 29 Feverfew, common, fl. . . „ 28 „ corn, fl „ 20 Fieldfare, arrives Nov. 21 Fieldfares, last seen .... Apr. 5 T 5 418 ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT Fig,l Figwort, yellow, fl. Flag, yellow, fl. . . . , Flax, purging, fl, . Flea-bane, fl Flea-wort, field, fl. Flesh-fly, ap Flix-weed, fl Flowering-rush, fl. . . Flycatcher, spotted, first » lays „ hatches „ young broods fledged Fool's-parsley, fl Forget-me-not, fl Foxglove, fl Fox-tail-grass, meadow, fl. „ slender, fl FraxineUa, fl FritiUary, fl Frog, croaks < „ spawns „ tadpoles, hatched . . „ tadpoles, acquire fore- feet Frogs, young, come on land Frog-bit, fl Fumitory, common, fl. . . „ solid-rooted, fl „ yellow, fl Funkia, blue, fl Furze, fl G. Gentian, autumnal, i Gipsey-wort, fl. . . . Glow-worm, shines Gnat, common, ap. . . Mayl Mar. 29 June 10 » 7 July 24 May 18 May 9 June? Julys May 16 June 4 „ 10 July 10 „ 20 June 18 „ 21 May 13 „ 24 June 3 Apr. 18 Mar.8 ,, 9 „ 16 Apr. 17 June 18 Julys June 1 4 May? Apr. 1 May 9 July 18 Jan. 13 Aug. 31 July 30 July? Mar. 15 Goat's-beard, fl June 21 Gold - crested - wren, song commences .... Feb. 1 4 „ song ceases June 23 „ song reassumed .... Sept. 18 Goldfinch, song commences Apr. 1 1 „ lays May 18 „ song ceases Aug. 14 „ second broods fledged July 25 Goldfinches,collect in flocks Sept. 18 Good-king-HenrjT, fl Jime 1 ? Goose, domestic, hatches . Mar. 28 Gooseberries, ripe July 7 Gooseberry, 1 Mar. 13 „ flowers „ 28 „ stript Nov.4 Goose-foot, red, fl Aug. 9 „ white, fl July 15 Goose-grass, fl May 29 2 Mar. 9 Gossamer, : Sept. 6 June 12 Mar. 30 Gout-weed , fl. ... Grape- Hj'acinth, fl. Grass-hopper, common, crinks Jul}' 29 ,, large marsh, ap ,, 25 Greenfinch, song commen- ces Feb. 21 builds lays . . May 6 „ young broods, hatched May 19 ,, ,, fledged June 20 ,, song ceases Aug. 16 GreenfincheSjCoUectinflocksDec. 15 „ flocks separate .... Feb, 2 Gromwell, common, fl. . . May 23 ,, corn, fl „ 12 Ground-ivy, fl Apr. 3 Guelder-rose, wild, 1 5,14 OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 419 Guelder-rose, flowers . . . May 26 , , stript Nov.l Gull, coddy-moddy, comes inland Oct. 22 Gymnostomum o?)aiM?», ripens its capsules. . .. Feb. 9 H. Hair-grass, crested, fl. . . June 25 Harpalus ceneiis, ap. ... Mar.27 „ ruficornis,a^ May 16 Harry-long-legs, ap. ... „ 10 Hawkbit, rough, fl June 14 Hawk-moth, elephant, ap . July 11 .. eyed,ap June 20 „ humming-bird, ap.. . July 19 ,, lime, ap Apr. 30 ,, poplar, ap „ 27 , , privet, ap June 26 ,, small elephant, ap. . ■ „ 12 Hawks-beard,smooth,fl. J June 21 „ 22 Hawk- weed, mouse-ear, fl May 24 Hawthorn-berries, ripe . . Sept. 5 Hay, meadow, cut June 11 Hazel, fl Jan. 25 „ leafs Mar. 29 „ turns yellow Oct. 9 „ leaves begin to fall. « 17 » stript Nov.l Heart's-ease, fl Apr. 11 Hedge-mustard, common,fl . May 14 Hedge-parsley, spreading flowers July 18 „ upright, fl „ 15 HeUebore, stinking, fl. . . Jan. 28 Helleborine, marsh, fl. . . July 7 Hemlock, fl June 28 Hemp-agrimony, fl July 22 Hemp-nettle, common, fl . „ 15 Hemp-nettle, large flow- ered, fl Aug. 2 „ red, fl July 27 Henbane,fl June 15 Henharrier, hatches .... July 5 Hepatica, fl Jan. 25 Herb-bennet, fl May 23 Herb-Robert, fl „ 4 Hister unicolor, ap „ 1 Holly,fl „ 19 Honey-suckle, common, 1. Feb. 1 8 „ flowers June 8 „ berries ripe Aug. 6 „ leaves fall Oct. 12 Honey-suckle, pale perfo- liate, 1 Jan. 15 „ flowers May 6 Hoplia argentea, ap July 13 Horehound, stinking, fl. . . June 23 „ white, fl July 15 Hornbeam, 1 Apr. 15 „ flowers „ 21 „ stript Nov. 4 Hornet-fly, ap Aug. 8 Horse-chestnut, 1 Mar. 31 „ flowers May 3 „ turns brown Sept. 16 „ leaves begin to fall . . Oct. 1 „ stript Nov. 2 Horse-chestnuts fall .... Oct. 4 Horse-fly, great, ap June 30 „ small, ap „ 25 Horse-shoe- vetch, tufted,fl. May 26 Horse-tail, corn, fl Apr. 19 Hound' s-tongue, fl May 28 House-flies appear in win- dows Jan. 27 " swarm in windows. . Sept. 12 Houseleek, fl July 1 2 Humble-bee ap Mar. 20 420 ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT Humble-bee-fly, ap Apr. 1 1 Hyacinth, fl Mar. 27 I. Insects,broods of small cole- opterous, on wing Mar. 7 Iris, dwarf purple, fl Mar. 29 ,, german, fl Apr. 25 Ivy, berries ripe Apr. 1 „ casts its leaves .... June 1 6 „ flowers Sept. 26 J. Jack-by-tbe-hedge, fl. . . Apr. 23 Jackdaw builds Mar. 25 „ -lays Apr. 23 Jackdaws resort to chim- neys Feb. 18 „ young, fledged .... June 1 1 JacobVladder, fl May 25 Jasmine, white, 1 May 9 , , flowers July 7 Jays, young, fledged .... „ 4 K. Kerria, japan, 1 Feb. 24 „ flowers Mar. 1 5 Kestrel lays Apr. 22 „ young broods fledged July 11 Knapweed, black, fl June 15 „ great, fl „ 29 Laburnum, 1 Apr. 7 „ flowers May 1 1 „ stript Nov. 4 Lady-bird, ap Mar. 4 v„ hybernates Oct . 14 Lady's-fingers, fl June 14 Lady's-smock, meadow, fl. Apr. 1 8 Landrail, note first heard June 6 „ lays 5, 14 Larch 1 Apr. 2 „ flowers „ 8 „ turns yellow Nov. 8 „ leaves fall „ 15 „ stript „ 24 Larkspur, bee, fl June 25 „ field, fl „ 30 Laurel, common, fl Apr. 1 0 ■D ^ . n S June24 „ Portugal, fl i ' »» -'^ Laurestine, fl Sept. 28 Libellula depressa, a^. ... May 30 Lilac, common, 1 Mar. 18 „ flowers Apr. 30 „ stript Nov. 3 Lilac, Persian, fl May 7 Lily, orange, fl July 1 ,, turk's-cap, fl June 18 „ white, fl July 5 Lily-ofthe-valley, fl May 12 Lime 1 Apr. 12 „ flowers July 2 „ bracts fall Aug. 18 „ turns yellow Sept. 16 „ leaves fall „ 22 „ stript Oct. 18 Linnet, common, song com- mences Mar. 23 „ lays Apr. 25 „ young broods fledged May 28 „ song ceases Aug. 9 Linnets collect in flocks . . Oct. 4 Lizard, common, ap Apr. 11 „ young broods ap . . July 8 London-pride, fl Apr. 30 Loosestrife, great ycllow,fl. July 22 „ purple, fl ,, 11 Lousewort, marsh, fl. . . May 30 OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 4^1 Lungwort, Virginian, fl. Apr. 2 M. Magpie builds Malachius ceneus ap Mallow, common, fl „ dwarf, fl Maple, 1 „ flowers „ turns yellow „ leaves fall Mare's-tail, fl Marjoram, fl Marsh-marigold, fl Martin, house, first seen „ builds „ second broods fledged „ last seen Martin, sand, first seen . . Martins collect in great numbers on the roofs of houses . . . „ bulk departed May-fly ap May-weed, fl Meadow-grass, flat stalked, flowers „ floating, fl „ reed, fl „ rough stalked, fl.... ,, smooth stalked, fl.. . Meadow-rue, fl Meadow-safi'ron, fl Meadow-sweet, fl Mealy-tree, 1 „' flowers Medick, black, fl Medlar, fl Melic-grass, purple, fl. . . Melilot, fl Mar. 22 May 21 June 1 1 „ 11 Apr. 15 „ 29 Oct. 1 „ 7 June 15 July 8 Mar. 4 Apr. 30 May 21 Aug. 1 3 Oct. 16 May 7 Aug. 29 Sept. 29 May 17 June 24 May 31 June 1 4 Julys June 12 May 28 June 14 Sept. 3 June 30 Mar. 31 May 2 May 3 „ 3 Aug. 9 June 15 Mercury, dog's, fl Mezereon, fl Midge, ap Mignonette, wild, fl Milk-vetch, purple-moun- tain, fl „ sweet, fl Milkwort, fl MiUefoil, fl Mint, hairy, fl Misseltoe, fl Mite, scarlet satin, ap. . . Money-wort, fl Monk's-hood, fl Moorhen lays „ hatches Morell, ap Moth, autumn-green-car- pet, ap „ barred-lackey, ap. . . „ bright-line brown- eye, ap „ buif-tip, ap, „ burnished-brass, ap. „ dagger, ap „ dark-arches, ap „ dot, ap „ drinker, ap ,, emperor, ap „ garden-carpet, ap. . . „ garden-tiger, ap „ ghost, ap „ goat, ap „ gold-spot, ap „ heath, ap „ herald, ap „ lappet, ap „ large-eggar, ap „ latticed-heath, ap. . . „ magpie, ap Mar. 26 Jan. 22 May 18 May 22 „ 23 June 20 May 12 June 30 July 27 Mar. 4 „ 17 July 5 May 18 Apr. 6 „ 23 „ 23 Sep. 29 July 19 June 10 May 10 July 17 June 9 July 18 May 14 July 14 May 8 May 27 July 20 „ 4 „ 20 Aug. 23 May 24 Sept.23 Julys Aug. 2 May 5 July 12 ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT Moth, mullein, ap May 4 „ pale-tussock, ap „ 10 „ pink-underwing, ap. June 14 „ puss, ap May31 „ red-underwing, ap. . ■ Sept. 7 „ scarlet-tiger, ap July 5 „ silver- Y, ap June 10 „ six-cleft-plume, ap. . . Mar. 27 „ six-spot-burnet, ap. June 22 „ swallow-tail, ap July 24 „ tissue, ap Apr. 25 „ V, ap July 1 6 ,, vapourer, ap Sept. 15 „ white-plume, ap. .. June 27 „ wood-leopard, ap. . . July 4 „ yellow-underwing, appears July 10 Mountain-ash, fl May 7 Mouse-ear-chickweed, nar- row-leaved, fl. Apr. 21 Mugwort, fl Aug. 4 Mulberry, 1 May 19 ,, flowers June 10 Mullein, dark, fl July 4 „ great, fl „ 11 Mushrooms abound .... Aug. 5 Mustard, white, fl June 1 1 N. Narcissus, pale, fl Apr. 22 Nasturtium, amphibious, flowers June 27 Navel- wort, blue, fl Mar. 19 Necrophorus vestigator, appears July 22 Nettle, great, fl June 6 „ small, fl May 31 Nightingale first heard . . Apr- 21 ,, lays May 13 „ song ceases June 7 Nightshade, black, fl July 15 ,, woody, fl Junel3 Nipplewort, fl „ 22 Nostoc, jelly, appears on lawns Apr. 22 Nuthatch, whistling note heard „ 26 0. Oak 1 May 2 „ flowers „ 8 „ stript Nov.26 Oak, evergreen, fl May 27 Oat, cultivated, fl July 5 ,, wild, fl June 24 Oat-grass, fl June 1 5 „ downy, fl „ 4 ,, narrow- leaved, fl. .. June 16 Oats, sown Mar. 1 7 Oiceoptoma rugosa, a^. .. Apr. 26 „ tJwracica, ap „ 16 Omaloplia ruricola, ap. . . July 1 Oporinia, autumnal, fl. . . July 9 Orchis, bee, fl June 1 9 „ butterflj', fl „ 10 „ dwarf-dark-winged, flowers May 24 ,, early purple, fl „ 26 „ fly, fl. „ 14 „ green-winged mea- dow, fl „ 12 „ marsh, fl ,, 31 „ pyramidal, fl July 1 „ spotted-palmate, fl . . June 6 „ sweet-smelling, fl. . . „ 21 Owl, long-eared, lays .... Apr. 1 6 , , short-eared, arrives . . Oct. 25 „ tawny, hoots Feb. 2 „ ,, lays Mar.28 Ox-eye-daisy, fl May 27 OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. P. Pffiony, fl May 15 Pancratium, sea, fl May 23 Parsnep, wild, fl June 10 Partridge, pairs Feb. 13 „ lays May 10 Partridges, young, hatched June 21 ,, young, fledged .... July 6 Pasque-flower, fl Apr. 20 Peach, fl Mar. 13 „ leafs Apr. 2 Peaches, ripe Aug. 31 Peacock, screams Mar. 14 Pear, leafs Apr. 8 „ flowers „ 11 Peewit, lays Apr. 19 Peewits, collect in flocks Sept. 18 Pellitory-of- the- wall, fl. . . June 19 Pepper-saxifrage, meadow, flowers June 30 Periwinkle, lesser, fl Feb. 22 Persicaria, amphibious, fl. July 20 „ pale-flowered, fl. . . „ 17 „ spotted, fl „ 11 Pettychaps, first heard . . May 4 „ song ceases July 12 Peziza coccinea, ap Jan. 31 Pheasant, utters its spring crow Apr. 3 „ lays May 6 Pheasants, young, hatched June 6 Picris, hawkweed, fl July 9 Pigeon, house, lays Feb. 1 1 „ „ hatches Mar. 8 Pilewort, fl „ 2 Pimpernel, scarlet, fl June 8 Pink, clove, fl July 1 4 Pipit, tit, song commences Apr. 1 1 „ lays May 14 „ song ceases July 21 Pipit, tree, first heard . . Apr. 20 „ lays May 18 „ lays a second time.. July 5 „ song ceases „ 9 Plane, 1 May 6 „ leaves fall Nov. 3 Plantain, great, fl June 28 „ hoary, fl May 27 „ ribwort, fl Apr. 27 Plover, golden, arrives . . Oct. 24 „ great, first heard or seen Apr. 17 Plum, 1 „ 4 „ flowers „ 7 PcBcilus ciipreus, ap Mar. 26 Poplar, black, fl Apr. 4 „ leafs „ 23 Poplar, Lombardy, fl. . . „ 4 „ leafs „ 23 „ leaves fall Oct. 13 „ stript Nov. 8 Poplar, white, fl Mar. 25 „ leafs Apr. 19 „ leaves fall Oct. 8 „ stript „ 30 Poppy, common red, fl. . . June 3 „ large oriental, fl „ „ long -prickly -headed, flowers „ 6 „ white, fl July 16 Primrose, fl, Feb. 11 Privet, 1 Mar. 28 „ flowers June 27 Pyrochroa rubens, ap „ 4 Q. Quail, note first heard . . May 29 Quaking-grass, fl June 1 5 Quince, fl Apr. 26 424. ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT Radish, wild, fl. . Ragged-robin, fl. Ragwort, fl. . . . „ hoary, fl. . Raspberries, ripe Raspberry, 1 „ flowers Rattle, yellow, fl Redbreast, song commences lays hatches young fledged .... lays a second time . . second broods hatched „ song ceases „ song reassumed .... Redstart, first heard .... „ song ceases „ young broods fledged Redwing, arrives Reedmace, great, fl Rest-harrow, fl Rhingia rostrafa, ap Rhyphus fenestralis, ap. . . Ringdove, coos „ lays „ hatches „ lavs a second time . . „ note ceases Rocket, dyer's, fl Rock-rose, common, fl. Rooks build „ hatch „ young fledged . . . . „ return to their nest- trees to roost . . Rose, bumet, I May 24 „ 19 July 3 „ 31 „ 12 July 3 Apr. 8 May 22 „ 30 Jan. 8 Apr. 11 ?? 14 „ 29 June 4 „ 12 „ 23 Aug. 20 Apr. 15 June 13 „ 15 Nov. 21 July 19 July o May 2 Mar. 12 Feb. 25 Apr. 25 " 30 Aug. 12 Sept. 28 Junel7 1 Mav 26 Mar. 3 Mar. 25 Apr. 9 May •2 July o Apr. 10 Rose, burnet, fl. „ moss, fl. . . Rush, hard, fl. Rye, fl Rye-grass, fl. . . , June 4 „ 14 „ 10 Saint-foin, fl Sand-piper, common, first Sand-wort, th\Tne-leaved, flowers Sanicle, wood, fl Saxifrage, rue-leaved, fl. . . Scabious, devil' s-bit, fl. . . „ field, fl Scorpion-fly, ap Scorpion-grass, field, fl. . . „ wood, fl Self-heal, fl Shepherd's-needle, fl Sherardia, blue, fl Sialis lutarius, ap Silpha ohscura, ap „ litvigata, ap Silver- weed, fl Skullcap, common, fl Skylark, song commences. „ song ceases Skylarks, collect in flocks. Sloes, ripe Slug, black, ap > Snail, banded, comes a- broad ., „ engenders . . „ common, comes abroad „ „ engenders . . „ heath, comes abroad. June 7 May 28 June 3 May 28 Apr. 6 Aug. 18 June 28 „ 20 May 13 May 18 ,,' 27 June 20 May 10 » 14 Apr. 25 „ 16 „ 18 May 18 July 2 Jan. 23 Nov. 5 Dec. 8 Oct. 4 Apr. 16 „ 17 Mar. 20 Apr. 29 „ 16 „ 26 Mar. 1 OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 425 Snake, ringed, comes a- broad „ „ couples . . • ■ Snap-dragon, great, fl. . . Snipe, common, appears in plenty „ jack, arrives Snowdrop, fl Soap-wort, fl Soft-grass, meadow, fl. . . Solomon's-seal, fl. Sorrel, common, fl Sow-thistle, fl ., com, fl Sparrow, house, builds . . „ second broods hatched Sparrows, house, collect in flocks Spear wort, great, fl „ lesser, fl Speedwell, common, fl. . . „ field, fl „ germander, fl „ ivy-leaved, fl „ spiked, fl „ thyme-leaved, fl. . . „ water, fl, Spiderwort, Virginian, fl . . Spike-rush, creeping, fl. . . Spurge, caper, fl Spurge-laurel, fl „ berries ripe Spurrey, knotted, fl Squinancy-wort, fl Squirrel builds St. John's- wort, common, fl. „ hairy, fl „ large flowered, fl. . . „ square-stalked, fl. . . Staphylinus, large black,ap. Apr. 8 „ 22 June 11 Oct. 1 » 3 Jan. 30 Aug. 12 June 27 May 15 „ 28 June 16 July 3 Apr. 10 July 2 Sept. 15 June 26 „ 11 „ 8 Feb. 4 Apr. 29 Mar. 11 July 7 May 9 June 19 June 2 „ 18 May 2 Feb. 5 July 1 July 28 June 27 Apr. 23 July 4 June 28 July 15 „ 19 Aug. 15 Star-of-Bethlehem, fl Star-thistle, common, fl. . . Starlings, resort to build- ings „ young broods fledged „ collect in flocks .... Steropus madidus, ap . . . . Stinging-fly, ap Stock-dove, note com- mences „ note ceases Stone crop, biting, fl Stork's-bill, hemlock fl. . . Strawberries, ripe Strawberry, fl Succory, wild, fl Swallow, first seen „ song commences .... „ builds „ young broods fledged „ second broods fledged. „ song ceases „ last seen Swallows and Martins congregate .... Sweetbriar, 1 „ flowers Sweet- William, fl Swift, first seen „ young broods fledged . „ last seen Sycamore, 1 „ flowers „ leaves fall „ stript Syringa, 1 „ tiu-ns yellow „ stript May 15 July 25 Jan. 21 May 19 Aug. 24 Apr. 20 May 29 ^lar. 5 Apr. 13 Sept. 5 June 22 May 11 June 22 Apr. 26 July 10 Apr. 19 „ 23 May 7 June 14 Aug. 1 Sept. 7 Oct. 14 Aug. 12 ]VIar. 21 June 21 „ 17 May 13 July 28 Aug. 8 Apr. 12 „ 29 Sept. 18 Nov. 1 Mar. 17 May 31 Sept. 20 Oct. 29 426 ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT Tansy, common, fl Aug. Teal, arrives Nov. Teasel, small, fl July „ wild, fl „ Thistle, creeping, fl July „ dwarf, fl „ „ marsh, fl June „ milk, fl „ „ musk, fl „ „ spear, fl July „ welted, fl „ „ woolly-headed, fl. . . Aug. Thrincia, hairy, fl May Thrush, missel, song com- mences Jan. „ lays Apr. „ hatches „ ,, song ceases May ,, song reassumed .... Nov. Thrush, song, song com- mences Jan. ,, lays Apr. ,, hatches „ „ young fledged „ „ lays a second time . . July „ song ceases „ „ song reassumed .... Nov. Thyme, wild, fl June Titmice, draw near houses Nov. Titmouse, cole, note com- mences Jan, „ note ceases Aug. Titmouse, great, song com- mences Jan. „ song ceases May „ song reassumed .... Sept. Titmouse, long- tailed, lays Apr. „ hatches May Titmouse, marsh, note com- mences „ note ceases „ song re-assumed .... Toad, common, spawns . . Toad-flax, yellow, fl Tormentil, common, fl. . . Traveller's-joy, fl Treacle-mustard, Avorm- seed, fl Trees, make their mid- summer shoots . „ assume their autum- nal tints „ everywhere stript of leaves Trefoil, hop, fl „ strawberry, fl „ sulphur-coloured, fl. Trichocera kienudis, ap. . . Tulip, wild, fl Turkey-cock struts Turnip, fl Turnip-fly, ap Turtle-dove, first heard . , ,, lays „ last heard Tutsan, fl „ turns brown Tway-blade, fl ■ Jan. 1 Apr. 18 Dec. 25 Mar. 27 June 27 May 16 July 12 June 15 July 9 Oct. 5 Dec. 1 June 24 June 26 July 4 Jan. 11 Apr. 10 Mar. 10 Apr, 9 Apr. 6 May 8 June 18 July 23 July 17 Sept.21 May 17 V. Valerian, great wild, flowers July 2 „ red, fl June 8 „ small marsh, fl May 8 Velia currens appears on streams Feb. 21 OF PERIODIC PHENOMENA. 427 Vemal-grass, sweet-scented flowers May 14 Vervain, fl July 15 Vetch, common, fl June 8 „ tufted, fl Julys Vetchling, meadow, fl. . . June 23 „ yellow, fl „ 11 Vine, 1 May 1 Violet, dog, fl Apr. 16 „ hairy, fl Mar..31 „ sweet, fl „ 7 ViperVbugloss, fl June 20 Virginian-creeper turns red Oct. 5 „ leaves fall ,, 19 „ stript „ 29 W. Wagtail, grey, arrives . . Nov. 24 „ pied, first seen Feb. 1 „ „ spring note com- mences Mar. 1 7 ,, yellow, first seen .. May 3 WaU-flower, fl Mar. 24 Wahiut, 1 Apr. 27 „ flowers May 10 „ leaves fall Oct. 2 „ stript „ 21 Walnuts, ripe Oct. 5 Warbler, sedge, first heard Apr, 25 „ lays May 20 „ song ceases July 22 Warbler, willow, first heard Apr. 15 „ lays May 13 „ song ceases July 23 Warbler, wood, first heard May 4 „ song ceases June 28 Wart-cress, common, fl. . . June 1 6 Wasp, queen, ap Apr. 19 „ common, begins to abound June 25 Water-cress, fl June 4 Water- drop wort, common, flowers July 1 „ fine-leaved, fl July 13 Water-lily, white, fl June 30 „ yellow, fl , 26 Water-parsnep, broad- leaved, fl July 16 „ narrow-leaved, fl. .. „ 17 „ procumbent, fl „ 16 Water-plantain, great, fl. . „ 3 Water-soldier, fl „ 10 Water- violet, fl May 11 Wheat, fl June 23 „ cut July 30 „ sown Oct. 7 Whinchat, first heard . . Apr. 24 „ lays May 20 „ song ceases June 30 White-thorn, 1 Mar. 23 „ flowers May 5 „ leaves fall Oct. 26 „ stript Nov. 4 White-throat, common, first heard Apr. 25 „ young broods fledged May 31 „ song ceases July 18 White-throat, lesser, first heard Apr, 26 „ lays May 1 6 „ song ceases July 7 Whitlow-grass, common, fl. Mar. 5 Wild-duck arrives Oct. 29 Wild-geese, flocks arrive . „ 28 ,, return north Mar. 3 Willow, weeping, 1 „ 21 Willows, open their catkins „ 19 Willow-herb, French, fl, \ '^'^^f i n 27 „ great, fl July 16 428 ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT. Willow-herb, small-flower- ed, fl July 12 „ smootli- leaved, fl. . . „ 2 Winter-cress, bitter, fl, . . May 7 Woodcock, arrives Oct. 30 „ last seen Mar, 1 6 Woodpecker, green, cries . „ 25 Woodpigeons collect in flocks Nov. 13 Woodrufi", fl May 5 Wood-rush, field, fl Apr. 1 1 Wormwood, fl Aug. 1 Wound-wort, hedge, fl. . . June 11 „ marsh, fl July 14 Wren, song commences . . Jan. 5 „ builds Apr. 14 Wren,secondbroodsfledgedJuly 18 Wryneck, first heard. . . - Apr. 24 Y. Yellow-hammer, song com- mences Feb. 1 5 „ lays May 15 „ young broods fledged July 6 „ song ceases Aug. 12 „ song reassumed .... Oct. 19 Yew, fl Feb. 28 „ berries ripe Sept 10 Z. Zabrus yihhus, ap Aug. 13 GENERAL INDEX. Acarus dormsticus, remarks upon, 290. telarius, of Linnaeus, 294. Animals, their habits and instincts much varied, 7. history of those most fami- liar to us not always the best understood, 12. remarks on the sounds of, as indicating the progress of the seasons, 16. ■ apparently in the enjoy- ment of much happiness, notwithstanding the dan- gers to which they are ex- posed, 22. how the balance amongst dif- ferent species is kept up, 22. their instincts strong evidence of a Creator's care, 24. moral lessons to be reaped from observing their in- stincts, 25. distinguish others of their own species more by the smell than by the sight, 52. ' different instances of their deviating from their usual food, 54. Anlliomyia canicularis, notice of a case in which large numbers of the larvffi were expelled from the human intestines, 278. Anthomyia, a species of, aifected in a peculiar way, 280. Aphides, immense swarm of, 283. Apio?i flavipes, resorts in great numbers to evergreens in the autumn, 243. Aplexus liypnorum^ found in large quantities in a puddle, 319. Argulus foliaceus, notice respecting, 296. Ash-rods, much resorted to by wasps, to obtain materials for their nests, 257. B. Barbastelle, one taken on wing during day, 60. Bat, great, withdraws earlier than the common species, 57. long-eared, devoured by a cat in one instance, refused in another, 54. long-eared, appears to retire early like the noctule, 59. long-eared, the sexes at cer- tain periods keep separate, 430 GENERAL INDEX. Bat, each species has its own place of resort, 55. mode in which the young ad- here to the hody of the mother during flight, 58,wofe. Beans, instance of great havoc in the crops of, from the attacks of a Bruchus, 244. Bees, fatally affected by sucking the blossoms of Dahlias, 262. instance of their forcing open the buds of the box to get at the pollen, 263. Birds, get their song by degrees, 86. occasionally heard singing out of season, 87. table of, shewing times of commencing and ceasing song, with remarks, 88. order in which they are first heard on a summer's morn- ing, 9o. clamorous before going to roost, 99. some heard in the night, 102. of summer passage, table of, 103. of double passage, 105. of winter passage, table of,l 06. flocking of, in winter, 109. nests of, often constructed some time before wanted,! 1 1 . why they appear fat in -win- ter, 112. inquiries respecting the mor- tality among, 113. Bivalves, small fresh-water, their different habits, 324. Blackbird, appears partial to damp weather, 94. Bream, Pomeranian, one taken in the water in Bottisham park, 212. Bruchus granarius, notice respect- ing, 244. Bull-head, river, one choked in at- tempting to devour one of its own species, 210. Bunting, common, remarks on, 138. reed, remarks on the note of, 139, snow, sometimes called white larks, 138. Bustard, one seen near S waff ham Prior, 176. Butterflies, notes respecting various species of, 263. Butterfly, admiral, much attracted by ripe fruit, 265. orange-tip, the males much more plentiful than the fe- males, 264. tortoisesheU, sometimes on wing in winter, 264. Buzzard, honey, one trapped at a wasp's nest, 119. C. Calendar of Periodic Phenomena in Natural History, its uses, 331. its application to the purposes of gardening and husban- dry, 334 and 336. its application to the subject of the laws of climate, 337. explanation of the one in this work, 356. Carahus violaceus, its power of ejecting an acrid fluid per anum, as a mode of defence, 234. GENERAL INDEX. 431 Cat, domestic, devours the common lizard, 66. instance of its seizing a stoat, 67. its different behaviour to- wards its kitten at different times, 67. and water wag-tail, note re- specting, 68. Caterpillars, small green, often found scattered about the win- dows, brought there by mason- wasps, 251. Centipede, electric, particulars re- specting, 296. Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis, larvae of, attack turnips, 242. Clidifer geoffroyi, four specimens of, taken from one fly, 295. Cheyletus eruditus, some particulars respecting, 291. Chiff-chaff, remarks on, 134. a new note uttered by, 135. CUronomus prasinus, notice of, 272. Clay-worm, notice respecting, 302. Cncdjiella glohosa, much attached to the field campion, 246. Cock, domestic, remarks on the crowing of, 170. Cockchaffer, large, not common at Swaffham Bulbeck,236. Cockchaffer, smaller, or midsummer dor, verj"- abundant, as well as punctual in the time of its appearance, 237. grubs of, their mode of feed- ing, 238, sometimes destructive to young lettuces, 238. Coincidences of date, instances of, between certain periodic pheno- mena, 333. Collectors, should note down facts in illustration of the specimens they get, 11. Concretions, two taken from the stomach of a calf, 82. Crake, little, note respecting, 185. spotted, note respecting, 184. Creeper, common, nest and song noticed, 156. Cuckoo, note of the female, 158. Curlew, note respecting its nest,180. Cydopsina castor, particulars re- specting, 295. Cyclostoma elegans, large quantities of dead shells found in Reche Chalk-pits, 322. D. Dabchick, note respecting, 191. Deathwatch, particulars respecting, 240. Decoy, near Crowland, note respect- ing, 189. Ditch-worm, small red, its great powers of reproduction when di- vided into pieces, 299. Dog, anecdotes of the, 70, 71. and Cat, anecdote of, 71. one that lived to a great age, 72. Dotterel, notes respecting, 177. Dove, ring, remarks on its habits and cooing notes, 1 64. a young one overpowered by swarms of flies, 165. stock, remarks on its nest and habits, 166. 432 GENERAL INDEX. Dove, turtle, not known in the neighbourhood of Bottisham be- fore 1823, 168. Doves, ring and stock, subject to tumours ontheheadandfeet,167. Dragon-fly, mode in which the fe- male lays her eggs, 250. Duck, domestic, monstrosity of, 187. Dung of caterpillars,remarks on,232. Dung-flies, carnivorous in their per- fect state, 281. Dunlin, notes respecting some found in the fens in July 1824, 181. E. Earth-worms, a large number found together in a hole under ground, 301. their phosphorescence at cer- tain times, 301,?^ofe. Earwigs, seem partial to newly- painted houses, 248. Eel, two very large ones, 221. supposed by some to be vivi- parous, with curious fact re- lating thereto, 222, note. Eel-pout, sometimes found of large size in the Cam, 220. a singular varietj' of, 221. Eidoniostraca, notes respecting cer- tain species, 295. Eriosoma, a species of, that attacks lettuces, 284. another species that attacks the Lysimaclda nummularia, 285, note. Eristalis tenaoe, its habit of entering houses in the autumn, 277 Ewe, case of one with a strange lamb, 84. F. Facts, the diff'erent kinds of, wanted by the Naturalist, 6. the most trivial should be no- ticed, 13. their importance cannot be determined at the moment of observation, 1 3. the best manner of searching for, 40. Fascination, remarks on the sup- posed cases of, in animals, 69. Fasciola terrestris, Mull, notice re- specting, 314. Fieldfare, remarks on the nature of its food, 126. Flies, the kinds that settle on horses to suck the perspiration, 273. dead, having the appearance of life, found on the leaves of trees in autumn, 273. extraordinary swarm of, 275. Fluke, ground, some account of, 314. liver, found in sheep, parti- culars respecting, 312. Frog, common, its periods of spawn- ing, hatching, &c., 199. edible, its occurrence m Cam- bridgeshire, 207, note. Gannets, two killed in Cambridge- shire, 192. Geese, wild, much less plentiful than formerly, and reason why, 186. Girafi'e, remarks on the apparent way in which it moves its legs when in action, 50. GENERAL INDEX. 433 Giraffe, mode of suckling its young, 51. Glow-worms, sometimes continue their light till after mid- night, 238. said to put out their light after connexion with the male, 239, note. Gnats (Chironomi) a cloud of, re- sembling smoke, 271. a small jet-black species, very active during winter, 272. (Culices), only the females that bite, 269. extremely abundant in houses in 1828,270. their immense numbers in South America, 270, note. Gold-fish, a monstrosity of, 211. Gonepteryoc rharnni, fond of the red valerian in autumn, 264. Gordius aquaticus, 303. argillaceus, 303. Grampus, skeleton of one found near Thomey, 85. Grasshoppers, different species of, capable of being distinguished by their notes, 249, Groundling, note respecting its habits, &c., 215. ■ two varieties of, described, 216. Gull, coddy-moddy, a sort found inland in Cambridgeshire in autumn, 1 94. common, a tame one that brought up a young duck, 195. H. Habits of observing, productive of much pleasiure, 17. Habits peculiarly adapted to a coun- try life, 20. in Natural History, tend to foster a devout turn of mind^ 21. tend to sharpen the senses, 28. Hare, common, one without ears, 77. Harrier, marsh, remarks on, 119. Hawkmoth, death's-head, weight of the caterpillar, 266. Hedge-hog, its mode of feeding, 61. Helix carthusiana, its peculiar habit when handled, 322. lapicida, notice respecting, 321. Helodes phellandrii, notice respect- ing, 246. Hen, common, anecdote of, 171. Hornet, small nest of one found in an empty bee-hive, 261 . Horse and Elephant, remarks on the order in which they lift their feet from the ground, 50. Horses, their mode of standing out at pasture in hot weather, 81. and oxen, their modes of lying down and rising from the ground, different, 49. Humming in the air in summer, remarks on, 227. 434 GENERAL INDEX. I. Jackdaw, its habit of building in chimneys, 152. a white variety of, 153. attacks stacks in April, 153. occasionally seizes 5'oung birds, 153. Jays, remarks on their food, 154. [nsects , the sorts first seen on wing in the spring, 225. wet probably more prejudi- cial to them than cold, 226. some found in odd situa- tions, 229. great scarcity of, in 1845, 229. Isanthesic lines, 338. Juncus articulatus, monstrosity of, caused by the attacks of the Livia jmwonim, 282. K. Kestrel, nest of, 118. feeds occasionally on insects, 118. King-fisher, its shrill piercing note, 158. Landrail, remarks on its note, 1 83. its nest and eggs, 184. Lettuce-bUght, some particulars respecting ; caused by a species of jEnosoma, 284. Lice, not proportioned in size to that of the animal they infest, 28C. Lice, much more abundant on some birds than others, 287. Limneus glutuiosus, notice of its occurrence in large quantities, 318. Livia juncorum , notice respecting the fiidusoi, 281. Linnis productus, notice of its habits, 242. Lizard, common, remarks on the reproduction of the tail after frac- ture, 197. Lizard, sometimes produces a large number of living young, 198. its food, 199. Lock of a drawer containing the nest of a mason-wasp, 252. Lumbricus variegaius , notice of,299. M. Martin, house, time of its appear- ance and disappearance, 160. its nest often seized by spar- rows, 160. its practice of daubing walls with mud, 161. Martin, sand, supposed to have been found torpid in one i;istance, 162. not common in Cambridge- shire, 162. Mason-wasp, some particulars re- specting, 250. nest of one in the lock of a drawer, 252. Mcloe proscardbceus, note respect- ing the supposed larvae of, 247. Merganser, redbreasted, one taken alive in summer, 190. GENERAL INDEX. 435 Mermis Dujard., a new genus of in- testinal worms, some account of, 303, note. Mite, one found on slugs, with some account of its habits, 291. ■ one that infests fruit-trees, 293. Mites, notes respecting various spe- cies of, 288. Mole, water, a black variety of the water-rat so called, 76 . MoUusks, instances of their appear- ance in large quantities in peculiar situations, 31 8, 320. means by which certain aquatic kinds walk on the under side of the surface of the water, 326, note. Moorhen, nest of one in a tree, 185. Moth, herald, its listlessness and in- activity, 268. • pink-underwing, the cater- pillars extremely abundant some years, 267. a singular variety of, 267. Moth vapourer, facility with which the sexes find each other out, 266. Mouse, common, remarks on those found in stacks, 75. . harvest, nest and young, 74. long-tailed field, one taken in a house, 74. stores up beech-mast, 74. Natter-jack, some particulars re- specting its food and habits, 204. Natural History, not simply a study of facts, 3. seeks to refer facts to general principles, 3. some professed lovers of, want further stimulus, 19. Naturalist, the in-door and out-of- door ; both equally want- ed, 8. the out-of-door, has the ad- vantage over others in some re- spects, 9. Naturalist, the young, should be guided in the choice of his studies by the particular situation in which he is placed, 9. the, more quick and ready in observing all things than other persons, 30. Nature, the inexhaustible field it opens to the observer, 12. the study of, should not lead to the neglect of revealed religion, 27. Noctule, notice of three old females with yoimg ones, bQ Nuthatch, resorts to favourite trees to crack nuts, 157. feeds sometimes on fleshy 157. Observation, a means to the rue end of the science of Natural History, 4. Observations, in any department of Nature, essential that they be correct, 5. 436 GENERAL INDEX. Observations, in Natural History, may assist in fonning the sta- tistics of meteorology, 14. Observer, the, and the theorist, in Natural History, almost necessarily separated, 6. must guard against being in- fluenced by prejudices, 33. much patience necessary on the part of, 42. should visit the same spots repeatedly, 44. Observers, mere, employ their time both usefully and agreeably, 4. the facts they collect often of much value to others, though not used by them- selves, 5. a matter of regret that there are not more, 18. Observing, rules for, 31. accuratel}^, the importance of, 32. facts in a sufficient nmnber of instances, the importance of, 36. in instances, in which the attending circumstances are different, the importance of, 38. Omaseus aierrimus, notice respect- ing its habits, 235. Owl, long-eared, nest of, 120. short-eared , common in Cam- bridgeshire, 120. ta%vny, an early breeder, 124. white, remarks on, 121. anecdote of a tame one, 122. Oxen, said to lie, when chewing the cud, mostly on the left side, 81. Oyster-catcher, note respecting , 180. Padlock, one containing the nest of some hjTnenopterous insect, 253. Papilio machaon, abundant in the fens of Cambridgeshire, but less so than formerly, 263. the larvae of, much attached to the marsh milk-parsley, 264. Partridge, common, its time of hatchmg, 173. red-legged, notes respecting, 175. Partridges, numbers foimd dead from the attacks of lice, 173. a brood of white ones, 173. combat between two and a carrion crow, 174. Peas, some that had sprouted in the crop of a stock-dove, 166. Pettychaps, remarks on, 131. Pheasant, feeds much on the roots of the buttercup, 172. a fierce one that was in the habit of attacking men, 172. Phenomena, natural, much pleasure in watching and registering, 16. Phenomena, periodic, in Natural History, connected with the progress of the seasons, 14. the regularity with which they succeed each other, 15. GENERAL INDEX. 437 Phenomena, tabular arrangement of those most worthy of record, 341. average range of variation of, 346. the mean date of, hovir ob- tained, 347, note. a selection of, best for pur- poses connected with clima- tological inquiries, 348. M. Quetelet's plan for ob- serving, 349, 351. M. Quetelet's directions for observers of, 354. Philodromus limacum, a mite found on slugs, some particulars re- specting, 291. Pike, instances of its voracity, 217. mode of taking in the fens, 218. Pike-louse, notice respecting, 296. Pipistrelle, taken on wing, with the young adhering to the breast, 58. Pipit, tree, nest and eggs of, 135. Plover, great, notes respecting, 177. ringed, numbers in the fens in the summer of 1824, 179. Pontia cardamines, the males ap- parently more plentiful than the females, 264. Prejudices, those likely to interfere with correct observation, 33, 35. Ptinus fur, destructive to books, 239. Quadrupeds, the mode in which various kinds suckle their young, 5L Quail, remarks on its note, 1 76. R. Rabbits, sometimes found with the incisor teeth of monstrous growth, 78. many found dead with their livers full of flukes, 80. Rail, water, notes respecting, 1 82. Raven, one that ate a bat entire, 140. Razorbill, one picked up alive near Wimpole, 191. Redbreast, anecdote of, 127. Redbreast, instances of its pugna- cious disposition, 129, 130. ■ singing in severe frost, 1 30. Red-eye, or shallow, note respect- ing, 214. Red-spider, a mite that infests fruit trees, some account of, 293. Redwing, remarks on the nature of its food, 125. Rookeries, strong smell proceeding from, 146. Rooks, their different times of com- ing home to roost, 140. often restless during the night, 142. remain much upon their nest trees before the breeding- season actually commences, 143. sound the note of alarm to their companions on the of danger, 143. 438 GENERAL INDEX. Rooks, have the greatest dread of a gun, 144. periods of building and hatch- ing, 145. construct their nests of fresh twigs, 145. resort much to pastures in April, 147. suck partridges' eggs, 147. do not always discover the grubs of the cockchaffer by scent, as supposed, 148, their food during severe frost, 149. anatomical notes respecting, 149. some varieties of, 150. sometimes prey on fish, 150. one with a monstrous bill, 151. Rot in sheep, 312. Ruffe, singular monstrosity of, 208. Rules for observing, 31. Sandpiper, green, note respecting, 180. Sarcoptes passerinus, remarks upon, 289. Shallow, the, of Cambridgeshire, 214. Sheep, terribly worried by horse- flies, 82. long-woolled, much infested by lice, 83. Sheep-paths, note respecting, 85. Shepherds, their precaution in put- ting a strange lamb to a ewe that has lost its own offspring, 52. Shrew, common, instance of its ex- treme voracity, 62. Shrike, red-backed, remarks on its food, 124. Sinonendron cylindricum, note re- specting, 236. Siskins, feed much on the seeds of the alder, 139. Smelts, notes respecting, 219. Smew, note respecting its food, 191. Snake, common, its power of re- maining a long time imder water, with other particulars respecting, 199. Snipe, common, young obtained from BurweU fen, 181. Sporendonema musccB, a peculiar mould or fimgus found on flies, 275, note. Squirrel, its nest, 73. note respecting, 73. Stickleback, ten-spined, a large spe- cimen of, 210. Stoat, instance of its boldness, 63. feeds occasionally on yew- berries, 64. instance of its preying on eels, 65. Sturgeon, one taken in the Ouse near Ely, 224. Swallow, time of its arrival, &c., at Swaffham Bulbeck, 158. white variety of, 159. ■ its peculiar note at break of day, 159. Swan, tame, note respecting its eat- ing fish, 187. Swifts, the number of pairs at Swaff'ham Bulbeck, 163. stay late at Ely, 163. GENERAL INDEX. 439 Tern, black, particulars respecting, 193. Thread-worms, instance of large numbers being found in a garden after rain, 303. Thrush, missel, remarks on the song of, 124. song, remarks on its hours of singing, 94. resorts to favourite stones to break snails, 127. Tick, a large one found on a blue titmouse, 288. Titmice, remarks on the notes of different species, 136. Titmouse, long-tailed, nest and eggs of, 137. Toads, remarks on the question where they pass the winter, 200. their abundance in ponds in the spring compared with the few seen about at other seasons, 202. the case of some shut up in a cellar, 203. appear to have deserted the piece of water in Bottisham Park, 204. Trichocera hiemalis, its power of resisting cold, 272. Turnip-weevil, some particulars re- specting, 241. Turtle, collared or African, its mode of feeding its young, with remarks, 169. common, remarks on, 168. Valerian, red, much visited by brimstone butterflies in autumn, 264. Vanessa antiopa, notices respecting, 265. Vespa vulgaris and V. rufa, the difference in their nests and larvae pointed out, 259. Vinegar-eels, will not live long in fresh vinegar, 311. Vole, bank, destructive to flower- beds, 77. water, its food and mode of feeding, 75. W. Wagtails, more seen in autumn than at other seasons, 1 35. Warbler, willow, its nest and eggs, 133. willow, sometimes sings in its flight, 134. wood, rare in Cambridge- shire, 133. Wasp, common, notes respecting its nest, 257. queen, found in great plenty in white-thorn hedges in spring, 255. queen, period of its waking from winter sleep, 256. tree, its nest described, 259. Weasels, two caught at once in the same mole trap, 63. Weever, great, one captured in the river Ouse, 209. 440 GENERAL INDEX. White's Natural History of Sel- bome, the influence it has had on the present generation, 10. Whitethroat, lesser, its nest and eggs, 131. Woodpecker, great-spotted, seen at Bottisham mostly in spring and autumn, 1 55. much infested by a minute Acarus, 155. Worm, a peculiar kind infesting the gills of smelts, 219. one found in a gnat, 311. Worms, remarks on those inhabit- ing the land and fresh- water, 298. thread, instance of great num- bers found after rain, 303. LONDON : Printed by S. & J. Bentley, Wilson, and Flev, Bangor House, Shoe Lane. ERRATA. Page 81, line 2 from the bottom,/a/- calculi, read concretions. „ 89 „ 12 from the top,/b»' hear, reacJheai'd. „ 298 „ 6 from the bottom,/or moliuscks, read moUusks. „ 299 „ 3 from the bottom (notes), the asterisk (*) should he a dagger (f ).