VOL. XIII, NO. 4, OCTOBER 1967 ON THE COVER- Nitrosocystis oceanus T HE cover photograph shows a new bacterium, named after our periodical. Enlarged 77,000x this micro-organism together with other marine bacteria plays a vital role in maintaining the balance of life in the ocean. Among the sophisticated equipment which the Insti- tution has been able to acquire in recent years is an electron microscope (one of only 6 in the U.S.) capable of direct magnification up to 500,000 times. Both cover and the photograph on this page are of the same bacterium, prepared differently to study the fine structure of this organism. (See the article on page 18). Jan Hahn, Editor Priscilla Cummings, Circulation Published quarterly and distributed to the Associates, to Marine libraries and universities around the world, to other educational institutions, to major city public libraries and to other organizations and publications. Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 59-34518 COVER PHOTO BY REMSEN Henry B. Bigelow Founder Chairman Noel B. McLean Chairman, Board of Trustees Paul M. Fye President and Director Columbus O'D. Iselin H. 8. Bigelow Oceanographer Bostwick H. Ketchum Associate Director Arthur E. Maxwell Associate Director OCEANUS TM Vol. XIII, No. 4, October 1967 THE WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION Woods Hole, Massachusetts I N the "old days" Dr. Bigelow would roam the corridors of our first building and ask: "Young man, why aren't you at sea?" Much has happened since those days. Our ability to amass far more data per man day at sea necessitates more time in the laboratory to work up the data. On the other hand, there are a great many more people — as well as ships — and many investigators may want to go to sea particularly to an area and at a time when the ships of their own laboratory are engaged elsewhere. The Interagency Committee on Oceanography has prepared Pamphlet #31 for the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development. This pamphlet lists proposed cruises of government and private vessels, indicating also when there is room for visiting scientists. A surprisingly large number of berths are available. This, of course, brings up several questions. Principally, if one wishes to go to a specified area at given dates, how much ship's time would be available for a guest on board? Since many of the cruises listed are of short duration and in local areas, this might be a splendid opportunity for students to get their feet wet. Moreover, it has often been suggested that the many people engaged in ocean engineering, etc., ought to go to sea to find out the limitations imposed by the environment. Here is their chance. The publication's main purpose is excellent. "To encourage coordination of cruises . . . and . . . fully utilize all available platforms." We have one small suggestion: that among the ship descriptions also be listed the types of winches, wire, etc. and the permanent instrumentation available on board each vessel. I • mm* Man is born, not to solve the problems of the universe, but to discover where the problem applies and then to establish himself within the limits of what he can understand. Goethe (Conversations with Eckerman) xO1 Fossil microplankton used by the oil industry to identify rock strata were found to be very much alive. .Livie by D. WALL and J. HAHN J.HE discovery of the large "living fossil'1 Coelacanth received widespread public attention some years ago. The finding of a microscopic primitive crusta- cean (Hutchinsonillia macracantha) by our staff member, Dr. H. Sanders, (then at Yale University) received less general attention, as did the discovery of a tiny mol- lusc (Neopilina) by the Danish Galathea Expedition, 1950-52. Since 1965 a num- ber of dinoflagellates known previously only as fossils have been found to be very much alive. Microscopic Lights For some reason "Dinoflagellate" hardly is a household word. Yet, everyone who has been on the water after dark, even in a rowboat in harbor, has seen countless dinoflagellates, since, as they are dis- turbed, these microscopic organisms are responsible for the beautiful luminescence which drops off the oars and makes swirls of ghostly light. The most fantastic occur- ence of this luminescence is in Phosphor- escence Bay, Puerto Rico, where, at night color photographs can be made of this spectacular event. Living dinoflagellates are minute bits of protoplasm, too small to be seen with the naked eye. Generally, they belong to the plant world, living by photosynthesis, but some cannot make up their minds and also ingest diatoms or each other and thus might be called animals. Living fossils — Dinoflagellates come in many shapes, but typically have a groove around the body in which vibrates a whip or flagellum while another thread trails behind the cell and lies partly in a longitudinal groove (hence the name'). The flagella are in ceaseless motion thus lashing the cell along and providing feeble locomotion. As many other planktonic organisms, the dinoflagellates are constantly fighting gravity and have developed ingenious ways to stay afloat. Some have a parachute shape, others, particularly in tropical waters, grow long horns which may pro- vide greater resistance in the less dense warm waters. Grass of the sea The dinoflagellates are of great impor- tance to the economy of the sea. They are second only to the diatoms as the "grass of the sea" on which all higher life depends, and so are eaten by zooplankton as well as by sardines and pilchards. Dur- ing the spring and autumn, when they "bloom", the tiny cells can be so concen- trated that they color the water red or yellow. Under extreme growth conditions, the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium brevis forms the Red Tide which causes mass mortality of fish, particularly off Florida and Southwest Africa. Some 50 million to 100 million cells of dinoflagellates have been counted per liter of seawater in Red Tide areas. The conditions which cause one particular organism to grow profusely to the exclusion of other microplankton remain unknown. Another dinoflagellate Gonyau/ax is po- tentially dangerous to man. It produces a neurotoxin. Thus, when Gonyau/ax are ingested by shellfish, they may cause paralytic poisoning when the shellfish are eaten by man. Still other dinoflagellates live as parasites on marine life, while some species live in symbiosis with sea anemones or corals. Many dinoflagellates are naked cells while others are housed in an armor con- sisting of plates made of cellulose. The plates of this outer wall, called a theca, are separated by sutures. The shape, number and arrangement of these plates are used to identify the different forms. A living dinoflagellate showing the grooves in which lie the two (dino) whips (flagella) which provide locomotion. are Ingenious ways to stay afloat. Some parachute shaped, others grow long horns. Mass mortality of fish by a Red Tide, caused by the blooming of the dinoflagellate Gym- nodinium brevis. Living dinoflagellate Gonyaulax digitalis, found in Woods Hole water, shows the plates of the outer wall. A resting spore is formed inside the wall, and sinks. The cellulose wall disintegrates. The resting spore remains on the bottom, until — The protoplasm escapes to begin life anew as a free-swimming dinoflagellate. The hard wall of the spore sinks and becomes fossilized. It was known as Hystrichosphaera bentori, typical of a genus originating in the Jurassic. Approx. 375x natural size. When the dinoflagellates die and sink to the bottom, the cellulose wall is attacked by bacteria and disappears. How then, could these organisms be found as fossils? Fossil forms often re- semble closely living dinoflagellates. How- ever, there are some significant differences between them. The fossil forms have a cell wall which is extremely resistant to decay and is not divided into a series of detachable cellulose plates. Moreover, fossil forms typically have a single large hole in their shells (large in relation to their size). Recent research has shown that living dinoflagellates produce internal resting spores which have hard shells, penetrated by such a hole. It is these spores which are buried and preserved to form fossils. The resting spore is pro- duced toward the end of a period of active growth or "blooming" and released as a free cell which sinks to the sea floor. Most dinoflagellates prefer to live in warm water and so the spore is produced late in the summer and "hibernates" during the winter months, when the water conditions are too unfavorable for the dinoflagellates to live as free swimming plankton. 'Fossils found' The paleontologist's search for "living fossils" drew attention to a poorly known phase in the life cycle of the dinoflagel- lates. Since 1 965 improved extraction techniques and regular sampling of local Atlantic plankton at Woods Hole have shown that many "fossil" dinoflagellate spores occur in the ocean today. More than 40 forms, belonging to six modern genera were isolated, about half of which were "fossils". Several new species were found which had not been described in the fossil litera- ture but were known to be present in the ice-age strata of the Caribbean. Three "living fossil" species are common in the Woods Hole area. DR. WALL is assistant scientist on our staff. He came from the University of Sheffield on a Post Doctoral Fellowship. Living fossils — As in the case of some bacteria (see p. 19 of this issue) it has been most difficult to culture single species of dinoflagellates. Even with modern techniques it is hard to enduce dinoflagellates living in labora- tory cultures to produce resting spores identical to the fossil forms. It is easier to cause a resting spore to release a free- swimming form (with a cellulose wall and flagella). Search for oil The fossil form, which was discovered by the pioneer microscopist C. G. Ehren- berg in 1836 — while studying thin sec- tions of Cretaceous flint — is particularly important today in the search for oil deposits. Academic and government organizations also use the fossil dino- flagellates to date, correlate and interpret rock strata. The application of this tech- nique has increased vastly since 1945 and is expected to be even more widely used, especially since these fossils may be pres- ent when other key organisms such as foraminifera and pollen are not found or are poorly represented. The world-wide distribution of dino- flagellate fossils is indicated by one fossil genus (Dinogymnium) which has been found in the upper Cretaceous stratigraphy (ap- proximately 65 million years ago) in California, Wyoming, Texas, New Jersey, Venezuela, West Africa, France, Pakistan, and Australia. The best preserved and oldest fossil dinoflagellates were recovered from the Rhaetic (Upper Triassic, 175 million years ago) of southern England, although possibly there are older but poorly preserved remains in the Permian (225-270 million years ago) of Kansas. These fossils are similar enough to modern genera to show that dinoflagellates are of great antiquity. Some of the fossil forms which are strikingly similar to modern dinoflagellates are deceptive. They are now extinct. One of the troubles we have is that the hundreds of fossils forms were classified ler a system of nomenclature developed 'or fossils. Now that it has been that many of these fossils are a life cycle of living forms- which i a different nomenclature — a reclassification may be necessary to avoid the confusion of a double standard. For more than TOO years hystrichospheres were thought to be an extinct form of life. Inside the wall of a dinoflagellate— a resting spore was formed— when the wall dis- solved, the resting spore became fos- silized. (Aher Evitt). Another group of microfossils, called hystrichospheres also were found to be resting spores of dinoflagellates. These, too, were discovered as fossils by Ehren- berg in 1836, and were found to be abundant in Mesozoic, Tertiary and even in Paleozoic rock strata from 600 to approximately 2 million years ago. Their possible relations to modern organisms were debated for more than a century, but many geologists believed they were extinct. Only in recent years were these spiny organisms discovered in modern sedi- ments. This led paleontologists to suspect that they also might exist in present-day plankton. This hypothesis was justified when some hystrichospheres were shown to be the resting spores of dinoflagellates. Hystrichospheres have two important characteristics. One of these is a hole, typical of all fossil dinoflagellates, through which the protoplasm escapes to begin a new phase of life as a free-swimming armor-plated individual. The shape and position of the holes promise to be valuable clues for tracing the modern species back through time. The peculiar arrangement of spines and other projections actually show where the parental outer structure was and even the position and the number of armor plates by which the dinoflagel- lates are identified. This has been called a "reflected tabulation" and is all that remains of the original structure to guide the paleontologist. Key to the past Although much work remains to be done, biological and geological studies already have contributed substantially in deducing the basic nature of fossil dino- flagellates; in showing that some hystricho- spheres are not an extinct form of life, and in revealing the presence of numerous species of fossil dinoflagellates in Meso- zoic, Tertiary and Quaternary marine sediments. A key to the interpretation of the fossil record has been provided by studying and describing for the first time the resting spores of living dinoflagellates and by comparing the fossils with their parental living stages. However, the geo- graphical distribution, both of the living planktonic dinoflagellates as well as that of the bottom dwelling spores needs to be A Jertiary fossil, related to the modern genus Peridinium. Mesozoic resting spore related to the modern genus Gonyaulax. WALL Found previously in Eocene-Holocene formations, this hystrichosphere is living today in Woods Hole waters. Living fossils — determined. No doubt, many other "living fossils" remain to be discovered during this research. The results of these investigations may provide the basis for an additional method to determine warm and cold climatic intervals of the last ice age, as represented in the cores of bottom sediments collected at sea. One question may never be resolved. What were the parental organisms of the thousands of spiny hystrichospheres of the Paleozoic era whose structure and compo- sition cannot be related to those of the dinoflagellates? Even though their biologi- cal position may never be determined precisely, the presence of these acritarchs, as they are now called (of confused or uncertain origin), at least is tangible evi- dence of the abundance of microplanktonic life reaching back to the beginning of the fossil record. Wide interest Apart from the academic interest and the economic consideration of the oil and mining industries, there are many other reasons for studying these minute forms of life. Being second in importance only to the diatoms at the basis of the pyramid of life in the sea, they are of interest to the oceanographers and the fishery biolo- gists in the study of primary production. Biochemists can study their pigments, bioluminescence and the toxic compounds produced by some species. Ecologists can look at the parasitic and symbiotic forms. Cytologists are fascinated by the distinc- tive nuclear characteristics and large chromosomes of the dinoflagellates. The physiologists can determine their vitamin and mineral requirements necessary for survival and growth, as well as study the locomotion provided by the flagella. The abundance and distribution of fresh water forms fall into the sphere of the hydro- biologists. The oceanographers will find their distribution important in studying the circulation of the ocean and perhaps the fossil record may provide some information for paloeo-oceanography, i.e. give a clue to the circulation of pre-historic water masses. Other items of interest also remain to be explored; some fossil beds contain large numbers of fish. Were these perhaps the victims of a pre-historic Red Tide and, if so, could masses of dinoflagellates be found in such deposits? Finally, what conditions stimulate dinoflagellates to pro- duce their resting spores? This important question still cannot be answered. Neither can the question of even greater interest to geneticists; what changes occur in the nucleus, the vital control system of the cell, when the dinoflagellate becomes a resting spore? 'LY a rare and marvelous affair. A philosopher not in his Study but on the High Seas, far away from all Scientists and among Sailors, not in the Quiet and Solitude, but amidst savage shoutings, not in Peace but in Danger of Life! on then, make use of the same and profit by all this which was compiled by such efforts, for which you would look in vain elsewhere and which is found in such Abundance." H. Boerhaave (Preface to the Dutch edition of "Natural History of the Seas", Count Louis de Marseille, 1786) 8 T, HE village of Woods Hole had a festive spirit on July 27, when Mr. Hubert M. Humphrey, Vice President of the U.S. visited the three laboratories in his ca- pacity as Chairman of the National Council on Marine Resources and Engin- eering Development. Mr. Humphrey already had visited other marine laboratories in various states, but had not previously made a cruise on board a research vessel. After a tour of the facilities of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries and the Marine Biological Laboratory, the Vice President had dinner at the summer facilities of the National Academy of Sciences. Early in the eve- ning he departed on an overnight cruise on board our R.V. 'Atlantis II' (Capt. E. H. Hiller), to become acquainted with oceanographic work at sea. In addition to seeing instruments and equipment at work, the visitors were briefed on our research by Dr. Fye and senior staff mem- bers. Accompanying Mr. Humphrey on the cruise were Governor Kenneth Curtis of Maine, Governor John King of New Hampshire and Dr. Edward Wenk, Jr., Executive Secretary of the National Coun- cil of Marine Resources and Engineering Development. Vice President visits Woods Hole Among the visitors to the laboratories who could not make the cruise was Gover- nor John Volpe of Massachusetts. Senator Edward M. Kennedy and Congressman Hastings Keith of our District, showed by their prompting and questions that they were not strangers to Woods Hole. Both have been and are active in legislation related to the marine sciences. The visit and cruise apparently were enjoyed by the visitors who were im- pressed by what they saw and heard. The success of the visit was due not only to the pride we take in the results of the work at the three Woods Hole laborator- ies, but also due to the hard work on planning and organizing by many people from the Directors to the cooks and mess- men. The Woods Hole station of the U.S. Coast Guard patrolled the harbor in small boats to provide a clear berth for the de- parture of the 'Atlantis II', while one of its newer vessels the USCGC 'Vigilant' (Comdr. A. L. Lonsdale) escorted our ship to Portsmouth, N. H., where the visitors disembarked. In a letter to our Director, Dr. Fye, the Vice President wrote: "As Chairman of the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Develop- ment, I have endeavored to become person- ally acquainted with our Nation's problems, its opportunities and its research capabilities in marine sciences. I have long heard of your institution's renowned work. I now have had the opportunity to see some of your distinguished staff who are playing such a key role in making it possible for us to advance our understanding and use of the oceans. This was my very first trip to sea on an oceanographic research vessel, and I came home highly impressed with the complexity of instrumentation required, the difficulties of working at sea, and the smooth teamwork and competence of that ship's scientific party and crew. Please express my warmest thanks to all of those who had a part in planning and carry- ing out my all-too-brief cruise, and congratu- lations for a lob so well done." Visif - Mr. Humphrey's interests were empha- sized further in a letter dated August 16, 1967, to the Honorable Alton Lennon, Chairman of the Subcommittee on Ocean- ography, Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, U.S. House of Representa- tives: . . . 'The problems of the sea are complex, and they involve every type of concern and institution that exists on the landward side of the shoreline. Thus, we must solicit the varied ideas, the advice, and the participa- tion of universities, industry, and all elements of government, just as we have found this mixture an essential ingredient for the vitality and progress of our Nation on shore. For seven years, the Congress and the scientific community have insisted on more intensive action to reap the benefits of the sea. Now the Administration is responding to the Congressional mandate— building on long-standing capabilities within eleven Fed- eral departments and agencies and acceler- ating our progress with a new enthusiasm and determination, a new sense of direction and momentum. We are: 9 identifying goals, and milestones to reach these goals • setting priorities • developing purposeful programs to bring our ocean interests into balance with our overall national interests • clarifying agency responsibilities to develop individual and collective capabilities • mobilizing our resources — Govern- ment, academic, and industrial" Mr. Humphrey also stated: . . . "Mosf of the ocean's resources remain untapped. Most of its potential to serve national goals remains unawakened. To realize this opportunity depends on a crea- tive partnership of our Federal Government with States, with universities and research organizations, and with industry. We also look forward to increased activi- ties by other Nations with whom we seek further international cooperation and col- laboration—in scientific research and in a framework of law by which the sea may serve all men. Pure logic and practical economics dictate this program. However, not to be forgotten is man's compelling desire to explore and to understand the world around him. The spirit which has carried us to rugged mountain peaks, remote polar icecaps, and distant reaches of outerspace now propels us to the ocean deeps. This spirit is fortified with a confidence developed by past contributions of science that we will not only conquer the ocean deeps but will use them in satisfying the needs of our society." The Vice-President on board ship with Dr. Fye and Dr. Maxwell. Leaving the Marine Biological Laboratory. 10 Oceanus is pleased to have received statements from the two State Governors, who were on board the 'Atlantis IT. Sfafe of New Hampshire Concord "/ am especially pleased to have this opportunity to thank all those who helped to make my recent visit to the Institution an unusually interesting and enlightening exper- ience. Vice President Humphrey, Governor Curtis, and I were impressed by the degree of advancement and number of contributions that Woods Hole scientists and staff members have made. After seeing some of your operations I am encouraged to continue work on the possibility of developing a Bi-State Oceano- graphic Center in New Hampshire and Maine that would cooperate with Woods Hole and learn from its experience. I particularly enjoyed the trip on the 'Atlantis II'. Those aboard appeared to be not only accomplished scientists but expert sailors as well. It seemed appropriate that we learned about the Institution's accom- plishments while aboard its research vessel." John W. King Sfafe of Maine Augusta . . . "With the experts at Woods Hole to guide them, more and more people are beginning to examine our coastline with an eye towards development in the many fields of ocean sciences. Within the next few weeks a consortium of oil companies is financing the exploration of Maine's waters for oil, the possible de- velopment of a marine sciences institute is being explored and expansion of our exist- ing educational programs is under way. That is why the voyage with Vice President Humphrey and Governor King aboard the 'Atlantis II' was so important to me— and at the same time exciting. What I had been told about Maine's opportunities now seem even closer at hand. The experience was enlightening; it showed us what the opportunities are and what the challenges must be." Kenneth Curtis Vice President Humphrey and Senator Edward M. Kennedy listen attentively to Dr. H. W. Graham of fhe Bureau of Commeria/ Fisheries at Woods Hole. 11 Single-handed, this swordfisherman steers his boat from the mast. - . :«• Look-outs— New England Swordfishing JL ROBABLY unique, the small ships are fitted with a long "pulpit" enabling the striker to harpoon the fish ahead of the vessel's bow. Although swordfish now also are taken by Japanese long lines, the hand harpooning industry still thrives during the summer months. sight the fish— irv\ JLi Sword stuck in the scuppers Swordfishing caps shadow the eyes Typical small dragger on her way to the fishing grounds. HOTOS BY: the harpoon is struck (rarely thrown) Evidence of the catch What big eyes you have- Swords often are made into decorations z o (fl Swordfish rams ffie 'Alvin1 by E. F. K. ZARUDZKI "Nature her bounty to his mouth confined, Gave him a sword, but left unarmed his mind". Oppian (180 A.D.) T, HERE are many tales of ships having been attacked by swordfish in "fits of temporary insanity", as the famed ichthy- ologist Goode stated (1884). Attacks made on fishing boats and dories after the fish had been provoked by harpooning are easier to understand. But no one had ever heard of unprovoked attack by a sword- fish on a submarine. s happened to the 'Alvin' on July 6, vhile at a depth of 610 meters on Plateau some 110 miles ESE inah, Georgia. We were rammed by an ! > kg broadbill swordfish (Xiphias gladius). Our mission was to make geological and geophysical observations on the Blake Plateau. At such depths the ocean is com- pletely dark. When the submarine turned on its lights the visibility was about 10 to 15 meters. After landing on the bottom we moved the submarine a few meters ahead to photograph a large branched coral. Just then we heard a scraping sound on the hull. "We have been hit by a fish!" exclaimed V. Wilson, the co-pilot, who was seated by the starboard porthole. Outside the porthole was a large sword- fish, stuck to our hull, looking us straight in the eye, while violently thrashing to get free. The leak indicator inside the sub 14 showed a possible leakage in one of the external electrical connection boxes. We decided to return to the sea surface. As the pilot Mr. M. McCamis, took us back up, Mr. Wilson reported that soon after our arrival at the bottom he had noticed a hummocky feature on the bottom about ten meters to starboard. Its color blended with the color of the mud. After we made our short hop ahead, the "hummock" stirred up the sediment, identifying itself as a large swordfish. The fish turned on the 'Alvin' and attacked. The sword of the fish was thrust its full length of 76 cm in the joint between the upper and lower part of the external hull. (The "living quarters" of the 'Alvin1 consists of a large steel sphere surrounded by a fiberglass hull, the latter contains the motors, ballast, batteries, compressed air tanks etc. and is flooded with seawater so that it does not need to withstand high pressures during the dive.) By underwater telephone we had alerted our catamaran tender of the situa- tion. As we reached the surface, the divers who usually guide the 'Alvin' into the tender were ready to throw a loop around the tail of the swordfish and secure it to the submarine. This proved to be a good precaution. As we were hoisted out of the water the fish made one last violent struggle which broke off its sword. Even without the actual possession of the fish, the sword, remaining in the hull, would have provided adequate evidence of the species of the attacker. As it was, how- ever, we could definitely state that the attacker was a medium size swordfish (Xiphias gladius), 2.45 meters long from tip of the bill to fork in the tail and weigh- ing 89 kg (about 200 Ibs.). This is an average size in the New England com- mercial harpoon fisheries. It took two hours to remove the sword firmly wedged in the hull joint. Fortunately, there was no damage to the electrical boxes and cables, although the sword missed the cables by only 2 cm. The blow of the attack must have been quite forceful but 89 kg of fish against 15000 kg of sub- marine hardly constitutes a knockout! The swordfish meat was cut up and delicious steaks were enjoyed by all hands. N The attack took place on the Blake Plateau at 31° 09' North, 79° 13' West. The sword was wedged firmly in the joint of the external hull. JOINT IN EXTERNAL (FLOODED) HULL 0 I 3 I METERS SWORD WEDGED HERE 15 Swordfish can reach a length of about five meters and a weight of 450 kg ( 1000 Ibs.). They have been harpooned for over one hundred years by New England fisher- men while the fish "sun" at the sea surface during the summer months. Similar fishing methods are used in the Mediterranean Sea, the Pacific Ocean and other warm water areas so that the fish generally was considered to be a surface swimmer in warm waters. Cold water The attack on the 'Alvin' at a depth where the temperature was 7.9°O there- fore came as a surprise until we found that Bigelow and Schroeder2 reported occa- sional captures of swordfish on halibut lines near the bottom, as deep as 400 meters. Moreover, one of our staff mem- bers, R. L. Haedrich, took part in five dives of the Westinghouse deep submersi- ble 'Deep Star 4000' in the Gulf of Mexico last May. He reported that swordfish were sighted on three occasions during five '• In contrast to the 18°-20°C temperatures on the New England summer grounds. 2. "Fishes of the Gulf of Maine", by H. B. Bigelow and W. C. Schroeder. See: "Oceanus", Vol. X, No. 3, p. 32. Swordfish taken by the 'Atlantis' in 1958. Bill (Whispering Willie) Shields and 'Pop' Wilson went after the fish in a rubber life raft. If the fish had come up fighting there would have been a lot of rubber bands in the Mediterranean Sea. Another fish was harpooned off Georges Bank and here is taken in tow by the 'Atlantis' workboat. dives. Two fish were sighted in midwater depths at 430 meters and 450 meters and one at the bottom at 630 meters. The water temperatures at those depths were 8° to 10°C. Further evidence that swordfish range deep is shown by deep sea fishes occa- sionally found in the broadbills' stomachs. These deep sea fishes live beyond the edge of the continental shelf at depths of more than 270 meters. It was also recently reported that a swordfish became entangled in a mooring line at a depth of about 305 meters. Few enemies Swordfish appear to have few enemies, apart from the larger sharks and possibly the killer whale (Orca). Bigelow and Schroeder report several occasions of whole swordfish, including one weighing 16 Swore/fish — 54 kg with its sword still attached, having been found in the stomachs of Mako sharks. There seem to be no records of swordfish being eaten or attacked by any of the larger whales. Yet, Norwegian scientists have reported that at least five swords have been found in the sides and backs of blue whales and fin whales cap- tured in the Antarctic Ocean. Another sword was found in a fin whale taken near the Aleutian Islands in 1954. Not noticed A. Jongsgard1 suggested that such at- tacks may happen quite frequently but that the relatively small swords embedded in a huge whale ordinarily would not be noticed by the flensing crew. Once the swords go into the cookers with the meat and bones of the whale the evidence would be lost. Jongsgard concluded: "No whales, so far, have been found which were stabbed from below, but this does not in any way signify that this is unusual. It must be supposed that whales which are stabbed in the belly have very small chances of surviving." 1- Three finds of swords from swordfish (Xiphias gladius) in Antarctic fin whales (Balaenop- tera physalus) (L) by A. Jongsgard. Norsk Hvalfangst Tidende 1962, No. 7. When aggravated by harpooning swordfish occasionally ram through the bottom of a fishing dory. Parts of swords found in three fin whales in the Antarctic (From Jongsgard). The weapon of a swordfish rammed through the outer and inner timbers of a copper- sheathed sailing ship. (From the Penny Magazine, 1835). 17 Swordfish — Indirect evidence that swordfish swim deep is shown by their stomach contents which often contain deep sea fishes such as the viper fishes (stomatids) and small lantern fishes (myctophids), which live mostly below a depth of 270 meters. COURTESY. AM MUS OF NAT. HISTORY The swordfish uses its sword ordinarily to slash right and left while swimming through a school of fish, leaving the dead and stunned to be swallowed. Why the large, strong and swift swordfish having few natural enemies should make an un- provoked attack remains unknown. This cannot be part of the feeding habits, as is usually the case in a shark attack, since the swordfish attack such large objects as ships, whales, or even the 'Alvin\ Pos- sibly, the attack may be defensive, although it is doubtful that the large plankton-eating baleen whales pose any threat to the swordfish. It is also possible that the startled swordfish in its haste to escape from an imaginary enemy merely blunders into an attack. The fact that a swordfish is a predator may influence its behavior under different stimuli. All predators have to find their prey, follow it effectively and finally kill it. Doing so, they encounter many different situations, which demand quicker than usual action. That a rather brainless creature may become confused scarcely can be considered an extra- ordinary reaction. According to Oppian, quoted on page 14, the swordfish's strange behavior is not a modern puzzle. Nevertheless, the 'Alvin' episode remains the first recorded attack on a submarine. MR. ZARUDZKI is a research specialist on our staff. His main interest is in the geophysical interpretation of the Con- tinental Shelf and ocean floor. 18 by S. W. WATSON and C. C. REMSEN Lite in the ocean would cease to exist without the vital role played by bacteria oceanus I N the ocean, life exists as a cyclic process. Plants use radiant energy from the sun to fix carbon dioxide. The plants are eaten by small animals which are eaten by larger animals. When these ani- mals excrete organic matter or when plants and animals die, their organic matter is decomposed by bacteria, liberating essen- tial plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus needed for additional plant growth, which completes the cycle. Thus, marine bacteria are responsible for the return of all the chemical constitu- ents locked up in organic matter in plants and animals to the seawater in mineralized form. Without bacteria life in the ocean would cease to exist. During the process of decomposition bacteria attack proteins and other nitrogen compounds eventually liberating am- monia. The ammonia is oxidized to nitrite by another type of bacteria while still another type oxidizes nitrite to nitrate. Such bacteria, called nitrifying bacteria, were discovered over 70 years ago on land. Of great importance to agriculture their microbial activity is encouraged by farmers who sometimes even inoculate seeds with nitrifying bacteria. These organ- A whole cell of N. oceanus in the process of division. Tufts of flagella also show in the electron micrograph on this page. isms are uniquely different in that they use ammonia or nitrite as a sole source of energy and carbon dioxide as a sole source of carbon. Most other bacteria and all other cells, with the exception of plants, derive their energy and carbon from the oxidation of organic molecules. We are concerned with the activities of the nitri- fying bacteria since over 70 percent of the combined nitrogen in the deep waters of the ocean exists as nitrate and we believe that these bacteria are solely responsible for the formation of nitrate. Since most plants cannot use gaseous nitrogen (N2) as a source of nitrogen, their needs must be fulfilled by using either ammonia or nitrate. If we are to understand the factors which control plant growth in the ocean, the primary productivity, it is necessary to know the role played by the nitrifying bacteria. This also will be of importance to schemes of "sea farming". If organic matter is decomposed in the upper surface waters, where sufficient light is available for plant growth, it seems likely that the major portion of the liberated ammonia is not oxidized to nitrate but is used directly by the plants. However, if the decomposition of organic matter occurs at depths where the lack of sunlight prevents plant growth the nitrify- ing bacteria then convert ammonia to nitrate. 19 Bacteria — Naturally, plants cannot use this vast reservoir of nitrate as long as it remains at depths where sunlight does not pene- trate. This deep enriched water eventually is brought to the surface by diffusion, convection and upwelling. The first two processes supply a slow but continual supply of deep water to the surface, where the nitrate once again is used by the plants. The process of upwelling is more rapid. Where it occurs, as off the west coast of Africa and South America, one finds an abundance of plant and animal life. One of the most feasible means by which man can increase the food sources of the ocean is to produce artificial upwelling of the deep enriched waters. Recent find While nitrate comprises over 70 percent of the combined nitrogen in deep waters, the actual mechanism by which it is formed had not been experimentally demonstrated until recently. Oceanographers tacitly assumed that nitrifying bacteria similar to those found on land were responsible for the oxidation process in the ocean. Previous investigators had failed to find such microorganisms in the open ocean and questioned whether marine nitrifying bacteria did exist, although some had been found in shallow water and in sediments. Eight years ago we initiated our studies and were successful in isolating bacteria which oxidize ammonia to nitrite and others which convert nitrite to nitrate. Once we learned how to make repro- ducible laboratory cultures, we were able to start on detailed studies. We want to know how many different types of marine bacteria are involved in the nitrifying process as well as their horizontal and vertical distribution in the ocean. We also want to know the rate at which these bacteria convert ammonia and the mech- anisms through which they convert, store and utilize the energy derived from the oxidation. Much interest has been created by the fine structure of Nifrosocysf/s ocecmus, which is one of the most complex bacteria. It j used as a tool to study membrane also found in plant and animal cells, and thus can provide information to understand life. DR. WATSON is Associate Scientist on our staff and has been with the Institution for ten years. DR. REMSEN just com- pleted a two year post-doctoral fellowship in Zurich, and joined the staff as Assistant Scientist. Most of the bacteria in question are about one to two micron in diameter (I/ 1000th of a mm). Magnifications with an ordinary microscope up to 2500 times show little but the external shape. The electron microscope, capable of enlarge- ment up to 500,000 times is needed for detailed studies of the bacteria. Each bacterium has to be cut into about 50 slices. This may appear to be an impos- sible task but really is quite easy once the technique is mastered. It would be impossible to section a single cell. Instead, we grow millions of cells, concentrate them into a paste by centrifugation then embed the paste in a plastic. Once hardened, the plastic is cut by a diamond knife into thin sections which fall into a small water tank, and then are picked off the water and placed on a minute grid in the electron microscope. Fine structure Using these techniques we have shown that there are two distinctly different types of marine bacteria which oxidize ammonia to nitrite. Nitrosocystis oceanus, (named after this periodical) is shown on the cover of this issue. The other type is called Nitrosomonas marina. As shown by the illustrations, the difference between the two microorganisms is in the fine struc- ture of the cells. A brief description of a bacterial cell may be necessary to understand the fine structures. All bacteria have a cell wall (CW), which maintains the rigidity and shapes of the cell, and a plasma membrane (PM), a double tracked layer just inside the wall, which acts as a barrier permit- ting only certain molecules to enter or leave the cells. Neither plants nor animal cells could exist without this membrane. Other important features are the ribo- somes (R) which build the protein within the cell and the nuclear area (N) which carries the genetic code on a chemical compound (DNA). 20 cw . The wall and internal membranes (CM) of N. oceanus are shown in two different tech- niques: At left is a thin section. To make it visible, the section was stained with a heavy metal. At right is a replica, obtained by the freeze-etch technique. *W- 36,000x Although both nitrifying bacteria perform the same function, their structure is quite different. Both have a similar cell wall (CW-1) but N. marina has an outer coat (CW-2). 70,000x In N. oceanus , here shown dividing, the internal membranes bi-sect the cell, while in N. marina, the membranes lie around the periphery. NOTE: The statement on the inside front cover should read: "One of 15 electron microscopes of a new transistorized type." . 21 Bacteria — The most prominent feature of the nitrifying bacteria is an extensive mem- brane system. In N. oceanus these mem- branes are centrally located and nearly bisect the cell. In N. marina the membranes are located on the periphery of the cell just inside the plasma membrane. Membrane systems act as the power house in all cells. In plants, the photo- synthetic system is on membranes, while in animals the enzymes responsible for energy production are located on mem- branes. Energy transfer It has been known for more than ten years that these systems are responsible for the production, storage and transfer of energy within the cell. Yet, we have little information how this takes place. Struc- turally all membranes appear quite similar although their physiological function may be quite different. During the course of evolution bacterial cells apparently be- came more specialized and increased the surface area of the membrane. We hope that, by studying the fine structure of the bacteria in question, we can learn not only how the system is responsible for the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite but also how membranes function in human and other animal cells. Sections of bacteria provide valuable information on the structure and function of membranes. For more detailed exami- nation membranes must be dissected from the cell and other cellular material must be removed. To do this, the cells are subjected to a pressure of 1,000 bars (16,000 PSI) and squirted through a nar- row opening, breaking the cells open through a shearing action. Fortunately, during this rather drastic mechanical rup- ture, the loops of membranes often stay intact as shown in one of the micrographs. The membranes then are separated from the rest of the cellular material by cen- trifugation. Until recent studies in our laboratory, it appeared that membranes consisted of a single uniform layer. We were successful in stripping off an outer layer and expos- ing an inner layer consisting of 35-40 Angstrom repeating units (1/4,000,000 of a mm). We believe that the outer one is the functional layer where the biochemical reactions occur while the other is a struc- tural layer. Although this second layer has been seen only in the membranes of N. oceanus we predict that a similar layer will be found in animal and plant mem- branes. It is increasingly apparent that cells are not "bags of enzymes" as once believed. Instead, they must be extremely well or- ganized. In every cell there are hundreds of enzymes, each performing a specialized function. Without organization within the cell it would be impossible for enzymes to carry out all the complicated biochemical reactions in an efficient manner. Conveyor belt To gain energy the oxidation of mole- cules must proceed step by step. We know that the enzymes responsible for oxidation are located on the membranes and it seems likely that such enzymes are arranged in an orderly array. An over- simplified analogy is to compare this system with a conveyor belt on which the organic molecules travel slowly while being oxidized and liberating energy for the needs of the cell. The process is so orderly that this energy is directed to the site within the cell where it is needed. In the past, marine biology was chiefly a descriptive science. Although this re- mains an important segment of marine biology, it also is necessary to explain how marine organisms function to understand how they control the environment and how the environment controls life. Such studies also may yield basic information helping us to understand all life and possibly help to combat disease. As the marine sciences have become of age there are more and more scientists, as well as libraries, who desire to have classic volumes on their shelves. Long out of print these rarely become available and are most costly. Last year, the Thompson Reprint Co. of New York reproduced the "Challenger Reports". Now, the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History, c/o the British Museum (Natural History), Crom- well Road, London, SW 7, is producing a facsimile of J. V. Thompson's famous "Zoological Researches". Available in early 1968, the price is only £2.0.0 ($6.00). 22 «•• * * vm-m- • •\ •*&•«'••• • ' ti> -w.v.v.,* • awv vJSw •* * *^ *1::'- ••.vvVV-V »' *? , • '' ff^j^. %>%^*ii* mm W/fh a new technique, the freeze-etch meth- repeating sub-units. The function of this coat od, the outer coat of N. marina is seen to con- (lacking in terrestrial bacteria) may be sist of 1 50 Angstrom (I/ 500,000th of a mm) related to the marine environment. AMERICA'S CUP The replica of the original 'America' in the turbulent water caused by the spectator fleet. The 'Intrepid' and the 'Dame Pattie' shortly after the start of the fourth race. -. PHOTOS BY: Part of the spectator fleet during the sunny As- sociates' day. 24 Associates' News I I I I . •' ll A I "PRIDE" of Associates, family and potential Associates crowded the decks of the R.V. 'Atlantis II' (Capt. E. H. Hiller) on September 12th to watch the first of the America's Cup Races. Although the race was a disappointment, as everyone knows by now, the sparkling clear day with a fine breeze made it possible to stay on deck although many people took the opportunity to inspect our flagship. The Associates' President, Mr. Homer H. Ewing, served as "Chief Scientist" for the day. Associates of The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution President Secretary Executive Assistant HOMER H. EWING JOHN A. GIFFORD L. HOYT WATSON M EMBERSHIP inquiries are invited. They should be addressed to Mr. L. Hoyt Watson, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Mass. 02543. Executive Committee CHARLES F. ADAMS WINSLOW CARLTON W. VAN ALAN CLARK PRINCE S. CROWELL F. HAROLD DANIELS JOHN A. GIFFORD PAUL HAMMOND NOEL B. McLEAN HENRY S. MORGAN GERARD SWOPE, JR. THOMAS J. WATSON JR. Ex-Officio NOEL B. McLEAN, Chairman PAUL M. FYE, President and Director EDWIN D. BROOKS, JR., Treasurer Development Committee PAUL HAMMOND, Chairman HOMER H. EWING, Vice Chairman BRUCE BREDIN DONALD F. CARPENTER FRANK B. JEWETT, JR. HOWARD C. JOHNSON J. SEWARD JOHNSON EDWIN A. LINK JOSEPH V. McKEE, JR. HENRY A. MORSS, JR. R. CARTER NICHOLAS JOHN C. PICKARD ROBERT W. SELLE M. MICHAEL WALLER ALFRED M. WILSON Industrial Committee Chairman: CHARLES F. ADAMS Chairman, Raytheon Company ROBERT M. AKIN, JR. President, Hudson Wire Company PAUL HAMMOND Chairman. Hammond, Kennedy & Company F. L. LaQUE Vice President, The International Nickel Company, Inc. WILLIAM T. SCHWENDLER Chairman, Executive Committee, Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corp. D. D. STROHMEIER Vice President, Bethlehem Steel Co. MILES F. YORK President, The Atlantic Companies Contents Articles "LIVING FOSSILS" by D. Wall and J. Hahn SWORDFISH VS THE 'ALVIN' by £. F. K. Zarudzki NITROSOCYSTIS OCEANUS by S. W. Watson and C. Renters 18 Features VICE PRESIDENTIAL VISIT SWORDFISH AND SWORDFISHING AMERICA'S CUP RACES Vol. XIII, No. 4, October 1967 Published by the WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION WOODS HOLE, MASSACHUSETTS