ISSN 0029-8182 Oceanus The International Magazine of Marine Science and Policy Volume 31, Number 2, Summer 1988 Paul R. Ryan, Editor James H. W. Main, Assistant Editor T. M. Hawley, Editorial Assistant Diane R. Bauer, Intern Lucy W. Coan, Intern Sara L. Ellis, Intern Catherine M. Fellows, Intern Editorial Advisory Board Henry Charnock, Professor of Physical Oceanography, University of Southampton, England Edward D. Goldberg, Professor of Chemistry, Scripps Institution of Oceanography Gotthilf Hempel, Director of the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar Research, West Germany Charles D. Hollister, Dean of Graduate Studies, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution John Imbrie, Henry L. Doherty Professor of Oceanography, Brown University John A. Knauss, Professor of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island Arthur E. Maxwell, Director of the Institute for Geophysics, University of Texas Timothy R. Parsons, Professor, Institute of Oceanography, University of British Columbia, Canada Allan R. Robinson, Gordon McKay Professor of Geophysical Fluid Dynamics, Harvard University David A. Ross, Chairman, Department of Geology and Geophysics, and Sea Grant Coordinator, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 1930 Published by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Guy W. Nichols, Chairman, Board of Trustees lames S. Coles, President o! the Associates John H. Steele, President of the Corporation and Director of the Institution The views expressed in Oceanus are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Permission to photocopy for internal or personal use or the internal or personal use of specific clients is granted by Oceanus magazine to libraries and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), provided that the base fee of $2.00 per copy of the article, plus .05 per page is paid directly to CCC, 21 Congress Street, Salem, MA 01 970. Special requests should be addressed to Oceanus magazine. ISSN 0029-8182/83 $2.00 + .05 Editorial correspondence: Oceanus magazine, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543. Telephone (617) 548-1400, ext. 2386. Subscription correspondence, U.S. and Canada: All orders should be addressed to Oceanus Subscriber Service Center, P.O. Box 6419, Syracuse, N.Y. 13217. Individual subscription rate: $22 a year; Libraries and institutions, $50. Current copy price, $5.50 — 25% discount on current copy orders for 5 or more; 40% discount to bookstores and newsstands. Please make checks payable to Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Subscribers outside the U.S. and Canada, please write: Oceanus, Cambridge University Press, the Edinburgh Building, Shaftesbury Rd., Cambridge CB2 2RU, England. Individual subscription rate £20 a year; Students, £17; Libraries and Institutions, £37. Single copy price, £9. Make. checks payable to Cambridge University Press. When sending change of address, please include mailing label. Claims for missing numbers from the U.S. and Canada will be honored within 3 months of publication; overseas, 5 months. Give Gift of the Sea 1930 come aboard yourself now! Oceanus The International Magazine of Marine Science and Policy Published by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Domestic Subscription Order Form: U.S. & Canada* Please make checks payable to Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Please enter my subscription to OCEANUS for Individual: D one year at $22.00 D two years at $39.00 D three years at $56.00 Library or Institution: D one year at $50.00 Please send MY Subscription to: D payment enclosed. (we request prepayment) D bill me Please send a GIFT Subscription to: Name (please print) Name (please print) Street address Street address City State Zip 'Subscribers other than U.S. & Canada please use form inserted at last page. Canadian subscribers add $3.00 per year for postage. 3/88 by Paul S. Bogart City Donor's Name. Address- State Zip 108 109 lb(Q)dk /Books Received COVER: On 8 Dec ember 1911, the weather cleared, the sun appeared, and a position was taken. The expedi- tion was 7 miles from their goal. The Norwegian flag, attached to the lead sled, waved in a gentle southerly breeze. A few days later, on the 14th, Roald Amundsen was the first man to set foot at the geographical South Pole. (Photograph taken by one of Amundsen's companions, Olav B|aaland, who documented the people, places, and events of the expedition using only his folding pocket Kodak. Reproduced from The Amundsen Photographs, edited and introduced by Roland Huntford, c 1987. Reprinted by permission ot The AtLintu Monthly Press) Copyrights 1988 by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Oceanus (ISSN 0029-8182) is published m March, |une, September, and December by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 93 Water Street, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543. Second-class postage paid at Falmouth, Massachusetts; Windsor, Ontario; and additional mailing points POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Oceanus Subscriber Service Center, P.O. Box 6419, Syracuse, N.Y. 13217. HAS THE SUBSCRIPTION COUPON BEEN DETACHED? If someone else has Please make checks made use of the payable to Woods coupon attached to Hole Oceanographic this card, you can still Institution subscribe. Just send a check— $22 for one year (four issues), $39 for two, $56 for three — to this address: ~r ^ 1930 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole, Mass. 02543 Oceanus Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole, Mass. 02543 Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543. Telephone (617) 548-1400, ext. 2386. Subscription correspondence, U.S. and Canada: All orders should be addressed to Oceanus Subscriber Service Center, P.O. Box 6419, Syracuse, N.Y. 13217. Individual subscription rate: $22 a year; Libraries and institutions, $50. Current copy price, $5.50 — 25% discount on current copy orders for 5 or more; 40% discount to bookstores and newsstands. Please make checks payable to Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Subscribers outside the U.S. and Canada, please write: Oceanus, Cambridge University Press, the Edinburgh Building, Shaftesbury Rd., Cambridge CB2 2RU, England. Individual subscription rate £20 a year; Students, £17; Libraries and Institutions, £37. Single copy price, £9. Make. checks payable to Cambridge University Press. When sending change of address, please include mailing label. Claims tor missing numbers from the U.S. and Canada will be honored within 3 months of publication; overseas, 5 months. m \ 2 A Reader's Guide to the Antarctic by lames H. W. I lain 5 Introduction: The Challenge of Antarctic Science by David j. Drewry 1 1 The Antarctic Treaty 1 4 The Antarctic Treaty System by Lee A. Kimball 20 The Antarctic Mineral Resources Negotiations by R, Tucker Scully 22 The Antarctic Legal Regime and the Law of the Sea by Christopher C. joyner 32 Antarctica: Is There Any Oil and Natural Gas? by David H. Elliot 39 The Southern Ocean and Global Climate by Arnold L. Cordon 47 The Antarctic Ozone Hole by Mario /. Molina 53 The Antarctic Circumpolar Current by Thomas Whitworth III 59 Antarctic Marine Living Resources by Kenneth Sherman, and Alan F. Ryan 64— Whales by Douglas G. Chapman 71— Seals by Donald B. Siniff 75— The BIOMASS Program by Sayed Z. El-Sayed 80 Antarctic Logistics by Alfred N. Fowler 87 The Soviet Antarctic Program by Lawson W. Brigham 93 The Growth of Antarctic Tourism by Paul Dudley Hart 101 Protecting the Antarctic Environment by Gerald S. Schatz 1 04 Environmental Threats in Antarctica by Paul S. Bogart 108 Qceftftcere 109 bcSXDDS FCgWDCgMg /Books Received COVER: On 8 December 1411, the weather cleared, the sun appeared, and a position was taken. The expedi- tion was 7 miles trom their goal. The Norwegian flag, attached to the lead sled, waved in a gentle southerly breeze. A tew days later, on the 14th, Roald Amundsen was the first man to set foot at the geographical South Pole. (Photograph taken by one of Amundsen's companions, Olav B|aaland, who documented the people, places, and events of the expedition using only his folding pocket Kodak. Reproduced from The .Amundsen Photograph',, edited and introduced by Roland Huntlord, MI-!f" «N«RCTlC TB[»T» XI ANIVERSARIO OB. rRATAOO AHTART1CO 198) Antarctic National Claims All stamps in this issue from U.S. Coast Guard Commander Lawson Brigham's collection. 20 : CORREOSDECH I "<•' -• •' NWPOiOSOK \\MKTH ,\ ( H1IINA '£ ANTARCTIC resources. Seals, whales, finfish, squid, and seabirds (particularly penguins) are found in significant numbers. Most attention in recent years has been focused on krill, which swarm along the southeastern waters of Antarctica, as well as around several archipelagoes to the north (see also page 75). Though prospects for a commercial harvest of krill presently are not bright, the huge quantity of krill believed available in the Southern Ocean implicitly holds promise for supplementing the world's growing protein needs. This realization was an important stimulus for the ATCPs to negotiate the CCAMLR. The basic intent of CCAMLR is to manage and monitor fishing by nations in the region. An "ecosystemic approach" serves as the harvesting guideline for fishermen, and a special institution, the CCAMLR Commission, was created to coordinate scientific advice with resource management policies in the Antarctic. CCAMLR does not restrict the high seas right contained in the UNCLOS to fish in the region. Rather, it reinforces the duty to conserve living resources in the course of exercising that right. UNCLOS obligates fishing states in the Southern Ocean to use the "best scientific evidence available" to ensure that a maximum sustainable yield be maintained for all harvested species. Regarding nonliving resources, the mineral wealth of Antarctica is unknown. Trace amounts of many metals (for example, gold, silver, tin, cobalt, uranium, and platinum) have been found, but none in any notable quantity. Some interest has been expressed in the potential of oil and gas resources on the Antarctic continental shelf (see also page 32). Yet, no appreciable evidence has been made public so far to suggest that substantial hydrocarbon deposits are present on or offshore the continent. Nevertheless, should continental shelf exploitation of oil and gas in the Antarctic ever come about, it very likely will be regulated by the new minerals regime, rather than the provisions in the UNCLOS. The lack of a sovereign coastal nation on Antarctica would seem to preclude the relevance of UNCLOS, unless the circumpolar continental shelf came to be regarded as a legal projection of the deep seabed under the high seas. In that case, it would fall under the regulatory scope of the International Seabed Authority set out in the UNCLOS. Deep Seabed Mining In the UNCLOS, the "international seabed area" comprises the seabed and subsoil beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. This means the area beyond the limits of the continental shelf subject to coastal nation jurisdiction. This deep seabed area under the UNCLOS is declared to be "the common heritage of mankind." No claim, appropriation, or exercise of national sovereignty is permitted over the seabed area or its resources, the principal one of which is polymetallic nodules. To regulate and manage exploration and exploitation activities in the area, the UNCLOS created the International Seabed Authority (the Authority). The leading question here is, where do the international rights and duties of the Authority end, and those of the Antarctic Treaty System for exploiting minerals on the deep seabed plains around the continent of Antarctica begin? Though not yet fully resolved, the ATCPs (operating under the Antarctic Treaty System) have attempted to offset potential jurisdictional conflict with the Authority (operating under UNCLOS) over the deep seabed. The new Antarctic Minerals Convention "will apply to Antarctic mineral resource activities which take place on the continent of Antarctica and all Antarctic islands, including all ice shelves, south of 60 degrees South latitude, and the seabed and sub-soil of adjacent offshore areas; . . . [S]uch areas do not include the deep seabed . . . seaward of the [continental] margin adjacent to the relevant land area, or more than 200 nautical miles from its coast. . . ." The clear intent by the ATCPs in fashioning this provision was to establish limits of jurisdiction over the circumpolar seabed similar to those limits set out in the UNCLOS for coastal states over their continental shelves. At this time, neither the minerals treaty nor UNCLOS is in force, and the issue of conflict remains academic. Should both treaties eventually come into force, however, jurisdictional questions over the rights of parties to mine minerals on the ocean floor seem more likely to become pressing international juridical concerns. Marine Scientific Research The Antarctic Treaty is conspicuously noteworthy for promoting international cooperation in free scientific investigation among the "contracting parties" (that is, the ATCPs). Under UNCLOS, the language is similar, but has broader applicability. Here, for parties and nonparties alike, legal restrictions for conducting marine scientific research in Antarctic waters are supplied by Part XIII of the UNCLOS. Countries and "other competent international organizations" are permitted to conduct such scientific research, so long as it is carried out for peaceful purposes and does not interfere with "other legitimate uses of the sea." The UNCLOS also gives all countries the legal right to conduct scientific research on the local deep seabed and in the water column beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. Because EEZs cannot exist in the absence of a sovereign coastal nation, the logical inference would permit scientific research without consent up to the edge of Antarctica's continental land (ice) mass. Research installations and related facilities in Antarctic waters are allowed. They cannot, however, generate territorial jurisdictional limits, be construed legally as islands, or obstruct international shipping lanes in Antarctic waters. Islands A number of islands in the Southern Ocean hold particular significance for Antarctica and the law of the sea — and may serve as tests for sovereignty versus high seas claims. Included among these island groups are Macquarie Island (Australia); Peter I Island (Norway); the South Shetlands (Argentina, Chile, and Britain); South Georgia Island (Argentina and Britain); the South Orkneys (Argentina and Britain); the South Sandwich group (Argentina and Britain); Bouvet Island (Norway); Prince Edward Island (South Africa); 26 Crozet Island (France); Kerguelen Island (France); and Heard and McDonald Islands (Australia). While titles to some are disputed, all these land formations qualify as islands under the UNCLOS. Accordingly, each is legally capable of generating a territorial sea, contiguous zone, Exclusive Economic Zone, and continental shelf delimitation. Around some of these island groups, in particular the South Shetlands, South Orkneys, South Sandwich group, South Georgia Island, and Bouvet Island, are impressive krill concentrations. Declaration of 200-nautical-mile EEZs around these islands consequently envelops substantial krill resources, in effect nationalizing them for appropriation by the islands' respective claimant/ possessor country. Perhaps because of the resources involved, as well as the legal precedent, declarations by France in 1978 of EEZs around Crozet and Kerguelen Islands, and by Australia in 1979 of 200- nautical-mile fishery zones around Heard and McDonald Islands have been largely ignored by the international community, albeit the lawfulness of these zones has not yet been formally challenged. Accommodation by Two Systems The oceans adjacent to the Antarctic continent fall under two distinct international legal systems. Accommodation will not always be easy, and there has been some criticism. The Antarctic Treaty System presently administering activities in the Southern Ocean takes Law of the Sea considerations into account when negotiating policies affecting national activities in the region. The relatively confined ATCP process, however, especially as it regards resource management in the Antarctic, has not escaped international criticism. Primarily because only a select few countries have gained ATCP status thus far, nonparty states, such as Malaysia, Antigua and Barbuda, and Sierra Leone, have been quick to find fault in the system. Not surprisingly, these governments have exclaimed their preference for creating a "common heritage of mankind" regime to govern the Antarctic. The likelihood of such a new regime coming about in the foreseeable future seems dim, especially considering the ATCPs' opposition to the proposal on grounds of the substantial financial, scientific, and legal commitments already invested by ATCPs in Antarctic activities during the last three decades. The Antarctic Treaty System and the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea together supply an appropriate legal framework for prudent resource management, conservation, and protection of the Antarctic marine environment. Nonetheless, both these legal regimes must continue to evolve in scope and content so as to permit ocean law in the Antarctic to keep pace with new demands imposed by technology and global resource needs. For international interests to be best served in the Antarctic, the current Antarctic Treaty System must become suitably accommodated with the new Law of the Sea. This need is especially apparent as ocean law emerges through national practice during the coming decades. The prospects for the Law of the Sea becoming even more integral to the management of Antarctic maritime activities look good. This trend plainly is encouraging. In the contemporary era of increasing competition for scarce resources and exaggerated ideological priorities, such an opportunity for international cooperation certainly should not be lost. Christopher C. loyner is Associate Professor of Political Science and a Member of the School of International Affairs at George Washington University, Washington, D.C. During 1986-87, he was a Senior Research Fellow with the Marine Policy Center at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Selected Readings Auburn, F. M. 1982. Antarctic Law and Politics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Joyner, C. 1988. The evolving Antarctic minerals regime. Ocean Development and International Law 19(1): 73-96. Joyner, C. 1987. The Antarctic minerals negotiating process. American lournal of International Law 81(4): 888-905. Joyner, C. 1984. Ocean pollution and the Southern Ocean: Rethinking the international legal implications for Antarctica. Natural Resources journal 24: 1 -40. Joyner, C., and S. Chopra, eds. 1988. The Antarctic Legal Regime. The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff. Oxman, B. 1986. Antarctica and the new law of the sea. Cornell International Law lournal 1 9(2): 2 1 1 -248. Triggs, C., ed. 1987. The Antarctic Treaty Regime. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Attention Teachers! We offer a 25-percent discount on bulk orders of five or more copies of each current issue— or only $4.00 a copy. The same discount applies to one-year subscriptions for class adoption ($17.00 per subscription). Teachers' orders should be sent to Oceanus magazine, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543. Please make checks payable to W. H.O.I. Foreign checks should be payable in dollars drawn on a U.S. bank. 27 A Brief History of Antarctica 500 BC Greek philosophers argue that the Earth is a sphere: geographers fill this new world with imaginary lands and seas; their belief in symmetry leads to concept of a southern landmass, Terra Australis Incognita, to balance the known northern lands. 1772 Yves Joseph de Kerguelen-Tremarec (French): discovers a group of ice-bound islands in southern Indian Ocean, but unable to land because of fog and ice conditions; fabricates reports of rich land where ". . . wood, minerals, diamonds, [and] rubies will be found"; is sent back in 1774 to colonize and establish trade with natives, but finds land inhospitable; court-martialled on return to France. 1772-75 1790 1820 ANTARCTIC TERRITORY 1838-42 Captain James Cook (British): is first to cross Antarctic Circle; goes as far south as 71 degrees 10 minutes South latitude, but never sees continent; dispels myth of rich and temperate Terra Australis; reports abundance of seals and whales. Fur sealers (British and American) begin hunting in Antarctic waters: fur seal population decimated by 1830. Three countries claim to be first to sight continent: Britain — Edward Bransfield, naval officer; Russia — Thaddeus von Bellingshausen (though he does not claim to have seen it himself); United States — Nathaniel Palmer, a sealing captain. 1819-21 Bellingshausen expedition (Russian): circumnavigates continent in two seasons; discovers Peter I Island and Alexander Island; ship reinforced with copper-plated bottom. 1821 Captain John Davis (American): first to set foot on continent, on Antarctic Peninsula. 1823 James Weddell (British sealer): penetrates far into pack ice and discovers Weddell Sea; sets record of 74 degrees 15 minutes South latitude. 1837-40 Jules-Sebastien C. Dumont d'Urville (French): claims part of continent for France (names it Adelie Land for his wife); takes back thousands of natural history specimens. Charles Wilkes (American): leads large, poorly organized expedition; upon his return, he is court-martialled by U.S. Navy for poor conduct as Commander, but awarded gold medal by the Royal Geographic Society for exploration. 28 ANTARCTIC TERRITORY 1839-43 James C. Ross (British): leads expedition to find South Magnetic Pole (had discovered North Magnetic Pole in 1831); discovers Ross Sea, Ross Ice Shelf, Transantarctic Mountains, and two volcanoes (one active); sets new southward record, going past 78 degrees South latitude; Joseph Hooker, a scientist signed onto expedition as a surgeon, makes vast plant collection. 1874 Captain George S. Nare (British): commands HMS Challenger; first steam vessel to cross Antarctic Circle; collects rocks dredged from ocean bed, which were later shown to be of continental, not island, origin. 1892 Carl A. Larsen (Norwegian) (see 1904): lands on island near tip of Antarctic Peninsula; discovers first fossils — petrified wood — pointing toward a warmer past. 1894 Bull-Kristensen expedition (Norwegian): first to set foot on mainland, outside of Antarctic Peninsula; find lichen, first sign of plant life. 1895 Sixth International Geographical Congress in London: resolves that "the exploration of the Antarctic region is the greatest piece of geographical exploration still to be undertaken"; launches era of government-sponsored national expeditions. 1898 Adrien de Gerlache de Gomery (Belgian): ship drifts in pack ice for 12 months, making it first ship to winter in the Antarctic; Roald Amundsen (see 1910) is a member of the expedition. 1898-1900 Carsten E. Borchgrevink (Norwegian): first expedition to winter on land; zoologist, Nicolai Hanson, dies; first Antarctic burial. 1901-03 Erich von Drygaiski (German): leads official German expedition; meteorologists on board observe the abrupt sinking of "ice water" below water along the line now called the Antarctic Convergence; ship held in ice for 12 months, crew had to stoke ship's furnace with penguins (penguin blubber burns well!). 1901-03 Otto G. Nordenskjold (Swedish): ship crushed in ice in Weddell Sea; crew winters in three separate parties until rescued by Argentine Navy. 1901-03 Robert F. Scott (British) (see 1910-12): leads the Discovery Expedition; the ship, Discovery, is built expressly for navigation in sea ice; first extensive scientific expedition to continent; makes first serious attempt to reach South Pole, reaching 82 degrees 15 minutes South latitude; performs aerial surveys from captive balloon, from which Ernest Shackleton (see 1908 and 1914) takes photographs. 1902-04 William S. Bruce (Scottish): first oceanographic exploration of Weddell Sea; sets up meteorological observatory in South Orkney Islands. 1904 Birth of modern Antarctic whaling: Carl A. Larsen (Norwegian) establishes shore- based station on South Georgia. 1908 Ernest Shackleton (British) sleds to 88 degrees 23 minutes South, 97 miles from the South Pole. 1909 T. W. Edgeworth David (Australian): reaches South Magnetic Pole, which was then at 72 degrees 25 minutes South, 1 15 degrees 16 minutes East. 29 1909 Robert Peary (American): reaches North Pole (90 degrees North), leaving South Pole (90 degrees South) as the Earth's "last geographical prize." 1910-12 Robert F. Scott (British) and Roald Amundsen (Norwegian) race to be first at the South Pole; Scott sets out for Antarctica intending scientific studies as well as first trek to South Pole; while enroute, Scott receives telegram from Amundsen, "Beg to inform you proceeding to Antarctica"; Amundsen's team of five men has 4 sleds and 52 dogs, which can be killed and used for food; has good trip with fairly good weather; Scott has no faith in dog teams, chooses to ski to pole; Scott's party of 14 men moves slowly because of bad weather, rough terrain, and exhaustion; 14 December 1911, Amundsen reaches pole; Scott reaches pole 18 January 1912, finding Norwegian tent, flag, and letters; on trip back, weather very foul, supplies dwindling, all four men in Scott's party die by March 1912; bodies not found until November 1912, as well as diary left by Scott. Last entry: BRITISH ANTARCTIC TERRITORY 1914 Shackleton aims to cross Antarctic by land; ship is crushed in ice; crew camps on floating ice until it drifts to an island; eventually rescued by Chilean vessel in 1916. 1917-40 Countries start laying claims to various regions on Antarctic mainland and adjacent islands: 1908, Britain; 1923, New Zealand; 1924, France; 1925, Argentina; 1931, Australia; 1939, Norway; 1940, Chile. 1923 British Discovery Committee founded: first real effort at sustained research in the Antarctic; 13 separate cruises made between 1925 and 1939. 1928 Sir Hubert Wilkins (British): introduces first aircraft, allowing aerial surveys; fails in two attempts to fly across continent, but takes remarkable aerial photos. 1928-38 Norwegian ships and aircraft explore coastline and interior of Enderby Land and Dronning Maud Land: later planes from Hitler's Germany survey area and symbolically stake claim to Antarctica by dropping thousands of metal darts engraved with swastikas. 1929 Richard E. Byrd (American): first flight over the South Pole (see also 1946-47 entry). 1935 Mrs. Mikkelson (Norwegian), wife of whaling captain: first woman to land on continent. 1935 Lincoln Ellsworth (American): first successful trans-Antarctic flight. 1946-47 Byrd leads Operation Highjump: organized by U.S. Navy, is most ambitious exploratory venture; 13 ships, 23 aircraft, 4,700 men. 30 1949-52 Norwegian-British-Swedish Expedition: first truly international Antarctic expedition; first seismic traverse of inland ice-sheet. 1950 Third Polar Year recommended for period 1957-58: will be called the International Geophysical Year (ICY): Antarctica will be main area of study. 1954 Australian Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE) establishes Mawson base: first, large, permanent scientific base. 1955 Four U.S. Navy heavy cargo airplanes fly from New Zealand to Antarctica, thus linking Antarctica directly to rest of world for the first time. 1957 United States builds Amundsen-Scott Station at South Pole. 1957 International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) establishes the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR): SCAR to organize international research after the ICY. 1957 ICY begins: more than 33,000 scientists from 67 nations manning more than 1,000 stations (not only in Antarctica, but around the world); the research includes stratospheric studies, transcontinental traverses, and seismic studies. 1958-59 Soviets set up observation stations at the South Geomagnetic Pole and the Pole of Inaccessibility (the furthest point from all Antarctic coasts). 1959 Antarctic Treaty signed: ratified in 1961. 1973 David Lewis (New Zealand): completes first solo voyage to Antarctica in 33-foot steel sloop, Ice Bird. 1978 Emilio de Palma (Argentine): first person to be born in Antarctica. 1979 An Air New Zealand DC-10 carrying 257 tourists over Antarctica crashes into Mt. Erebus: no survivors. 1980 Signing of the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). 1980 Biological Investigations of Marine Antarctic Systems and Stocks (BIOMASS) created by SCAR: three international biological oceanographic expeditions between 1980 and 1985. 1982 As part of the Falkland Islands War, an Argentine ship arrives at South Georgia, reviving a territorial feud begun in 1925; after short battle, they take the island from a British garrison; a British force recaptures it 3 weeks later. 1988 U.S. successfully restores and flies LC-130 cargo plane buried in ice for 16 years, but loses another aircraft, with loss of life, in the process. 1988 Minerals regime adopted. — SLE -T 4s5 Traineou a cfoens 31 Antarctica: Is There Any Oil and Natural Gas? by David H. Elliot H, leavy hydrocarbon residues have been found in a sediment core recovered in McMurdo Sound. This event was reported last year by geologist Peter Barrett, Director of the Antarctic Research Centre at Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand. These residues show that liquid hydrocarbons have migrated up and laterally through the rock sequence, and have probably escaped to the ocean floor. There they are dispersed by wind, waves and currents, and degraded by biological activity, in the same way as oil seeps are dispersed and degraded elsewhere in the world, for example in offshore southern California. The residues may suggest to some that hydrocarbon accumulations are present, although they by no means indicate the size of any accumulation. What hard evidence can be brought to bear on this question? Antarctic Geology The continent of Antarctica is 98 percent covered by snow and ice, nevertheless, the broad outlines of the geology are well established. Geologically, the Antarctic continent is composed of two distinct provinces — the older, more quiescent, and larger East Antarctica; and the younger, more active West Antarctica, which includes the Antarctic Peninsula (Figure 1). From the scattered rock outcrops along the periphery of the continent, and the intracontinental mountain ranges like the Transantarctic Mountains, geologists have concluded that East Antarctica is made up of ancient crustal rocks like those found in western Australia, peninsular India, and southern Africa. Along the Transantarctic Mountains, these ancient rocks merge into a belt of younger and less-intensely deformed and heated sedimentary and volcanic rocks, together with granite intrusions. During the Early Paleozoic, about 450 million years ago, this belt was eroded down to a surface of low Coal seams discovered in the Transantarctic Mountains during ICY. (Photo courtesy of the British Antarctic Survey) relief on which sedimentary rocks were deposited for much of the following 300 million years. West Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula, with few exceptions, lack the ancient rocks that characterize East Antarctica. Instead, their geology is dominated by granites, sedimentary, and volcanic rocks that are younger than about 500 million years. Late Cenozoic (less than 25 million year old) volcanic activity is widespread on the Antarctic Peninsula, West Antarctica, and the Ross Sea sector of the Transantarctic Mountains; and active or recently active volcanoes occur in all those areas. Except for the Antarctic Peninsula, none of the exposed rock provides direct evidence for the existence of marine sedimentary basins. Indirect evidence, however, points to their presence. 32 Bransfield Trough Queen Maud Land Weddell Sea Shetland Island F^ntarctic Peninsula Amery Basin East Antarctica Bellingshausen Sea Antarctica (— Aurora Basin H Haag Nunataks EM Ellsworth Mtns. • Drill sites Edge of shelf ice 2000m isobath C-V-Basin v Wilkes Areas with multichannel seismic coverage HHi Generalized area of rock outcrop Generalized area of possible and proven thick sedimentary sequences Figure 1 . Sedimentary basins are located on the continental margin of Antarctica and in the interior of West Antarctica. Sediments also probably occur other places inland of the East Antarctic ice margin, and certainly are present seaward of the 2,000-meter bathymetric contour. The only regions for which adequate seismic data exist to establish sediment thicknesses and the broad outlines of the basins are the Ross Sea, part of the Wilkes Land coast, Prydz Bay, the western margin of Queen Maud Land and along the immediate front of the Ronne and Filchner Ice Shelves, and parts of the continental shelf west of the Antarctic Peninsula. Information is sparse for interior West Antarctica, very poor for the Wilkes and Aurora Basins, and nonexistent for much of the continental margin — including the Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas. The sediments recovered at the drill sites on the continental shelf provide some age control for the stratigraphy developed on the basis of seismic data. For petroleum geologists, these marine sedimentary basins are of primary interest. The major Antarctic basins lie on the continental shelves, and in the Ross and Weddell embayments of West Antarctica. These basins all postdate the breakup of Gondwanaland (see page 8), the ancient supercontinent formed of all the southern continents and peninsular India. Antarctica formed the hub of the supercontinent for the hundreds of millions of years that it existed. For much of that time, Antarctica enjoyed a more agreeable climate; vegetation was abundant and reptiles roamed the landscape. The fragmentation of Gondwanaland began about 150 to 160 million years ago. The youngest and final split was initiated about 28 million years ago, and completed the physical isolation of the Antarctic continent. Except for the Antarctic Peninsula, most of the geologic history of the continent for the last 1 50 million years is held in the marine sedimentary basins. To understand the history and evolution of the basins, seismic surveys and drilling projects have been conducted. The academic interest in the basins is paralleled by interest in their potential for hydrocarbon resources. Sources and Traps for Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons are generated from marine and terrestrial organic debris — in general, the marine debris yields oil, and the terrestrial debris yields gas. The amount of organic matter in sediments tends to decrease with increasing grain size, so that mudstones and claystones will be better source rocks for hydrocarbons than sandstones. The organic matter is broken down to yield oil and gas by a combination of temperature and time. With increasing depth of burial of the source rocks by younger sediments, the temperature rises; the actual temperature attained at any particular time, however, depends on the heat flow from the Earth's 33 interior, and this is altered by such things as the rate of burial and magmatic activity, in other words, volcanism. Assuming the source rocks pass through the time-temperature window for hydrocarbon generation, oil and gas will be produced and will migrate away, both laterally and vertically. The hydrocarbons may accumulate in those rocks that contain voids, such as some limestones, or more commonly, porous sandstones. The reservoirs in which the hydrocarbons accumulate must be sealed by a "cap rock" so that oil and gas do not escape. The seals are commonly impermeable clay-rich beds, but in addition, the form of the reservoir and its seal has to be such that the hydrocarbons can accumulate as pools. Various geologic structures can provide a suitable setting. One example would be a reservoir and its cap in the form of a low dome. Another example would be an anticline, an elongate structure with an arch-like form — the prolific producing fields in Saudi Arabia are like this (Figure 2). Many marine sediments contain organic matter at the time of deposition, and methane is commonly generated both at the sea floor and with subsequent burial. However, the presence of methane in a drill core cannot be taken as an automatic indicator of oil and natural gas. Oil seeps, on the other hand, provide a sure indication that hydrocarbon generation has occurred, but they do B Unconformity C a p r o c k ^.^ Figure 2. O/7 and natural gas collect in porous sandstones and other rocks with voids. But (or their accumulation, there must be an impermeable cap rock to prevent their escape, and a suitable structure to contain the pool of hydrocarbons. An anticline, or arch-like structure, is illustrated in A. B illustrates an unconformity, which in this case would be the result of deformation and tilting of rocks, their erosion to a near horizontal surface, and the subsequent deposition of sedimentary rocks on top of the erosion surface. Both of the illustrated settings are referred to as structural traps. Other types of traps occur. not necessarily mean large accumulations are present. The assessment of the nature and sequence of sedimentary rocks in a basin is best done by seismic exploration, particularly when linked to rock outcrops and regional geology. The succession of beds distinguished by seismic properties is commonly referred to as acoustic stratigraphy. The seismic data can also delineate structures that may be favorable for hydrocarbon accumulation. The Prudhoe Bay field on the north slope of Alaska, a super-giant field with more than 9 billion barrels of oil, measures only a few tens of kilometers on a side, and points to the need for close spacing of seismic lines to identify possible structures for trapping hydrocarbons. Only drilling and core recovery can establish ages for the acoustic stratigraphy, and, as a final test, prove the existence of any accumulations. The many factors involved in the generation, migration, and accumulation of hydrocarbons make oil and gas fields the exception rather than the rule. Nevertheless, the only continent without any known major hydrocarbon accumulations is Antarctica. Any potential for oil and natural gas lies in the sedimentary basins. The Ross Embayment The Ross Sea region is divided into the Victoria Land Basin and two less well-defined basins lying east of about 170 degrees East (Figure 3). The structure and sediment thickness in the Victoria Land Basin are comparatively well known, largely as a result of recent work by Alan K. Cooper of the U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California, and others. As much as 14 kilometers of sediment are present. Marine microfossils (from small single-celled organisms), principally diatoms and foraminifera, reworked into glacial and other deposits found in the McMurdo Sound region demonstrate that marine beds as old as late Cretaceous (80 million years ago) are present somewhere beneath the ice in the Ross embayment. The geology of the basin was formed by alternating periods of rifting and basin filling. The site from which the heavy hydrocarbon residues were recovered lies on the western margin of the Victoria Land Basin. The residues occur near the base of a 700-meter-thick sequence of glacial and nonglacial marine sediments that range in age from 38 million years to modern time. The source of the hydrocarbons is unknown. It also is unknown whether any hydrocarbons are trapped anywhere in the basin. Two basins, the Central Trough and the Eastern Basin, lie to the east of the Victoria Land Basin. Both have as much as 6 kilometers of sediment fill. The Central Trough is about 50 kilometers wide and is probably rift-related, whereas the Eastern Basin is broad and mainly the result of simple subsidence. The western margin of the Eastern Basin was sampled at three sites that were drilled by the now-retired Glomar Challenger, the drilling vessel operated by the old Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP). Gaseous hydrocarbons were detected in cores from DSDP Sites 271, 272, and 273. Most 34 Edge of shelf ice and glaciers 270* DSDP drill site Region with sediment thickness greater than 2km Region with sediment thickness greater than 5km Active volcano Upper Cenozoic volcanic rocks 0 km 200 Mt. Melbourne Ross . McMurdo Stn. Ross Ice Shelf F/gure 3. The sedimentary basins on the Ross Sea continental she/fare the best defined of all basins in Antarctica. Multichannel seismic lines have been run by the U.S. Geological Survey, the West German Geological Survey, the French National Petroleum Institute, the Japanese National Oil Company, the Soviet Antarctic Expedition, and the Italian Experimental Geophysical Observatory. Drilling also has been conducted by the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) and the New Zealand Antarctic Research Program (MSSTS- 7; GIROS I and II). The Terror Rift in the Victoria Land Basin is the central part of the deep basin. It contains a thick sedimentary sequence and is the site of many submarine volcanoes. The basins extend beneath the Ross Ice Shelf, but data to define them subglacially is lacking. were methane, but traces of ethane and higher forms also were present. However, they are probably of biological origin and not related to petroleum generation. Calculations by Frederick J. Davey, Chief Geophysicist with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Zealand, suggest that only the deepest parts of the Eastern Basin and Central Trough could have been in the appropriate time- temperature regime for hydrocarbon generation. The Weddell Embayment The Filchner and Ronne Ice Shelf region of the Weddell embayment, like the Ross embayment, possibly contains as much as 14 kilometers of sediment, but the age and nature of the sequence is not known. West Antarctica is regarded as the Early Mesozoic "Pacific" margin of Gondwanaland, which was disrupted by breakup and subsequently thinned by crustal extension. The sediment filling this post- breakup basin is therefore likely to be no older than late Jurassic (about 150 million years ago), and to consist of terrigenous and pelagic sediment overlain by glacial deposits laid down in the last 30 million years. The Weddell embayment is part of a much larger region of interest that includes the continental margins lying east of the Antarctic Peninsula and west of Queen Maud Land, and together with the Falkland Plateau, share an origin related to Gondwanaland break-up. Claystones and muds with total organic carbon contents of up to 8.6 percent are known from the Falkland Plateau and western Queen Maud Land, and lower contents, up to 3.5 percent, in outcrops on the northern Antarctic Peninsula. Beds rich in organic carbon, often referred to as sapropelic beds, are potential hydrocarbon source rocks. The presence of such sapropelic beds in the Ronne Ice Shelf region of the Weddell embayment seems probable, and with up to several kilometers of younger strata overlying them, the possibility of hydrocarbon generation seems likely. Whether hydrocarbons were indeed generated, and whether other conditions were suitable for their entrapment, is another matter. David I. M. Macdonald, a geologist with the British Antarctic Survey, and his colleagues have evaluated the hydrocarbon potential of the Larsen Basin on the east flank of the Antarctic Peninsula, 35 1 South km is ^,•697 •695 ^696 30°W •694 Weddell Sea Queen Maud eo°s- Generalized areas of rock outcrop 1=1 Generalized areas of proven or inferred thick sediments - 2000m isobath • Ocean Drilling Program Leg 113 drill sites Figure 4. The sapropelic (organic carbon-rich) claystones and mudstones in the northern Antarctic Peninsula, near James Ross Island, and on the western Queen Maud Land margin at OOP sites 692 and 693, could be source rocks for hydrocarbons. Other than for the northwestern margin of the Larsen Basin and the Queen Maud Land margin, information on the sedimentary sequences is extremely sparse. and speculate that there is moderate potential for hydrocarbons derived from Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous source rocks. The hydrocarbons would be held in reservoirs of Cretaceous and Cenozoic sandstone and conglomerate, and in large structural or stratigraphic traps. On the other margin of the Weddell Sea, off Queen Maud Land, information about the sequence of sedimentary beds was obtained last year by the Ocean Drilling Program. (The Ocean Drilling Program is the successor to the Deep Sea Drilling Project but uses a newer vessel, the JOIDES Resolution.) The drilling recovered mid-Cretaceous (110-100 million-year-old) sapropelic claystones and mudstones (Figure 4). Stratigraphic thicknesses are in excess of 4 kilometers on the continental shelf and in a possible rift basin just off the continental slope. The oil "window" is estimated to lie in the deepest part of the rift basin, and to lie well below the organic-rich beds on the continental shelf. The likelihood of hydrocarbons is slim. The Antarctic Margin A number of other basins and sites of interest have been surveyed around the Antarctic margin. A substantial sediment thickness, as much as 14 kilometers, is inferred for the rift in which the Lambert Glacier is situated. This rift, identified on the basis of geophysical data, opens out into Prydz Bay and constitutes the Amery Basin. During January 1988, five sites were drilled in Prydz Bay by Leg 119 of the Ocean Drilling Program. John A. Barron of the U.S. Geological Survey in Menlo Park, California, reports that traces of gas were found at one of the sites. However, it is uncertain whether any significance can be attached to this occurrence because of the relatively shallow depth at which the gas was encountered, and the lack of knowledge of the regional geology. The Wilkes Land margin is of particular interest because of the probability that an extensive marine basin, the Wilkes Basin, exists inland beneath the ice. Sedimentary beds in the Wilkes Basin are possibly as old as 80 million years, but thicknesses are unknown. On the outer continental shelf, as much as 6 kilometers of sediment are present. Pebbles of organic-rich siltstone of Early Cretaceous age (1 20-1 1 5 million years old) have been found on the seaward flank of a fjord cut into the continental shelf; these pebbles indicate possible hydrocarbon source rocks in the Wilkes Land coastal region. Other possible sedimentary basins exist along the East Antarctic margin, the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, and particularly on the broad continental shelves of the Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas. Because of their geologic or tectonic setting, these areas offer much less promise than those already discussed. Finally, hydrocarbons have been reported from the Bransfield Trough adjacent to the South Shetland Islands. These hydrocarbons were found in surface cores taken from a thin sedimentary sequence no older than about 2 million years. The high thermal gradients needed to generate hydrocarbons at such shallow depths and in such young sediments, are a consequence of the tectonic setting, which is a rift regime with associated thin continental crust and active volcanism. The sediments can be considered a present day source rock, but it is unlikely that any stratigraphic or Table 1. The Geologic Time Scale Era Period Age(m.y. Quaternary 1.6 25 65 145 210 245 285 360 410 440 505 570 Cenozoic Neogene Paleogene Cretaceous Mesozoic Jurassic Triassic Permian Carboniferous i Devonian Paleozoic Silurian Ordovician Cambrian Precambrian m.y. = million years 36 S. merica/7 Early Cretaceous 120m.y. Krishna R. : '•:•:'• :i: : '•: Godavari R. Mahanadi R. m^MM'M^^^} Perth yV^Sv ' \ ^urorVi/v^ Great Antarctica ^^^^it Australian Bight Eucla Magallanes |-.« Australia Ot way Bass Edge of continental shelf Sedimentary basins Producing fields Sapropelic beds K-Cretaceous J-Jurassic Taranaki . .. Gippsland -J New Zealand Figure 5. Reconstruction of Condwanaland in Early Cretaceous time (120 million years ago) shows the proximity of Antarctic basins to basins on formerly adjacent continents, some of which are oil and gas producers. The basins were formed either during the process of rifting of Condwanaland, or subsequent to that event. The Bass and Otway basins, and that in Mossel Bay, are minor hydrocarbon producers. Subeconomic quantities are present in the Great South Basin and off peninsular India. No hydrocarbons have been reported from the Great Australian Bight, Eucla, or Duntroon basins. It is not clear how many, if any, of the basins on the conjugate margins are analogs for the Antarctic sedimentary basins because of differences in time of formation, sediment thickness, history of deformation, and other factors. structural traps exist that would retain the hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons, therefore, are most likely to seep onto the sea floor and be dispersed and degraded by normal marine processes. Hydrocarbon Assessments The scale of Antarctic maps commonly over emphasizes the true extent of seismic coverage of the basins. The coverage so far only permits the delineation of the major features of the basins, and with line spacings typically between 50 and 100 kilometers, can at best be considered a reconnaissance of the continental shelf. The lack of detailed information about the sedimentary basins, including the absence of stratigraphic drilling that could provide data on the older parts of the sequences, makes estimates of hydrocarbon potential totally speculative. Despite these shortcomings in the knowledge of the geology, estimates of the hydrocarbon potential of the Antarctic sedimentary basins have been made. At the optimistic end of the speculation spectrum, Bill St. John, a consultant with Primary Fuels, Inc. in Houston, Texas, has suggested that as much as 203 billion barrels of oil might be present. A conservative estimate by Charles Masters of the U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., and others, is 19 billion barrels, with only a 5 percent probability of occurrence. (By way of comparison, total domestic U.S. production to date is about 145 billion barrels, and identified reserves amount to 47 billion barrels.) Models based on averages and probabilities, such as used by St. John, have limitations, and are particularly misleading when taken out of context and divorced from the caveats that are stated by the authors or implicitly understood by geologists. The experience of the search for oil on the Atlantic coastal shelf of the United States, for which orders of magnitude more information was available at the start of exploration, is a cautionary tale. For the billions of dollars spent on exploration and drilling, the only result so far has been the discovery of non- 37 A frond of the tree fern, Cladophlebis, preserved in the Cretaceous sandstone of Alexander Island (on the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula) — a clear indication of Antarctica's location in a much warmer climate 100 million years ago. (Photo courtesy of the British Antarctic Survey) commercial amounts of gas in the Baltimore Canyon region. Analogs on Other Margins Assessment of hydrocarbon resources includes drawing analogies with hydrocarbon-bearing sedimentary basins, and actual producing fields. In the case of Antarctica, analogies also have been drawn with basins on the formerly adjacent or conjugate margins of the other Gondwanaland continents. Like other methods used to predict the presence of oil and gas, this procedure has its pitfalls. Basins, and even producing basins, on related continental margins are no guarantee of basin and resource sites in the Antarctic. Figure 5 shows several of these sites. The conjugate margin to the Ross Sea region is the continental shelf around New Zealand. The Taranaki Basin off the North Island is mainly a gas producer, although a major oil discovery has recently been reported. The Taranaki Basin is sometimes cited as an analog, but its development bears only a distant relationship to the evolution of the Antarctic margin. The Gippsland Basin, in the Bass Strait between Tasmania and Victoria, is a major producer. However, the tectonism controlling the formation of the structures in which the hydrocarbons are trapped has no known parallels in Antarctica — and would not be expected, since at the time of deformation the two continents were geographically separated. The Cooper Basin in central Australia lies in a broad geologic province which possibly extended southward into Wilkes Land prior to breakup 80 million years ago. Hydrocarbons in the Cooper Basin are found in two sedimentary sequences, both of which might possibly occur subglacially in Antarctica. In southern South America, the San Jorge and Magallanes Basins contain producing fields. Although significant parallels exist with the Larsen Basin of the Antarctic Peninsula, the deformational and thermal histories are likely to differ, and hence the thermal maturation of any organic matter and the subsequent migration of any hydrocarbons. Much additional information is needed before the significance of any parallels and differences between Antarctica and the conjugate margins can be adequately evaluated. Doubt The organic carbon-rich siltstones, mudstones, and claystones known from the Wilkes Land margin, the Queen Maud Land coast, and the Antarctic Peninsula demonstrate the presence of suitable source rocks. Suitable sandstone reservoir rocks seem likely just from general considerations of the known and inferred geologic history. Whether suitable traps are present is more speculative. Furthermore, knowledge of the thermal and tectonic histories of these basins is limited. The reconnaissance nature of most studies, at least in terms of hydrocarbon resource evaluation, makes any assessment subject to great uncertainty. Nevertheless, it would be surprising indeed, if all the Antarctic basins lacked hydrocarbons, and if a few would not be producers — if they were located in more favorable geographic, environmental, and economic settings. It is difficult to see how anything less than a super-giant field — one with 10 billion barrels of recoverable hydrocarbons — would ever be exploited economically in Antarctica. In their time, however, such reservations were, no doubt, expressed about other frontier areas, including Prudhoe Bay, and the McKenzie River delta on the edge of the Arctic Ocean. David H. Elliot is Director of the Byrd Polar Research Center, and a Professor in the Department of Geology and Mineralogy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Selected References Behrendt, J. C. Scientific studies relevant to the question of Antarctica's petroleum resource potential. In, Geology of Antarctica, ed. R. ). Tingey. Oxford England: Oxford University Press. In Press. Davey, F. ). 1985. The Antarctic margin and its possible hydrocarbon potential. Jectonophysics 1 19: 443-470. Elliot, D. H. 1985. Physical geography — geological evolution. In, Key Environments — Antarctica, eds. W. N. Bonner and D. W. H. Walton, pp. 39-61. Oxford England: Pergamon Press. Hinz, K., and Y. Kristoffersen. 1987. Antarctica: Recent advances in the understanding of the continental shelf. Ceologisches jahrbuch, Reihe E, Heft 27: 54 pp. Macdonald, D. I. M., P. F. Barker, S. W. Garrett, ). R. Ineson, D. Pirrie, B. C. Storey, A. C. Whitham, R. R. F. Kinghorn, and ). E. A. Marshall. 1988. A preliminary assessment of the hydrocarbon potential of the Larsen Basin, Antarctica. Marine and Petroleum Geology 5: 34-53. 38 The Southern Ocean and Global Climate by Arnold L Gordon If you think of the sea ice around Antarctica as a large insulating blanket covering the Southern Ocean and then visualize a few holes in that blanket, you have some idea of an important process that affects global climate. Scientists call the holes in the blanket polynyas — bodies of open water, both large and small, in the sea ice, where sizeable quantities of heat escape to the atmosphere. The heat that has escaped through these holes, or polynyas, has entered the world's oceans at more temperate latitudes, and has been transported to the Southern Ocean by oceanic currents located at various depths. It is then brought to the surface through complex upwelling and surface wind mechanisms. In many cases, the heat exchange with the atmosphere is restricted by the ice cover. Sometimes, however, large patches of open water — the polynyas — allow heat to cross the ocean/atmosphere boundary. Thus, we believe that these polynyas, about which relatively little is known, play a principal role from year to year in providing lesser or greater heat exchanges to the atmosphere — depending on the extent of their occurrence. Measurements of the heat lost to the atmosphere through polynyas has proved elusive because of the difficulty of reaching these areas by an icebreaking ship, and because the drift buoys needed to monitor the heat flux without a ship present have yet to be satisfactorily designed. Some Background The Earth is heated at low latitudes, and cooled at high latitudes. The efficiency of the atmosphere and ocean, working together, in carrying excess heat across latitudes, determines the mean meridional* temperature gradient of the atmosphere, and hence the vigor of global wind patterns. Since the wind is in itself part of the meridional heat flux process, the whole climate system becomes a complex network of feedbacks — negative feedbacks inducing stability, positive feedbacks nudging the system to ever increasing changes. The meridional heat transfer mechanisms, as well as characteristics of the radiational balance, depend on the Earth's ocean/continent configuration, which is continuously changing over long geological time scales of tens of millions of years. Of greater concern to civilization are the variations in the global climate at time scales far too short to be associated with the drifting continents — scales of decades to thousands of years. These are forced entirely within the ocean/ atmosphere system, with a little help at the tens-of- thousands-year-scale from the Earth's orbital parameters, which alter the distribution of solar radiation over the globe (see also Oceanus Vol. 29, No. 4, p. 43). The Southern Ocean, it would seem, plays a key role in governing these swings in climate, including the very significant oscillations between glacial and inter-glacial climate that have been plaguing the Earth for the last million years. Antarctica and its surrounding ocean are in a unique position in regard to the global climate system. The ocean encircles Antarctica. This not only establishes the major conduit between the three ocean basins, but also isolates the polar continent of Antarctica from exposure to the warm surface waters of the subtropics. It has been doing this for the last 20 to 25 million years, allowing build-up of a massive glacial ice cap resting on the Antarctic continent. The layer of fresh water glacial ice with an average thickness of 3,000 meters, covering an area of 14 million square kilometers, comprises 91 percent of Earth's continental ice. It reaches out to the coast of Antarctica, and along 44 percent of the coastline, forms glacial ice overhangs or ice shelves, floating on the ocean. The position of Antarctica influences the atmospheric circulation, as great masses of cold air spread away from the dome of polar air over Antarctica, imposing temperature and salinity alterations on the surrounding surface ocean water as sea ice forms and oceanic heat is drawn into the atmosphere. These winds have the additional effect of inducing regional upwelling of subsurface, somewhat warmer, saltier water, as the surface layer is continuously removed by a divergent Ekman transport pattern.* The combination of regional Ekman upwelling and intense thermohaline circulation, or buoyancy forcing by the atmosphere, sets up the Southern Ocean to play a major role in the global climate system. The sea and glacial ice of the cold regions complicates water mass modification in two ways: the highly spatially and temporally variable sea-ice cover strongly influences the coupling of the ocean and atmosphere in regard to momentum, heat, * Referring to movement or gradients along lines of longitude; in a north-south direction. * A wind-induced movement of water in the surface layers of the ocean. 39 water, and gas exchange; and the ocean interaction with glacial ice influences the characteristics of water masses, and may be a significant factor in glacial ice budgets and global sea level. This ocean/ glacial-ice interaction was presented by Stanley Jacobs in an earlier issue of Oceanus (Vol. 29, No. 4, p. 50). While there are many factors within the atmosphere and ocean that might play a role in climate variations, it is exceedingly difficult to isolate specific features in the complex coupled system. There has been much attention devoted to the tropical end of the heat engine, but less attention has been directed toward the polar end. Certainly part of this imbalance stems from the very nature of the environment — it is difficult to obtain information about the harsh, remote, and ice-cluttered polar oceans. Yet, it is in the polar regions of both hemispheres, where the ocean loses great amounts of heat to the cold atmosphere, that a counterbalance to the tropics is formed. How, where, and to what efficiency the polar oceans accomplish this task influences the global climate patterns. The Southern Ocean and Climate The global role of the Southern Ocean in terms of the climate system is well recognized, at least in a qualitative sense. The deep-water circumpolar belt permits the establishment of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. This major current carries ocean water between the three primary ocean basins within an "endless current" as discussed by Thomas Whitworth of Texas A&M (page 53), at a rate of 130 million cubic meters a second. In this way, the three oceans tend to blend their characteristics via the Antarctic Circumpolar Current "conveyor belt." Poleward of the circumpolar current lies 30 million square kilometers of ocean exposed to the harsh polar atmosphere. Cold water masses form as the warmer deep water, drawn from the north, is chilled as it upwells to the surface layer. These cold Antarctic water masses sink into the ocean interior and spread to the north. The Southern Ocean's influence depresses the temperature of at least 55 to 60 percent of the Earth's ocean volume to below 2 degrees Celsius. The influence of the Southern Ocean on the rest of the world ocean ultimately depends on the ability of water properties to mix across the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. In the lower 2 or 3 kilometers, this can be accomplished by deep boundary currents supported by submarine ridges that breach the Antarctic Circumpolar Current belt. In the upper 2 or 3 kilometers, this task seems to fall primarily on large eddies, and on the wind- induced northward surface water movement. The difficulty of carrying large amounts of heat by these means attests to the thermal isolation of Antarctica. Associated with the water mass exchanges between the Southern Ocean and the rest of the global ocean is significant poleward heat flux across 60 degrees South, estimated as 5.4 x 1014 Watts. This ocean heat withdrawn in the Southern Ocean is derived from the heat introduced into the deep water of the world ocean by downward diffusion, and by deep convection of relatively warm salt water in the North Atlantic Ocean (North Atlantic Deep Water). Southern Ocean Upwelling The upwelling region between the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and Antarctica has an interesting effect on the ocean: the cold, relatively fresh surface water layer is continuously replaced by upwelling warmer, more saline, deep water. Surface water is removed as about two thirds of it is transported northward to the circumpolar belt, and the remainder to the margins of Antarctica. The total upwelling may be as large as 45 million cubic meters per second. A typical water particle resides in the surface layer only two years. There is not much of a "memory" of the past. Any anomalies in salinity or temperature are quickly washed away. The deep water upwelling is 2 to 3 degrees Celsius warmer and somewhat saltier than the winter surface water, which is near the freezing point. It is cooled on exposure to the atmosphere and would sink were it not for some freshening of the water by excess precipitation. This compensation is marginal, in that the introduction of fresh water is barely able to maintain a stable stratification. Slight variability in the salinity balance of the surface water could lead to unstable stratification and accelerate deepening of the surface layer, which carries up more heat and salt. This encourages more instability and a still deeper mixed layer; it is a positive feedback. In the extreme, the mixed layer could deepen catastrophically, forming deep-reaching convective cells. We now believe that this condition does indeed happen. Thus, the newly formed surface water is vulnerable to rather dramatic change — slight alterations in the fresh water balance would spell the difference between floating and sinking. While the net balance of precipitation and evaporation is slightly on the side of stability, the largest factor is the wind-driven divergence of the sea ice. The sea ice moves in response to the wind field. Some areas may experience divergences with net annual production of ice; others exhibit convergence, with net annual melting. Small changes of sea-ice divergences may tip the balance, and deep- reaching convection ensues. Sea Ice and Polynyas With the advent of observations from an Earth- orbiting satellite in the early 1970s, a new twist has been added — the extensive winter sea-ice cover apparently is not very stable, as large, ice-free areas, or what we call polynyas, form in the dead of winter. The polynya features are most interesting, since virtually nothing was known about them before the satellite era. Their potential impact on deep ocean overturning is great, in that they greatly alter the nature of the ocean/ atmosphere heat and fresh water exchange, and 40 Icebergs The B-9 iceberg, 83 miles in length by 19 miles wide (making it larger than the state of Rhode Island), that broke off from the Ross Ice Shelf in October 1987. Reports of a slowed drift in early 1988 led U. S. Navy analysts to suggest that the large iceberg may have been grounded. (Photo courtesy Earth Observation Satellite Company, Lanham, Maryland) I he formation of icebergs in Antarctic waters is an erratic, fluctuating process. After years of build-up, large and small icebergs suddenly "calve," or break off, from glacial ice shelves that extend out over the Southern Ocean from the continent proper. The last two years have seen "some extreme events," according to Stanley S. Jacobs, a previous contributor to Oceanus, and an oceanographer at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory. The formation of icebergs is of interest to oceanographers and glaciologists for the role they play in maintaining the mass balance of the ice sheets, and modifying sea-floor sediment patterns. Jacobs has been queried several times about the surprising surge in the number and size of Antarctic icebergs as recorded in 1986 and 1987. The question often is whether the calving events signal a general warming of the Earth. Jacobs replies that there is no cause for alarm. "We are merely seeing a correction in the position of an ice sheet that has been advancing for a few decades, and now has broken off. The extension of ice sheets, and subsequent calving, is a cyclical event, and quite normal. A few decades ago, icebergs like these may have gone unnoticed. But, with frequent satellite observations, and more people in the region, we are more aware of these occurrences." One large iceberg, called B-9 by the Navy/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration joint Ice Center, broke off from the Ross Ice Shelf last October. It was approximately 83 miles long and took the Bay of Whales site, where Admiral Richard E. Byrd established his first scientific base in 1928, with it. Two or three even larger icebergs split off the Filchner Ice Shelf in 1986, along with another huge one off the Larsen Ice Shelf. These icebergs, monitored by satellite, do not, as is commonly thought, contribute to a global sea level rise — because they actually float on water before the calving events. — PRR hence are of interest to climate studies. We know from many years of ship reports that the Southern Ocean sea-ice cover undergoes enormous seasonal pulsations, from approximately 4 million square kilometers in early February (summer) to 20 million by September (end of winter). The satellite data obtained by microwave radiometer during the last two decades, provides a view of the complete sea-ice cover on a daily to weekly time frame. We now know that the ice does not form a continuous blanket. It has many random patterns of 41 NORTH ATLANTIC DEEP WATER Large-scale meridional circulation of the ocean. The deep water receives heat from the downward diffusion of heat within the main thermocline and by deep convection of relatively warm/salty water in the North Atlantic, associated with formation of North Atlantic Deep Water. The deep water heat is then lost to the atmosphere over the Southern Ocean. This heat loss is associated with formation of the cold Antarctic Bottom Water, which spreads throughout the world ocean. The intensity of the ocean/atmosphere heat exchange is strongly dependent on the nature of the sea-ice cover and existence of persistent open water regions, known as polynyas. breaks, from the 1- to 10-kilometer scale leads (elongate channels of open water) to the 100- kilometer scale, more persistent, ice-free polynyas. As sea water freezes, salt is injected into the underlying ocean, encouraging deepening of the mixed layer. The salinity of the sea ice initially is about 30 percent of that of sea water; with aging, more salt is lost to the ocean; toward the end of winter, ice may have a salinity of 15 percent of sea water. Thus, sea ice removes fresh water from the ocean during the formation periods, and releases it on melting. During the ice-waning period, the melt water is buoyant and floats on top of the ocean; it does not necessarily recombine with the salt released during formation. The winter period salt release boosts the density of the underlying ocean, making it more prone to deep convective events. The sea ice acts to segregate salt from the fresh water — making some ocean areas denser, others less dense. Sea ice influences the energy exchange between ocean and atmosphere, as it damps out the exchange processes of heat, water vapor, and momentum across the sea/air interface. Sea ice insulates the ocean, inhibiting the venting of oceanic heat in winter, and warming of the ocean in summer. This insulation is breached where there are breaks in the ice cover, such as occurs during a polynya event. There are two types of polynyas — those forming along the coast of Antarctica, over the continental shelf, and those forming over the deeper ocean to the north. The deep-ocean polynyas occur in regions where the relatively warm subsurface deep water approaches to within 100 meters of the ocean surface, whereas the coastal features are over much colder water columns of the continental shelf. Coastal Latent Heat Polynyas The water over the continental shelf is exposed to the harshest form of the Antarctic atmosphere, as very cold, dry air flows off the continent. Strong winter winds often remove the insulating cover of sea ice adjacent to the coast. Coastal polynyas are produced as newly formed sea ice is continuously blown offshore. This polynya type can be referred to as latent heat polynyas, in that the heat flux into the atmosphere is supported by heat released during ice formation, about 80 calories per gram of ice. These coastal latent heat polynyas become potential sea-ice factories, in which massive amounts of sea ice can form and be quickly transported northward. Latent heat polynyas do not do much to alter the ocean temperature since the water is close to freezing to begin with, but they do increase the salinity, and therefore density, of the 42 Computer-enhanced images obtained (mm the microwave radiometer aboard Nimbus satellites. These images are composed ot pixels approximately 30 by 30 kilometers, the resolution of the microwave sensors aboard the satellite. The microwave radiation is emitted naturally from the surface ocean and sea-ice cover. The sea ice emits more radiation in the microwave frequency than does the ocean, hence it has a "warmer" or "brighter" radiation temperature. This "brightness temperature" is converted to an approximate sea-ice concentration. (Microwave Radiometer Images supplied by Dr. /. Comiso, NASA) * AU,G fe$EPT G 30-SEPT 1 9 The Weddell Polynya (gray-green area at center — representing open water) on September 1 in 1974, 1975, and 1976 (light blue is the boundary between ice cover and open ocean, pink and purple regions are almost completely ice-covered). The Weddell Polynya slowly drifted westward during its 3-year life-time; this is a consequence of the westward mean circulation of the region, which advects the anomalous weak stratification feature associated with the polynya. 5ea-/'ce cover for February 1984. This represents the minimum ice cover month. Sea-ice cover for September 1984. This represents the maximum ice cover month. FORMATION I COLD, LOW SALINITY SALTY, VERY COLD WATER PYCNOCLINE WARM , HIGH SALINITY CONTINENTAL SHELF Latent heat, coastal polynya. Strong wind blowing off Antarctica removes the sea ice of the coastal region. The open water now exposed to the cold atmosphere, results in formation of new ice. As this ice also is removed by the wind, a persistent coastal polynya forms. These polynyas are maintained by the wind, with the heat flux from ocean to atmosphere supplied by the latent heat of fusion. Massive amounts of sea ice may form within the coastal features. shelf water as salt is rejected by the forming sea ice. The build-up of salty, dense shelf water drains into the adjacent deep ocean — forming Antarctic Bottom Water. Latent heat polynyas form along much of the coastline of Antarctica. Antarctic Bottom Water also seems to be produced along much of the coast, though survey of the continental margins is not complete enough to resolve fully all of the production. The coldest, and probably the most, Antarctic Bottom Water is formed in the southwest corner of the Weddell Gyre. A salty variety of bottom water forms in the Ross Sea, and there is evidence of bottom water formation at many other sites around Antarctica. Estimates of circumpolar production rates of Antarctic Bottom Water is in excess of 13 Sverdups (millions of cubic meters per second). Open-Ocean Sensible Heat Polynyas Polynyas within the open deep ocean are believed to be maintained by upward flux of massive amounts of the warm deep water balancing downward flux of cold surface water in a convective mode of overturning. The temperature difference supplies the oceanic heat loss to the atmosphere. These polynyas can be thought of as sensible heat polynyas — "sensible," in that oceanic heat maintains the ice free conditions. The convective cells are constrained by ocean dynamics to have horizontal scale of only 10s of kilometers. Many cells, standing "shoulder-to- shoulder" are required for the maintenance of sensible polynya features that have characteristic horizontal scales of 100s of kilometers. A most spectacular open-ocean sensible heat polynya was observed by the microwave satellite during the mid-1970s near the Greenwich Meridian and 65 degrees South — referred to as the Weddell Polynya. During the austral winters of 1974, 1975, and 1976, this large, ice-free region of 300,000 square kilometers drifted westward at 1 kilometer per day, averaged over the 3-year occurrence. There has not been another occurrence of the Weddell Polynya since 1976, though the microwave data frequently reveal intermittent reduced sea-ice concentration at the Weddell Polynya site, as well as at the Cosmonaut Polynya feature, farther to the east near 66 degrees South and 45 degrees East. These features, which last for 1 to 3 weeks, are believed to result from deep convection, which is not vigorous or extensive enough to maintain a large ice-free region. Why do some convective cells form large, lasting polynyas, while others do not? The answer may have to do with spatial scale. When convection is triggered under a sea-ice cover, the initial burst of heat melts most, if not all, of the ice immediately above the cell. This creates a stable 44 COLD ATMOSPHERE AS ,^ SEA /icT COLD LOW SALINITY HEAT, SALINITY FLUX WARM HIGH SALINITY Sensible heat, open-ocean polynya. The weak stratification separating the cold surface water from the warmer deep water is destroyed when the surface layer salinity becomes anomalously high. This may be induced by greater sea-ice formation due to surface winds, or perhaps by upwelling of anomalously salty deep water. Once the density of the two layers is the same, further ice formation would force convection. These convective cells are probably 10 to 30 kilometers wide. Individual convective cells may be quite common, but they do not last long enough to melt a "hole" in the sea-ice cover, as the initial melting caps the cell with a buoyant surface layer damping out further convection. When a number of these cells form within a region, a persistent open water feature, a sensible heat polynya, forms. The heat that maintains the polynya is derived from the deep water. surface film of fresher water, damping out the convection. Each cell would have a characteristic diameter of about 10 to 30 kilometers. In the event of a greater number of cells, standing "shoulder-to- shoulder," the melt region is larger, and more sea ice must be introduced from the surrounding area. The area of convection grows at a rate of the square of its characteristic radius, while the perimeter grows at a linear rate to the same radius. Therefore, as the field of convective cells becomes large, it is possible that the movement of ice into the region cannot occur at a rate fast enough to stop the convection. In this way, a threshold size may occur, above which the convective region can persist, forming a large, enduring polynya. However, what controls the area of convective cells is not known. The Weddell Polynya clearly left an imprint on ocean characteristics to a depth of 2,700 meters. Comparison of the water column temperature in the area of the Weddell Polynya before and after the polynya event reveals some dramatic changes in the deep water characteristics, noting that the deep waters of the world ocean are considered to be very stable on short time scales. In 1973, the temperature was near +0.5 degrees Celsius just below the cold surface layer. In 1977, the temperature was lower, by as much as 0.8 degrees Celsius, down to a depth of 2,700 meters. The heat removal during this period matched what would be expected for an ice-free polynya situation during the winter period. This heat was thus lost to the atmosphere as convection carried ocean heat to the surface, inhibiting ice formation, and maintaining the polynya condition. Without more thorough observations of the entire area before, after, and during a polynya event, it is uncertain as to how much water was actually cooled; however, reasonable estimates based on summer field observations suggest that the rate of overturning may have been as large as 6 million cubic meters per second during the winter- active polynya phase, or 3 million cubic meters per second for an annual average. This number would represent a significant percentage, perhaps half, of the total production of Antarctic Bottom Water within the Weddell Sea, a major bottom-water production area to the south. Sensible heat polynyas result in cooling of the ocean, with perhaps some freshening as ice from the polynya edges migrates into the polynya convective region and melts, though without enough fresh water introduction to shut down the convective overturning. The convection would not 45 induce a drastic change of the ocean density, though the vigorous vertical displacement of water would remove stratification. The main conse- quence is enhancement of ocean heat venting— compared to the nonpolynya situation. Thus we ask questions such as: what initiated, maintained, and terminated the Weddell Polynya? How often does it form? What is its impact on the larger-scale climate system? What effect does it have on the carbon dioxide budget? And, how might the Polynya frequency be altered with the "greenhouse" induced climate change— for example, will there be a positive or negative feedback? The maintenance seems to be controlled by deep convective overturning. The initiation must have something to do with the salinity balance of the winter surface water. The stability of the surface water "floating" over the deeper warm layer is so slight that deep convective or catastrophic deepening of the mixed layer is possible with only minor increase of surface water density. The delicate marginal stability would be upset if there were a larger upwelling of deep water into the surface mixed layer, a reduction in net precipitation, or a larger divergence of sea ice. Once convection sets in, it would continue — as the upwelling warm deep water is rapidly cooled on exposure to the atmosphere and sinks. The convection would cease only when enough fresh water, presumably from melting sea ice from the surrounding regions, or when summer period warming re-establishes a buoyant surface layer. The reoccurrence of the Weddell Polynya for three consecutive winters, with intervening summers, indicates some "memory." This most likely is related to a surplus of salinity within the surface water from the previous winter, making a repeat performance likely during the following winter. Why then did the polynya not form in 1977? It is likely that the general circulation carried the oceanic memory of a salty surface layer westward into a region of sea-ice convergence, which essentially flooded the area with fresh water- damping out convection. Will the Weddell Polynya return? Did it occur before the mid-1970s? In view of the marginal stability of the water column in the Weddell region, it is likely the Weddell Polynya occurred before and will again. Inspection of deep- water temperatures from the available data does indeed suggest that a Weddell Polynya formed in the early 1960s. This was before the satellite era, and so cannot be substantiated with direct observation. Concluding Thoughts The remoteness, the environment, and special requirements for observations all have hindered further development of quantitative understanding of the Southern Ocean, particularly within the regions covered by sea ice. Improved prediction of climate trends will be based on improved assessment of the dominant processes and their rates within the Southern Ocean. A well- coordinated attack to answer the many questions is clearly needed. Such an attack is planned during the 1990s as part of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE). Discussions are now under way to set out an effective research approach. The response of the Antarctic ice sheet to the carbon dioxide-induced global warming, a change that is expected to be amplified in the polar regions, is a matter of great concern in regard to sea-level changes. It is important that we fully understand the vertical exchange processes within the Southern Ocean so that they can be incorporated within the global climate models, and their potential negative and positive feedback properties assessed. Coupled with the ocean/atmosphere heat exchange may be alterations in gas exchange, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. Gas exchange rates are not even known for the normal sea-ice covered condition, let alone for the polynya condition. However, changes are expected as the winter snow-covered sea ice is removed, with potential impact on the carbon dioxide global budget and "greenhouse" climate change. Arnold L. Cordon is a Professor of Physical Oceanography at Columbia University, Department of Ceological Sciences, and on the Senior Staff at the Lamont-Doherty Ceological Observatory, Palisades, N.Y. Selected Readings Comiso, J. C, and A. L. Gordon. 1987. Recurring polynyas over the Cosmonaut Sea and the Maud Rise. /. Ceophys. Res. 92(C3):2819-2833. Carsey, F. 1980. Microwave observations of the Weddell Polynya. Monthly Weather Review 108:2032-2044. Cordon, A. L. 1982. Weddell deep water variability. /. Mar. Res. 40(supplement):199-217. Gordon, A. L., and B. A. Huber. 1984. Thermohaline stratification below the Southern Ocean sea ice. /. Ceophys. Res. 89(C1):641-648. Jacobs, S. S. 1986. The polar ice sheets: A wild card in the deck? Oceanus 29(4):50-54. Toggweiler, J. R., and J. L. Sarmiento. 1985. Glacial to interglacial changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide: The critical role of ocean surface water at high latitudes. In: The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric CO2 Natural Variations Archean to Present, Sundquist and Broecker, eds. Geophysical Monograph 32, pps. 163-184. Washington, D.C.: Am. Geophys. Union. Zwally, H. )., ]. C. Comiso, and A. L. Gordon. 1985. Antarctic offshore leads and polynyas and oceanographic effects. In: Oceanology of the Antarctic Continental Shelf, Antarctic Research Series, Vol. 43, ed. S. S. Jacobs, pp. 203-226. Washington, D.C.: Am Geophys. Union. 46 II * ' *r\l I OZONE LEVEL"? WlfBKNB II WOT NEW? The Antarctic Ozone Hole by Mario J. Molina Last October, the ozone concentration over Antarctica dropped to the lowest level ever observed anywhere in the atmosphere. This level was less than half of what it had been a decade ago, during the austral spring. Recent findings have shown conclusively that this "ozone hole" is largely of man-made origin. Atmospheric Ozone Ozone is a type of oxygen molecule, with the formula O3. It accounts for only about 0.0001 percent of all the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. The rest is in the form we breathe, O2. Ozone, created by the action of sunlight on O2, is an extremely important trace constituent of the atmosphere, as it protects us from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Most of it is found at altitudes of between 12 and 25 kilometers. But even there, at its greatest concentration, it is present at only a few parts per million. On the average, ozone is more plentiful near the poles than at the equatorial regions, and more abundant in winter than in summer. At ground level, ozone is produced locally by the action of sunlight on automobile exhaust 47 and other industrial emissions; it is a chemical toxic to plants and animals. While concentrations of ozone in polluted urban air can reach levels dangerous to life, industrially produced ozone does not significantly contribute to the concentrations found in the stratospheric "ozone layer." At higher altitudes, however, rather than posing a threat to life, ozone absorbs most of the sun's UV radiation that reaches Earth, preventing the radiation from reaching the Earth's surface, where it could cause serious damage to many biological systems. While absorbing this radiation, ozone heats the atmosphere, creating a global "inversion layer," where the temperature increases with altitude; this gives rise to the stratosphere — the atmospheric shell between altitudes of 10 and 50 kilometers. The layer below the stratosphere — the first shell, or troposphere — contains only about 10 percent of the Earth's total ozone. Antarctic Ozone Measurements In 1985, a team led by Joseph C. Farman of the British Antarctic Survey published an article in Nature, reporting a dramatic decrease in ozone levels during springtime over Halley Bay (Figure 1). Their observations were confirmed by other groups using different methods, including the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) Nimbus-7 satellite. This satellite provides continuous worldwide coverage of the atmospheric ozone abundance. The Nimbus-7 data showed that 350 O to CD O Q 300 250 O O DC LU CD O O O z < LU 200 150 j L J I L 1960 1970 1980 1990 Figure 1 . The total amount of ozone measured in October since 7956, directly over Halley Bay by /. Farman and co- workers of the British Antarctic Survey (open circles), and from NASA satellite measurements (solid triangles). The universally accepted measure for total ozone, a "Dobson unit" — equal to one hundredth of a millimeter- corresponds to the thickness of the layer that would result if all the atmospheric ozone above were to be brought to ground level, at standard temperature and pressure. the region of ozone depletion was somewhat wider than Antarctica, and that it was more or less restricted to the lower stratosphere (altitudes of 12 to 25 kilometers). This unusual "hole" opens in September, with the first light of the Antarctic sunrise, and closes in mid-October. It has been deepening since the late 1970s. The discovery of this mysterious hole was not expected by atmospheric scientists in particular, and disturbed the scientific community in general. A change in ozone concentration of this magnitude suggested to scientists that the ozone layer is influenced by processes they had not previously recognized. Researchers all over the world raced to develop plausible explanations. Eventually, two sets of theories dominated the field — redistribution theories, and chemical destruction theories. It was possible that the hole was the flip side of a compensating increase in ozone concentrations elsewhere, caused by dynamic meteorological processes. On the other hand, proponents of chemical destruction theories believed that unforeseen chemical processes were causing the Antarctic ozone to vanish. The Role of Chlorofluorocarbons In a 1974 Nature article, the author and F. Sherwood Rowland of the University of California, Irvine, alerted the world about a potential depletion of stratospheric ozone because of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) released into the atmosphere. CFC molecules consist of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon atoms. Because of their unusual stability and low toxicity, CFCs were regarded as ideal industrial chemicals, and are used widely in refrigeration, foam insulation, aerosol sprays, and solvents in the microelectronic industry. Ironically, it is this chemical inertness that allows CFCs to survive for so long in the environment, and eventually to diffuse above the ozone layer, where they are broken apart by solar UV radiation. The decomposition products include chlorine atoms, which speed up the destruction of ozone through a catalytic cycle.* In the 14 years since the CFC ozone depletion theory was first proposed, scientists around the world have studied it in the laboratory, by field measurements, and by computer simulations. All methods have essentially confirmed its validity. The presence of CFCs in the stratosphere was proven by measurements. Their concentrations were found to decrease rapidly with increasing altitude, as expected, because of destruction by solar UV radiation. Both atomic chlorine and chlorine monoxide were detected in the stratosphere, supporting the notion that a chlorine-catalyzed chain reaction is actually occurring there. According to very conservative calculations widely reported in the research literature, the total amount of ozone in the atmosphere will decrease by several percent by the end of the century, * A catalytic reaction often involves an increase in the rate of a chemical reaction, induced by a "third-party" agent that is unaltered by the reaction. 48 CATALYTIC CYCLES Figure 2. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are industrial chemicals released at ground level. They are unaffected by rain and by the chemical reactions that cleanse most other gases in the troposphere. The CFC's slowly rise into the upper stratosphere, above the ozone layer, where ultraviolet radiation is strong enough to break the molecules apart, releasing chlorine atoms that react very rapidly with ozone. Occasionally, these chlorine atoms combine with other chemicals to form relatively stable "chlorine reservoirs," which in turn decompose, periodically returning the free chlorine atom to the stratosphere. Each chlorine atom released by the decomposition of a CFC molecule is capable of destroying tens of thousands of ozone molecules before it returns to the Earth's surface. assuming (probably incorrectly) the emission of CFCs continues at present rates. This decrease would barely be discernible among the large natural ozone fluctuations, but the depletion is predicted to occur mostly in the upper stratosphere, where most of the ozone is produced (this depletion has been recently confirmed by observations). In the lower stratosphere, ozone levels could actually increase somewhat, partially compensating the losses higher up. Even if the total amount of ozone were to remain the same, a substantial redistribution could have a serious impact on climate, by changing the temperature profile of the atmosphere. One of the worrisome aspects of the problem is the long time scale involved; the effect of a release of CFCs at any given time is only felt about a decade later, and then it persists for more than a century. Levels of chlorine in the stratosphere are expected to continue increasing for many decades, even if production and release of CFCs were to level off. In response to public concern over the effects of CFCs on stratospheric ozone, the United States banned the use of CFCs as propellants in aerosol sprays in 1978; Canada, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway subsequently imposed similar regulations. In September 1987, 24 nations- including the United States and nearly all the major industrial countries — signed an agreement to freeze their annual use of CFCs at 1986 levels, and to cut these levels by a half by 1999. This historic agreement, known as the "Montreal Protocol," must be ratified by at least 1 1 countries to become official in 1989. Stratospheric Chemistry over Antarctica Conditions in the stratosphere over Antarctica are different in many respects from those in the temperate and equatorial latitudes. High-energy solar UV radiation is scarce over the poles; and the temperatures are the lowest of any in the atmosphere. Normally, the catalytic cycles responsible for ozone creation and breakdown (Figures 2, 3, and 4) are active only at higher temperatures, and in the presence of abundant solar UV radiation. This explains why ozone is neither generated over the poles nor normally destroyed there, so a chemical explanation of the ozone hole requires a different mechanism. One such explanation assumes that high solar activity — correlated to the 1 1-year sunspot cycle — produces large amounts of ozone- destroying nitric oxide. This so-called "solar-cycle" theory predicts that high concentrations of oxides of nitrogen should be present in the Antarctic stratosphere. The solar-cycle theory is the only plausible "natural" chemical destruction mechanism proposed. All other chemical explanations involve chlorine compounds which are, for the most part, man-made. Some of the chlorine in the stratosphere comes from the methyl chloride (CH3CI) that is a by-product of marine life. However, the contribution from industrially derived CFCs clearly dominates at present; this source has more than doubled its contribution during the last 15 years. Atmospheric scientists have identified several chlorine-based processes that could explain 49 the ozone hole. They suggest that polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) could play a major role in such processes. These high-altitude clouds were discovered many years ago, and are peculiar to Antarctica. Worldwide, the stratosphere is very dry and normally cloud free, although it has a thin haze, or "aerosol layer," that consists predominantly of tiny, wet, sulfuric acid droplets. The abundance of these droplets increases markedly after large volcanic eruptions. Over Antarctica, however, stratospheric temperatures drop to below -85 degrees Celsius during the winter, cold enough for the scarce water vapor to condense and form thin ice clouds. It is conceivable that these clouds could facilitate the conversion of chemically bound, and relatively inert forms of chlorine — the chlorine "reservoirs"- into active chlorine. The work of the author and others at the California Institute of Technology's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) showed that the reaction between chlorine nitrate and hydrogen chloride — the two most abundant chlorine reservoirs — occurs very slowly in the gas phase. It occurs so slowly that, in the context of observable ozone depletion, it does not occur at all. But in the presence of various solid substrates, about one out of every 10 collisions between chlorine nitrate and hydrogen chloride molecules results in molecular chlorine and nitric acid (HNO3). This is an example of a "heterogeneous" chemical reaction, which is a reaction occurring on a solid or liquid surface. Further experiments carried out at JPL showed conclusively that the ice-particle-mediated reaction goes to completion often enough to generate quantities of molecular chlorine sufficient to cause the ozone hole. This particular reaction on the ice surface could explain how chlorine can rapidly be released from the inactive reservoirs to its most active form, free atomic chlorine, since even the faint radiation available over Antarctica in the spring can break chlorine molecules apart into their constituent chlorine atoms. Another important characteristic of the PSC-mediated reaction is that the other product, nitric acid, remains frozen in the ice. In this way, the nitrogen oxides are kept out of the gas phase and so cannot interfere with the chlorine cycles. These experimental results have been supported by other, independent, studies — for example, by David Golden and his co-workers at SRI International in Palo Alto, California. This still leaves unexplained how a catalytic cycle of ozone destruction might be maintained. Such a cycle is necessary to account for the high rate of Antarctic ozone destruction that has been observed. Chlorine atoms react very rapidly with ozone, even at the low temperatures prevailing over Antarctica, producing oxygen molecules and chlorine monoxide. However, the second step in the ozone destruction cycle (Figure 4) operating at mid-latitudes does not occur over the poles. Oxygen atoms are too scarce to react at any appreciable rate with chlorine monoxide. Three catalytic cycles that regenerate chlorine atoms, and that do not require oxygen atoms, have been proposed as being at work over Antarctica. First of all, the author's earlier work at JPL led to the idea that chlorine monoxide could react with itself, producing the "dimer" molecule, CI2O2. The dimer could decompose by several pathways, regenerating free chlorine atoms. Secondly, Michael McElroy and co-workers at Harvard University proposed a bromine cycle, involving the reaction of chlorine monoxide with bromine monoxide (BrO). The product of this reaction would be atoms of bromine and chlorine. The third cycle, suggested by Susan Solomon of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, F. S. Rowland, and others, involves the hydroperoxy OZONE FORMATION HIGH ENERGY UV RADIATION 8 OXYGEN MOLECULE O + O OXYGEN ATOMS O OXYGEN ATOM OXYGEN MOLECULE ADDITION REACTION UV RADIATION OZONE MOLECULE Figure 3. Highly energetic solar UV radiation breaks apart an oxygen molecule into its constituent oxygen atoms, which combine rapidly with other oxygen molecules to form ozone. In the process of shielding the Earth from solar UV radiation, ozone breaks apart, but is quickly regenerated. CATALYTIC OZONE DESTRUCTION 8 CHLORINE ATOM CHLORINE MONOXIDE OZONE MOLECULE O OXYGEN ATOM CHLORINE MONOXIDE OXYGEN MOLECULE CHLORINE ATOM OXYGEN MOLECULE O - 8 8 NET OZONE DESTRUCTION PROCESS Figure 4. In a catalytic destruction cycle at mid-latitudes, the reactive chlorine atoms and chlorine monoxide are recycled. An ozone molecule and an oxygen atom disappear, forming two oxygen molecules. Natural control of ozone occurs mainly through a catalytic cycle involving nitric oxide (NO) instead of atomic chlorine, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) instead of chlorine monoxide, yielding the same "net" ozone destruction reaction. 50 radical (HO2), produced by the decomposition of water vapor, reacting with chlorine monoxide, eventually releasing free chlorine atoms. The net effect of these three cycles is to destroy two ozone molecules and produce three oxygen molecules, while returning all the other reactants to their original chemical form. Measurements Over Antarctica Field measurements over Antarctica now comprise a wealth of information, helping to support or refute the various theories for ozone depletion. During the austral spring of 1986, the first National Ozone Expedition (NOZE I) followed the formation of the hole from the National Science Foundation's (NSF's) research station at McMurdo Sound. Scientific reports resulting from the expedition suggested a chemical process involving CFCs as the most likely cause for the ozone hole, although natural causes were not entirely ruled out. A second expedition (NOZE II) to McMurdo station in 1987 gathered additional data. At the same time, another ambitious expedition was coordinated by NASA, probing the Antarctic stratosphere with an ER-2 aircraft — a modified version of the military U2 spy plane — and a DC-8 as platforms for sophisticated measurements. This expedition, known as the Airborne Antarctic Ozone Experiment, was able to range more widely in terms of both area and altitude. Preliminary results from the aircraft expedition are consistent with the observations made the previous year from McMurdo. The combination of those results and observations show that the chemical composition of Antarctic stratosphere is highly perturbed, compared to predictions based on "natural" chemical and dynamical theories. One of the key experiments, conducted by James Anderson's team from Harvard University, monitored chlorine monoxide levels. The levels were found to increase sharply, as soon as the airplane penetrated the so-called "chemically perturbed" region, reaching a maximum of 100 times the level normally measured at mid-latitudes. At the same time, ozone levels dropped just as sharply. The concentrations of the two species were highly anticorrelated, that is, behaving like mirror images of each other. Measurements carried out by other teams also supported the theory of CFCs being responsible for Antarctic ozone destruction. Nitrogen dioxide was present at extremely low levels, whereas nitric acid (measured as nitrate) was present in the ice particles. The hydrogen chloride levels were low during the early stages of the ozone hole formation, returning slowly to normal levels as the hole disappeared with the breakdown of the polar vortex.* There were low concentrations * The polar vortex is a stream of air maintained in the Antarctic stratosphere. It exists for several months each year, and does not mix with the surrounding air. As a consequence of this isolation, the air of the polar vortex becomes very cold. of CFCs and nitrous oxide in the regions of diminished ozone, indicating that the air in those regions was not coming from the troposphere below, but was "aged" stratospheric air. This air would have come from higher altitudes at equatorial or temperate latitudes, according to conventional views about the large-scale circulation in the stratosphere. These findings rule out the natural, or solar- cycle, theory that requires high levels of nitrogen dioxide. They also are incompatible with the "dynamics only" theory, postulating an upward movement of tropospheric air as the sole cause of the hole. In contrast, the observed abundance of key chemicals in the ozone hole fits well with the prediction of the chlorine-based theory. The low values of nitrogen oxides observed are consistent with laboratory results showing the chlorine reservoirs to react on the surface of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs), enhancing the abundance of active chlorine, and at the same time tying up the nitrogen oxides in ice crystals as frozen nitric acid. The ozone-destroying catalytic cycle that is most likely to occur over Antarctica involves the chlorine monoxide dimer (Figure 5). However, resolving the details of this mechanism depends on further laboratory work on dimer chemistry. The observed concentration of bromine monoxide was too low for the bromine cycle to be the dominant mechanism in ozone destruction. It is clear that meteorology sets up the special conditions required for the perturbed chemistry. As the polar vortex cools, it permits the formation of PSCs. A wealth of information is still coming out of the expeditions and important results will continue to be announced throughout 1988, as the data is scrutinized further. Much remains to be learned, and many questions need to be answered about the detailed interpretation of the results, but the overall picture of the chemical origin of the ozone hole as due to CFCs is emerging convincingly. Antarctic Implications The 1987 Antarctic ozone hole was the deepest ever; less than a half of the ozone present on August 15 remained by October 7, with more than 97 percent vanishing at certain altitudes. A very worrisome aspect of last year's hole was that the breakdown of the polar vortex occurred about a month later than usual. This implies that the stratospheric meteorology in the Southern Hemisphere can be seriously perturbed by the presence of the hole. Lower temperatures, caused by less solar UV radiation absorption by the diminished ozone, favor the formation of a more stable polar vortex. Hence, the hole might last longer, growing outward from Antarctica; it cannot get much deeper than it is. The NSF is funding two research groups to help assess the effect of the ozone hole on ecology. Because the sun is always very low in the horizon over Antarctica, the amount of UV radiation screened by the ozone layer is greater than in temperate zones. Nevertheless, the amount 51 of UV light reaching Antarctica's surface is certainly greater beneath the ozone hole than elsewhere, or before the hole opens. The consequences for living creatures are unclear. For example, marine phytoplankton and krill might be adversely affected. These organisms are at the base of the Antarctic food chain. Global Implications Another aspect worthy of consideration, beyond the large, local ozone depletion effects, is the net ozone depletion in the atmosphere. Half of the ozone is removed over Antarctica, which covers about 10 percent of the area of the Southern Hemisphere. Hence, ozone will be reduced by about five percent throughout that hemisphere as the polar vortex breaks down, and its air mixes with the lower latitude air. We now recognize that chemical reactions on solid particles suspended in the stratosphere might be more important than previously thought. This could be particularly important in the future, as chlorine levels increase. A large ozone hole is not likely to form over the Arctic, because a strong vortex does not develop there. The Arctic ice sheet is flat, in contrast to the Antarctic continent, so it is less likely to induce the characteristic upward spinning motion in the atmosphere. As a consequence, PSCs are not as prevalent over the Arctic, but they certainly also occur there, and so can induce chlorine chemistry similar to that occurring over Antarctica. There are indications that the chlorine monoxide levels in the Arctic stratosphere are higher than expected. Recently, a panel of experts assembled by NASA established that there is a decrease of more than 5 percent in ozone levels during the boreal winter at latitudes above 50 degrees North, with less depletion toward the equator. This drop is much larger than expected from "conventional" chemistry alone. If the furor over the Antarctic ozone hole has shown us one thing, it is that mankind has the potential to seriously perturb the atmosphere. It is important for society to learn more about worldwide pollution events — such as the ozone hole — to better prevent the uncontrolled deterioration of its environment. Mar/o /. Molina is a Senior Research Scientist at the let Propulsion Laboratory of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California. Acknowledgment The author acknowledges the assistance of Luisa T. Molina in the preparation of this article. CATALYTIC OZONE DESTRUCTION OVER ANTARCTICA CHLORINE ATOM OZONE CHLORINE MONOXIDE CHLORINE MONOXIDE DIMER OXYGEN MOLECULE NEAR UV RADIATION 8 DIMER CHLORINE ATOMS OXYGEN MOLECULE Figure 5. Catalytic cycles over Antarctica do not involve oxygen atoms, which are too scarce. One of the proposed mechanisms involves the dimer of chlorine monoxide. The net reaction is equivalent to two ozone molecules reacting with each other to produce three oxygen molecules. Special Student Rate! We remind you that students at all levels can enter or renew subscriptions at the rate of $17 for one year, a saving of $5. This special rate is available through application to: Oceanus, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Mass, 02543. Selected References Farman, J. C., B. C. Gardiner, and ). D. Shanklin. 1985. Large losses of total ozone in Antarctica reveal seasonal CIOX/NOX interaction. Nature 315: 207-210. McElroy, M. B., R. ). Salawitch, S. C. Wofsy, and ). A. Logan. 1986. Reductions of Antarctic ozone due to synergistic interactions of chlorine and bromine. Nature 321: 759-762. Molina, M. )., and F. S. Rowland. 1974. Stratospheric sink for chlorofluoromethanes: Chlorine atom catalyzed destruction of ozone. Nature 249: 810-812. Molina, M. J., T.-L. Tso, L. T. Molina, and F. C.-Y. Wang. 1987. Antarctic stratospheric chemistry of chlorine nitrate, hydrogen chloride and ice: Release of active chlorine. Science 238: 1253-1257. Solomon, S., R. R. Garcia, F. S. Rowland, and D. ). Wuebbles. 1986. On the depletion of Antarctic ozone. Nature 321: 755- 758. World Meteorological Organization. 1986. Global ozone research and monitoring project, Report No. 16. Atmospheric ozone 1 985: Assessment of our understanding of the processes controlling its present distribution and change. Geneva, Switzerland: World Meteorological Organization. 52 The Antarctic Circumpolar Current I he Earth's only global current flows east around Antarctica without beginning or end, its 24,000 30W by Thomas Whitworth III kilometer length unobstructed by continents. In the middle of the South Pacific, it passes just south of 30E 150 180 150 Figure 1 . The path of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is shown by the two single lines, which trace the two major current jets. Heavy lines show the locations of two of the subpolar gyres of the Southern Ocean. Water depths shallower than 3,000 meters are shaded. (Contours are based on data from the Southern Ocean Atlas by A. L. Cordon and E. /. Molinelli, and from other sources) 53 the world's most distant point from land. Even in austral summer (December, January, and February), air and water temperatures along its route remain close to the freezing point, and 40-knot winds and 10-meter seas are not uncommon. It is of little consolation to the scientists who endure these conditions to study the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that in some sectors of the Southern Hemisphere, the current is closer to the equator than Paris is. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is usually considered the northernmost section of the Southern Ocean, a sea not separate physically from the three oceans to the north, but separate in its biological and hydrographic environment. The frigid air and ice of the Southern Ocean, and the salt left behind during sea-ice formation, combine to produce the densest water on Earth. The cold, nutrient-rich surface water supports an abundance of marine life, and the current sharply delineates the cold waters and distinctive biota of the Antarctic from the warmer waters of the subtropical South Atlantic, South Pacific, and Indian oceans. Although the ACC does delineate two oceanic environments, it is not an impermeable barrier between the Antarctic and subantarctic. More importantly, perhaps, along lines of latitude, it actually acts as a conduit that connects the world's oceans. Most of the waters carried in the Circumpolar current do not acquire their temperature and chemical characteristics locally in the Southern Ocean, but from a mixture of waters formed in other parts of the world. For example, in the North Atlantic, Arctic waters combine with those of the Mediterranean Sea, flow south across the equator, and join the Circumpolar current. Over the centuries, this constant trickle of North Atlantic water, and contributions from other sources, have formed the predominant water mass in the current. From the ACC, this water spreads both to the north (becoming the bottom water of the equatorial Pacific, for instance) and to the south (where it is a primary ingredient of dense Antarctic Bottom Water). The Circumpolar conduit also has the potential for widespread distribution of less desirable products, such as pollutants. Current Structure Unlike other currents, the Circumpolar current is not a single broad flow, but consists of two or more relatively narrow jets. Figure 1 shows the approximate locations of the two most prominent current cores. Throughout much of the Southern Ocean, the two jets run parallel to the mid-ocean ridge system that rings the Antarctic continent. South of the Circumpolar current are the clockwise flows of at least two subpolar gyres, the Weddell and Ross Sea gyres. We are not sure of the extent of the subpolar gyres, or even their number — a third gyre may exist in the Indian Ocean sector. Surface speeds within the jets are about 1 '/2 knots, considerably less than in the Gulf Stream, where average speeds are greater, and may reach 5 knots. But, unlike the Gulf Stream, the eastward flow of the jets in the ACC extends all the way to the ocean bottom. Current records from a depth of 3,000 meters south of South America reveal 1-year average speeds of more than a V* knot, with occasional bursts to almost 1 knot. The enormous volume of water that is transported in the Circumpolar current is accounted for by the great vertical extent of the ACC jets. The current does not flow strictly along lines of latitude, but tracks both to the north and south. The most poleward excursions of the ACC are south of New Zealand, where the current is forced between the continental shelf and the mid-ocean ridge, and in the Drake Passage, between South America and Antarctica. East of these two places, the ACC turns to the north, and, off the east coast of South America, a branch of the Circumpolar current reaches far enough north to collide with the warm, southward-flowing Brazil Current. Within this general path, the jets are not always found at the same latitude, and may meander hundreds of kilometers north or south of the locations in Figure 1. As in the Gulf Stream, the current cores occasionally wrap back on themselves to produce isolated current rings that can carry a miniature Antarctic marine environment north of the ACC, or a subantarctic environment to the south. Rings and eddies represent one way that the Circumpolar current exchanges water properties with the adjacent oceans. Zones and Fronts Despite its great length, the Circumpolar current appears to be quite uniform, and has similar characteristics no matter where it is observed. A good place to look at the current is at the Drake Passage, between South America and the islands that lie just north of the Antarctic Peninsula. Figures 2a and 2b show oceanic characteristics across the passage. Ocean fronts are narrow regions (50 to 100 kilometers wide) where there is an abrupt horizontal change in the properties of the water. In Figure 2, the fronts of the ACC appear as sharp depth changes in the contours of equal temperature and salinity (isotherms and isohalines). Since these two properties of seawater are the ones that determine density, lines of constant density (isopycnals) would parallel those of temperature and salinity. An abrupt change in the depth of an isopycnal implies a strong current, and in the Southern Hemisphere, denser water to the south signals a current toward the east (into the page on Figure 2). The current cores in Figure 1 are thus easily identifiable in cross-sections of temperature or salinity. There is nothing subtle about fronts in the Southern Ocean. Antarctic waters are so dense that lighter waters from the north undergo huge depth changes in overriding them. The 1 -degree-Celsius isotherm is deeper than 3,500 meters on the northern side of Drake Passage, and shallower than 1,000 meters on the southern side, just 600 kilometers away. (Although this slope is dramatic by oceanographic standards, it amounts to an angle 54 of only about a quarter of a degree. If Figure 2 were wide enough to use the same scale in the horizontal as is used in the vertical, the 1 -degree isotherm would be almost horizontal.) The late Sir George Deacon, former director of Britain's National Institute of Oceanography, and a pioneer of modern Antarctic oceanography (see profile, Oceanus Vol. 28, No. 1, p. 90), was the first to notice, in 1939, that isotherms rose to the south across the current in a series of steps, implying the presence of more than one front. The Polar Front (earlier called the Antarctic Convergence) was recognized as early as 1901, because its location is often marked by a rapid change in surface temperature. From his work on the British research ship Discovery, Deacon showed that the Polar Front (the southernmost contour on Figure 1) was circumpolar in extent. In subsequent years, the northern contour in Figure 1, representing the Subantarctic Front, also has been shown to be circumpolar. Although vertical sections through the ACC in other parts of the Southern Ocean show a feature similar to the Continental Water Boundary, the southernmost front in Drake Passage, it is not yet known whether this front is part of the current. The fronts separate distinctive "zones," each characterized by a particular vertical stratification in temperature and salinity. South of the Polar Front in the Antarctic Zone is a layer of water colder than 0 degrees Celsius just below the surface. During winter, this cold water is formed at the sea surface and is about 100 meters thick. (The data in Figure 2 were collected in austral summer, however, and seasonal heating of the surface had isolated the "winter water" below the surface.) As one moves away from the Antarctic continent, and into the Polar Frontal Zone — a transition between the Antarctic and subantarctic zones — this cold, fresh water sinks to a depth of about 500 meters, and, north of the ACC, continuing to move equatorward, it sinks to a depth of 1,000 meters. This characteristic water mass, known as Antarctic Intermediate Water, spreads throughout the Southern Hemisphere, and its Antarctic characteristics can still be recognized as far north as the equator, and beyond. The most voluminous water mass in the ACC is called Circumpolar Deep Water, and is not of Antarctic origin. In Figure 2b, water with salinity greater than about 34.7 parts per thousand (of salt to water) is Circumpolar Deep Water, and it constitutes more than half the water in Drake Passage. Its high salinity can be traced directly back to the outflow from the Mediterranean Sea. In the movement, rising, sinking, and layering of water masses in the region, temperature and salinity play complex and interchanging roles. While the winter water formed in place during the Antarctic winter is cold, it is relatively fresh. The warmer, but saltier water that has some of its origin in the Mediterranean, takes on a greater density, and is located beneath the winter water. In the Antarctic Zone, therefore, Circumpolar Deep Water lies beneath the winter water, so that between 200 and 500 meters, water Subantatctic Front Polar Fronl Continental Water Boundary Subantarctic Zone T Polar Frontal Zone ' Antarctic Zone 26 27 28 29 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 43 44 45 46 4748 49 5OOO 300 400 500 600 ':• 4OOO 4500 5000 800km Figure 2a. Vertical section of temperature through the Antarctic Circumpolar Current at Drake Passage, off the southern tip of South America. The three fronts (shaded) that comprise the current are relatively narrow compared to the zones they separate. The dots represent the positions of hydrographic stations and locations of samples collected. The view is looking eastward, from the Pacific toward the Atlantic, or downstream along the current. SAP PF CWB 26 27 28 29 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 43 44 45 46 4748 49 4000 45OO 5OOO 5000 IOO 20O 300 400 600 700 800 km Figure 26. Vertical section of salinity in parts per thousand (salt to water) through the Drake Passage. 55 Weddell Sea Deep Water North South The zonation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current at the Drake Passage, and the principal water masses. temperature increases with depth. This unusual situation was first documented in the 1770s during Captain James Cook's circumnavigation of the Southern Ocean. The ACC nearly fills the Drake Passage as it squeezes through it. The only water in Drake Passage that is not part of the ACC is at the southern margin. Cold and relatively fresh water from the Weddell Sea leaks around the Antarctic Peninsula and flows to the west through the Drake Passage, in the direction opposite to that of the ACC. Transport The average transport of the circumpolar current is 130 million cubic meters per second — about four times that of the Florida Current portion of the Gulf Stream system, and about 400 times greater than the transport of the Mississippi River. Even though it represents only 2 months production of a leading cola manufacturer, a million cubic meters of water is a large volume, and may be difficult to visualize. A railroad tank car holds about 100,000 liters (30,000 gallons), and it would take almost 9,000 of them in a train 200 kilometers long to carry a million cubic meters. To carry the amount of water passing through Drake Passage each second would require four trains, each stretching from Miami to Seattle. The volume transport of the ACC is an important number to oceanographers. If all the pertinent dynamics are included in numerical models of global ocean circulation, a realistic transport estimate for the ACC must result. As we will discuss later, the present models do not pass the transport test. The first calculation of the transport of the ACC was made in the early 1930s. It differed from today's best estimate by only 15 percent. All of the early estimates were made without sophisticated instruments or electronics, using an indirect calculation based on the slope of isopycnals across the current. When reliable current meters were developed and first deployed in the ACC, transport estimates actually got worse — because of undersampling or oversampling of the fronts, which transport most of the water. For example, at Drake Passage about three-fourths of the transport occurs in the three frontal regions shaded in Figure 2, even though they occupy only about one-fourth of the cross-sectional area of Drake Passage. A comprehensive study of the ACC at Drake Passage was started in 1975 as part of the International Southern Ocean Studies program. The program involved scientists and technicians from Texas A&M University, Oregon State University, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Lamont- Doherty Geological Observatory of Columbia University, the University of Washington, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, and colleagues from Chile and Argentina. During the 6-year study, 1 1 cruises on 7 different research ships were made, and some of the huge amount of data collected is still being analyzed. An important personal observation made by the author was that, during the program the weather at Drake Passage underwent constant improvement — at least, the fifth cruise did not seem nearly as bad as the first. One of the major goals of the International Southern Ocean Studies program was to make a dependable estimate of the transport of the ACC and its variability. As the final experiment of the program, an array of 91 instruments on 24 56 160 i 90 Jan 1977 Figure 3. Time series of water transport through the Drake Passage. The light line shows fluctuations in transport that occur at periods longer than 10 days. The heavy line is a smoothed version of the data to illustrate the longer-term changes in transport. The inset shows the smoothed data as four 1-year segments, and demonstrates that year-to-year differences in transport are larger than any seasonal similarities. The units of transport are in millions of cubic meters per second. moorings was deployed in Drake Passage for 1 year. Moorings were placed about 50 kilometers apart so that the fronts could be sampled adequately, even as they meandered back and forth through the passage. Even though the average transport for the year was quite close to the 50- year-old estimate, it was now a reliable estimate, and we had our first look at how the transport changed with time. The 1-year transport estimate was later extended in time — using the relationship between volume transport and the pressure difference across Drake Passage as measured by bottom- mounted precision pressure gauges. Figure 3 shows the transport between 1977 and 1979, and during 1 981 . Most surprising are the rapid increases and decreases in transport (amounting to nearly 40 percent of the average) in time spans of just a few weeks. The inset shows 1-year segments of the volume transport, and although there is some suggestion of a seasonal pattern in the transport variability, differences from year-to-year are very large. Much of the small-scale variability can be explained by 2-week solar and lunar tides. The larger, longer-period fluctuations remain unexplained. But, describing the variability is a first step toward understanding what causes it. Forcing and Braking The "Roaring Forties" of the Southern Hemisphere are the result of atmospheric high-pressure cells near 30 degrees South, and low-pressure cells near the coast of Antarctica. The strong winds from the west pushing on the sea surface are what drive the circumpolar current. Curiously, the winds are stronger than they need to be to produce a current the size of the ACC. Numerical models of wind- driven ocean circulation that work well in other oceans fail when applied to the Southern Ocean. One reason for the failure of the models (the models produce a current that is about 10 times too strong) is that the ACC never flows near a coastline where its momentum can be reduced through frictional dissipation. To create a realistic ACC, modelers must increase the internal frictional parameters of the models so that the water is unrealistically "sticky." The real problem in understanding the ACC is not what drives the current, but what keeps it from being even stronger than it is. There are two leading candidates for applying the brakes to the ACC. The first is the force applied to the current by the extensive system of bottom ridges in the Southern Ocean. The second theory relies on the observation that the ACC does not flow due east everywhere, but in two places (east of both New Zealand and South America), the current actually turns to the north. In these places, the ACC can be thought of as a short western boundary current — a mini-Gulf Stream. Such boundary currents can dissipate large amounts of energy in small-scale eddies, turbulence, and other unpleasantries collectively known to modellers as nonlinearities. 57 Shuffleboard Aboard the Melville C .urrent meter mooring deployments in rough seas and on wet decks are dangerous operations. Each part of the procedure is carefully orchestrated to minimize the danger of moving heavy pieces of equipment close to the edge of the deck. But at least once, the excellent safety record of the Oregon State University Buoy Group was maintained only through divine intervention. Preparations were underway to deploy a mooring, and the R/V Melville was maintaining slight headway into a heavy swell to minimize the ship's motion. A stack of railroad-wheel anchors was about to be moved astern and secured near the site from where it would be dropped into the water- after the rest of the mooring had been deployed and was floating behind the ship. Somehow, the ship turned into the "trough," parallel to the seas, and began rolling wildly. The stack of wheels broke loose from the one remaining bolt holding it to the deck, and began to lumber toward the low side of the ship. On the next roll, it seemed inclined to return to its original position, but instead rammed into another stack, shearing off the restraining bolts of a second anchor. Very soon, the stern of the Melville was a huge shuffleboard court, but with disks more appropriate for a curling match among giants. With cries to the bridge to resume their heading, the deck crew scrambled for ladders, cranes, poles, or anything above deck level. Once the Melville was back on course, the anchors, some weighing more than a ton and a half, littered the deck in precarious motionlessness, some half overboard, held tenuously by a filament of dacron line. Ever so cautiously, they were coaxed back to their homes and re-secured. Apart from jangled nerves, there were no injuries, but the Melville probably still has some mysterious indentations in her rails. — TW III Neither theory can be easily tested through field work, and the answer to this question will have to await more sophisticated models on larger computers. The fundamental question of how the ACC works remains a major research challenge for the future. A Vital Link The world's longest current plays a vital role in global ocean circulation by serving as a pathway for interocean exchange of water. Despite years of study, we remain ignorant of many important aspects of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current — why it looks the way it does, goes where it goes, and why it is not even stronger than it is. Thomas Whitworth III is an Associate Research Scientist in the Department of Oceanography at Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas. Selected References Deacon, C. 1984. The Antarctic Circumpolar Ocean. 180 pp. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Cordon, A. L, and E. ). Molinelli. 1982. Thermohaline and chemical distributions and the atlas data set. In, Southern Ocean Atlas. 1 1 pp., 233 plates. New York: Columbia University Press. Nowlin, W. D. Jr., and J. M. Klinck. 1986. The physics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, 24(3): 469-491. Sievers, H. A., and W. D. Nowlin, Jr. 1984. The stratification and water masses at Drake Passage, lournal of Geophysical Research 89(11): 489-5 14. Whitworth, T., Ill, and R. C. Peterson. 1985. Volume transport of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current from bottom pressure measurements, journal of Physical Oceanography 15(6): 810- 816. 58 Antarctic Marine Living Resources ; — ; by Kenneth Sherman, and Alan F. Ryan IERRES AUSTRAIES ET AXTARCU v-Jne most often thinks of whales as the biological resource of the Antarctic. Since the cessation of commercial whaling, however, finfish and krill are the targets of the fishery. Like whales, these resources have been subjected to poorly regulated or unregulated fishing pressures — sometimes to the point of stock reduction and depletion. Fishing for krill (the dominant species) and finfish began in Antarctic waters in the 1960s, and has continued to the present. Fish catches in the waters of the Southern Ocean increased from approximately 4,000 metric tons in the 1972-73 season to a peak of 500,000 metric tons in the 1979-80 season. The targets included species like the Antarctic cod, Notothenia rossii, and the ice fish, Champsocephalus gunnari, both of which are now depleted. Krill have been fished in the Antarctic since 1973, when 20,000 metric tons were landed. Since then, the catch has been highly variable, increasing to 446,000 metric tons in 1986. For the most part, the major interest in these Antarctic marine living resources (krill and finfish) developed after the 1959 Antarctic Treaty. Since mechanisms for governing resource activities were not addressed adequately in the treaty itself, the parties to the Antarctic Treaty decided to pursue a new international agreement specifically tailored to address the resource issues. An Ecosystems Approach Since the turn of the century, and on through the mid-1970s, studies concerned with the natural production of living marine resources have been focused on the population dynamics of single species, often without consideration of the influence of environmental change on populations. Traditionally, studies on the birth, growth, feeding, reproduction, and death of fish have looked for links to water characteristics (such as temperature and salinity), circulation, water depth, and the like. krill — » whale), the contribution of the nanoplankton and picoplankton to the standing crop and primary production have, until recently, been overlooked. It was not until USNS Ekanin Cruise 51 (early 1972) that one of my former students, Roger Fay, was the first to show that nanoplankton contribute about 70 percent of the biomass and primary productivity of the Ross Sea. More recently, our research effort in the Atlantic and Indian sectors of the Southern Ocean has convincingly demonstrated that these nano- and picoplankton could be responsible for 70 percent of the standing crop and about 90 percent of the primary production of the Antarctic waters. Although the larger cells are taken more efficiently, in addition to the classic food chain, a complex food web, consisting of pico-, nano-, and micro- plankton-sized components, is now emerging as the new paradigm. What Lies Ahead? The BIOMASS program was the first major international collaborative effort to study the Antarctic marine ecosystem, and to provide the necessary information for the wise management of Antarctic marine living resources. BIOMASS marked the end of individual national expeditions, and began the era of well-coordinated, multi-ship, multi-national expeditions. As a result of BIOMASS, a high degree of scientific cooperation and camaraderie has developed among the Antarctic community. This is best exemplified by the data- analysis workshops (15 so far), where scientists from varied backgrounds have agreed to pool their unpublished data for communal analysis and joint publication of the results. With the successful completion of FIBEX and SIBEX, and the establishment of the BIOMASS Data Center (housed within the British Antarctic Survey in Cambridge, England), the program has now entered a new phase of data analysis and data interpretation. Like all working groups within SCAR, however, the BIOMASS program has a definite charge and a finite lifespan. Following the final analysis and evaluation meeting in 1990 in Bremerhaven, West Germany, BIOMASS will end. Other groups and programs will assume responsibility for the stewardship of the marine resources in the Southern Ocean. The nongovernmental SCAR will continue to play a major role in facilitating international cooperation in the Southern Ocean ecology and related fields. This has led SCAR, with its long experience of coordination of such research, to establish (jointly with SCOR) the SCAR Group of Specialists on Southern Ocean Ecology, and charge it with identifying important fields of research in Antarctic marine ecology and proposing cooperative studies. Another SCAR group is the Group of Specialists on Antarctic Sea-Ice Zone, whose 10-year program for an international collaborative study includes a biological component. The third group is the governmental organization, CCAMLR, which has the mandate to conserve the living resources of the Antarctic within the context of the ecosystem (see also page 59). CCAMLR has implemented a monitoring study, and has adopted several conservation measures. It has also established a working group on krill to review and evaluate new research applications to krill abundance and distribution assessment. There is, however, a need for cooperation between SCAR and its subsidiary bodies and CCAMLR on key research activities. The SCAR/ BIOMASS community has developed a level of competence and expertise capable of advancing basic scientific understanding of the Antarctic marine ecosystem and can make a valuable contribution to CCAMLR. It is only through such cooperation that the international scientific community is able to improve man's understanding of the world ocean 78 120kHz FIBEX 1981 23MARCH SO" A patch of krill northwest of Elephant Island, as shown on the 1 20 kiloHertz system. Depth marks are at 20-meter intervals, time scale at lower left indicates ship's speed. (Macau/ay and Mathisen, 1981). and, at the same time, develop a sound ecological strategy for the exploitation and conservation of its resources. The impending large-scale harvesting of the Antarctic marine living resources, coupled with the urgent need for accurate knowledge about the Southern Ocean ecosystem, are compelling reasons for the heirs of BIOMASS to forge ahead with similar worthy programs. Sayed Z. El-Sayed is Professor of Biological Oceanography at Texas A&M University. He is a veteran Antarctic researcher and has been the Convenor of the 5CAR/SCOR Croup of Specialists on Southern Ocean Ecosystems and Their Living Resources. He is the Chairman of the BIOMASS Executive, Editor of the BIOMASS newsletter, and a frequent contributor to Oceanus. References El-Sayed, S. Z., ed. 1977. Biological Investigations of Marine Antarctic Systems and Stocks. (Vol. I), 79 pp. Cambridge, England: Scott Polar Research Institute. George, R. Y., Convenor 1986. The biology of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba). Journal of Crustacean Biology 4: 1 -337. Laws, R. M., ed. 1984. Antarctic Ecology (Vol. 2), 505 pp. London: Academic Press. Walton, D. W. H., ed. 1987. Antarctic Science. 280 pp. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. SUNLIGHT AND NUTRIENTS KRILL DIATOMS BLUE WHALE / ADELIE PENGUI WINGED BIRDS S^\4 SMALL FISHES SKUA',, SQUID ^ EMPEROR ,± * C PENGUIN /| \ 1 " ** LARGE FISHES / WE DP ELL SEAL P^BQ ROSS SEAL j^^i LEOPARD SEAL ILLER WHALE At right, a representation of the Antarctic food chain. 79 Antarctic Logistics by Alfred N. Fowler In the world of science support, the term logistics usually refers to transport and supply functions. In Antarctica, the term is more broadly defined. It includes not only getting there and back, but also transporting everything needed to live and work in a remote area of 14 million square kilometers— twice the size of Australia — where there is no indigenous human population. The potential user or provider of Antarctic logistics must be dedicated to the principles of environmental protection. Antarctic research is no longer a matter of exploring unknown territory, or of conquering nature by extraordinary human endeavor and grit. Today, the principles of society, such as industrial codes and community behavior that prevail in lower latitudes, also prevail in Antarctica. When planning Antarctic activities on this remote continent, all of society's standards of occupational health and safety, prudent risk management, order and discipline, and of course, environmental protection, must be taken into consideration. Logistics and the Antarctic Treaty The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) has made science and support in Antarctica international. The system has evolved as the original treaty (see page 1 1) has been overlaid by recommendations of consultative meetings, implementing actions (such as the U.S. Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978) taken by the treaty nations, and two spin-off conventions — the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, and the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. As 1991, the 30th anniversary of its ratification, approaches, the ATS is alive and well. Consequently, the prospective user or provider of logistics enjoys freedom of access to the continent, and an absence of national boundaries — assured by the treaty. Questions concerning Antarctic logistics have been formally addressed at biennial meetings of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research Above, LC-130 ski-equipped airplane off-loading equipment and supplies for a United States field camp. The LC-130 is a four-engine turboprop transport plane that provides the backbone of U.S. transportation within Antarctica. Introduced to the Antarctic program in 1960, the LC-130 runs the bulk of the United States' air service between McMurdo Station and New Zealand. (U.S. Navy photo by lamie Leitzel) 80 (SCAR), an international forum. Dating from activities during the International Geophysical Year (ICY) in the late 1950s, SCAR is a standing scientific committee of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). The SCAR Working Group on Logistics has met about 20 times and has sponsored two symposia on Antarctic logistics, covering virtually every aspect of facilities, utilities, vehicles, communications, energy and fuel, transport, equipment, shelter, clothing, health care, supply, provisioning, and safety in Antarctica. The presence of permanent Antarctic stations today is an expansion of the original IGY installations of 30 years ago. The treaty nations are identified on page 14. Note that nations with consultative (voting) status are generally those with active programs "on the ice," including stations occupied year-round. Table 1 (page 85) is a list of the wintering stations; the locations of several are shown on page 15. Governments and government-operated programs have performed fairly well in the area of Antarctic logistics. The track record reflects a good measure of international cooperation and coordination. But times are changing. As we approach the 1990s, several more nations are expressing interest in becoming part of the treaty system. There are places, particularly off the north end of the Antarctic Peninsula, that are starting to get crowded. For example, on King George Island, there are now seven wintering stations within a radius of 25 kilometers. Recently, there has been a large increase in tourism, private expeditions, and other so-called "non-governmental activities." Tour ships operating out of South America take a few thousand tourists to see and visit the stations in the peninsula area each summer, up from a hundred or so just a few years ago. Commercial operators are flying groups of mountaineers and adventurers to the interior, and large, long-range commercial sightseeing overflights may resume. Environmental organizations have begun operating wintering camps and ship expeditions to Antarctica. Environmental Protection Environmental protection, the first commandment of Antarctic logistics, is an extension of the principles of the Antarctic Treaty, and the recommendations adopted as a result of the consultative meetings. The pertinent body of these recommendations appeared in 1964 and is known as the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora. The United States ratified these in the form of Public Law 95-541, the Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978. The law provides that the Director of the National Science Foundation (NSF) shall prescribe regulations, designate specially protected areas, and issue permits authorizing acts otherwise prohibited by the law. Any U.S. citizen in Antarctica, and any person in Antarctica as a participant in U.S. government activities, is subject to the regulations. The law prohibits taking native animals or birds, entering into special areas, or introducing nonindigenous species into the Antarctic. In the United States, it also is unlawful to have, sell, import, or export Antarctic mammals or birds. For each of these otherwise unlawful acts, the phrase "unless authorized by regulation or permit" applies. In 1979, the National Science Foundation McMurdo Station, lit up for the austral winter. (U.S. Navy photo, courtesy of NSF) 81 published a booklet presenting the law and its implementing regulations. It provides 46 pages of fine print, maps of special areas, and permit application forms. Experience has shown that problems persist in educating people about environmental protection in general, and the provisions of the U.S. law in particular, as well as the resulting difficulties in enforcement. For example, the law prohibits taking native animals or birds. "Take" means to harass, molest, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, or capture, or to attempt to engage in any of these. Therein lies the rub. Tourists are curious about penguins, and often have the urge to see them up close. Similarly, they are attracted to seals, although to a somewhat lesser extent. These species seem to have no natural fear of humans. They can be easily approached and sometimes their behavior, especially in the case of penguins which exhibit curiosity of their own, contributes to situations that evolve into an unlawful "taking." Possible conflicts are enhanced by the geography. The vastness of Antarctica is dominated by ice sheets, the surface of which comprise a huge cold desert. Only 2 percent of the continent, primarily along or near the coastal areas, presents exposed rock and soil. As a result, human activity competes directly with the native flora and fauna for these few ice-free sites. Moreover, the conduct of scientific research, which (before the recent surge of tourism) has been the principal activity in Antarctica for 30 years, necessarily focuses on the same 2 percent of the continent. Therefore, even though the magnitude of man's activity in Antarctica is minute with respect to the size of the continent, these factors magnify and concentrate the risk of environmental impact. The provider or user of logistics in Antarctica often uses boats, over-the-ice vehicles, helicopters, or airplanes. The use of a helicopter, for example, in the close support of a science field party or even as a reconnaissance or survey platform, may disturb birds or mammals. Boating and diving operations, or the preparation and maintenance of runways or skiways, present a similar risk. Supporting Science in Antarctica The policy of the United States is to maintain and strengthen the Antarctic Treaty System, and to continue support of the U.S. Antarctic Program at a level providing an active and influential presence. This policy supports a range of U.S. national scientific, political, and environmental interests in that area. In terms of logistics, the U.S. national program operates permanent stations in the interior at the geographic South Pole, and at coastal sites at McMurdo Station on Ross Island in the southwest corner of the Ross Sea, and at Palmer Station on Anvers Island off the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. McMurdo Station is the U.S. logistics hub, the terminal for both airlift and sealift, and the bulk fuel and supply storage site that make possible our operation of the station at South Pole. Also, from McMurdo temporary stations and major field camps have been operated in various locations— from the peaks, glaciers, and dry valleys of the Transantarctic Mountains and the high-cold plateau of East Antarctica, to the Ross Ice Shelf and high snow accumulation areas of West Antarctica. The total U.S. summer population is about 1,400, including at various times nearly 300 scientists, 700 U.S. Navy, and 500 contractor and other support personnel. Presently the U.S. Antarctic Program spends about $13.5 million on science grants, and $111.3 million for procurement, construction, and logistics. Of the latter amount, $21 million is for ship and aircraft time, and other activities directly in support of science projects. Thus, the total amount spent for science is about $34.5 million, or about 28 percent of the cost of the total program. In the most recent presidential directive, the policy of the U.S. national program — including logistic support activities — was reaffirmed. It continues to be funded and managed as a single package by the National Science Foundation. Through interagency agreements with NSF, the Department of Defense, (primarily the U.S. Navy), and the Department of Transportation (U.S. Coast Guard) provide reimbursable logistic support, such as air and ship operations as requested by NSF. The foundation is charged with managing the program in a manner that maximizes cost effectiveness and return on investment, and to this end is encouraged to use commercial support. A contractor provides facilities construction, operation, and maintenance, plus operation of a research vessel, laboratories, and so on. The U.S. Navy continues its important support role, especially in the operation and maintenance of both fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft. Similarly, the annual resupply of McMurdo Station by cargo ships depends on the opening of a channel through the sea ice by one of the U.S. Coast Guard polar icebreakers. Emphasis on Air Support When one compares the scope of U.S. operations and logistics in Antarctica with that of other nations, the striking impression is the large extent of the interior of the continent that can be reached by Americans. Several countries have more stations (with the Soviet Union leading both in total number and in geographic spread), but no other country is better able to reach a greater extent of the interior, or to better support projects at interior sites. Others in Antarctica, again the Soviets are an example, have a superior shipborne research capability. NSF via its contractor leases a 4,500- horsepower, 219-foot ice-strengthened research vessel, Polar Duke, that also is used for logistic support of its Palmer Station just off the Antarctic Peninsula. Polar Duke provides a research platform that cruises in the vicinity of the Peninsula. Looking to the future, the foundation is seeking a research vessel with icebreaking capability for year-round research in Antarctic waters not readily accessible to Polar Duke. The long-range capabilities of the ski- equipped LC-130 airplane have given the United States the advantage in support of projects in the 82 Plane Restored, Plane Lost The U.S. Antarctic logistics program had hoped to have eight LC-130s in service this year for science and cargo missions, but lost one plane while trying to retrieve another that was buried under 30 feet of snow after crashing more than 16 years ago. On 8 December 1987, an LC-130 with 1 1 U.S. Navy crewmen aboard crashed while carrying parts for use in repairing the plane lost 16 years before. Two crewmen were killed in the crash as the plane burned on impact. Several of the nine other crewmen received major injuries. The National Science Foundation, describing the ruined LC-130 as "our only science airplane," said air logistics for the rest of the season would be constrained. Photography missions were cancelled, and various data gathering efforts rescheduled. The loss of the plane overshadowed a tremendous engineering accomplishment. On 10 January 1988, the LC-130 that was dugout of the snow at a site in East Antarctica — refitted with overhauled engines and propellers — made a flight of nearly 800 nautical miles (some 5 hours) to touch down on the ice "skiway" at McMurdo Station. After inspection and further work, it flew on to Christchurch, New Zealand, on 16 January for further repairs. It was estimated that the cost to recover and to restore the plane will run in the neighborhood of $10 million. A new LC-130 costs approximately $35 million. — PRR - < "Juliet Delta 32 1 " being dug out of the snow after having crashed more than 16 years ago. (U.S. Navy photo, courtesy of NSF) interior. Seven of these remarkable machines (see also box on this page) are dedicated to the U.S. Antarctic Program, and are operated for the National Science Foundation by the Navy's Antarctic Development Squadron Six (VXE-6). The LC-130 is a four-engine, turboprop plane permanently configured with selectable ski or wheel landing gear. The LC-1 30 can carry 12,200 kilograms (27,000 pounds) of cargo, including passengers, from McMurdo to the South Pole Station (728 nautical miles), offload, and then return to McMurdo without refueling. For another example, the 2,100-nautical-mile trip between Christchurch, New Zealand, and McMurdo Station is completed in about 8 hours with a payload of about 6,800 kilograms (15,000 pounds). In 1987, one of the NSF-owned LC-1 30s flew a rescue mission from McMurdo to Sanae Station on the opposite side of the continent and back — a 4,200- mile trip that was made in 17 hours with one refueling stop at the South Pole on the return leg. To support science near McMurdo Station and in the ice-free valleys of southern Victoria Land, UH-1 N helicopters are used. VXE-6 operates six of these twin turbine UH-1 N helicopters. They can carry a payload of 730 kilograms (1,600 83 pounds), including up to five passengers over an operating radius of 185 kilometers (100 nautical miles). These aircraft have recently been augmented by Twin Otters on skis operated by commercial contractors. Surface-effect vehicles also have been successfully tested for Antarctic use. All of these developments, together with the use of a variety of modern tracked vehicles, have long since rendered obsolete the use of dog sledding in Antarctic logistics. Field Camps Using the LC-130 and the helicopters, the United States has established and supported many remote field camps. The largest of these sustained a population of about 70 science and support personnel for a summer operating season of about 100 days. Helicopters operated at such a camp greatly increase the mobility and range of the field work. The helicopters are either ferried to sites close to Ross Island or are loaded aboard the LC-1 30s for positioning at more distant camps. For these camps, thousands of gallons of aviation fuel are needed at the camp site — together with pumps, filtering equipment, and other materiels required to efficiently operate and service the aircraft. Operational weather analysis and forecasting, telecommunications, health care, and aircraft maintenance and supply support must also be provided at such camps — along with shelter, power and heat generation, food service, and enough water to supply indoor plumbing, showers, and a laundry. Fuel Fuel! If you contemplate being in Antarctica, and can satisfy transportation needs to and from the area, then the next most critical need is fuel. For example, 70 percent of all the fresh water on Earth is in Antarctica, but none of it is available to drink without the fuel to melt it. If one wants more water than just barely enough to sustain life, one must think in terms of fuel needed to melt snow- roughly 1 gallon of fuel produces 35 gallons of water, depending on the efficiency of the system. Desalination water plants using waste heat from power generation are, of course, used at coastal stations. The fuel supply systems for the U.S. Antarctic Program improved markedly after the acquisition of the turboprop LC-1 30 airplanes and the disappearance of airplanes that were powered by internal combustion engines. Consequently, the United States no longer needs to store or handle high octane aviation gasoline at its facilities. Considering the abnormal extremes in fire hazards on the ice, this is a significant change in program logistics. The fuels used in large quantities for power generation; heating; and vehicle, equipment, and aircraft operation, are all diesel- or kerosene-type distillates. Presently, there are two basic fuels: Diesel Fuel-Arctic (DFA) and JP-4, the aircraft fuel. These products are virtually identical. Studies are underway to establish the specifications for a single, multi-use fuel, and to determine what adjustments will be needed in the various engines so that the more than 9-million-gallon-capacity system can be managed without segregation of products. Another feature of modern fuel handling is the near elimination of the need to use 55-gallon steel drums. A full drum of fuel weighs 450 pounds; handling one in the snow and the cold can be a real drain on the human spirit. We can thank the LC-130 once again for the ability to transport and pump bulk quantities of fuel. The integral wing tanks of the aircraft can be used, or a large 3,500- gallon fuselage tank can be installed in the cargo compartment. Large bladders of 10,000- and 25,000-gallon capacity can be rolled and folded up when empty and airlifted to a remote site, deployed, and filled with fuel hauled and pumped by the LC-130. In addition, 500-gallon drums mounted on pallets can be moved as cargo. Safety and Antarctic Logistics The extreme fire hazard in Antarctica has been mentioned. Humidity is naturally very low and the use of heat in life support drives it even lower. Shelters, buildings, tents, bedding, and all flammable materials tend to be tinder dry. Everything seems to be charged with static electricity, while the provision of effective grounding in a snow and ice environment is nearly impossible. The ability to fight a fire with water is almost always out of the question. The prevalence of high winds adds to the danger. If that is not enough, consider also the likelihood that drifted snow may block windows or other emergency exits from shelters when disaster strikes. Logistics Lessons Learned The following are a few comments about logistics lessons learned in the U.S. Antarctic Program, and the author's perception of some of the fundamental ways we should think about Antarctic logistics: • Potential users and providers of logistics in Antarctica should not undertake the testing and evaluation of new or prototype equipment on the ice. In the interest of efficiency, safety, and economy, only proven off-the-shelf equipment should go south. • In a similar way, experience has taught us that the practice of logistics in Antarctica should not be used for training of apprentice workers. The unit cost of carrying on any activity in Antarctica is very high. Each activity center, camp, or station has its own life-support system that requires a staff for operation and maintenance. Growth of a station tends to be accompanied by a loss in net productivity and return on investment. Therefore, only the best qualified, experienced practitioners should be assigned to each logistical job. • Science and support projects that are part of 84 Table 1. Stations Operating in The Antarctic, Winter 1987. Argentina Belgrano II, 77°52'S, 34°37'W Orcadas, 60°44'S, 44°44' W Esperanza, 63°24'S, 56°59'W Marambio, 64°14'S, 56°38'W San Martin, 68°08'S, 67°04'W Jubany, 62°14'S, 58°40'W Australia *Macquarie Island, 54°30'S, 158°56'E Mawson, 67°36'S, 62°52'E Davis, 68°35'S,77°58'E Casey, 66°17'S, 110°32'E Brazil Comandante Ferraz, 62°05'S, 58°23'W Chile Capitan Arturo Prat, 62°30'S, 59°41'W General Bernardo O'Higgms, 63° 19'S, 57°54'W Teniente Rodolfo Marsh, 62°12'S, 58°54'W Wesf Germany Georg von Neumayer, 70°37'S, 8°22'W France Dumont d'Urville, 66°40'S, 140°01 'E *Alfred-Faure, 46°26'S, 51° 52'E *Martin-de-Vivies, 37°50'S, 77°34'E *Port-aux-Fran<;ais, 49°21'S, 70°12'E India Dakshin Gangotri 70°05'S, 12°00'E Japan Syowa, 69°00'S, 39°35'E Asuka, 71°32'S, 24°08'E Mew Zealand Scott Base, 77°51'S, 166°45'E 'Campbell Island, 52°33'S, 169°09'E China Great Wall, 62° 13'S, 58°58'W Poland Arctowski, 62°09'S, 58°28'W South Africa Sanae, 70°18'S, 02°25'W •Marion Island, 46°52'S, 37°51 'E •Cough Island, 40°21 'S, 09°52' W Britain •Bird Island, 54°00'S, 38°03'W Faraday, 65° 15'S, 64° 16' W Halley, 75°35'S, 26°40'W Rothera, 67°34'S, 68°07'W Signy, 60°43'S, 45°36'W United States Amundsen-Scott, 90°S McMurdo, 77°51'S, 166°40'E Palmer, 64°46'S, 64°03'W Soviet Union Mirnyy, 66°33'S, 93°01'E Novolazarevskaya, 70°46'S, 1 1 °50'E Molodezhnaya, 67°40'S, 45°50'E Vostok, 78°27'S, 106°51'E Bellingshausen, 62°12'S, 58°58'W Leningradskaya, 69°30'S, 159°23'E Russkaya, 74°46'S, 136°51'W Uruguay Artigas, 62°11'S, 58°51'W Stations north ot 60°S the U.S. Antarctic Program enjoy an important advantage that many other national programs in Antarctica lack: the opportunity to use the entire summer season, without spending the winter. This is possible because of a reliable air link. There are no conventional airfields with hard surface runways for wheeled long-range aircraft on the continent. The use of the LC- 130 on skis makes it possible for passengers to be airlifted to McMurdo during the morning twilight of late winter (in August). In 1986 and 1987, this capability was used to position scientists and their equipment at McMurdo for observations and analysis of the seasonal stratospheric ozone depletion phenomenon. For most of the scientific stations in the Antarctic, including Palmer Station, there is no such air link. Ship access to these stations is possible only during the second half of the summer. Field work at or near such stations must either be compressed into the ship-access season or else be designed to include wintering. For many key personnel, such as research scientists with obligations at academic institutions, this presents an intolerable situation. To make matters worse, even when a project can be designed to fit the compressed ship-access season, the participants also must be burdened with the lengthy sea voyages to get there and back. Today's observer of the Antarctic scene may notice that the tourism industry may be providing the stimulus to establish additional air links to Antarctica where the science programs of various nations have not. So be it. Under the principles of the treaty, tourism is recognized as a legitimate peaceful purpose. Even with access to reliable air links, it is still essential that Antarctic projects be planned 18 months to 3 years in advance. The way to position substantial supplies and cargo, large equipment, or construction material necessary during a given summer season is to deliver it by ship during the previous summer. This means the material must be procured in time to be positioned for the annual cargo ship loading in November, 1 year earlier than the start of the project in Antarctica. This then describes the flip-side of the beneficial availability of an intercontinental air link: there is a tendency to abuse the air link because it is easy and appealing for the science or support project organizer to have cargo moved only by air. The penalty in dollars can be great — since the cost of moving a pound of cargo from the United States to McMurdo by ship is less than 10 cents, and by air is about $10. For the Antarctic logistician there are important changes underway. Antarctic telecommunications have always been in a dismal state. Long-range high-frequency radio propagation in the high magnetic latitudes and the auroral zone around the pole has proven unreliable to the point of 85 The Amundsen-Scott South Pole research facility, most of which is under the snow. (Photo courtesy of NSF) frequent and extended blackout. But no more. Satellite communications have finally arrived. Virtually all the national programs use the International Marine Satellite (INMARSAT) for stations and ships in the Antarctic. In a similar way, we are at the threshold of dramatic increases in the use of remote sensing. Space-based instrumentation and data relay for automated observations of Antarctic phenomena may soon get a dramatic boost as dedicated satellites are put in orbits with optimum coverage — either as instrumentation platforms or as data links for the south polar regions. Some Last Words The very appearance of this issue of Oceanus illustrates the increasing level of interest in Antarctica. The expansion of human activity in recent years will undoubtedly continue, yet the exploitation of mineral resources will not necessarily occur as a result. Commercial activity —tourism — is already a rapidly growing reality. Scientific research also will continue to grow in sophistication, interdisciplinary complexity, and international cooperation. In the realm of logistics, profound changes are taking place: computerized data processing and satellite communications, for example, have become vital not only to supply and support functions, but also to science. The realm of commercial and general aviation is being extended south of the 60th parallel. However, to complement airlift growth to and within Antarctica, there also must be an increase in sealift — to position the fuel, if for no other reason. Tomorrow's scientists, tourists, and essential support people may very well reach Antarctica and move about by air, but supplies and equipment, construction materials, waste, and above all, fuel, will be positioned by ship. The survival beyond 1991, the continued effectiveness of the Antarctic Treaty System, and the orderly evolution in logistics and environmental protection, may well lead to a bright new day in Antarctic science. Because of the significant role of the great polar ice-covered continent to the world environment in an era of global change, this may prove vitally important to all of us. Alfred N. Fowler is Deputy Director of the Division of Polar Programs at the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. Selected References Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research International Council of Scientific Unions. 1985. Man's impact on the Antarctic Environment. Cambridge, England: SCAR, Scott Polar Research Institute. Spletstoesser, J. 1985. Remote camps for U.S. field projects in Antarctica. An(arct/c lournal of the United States, 20(2): 1 -7. National Science Foundation. 1979. Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978. Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation. 86 The Soviet .,- Antarctic Program by Lawson W. Brigham I he Soviet Union's programs in Antarctica are highly orchestrated, long-term in nature, and of significant scientific merit. The Soviets have been an active and influential research participant in Antarctica since the International Geophysical Year (ICY) in 1957-58. Soviet ICY observations in meteorology, glaciology, and coastal oceanography were particularly important to the development of future research objectives and methodologies of many projects. Today, approximately 15 percent of the Antarctic scientific papers contributed by treaty nations come from Soviet researchers. The Soviet Union also has a significant voice in the Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR) — an active player in the decisions on international exchanges, the pooling of data, and the coordination of various scientific programs. Role of the Scientific Research Institute The Soviet Antarctic program is coordinated by the Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute in Leningrad. The institute was formed on 4 March 1920. It held several different names under various government bodies during its first two decades of existence. Nearly 300 expeditions were sent to the Arctic by the institute during 1920-1945. The institute has been associated closely with all recent Soviet Arctic expeditions (including many pioneering drift stations in the central Arctic), and the development of viable marine transportation in the Soviet north. /Above, the Soviet station Leningradskaya. (Photo courtesy Rauma-Repola, Finland) 87 Within the Soviet system, the institute is considered a central research institute for organizing and directing all disciplines of polar research. Although other institutions of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, ministries, and universities (for example, the Ministry of Geology, the Institute of Oceanography of the Academy of Sciences, the Ministry of Fisheries, the Institute of Geography of the Academy of Sciences, and Moscow and Leningrad Universities) conduct research in the polar regions, the Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute enjoys a pre-eminent position. Most leading Soviet polar scientists deal with the institute because of its extensive polar archives, experienced staff (several thousand researchers), and important contacts with government bodies responsible for air and sea logistics. Central organization of the Soviet Antarctic program occurred in 1958, when the then-named Arctic Scientific Research institute was given control of coordinating both the science and logistics of the program. Although influenced by the Academy of Sciences and dependent on other government departments, the institute has smoothly coordinated the annual Soviet Antarctic Expedition for the last 30 years. The natural integration of science and logistics for both the Arctic and Antarctic has made the institute a highly effective organization. Recent Research One of the most intriguing Soviet Antarctic projects has been the deep drilling program at Vostok Station. During 1972-83, a thermoelectric drill was used to reach a depth of 2,083 meters in glacial ice that is 3,700 meters thick. Ice cores taken from depths of less than a kilometer have been determined to be 50,000 years old. The deepest ice core taken from Vostok in 1986-87 had an age of approximately 1 50,000 years. Analyses of the variations in oxygen isotopes, dust, and carbon dioxide have yielded important information about past climates on the continent. Geologists and glaciologists with the Vostok drilling program also are attempting to reach several large lakes that are believed to lie beneath the ice cap. Radar surveys have indicated the presence of these "pockets." It is possible these areas at the bottom of the Antarctic ice sheet are at the pressure melting point. The Vostok program also has a microbiological component. Soviet scientists at the Institute of Microbiology have found simple life forms in the Vostok ice cores from 200 meters that are approximately 8,000 years old. Several species of the microorganisms have been revived after their long dormant period in the Antarctic ice sheet! Since 1975, the Soviet Antarctic program has devoted considerable research time and logistics efforts to studies of the Weddell Basin and Weddell Sea region. One of the principal objectives is to establish the geological formations of the mountain systems that fringe the Weddell Sea — the Shackleton Range, the Pensacola Mountains, and the Ellsworth Mountains. Keen interest in such a remote region of the globe is understandable — there may be similarities in the geological structures of this area to southern Africa, which is a leading region for minerals production (see also article on page 32). Intensive geophysical surveys of the Weddell Sea by the Soviet Union and other nations are directly related to understanding an offshore region that holds the promise of oil and gas resources. Seasonal Soviet stations have been established on the Filchner Ice Shelf (Druzhnaya Station), and in other locations around the basin. These have been temporary support bases for geological, geophysical, geodetic, and topographic work along the coast. Geophysical surveys have covered more than 200,000 square kilometers of the Weddell Sea and its surrounding ice shelves. Seismic probes and coring into the sedimentary deposits of the seabed beneath the ice cover have been extensive. Systematic aerogravity and aeromagnetic surveys have helped to integrate information on both offshore and inland areas. Soviet geologists have collected extensive rock and mineral samples from the surrounding mountains. One of their significant findings was an accumulation of fossil trilobites, primitive animals (related to spiders and insects) that lived millions of years ago. Glaciological traverses across the Antarctic ice cap by tractor train have been a common element in each of the Soviet Antarctic Expeditions. In the 1950s, Soviet tractor-sled expeditions conducted trips into the heart of East Antarctica, primarily to establish remote stations, such as Vostok. However, in recent years, many have been continued for scientific purposes. In the mid-1970s, as part of the International Antarctic Glaciological Project (a decade-long investigation of the East Antarctic ice sheet), Soviet research traverses collected gravimetric and magnetic observations, and drilled hundreds of bore holes for glaciological measurements. In cooperation with Australian glaciologists, geoceivers were positioned to obtain precise position and elevation measurements. During several field seasons of Soviet traverses, remeasurements of these positions yielded valuable flow velocities of the East Antarctic ice sheet. Soviet Oceanographic Research Ships and oceanographic research have played prominent roles since the inception of the Soviet Antarctic program. A. F. Treshnikov, a noted Soviet polar scientist, has outlined the basic objectives of these early efforts as: • study of (he thermal and dynamic regime of the south polar waters, and water/heat exchange with the bordering oceans; • study of the circulation of surface and deep waters; • study of the hydrological regime of Antarctic shelf seas; and • study of the ice regime, features of iceberg distribution, and the physical properties of Antarctic sea ice. Although almost entirely descriptive in nature, the 88 Table 1. Permanent Soviet Antarctic stations.1 (See also map on page 15) Name Location2 National Claim or Sector3 Date Established Number of Winter Personnel4 Primary Research and Observations Mirnyy 66'33'S, 93°01'E Coastal Queen Mary Coast Australia 13 February 1956 61 Meteorology, actinometry5, seismology, cosmic ray studies, auroral studies, geomagnetism, ionospheric studies, radio wave propagation, medicine, physical geography, glaciology (past). Vostok 78°27'S, 106°51'E Inland Polar Plateau near the South Geomagnetic Pole Australia 16 December 1957 26 Deep drilling of the continental ice, microbiological studies, meteorology, actinometry, geomagnetism, cosmic ray studies, glaciology, medicine, auroral studies, radio wave propagation, ionospheric physics. Novolazarevskaya 70°46'S, 11°50'E Coastal Queen Maud Land Norway 18|anuary 1961 34 Meteorology, actinometry, geomagnetism, seismology (deep seismic soundings), auroral studies, physical geography, glaciology, medicine, sea-level studies. Molodezhnaya 67°40'S,45°50'E Coastal Enderby Land Australia 23 February 1962 117 Main Soviet Antarctic base (Soviet Antarctic Meteorological Center), tracking of geodetic satellites, rocket sounding of the atmosphere, meteorology, actinometry, geomagnetism, auroral studies, glaciology, medicine, radio wave propagation, artificial satellite photography, ice shelf drilling, biology, geology. Bellingshausen 62'12'S, 58°58'W King George Island South Shetland Islands UK/Argentina/ Chile (Overlapping Claims) 22 February 1968 29 Meteorology, glaciology, hydrology, actinometry, geomagnetism, medicine, ice-cover and iceberg studies, physical geography. Leningradskaya 69°30'S, 159°23'E Coastal Gates Coast Australia 27 January 1970 12 Meteorology, geology, geomorphology, gravity, geomagnetism, astrogeology. Russkaya 74°46'S, 136"51 'W Coastal Hobbs Coast Marie Byrd Land Unclaimed 10 March 1980 9 Meteorology, glaciology, ionospheric studies, atmospheric pollution (snow analyses). Notes: 1 Year-round stations only; the Soviet Union operates seasonal stations occasionally for special projects. 2 Coordinates from Polar Record, 23(147): p. 751 (1987). 3 Claims held in abeyance by the Antarctic Treaty; Molodezhnaya located near the sector line between Norwegian and Australian claims in Queen Maud Land; Leningradskaya located near the sector line between New Zealand and Australian claims oi\,the Oates Coast. 4 1980 data f rom Antarctic Journal of the United States, 16(1): p. 5 (1981). 5 Measuring the direct heating power of the Sun's rays. early Soviet Antarctic oceanographic effort produced valuable results. Meridional (running in a north-south direction) oceanographic sections were taken from the coast of Antarctica to the subtropic convergence zone (40 degrees South). Annual observations were taken along standard sections from Antarctica to Australia, and Antarctica to Africa; the sections revealed annual shifts in the position of the Antarctic Convergence Zone. During this period, the general circulation patterns and basic water masses of the Southern Ocean were catalogued in an Atlas of the Antarctic. The first estimates of water through Drake Passage also were made, and detailed sea-ice maps were prepared for the entire continent. Hydrographic stations were taken in shelf areas, such as Prydz Bay off the Amery Ice Shelf, that had never before been investigated. During 1956-70, the research vessel Ob' conducted extensive operations in the Southern Ocean; more than 1,000 oceanographic casts and 264,000 nautical miles of echo-sounding profiles were accomplished. Of primary importance were the comprehensive biological investigations conducted by the Ob', studies primarily concerned with oceanic plankton, sea-floor invertebrates, and fish populations. The early expeditions allowed Soviet investigators an opportunity to compare plankton from the Southern Ocean with collections taken from the Arctic Ocean. These initial Soviet ecological investigations paved the way for further scientific and commercial studies regarding utilization of fish and krill resources in Antarctic waters. Beginning in the early 1970s, the Soviet Union averaged three to four research vessels in the Southern Ocean during austral summer. The Soviets implemented POLEX-South (South Polar Experiment), a long-term, large-scale study of air/sea interaction around the Antarctic continent. Extensive investigations were conducted on the structure and variability of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC). For the first time, instrumentation was used to measure mesoscale and seasonal oscillations of the 89 The Akademik Fedorov, new Soviet research flagship, in Antarctica in March 1988. (Photo courtesy of Rauma-Repola) current. At depths of 3,000 meters, near the ocean floor, current velocities of 50 to 70 centimeters a second were recorded. During the 1976-77 expedition, the Professor Zubov, while investigating the East Wind Drift along stations between Australia and Antarctica, identified a countercurrent beneath the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC). The countercurrent ranged in thickness between 1,500 and 2,500 meters, and had a measured velocity of up to a nautical mile an hour. Soviet-American collaboration on studies of the ACC during these years established that this current is stable, broadly developed, and actually a "multi-jet" system of currents (see page 53). Its volume transport was found to be several times larger than any other known current system. Clearly, the circumpolar current was confirmed as the dominant circulation system in the Southern Ocean. An unusual joint oceanographic expedition in the Southern Ocean was carried out aboard the Soviet Antarctic flagship Mikhail Somov during October and November 1981. The U.S. -Soviet Weddell Polynya Expedition was planned to investigate a polynya (an area of open water in sea ice, and a word coined by the Russians) that had been observed on satellite imagery within the Weddell Sea since 1973. The polynya, originally located near the Greenwich Meridian and 65 degrees South, appeared and disappeared in subsequent winters, growing at one time to nearly 300,000 square kilometers. Such a feature is believed to have important climatic and oceanographic implications (see also page 39). Upwelling warmer waters lose heat through polynyas, thereby causing cooling of the deeper waters below. For the first time, oceanographic data also were collected in late winter within the Weddell Sea. While there was no clear indication of the polynya in 1981, observations (sea water, ice, and air) were taken from the ice edge to a point 300 nautical miles within the Weddell Sea ice cover. The data yielded significant clues regarding the end of the seasonal growth period of sea ice. The cumulative effects of sea-ice formation cause a seasonal maximum in sea- water density (just below the ice cover), which ultimately influences the formation of deeper waters. Oceanographic investigations under POLEX- South have continued in recent years. Work in the Weddell Sea and near Maud Rise has concentrated on the mechanics of formation of intermediate and bottom waters, and their role in global ocean circulation. During the 1985-86 season, two research vessels investigated the western Pacific sector of the Antarctic for the first time. Comprehensive studies of the shelf waters (formed in the Weddell Sea, Ross Sea, Davis Sea, Prydz Bay, and other coastal areas), and the mechanisms by which they mix with warmer, deep waters will be continued by Soviet oceanographers in the future. Future Trends The future of the Soviet Antarctic program appears bright. Improved air logistics, using compacted snow runways, will allow routine flights of heavy aircraft to the Antarctic directly from the Soviet Union. One objective is to airlift all Antarctic personnel to their stations by the end of the current 5-year plan in 1990. Thus, winter personnel changes will be more efficient and timely, and more cargo may be airlifted, reducing the number of support ships. The Soviets will have new mobility, flexibility, and reach with which to support field research around the continent. In late 1987, the Soviet Union enhanced its maritime presence around Antarctica with the arrival of a new flagship, the Akademik Fedorov. Built by the Finnish shipbuilder Rauma-Repola OY, the 140- meter vessel is capable of resupplying Soviet stations and transporting 160 personnel. The ship also is a floating research station equipped with 10 laboratories designed for a wide spectrum of atmospheric, marine, and polar sciences. A 20,000 horsepower diesel-electric power plant, more than twice the power of the Mikhail Somov, will allow the ship to proceed continuously in 1 -meter level ice. This improved ice-breaking capability will allow marine scientific research to be conducted in continental shelf areas yet to be fully explored, and will improve the reliability of coastal resupply efforts. The Akademik Fedorov also is fitted with modern polar navigation equipment, research computers, bow and stern thrusters for positioning, extensive cargo handling gear, and associated equipment for flight control, maintenance, and operation of Soviet MI-8 and KA-32 helicopters. The Soviet Antarctic program thus can support a greater number of field stations on ice shelves and at remote land sites some distances from the major Soviet bases. On 19 January 1987, a new seasonal station, Druzhnaya 3, was established near the Quar Ice Shelf on the coast of Queen Maud Land. This would appear to be an extension of past, intensive geophysical survey efforts conducted in the vicinity of the Weddell Basin. Three Soviet summer stations operated last year near Lambert Glacier and Amery Ice Shelf in East Antarctica. Soyuz Station reopened on Beaver Lake in the Prince Charles Mountains, and two new summer stations were established — Progress on the southeast coast of Prydz Bay, and Druzhnaya 4 on 90 Significant Events in the Soviet Antarctic Program 13 July 1955 First Soviet Antarctic Expedition (SAE) organized by the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences to coordinate Soviet work during the International Geophysical Year. 13 February 1956 First Soviet Antarctic station, Mirnyy Geophysical Observatory, established on the Davis Sea. 16 December 1957 Soviet flag hoisted at the inland station Vostok at the South Geomagnetic Pole, 1,410 kilometers from Mirnyy Station. 1958 Arctic Scientific Research Institute in Leningrad entrusted with the organization and coordination of all Soviet research in Antarctica; henceforth called the Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute. 2 November 1960 Soviet Union ratifies the Antarctic Treaty. December 1961 First long-distance flight of Soviet aircraft from Moscow to Antarctica. January-March 1964 Seventy-eight-day, 3,323-kilometer scientific tractor-sled traverse (Vostok Station to the Pole of Inaccessibility to a turning point at 78° 03' S, 19° 59' E to Molodezhnaya Station); observations included seismic, gravimetric, glaciological, meteorological, geomagnetic, and actinometric. 1966-69 Soviet Union publishes first large-scale, comprehensive Antarctic Atlas (2 volumes), incorporating data obtained by scientists from various nations, particularly the USSR. 1968 Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute extends its oceanographic investigations to the Southern Ocean after receiving several research vessels, including Professor Vize, Professor Zubov, and Okianograf. 1971 Functions of the Antarctic meteorological center transferred from Mirnyy Station to Molodezhnaya Station, which becomes the main Soviet Antarctic base. 1974-75 Drilling begins at Vostok Station during the 20th SAE for microorganisms in the Antarctic ice sheet, using a mobile drilling rig that preserves sterile conditions. 1976-82 Extensive Soviet geophysical studies in the Weddell Sea basin coordinated from a seasonal base (Druzhnaya) on the Filchner Ice Shelf. February 1980 First IL-18 aircraft from the Soviet Union arrives at a new permanent, compressed snow runway (2,645 meter length) near Molodezhnaya Station; trial route flown by way of Moscow, Odessa, Aden (Yemen) and Maputo (Mozambique). 1981 joint U.S.S.R. /U.S. oceanographic investigations in the Weddell Sea aboard the Soviet Antarctic ship Mikhail Somov. February 1986 First landing of wide-body cargo aircraft (IL-76) from the Soviet Union to the Molodezhnaya Station snow runway. 1987 New Soviet Antarctic research and supply icebreaker Akademik Fedorov deploys on first cruise to the Southern Ocean. Sources: Antarctic, Polar Geography and Geology, Pravda, Problemy Arktiki i Antarktiki, Soviet Antarctic Expedition Information Bulletin, and Vodnyy Transport. 91 4 SK ...... . „ .-^-T^jnirt sly* SiEK. The Mikhail Somov, a Soviet icebreaker, during the 1981 Weddell Polynya Expedition. (Photo courtesy National Science Foundation) the Amery Ice Shelf. Scientific programs at these locations emphasize the study of metallic minerals and extend geophysical investigations, including multi-channel seismic surveys, conducted throughout Prydz Bay during the last decade. The ability to support these outposts by air and sea reflects an improving and confident logistical system of the Soviet Antarctic program. One of the hallmarks of Soviet Antarctic research has been an extensive meteorological program. Molodezhnaya Station, the meteorological center, continues to be upgraded with modern equipment, including the capability of receiving enhanced satellite imagery, such as that of Cosmos- 1,500 with its side-scan radar. The ring of Soviet Antarctic stations around the continent also provides retrieval of an important set of surface and upper atmospheric observations. These data are analyzed at Molodezhnaya, where weather services are provided to all Soviet Antarctic operations. The 30-year record of weather data is critical to studying climatic variations, and central to Soviet research on applying numerical models to long-term forecasting. Future global atmospheric research programs will likely make extensive use of this important Antarctic data base. Soviet Antarctic activities will continue to apply lessons learned from their vast knowledge base regarding the Arctic. In a symbiotic way, the Soviet Antarctic research program will return the favor by providing data that are applicable to the extreme climates and difficult living environments of the Soviet north. Some future Antarctic research, particularly medical studies, will have utility within the Soviet space program. The presence of the Soviet Union in Antarctica is secure. An improved and efficient logistics system, effective maritime presence, a highly coordinated research program, and the location of stations rimming the continent place the Soviets in a position of strength as they look forward to the increasingly complex polar politics that seem ordained for the 1990s. Lawson W. Brigham is a Commander in the U.S. Coast Guard, and a Guest Investigator with the Marine Policy Center of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. The views expressed in this article are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the position of the the U.S. Coast Guard or the U.S. Government. Acknowledgments The author gratefully acknowledges support from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation to the Marine Policy and Ocean Management Center, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. The libraries and staffs of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, and Ohio State University's Byrd Polar Research Center provided invaluable assistance to the author. This is contribution No. 6778 from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Coldest Place on Earth I he highest (3,488 meters above sea level) and most remote manned station in Antarctica was established by the Second Soviet Antarctic Expedition in 7957. Known as Vostok Station, it is located on the Polar Plateau near the South Geomagnetic Pole in East Antarctica. Here the polar ice thickness is 3,700 meters. Except for a year of mothballing (2 1 January 7962-25 January 1963), this inland station has remained manned throughout the winters by approximately 25 people, including American exchange scientists. Each year Vostok is supplied by air and by a tractor-sledge traverse from the Soviet coastal station Mirnyy, 1,500 kilometers away. Vostok Station is perhaps best known for a record low temperature of -89.6 degrees Celsius (-128.6 degrees Fahrenheit) recorded 21 luly 1983. The annual mean air temperature at Vostok is —55.6 degrees Celsius compared to a mean of -50 degrees Celsius at the U.S. Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. This Soviet scientific outpost has appropriately earned the dubious distinction of "coldest place on Earth" — the coldest inhabited location on the planet! — LWB 92 Bound For 60 South — Taxes, Tips, and Transfers Included: The Growth of Antarctic Tourism by Paul Dudley Hart Kecent growth of tourism in Antarctica poses a thorny problem for treaty nations in the not-too- distant future. On the one hand, continued growth will pose a threat to the pristine nature of the continent and the science conducted there, while, on the other, treaty regulations recognize the right of tourists to visit the area. It has been estimated that 3,000 tourists visited the region in the 1987/88 season — either by boat or air. It is time to prepare, if not implement, measures to monitor, and, where necessary, regulate tourism. Mention of Antarctica often elicits a response from people that displays profound ignorance — "Now, is that the North or South Pole?" On rare occasions, a response will display an equally profound fascination, sometimes purely romantic, or else stemming from a specific personal interest, such as the history of the continent's exploration, or its flora or fauna. Antarctic tourism, a concept as alien as space tourism little more than two decades ago, was originally created to profit from those people who wanted to experience the source of their fascination first hand. Certain regions of Antarctica have become regular, though not yet commonplace, tourist destinations. The majority of Antarctic tourism is concentrated in the Antarctic Peninsula, the closest to regular transportation networks in South America. Dubbed the "Antarctic Riviera," the peninsula has the largest concentration of national research stations, partly as a geopolitical consequence of overlapping national boundary claims, and partly because of the same logistical considerations — cost and travel time — that make it the primary destination of tourists. Visitors, Problems, and Rights Despite some oscillation, the general trend of increasing Antarctic tourism is a subject of concern among signatory nations to the Antarctic Treaty. Although the numbers of tourists in absolute terms seem insignificant when compared to the numbers of passengers regularly disgorged from ships and planes at more commonplace destinations — such as islands in the Caribbean — some fundamental differences separate the Antarctic from conventional tourist destinations. In most countries, conscious decisions have been made to trade different degrees of environmental damage for improved economic conditions. In most locations, there also is some organization with the task of protecting the local environment. Although the results of such measures range from successful environmental conservation linked with significant economic benefit, to abject failure on both counts, there is some community responsibility and consequence. In Antarctica, there is no local populace to reap the economic benefits of tourism, nor is there an effective means beyond the boundaries of national research stations to properly monitor its impact. Proponents of unregulated tourism argue that the tourists who now visit Antarctica annually have no significant detrimental impact on the area, which covers almost 10 percent of the Earth's land surface. This is partially true. Antarctica is being more profoundly affected by changes in the global atmosphere caused by fossil-fuel burning and fluorocarbon emissions than by tourism. But in specific places, tourism does pose a threat. First, by its focus on one particular area, the Antarctic 93 \ The M/V Society Explorer, a tourist cruise ship, in Antarctic pack ice. (Photos by Paul Dudley Hart) Peninsula, and second, by further concentration on the relatively few locations that afford safe landing sites — both snow and ice free in the austral summer — for seaborne and airborne tourists. Seaborne landing sites also tend to be the principal locations of plant and animal life, thus adding to their attraction. Man is the most recent and least adapted addition to life in Antarctica. Through whaling and sealing, he already has been the most destructive. In present times, inadequately briefed or supervised, a very small number of visitors can wreak havoc on a seal colony or seabird rookery, and the best supervised visits to any one particularly favored site, if too frequent, can be destructive. Although the Antarctic ecosystem is extraordinarily robust, it is so only within the parameters of its own evolution. Expanding on an example drawn from I. Everson in Antarctic Science, edited by D.W.H. Walton, an average human foot exerts 2 1/z pounds per square inch, a greater pressure than an Antarctic plant, such as moss, has had to withstand in its natural evolution from indigenous animals. Its broken surface, once exposed to wind, will erode far faster than its slow regenerative capacity. Thus, tour operators must assure that their passengers consistently adhere to well-defined procedures that safeguard the Antarctic ecosystem, and be fully cognizant of activities that disrupt or disturb life in the region. Antarctica is the natural equivalent of a "clean laboratory." By its pristine nature, it serves as a benchmark against which other ecosystems around the world can be compared. Long-term experiments regularly take samples from the Antarctic continent, ocean, and atmosphere to define the rate at which natural and man-made elements are assimilated into the Antarctic ecosystem, thus providing information on their abundance, environmental fate, and circulation pathways and rates. Ocean circulation measurements (see pages 39 and 53), taken in Antarctica are vital to understanding the dynamics and interrelation of global processes. It is essential that tourism activities do not disrupt research by excessive demands for research station visits by regular tour operators, incursions into areas of special scientific interest, or causing the diversion of treaty nation research assets to assist or rescue tourist expeditions. Despite the complex management and monitoring problems imposed collectively, but not equally, on treaty nations by tourism and occasional, but significant, disruptions to national 94 research programs caused by rescue missions to private expeditions, the basic right of the tourist to visit Antarctica is not questioned by treaty nations. Tourism is a legitimate, peaceful use of the Antarctic. Freedom of access is granted in the Antarctic Treaty (see page 1 1). Seaborne Tourism Seaborne tourism generally falls into three categories — expedition/educational cruising, traditional "fun-in-the-sun" cruising, and passenger- carrying government shipping. Expedition/educational cruising is the most popular form of Antarctic tourism. While tourists have visited Antarctica each year since 1958, the concept of "expedition tourism" was pioneered both in Antarctica and elsewhere by Eric Lars Lindblad. Lindblad perceived that a certain section of the traveling public sought challenge and education as the principal ingredient of their vacations — rather than rest and relaxation. Acting on this perception, he organized the first expedition cruises to Antarctica in 1966. With the collaboration of the Argentine government, tourists visited the Antarctic Peninsula on the ARA Bahia Aguirre, an Argentine Naval transport adapted to accommodate a limited number of passengers. Lindblad utilized this ship and other government vessels until 1969. The first privately owned passenger ship specifically built for Antarctic cruising — the M/V Lindblad Explorer, a 2,500-ton, 100-passenger, ice- strengthened vessel — was built in Finland and launched in 1969. With this ship, Lindblad, despite grounding incidents in 1972 and 1980, developed a successful model for Antarctic passenger cruising, establishing the standard against which other similar operations are compared. In 1984, the Lindblad Explorer was acquired by Discoverer Reederei, a shipping company based in Bremen, Germany. In 1978, this company had introduced another slightly larger Antarctic cruise ship, the M/V World Discoverer, a 3,200-ton, 140-passenger ice- strengthened vessel. The World Discoverer, and the Lindblad Explorer, renamed Society Explorer since its acquisition by Discoverer Reederei, have been under exclusive charter to Society Expeditions, Inc., an "expedition tour" company based in Seattle, Washington, under the same ownership as Discoverer Reederei, that books the passengers and organizes the content and itinerary of the cruises. Lindblad Tours re-entered the Antarctic "expedition cruise" arena in the 1987/88 season by chartering the M/V Illiria, a 140-passenger Greek ship of comparable size to the World Discoverer, though not ice-strengthened, for her first Antarctic season. The philosophy of the cruise model initiated by Lindblad and further refined by both his organization and Society Expeditions is one of "leave only footprints." To their great credit, this is largely the case. The most successful tour operator, Society Expeditions, schedules cruises of 15 or 25 days duration. Usually their cruises sail from the port of Punta Arenas on the Strait of Magellan, or Puerto Williams on the Beagle Channel, both in Chile. All cruises include the Antarctic Peninsula, with some also stopping at the Falkland and South Orkney Islands, South Georgia, or the Chile Canals to as far north as Puerto Montt. "Circumnavigation" cruises to New Zealand via McMurdo Sound in the Ross Sea and the Antarctic Peninsula from South America also have been undertaken, although less regularly. A lecture staff of individuals experienced in specific aspects of Antarctica, such as ornithology, history, zoology, botany, geology, or political science, sails with the ship. The task of these lecturers is to educate passengers through lectures and conversation, and to act as guides ashore. Sometimes three or four landings are made by outboard powered inflatable boats in a single day. Some landings are made at research stations, others at uninhabited areas. At locations where landing the full complement of passengers is disruptive either to workings of a particular research station, or to animal communities at an uninhabited site, passengers are disembarked in shifts of small groups. Author's Tour Experience During February of 1988, the author embarked for the first time on a tourist cruise to the Antarctic Peninsula on the M/V Society Explorer. Aboard for three weeks, he observed excellent standards of seamanship and safety, quite comparable to those viewed aboard U.S. government vessels operating in Antarctica and superior to those viewed aboard some government vessels of other nations. At no time during the cruise was any trash jettisoned from the ship or discarded ashore. All trash was compacted and unloaded at South American ports. Lectures generally were very good, presenting information about Antarctica that was both understandable and accurate. Pre-landing briefings given by the "expedition leader" informed passengers of the conditions that they were to encounter, and particular safeguards necessary at each site. The passengers also were told of any site-specific environmental preservation measures. Ashore, passengers were shepherded by lecturers who firmly, but politely, corrected any passenger who, usually through inattention, did anything to endanger their own safety or the local environment. Passengers usually cooperated wholeheartedly. The only criticism the author would offer is that too much time was spent on visiting national research stations. A visit to one or two stations is warranted to allow passengers to view an important aspect of contemporary Antarctica and to speak to people actually conducting research. More visits tend to become repetitive for passengers, and disruptive to research at the stations. As a consequence, some nations, including the United States and Britain, have restricted the number of tour visits permitted at their stations. The United States has further restricted the visits to the exterior areas of its bases. From the author's observations, passengers appear more content not being able to visit a station at all, rather than being able to visit, 95 Tourists coming ashore from the M/V Society Explorer in Antarctica. but kept at arm's length while at the station. It is the author's personal view that fewer visits, with a more wholehearted welcome, including entry into some representative areas of the station, would be a better policy. Each nation has two principal reasons for maintaining its stations in Antarctica — geopolitics and science. It can be argued that the degree of welcome afforded to tourists at each station is indicative of the relative importance a nation places on each reason. The "leave only footprints" philosophy of the Society Expeditions/Lindblad cruise model appears to be taken very seriously. Through professionalism, and adherence to a degree of environmental awareness rare in a for-profit venture, these expedition cruises have achieved the best of all solutions in Antarctic tourism — self- policing. As a global solution, unfortunately, it is the least reliable. 'Fun-in-the-Sun' Cruising Conventional "fun-in-the-sun" cruising has not fared nearly as well in Antarctica. Sporadic attempts to introduce it have failed because of problems that have, as yet, no apparent solution. Passengers are drawn to such cruises for social and entertainment reasons. Relaxation on deck, frequent port stops for shopping, wining and dining, and nightlife entertainment are the principal draw for most traditional cruise ship passengers. Being on deck in the Antarctic means being dressed from head to foot, and even then often experiencing discomfort. There are no port stops, and shopping is limited to emblematic patches at the few stations capable of accommodating large ships and their passengers. Wining and dining ashore is nonexistent, and shipboard nightlife is frequently disrupted by the ship's reaction to the gales and sea conditions prevalent in the area — an obvious marketing problem. The Society Explorer and World Discoverer, though comfortable, are small ships designed for the maneuverability and the relatively shallow draft necessary to safely navigate in waters restricted by ice and shoals. These same qualities, shared, other than ice-strengthening, by Illiria, grant such ships access to landing sites that larger passenger ships cannot safely approach. Landings present other safety, logistical, and supervisory problems. Conventional cruise ships carry anywhere from 500 to 1,000 passengers at a time. Such numbers, even at an accessible site, cannot be put ashore at one time at any location with plant and animal life. Cycling passengers ashore in similar numbers to the "expedition" cruise ships is too time consuming. Very few stations are willing to accept such numbers either, unless a particular nation with adequate base facilities is involved with the operation and has some specific motive for having the tourists there. During the 1987/88 season, plans were made to utilize the Mediterranean Sky, a large cruise vessel, to transport tourists to the Peninsula 600 at a time. To the relief of many, this project either has been postponed or abandoned, apparently because of a lack of bookings. Since 1958, the Argentine government, principally through its Sport and Tourism Department, has organized "traditional" cruises, first with relatively small, and then with larger numbers of passengers utilizing ships such as M/5 Les Eclaireurs, Lapataia, Libertad, Rio Tunuyan, Regina Prima, ARA Bahia Buen Sucesso, and ARA Bahia Para/so (the last two again being naval auxiliary transports). Chilean government vessels, since 1959, also have been transporting tourists to 96 Antarctica, though in smaller numbers, aboard the Navarino, Yapeyu, and Aguiles. In 1973/74 and 1974/75, Ybarra Lines of Spain transported passengers to the Antarctic aboard the A/7/5 Cabo San Roque, and Cabo 5an Vincente, as did Costa Lines with the Enrico C in 1976/77. But each of these activities was discontinued. In recent years, both Argentina and Chile have continued to convey tourists aboard their Antarctic vessels. On these government ships, landings are made principally at the station or stations of the nation in question, only on some occasions at those of other nations. As official treaty nation ships, they have the right to call at the stations of other nations, but they do not necessarily have the right to land uninvited tourists. In summary, tourism aboard official treaty nations vessels is the responsibility of the nation conveying them. Large, conventional cruise ship tourism to the Antarctic presents a major safety, environmental, and station disruption threat. To date, however, the use of large cruise ships does not appear to be economically or practically viable. Expedition cruise ships, on the other hand, thus far appear to be doing a good job of policing themselves. But, this may not be sustainable. The expedition cruise concept's success and the high degree of passenger satisfaction to date is likely to cause more rapid growth and bring new players, such as the Illiria into the arena. It is unlikely that any new players will be as responsible as Lindblad and Society Expeditions have been. Consequently, this issue could be forced out of the discussion stage among the treaty nations and into some form of, hopefully enlightened, direct monitoring and regulation. Airborne Tourism In 1977, frequent air tourism was introduced when a chartered aircraft belonging to Qantas, the Australian airline, overflew Antarctica in the Ross Sea area for sightseeing purposes. This means of tourism, which proved to be popular and economically viable, was continued by irregular flights by Qantas and Air New Zealand, primarily over the Ross Sea area, carrying as many as 300 passengers on each flight. In November 1979, this form of tourism ceased after an Air New Zealand flight crashed into the slope of Mount Erebus, close to the U.S. McMurdo and New Zealand Scott stations on Ross Island. All 257 persons aboard the plane were killed — the single largest loss of human life in Antarctica. The toll exceeded this century's deaths in Antarctica from all other expeditions. Airborne tourism since has taken place primarily in the western sector, the Antarctic Peninsula, for the same logistical reasons as seaborne tourism. Flights in recent years using Twin-Otter or similar aircraft have flown from airfields in Chile to the Peninsula area, principally the Chileno Teniente Marsh and Presidente Frei Stations on King George Island in the South Shetland group. Teniente Marsh Station now has a 100-bed hotel and bank for visitors. Spending a few days at the station, visitors can view a variety of wildlife sites on the island. On January 12 of this year, tourism reached the South Pole itself. Tourists, transported from Chile via peninsular and continental airfields, landed at the U.S. Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station aboard Twin-Otter ski-equipped aircraft. The tour, organized by Adventure Network, a Canadian organization, was comprised of eight passengers, mostly American, who had paid up to $35,000 each, and two crew. They spent 2 hours and 35 minutes at the station. During this period, they entered the station, were given a cup of coffee, allowed to buy two souvenirs each, and permitted to walk about outside. Many of the passengers were relatively elderly. Some had to have oxygen administered to them on the flight (oxygen is normally used in aircraft above a ceiling of 10,000 feet) and, according to The New York Times of February 7, 1988, some had difficulty breathing and moving around while at the station, which is at 9,200 feet, but equivalent in oxygen content to an altitude of 1 1,000 feet. While reactions by station personnel were varied, the visitors were generally viewed as being poorly prepared for the excursion. Four visitors were unable to walk the 100 yards back to the plane and had to be driven in a station vehicle. The station manager also had to explain to the pilots the importance of the aircraft remaining outside the station's Clean Air Research Sector to prevent impact on ongoing atmospheric research. Two other flights have followed, each with 6 passengers and 4 crew. As indicated by the Air New Zealand disaster, and another fatal crash in January, 1986, at Nelson's Island that killed 8 tourists and 2 crew in a Cessna 404 aircraft, airborne tourism in Antarctica is particularly perilous. The Antarctic has no international air traffic control and virtually no navigational aids. The blizzards, white-outs,* and other phenomena that routinely occur in Antarctica, are not within the experience of most pilots. The United States, for example, selects for Antarctic service fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft pilots from the best available in the military. Adventurers There always have been those who seek to test their mettle against harsh and dangerous environments and this desire has most certainly been an important factor in the history of Antarctic exploration. What has changed in the last 20 years is that more people have the money to pursue their desire for adventure. For many modern adventurers, Antarctica represents the ultimate challenge, whether they be yachtsmen, mountaineers, private pilots, or individuals pursuing some personal quest. Some * A surface weather condition in polar regions in which no object casts a shadow, the horizon cannot be seen, and only dark objects are discernable. The phenomenon is caused by a heavy cloud cover over a snow surface, so that light coming through the clouds is essentially equal to the light reflected off the snow. 97 The author in a penguin suit, celebrating Christmas 1987 in Antarctica. • private "adventure" expeditions have been thoughtfully planned, and courageously, but safely, executed. More have been ill-advised and have placed the lives of expedition members, and sometimes others, in jeopardy. Whether by plane or sea, private "adventure expeditions" to Antarctica raise the same safety question as commercial tourism, but, usually, with an even higher level of risk. Few, if any, vehicles, boats, or planes, available or affordable to the private consumer, are suitable for use in the Antarctic. Private expeditions also tend to fail to estimate adequately the quantity of supplies necessary. This results in their calling at research stations to request food, medication, spare parts, or other supplies. Since many of these requests could result in some threat to the safety of the expedition if refused, such items are usually granted despite limited availability. While the responsibility for the safety and execution of private expeditions rests on their organizers, they cannot humanely be ignored by treaty nations in the event of life-threatening emergencies. This assurance is certainly a factor in the planning of such expeditions, and of concern to treaty nations. Private expeditions, especially yachts, do not always seek the advice of treaty nations, nor notify them of their precise intentions. So their whereabouts at any point in time are frequently unknown. Ignorance of the true conditions that will be faced can lead to an "it won't happen to me" mindset among adventure expedition organizers. This factor is hard to correct, and it is one that leads to expedition organizers who are more willing to risk their lives, through ignorance, than their personal financial assets. A concerted effort through the media, and any other means available, may be of some help. It must be made known that there are not only serious personal risks involved in independent travel to Antarctica, but also that the individuals involved are liable to the extent of their assets for the cost of rescue or assistance. Summary and Conclusions Most people who have visited or worked in Antarctica agree that it is one of the most remarkable and profoundly beautiful places on Earth. It is the highest, driest, coldest, sunniest, and most unspoiled continent. It is virtually unpopulated by man and has never had an indigenous human population. Few people returning from Antarctica fail to be untouched by it in some personal way. Many return almost as missionaries, not only for Antarctica's conservation, but also to encourage others to visit and share their enthusiasm. The investment of time and money involved in traveling to Antarctica as a tourist will continue to limit the growth of tourism. It is certain though, that present levels of Antarctic tourism fall well below the full potential. Thus, appropriate measures must be prepared, if not implemented, in the near future to closely monitor, and, where necessary, regulate tourism. While this is a single and straightforward statement to make, it will be a very complex task to address effectively. First, while all nations signatory to the Antarctic Treaty are obliged to abide by its terms, national agendas for Antarctica vary, including aspects pertinent to tourism. Furthermore, since some forms of tourism give rise to significantly more concern, and present a greater potential liability in terms of emergency assistance continued on page 100 98 Treaty Rules Pertaining to Tourism I he Antarctic Treaty and subsequent approved recommendations have the effect of law for U.S. citizens. The following are articles and recommendations that pertain to tourism. • Article VII, paragraph 5 of the treaty provides the basis for the monitoring of all travel to Antarctica. It requires that all governments inform the governments of other treaty parties of all expeditions to and within Antarctica, on the part of its ships or nationals, and of all expeditions organized in or proceeding from the United States. By extension, U.S. citizens or permanent residents have an obligation to inform the U.S. government of expeditions to Antarctica. • The several relevant recommendations, agreed on at various Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings, which bear on the issue of tourism are as follows (roman numerals indicate the meeting number, arabic the recommendation number): 111-8: Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora, establishing Antarctica as a special conservation area and declaring guidelines regarding Antarctic fauna and flora. The recommendation does not address the issue of tourism, per se, but rather proscribes certain activities for all visitors to the Antarctic. IV-27: Effects of Antarctic Tourism, concerning the need for early notification of tourist visits to Antarctic stations and the possibility that permission might be withheld. VI-7: Effects of Tourists and Non- Government Expeditions to the Antarctic Treaty Area, urging governments to ensure that tourists observe the principles and purposes of the Antarctic Treaty and Recommendations, including the necessity to inform a station 24 to 72 hours in advance of expected arrival, that all tourists comply with any restrictions imposed by the station manager, that visitors not enter Specially Protected Areas, and that they respect historic monuments. VII-4: Effects of Tourists and Non- Governmental Expeditions in the Antarctic Treaty Area, urging governments to ensure that the provisions of the Treaty and subsequent recommendations relating to the conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora are applied to all visitors to the Treaty area. VIII-9: Effects of Tourists and Non- Governmental Expeditions in the Antarctic Treaty Area, urging governments to ensure that tourists are aware of the "Statement of Accepted Principles and the Relevant Provisions of the Antarctic Treaty," urging governments to ensure that tour groups report their activities within the Treaty area and requesting tour operators, except in an emergency, only to visit stations for which they have permission and only to land within Areas of Special Tourist Interest. The "Statement of Accepted Principles" includes the following: • The killing, wounding, capturing or molesting of any mammal or bird is prohibited except in an emergency; • Every effort shall be made to minimize harmful interference with the normal living conditions of any native mammal or bird; • Fur Seals and Ross Seals are Specially Protected Species; • Certain areas of outstanding scientific interests have been designated as Specially Protected Areas to preserve their unique natural ecological system. No person may enter such an Area except by special permit; • No species of animal or plant not indigenous to the Antarctic Treaty Area may be brought into the Area except by permit; • Every effort should be made to prevent damage or destruction to any historic monument; • Permission should be sought in advance to visit Sites of Special Scientific Interest, which have been set aside to allow for scientific continued on page 100 99 investigations free from accidental interference; • Organizers of tourist or nongovernmental expeditions should furnish notice as soon as possible, through diplomatic channels, to any government whose station the expedition plans to visit. Any government may refuse to accept a visit to its station or may lay down conditions upon which it would grant permission. Recommendation VIII-9 also includes the following "Guidance for Visitors to the Antarctic": • Avoid disturbing wildlife, in particular do not: • walk on vegetation; • touch or handle birds or seals; • startle or chase any bird from its nest; • wander indiscriminately through penguin or other bird colonies. • Litter of all types must be kept to a minimum. Retain all litter (film wrappers, tissue, food scraps, tins, lotion bottles, etc.) in a bag or pocket to be disposed of on board your ship. Avoid throwing tin cans and other trash off the ship near land. • Do not use sporting guns. • Do not introduce plants or animals into the Antarctic. Do not collect eggs or fossils. Do not enter any of the Specially Protected Areas and avoid Sites of Special Scientific Interest. In the vicinity of scientific stations, avoid interference with scientific work and do not enter unoccupied buildings or refuges except in an emergency. Do not paint names or graffiti on rocks or buildings. Jake care of Antarctic historic monuments. When ashore, keep together with your party. X-8: Effects of Tourists and Non- Governmental Expeditions in the Antarctic Treaty Area, urging that non-governmental expeditions carry adequate insurance; that commercial tour operators, to the extent practicable, carry tour guides with experience in Antarctic conditions who are aware of the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora and for the protection of the Antarctic environment; that commercial aircraft operators be informed that overflight activity exceeds existing capabilities for air traffic control, communications and search and rescue and such overflight activity exceeds the capacity of governments' Antarctic operations to respond adequately to an unplanned emergency landing. or environmental damage, than others, a global regulatory solution is unlikely to be practical. It would be hard to view the pertinent parts of the Antarctic treaty and subsequent recommendations (see box page 99) as anything but liberal and reasonable. What remains to be seen is what evolves in the future, and whether the reasonable nature of these terms and recommendations will still be appropriate if Antarctic tourism grows substantially. Some have argued that Antarctica should be made a wilderness sanctuary barred to both scientist and tourist. It is this author's opinion that this is both impractical and runs contrary to the basic principal that man should be free to travel as he pleases, providing he does not infringe on the privacy, rights, or safety of others. In seeking to monitor or regulate tourism in Antarctica, it is hoped that the right of the individual to visit Antarctica will continue to be respected. Furthermore, it is to be hoped that any future regulations encourage those forms of tourism that are the safest and most protective of the Antarctic environment. Paul Dudley Hart is Director of Development at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, a post he has held since 1981 . Prior to 1981 , he was involved for 10 years in marine research in Antarctica. 100 Protecting the Antarctic Environment by Gerald S. Schatz /Vlajestic, forbidding, fabled, and (depending on your point of view) little touched by human presence, Antarctica invites environmental controversy. The evocative symbols are there: grandeur; strikingly beautiful bird life; seal and whale populations recovering from depredations of many years ago; stratospheric ozone depletion; an expanding fishery; rumors (no more than that) of mineral wealth; and the occasional detritus of scientific stations. Too often lacking in discussions of Antarctic environmental protection are fact, a sense of scale, a sense of what is significant, and, most surprising, a sense of environmental values — what is to be safeguarded in the Antarctic, why, and then how? Restating the obvious sometimes restores valuable perspective: war dwarfs normal environmental offenses. Accordingly, from the standpoint of environmental protection, the overarching value to be safeguarded in the Antarctic is the Antarctic Treaty — by which nations representing most of the world's population have agreed, however they may disagree on their other Antarctic interests, to keep the area south of 60 degrees South latitude free of military conflict and nuclear explosions. The treaty's consultative procedures have given rise to collateral environmental protection measures; and to additional, separate conventions for protection of seals, and for managing the Antarctic fishery (chiefly, but not exclusively, the krill fishery). An important part of the Antarctic Treaty's political glue is the understanding that, while ultimate Antarctic rights of claimant nations are not acknowledged and not acted upon, they are nevertheless not foreclosed. Such mutual forbearance is not easily renegotiated. So nurturing the Antarctic Treaty System is far more likely to be environmentally protective than is the advocacy of ostensibly stronger substitute regimes (for example, a world park, or United Nations administration). A principal environmental value of the Antarctic is the region's roles in planetary geologic, oceanic, atmospheric, and climatic processes. Responsible human stewardship of the planet requires far more understanding of these processes. Investment in this kind of science, and in the logistics to support it (see article page 80) fostered four decades of international scientific cooperation, improved the understanding of climate dynamics, and made possible the detection and intensive study of the Antarctic ozone hole. A major value is basic understanding of the region itself, including its relatively few ecosystems. Against this background, the requisite elements of Antarctic environmental protection policy are evident: sustain the treaty, maintain the science (at no unnecessary risk to personnel), protect the place, and do not compromise the science. The first and second of these are clear enough, the third and fourth not quite clear-cut. These were not big issues in the expeditionary days of the Antarctic. The science did not depend on fine point, parts-per-billion measurements; little harm was seen in local trash dumping; the areas of human impact were few and small; and the principal problems were those of access and survival. Shift of Emphasis As Antarctic science evolved, and emphasis shifted from reconnaissance to far more formal and detailed research, environmental issues drew increasing attention. The Scientific Committee on 101 Antarctic Research (SCAR), of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), began in the 1960s to recommend environmental safeguards, subsequently adopted by the Antarctic Treaty's consultative parties. The United States had backed the work of a large community of Antarctic environmental scientists. In 1971, the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), which had recently become the lead agency for the U.S. Antarctic Program, sponsored a major colloquium on problems of conservation in Antarctica. Among the concerns: litter and waste-disposal, as might be expected, and, as was not expected, interference with science itself. By this time, Antarctic science had become precise enough to be vulnerable to air pollution and contamination of study sites. From these perceptions grew the establishment of protected sites of special scientific interest. Antarctic logistical engineering evolved, and there were efforts to minimize human impact. What was protective was not always a matter of certainty, and there were false starts. A wastewater- treatment plant was brought to the Antarctic, but plans for its use were cancelled when it was found that chemicals that would be released by the plant would do more environmental damage than the small amount of human sewage released to the ocean, and that the chemical release would contaminate scientific studies as well. An incinerator turned out to be a voracious oil-burner. Still, a good deal has been done: • The NSF undertook a comprehensive study of the environmental impact of its entire Antarctic program. Impacts were found to be transient and limited — the presence of a few stations and temporary camps. • The United States passed and rigorously enforces its Antarctic Conservation Act, prohibiting U.S. citizens from touching or even getting close to Antarctic birds, mammals, and plants, except for scientific purposes, and then only under a very restrictive permit system. • The United States has begun seeking ways to limit adverse environmental impacts of Antarctic tourism [see article page 93]. • What otherwise would be waste heat from diesel generators is used at McMurdo Station to distill fresh water from seawater; at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station to supply fresh water from ice; and at Palmer Station to heat buildings. Less fuel is used, and atmospheric emissions are cut. • Where possible, solar power and wind power are used for automated observatories. These technologies have not been found adequate for support of whole stations. 102 • A new oil separator at McMurdo prevents garage lubricants from entering the sewage system, and waste lubricants are shipped back to the United States. • Sewage at McMurdo is diluted with brine to minimize impact. • Old bases and stations are being cleaned. Marble Point Camp was rehabilitated completely. McMurdo utility lines are being consolidated, sprawl is being reduced, and a general site cleanup has been in progress for several years. The most visible problem at McMurdo is the metal dump at Winter Quarters Bay, where steel scrap was put on the ice many years ago and was expected to drift out to sea. The ice did not drift. The scrap froze in place and is being cut apart and staged for shipment back to the United States. Work on that ice is slow and dangerous, but it proceeds. • Metal scrap from McMurdo formerly was dumped in the ocean. Now it is shipped back to the United States. • Solid wastes from field camps are taken back to main bases. If, as in the Dry Valleys* liquid waste cannot be deposited in deep snow trenches, it, too, is hauled back to main bases. • Each year, hundreds of tons of materials- waste lubricants, metal drums, packing, scrap metal construction waste, broken tools, rubber tires, vehicle parts, supplies, and scientific equipment no longer needed in Antarctica — are shipped back to the United States. In the 1986-1987 season, the cargo ship M/V Green Wave took 1,700 metric tons of retrograde cargo out of Antarctica. At the end of the 1987-1988 season, the shipments of retrograde cargo included 16 flat racks, each carrying more than 9 metric tons of scrap metal; more than 500 drums of waste oil and other petroleum products; and 60 large cargo containers of other materials no longer needed there. Environmental Protection Plan Largely ad hoc in earlier days, the U.S. Antarctic Program's environmental protection work is becoming more focused. The program has begun the development of an Environmental Protection Plan, not as a one-shot exercise, but as the framework for continuing effort. As of this writing, the plan is in revision, following external review by environmental specialists. It will include: * Unglaciated areas west of McMurdo Sound known as the "Dry Valleys" offer spectacular landscapes of layered mountains rising above barren ground that is often patterned into giant frost polygons. • Environmental management planning: periodic, program-wide review is needed to consider the implications of site planning and other support developments that might impinge on science and the environment, to consider the adequacy and implications of environmental studies and monitoring, and to update its environmental protection planning. • Legal review: international environmental law, Antarctic Treaty law, and related domestic law inevitably are "soft law," to accommodate international differences, and cannot be absolute in the manner of traffic ordinances. The U.S. Antarctic Program must respond to an amalgam of Antarctic Treaty obligations, other international commitments, the Antarctic Conservation Act, the National Environmental Policy Act, executive orders, regulations, and other statutes, not the least of which deal with funding and federal agency operations generally. The program is seeking a clear picture of its legal responsibilities. • Environmental assessments and impact studies: anticipating the consequences of decisions is at the core of environmental protection. The law provides for environmental assessments to determine whether proposed major actions will be of significant environmental impact, in which cases impact studies are required. Such studies have been conducted for scientific drilling programs on the Ross Ice Shelf and in the Dry Valleys, and for the U.S. Antarctic Program as a whole. The program is reviewing its procedures to ensure that assessments and impact studies are conducted as required. Additionally, opinions were sought from conservation organizations and other agencies on points to be considered if new information warrants supplementing the current programmatic environmental impact statement. • Environmental awareness: informational and administrative efforts will be increased to ensure that U.S. Antarctic Program participants and visitors understand and meet their environmental responsibilities. • Facilities and logistics: the program must review the adequacy of its facilities and logistics to meet its needs within the overriding criteria of protection of the Antarctic Treaty, the people, the science, and the place. Initially, the emphasis is on waste- management at McMurdo Station, the United States' largest Antarctic support facility. Assessment of McMurdo solid-waste production and alternatives for its management has begun, with the objective of developing an environmentally protective waste-management system. Choices for impact mitigation are far from clear. Cutting U.S. Antarctic operations is not an option. It would leave the world without a major capacity for support of vital Antarctic environmental science, and it would cut the U.S. role in maintaining the Antarctic Treaty. Optimal waste-management technology is subject to question. Several other countries have begun to clean up their Antarctic operations, impressively, but those stations are very small, and their technology is not necessarily suited to year- around operations at McMurdo and at Pole Station. Incinerators and compactors do not always work, and incinerators can pollute. Carrying all wastes from U.S. Antarctic stations back to the United States would require storage facilities in Antarctica, impose a pollution load from ships in Antarctica, and transfer the disposal problem to the United States. Carrying all wastes from Pole Station to McMurdo would necessitate additional costly airplane flights into and out of the station, where sensitive atmospheric measurements are in progress and will be for many years to come. Carelessness many years ago left pollutants trapped in a few isolated spots in nearshore sediments at McMurdo; trying to clean them out would only release them to the environment. In short, engineers can be very good, but cannot work miracles. The U.S. Antarctic Program can do no more and no less than try to be careful, keeping its act as clean as possible, sometimes having to make the best choice from among several not completely satisfactory alternatives. All that said, it is a lot of effort to deal with what in fact are very small places. Save for its ice runway, nearly all of McMurdo Station, Antarctica's largest scientific station and logistical facility, takes up an area of no more than three or four times the size of an ordinary schoolyard. That sense of scale should temper judgments about environmental impacts. Trash is not pretty, and what has not been cleaned up ought to be cleaned up— in the least harmful way. The presence of an old junk dump does not in itself warrant casting doubt on the efficacy of the Antarctic Treaty. Antarctic environmental protection has to proceed from an understanding of the place and its values. Sentiment alone does not suffice. Gerald S. Schatz is a research policy analyst on a temporary appointment with ITT Antarctic Services, Inc., Paramus, New Jersey, as environmental policy advisor to the U.S. Antarctic Program. The author is solely responsible for opinions expressed herein. Selected Readings Bonner, W. N., and D. W. H. Walton, eds. 1985. Key Environments: Antarctica. 381 pp. New York: Pergamon Press. Parker, B. C., ed. 1978. Environmental Impact in Antarctica: Select Papers by Scientists Addressing Impact Assessment, Monitoring, and Potential Impact of Man's Activities in the Antarctic. Blacksburg, Virginia.: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Quigg, P. W. 1983. A Pole Apart: The Emerging Issue of Antarctica. A Twentieth Century Fund Report. 299 pp. New York: New Press, McGraw-Hill Book Company. U.S. National Science Foundation. 1980. U.S. Antarctic Program Final Environmental Impact Statement. Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation. 103 Environmental Threats in Antarctica by Paul S. Bogart /\s you approach the hut from where Robert Scott launched his fateful attempt to reach the South Pole in 191 1, reminders of the expedition's presence are everywhere. Nails lie scattered about the beach, wooden crates full with tins of cocoa and biscuits are stacked around the hut. Preserved in an environment in which the processes of biodegradation can take centuries, it is easy to forget that it has been more than 75 years since Scott's tragic death. Eighteen miles across the sea ice of 104 Barrels in dump area at U. 5. McMurdo Base, photographed in late December, 1987. Water run-off enroute to McMurdo Sound passes under these bar- rels, which are sometimes used to store waste oil. (Photo courtesy of Greenpeace) McMurdo Sound, there are other traces of the human presence: truck tires, sections of pipe, and drums of oil are scattered haphazardly about- some are punctured and leaking into the porous Antarctic soil. Pieces of discarded trucks and other metal materials lie along the shoreline which surrounds an ocean floor littered with the refuse of 30 years of ocean dumping. These are not the remnants of the age of Antarctic exploration, however, but rather the result of the United States Antarctic Program (USAP). Waste disposal methods like these are not unique to the United States. Since 1959, the Antarctic Treaty nations have dedicated themselves to increased understanding of the fragile Antarctic environment, but if many of the current practices continue, they may provide one of its greatest threats. The focus of man's interest in the Antarctic has changed dramatically since explorers like Scott and Amundsen stood on the continent at the turn of the century. Man has come to appreciate the opportunity Antarctica offers for scientific study. Antarctica is a fascinating storehouse of information about the world's geological history. It has unique wildlife, whose habitat is relatively free of human interference, and as close to its original state as any on the planet. The continent's purity, and its freedom from most of the pollution that pervades the rest of the world, makes it a valuable site from which to monitor other global variables — a baseline for monitoring how humans are damaging their environment. It is important for science and scientists that the Antarctic remains the pure environment that it is at the present. However, there are challenges presently facing the Antarctic that are bound to have a dramatic adverse effect on the quality and orientation of science conducted there. The reality of environmental protection in the Antarctic has not always matched up to the claims which the Antarctic Treaty nations have made for it. The treaty states have frequently proclaimed their concern for the protection of the environment. It may be true that their rules have been instrumental in preventing some severe abuses to the Antarctic environment. It is also true, however, that the measures established under the treaty system have not always worked as they were intended, and that, in some cases, there have been deliberate and knowing breaches, if not of the letter of the regulations, then certainly of their spirit. In this respect, it is constructive to look at several examples where protection of the Antarctic environment has clearly been a matter of secondary importance. These examples constitute grave cause for concern about the future, when the Antarctic will face increasing human pressures. Waste Disposal The effects of 30 years of ocean dumping in McMurdo Sound would not be apparent to a visitor at McMurdo, or even to personnel on the base. Dr. Paul K. Dayton dove in the Winter Quarters Bay section of the Sound throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, however, and reported that, "In 1964, Cordy and I made several dives there and found great piles of trash (old vehicles, hose, and so on) and what appeared to be frozen organic material . . . then, in 1974, we found Winter Quarters Bay to be essentially dead, the sediment so full of DFA (diesel fuel additive) it almost appeared combustible! Clearly there was a massive spill of some sort and I doubt if that amount of DFA will be broken down in the near future."1 Although the dumping of solid waste into McMurdo Sound has been discontinued, the attitude behind the policy remains. Practices like open burning of combustible waste and the discharge of liquid waste into the sea continue. These practices simply transfer the impacts of the human presence, but do nothing to minimize them. The new maceration equipment recently put into operation at McMurdo grinds liquid waste so that it is more easily dispersed in the water, but does nothing to treat it. Open burning may provide a quick fix to reduce the total volume of combustible waste present on site, but it is anything but a solution. Particulate matter from the burn is spread throughout the area, and could compromise air quality. Additionally, the practice of separating plastics, rubber, batteries, and other materials that present hazards when incinerated is either not encouraged, or simply not enforced. Several site visits conducted by Greenpeace throughout 1987 and 1988 documented the presence of such materials in the dump. The Antarctic Code of Conduct provides recommendations for minimizing man's impact on the Antarctic environment. The practice of open burning, as well as the presence of batteries, plastics, and truck tires all violate this code. The National Science Foundation (NSF) administers the United States Antarctic Program. It is often difficult to determine official policies of NSF. Repeated attempts by Greenpeace to obtain written policy regarding waste disposal practices have been unsuccessful. Officials at NSF headquarters in Washington, D.C., have explained that the policy is kept at McMurdo, while McMurdo officials suggested we try Washington. Communication between USAP administrators and employees may be just as inconsistent and account for much of the problem. There are no signs prohibiting the disposal of plastics and other hazardous wastes in the dump, and, until this year, the absence of a fence permitted access by anyone, and caused wind scatter of materials. The United States Research Program is by no means the only nation with waste disposal problems. Tourists visiting the Argentine Esperanza base have documented the dumping of waste along the shoreline, a practice which degrades the marine environment and forces penguins in the nearby rookery to traverse the dump on their way to and from the water. An English biologist, Dr. Ron Lewis-Smith, began a 10-week visit to Australia's Casey station and the nearby abandoned Wilkes station, in February 1986. The report he wrote as a result of that visit casts Australia's waste management in a very unfavorable light.2 The report notes that Wilkes appears as it was in 1969, when it was abandoned in favor of Casey — "tinned and bottled food, machine parts, building materials, chemicals (including more than 200 boxes of tinned caustic soda spilling their 105 contents onto the snow), metal drums, flares, and even explosives were scattered over at least a square kilometer. "At Casey station, rubbish was collected in an open trailer and dumped in the station's tip twice daily, irrespective of wind force and with no separation of non-combustible, toxic, or hazardous materials, including petrol. Skuas had been found dead around the tip, and scavenging birds had removed food scraps and dropped parts over a wide area — including unburnt poultry bones, which could transmit viral infections to nearby penguin colonies. During burning of rubbish at the dump, scraps of paper and soot regularly descended on the nearby Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)." It would be unfair to imply that Casey and McMurdo are the only bases at which such problems exist. However, it does indicate that there is, at least in these cases, a wide gap between the standards expected by the treaty system, and the standards actually maintained in Antarctica. The French Airstrip at Pointe Geologic The French government decided in the 1970s to construct an airstrip at their Dumont d'Urville base. The plan eventually adopted, when construction began in the early 1980s, was to level a chain of islands in the Pointe Geologic Archipelago, using the spoil to fill in the shallow channels between them, constructing a hard-rock airstrip along the alignment thus created. The plan aroused considerable opposition from the international environmental community, and also from within the French scientific community, primarily because of the potential damage to the fauna of the area, considered to be among the richest of any area in the Antarctic. In addition to concern expressed about inadequacies in the assessment of the environmental impact of the airstrip, the international environmental community brought to public notice a breach of the Agreed Measures, which they alleged had occurred during the construction program.3 The response of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (ATCPs) to the allegations was fairly muted. At a treaty meeting in Brussels in April, 1985, however, no country was willing to have the matter formally discussed. Some delegates to the meeting argued that it was important for the unity of the treaty nations to be demonstrated, and that they could not afford a debate on such a potentially divisive issue. Environmentalists fear that this argument could be used, and probably will be used, in future circumstances where such breaches are alleged. When, with clear evidence of a breach, there is an almost unanimous desire on the part of the ATCPs to avoid discussion of it, the value of the Agreed Measures as a mechanism for environmental protection must be called into question. The Failure of Specially Protected Areas The Agreed Measures, Article VIII, designate "Specially Protected Areas" (SPAs) in order to protect the "unique natural ecosystems" of areas of outstanding scientific interest. This article specifically prohibits the collection of native plants and the driving of vehicles in SPAs. At a treaty meeting in 1970, entry into an SPA without a permit was prohibited, and this condition was consolidated into the Agreed Measures in 1975. While this process was occurring, both the Soviet Union and Chile were planning on building a base in the Fildes Peninsula SPA, on King George Island in the Antarctic Peninsula. Once again, rather than raise what might become a contentious issue, the ATCPs responded by amending the area of the SPA to accommodate the area required for the bases. The designation of the Fildes Peninsula as a SPA was, in part, due to the presence of a series of biologically important melt-lakes in the area. When Greenpeace visited the Chilean Teneiente Marsh/Presidente Frei station in April of this year, it was discovered that Chile had been using one of the lakes as a rubbish dump. Greenpeace expedition Coordinator Dr. Maj De Poorter commented, "this is an outrageous use for a lake that was once considered worthy of the highest level of protection." It would be impossible in an article of this scope to completely cover all the issues that face the Antarctic at present. Unregulated tourism, overfishing, and minerals exploitation all must be addressed in order to effectively protect this last great wilderness (ozone depletion is a separate, world-wide problem). I have attempted, through the use of examples, to underscore the general unwillingness of the ATCPs to criticize each other. Within the current context of waste disposal practices that threaten local habitats, construction and logistic considerations that take precedent over a fragile and unique ecosystem, and nations unable or unwilling to confront other treaty nations when violations are apparent or documented, the prospect of minerals development becomes especially frightening. The habitat destruction and degradation that have occurred so far has been at bases dedicated solely to understanding this continent. The performance of the treaty states in other areas of environmental protection does not give environmentalists confidence that mineral activity will be regulated any more stringently, nor is it guaranteed that a minerals agreement will be able to weather possible conflicts over resources in other parts of the world. This underlies the Greenpeace position that mineral exploitation should not be permitted to occur. Greenpeace holds a different view for the future of the Antarctic. We advocate the establishment of a World Park to more completely ensure the protection of this last unspoiled wilderness. Under the World Park proposal, the Antarctic would be a zone of peace, free from militarization, and dedicated to the complete protection of wildlife and peaceful scientific 106 Antarctic Strategic Concerns /Although there has been much argument over the significance or insignificance of Antarctica in strategic terms, this discussion has been largely theoretical. The fact is that Antarctica has been used in the past for strategic purposes and the conduct of warfare. German submarines operated in Antarctic waters during World War II, inflicting heavy damage on the merchant fleets and fishing vessels of a number of countries. The German and lapanese interests in Antarctica during the war were enormously influential in the development of territorial claims to that continent. The Norvveg/an claim materialized at the moment when it was felt that a potential German claim had to be stopped. Germany and ]apan had been following U.S. policy toward Antarctica very closely, with particular regard to whether the United States was planning to make a claim of its own, an idea that in fact was actively considered at the time. The Soviet Union had occasionally looked into a similar alternative. It is also interesting to remember that the Chilean decree of 1940, which specified the limits of Chile's Antarctic claim, was directly prompted by a diplomatic initiative of President Roosevelt, who was looking for additional ways to prevent a German claim or the establishment of a German base in Antarctica. It is not an exaggeration to conclude, therefore, that, as a consequence of growing interest in the issue of the strategic uses of Antarctica, greater emphasis was placed on sovereign claims. Nor is it mere chance that the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty that freeze the question of sovereignty have been coupled with provisions on demilitarization and peaceful uses. The attainment of one objective necessarily requires the achievement of the other. . . . The geographical distribution of Antarctic stations by the two [super] powers was also to some extent an expression of the interest in establishing a presence throughout the continent, a policy that was not unrelated to strategic interest or to the eventual territorial claims that such powers could ultimately decide to put forward. Both the United States and the Soviet Union actively considered in the past the policy of making territorial claims in Antarctica, and this position has been safeguarded by the Antarctic Treaty in describing the two countries as those having "a basis of claim." It is not difficult to foresee that if for any reason the Antarctic Treaty arrangements were to collapse, and the strategic interests of the major powers revived, a likely consequence might be that these potential territorial claims would be made effective, thereby introducing additional complications in the already complex Antarctic scenario. The possibility of conducting nuclear explosions in Antarctica had never been explicitly ruled out by either of the major powers, nor had the eventual disposal of nuclear wastes in the continent. While there were continued references to peaceful uses, it is well known that such uses have been interpreted by the major powers as being compatible with the conducting of peaceful nuclear explosions. It was only through an active diplomatic effort undertaken during the negotiation of the Antarctic Treaty that such steps in the domain of nuclear policy were specifically prohibited and remain so until this day. —from Franciso Orrego Vicuna, Antarctic conflict and international cooperation. In Antarctic Treaty System: An Assessment. The National Academy Press, 1986. cooperation. The principles of a World Park are, in tact, much closer to the original intent of the Antarctic Treaty than some nations' current practices. Paul 5. Bogart is U.S. Antarctic campaign coordinator, Greenpeace, Washington, D.C. The views expressed are those of the author, and do not necessarily reflect those of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Endnotes 1 Letter from Dr. Paul K. Dayton to Dr. Richard Williams, National Science Foundation. Nov. 21, 1983, Comments on Raytheon Water Quality Report. 2 Sydney Morning Herald, 12 and 13 February 1986. 3 ECO Vol. 22, No. 1 and 3, )anuary, 1983, Wellington, New Zealand; ECO Vol. 23, No. 3 and 4, July, 1983, Bonn Federal Republic of Germany; ECO Vol. 26, No. 1 and 2, January, 1984, Washington D.C. USA; ECO Vol. 30, No. 1, April, 1985, Brussels, Belgium. Errata Oceanus Vol. 31, No. 1, Spring 1988 U. S. Marine Sanctuaries issue Because of a printer's error, the title and author's name were omitted from the top of the article that begins on page 82. It should have read: International Networking of Marine Sanctuaries by Douglas B. Yurick At right center of map on page 7, Gray Reef NMS should have read: Gray's Reef NMS. The title at the top of page 14, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration . . ., should have read The Na- tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration .... 107 "Partnership of Marine Interests" October 31 - November 2, 1988 Baltimore Convention Center, Baltimore, Maryland Honorary Chairman Donald Schaefer, Governor of Maryland General Chairman Admiral Paul A. Yost Commandant United States Coast Guard For General Information . . . OCEANS '88 C/oCOMMANDANT (G-GB/4224) Governmental Affairs Staff U.S. Coast Guard 2 100 Second Street, SW Washington, DC 25093-0001 Telephone: (202) 267-0970 For Exhibit Space and Registration Information . . . OCEANS '88 J. Spargo & Associates, Inc. 4400 Fair Lakes Court Fairfax, VA 22033 (703) 631-6200/(703) 631-4693-Fax 90-1114-Telex For Program and Panel Participation . OCEANS '88 Program Committee Marine Technology Society 1825 K Street, NW, Suite 203 Washington, DC 20006 (202) 775-5966 To the Editor: Considerable concern has been expressed in recent years at the indiscriminate and unregulated naming of undersea features that often get into print in articles submitted to professional journals, or on ocean maps and charts, without any close scrutiny being made concerning their suitability, or even whether the feature has already been discovered and named, albeit in another country and possibly language. The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) at its 14th Assembly in March 1987, and the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) at its 13th Conference in May 1987, adopted motions in which they "strongly encourage marine scientists and other persons in the member states wishing to name undersea features, to check their proposals with published Gazetteers of Undersea Feature Names, taking into account the guidelines contained in the IHO-IOC publication, Standardization of Undersea Feature Names, to submit all proposed new names for clearance, either to their appropriate national authority or, where no such national authority exists, to the IOC or IHO, for consideration by the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) Sub-Committee on Geographical Names and Nomenclature of Ocean Bottom Features, which may advise on any potentially confusing duplication of names." Copies of the IHO-IOC publication Standardization of Undersea Feature Names can be obtained free-of-charge from the International Hydrographic Bureau, B.P.445, MC 9801 1, Monaco Cedex. The most comprehensive world Gazetteer of Undersea Features is published by the United States Defense Mapping Agency, on behalf of the U.S. Board on Geographic Names (BGN) Advisory Committee on Undersea Features (ACUF). This advisory committee meets regularly to deliberate on proposed, contested, or already-published-but-unreviewed names, and to update the Gazetteer. The anarchy that presently prevails in the naming of undersea features would not be permitted in the fields of biological or geological systematics, in both of which disciplines great care is taken to maintain order and eliminate duplication in the selection of names. In our opinion, great care should be taken by detailed checking of appropriate reference books, and by enquiry to ensure that a feature has not already been named in the technical literature of any country (or in any language). Only then should a new name be chosen, and the dictates of any such choice should be historical courtesy, significant commemoration, and good taste (in that order). The acceptance of this suggestion would help to reduce some of the existing confusion in the proliferating wealth of names that continue to appear in the scientific literature. Sir Anthony Laughton Chairman Joint IOC-IHO Guiding Committee for the GEBCO Institute of Oceanographic Sciences Wormley, England 108 ANTARCTIC-SCIENCE r~ I IMTI 1) BY D.W.H. \YM ION Antarctic Science, D. W. H. Walton, ed. 1987. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. 280 pp. $39.50. This extremely informative book, written by scientists from the British Antarctic Survey in Cambridge, England, reviews the major international developments in Antarctic science from its early beginnings in the age of Captain Cook (middle 1700s) to the present. In the preface, written by the editor D. W. H. Walton, note is made of the recent upsurge in public interest in the continent fueled by expectations that rich and untapped resources — in the form of krill, fish, oil, gas, and metallic ores — exist in the region. Walton states that "many of the present economic assumptions (concerning Antarctica) are based on little or no data. . . ." He asks, "Why then, after more than 25 years of research, are the data necessary for considered and accurate judgements lacking? Have any substantial contributions to science been made by research in Antarctica?" Indeed, the answer to the latter question is a resounding yes. The book describes some of the difficulties of conducting science in the inhospitable climate of the region as partial answer to the first. The editor notes that the major outcome of conducting this science "has been the exceptional degree of international collaboration in programmes and a willingness to help others. This has transcended the political difficulties that have characterised world history during the period." The book's authors examine individually the three major areas of science — biology, the earth sciences, and atmospheric science. They highlight the principal achievements of the last 25 years, thus providing an up- to-date account of both the continent, which comprises almost 10 percent of the land surface of the globe, and the vast extent of the Southern Ocean surrounding it. Following an introduction by Sir Vivian Fuchs, David Walton examines the history, geography, politics, and science of the continent. In Part II, Inigo Everson considers lite in a cold environment; in Part III, Chistopher Doake looks at Antarctic ice and rocks; and John Dudeney discusses the Antarctic atmosphere in Part IV. Richard Laws concludes with a discussion of the Antarctic Treaty, which was ratified in 1961 and comes up for possible review in 1991. The historical section abounds with interesting items. For example, in 1840 the United States Exploring Expedition led by Charles Wilkes was "successful despite itself. Badly organized, poorly equipped and with rotten ships, Wilkes still managed to follow the Antarctic coast for nearly 2,400 kilometers. On his return, he was court- martialled by the United States for his conduct as Commander, whilst the Royal Geographic Society awarded him a gold medal for his achievement! Congress was niggardly in voting funds for the writing-up of the scientific data and much of great importance was lost." The text of Antarctic Science is complemented throughout with many fine illustrations, including fascinating archival photographs of the early days of exploration and many beautiful color photographs of the region. There are three appendices: one, The Antarctic Treaty; two, major symposia and conferences with which the Scientific Council for Antarctic Research (SCAR) is associated; and three, further information on Antarctic science. There is a select bibliography and an index. I found the volume extremely useful as a reference source in putting together this issue of Oceanus. The book will appeal not only to scientists, but to all interested in the further development of Antarctica. Paul R. Ryan Editor, Oceanus World Symposium on Fishing Gear and Fishing Vessel Design To Be Hosted By: The Marine Institute Nov. 21-24, 1988 For More Information Contact: Dr. C. Campbell, Steering Committee Chairman P.O. Box 4920, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada A1C 5R3 Telephone (709) 778-0387 Telex: 016-4721 FAX (709) 778-0346 109 The Amundsen Photographs. Edited and Introduced by Roland Huntford. 1987. The Atlantic Monthly Press, New York. 199 pp. $35.00. The great Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen is described by Roland Huntford in his introduction as "one of those driven souls who have shaped our century." Amundsen disappeared in 1928 while attempting to recover an Italian expedition in the Arctic. His estate was left in confusion and his many hand-colored lantern slides, which he had used on his extensive lecture tours, were thought to have been lost. Nearly 60 years later, in 1986, the widow of Amundsen's nephew discovered a packing crate marked "Horlick's Malted Milk" stowed in the attic of her Oslo home. Inside were more than 200 of Amundsen's original slides (see cover photo for an example). More than 150 of these images are reproduced in The Amundsen Photographs, an illustrated chronological tour of Amundsen's unrivaled achievements in polar exploration. His first major feat was the successful navigation through the North West Passage — the legendary shortcut across the top of North America — in 1903. Perhaps the accomplishment for which he is most recognized is as the first man to reach the South Pole in 1911. In 1918, Amundsen became the second man to sail through the North East Passage — the long-sought seaway along the northeast coast of Russia, known also as the Maud Expedition. With these three major voyages, Amundsen became the first, and to this day, the only, man to have circumnavigated the Arctic. Roland Huntford's extensive introduction, which is divided into three parts, chronicles each of Amundsen's voyages. The simple, yet beautiful and unique images are set in the context of Amundsen's life and explorations. Much more than a mere description of the expeditions, the book explores Amundsen's own tales of life and travel in the Arctic. The captions are drawn from the explorer's notes and journals, and reveal a great deal about Amundsen's character and motivation. For example, Amundsen was always intrigued with the highly specialized lifestyle of Arctic peoples; he studied extensively the adaptations of the Eskimos to their harsh, unforgiving environment. Amundsen did not consider the Eskimos as savages; rather, he was intrigued with their abilities to survive and develop a unique culture in the formidable Arctic conditions. His own words reveal a keen insight, a fervent energy, and a passion for learning. They reflect, too, the ideas of a true anthropologist. Amundsen's lantern slides themselves are a curious study of early 20th Century photography. Many were hand-colored, as 35mm color film was still experimental in Amundsen's day. The slides were bulky, yet fragile; the cameras, too, were cumbersome. Yet, Amundsen and his companions carried their equipment for countless miles across the ice. They took the pictures themselves, spontaneously — the quality of their work was not professional, but "undoubtedly that of the snapshot." Nonetheless, the photographs are valuable testimony to the events that took place; the explorers registered details of their travels as they saw them. The outcome is a poignant blend of immediacy, authenticity, and humility, all of which are representative of Amundsen's own personal style. Four years after his completion of the North West Passage, Amundsen was determined to reach the North Pole. Both the American and Danish explorers, Robert Peary and Dr. F. A. Cook, claimed to have achieved that goal as Amundsen was preparing to launch his journey. Huntford relates Amundsen's dismay, and his ultimate decision to aim for the South Pole instead. There were additional complications, however, for at the same time, Captain Robert Falcon Scott, an officer in the British Navy, was preparing to lead the English attempt on the South Pole. For Amundsen and his Norwegian party, it was a race from the start. Their expedition was undertaken completely unbeknownst to the British. After sailing from Norway on the newly refitted vessel, Fram, Amundsen's real test came when he and his men reached the edge of the Antarctic continent. They had to survive the long, dark polar winter before setting out for the Pole. When they got underway in October, 1911, they forged their way on skis across completely unexplored, uncharted terrain. They encountered mountains, ice, crevasses, fog, and blizzards; but their preparation had been meticulous — Amundsen had learned his lessons in polar survival well. He was plagued by the thought of Scott, and determined to reach the Pole first. With his company of 4 men and 54 dogs, Amundsen claimed the South Pole on December 1 5th, 1911. Fame was bestowed on Amundsen when he returned to civilization. But in one of his later journals, he expressed his bitter disappointment in never reaching the North Pole, at the opposite end of the globe. / cannot say . , . that I stood at my life's goal. I believe no human being has stood so diametrically opposed to the goal of his desires as I did. . . . The North Pole had attracted me since the days of my childhood, and so I found myself at the South Pole. Can anything more perverse be conceived? Whatever Amundsen's disappointment, he nevertheless won the "longest ski race in history." His journey was not only one of exploration, it was "a triumph of forethought, technical preparation, and 110 learning what the Eskimos had to teach about survival in a polar environment." Most of Amundsen's film from the South Pole expedition was damaged or destroyed. The photographs reproduced in this volume were taken by one of his companions, Olav Bjaaland, who documented the people, places, and events of the expedition using only his folding pocket Kodak. His photographs capture the simple essence of the journey — the true grit of the men, the starkness of the polar ice, the dogs (who were so important to the success of the expedition), and the final arrival at the Pole. They are the only visual record of this last great exploration into the unknown corners of the Earth. Huntford sums up Amundsen's achievements well: Amundsen was no prosaic investigator. He was a dreamer and a man of action. He was pre-eminent in a generation that saw the shrinking of the empty spaces on the map. His lantern slides encapsulate the achievements of a remarkable man. They summarize the end of the classic age of terrestrial discovery, when the polar regions were the last great blanks on the surface of the globe, and men moved under their own power, with ski, sleds, and dogs. Afterwards came the leap into space. It is a new aspect to a famous story. The Amundsen Photographs is a beautiful and unique tribute to the inspiring accomplishments of Amundsen the voyager, the seeker, the humanitarian. It also is a fitting testament to native cultures of old and to the classic age of exploration. Lucy W. Coan Oceanus Intern Books Received Biology Advances in Marine Biology, Volume 24 edited by J. H. S. Blaxter and A. J. Southward. 1987. Academic Press, San Diego, CA 92101. 473 pp. + xii. $48.00. Approaches to Marine Mammal Energetics edited by A. C. Huntley, D. P. Costa, C. A. J. Worthy and M. A. Castellini. 1987. The Society for Marine Mammalogy, Lawrence, KS 66044. 253 pp. + xviii. $15.00. The Biology of Fish Growth by A. H. Weatherley and H. S. Gill. 1987. Academic Press, San Diego, CA 92101. 443 pp. + xii. $65.00. Marine Organisms as Indicators edited by Dorothy F. Soule and G. S. Kleppel. 1988. Springer-Verlag, Secaucus, N) 07094. 342 pp. + xii. $98.00. Martinique Revisited: The Changing Plant Geographies of a West Indian Island by Clarissa Therese Kimber. 1988. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX 77843. 458 pp. + xx. $74.50. The Natural History of Nautilus by Peter D. Ward. 1987. Allen & Unwin, Winchester, MA 01890. 267 pp. + xiii. $34.95. Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates Volume IX: General Aspects: Seeking Unity in Diversity edited by Arthur Giese, John Pearse, and Vicki B. Pearse. 1988. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Palo Alto, CA 94301. 712 pp. + xxii. $50.00. Seabirds: Feeding Ecology and Role in Marine Ecosystems edited by ). P. Croxall. 1987. Cambridge University Press, New Rochelle, NY 10801. 408 pp. + viii. $59.50. Toward a New Philosophy of Biology: Observations of an Evolutionist by Ernst Mayr. 1988. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 02138. 564 pp. $35.00. Earth Science Antarctica: Soils, Weathering Processes and Environment by I. B. Campbell and G. G. C. Claridge. 1987. Developments in Soil Science 16, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, NY 10017. 368 pp. + xxxviii. $116.00. Introduction to Oceanography, Fourth Edition by David A. Ross. 1988. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N) 07632. 478 pp. + xii. $35.33. Theories of the Earth and Universe: A History of Dogma in the Earth Sciences by S. Warren Carey. 1988. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA 94305. 413 pp. + xviii. $45.00. Thermodynamics of the Carbon Dioxide System in Seawater, Report by the carbon dioxide sub-panel of the joint panel on oceanographic tables and standards. 1987. Unesco technical papers in marine science number 51, UNESCO, Paris, France. 55 pp. + v. Free. Environment The Cassandra Conference: Resources and the Human Predicament edited by Paul R. Ehrlich and John P. Holdren. 1988. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX 77843. 330 pp. + xi. $14.95. Chesapeake Bay Environmental Data Directory compiled by Dan Jacobs, Daniel Haberman, David Smith, David Swartz, Elizabeth Sigel, and Michael Adams. 1987. Maryland Sea Grant Program, College Park, MD 20742. Free. Comparison Between Atlantic and Pacific Tropical Marine Coastal Ecosystems: Community Structure, Ecological Processes, and Productivity edited by Charles Birkeland. 1988. Unesco reports in marine science number 46, UNESCO, Paris, France. 262 pp. Free. Integrated Agriculture-Aquae ulture in South China: The Dike-Pond System of the Zhujiang Delta by Kenneth Ruddle and Gongfu Zhong. 1988. Cambridge University Press, New Rochelle, NY 10801. 173 pp. + xiii. $49.50. State of the World 1988: A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society edited by Linda Starke. 1988. W. W. Norton, New York, NY 101 10. 237 pp. + xvii. $9.95. World Resources 1987: A Report by The International Institute for Environment and Development and The World Resources Institute. 1987. Basic Books, New York, NY 369 pp. + xiii. $16.95. 111 Field Guides Fishes of the Pacific Coast: Alaska to Peru, Including the Gulf of California and the Galapagos Islands by Gar Goodson. 1988. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA 94305. 267 pp. + viii. $7.95. Stars and Planets, Second Edition by Donald H. Menzel and Jay M. Pasachoff. 1987. The Peterson Field Guide Series, No. 15, Houghton Mittlin Company, Boston, MA 02108. 473 pp. + x. $12.95. Microcosmos by Jeremy Burgess, Michael Marten and Rosemary Taylor. 1987. Cambridge University Press, New Rochelle, NY 10801. 208 pp. $29.95. The Sea by John Crompton. 1957, with new 1988 introduction by Robert F. Jones. Nick Lyons Books, New York, NY 10010. 233 pp. + x. $8.95. Somewheres East of Suez by Tristan Jones. 1988. Hearst Marine Books, New York, NY 10016. 252 pp. $17.95. History General Reading Alaska's Seward Peninsula edited by Penny Rennick. 1987. The Alaska Geographic Society, Anchorage, AK 99509. 109 pp. $14.95. The Flood Myth edited by Alan Dundes. 1988. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA 94720. 452 pp. + vi. $15.95, paper. Infinite in All Directions by Freeman Dyson. 1988. Harper & Row, New York, NY 10022. 321 pp. + viii. $19.95. The Correspondence of Charles Darwin: Volume 3, 1844-1846 edited by Frederick Burkhardt and Sydney Smith. 1987. Cambridge University Press, New Rochelle, NY 10801. 523 pp. + xxix. $37.50. The Cuvier-Geoffroy Debate: French Biology in the Decades before Darwin by Toby A. Appel. 1987. Oxford University Press, New York, NY 10016. 305 pp. $35.00. Essays on the History of North American Discovery and Exploration edited by Stanley H. Palmer and Dennis Reinhartz. 1988. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX 77843. 140 pp. + xiii. $17.50. PERSONAL CTD convenience, portability, performance, value Fast, accurate profiles of salinity, temperature, density, sound velocity, dissolved oxygen, pH, ORP, light transmission, PAR. Proven sen- sors, computer-less field operation, semiconductor memory, RS-232 data download, powerful software. The SEA-BIRD SEACAT PROFILER. Your Personal CTD. SBE Sea-Bird Electronics, Inc 1808-136th Place NE fr Bellevue, WA 98005 USA, Telephone: (206) 643-9866 Telex: 292915 SBEI UR • Telefax: (206) 643-9954 Tsunami! by Walter C. Dudley and Min Lee. 1988. University of Hawaii Press. 132 pp. + xii. $10.95. Marine Policy Antarctica: the Next Decade Report of a study group chaired by Sir Anthony Parsons. 1987. Studies in Polar Research, Cambridge University Press, New Rochelle, NY 10801. 164 pp. + $44.50. x. Managing the Frozen South: The Creation and Evolution of the Antarctic Treaty System by M. J. Peterson. 1988. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA 94720. 283 pp. + xi. $35.00. Marshes of the Ocean Shore: Development of an Ecological Ethic by Joseph V. Siry. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX 77843. 216 pp. + xii. $12.95. Seapower in Global Politics, 1494- 1993 by George Modelski & William R. Thompson. 1988. University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA 98145. 380 pp. + xii. $35.00. Ships and Sailing The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815 by Brian Lavery. 1987. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD 21402. 319 pp. $37.95. Boatman's Handbook by Tom Bottomly. 1988. Hearst Marine Books, New York, NY 10016. 320 pp. $10.95. Mariner's Atlas: Long Island Sound & South Shore by A. P. Balder. Updated to 1987-88. Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX 77252. 80 pp. $34.95. Mariner's Atlas: Maine by A. P. Balder. Updated to 1987-88. Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX 77252. 72 pp. $34.95. Mariner's Atlas: New England by A. P. Balder. Updated to 1987-88. Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX 77252. 112 pp. $34.95. Nautical Quarterly: Number 41, Spring 1988. Nautical Quarterly Co., Essex, CT 06426. 120 pp. $16.00. Psychology of Sailing: The Sea's Effects on Mind and Body by Michael Stadler. 1987. International Marine Publishing Company, Camden, ME 04843. 120 pp. $9.95. Small Boat Sails by Jeremy Howard- Williams. 1987. International Marine Publishing Company, Camden, ME 04843. 248 pp. $14.95. The Splicing Handbook by Barbara Merry. 1987. International Marine Publishing Company, Camden, ME 04843. 100 pp. + xi. $9.95. 112 Give Gift of the Sea 1930 now: Oceanus The International Magazine of Marine Science and Policy Published by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Foreign Subscription Order Form: Outside U.S. & Canada1 Please make cheques payable to Cambridge University Press D one year at £20.00 Library or Institution: D one year at £37.00 D payment enclosed. (we require prepayment) Please send MY Subscription to: Please send a GIFT Subscription to: Name (please print) Name (please print) Street address Street address City State Zip * U.S. and Canadian subscribers please use form inserted at front of issue. 3/88 City Donor's Name Address State Zip • Marine Archaeology, Vol. 28:1, Spring 1985 — History and science beneath the waves. • The Exclusive Economic Zone, Vol. 27:4, Winter 1984/85— Options tor the U.S. EEZ. • Deep-Sea Hot Springs and Cold Seeps, Vol. 27:3, Fall 1984 — A full report on vent science. • El Nino, Vol. 27:2, Summer 1984 — An atmospheric phenomenon analyzed. • General Issue, Vol. 24:2, Summer 1981 — Aquatic plants, seabirds, oil and gas. • The Oceans as Waste Space, Vol. 24:1, Spring 1981. • Senses of the Sea, Vol 23:3, Fall 1980. • General Issue, Vol 23:2, Summer 1980 — Plankton, El Nino and African fisheries, hot springs, Georges Bank, and more. Issues not listed here, including those published prior to 1977, are out of print They are available on microfilm through University Microfilm International, 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106. Back issues cost $4.00 each (Reprinted Caribbean Marine Science issue, Vol. 30:4, is $6.50). There is a discount of 25 percent on orders of five or more. Orders must be prepaid; please make checks payable to Woods Hole Ocean- ographic Institution. Foreign orders must be accompanied by a check payable to Oceanus for £5.00 per issue (or equivalent) Send orders to: Oceanus back issues Subscriber Service Center P.O. Box 6419 Syracuse, NY 13217 HAS THE SUBSCRIPTION COUPON BEEN DETACHED? If someone else has made use of the coupon attached to this card, you can still subscribe. Just send a cheque--£20 for one year (four issues)- -to this address: Please make cheques payable to Cambridge University Press 1930 Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building Shaftesbury Road Cambridge CB2 2RU England Oceanus Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building Shaftesbury Road Cambridge CB22RU England convenience, portability, performance, value Fast, accurate profiles of salinity, temperature, density, sound velocity, dissolved oxygen, pH, ORP, light transmission, PAR Proven sen- sors, computer-less field operation, semiconductor memory, RS-232 data download, powerful software. The SEA-BIRD SEACAT PROFILER. Your Personal CTD. SBE Sea-Bird Electronics, Inc 1808-136th Place NE fr Bellevue, WA 98005 USA, Telephone: (206) 643-9866 Telex: 292915 SBEI UR • Telefax: (206) 643-9954 06426. 120 pp. $16.00. Psychology of Sailing: The Sea's Effects on Mind and Body by Michael Stadler. 1987. International Marine Publishing Company, Camden, ME 04843. 120 pp. $9.95. Small Boat Sails by Jeremy Howard- Williams. 1987. International Marine Publishing Company, Camden, ME 04843. 248 pp. $14.95. The Splicing Handbook by Barbara Merry. 1987. International Marine Publishing Company, Camden, ME 04843. 100 pp. + xi. $9.95. 112 1V1BL VVtlUl L1BMAK1 Oceanus U.S. Marine Sanctuaries Vol. 31:1, Spring 1988- There are seven U.S. Na- tional Marine Sanctuaries protecting whales and sea- birds, coral reefs, a Samoan bay, and a historic ship- wreck— the U.S.S. Monitor. Additional sites have been proposed. Sanctuary sci- ence, policy, and education are addressed. A valuable reference for those inter- ested in management of nat- ural areas. Oceanus ,)„ Caribbean Marine Science Vol. 30:4, Winter 1987/88- A broad and inclusive view of the Caribbean Sea — its bi- ology, mangrove ecology, and geology. Specific top- ics— climatic change, avail- ability of marine resources, petroleum pollution, and new developments in fishing technology — are explored, and their impact on Carib- bean coastal and island com- munities is examined. Oceanus f- ---, Columbus, Plastics, Sea-Level Rise, TBT Vol. 30:3, Fall 1987— A col- lection of topics of current interest, including new infor- mation on Columbus' land- fall, loss of coastal upland because of sea-level rise, a new generation of submers- ibles for science, Chernobyl fallout in the Black Sea, mass extinctions, plastics in the ocean, and the TBT di- lemma. Galapagos Marine Resources Reserve Vol. 30:2, Summer 1987— In 1986, Ecuador declared the waters and seabed sur- rounding the Galapagos Is- lands a marine reserve. The legal, political, management, and scientific aspects are de- scribed. Includes descrip- tion of 1982-83 El Nino, and historical articles on Darwin, and on the taking of whales and tortoises in the 1800s. 1 o o o • Japan and the Sea, Vol. 30:1, Spring 1987 —Japanese ocean science, fishing, submersibles, space. • The Titanic Revisited, Vol. 29:3, Fall 1986— Radioactivity of the Irish Sea, ocean architecture, more. • The Great Barrier Reef: Science & Management, Vol. 29:2, Summer 1986 — Describes the world's largest coral reef system. • The Arctic Ocean, Vol. 29:1, Spring 1986 — An important issue on an active frontier. • The Oceans and National Security, Vol 28:2, Summer 1985 — The oceans from the viewpoint of the modern navy, strategy, technology, weapons systems, and science. • Marine Archaeology, Vol. 28:1, Spring 1985 — History and science beneath the waves. • The Exclusive Economic Zone, Vol 27:4, Winter 1984/85— Options for the U.S. FEZ • Deep-Sea Hot Springs and Cold Seeps, Vol. 27:3, Fall 1984 — A full report on vent science. • El Nino, Vol. 27:2, Summer 1984 — An atmospheric phenomenon analyzed. Special Titanic Reprint Includes all Oceanus material from 1985 and 1986 expeditions. $9.00 • Industry and the Oceans, Vol. 27:1, Spring 1984 • Oceanography in China, Vol. 26:4, Winter 1983/84 • Offshore Oil and Gas, Vol 26:3, Fall 1983 • General Issue, Vol 26:2, Summer 1983 — Bivalves as pollution indicators. Gulf Stream rings • General Issue, Vol. 25:2, Summer 1982 — Coastal resource management, acoustic tomogra- phy, aquaculture, radioactive waste. • General Issue, Vol. 24:2, Summer 1981 — Aquatic plants, seabirds, oil and gas. • The Oceans as Waste Space, Vol 24:1, Spring 1981. • Senses of the Sea, Vol 23:3, Fall 1980. • General Issue, Vol 23:2, Summer 1980 — Plankton, El Nino and African fisheries, hot springs, Georges Bank, and more. Issues not listed here, including those published prior to 1977, are out of print. They are available on microfilm through University Microfilm International, 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106. Back issues cost $4.00 each (Reprinted Caribbean Marine Science issue. Vol. 30:4, is $6.50). There is a discount of 25 percent on orders of five or more. Orders must be prepaid, please make checks payable to Woods Hole Ocean- ographu Institution. Foreign orders must be accompanied by a check payable to Oceanus for £5.00 per issue (or equivalent). Send orders to: Oceanus back issues Subscriber Service Center P.O. Box 6419 Syracuse, NY 13217 A grotto in the Antarctic ice, formed by the bridging-over of a crevasse. The date: 5 Janu- ary, 1911. The location: Cape Evans, at the edge of the Ross Sea, base camp for English- man Robert Falcon Scott's fatal journey to the pole. The ship in the background is Scott's Terra Nova. (Photo by Herbert G. Ponting, Popperfoto, London)